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LEXICON  MEDICUM;
OR,
MEDICAL  DICTIONARY;
         CONTAINING AN EXPLANATION OF THE TERMS IN
ANATOMY,
BOTANY,
CHEMISTRY,
MATERIA MEDIC A,
MIDWIFERY.
MINERALOGY,
PHARMACY,
PHYSIOLOGY,
PRACTICE OF PHYSIC.
SURGERY,
          AND THE VARIOUS BRANCHES OF

 NATURAL PHILOSOPHY CONNECTED WITH MEDICINE

SELECTED, ARRANGED, AND COMPILED FROM THE BEST AUTHORS
        " Xcc aranearum sane texus ideo melior, quia ex se fila gignunt, nee
        Doster vilior quia ex alienis libamus ut apes."
                    Just. Lips., Monk. Polit., lib. L, cap. i.


         BY ROBERT HOOPER, M.D., F.L.S

    SIXTEENTH AMERICAN. FROM THE LAST LONDON EDITION,
  .ADDITIONS FROM AMERICAN AUTHORS ON BOTANV, CHEMISTRY, MATERIA MF.DICA. MINERALOGY, KTC


          BY SAMUEL AKERLY, M.D.,

FORMERLY FHVSICIAN TO THE NEW YORK CITY DISPENSARY, RESIDENT PHYSICIAN TO THE CITY HOSPITAL,
  LATE H03PITAL SURGEON UNITED STATES' ARMY, PHYSICIAN TO THE NEW YORK INSTITUTION
         FOR THE INSTRUCTION OF THE DEAF AND DUMB, ETC., ETC.
IN TWO VOLUMES.

    VOL.  I.
2  Vt  Hi  /-
         NEW YORK:

HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS,

             1856. 
                        w






                    ■&«> 110.  )n4\

                         \Mrn  \



 Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year one thousand
             eight hundred and forty-seven, by
                 Harper & Brothers,
in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the Southern District
                     of New York.
V 
              ADV ERTISEME1VT
                       TO THE

THIRTEENTH  AMERICAN  EDITION.
  In order to render the Thirteenth American editon of Hooper's
Medical Dictionary more acceptable to the Medical public of the
United States,  considerable additions  have been  made, selected
from American  authors,  particularly on  Materia  Medica, Mine-
ralogy. &,c. &c.  For these additions  an acknowledgment is due
to.Dr. James Thacher, for the extracts we have  made from his
Medical Biography, to Dr. John W. Webster, of  Boston, for the
same liberty taken with his Manuel of Chemistry, and to Dr. Jacob
Bigelow, for the use of  his  Treatise on  the  Materia  Medica.
Copious extracts have also been made from Professor Cleaveland's
Mineralogy, and recourse has been had to the  New-York Medical
Repository, Burns's Mineralogical Journal,  Eaton's Gcoloev. ano
other works, for  the purpose of introducing new  and interesting
articles.  A number of obsolete terms  have been omitted,  but lest
it might be thought by some  to injure  the work as a standard o/
modern as well as of ancient Medical terms, the words omitted have
been inserted in the form of an Appendix 
 
PREFACE.
   In the present edition of the Medical Dictionary, the principa
 additions and improvements  are  in  the  introduction  of  the
 terms of Botany and those of Mineralogy, and the most  modern
 discoveries in Chemistry and Physiology.  The work, therefore, will
 now  be found to contain an account of every article  connected
 wilh the study of medicine.

   In conducting this laborious undertaking,  particular attention has
 been given to,

   1  The accentuation, in order that the proper  pronunciation ol
 the words may be obtained.

   l2.  The derivation of the terms, and the declension of the words
 in common use.
                  i
   3.  The definitions, which are lrom the  most approved  sources.

   4.  The introduction of all the modern discoveries in the several
branches of medical science

   In the selection and arrangement of the most compendious, the
uiost clear, and the most perfect account of the several articles of
Anatomy, Biography, Botany,  Chemistry,  the Materia  Medica,
Midwifery, Mineralogy, Pathology, Pharmacy, and Physiology, tne
Compiler has again to acknowledge his obligations to  Aberncthy.
Accum, Aikin, Albinus,  Bell,  Brande, Bcrgius, Blanchard, Burns, 
viil
PREFACE.
 Burserius, Callisen, Casselli, Cooper, Cruickshank, Cullen, Davy
 Denman, Duncan, the Editors of the London and Edinburgh Dis-
 pensaries, and of Rees' Cyclopaedia, and Motherby's Medical Dic-
 tionary, Fourcroy, Good, Haller, Henry, Hoffman, Innis, Latta,
 Larcy,  Lavoisier, Lewis,  Linnaeus, Majcndie,  Meyer, Murray,
 Nicholson,  Orfila, Pott, Richerand, Richter, Saunders, Sauvage,
 Scarpa, Smith, Soemmering, Swediaur, Symonds, Thomas, Thomp-
 son, Turton, Ure  (from whose condensed and comprehensive work
 on chemistry large extracts have been made), Vaughan, Vossius,
 Will in, Woodville, &c. &c.

  Il was his original intention to give to each writer the merit of
 the  particular description  selected from his work: but having occa-
 sion to consult, frequently to abridge, and sometimes  to alter, various
passages; and  finding it difficult, and in many instances impossible
to discover the original writer of several articles;  and convinced at
the  same time  that it would be attended with no  particular advan
tage, he has preferred making a general acknowledgment to par-
ticularizing the labours of each individual.   If he has been so for-
tunate as to have compressed within the narrow limits of the present
oublication much general  and useful  information, his object will be
fully answered. 
                             A  NEW


MEDICAL     DICTIONARY.
                   I


          ABB                                            ABD
 A   1. In composition this letter, the a in Greek and
 £*•• a in Latin, signifies without:  thus  aphonia,
 withiut voice, acaulis, without  stem, aphyllus, with-
 out a leaf, &c
  2. A.  aa. (From ava, which signifies of each.)  Ab-
 breviations of ana, which word is used in prescriptions
 \uer the mention of two or more ingredients, when it
 implies, that the quantity mentioned of each ingredi-
 ent  should be taken: thus,  R.  Potassx nitratis—
 Sacchari albi 5a  3 j. Take nitrate of potassa and white
 sugar, of each one drachm.
  AA'RON.  A  physician of Alexandria, author of
 thirty books in the Syriac tongue, containing the whole
 practice of physic, chiefly collected from the Greek
 writings, and supposed to have been written before A.
 D. (HO.  He first mentioned, and  described, the small-
 pox and measles, which were probably brought thither
 by  the  Arabians.  He  directed  the vein under  the
 tongue to be opened in jaundice, and noticed the while
 colour of the feces in that disease.  His works are lost,
 except some fragments, preserved by R hazes.
  AA'VORA.   The  fruit of a  species of palm-tree
 which grows  in  the West  Indies and Africa.   It is of
 the size of a hen's egg, and included with several more
 ina large shell.   In the middle  of the fruit there is a
 hard nut, about the size of a peach stone, which  con-
 tains a white almond,  very  astringent, and  useful
 against  u diarrhoea.
  Aba'ctus.   Abigeatus.  Among the ancient physi-
 cians, this term was  used for a miscarriage, procured
 by art, or force of medicines, in contradistinction to
 abortus, which meant a natural miscarriage.
  A'bacus.  (From a Hebrew word, signifying dust.)
 A table for preparations, so called from the  usage of
 mathematicians of drawing their figures upon tables
 sprinkled  with dust.
  Abai'sir.   Abasis.  Ivory black ; and also calcare-
 ous powder.
  ABALIENA'TIO.   Abalienation; or a decay of
 the body, or mind.
  ABALD3NATUS.  1. Corrupted.
  2. A part so destroyed  as to require immediate ex-
 tirpation.
  3. The total destruction of  the senses, whether ex-
 ternal or internal, by disease.
  Abapti'sta.  (From a, priv. and pavrut, to plunge.)
 Abaptiston.  1. The shoulders of the old trepan.
  2. This term is employed  by  Galen,  Fabricius ab
 Aquapendente, Scultetus,  and others, to  denote  the
 conical  saw  with a circular edge, (otherwise called
 modiolus, or terebra,)  which was formerly used by sur-
 geons to perforate the cranium.
  Abapti'ston.  Sec Abaptista.
  Abarnahas.  A chemical term formerly used in the
 transmutation of metals, signifying luna plena,magnes,
 or magnesia.
  ABARTICULATION.   (From ab, and articulus, a
joint.)   A species of articulation which has evident
motion.  See Diarthrosis.
  Aba'sis. See  Abaisir.
  ABBREVIATION.  The principal uses of medici-
nal abbreviations are in prescriptions, in which they
arc certain marks, or half words, used by physicians
for  despatch  and conveniency when they prescribe;
thus:—B;  readily supplies the place of recipe—A. *.
that of kora somni—n. m. that of nux moschata—elect.
that of clectarium, &c;  and in general all the names
of compound medicines, with the several ingredients,
are frequently wrote only up to their first or second
syllable, or sometimes to their third or fourth, to make
them c'sar and expressive. Thus Croc. Anglic, stands
for Crocus Anglieanus—Conf. Aromat. for ConfccCit
Aromatica, &c.  A point being always placed at the
end of such syllable, shows the word to be incomplete.
  ABBREVIATUS.  Abbreviate; shortened. A term
often used in botany.
  ABDOMEN.  (Abdomen, inis. n ; from  abdo, to
hide; because  it hides the viscera.  It is also derived
from abdere, to hide, and omentum, the caul; by others
omen is  said to be only a  termination, as from lego,
legumen, so from  abdo. abdomen.^ The  belly.  The
largest cavity in the body,  bounded superiorly by the
diaphragm, by whicn  it is  separated from the chest;
inferiorly by the bones of the pubes and ischium;  on
each side by various muscles, the short ribs and ossa
ilii;  anteriorly by the abdominal muscles, and posteri-
orly  by the vertebrae of the  loins, the os sacrum and os
coccygis.  Internally it  is invested by a smooth mem-
brane, called peritoneum,  and externally by muscles
and common integuments.
  In the cavity of the belly  arc contained,
  Anteriorly and laterally,
  1.  The epiploon,  2.  The stomach. 3. The  large
and small intestines.  4. The mesentery.  5. The lac-
teal vessels. 6. The pancreas.  7. The srlses  £ The
liver and gall-bladder.
  Posterior^, without the peritoneum,
  1.  The kidneys.  2. The 6upra-renal glands. 3. The
ureters. 4. The receptacuium chyli.  5. The descend-
ing aorta.  6. The ascending vena cava.
  Inferiorly in the pelvis, and without the peritoneum
  In men,  1. The urinary bladder.  2. The sperma-
tic vessels.  3.  The rectum.
  In women, besides  the urinary bladder  and intesti
num rectum, there arc,
  1.  The uterus. 2. The four ligaments of the uterus.
3. The two  ovana.   4. The two Fallopian tubes
5. The vagina.
  The fore  part of this cavity, as has been mentioned,
is covered with muscles and common  integuments, in
the middle of which is the navel.  It is this part of the
body which is  properly called abdomen ;  it  is distia
guished, by anatomists, into regions.   See Body.
  The posterior part of the abdomen is called the loins,
and the sides the flanks.
  ABDOMINAI.IS.  (From abdomen,  the belly.)  Ab-
dominal ; pertaining to the  belly.
  Abdominal hernia.  See Hernia.
  Abdominal muscles.  See Muscles.
  Abdominal regions.  See Body.
  Abdominal ring.  See Annulus Abdominis.
  ABDU'CENS.  See Abducent.
  Abpucens labiorum. See Levator anguli oris.
  ABDUCENT.  {Abducens; from ab, from, and <ffc-
cere, to draw.)   The  name of some  muscles which
draw parts  back in the opposite direction to others
See Abductor.
  Abducent muscles.  See Abductor.
  Abducent nerves.  See JVctti abducentes.
  ABDUCTOR. (From abduco, to draw  away." Ab-
ducens.  A muscle, the office of which is to pull back
or draw the member to which it is affixed from tome
other.  The antagonist is called adductor.
  Abductor auricularis.  See Posterior auris
  Abductor auris.  See Posterior auris.
  Abductor brevis alter.  See Abductor polhcir
manus.
  Abductor indicia mahus.  An internal intcros
seous muscle of the fore-finger, situated on the hand
Abductor of  Douglas; Semi-interosstous indicts o
Winslow; Abductor indicis of Cowper. It arises fron
(he superior part of the metacarpal boae, and the os trs 
Af3E
ABU
pezium, on its inside, by a  fleshy beginning,  runs to-
wards the metacarpal bone of the fore-finger, adheres to
it, and is connected by a broad tendon to the superior
part of the first  phalanx of the fore-linger. Sometimes
it. arises  by a double tendon.  Its use is to draw  the
fore-ringer  from the rest, towards the thumb, and to
bend  it somewhat towards  the palm.
  Abductor inoicis pedis.  An internal interosseous
muscle of*  the  fore-toe, which arises tendinous and
fleshy, by two origins, from the  root of the inside of the
metatarsal bone of the fore-toe, from the outside of the
toot of the  metatarsal bone of the great toe, and from
the os cuneiforme internum, and is inserted tendinous
into the inside of the root of the first joint of  the fore-
toe.  Its  use is to pull the fore-toe inwards,  from the
rest of the small toes.
  Abductor longus pollicis manus.  See Extensor
ossis  metacarpipollicis manus.
  ABDrcTOR medii  DiGm pedis.   An interosseous
muscle of the foot, which arises tendinous and fleshy,
frci.'i the inside of the root of the metatarsal bone of the
middle toe internally, and  is inserted tendinous into
Liis inside of the root of the first joint of the middle toe.
Its use is to pull the middle toe inwards.
  Abductor minimi digiti manus.   A muscle of the
little finger, situated on the  hand.  Carpo-phalangien
du  petit doigt of Dumas;  Extensor tertii internodii
minimi  digiti of  Douglas:  Hypothcnnr minor of
Winslow. It arises fleshy from the pisiform bone, and
from that part of the ligamentum carpi  annulare next
it, and is inserted, tendinous, into the inner side of the
upper end of the first bone of the little finger.  Its use
is to draw the little finger from  the rest.
  Abductor minimi  digiti pedis.   A muscle of the
little  toe.  Calcaneo-p/ialangien du petit doigt of Du-
mas ;  Adductor of  Douglas:   Parathenar major of
Winslow, by whom this muscle is divided into two,
Paratlienar major and metatarscus ; Adductor minimi
digiti of Cowper.   It arises tendinous and fleshy, from
the semicircular edge of a cavity on the inferior part of
the protuberance of the os calcis, and from the rest of
the metatarsal  bone of the little toe, and is inserted
into the root of the first joint of the little toe externally.
Its use is to bend the little toe, and its metatarsal  bone,
downwards, and to draw the little toe from the rest
  Abductor oculi.   See Rectus externus oculi.
  Abductor pollicis manus.  A muscle of the thumb,
situated on the hand.  Scaphosus-phclangien du puuee
of  Dumas; Adductor fi.'.licis  manus, and Adductor
brevis alter of Albinus; Adductor  thenar Hiolani of
Douglas  (the adductor brevis alter of Albinus is the
inner portion of  this muscle); Adductor pollicis of
l>       It arises by a broad tendinous and fleshy be-
ginning, from the ligamentum carpi annulare, and from
the os trapezium, and is inserted tendinous into  the
outer  side of the root of the first bone of the thumb. Its
use is, to draw the thumb from the fingers.
  Abductor pollicis pedis.   A muscle of  the great
loe situated on the foot.  Calcaneu-phalangien du poucc
of  Dumas;  Abductor of Douglas;  Thimar  of  Win-
slow ; Abductor pollicis of  Cowper.  It  arises fleshy,
from  the inside  of the root of the protuberance of the
OS calcis, where it forms the heel, and tendinous from
the same bone, where il joins the os naviculars •. anil
is inserted  tendinous  into the internal sesamoid hone
and root of the first joint of the great toe.   Its  use is
to pull the great toe from the rest.
   Abductor tertii  diuiti pedis.  An interosseous
muscle ol the foot, thai  arises tendinous and fleshy
from  the inside  and the inferior part of life root of the
metatarsal bone of the third toe;  and is inserted ten-
dinous into the inside of the root ol the first joint of the
third toe.   Its use is to pull  the third toe inwards.
   Abkbc'os.   'I'ioiiiu, neg. and /Jtfiuioj, linn.)  Abe-
l,eus. Weak,  infirm, unsteady.  A term made  use of
by Hippocrates, do Signis.
   Abkb* vs.   See Mebitos.
   AUHLMO SCHUS.  (An Arabian word.)   See Hi-
It  cus Abclmvschus.
   Abclmosch.   S*oe Hibiscus Ahclmoschus.
   Ab.'lmnsk.  See Hibiscus Abdnwschus.
   AIU'.URA TIO.   (From  ah and  '.no, 10 wander
 from.)   Formerly applied  to  some  deviations from
 what was natural, ns n dislocation,  and monstrosities.
   Auk ssi.  (An Arabian  term which  'neons  filth.)
  .be  alvine excrements.
   •Vbksum.  Quicklime
  Abkvacua tio.   (From ab, dim, and evacuo, to |«ui
out.)  A partial or incomplete evacuation of the pee
cant humours, either naturally or by art.
  Abicum.  The thyroid cartilage.
  A'BIES.  (Abies, etis. fern.; from abeo, to proceed
because it rises to a great height;  or  from  avtvs, s
wild pear, the fruit of which its cones  something  re
semble.)  The fir.  See Pinus.
  Abies Canadensis.   See Pinus Balsamea-
  Aiugka'tus.  See Abactus.
  ABIO'TOS.  (From a,  neg.  and (iiou,  to live.
Deadly.  A name given to hemlock, from  its deadly
qualities.   See Conium maculatum.
  ABLACTA'TIO.  (From  ab, from, and lac, milk.)
Ablactation, or the weaning of a child from the breast
  ABLATION.  (Ablatio; from aufcro, to take
away.  1. The taking away from the body whaievei
is hurtful.  A term that is seldom used but in its. gene-
ral sense, to clothing, diet, exercise, &x.  In some  old
writings,  it expresses the intervals between two tils ol
a fever, or the time of remission.
  2. Formerly chemists employed this term to signify
the removal of any thing that is either finished or else
no longer necessary in a process.
  ABLUENT.   (Abluens;  from   abluo,  to wash
away.)   Abstergent  Medicines which were formerly
supposed  to purify or cleanse the blood.
  ABLUTION.  (Ablutio; from abluo, to wash or!'.)
1. A washing or cleansing cither of  the body  ar  the
intestines.
  2. In chemistry it signifies the purifying  of a body,
by repeated affusions of a  proper liquor.
  Aboli'tio.   (From aboleo, to destroy.)   The sepa
ralion or destruction of diseased parts.
   Aborsus.  A miscarriage.
   ABORTIENS.  Miscarrying.
  In botany, it is sometimes  used synonymously with
sterilis, sterile or barren.
   ABORTION.  (Abortio; from aborior, to be sterile.)
Aborsus; Ambloiis; Diaphlhora  Eclrosis. El am-
bloma; Examblosis; Apopallesit; Apopalxis ; Apoph-
thora.  Miscarriage, or the expulsion of the tielus lioiu
the uterus, before the seventh mouth, after which it is
called  premature labour.  It  most  commonly  nccum
between the eighth and eleventh weeks of  pregnancy,
but may happen at a later period. In early gestation, ihe
ovum sometimes comes orient ire; sometimes ihe fietus
is first expelled, and the placenta afterwards.  It is pre-
ceded by floodings, pains in the back, loins, and lower
part of the abdomen, evacuation of the water, Silver-
ings, palpitation of the heart, nausea, anxiety. «yiiro|ie,
subsiding of the breasts and belly, pain in the inside ol
the thighs, opening and moisture of the os tinea:  Too
 principal  causes of miscarriage are blows  or falls;
great exertion or fatigue, sudden frights and other vio-
 lent emi.tions of the mind; a diet loo sparing or  loo
 nutritious;  the abuse of spirituous  liquors; oilier  dis-
eases, particularly fevers,and haimurihages: likewise
excessive bleeding, profuse diarrhoea or cholic, parti-
cularly from  accumulated frees; immoderate venery,
&.C.  The spontaneous vomiting  so common in preg-
nancy, rarely occasions this accident: but when  in-
duced and kept up by drastic medicines, il may be \ ci v
likely lo  have lhal effect.   Abortion often happens
 without any obvious cause, from some delect in  the
 uterus, or in the fietus iiself, which we cauuoi satis-
 factorily  explain.   Ilenne il will take place repeatedly
 in  the  same lemale at a  particular period of preg
 nancy; perhaps in some measure from the  influence
of habit.
   The  treatment of abortion  must vary considerably
according to  the constitution of  the  patient, and  the
causey giving rise to it.   It the incipient svinpioins
should appear in a female ol" a plethoric hubii, n may
 be proper to iake  a iitoderaie quantity of  blood from
 the  arm,  then clear the bowels by some mild cathartic,
 us the suphas magnesia-  in  the  infusum  roso-, alter
 wards exliibi.ing small doses m  uitia.eof  potash, di-
 recting the  patient lo lemain quiet in a reriimhrni  po-
 silion, kept as cool as  possible, with  a low diet,  and
 the  antiphlogistic re.:imcn  in  other res|«cis.  Should
 there  be  much flooding, cloths wetlcil with cold water
| ought to be applied o tile region ol  the uterus, or even
I introduced  into ihe \agina, ,o olisir.icl the escape ol
I the blood mechanically.  Where violent forcing pains
I aiUmd, opium should be given by the  uui'ilh, m in the
I form of glyster, after  premising  proper evacuations. 
ABo
ABS
Should these means not avail to check the discharge of
the forcing pains, and particularly if the water be eva-
cuated, there can be  no expectation of preventing the
miscarriage; and where there is reason for believing
the fietus dead, from the breasts  having  previously
subsided,  the morning sickness gone  off, the  motion
stopped, &c. it will be proper rather to encourage it by i
manual assistance.
  If on the other hand females of a delicate and irri-
table habit, ratherdeiieient in blood, be subject to abor-
tion, or where this accident  is threatened  by profuse
evacuations and other debilitating causes, it  may be
more probably prevented by a diet  nutritious, yet easy
of digestion, with tonic medicines,  and the use of the
cokl bath, attending at the same time to the slate of
the bowels, giving opium if pain attend, and carefully
avoiding the several exciting causes.
  [Winn  a female has suffered several abortions, it
becomes almost  impossible to prevent a repetition at
the same  period of gelation in a subsequent preg-
nancy.  Nothing, however,  will be  so  successful in
preventing a recurrence of a similar misfortune, as in
allowing the uterine vessels to recover their tone ;  for
which purpose a sufficient time  must intervene before
the next conception, otherwise the  remedies above re-
commended will have little or no effect.  A.]
  ABORTIVE:.  (Abortivus;  from  abonor, to be
sterile.;  Thai which is capable of occasioning an abor-
tion, or  miscarriage, in pregnant women.  It  is now
generally believed, that the medicines which produce
• miscarriage, effect  it by their violent operation on
the system, and not by any specific action on the womb.
  [From the violent operation of the secale cornutum,
or spurred rye, upon  the gravid uterus, il has been
thought that it would act at any period of gestation as
an abortive; but the experiments and trials made with
it, have proved it to be inert, having no specific action
upon the uterus, except in time of labour. A.J
  ABORTUS.  A miscarriage.
  Abra'sa.  (From abrado, to shave off.)  Ulcers at
tended with abrasion.
  ABRASION.   (Abrasio; from abrado, to tear off.)
This word  is generally employed  to  signify  the  de-
struction of the natural mucus of any part, as the sto-
mach, intestines, urinary bladdei, &c   It is also ap-
plied lo any part slightly torn away by attrition, as the
skin, &.c.
  A bratuan.  Corrupted from abrotanum, southern-
wood.   See Artemisia abrotanum.
  A'brette.  See Hibiscus Abelmosckus.
  Abro'ma.  (From a, neg. and  (fpuua, food ; i.e.
not fit to be eaten.)   A tree of New South Wales,
which yields a gum.
  ABROTANUM.    (Ktooravov;  from a, neg. and
Pporoc,  mortal;  because it never decays:  or from
aPpos, soft, and rovoc, extension; from the delicacy of
its texture.)  Common southernwood.  See Artemisia.
  Abrotanum mas.   See Artemisia.
  ABROTONl'TES.   (From abrotanum.)   A wine
mentioned  by Dioscorides, impregnated with  abro-
tanum, or  southernwood, in  the proportion of about
one hundred ounces of the dried leaves, to about seven
gallons of must,
  ABRUPTE\  Abruptly.   Applied to pinnate leaves
which terminate without an odd leaf or lobe:—;folia
abrupti pinnata.
  Abscede ntia.  (From abscedo,  to separate.)  De-
cayed parts of the body, which, in a morbid state, are
separated from the sound.
  ABSCESS.  (Abscessus; from abscedo, to depart:
because parts, which were before contiguous, become
separated, or depart  from  each other.)  Abscessio;
Impostkuma.  A collection of pus in the cellular mem-
brane, or in  the viscera, or  in bones, preceded by in-
flammation.   Abscesses are  variously denominated
according to their seat: as empyema, when in the ca-
vity of the pleura; vomica, in the  lungs; panaris, in
any of the fingers; hypopyon, in the anterior chamber
of the eye; arthropuosis, in a joint; lumbar abscess, &c.
  The formation of an abscess is the result of  inflam-
mation terminating in suppuration. This is  known
by a throbbing pain, which lessens  by degrees, as well
as the heat, tension, and redness of the inflamed part;
and if the pus be near the surface, a cream-like white-
ness is soon  perceived, with  a prominence about the
middle, or at the inferior part, then a fluctuation may
ba felt, which becomes gradually more distinct, till at
length the matter maxes its way externally.  Wh«»
suppuration occurs to  a  considerable extent, or in a
part of importance to lift, mere are usually rigours, or
sudden  attacks of chilliness, followed by flushes of
heat; and unless the matter be soon discharged, and
the abscess  healed, beetle fever generally comes on.
When abscesses form  in the cellular membrane in
persons of a tolerably good constitution, they art usu-
ally circumscribed, in consequence of coagulablf lymph
having been previously elfused, and having obliterated
the communication with the adjoining cells; but in
those of a weakly, and especially a scropliulous r.onsti
tut ion, from this not occurring, the  pus is very apt to
dilluse itself, like the water in anasarca.  Another cir-
cumstance, which may prevent its readily reaching the
surface, is its collecting under an aponeurosis, or other
part of dense structure, when the process of ulceration
will rather extend in another direction; thus pus ac-
cumulating in the loins, may descend to the lower part
of the thigh.
  When suppuration occurs, if the  inflammation have
not yet subsided, it may be necessary to employ means
calculated to moderate this, in order to limit the extent
of the abscess: but evacuations must not be carried too
far, or there will not be power in the system to heal It
afterwards.   If the disease  be  near  the surface,  fo-
mentations  or warm  emollient  poultices  should be
employed, to take off the tension of the skin, and pro-
mote  the process of ulceration  in that direction.  As
soon as fluctuation is obvious, it will be generally pro-
per to make an opening, lest contiguous parts of im
portance should be injured; and often at an earlier
period, where the matter is  prevented from reaching
the surface  by a fascia, Sec, but it is sometimes ad-
visable to wait awhile, especially in large spontaneous
abscesses, where the constitution is much debilitated,
till by the use of a nutritious diet, with bark and other
tonic  means, this can be somewhat  improved.  There
are different modes of opening abscesses.  I.  By inci-
sion or puncture; this  is  generally the best, as being
least  painful, and most expeditious, and the extent of
ihe aperture can be better regulated.  2. By caustic; this
may  be sometimes preferable when suppuration goes
on very slowly in glandular parts, (especially in  scro-
phulous and venereal cases,) lessening the subjacent
tumour, giving free vent to the  matter, and  exciting
more healthy action in the sore;  but it  sometimes
causes much deformity, it can hardly reach deep seated
abscesses, and the  delay may be often dangerous.  3.
Byseton; this is sometimes advantageous in superfi-
cial abscesses, (where  suppuration is  likely to con-
tinue,) about the neck and face,  leaving generally but
a small scar; likewise when near joints, or other im-
portant  parts liable to fie injured by the scalpel or
caustic.  See Lumbar Abscess, and Ulcer.
  ABSCESSUS.   See Abscess.
  ABSCISSION.   (Abscissio; from  ab, and scindo,
to cut.)  1. The cutting away some morbid, or other
part, by an edged instrument.   The ahscision of the
prepuce makes what we call circumcision.
  2. Abscission is sometimes used by medical writers to
denote the sudden termination of a disease in death,
before it arrives at its decline.
  3. Celsus frequently uses  the term  abscissa vox to
express a loss of voice.
  Absintiutes.  Absinthiac,or absinthialed.  Some-
thing  tinged or impregnated with the virtues of absin-
thium or wormwood.
  ABSINTHIUM.  (Absinthium,  Uiii,  n. a^ivBinv;
from a, neg. and \piv9os, pleasant:  so called from the
disagreeableness of the taste.) Wormwood.  See Ar-
temisia.
  Absinthium  commune.   Common  Wormwood.
See Artemisia Absinthium.
  Absinthium  maritimum.  Sea  Wormwood.   See
Artemisia Maritima.
  Absinthium pcsticum. Eoman Wormwood.  See
Artemisia Pontica.
  Absinthium vulgark. Common Wormwood.  See
Artemisia Absinthium.
  ABSORBENS.   See Absorbent.
  ABSORBENT.   (Absorbens; from absorbeo, to suck
up.)  L The small, delicate, transparent vessels, which
take up  substances from  the surface of the bedy, or
from any cavity, and carry it to *hs blood, are termed
absorbents or absorbing  vessels.  They are denomi
nated! according to the liquids which they  convey 
AttV
ACA
 ■steals and  lymphatics.   See  Lacteal and  Lym- i
phatic.
  2 Those medicines  are so termed, which have no
acrimony in themselves, and  destroy acidities in the
Btom ich  and bowels; such are magnesia, prepared
chalk, oyster-shells, crabs' claws, &c.
  3. Substances are also so  called by chemists, which
have the faculty of withdrawing moisture from the
atmosphere.
  Absorbing vessels.   See Absorbent.
  ABSORPTION.  (Absorptio;  from  absorbeo, to
suck up.)   1.  A  function  in an  animated body, ar-
ranged by physiologists under the head of natural ac-
tions.  It signifies the taking up of substances applied
to the mouths ftl  absorbing vessels; thus the nutritious
part of the food is absorbed from the intestinal canal
by the lacteals; thus mercury is taken  into the system
by the lymphatics of the skin, &x.  The principle by
which this function takes place, is a power inherent in
the mouths of the absorbents, a vis  insita, dependent
nn the degree of irritability of their internal membrane
by which they contract and propel their contents for-
wards.
  2. By this term chemists  understand the conversion
ol a gaseous fluid into  a liquid or solid,  on being united
with some othersubstance.  Itdiffers from condensation
m this being the effect of mechanical pressure.
  [Absorption by plants.—In  1604, Dr. Foote sent to
Dr. Mitchill of New-York, a peach, with the following
account of  it:—" I present yon with a  peach by the
bearer.  You will readily perceive that I could not be
induced to this from  any thing very promising in its
aspect, the  richness of its flavour, or the singularity of
its species.   On tasting, you will  find it highly charged
with muriate of soda: and  when I inform you that it
has undergone no artificial management, but possessed
this property when plucked from the tree, you  may
find some difficulty in explaining  the fact.
  " This peach was presented  lo me by Mr. Solomon
Brewer, of Westchester Co.,  New-York, my former
residence.  Mr. B. is a respectable man, and the pre-
 sent clerk of the  town in which he lives.  The history
 he gives me of this natural salt-peach is, that it grew
 in  his neighbourhood, on a tree,  around the body and
 roots of whicli had been accidentally poured a quan-
 tity of pork or beef-brine ;  that its fruit ripens in the
 month of September ; that  the effect of  the brine had
 been, to produce a sickness and decay  in the tree ; and
 that at this time (Sept. 1804) it  presents the singular
 fact of a  tree  hanging tolerably full  of salt peaches.
 He was unable to inform me of the precise time of the
 occurrence, but  that  it was the fore-part of summer,
 and after the fruit had obtained its shape and some
 Bize.   This fact, as  respects the vegetable kingdom,
 is in my mind an isolated one.
   " 1 have felt the more interest in noticing this fact,
 as it contributes much to strengthen and confirm the
 opinion you  long since advanced, that certain vegeta-
 bles, as wheat, partake much of  the properties of the
 manure which  is used as their aliment, and thence
 urge with  much propriety the importance of the sub-
 ject to agriculturists."—See Med. Repos. of JVeto- York,
 vol. viii. p. 209.   A.]
   ABSTEMIOUS.  (Abstcmius; from abs, from, and
 temctum, wine.)  Befraini.ig absolutely from all use of
 wine ; but the term is applied to a temperate mode of
 living, with respeel lo food generally.
   Abstk'ntio.  Cielius Aurelianus uses this word to
 express  a suppression, or retention: (hus,  abslentio
 itercorum, a retention of  the excrements, whicli  he
 mentions as a symptom very frequent in a satyriasis.
 Iu a sense somewhat different, he uses the word ub-
 sttnta, applying it lo the  pleura, where he seems to
 mean that the humour  of  the inflamed pleura  is
 prevented, by the adjacent  bones,  from extending
 Itself.
    ABSTERGENT.  (Abstergcns; from abstergo, to
   'cause nwuy.)  Any  application that cleanses or clears
 »way  foulness.   The term  is  seldom employed  by
 modern writers.
    ABS TRACTION.  (From abstra/io, to draw away.)
  A term employed by  chemists in the process of humid
 distillation, to signify that the fluid body is again drawn
 off from the solid, which il had dissolved.
    A'bsus.  The Egyutian lotus.
    Abvacua'tio.  (From abvacuo, to cmpty.l   A mor-
  bid discharge;  a large evacuation of any fluid, as  of
       12
blood from a plethoric person.  A term used by some
old writers.
  ACA'CIA.  (Acacia,  a. f. anaicia;  from aKa\w, to
sharpen.)   The name of a genus of plants in the Lin-
na:an system.   Class, Polygamia; Order, Monacia.
The Egyptian thorn.
  Acacia catechu. This plant affords a,drug, form-
erly supposed to be an earthy substance brought frum
Japan, and therefore called terra Japonica, or Japan
earth; afterwards it appeared to be an extract prepared
in India, it was supposed till lately, from the juice oi
the Mimosa catechu, by  boiling the wood and evapo-
rating the decoction by the heat of the sun.  But  the
shrub is now ascertained to be an acacia, and is termed
Acacia catechu.  It grows in great abundance iu  the
kingdom of Bahar, and catechu comes to us principally
from Bengal and Bombay.  It has received the follow-
ing names: Acachou; b'aufel; Oetchu; Caschu;  Ca-
techu; Cadtchu; Cashow; Caitchu; Castjve; Oachu;
Cate; Kaalh.   The natives  call it Cutt, the  English
who reside there Cutch.  In its purest state, it is a  dry
pulverable substance, outwardly of a reddish colour,
internally of a shining dark brown, tinged with  a red-
dish hue; in the mouth it discovers considerable  ad-
stringency, succeeded by a sweetish mucilaginous taste.
It may be advantageously employed for most purposes
where an adstringent is  indicated; and is particularly
useful in alvine fluxes, where astringents aie required.
Besides this, il  is employed  also in uterine pronuvia,
iu laxity and debility of the viscera iu general; and  it is
an excellent topical adstrii/gent, when  suffered to  dis-
solve leisurely in the mouth, for laxities a><d ulcerations
of the gums, apththous ulcers in the mouth, and simi-
lar affections.  This extract is  the  basis of several
formula; in our  pharmacopoeias, particularly of a tinc-
ture: but one of the best tonus under whicli it can be
exhibited, is that of simple infusion in warm waier with
a proportion of cinnamon, fur by this  means il is at
once freed of its impurities and improved by the addi-
tion of  the aromatic.
   Fourcroy says that catechu is prepared ftcm the seeds
of a kind of palm, called areca.   Sir Humphrey Davy
has analyzed catechu, and from his examination it ap-
pears, that from Bombay is of unifoim texture,  leu-
brown colour, and specific gravity 1.39: that from Ben-
gal  is more friable and less consistent, of a chocolate
colour externally, but internally chocolate streaked Willi
red-brown, and specific gravity 1.28. The catechu tiom
either place differs little in its properties.  Its tusle u
astringent, leaving behind a sensation of sweetness.  It
is almost wholly soluble in water. Two hundred grains
of picked catechu from Bombay afforded 109 grains ol
tannin, 60 extractive matter, 13 mucilage, 10 residuum,
chiefly sand and calcareous earth. The same quantity
from Bengal; tannin 97 grains, extractive warier 73
mucilage 10, residual matter, being sand, with a sma
quantity of calcareous and aluminous earths, 14.   Ol
the latter, the darkest parts appeared lo afiurd most
tannin, the lightest most extractive matter. The  11 in
doos prefer the lightest coloured, which has probably
mo3t sweetness, to chew with the betel-nut.
   Of all  the astringent substances we know, catechu
appears to contain the largest proportion of tannin;
and Mr. Purkis found, thai one pound was equivalent
 to seven or eight of oak  batk for the purpose of tanning
 leather.
   (The tinctura  Japonica is a  powerful  and  userul
 astringent in looseness  of the bowels.  Many persons
 take this preparation when  they are not aware of it,
 and when there is no occasion.  Il  is usi d to colour
 fictitious and imitation brandies  made in the  United
 States, and from the quantity used, these liquors al-
 ways p. :iduce costiveness.   A.]
   Acacia Germanica.  German acacia.
   1. The name of Uie German black-thorn or sloe-tree,
 the Planus spinus* ol Luuncus.
   2. The name of the inspissated juice of the fruit, as
 made in Germany; which, as well as the tree, is there
 called  also Acacia nostras.   It is now  fallen  iutu
 disuse.
   Acacia Indica.  See Tamarindus Indica,
   Acacia nostras.  See Acacia Germanica.
   Acacia vera.   1. The systematic name of tile tree
 which atfotds  gum-arabic,'formerly supposed lo  be a
 Mimosa.   Acacia:—sptnis  stipulartbus putcnlious,
 Joliis bipinnatis,  partiulibus cttivus glanduta inter-
 stinctis, spicis globosis pedunculitis, ol Wiii|,-uow 
ACA
aX'A
 Die Egyptian Thorn.   This tree yields the true Acacia
 Gum, or Gum-Arabic, called also Gummi acanthinum ;
 Gummi thcbaicum; Gummi scorpionis;  Gumlamcc;
 Gummi senega, or sctiicu, or senegalense.
  Cairo and Alexandria were the principal marts for
 gum-arabic, till the Dutch  introduced the gum  from
 Senegal into Europe, about  the beginning of the seven-
 teenth century, and this source now supplies the greater
 part of  the vast consumption of this article.  The tree
 which yields the Senpgal gum, grows abundantly on the
 sands, along the whole of the Barbary coast, and par-
 ticularly about  the river Senegal.  There are several
 species, some of which yield  a red astringent juice,
 but others afford only a pure, nearly colourless, insipid
 gum, which is the  great article of commerce.  These
 trees are ft om eighteen lo twenty feet high, with thorny
 branches.   The gum makes its appearance about the
 middle of November, when the soil has been thoroughly
 saturated with  periodical rains. The gummy juice is
 eeen to  ooze through the  trunk  and brunches, and, in
 about a fortnight, it hardens into roundish drops, of a
 rellowish white, which are  beautifully brilliant where
 ihey are broken off, and entirely so when held in the
 mouth for a short  time, lo dissolve the outer surface.
 N'o clefts are made, nor any artificial means used by
 Ihe Moors, to solicit the flow of the gum.  The lumps
 of gum-senegal are usually  about the size of partridge
 sggs, and the harvest continues about six weeks.  This
 gum is  a very wholesome and  nutritious food ; thou-
 sands of the Moors support themselves entirely upon it
 during the time of  harvest  About six ounces is suffi-
 cient to support a  man for  a day;  and it is, besides,
 mixed with milk, animal broths, and other victuals.
  The gum-arabic, or that which comes directly from
 Egypt and the Levant, only  differs from the gutn-sene-
 gal in being of a lighter colour, and in smaller lumps;
 and il is also somewhat more brittle. In other respects,
 they resemble each oilier perfectly.
  Gum-arabic is neither  soluble in spirit nor in oil;
 but, in twice its quantity of water, it dissolves into a
 mucilaginous fluid, of the consistence of a thick syrup,
 aud in this state answers many useful pharmaceutical
 purposes, by rendering oily, resinous, and pinguious
 substances miscible with water. The glutinous quality
 of gum-arabic renders it  preferable to other gums and
 mucilages as a demulcent in coughs, hoarsenesses, and
 other catarrhal affections.  It  is also very generally
 employed  in  ardor urinte,  diarrhoeas, and  calculous
 complaints.
  2. The name Acacia vera has also been used to de-
 note the expressed juice of  the immature pods of the
 tree termed Acacia veravel.   This inspissated juice is
 brought from Egypt in  roundish masses, wrapped up
 in thin bladders.  It is considered as a mild astringent
 medicine.  The Egyptians give it, in spilling of blood,
 in the quantity of a drachm, dissolved in any conve-
 nient liquor, and repeal this dose occasionally.  They
 likewise employ it in collyria,  for strengthening the
 eyes, and in gargles, for quinsies.  It is  now seldom
 used as  a medicine, being  superseded by the use of
catechu, or kino.
  Acacia veravel.  See Acacia vera.
  Acacia Zeylonica.  See  Hccmatoxylon Campechia-
 num.
  Acacia gum.  See Acacia vera.
  Acacos.  The thrush.  See Aphtha.
  ACALYCINUS. (From a, priv. and calyx, a flower-
 cup.) Without a calyx.
  ACALYCIS.   (From a, priv. and calyx, a flower-
 cup.) Without a  calyx or flower-cup.   Applied to
 plants which have no crjyx.
  Aca'matos.  (From  a, neg.  and Kauvw, to grow
 weary.)  A perfect rest of the muscles, or that dispo-
 sition of a limb which is equally distinct from flexion
 and extension.
  ACA'NTHA.  (kKavBa;  from 0107, a point.)
  1. A thorn; or any thing  pointed.
  2. Sometimes applied to the spina dorsi.
  Acantha'bolus. (Froma«ai'0a,athor!i; and/3aXAo>,
;o cast out.)   An instrument, or forceps, for taking out
or removing thorns, or whatever may stick in the flesh.
 —Paulas JEgineta.
  Aca'nthe.  The name of the artichoke in ancient
authors.
  ACA'NTHINUM.  (From aicavOa, a thorn.)  Gum-
arabic was called gummi acanthinum, because  it is
produced from a thorny tree.  See Acacia Vera.
   Acanticone.  Sec Epidole.
   ACA'NTHULUS.   (From  axavOa,  a thorn.)  A
 surgical instrument to draw out thorns or splinters, 01
 to remove any extraneous matter from wounds.
   ACA'NT II US.   (Acanthus,  i. m. aKavboc;  from
 axavOa, a  thorn;  so  named from  being rough and
 prickly.)  The name of a genus of plants 111 the Lin-
 mean system.  Class, Didynamia;  Order, Angiosper-
 mia.  Bear's-breech.
   Acanthus mollis.   The systematic name of the
 bear's-breech, or  brank-ursine.   Acanthus:—foliis
 sinuatis inermibus, of l.inmeus.  Branca ursina of the
 shops.  The leaves and root abound with a  mucilage,
 which is readily extracted by boiling or infusion.  The
 roots are the  most mucilaginous. Where this plant is
 common, it is employed tor the same purposes to which
 nlthsa and other vegetables possessing similar qualities
 are applied among us.   It is lailen  into ilistisu.  The
 herb-women too often sell the leaves of bear's-lbot, and
 of cow's parsnip, for the bear's-breech.
  Aca'pnon.   (From a, priv. and kottvos, smoke.)  1.
 Common wild marjoram.
  2.  Unsmoked honey.
  ACAROIS. The name of a genus of plants,  fron.
 New South Wales.
  Acarois resinifera.  The name of a tree which
 affords the Botany  bay  gum.  See Botany bay.
  [Gum Acaroides, New Holland  resin, or earthy
 gum-lac.  This is  the  produce of the tree called Aca-
 tois  resinifera, or  resin-bearing Acarois.  The tree
 grows abundantly  in New Holland, near Botany bay.
 The substance under consideration  is usually found in
 the ground near the trees from which  it  has sponta-
 neously exuded.   From some resemblance it  bears
 (though by no means a near  one) to the article called
 f'um-lac, it has been known as the earthy gum-lac
 t is of yellowish, brownish, or yellowish brown colour,
 and sometimes contains roots, sticks, and other foreign
 substances.  It has been distinguished in commerce by
 the term Botany bay resin.   They refer its importa-
 tion  into England to the year 1799.   An account  of its
 chemical properties was published by Lichtcnstein in
 dell's Journal, and afterwards by Dr. Thompson, in
 the fourth volume  of his Chemistry, p. 138.  It was
 known  to the early  navigator Tasman, and was brought
 to New-York and presented  to Dr.  Mitchill  many
 years ago by some  of our navigators.  Fcr some time
 past  it has been regarded in  Massachusetts as a  pow-
 erful restorative, or an  invigorating medicine in  cases
 of gastric or general debility.
  Gum Acaroides is insoluble in water:  alcohol or dis-
 tilled spirits is its proper menstruum.  Even in  pow-
 der its use is improper,  as it is  not acted  upon by the
 intestinal or alimentary fluids.  It is therefore neithei
 administered in substance, infusion, or decoction.   It is
 mostly prescribed in the form of tinclute:  Tinctura
 gummi acaroidis.   Tincture of New Holland resin.
  The proper rule  is 10 make a saturated tincture, of
 which a teaspoon full may  be given once in three or
 four hours, according  to the circumstances, in  milk,
jelly, or syrup,  water  being apt  to  decompose it.
 From Kite's essay upon this production, it appears,
  1.  That dyspepsia has been exceedingly relieved by
 it, and even wholly removed.
  2.  That it is an excellent restorative in  the debility
consequent upon the depletion and exiiaustion of acute
diseases.
  3. It is said to have done good in hysteria
  4. Cholera, with  cramps of the lower extremities, is
 reported to have yielded to its powers.
  5. The morbid evacuations and commotions of diar-
 rhoea are reported to have yielded  lo its virtue,  after
opium had failed.
  6.  Chronic and atonic catarrhs have been  benefitted
 by its administration.
  7.  It is alleged to have been remarkably serviceable
 in incipient dysentery  is  well as in that of  long
duration.
  8. In various spasmodic affections, such as stitchei
in the sides, cramp of the stomach, rheumatic twinges,
&c,  it has often afforded relief after opiates had failed.
  It must be observed, however, that it is not to be
prescribed in cases  of high  action, or phlogistic  dia-
thesis,  nor during  the  prevalence  of  inflammatory
symptoms.
  From  this abstract of the practice with this remedy,
no doubt can  be entertained  of its  value, nor of the
                                         13 
ACE
ACE
propriety of considering the discovery of its qualities,
as worthy to be considered among the  happy events
attending the modern .Materia Medica.—Mitchill's MS.
Lectures.   A.J
  ACARUS.  (From aicapns, small.)  The tick.  An
insect which breeds in  the skin.  A  very  numerous
genus of minute insects which  infest the skin of ani-
mals, and  produce various complaints.  Those which
are found on the human  body are
  1. The acarus domesticus, or domestic tick.
  2. The acarus scabiei,  or itch tick.
  3. The acarus autumnalis, or harvest-bug.
  ACATALE'PSIA. (From o, neg. and KaraAa/rSavw,
lo apprehend.)  Uncertainty in  the prognosis or judg-
ment of diseases.
  ACA'TALIS.  (From  a, neg. and xhtcio, to want.)
The juniper tree: so named from the abundance of its
seeds.
  ACATA'POSIS.  (From a, neg. and  Karamvio, to
swallow.)   Difficult deglutition.
  Aca'statos.  (From a, neg. and xaditrrn/it, to deter-
mine.)   Inconstant
  1.  Fevers were so called which are anomalous in
their appearance and irregular in their paroxysms.
  2.  Turbid urine without sediment.
  ACAULIS.  (From a, priv.  and caulis, a  stem.)
Without stem.  Plants destitute of stem  are  called
acaules, stemless;  as Cyjiripedium acaule,  and Car-
dans acaulis. This term must  not be too rigidly un-
derstood.
  ACCELERA'TOR.  (From accelero, to hasten or
propel.) The name of a muscle of the penis.
  Accelerator urin,g.  A muscle of  the  penis.
Ejaculator  Seminis;  Bulbo-syndcsmo-caverneux  of
Dumas;  Bulbo-cavemosus of Winslow.   It  arises
fleshy from the sphincter ani and membranous part of
the  urethra, and tendinous from the crus, near as far
forwards as the beginning of the corpus cavemosum
penis; the inferior fibres run more transversely, and
the superior descend in an oblique direction.  It is in-
serted into a line in the middle of the bulbous part of the
urethra, where each joins with  its fellow; by which
the bulb is completely closed.  The use of these mus-
cles  is  to drive  the urine or semen forward, and  by
grasping the bulbous part of the urethra, to push the
blood towards its corpus cavernosum, and the glans,
by whicli they are distended.
  ACCESSION. (Accesio; from accedo, to approach.)
The t runmencement of a disease.  A term mostly ap-
plied o a fever which has paroxysms or exacerbations:
thus I he accession of fever, means the commencement
or ap iroach of the febrile period.
  ACCESSO'RIUS.  (From accede, to approach: so
calleu from the course it takes.)  Connected by con-
tact or approach.
  Ar hessorius lumbalis.  A muscle of the loins.
See 'iacro-litmbalis.
  A xessorius nervus. The name given by Willis
to t'/o nerves which ascend, one on each  side, from
the   econd, fourth, and fifth cervical pairs of nerves,
thr< ugh the great foramen of the occipital bone, and
pas i out again from the cranium through the foramina
lac ;ra,  with the par vagum, to be distributed  on the
trv pczius muscle.
  ACCI PITER.  (From accipio, to take.)
  1.  The hawk; so named from its rapacity.
  2.  A  bandage which was putover the nose: so called
l'> om its likeness to the claw of a hawk, or from the
tightness of its grasp.
  ACCIPITRI'NA. (From accipiter, the hawk.) The
herb hawk-weed ■  which Pliny says was so called be-
cause hawks are used to scratch it, and apply the juice
10 their eyes to prevent blindness.
  ACCLl'VIS.  A muscle of the belly, so named from
the oblique ascent of its fibres.  See Obliquus interims
abdominis.
  Accouchement.   The French  word for  the  act of
delivery.
  Accoucheur. The French for a midwife.
  ACCRET10. (From  ad, and eresco,  to  increase.)
Accretion.
1.  Nutrition; growth.
2.  The growing toceth
  2. The growing together of parts naturally separate
as the fingers or toes.
  Accuba'tio.  (From  accumbo,  to recline.)  Child-
bed ; reclining.
  Acedia. (From a, priv. and Kti&os, care.)  Carcless-
     14
 ness, neglect in the application of medicines.  Hippo-
 crates sometimes uses this word, in his treatise on th«
 glands, to signify fatigue or trouble.
  ACE PHALUS.  (Acephalus, i. m. aictibaXoc; from
 a, priv. and KapaXn,  a  head.)  Without a head.   A
 term applied to a lusus natural, or monster, born with-
 out a head.
  [This term is also applied by modern naturalists  to
 a certain portion of the gelatinous or soft bodied ani-
 mals, which were formerly classed among the Vermes
 of Linnams.  They are now termed Acephalous Mol
 lusca, or headless mollusca, having  no distinct pan
 corresponding to the head of other animals.  A.]
  A'CER.  (Acer, erit. neut.; from acer, sharp: be-
 cause of the sharpness of its juice.)   The name of a
 genus of plants in the Linnxan system.  Class Poly gar
 mia; Order, Monacia.
  Acer campestre.  The common maple.  This tree
yields a sweetish, soft, milky sap, which contains a salt
with basis of lime, possessed,  according to Sherer,  of
 peculiar properties.  It is white, semitransparent, not
 altered by the air, and soluble in one hundred parts  of
cold, or fifty of boiling water.
  Acer pseudoplatanus.   The  maple-tree, falsely
 named sycamore.  It is  also called Platanus traga.
This tree is common in England, though not much used
 hi medicine.  The juice, if drank  while fresh, is said
to be a good antiscorbutic.  All its parts contain a sac-
charine fluid ; and if the root or branches be wounded
in the spring, a large quantity of liquor is discharged,
which, when inspissated, yields a brown sort of sugar
and syrup like molasses.
  Acer saccharimm.  The sugar maple-tree. Large
quantities of sugar are obtained from litis tree in New
 England and Canada, which is much used in France,
where it is commonly known by the name of Saccha-
rum Canadense or  Saccharum Acernum, maple sugar.
 It has been supposed that all Europe might be supplied
 from  the maple  of America, which grows in great
 quantities in Ihe western  counties of all the middle
 States of the American Union.  It is as tall as the oak,
 and from two to three feet in diameter; puts  forth  a
 white blossom in the spring, before any appearance of
 leaves;  its small brandies afford sustenance for cattle,
 and its  ashes afford a large quantity of excellent pot-
 ash.  Twenty years are required for it to attain its full
 growth.  Tapping does not iiuure it;  but, on  the con-
 trary, it affords more syrup, and of a better quality, the
 oftener it is tapped. A single tree has not only survived.
 but flourished, after tapping, for forty years.  Five or
 six  pounds of sugar are usually afforded by the sap of
 one tree; though there are instances of the quantity
 exceeding twenty pounds. The sugar is separated from
 the sap either by  free-zing, by spontaneous evaporation.
 or by boiling.  The latter method  is the most used.
 Dr. Rush describes the process; which is  simple and
 practised without any difficulty by the fanners.  '
  From  frequent trials of this sugar, it does not appear
 to be in any respect inferior to that of the West Indies
 It is prepared at a time of the year when neither insect
 nor the pollen of plants, exists to vitiate it, as is the
 case with common sugar.  From calculations grounded
 on facts, it is ascertained, that America is now capa-
 ble  of producing a surplus of one-eighth more than its
 own consumption.
  [The  Acer Saccharinum,  or  sugar-maple  tree
 abounds  in the state of New-York and  many other
 parts of the United  States.  It furnishes a great amount
 of rough sugar in the interior of the country and the
 new settlements, where foreign and refined sugars are
 but little used.   Very  little effort has heretofore been
 made to introduce it into market as an article of com-
 merce.  But  in  1828  several  hundred barrels of this
 sugar, from  the  Territory of Michigan, reacned Hip
 city of New-York by wa'y of the gW Western £
 nal.  It was sold at auction for six cents per  pound •
 and when refined and converted into loaf  sugar?  aV
 ford^a reasonable profit to U»e refiner.  A.]
 nf th„  a       Jlccras-  A 8a,t  formed  °* tBe acid
 metallic ba%.Cami,"(reWUh an alkalme'  earlhy. °'
  ACE'RATOS    From a, neg. and utoau. or KCaav
 wuit, to mix.)  Unmixed; uncorrupted. This term  i,
 applied sometimes to the humours  of the body by Hid
 iwerates  Paulus jEgineta mentions a plaster of this

  ACERB.  (Acerbus  from acer sharp.-,  a specie* 
ACE
ACE
ut taste which consists in a degree of acidity, with an  present practised in Paris.  The wine destined foi
addition of roughness; properties common lo many
immature fruits.
  Ace rbitas   Acerbness.
  ACERIC ACID.  A peculiar acid, said to exist in
the juice of the common maple, Acer  campeslre of
Linnxus.  It is decomposed by heat, like the oilier
vegetable acids.
  ACE RIDES   (From a, priv. and «pd>, wax.) Soft
plasters, made without wax.
  ACEROSI.'S.  (From ncus, a needle.)  1. Acerose:
having the shape of a needle. Applied to leaves which
are so  shaped, as in Pinus sylvestris and Juniperus
communis.
  2. (From  acus, chaff.)   Chaffy: aoplied to coarse
bread &c.
  ACESCENT.  (Accsccns; from acco, to be sour or
vinegar is mixed  in  a large tun with a quantity ol
wine lees, and the  whole being transferred into cloth-
sacks, placed within a large iron-bound vat, the liquid
matter is extruded  through the sacks by superincum-
bent pressure.   What passes through is put into large
casks,  set upright,  having a  small aperture in  their
top.  In these it is exposed to the heat of the sun in
summer, or to that of a stove in winter.  Ferments
tion supervenes in  a few days. If the heat should the:1
rise too high, it is lowered  by cool air and the addition
of fresh witie.   In the skilful regulation of the fermen-
tative  temperature consists the art of making good
wine vinegar.  In  summer the  process is generally
completed in a fortnight. in winter, double 'he time is
requisite.  The vinegar is then  run off into barrels.
whicli contain several chips of birch -vend.  In about
tart)   Turning sour or acid.  Substances which rca- i a fortnight it is found to be clarified, and is then fit lot
 dily nut into the acid fermentation, are so said to be
 as some vegetable  and animal juices and infusions.
 The suddenness with which  this change  is effected,
 during  a thunder-storm, even in corked  bottles, has
 ni-l been accounted for.  In some morbid slates of the
 stomach, also, il proceeds with astonishing rapidity.
  ACE ST A.  (From antopai, to cure.)  Distempers
 which are easily cured.
  Ace'stis.  Borax.
  ACETABULUM.  (Acetabulum, i.  n.; from  ace-
 tarn, vinegar: so called because il resembles the ace-
 tabulum, or old saucer in which vinegar was held for
 the use of the table.)  A name given by Latin writers
 to the  cup-like cavity of the os innominatum, which
 receives the head of "the thigh-bone.  See  Innomina-
 tum os.
  ACETA'RIUM.   (From aceticm, vinegar: because
 it is mostly made with vinegar.)   A sallad or pickle.
  ACETAS.  (Acetas, tis ; f. from acetum, vinegar.)
 An acetate   A salt formed by the union of the acetic
 acid, with a salifiable base.  Those used in medicine
 are the acetates of ammonia, lead, potassa, and zinc.
  Acetas  ammonia.  Acetate  of ammonia.   See
 Ammonia atetatis liquor.
  Acetas plumci.   Acetate of lead.   See  Plumbi
 acetas and Plumbi acetatis liquor.
   Acetas potass*. Acetate of potassa. See Potassa
 acetas.
   Acetas zinci.  A metallic salt composed of zinc
 and acetic acid.  It is used by some  as  an astringent
 against inflammation of the eyes,  urethra, and vagina,
 diluted in the same proportion as the sulphate of zinc.
  Acetate.  See Acetas.
  Acetate  of  Ammonia,   See  Ammonia  acetatis
 liquor.
  Acetate of Potassa.  See Potassa acetas.
  Acetate of Zinc.   See Acetas unci.
  Aectated vegetable Aicali.  See Potassa acetas.
  Acetaled volatile  Aicali.   See  Ammonia  acetatis
 liquor.
  ACETIC ACID. Acidum aceticum.  The same acid
 which, in a very dilute and somewnat  impure state,
 is called vinegar.  Acetic acid is found combined with
 potassa in the juices ,f a great many plants;  particu-
 larly the  Hambucus vigra,  Phaniz dactilifera, (ia-
 lium  vcrum, and  Rhus typhinus.   "Sweat, urine,
 and even  fresh milk, contain it.   It  is frequently ge-
 nerated in the stomachs of dyspeptic patients.  Almost
 all dry vegetable substances,  and some animal, sub-
 jected in close vessels to a red heat, yield it copiously.
 It is the result likewise of a spontaneous fermentation,
 to whicli  liquid vegetable and animal matters  are
 liable.   Strong acids, as the sulphuric and  nitric, de- ,
 velope the acetic by their action on vegetables.  It was I
 long supposed, on the authority of Boerhaave, that the
 fermentation which  forms vinegar is uniformly pre-
 ceded  by the vinous.  This  is a mistake: cabbages
 sour in water,  making sour crout; starch, in starch-
 makers' sour waters; and dough  itself, without any
 previous production of wine.
  " The varieties of  acetic acid known in commerce
are four:  1. Wine vinegar. 2. Malt vinegar.  3. Sugar
vinegar.  4. Wood vinegar.
  ' We shall describe first the mode of making these
commercial  articles,  and then that of extracting the
absolute acetic acid of the chemist, either from these
vin:gais,  or  directly from chemical compounds, of
wfifch it is a constituent.
  " The following  is the plan of making  vinegar at
 the market.  It must be kept in close casks.
   " The manufacturers at Orleans  prefer wine of a
 year old for making vinegar.   But if by age the wine
 has lost its extractive  matter, it does not readily un-
 dergo the acetous fermentation. In  this case, acetifl-
 cation, as the French term tlie process,  may be deter-
 »niied  by adding slips of vines, bunches of grapes, or
 ..teen woods.
   " Almost nil the vinegar of the north of France being
 prepared at Orleans, the manufactory of that place li im
 acquired such celebrity, as  to render their  process
 worthy oi  3 separate consideration.  The Orleans'
 casks contain neai'.y 400 pints of wine.  Those whic fi
 have been already  user, ire  preferred.   The.,  '■'«
 placed  .n three rows, one over another, and in ihe toj,
 have an aperture of two inches' diameter, kept alwa,
 open.   The wine for acetification is kept in adjoinmj;
 casks, containing beech shavings,  lo which  the  lee*
 adhere. The wine, thus clarified,  is  drawn off to
 make vinegar.  One  hundred  pints  of  goou  vinegar
 boiling hot, are  first poured into each cask,  and left
 there for eight days.  Ten pints of wine are mixed in,
 every eight days, till  the vessels are full.  The vinegai
 is allowed to remain in this state fifteen days before it
 is exposed to sale.
   " The used casks, called mothers, are never emptied
 more than  half, but are successively filled again, to
 acetifv  new portions of wine.   In order to judge if tht
 mother  works, the vinegar-makers plunge a spatula
 into the liquid ; and according to the quantity of frotn
 which the spatula shows, they add more or less wine.
 In  summer, the atmospheric  heal  is sufficient.   In
 winter, stoves heated to  about 75° Fahr. maintain the
 requisite temperature in the manufactory.
  " In  some country districts,  the people keep, in a
 place where the  temperature  is mild and equable, a
 vinegar cask, into which they pour such wine as tiny
 wish to acetify ; and it  is always preserved full by
 replacing the vinegar  drawn  off, by  new wine.  To
 establish this househo'd manufacture, it is only neces-
 sary to  buy at first a small cask of good vinegar.
  " At Galid, a vinegar from beer  is  made, in which
 the  following proportions of grain are found  to h*
 most advantageous —
            1880 Paris lbs. malted barley.
             700      —         wheat.
             500      —         buckwheat.
 These  grains are ground, mixed, and  boiled, along
 with twenty-seven casks full of river water, for three
 hours.   Eighteen casks of good beer  for vinegar  are
 obtained. 'By a subsequent decoction, more fermenta-
 ble liquid  is  extracted,  whicli is  mixed  with  thn
 former.  The whole brewing yields 3000 English quart*.
  •' In  this  country, vinegar is usually made f'lvrj
 malt.  By mashing with hot water, 100 gallons of warf-
 are extracted in  less than two hours from 1  boll ol
 malt  When the liquor has fallen to the temperature
of 75° Fahr. 4 gallons of the barm of beer are added.
 After thirty-six hours it is racked off'into casks, winch
are laid on  their  sides, and exposed, with their bung
holes loosely covered, to the influence of the  sun iu
summer;  but in winter they are arranged in a stove-
room.   In three months this vinegar  is ready for the
manufacture of sugar of lead.  To inak* vinegar  for
domestic use, however, the process is somewhat dif
ferent.   The above liquor  i3  racked off into casks
placed   upright, having a false cover, pierced with
holes fixed at about a foot from their bottom.  O.-i this
a considerable quantity of rape, or the refuse from th» 
ACE
ACx-
 rfiakers ot British wine, or otherwise a quantity of low-
 priced raisins, is laid.   The liquor is turned into ano-
 ther barrel every twenty-four hours. In which time it
 has begun  to grow warm.  Sometimes,  inueea, the
 vinegar is ful';- fermented, as above, without the rape,
 which is added towards  the  end, to  communicate
 flavour.   Two  large casks are in this case worked
 together, as is described  long  ago by Boerhaave, as
 follows:
   " ' Take two large wooden vats or hogsheads; and
 In each of these, place a wooden grate  or hurdle, at
 the distance of a foot from the bottom.   Set the vessel
 upright;  and on the  grate, place  a moderately close
 layer of green twigs,  or  fresh cuttings of the  vine.
 Then  fill up the vessel with the footstalks of grapes,
 commonly called the  rape, to the top of the vessel,
 which must be left quite open.
   "'Having thus prepared  the two vessels, pour into
 them the wine to be converted  into vinegar, so as to
 fill one of them  quite up, and the other but half-full.
 Leave them thus for twenty-four hours, and then fill
 up the half-filled vessel with liquor from that which is
 quite full, and which will  now in its turn only be left
 half-full.  Four-atid-fwenty hours afterwards, repeat
 the same operation; and thus go on, keeping the ves-
 sels alternately full and half-full during twenty-four
 hours,  till the vinegar  be made.  On  the second or
 third day, there  will arise  in the  half-filled vessel  a
 fermentative motion,  accompanied  with a  sensible
 heat, which  will gradually increase from day to day.
 On the contrary, the fermenting motion  is almost im-
 perceptible in  the  full  vessel; and  as the two vessels
are alternately full and  half-full, the fermentation is by
 this means in some  measure interrupted, and is only
renewed every other day in each vessel.
  "' When  this  motion  appears  to  have entirely
ceased, even in the half-filled vessel, it is a sign that
the fermentation is finished; and therefore the vinegar
is then to be put into casks close stopped, and kept in
a cool place.
  "l A greater or less degree of  warmth accelerates or
checks this, as well as the spirituous fermentation.  In
France, it is finished in about fifteen days, during the
Bummer;  but if the heat of the air be very great, and
exceed the twenty-fifth degree of Reaumur's thermo-
meter  (88 1-4" Fahr.)  the  half-filled  vessel must be
filled up every twelve hours; because, if the fermenta-
tion be not so checked  in  that time,  it will become
violent, and the liquor will be so heated, that many of
the spirituous parts, on which the strength of the vine-
gar depends, will be dissipated, so  that nothing will
remain after the fermentation but a vapid liquor, sour
indeed, hut effete.  The better to prevent the dissipa-
tion of the spirituous parts, it is a proper and usual pre-
caution to close  the mouth of the half-filled vessel in
 which the liquor ferments, with a cover  made of oak
 wood.  As to the full vessel, it is always left  open,
 that the air  may act freely on the liquor it contains :
 for it is not liable to the same inconveniences, because
 it ferments but very slowly.'
  " Good  vinegar  may be made from a weak syrup,
 consisting of 18 oz. of sugar to every gallon of water.
 The yeast and  rape  are  to be here used  as  above
 described.  Whenever the vinegar (from the taste and
 flavour) is considered  to be complete, it ought to be
 decanted into tight barrels or bottles, and well secured
 from access of air.  A momentary ebullition before it
 is bottled is found favourable to  its preservation.  In  a
 large manufactory of  malt vinegar,  a considerable
 revenue is derived from the sale of yeast to the bakers.
   "Vinegar obtained  by the preceding methods has
 more or  less of  a brown colour, and a peculiar but
 rather grateful smell.   By distillation  in  glass vessels
 the colouring matter, which resides in a mucilage, is
 .irparated, but the fragrant odour is generally replaced
 by an empyreumatic one.  The best French wine vine-
 gars, and also some from malt, contain a little alcohol,
 which comes over early with  the  watery part, and
 renders the  first product of distillation scarcely denser,
 sometimes even less dense, than water.   It is accord-
 ingly rejected.  Towards the end of the distillation
 the empyremna increases.  Hence only the interme-
 diate  portions are retained as  distilled vinegar.  Its
 specific gravity vari'ts  from 1.005 lo 1.015, while that
 Of common vinegnr of equal strength varies from l.OiO
 .0 l.lrir
   " A crude vinegai  has been long pr«pared for the
       16
 calico printers, by subjecting wood in iron retorts to a
 Strong red  heat."
  " The acetic acid of the chemist may be prepared in
 the following modes; 1st. Two paiisol mseu actuate
 of potassa with one of the strongest oil of vitriol yield,
 by slow distillation from a glass retort  into a refrige-
 rated  receiver, concentrated acetic acid.  A  small
 portion of sulphurous  acid, which contaminates it,
 may be removed by re-distillation, from a  little acetate
 of lead.  2d.  Or four pans of good sugar of lead, with
 one part of sulphuric acid treated in  the same w;iy,
 afford a slightly weaker acetic acid. 3d. Gently cal
 cined  sulphate of iron, or  green vitriol, mixed *.tl»
 sugar of lead  in the proportion  of 1 of the former tc
 2 1-2 of the latter,  and carefully distilled from a porce
 lain  retort into a  cooled receiver, may be also consi
 dered a good economical process.  Or without distilla
 lion,  if 100  parts of well-dried  acetate  of lime be
 cautiously  added to 00 parts of strong sulphuric acid,
 diluted with  5 parts of water, and digested  for 24
 hours, and strained, a good acetic acid, sufficiently
 strong for  every ordinary purpose, will be obtained.
  " The distillation of acetate  of copper, or of lead
per se,  has also been employed  for obtaining  strong
 acid.   Here,  however; the  product  is mixed with  a
 portion of  the fragrant  pyro-acetic spirit, which  it is
 troublesome to get rid of.  Undoubtedly the best pro-
 cess for the strong  acid  is that first described, and  the
 cheapest the second or third.  When of the utmost
 possible strength its sp. gravity is  1.062.   At the tem-
 perature of 50a F.  it assumes the solid  £  rm, crystal-
 lizing in oblong rhomboidal plates. It has an extremely
 pungent odour, affecting the nostrils and eyes even
 painfully, when its vapour is incautiously snuffed up.
 Its taste is eminently acid and acrid.  It excoriates and
 inflames the skin.
  - The purified  wood vinegar,  which  is  used  for
 pickles and culinary purposes, has commonly a specific
gravity of about 1.00!);  when it is equivalent in acid
strength to good  wine  or  malt vinegar of 1.014.  It
contains about 1-20 of its  weight of absolute  acetic
 acid, and 19-20 of water.  But the vinegar of fermenta-
 tion=1.014 will become only 1.023  in  acetate,  from
 which, if 0.005 be subtracted for mucilage or extractive,
 the remainder will  agree  with the density of the
 acetate from wood.  A glass hydrometer of Fahren-
 heit's construction is used for finding the  specific gra-
 vities. Itconsistsof a globe of about 3 inches' diameter,
 having a little ballast ball drawn out beneath, and a
stem above of about 3 inches long, containing a slip of
 paper with a transverse line in the middle, and sur-
 mounted with a little cup  for  receiving  weights or
poises.  The  experiments on which this  instrument,
called an Acetometer, is constructed, have been detailed
in the sixth volume of the Journal of Science."
  " An acetic acid of very considerable strength may
also  be prepared  by saturating  perfectly dry  char
coal  with common vinegar, and then distilling.  The
water easily comes off, and  is separated at first; but
a stronger  heat is required  to  expel   the acid.  Or
by exposing vinegar  to  very  cold  air,  or to freezing
mixtures,  its water  separates in the state of ice, the
interstices of which  are occupied by a strong  acetic
acid, which may be procured by draining.   The acetic
acM, or radical vinegar of the apothecaries, in which
they dissolve a little camphor, or fragrant essential oil,
 has a specific gravity of about 1.070.  It contains fully
 1 part of  water to 2 of the crystallized  acid.  The
 pungent smelling  salt consists of sulphate of potash
 moistened with that acid.
  " Acetic  acid acts on tin, iron,  zinc, copper,  and
 nickel; and it combines readily with  the oxydes of
 many other metals, by mixing a solution of their sul-
 phates with that of an acetate of lead."
  " Acetic  acid dissolves resins, g-um-resir.s, camphct,
 and essential oils."
  " Acetic  acid and common vinegar are sometimes
 fraudulently  mixed with sulphuric acid to give  them
 strength.  This adulteration  may be detected by the
 addition of a little chalk, short  of  their saturation.
 With pure vinegar the calcareous base forms a limpid
 solution, but  with sulphuric acid a white insoluble
 gypsum.  Muriate of barytes is a still nicer test.   Bri-
 tish fermented vinegars  are allowed  by law to contain
 a little sulphuric acid, but  the  quantity is frequently
 exceeded.  Copper is discovered in vinegars by super-
 saturating  them with  ammonia, when  a fine blui 
ACE
ACE
iolour is produced;  and  lead  by sulphate of soda,
hydrosulphurets,  sulphuretted  hydrogen, and  gallic
acid.  .None of these should produce any change  on
genuine vinegar."  See Lead.
  " Salts consisting of the several  bases, united in
definite proportions to acetic acid, are called acetates.
They are characterized by the pungent smell of vine-
gar, which they exhale on the affusion  of sulphuric
acid ; and by their yielding on distillation in a mode-
rate  red heat a very light, odorous,  and combustible
liquid called pyro-acetate (spirit) ; wluch see.  They
lire all soluble in water; many of them so much so as
to be  uncrystallizable.  About  30 different acetates
have been formed,  of  which  only  a very few have
Deen applied to the uses of life.
  " The  acetic acid  unites with all the alkalies and
most  of the  earths; and with these bases it  forms
compounds, some of which are crystallizable, and
others have  not  yet been  reduced to a  regularity of
figure   The salts it forms  are distinguished  by their
great solubility;  their decomposition by fire, whicli
carbonizes them; the spontaneous alteration of their
solution ; and their decomposition by a great number
of acids, which extricate from them the acetic acid in
a concentrated state.  It unites likewise with  most of
the metallic oxides.
  " With barytcs the saline miss formed  by the  acetic
acid  does not crystallize;  but, when evaporated to
dryness, it deliquesces by exposure to air. This mass
is nut decomposed by acid of arsenic.  By spontaneous
evaporation, however, it will crystallize in fine trans-
parent p.-isuratic  needlos,  of  a  bitterish acid  taste,
which do not deliquesce when exposed to the air, but
rather cinorescc.
   ' With potassa this acid unites, and forms a deli-
quescent salt  scarcely crystallizable, called formerly
foliated earth of tartar, and regenerated tartar.  The
solution of this salt, even in closely stopped vessels, is
spontaneously decomposed: itdepositesathick, mucous,
tiocculent sediment, at first gray, and at length black;
till at the end  of a few montlis nothing remains in  the
liquor but carbonate of  potassa, rendered impure by a
little coaly oil.
  " With soda it forms a crystallizable salt,  which
does not deliquesce. This salt  has very improperly
Deen called mineral foliated earth.   According  lo  the
cew nomenclature, it is acetate of soda.
   1 The salt formed by dissolving chalk or other calca-
reous earth in distilled vinegar, formerly called  salt
of chalk, or  fired vegetable sal ammoniac,  and  by
dcrgman calx acetala, has a sharp bitter txste, appears
in the form of crystals  resembling somewhat ears of
:orn, which  remain  dry  when  exposed to  the  air,
unless the acid has been superabundant, in which case
Jisy deliquesce."
  Of the acetate of strontian little is known, but that
it  has a sweet taste, is  very  soluble, and is  easily
decomposed by a strong heat
  '-' The salt formed by uniting vinegar with ammonli,
;alled  by the  various names of spirit of Jlindcrarus,
liquid  sal  ammoniac, acetous sal ammoniac, and by
Bergman alkali volatile acctalum, is generally in a
liquid stale, and is commonly believed  not to be crys-
tallizable, as in distillation  it passes entirely over into
the receiver.   It nevertheless may be reduced into  the
form of small  needle-shaped crystals, when this  liquor
is evaporated to the consistence of a syrup."
  " With magnesia the acetic acid unites, and after a
perfect saturation, forms a  viscid saline  mass,  like a
solution  of gum-arabic, which  does not shoot into
crystals, but remains deliquescent, lias a taste sweet-
ish at first, and  afterwards bitter, and  is soluble in
spirit of wine.  The acid of this saline  mas3 may be
separated by distillation without addition.
  ,: Olucine is readily dissolved  by acetic acid.  This
solution, Vauquelin  informs us, does not crystallize;
but is  reduced by evaporation to a gummy substance,
which slowly becomes dry and brittle; retaining a
Kind of ductility for a long time.  It  has a saccharine
and pretty strongly astringent taste, in  which that of
vinegar, however, is distinguishable.
  " Yttria dissolves readily in acetic acid, and the solu-
tion yields by evaporation crystals of acetate of yttria."
  '' Alumine, obtained by boiling alum with alkali, and
•duicorated  by digesting in an  alkaline lixivium, is
Jissolved by distilled vinegar in  a very inconsiderable
quantity "
   " Acetate  of  zircone  may he formed  by pouring
 acetic uctd on newly precipitated zircone.  It has an
 astrin/cnt taste."
   " Vinegar dissolves the true gums, and  partly th<?
 gum-resins, by means of digestion.
   " Eocrhaavc observes, that vinegar by long boiling
 dissolves the flesh, cartilages, bones, and ligaments of
 animals."— Ure's Chemical Viclionary.
   Moderately rectified pyrolignous acid has been re-
 commended for  the  preservation of animal  food ;  but
 the empyreumatic taint it communicates to bodies im-
 mersed in it, is not quite  removed by their subsequent
 ebullition in water.  See Acid, Pyrolignous.
   The utility of vinegar as a condiment for preserving
 and seasoning both animal  and vegetable substance*
 in various articles of food is very generally known.  Il
 affords an agreeable  beverage, when combined with
 wntqr in  the proportion of a  table-spoonful of the
 former to half a pint of the latter.  It is often employed
 as a  medicine in Inflammatory and  putrid  diseases.
 when more active remedies cannot be procured.   Re-
 lief has likewise been obtained in hypochondriacal and
 hysteric affections, in vomiting, fainting, and hiccough,
 by the application of vinegar to the mouth.  If this
 fluid be poured into  vessels and  placed over the gentle
 heat  of a. lamp in the apartments of the sick, it greatly
 contributes to disperse foul or mephitic vapours, and
 consequently to purify the  air.   Its anticontagious
 powers are now little trusted to, but its odour is em-
 ployed to relieve nervous headache, fainting  fits, or
 sickness occasioned  by crowded rooms.
   As an  external application, vinegar  proves  highly
 efficacious when joined  with farinaceous substances,
 and applied as a cataplasm to sprained joints;  it also
 forms an eligible lotion for inflammations of the sur
 face, when mixed with  alcohol and water in about
 equal proportions.   Applied  to  burns  and scalds, it is
 said  to be highly serviceable whether there is a loss of
 substance or not, and to quicken the exfoliation of ca-
 rious bone.  (Gloucester Infirmary.)  Mixed with an
 infusion of sage, or with water, it forms a popular and
 excellent gargle for an inflamed throat, also for an in-
 jection to moderate  the fluor albus.  Applied cold to
 the nose in cases of haemorrhage, also to the loins and
 abdomen in  monorrhagia,  particularly after parturi-
 tion, it is said to be very serviceable.  An imprudent
 use of vinegar  internally is  not without  considerable
 inconveniences.  Large and frequent doses injure the
 stomach,  coagulate  the chyle, and produce not  only
 leanness, but an atrophy. When  taken  to excess by
 females, to reduce a corpulent habit, tubercles in the
 lungs and a consumption have been the consequence.
   ["  When any of the vinous liquors  are exposed to
 the free access of atmospheric air, at a temperature ol
| 80 to 85  degrees, they undergo a second fermentation,
j terminating in the production of a  sour liquid, called
] vinegar.   During this process a portion of the oxygen
j of the ;iir b converted into carbonic acid ; hence, un-
 like  vi:ious fermentation, the contact  of the atmos-
 phere is necessary, and the most obvious phenomenon
 is the removal of carbon from the beer or wine.   Vi-
 negar is  usually obtained from malt liquor or cider,
 while wine is employed as its source in those countries
 where the grape is abundantly cultivated.— Webster's
 Manuel of Chemistry.
   Vinegar for ordinary use  may also be made from
 sugar, molasses*, raisins, or other fruits, or from the re-
 fuse of fruits, as follows:
   " Take the skins of raisins after they have  been
 used in making wine, and pour three times  their own
 quantity of water upon them;  stir them well about,
 and then set the cask  in a warm place, also covered,
 and  the  liquor in a few weeks' time will  become a
 sound vinegar, which  drawn off from its sediments.
 put into another cask, and well bunged down, will
 be a good vinegar for  the table."—Bcastall's Useful
 Guide.   A.]
   ACETIFICATION    (Acctificatio;  from  acctum,
 vinegar,  and fio, to make.)   The action or  operation
 by which vineear is made.
   ACETOMETKR.  An instrument for estimating
 the strength of vinegars.  See Acetic Acid.
   ACETO'SA.  (From accsco, to be sour.)  Sorrel.  A
 genus of plants in some systems of botany. See Pumex.
   ACETOSE'LLA.  (From acctosa, sorrel: so called
 from the acidity of its  leaves.)   Wood-sorrel.   See
 Oxalis arcJ.osella. 
ACH
ACH
  ACETOUS.   (Acctosus;  from acetvu. /Inegar.)
 Of or belonging to vinegar.
  Acetous Acid.  See Acetum
  Acetous Fermentation.  See Fermentation.
  ACE'TUM.  (Acetum, i. n.; from acer, sour.)  Vi-
 negar.  A sour liquor obtained from  many vegetable
 Bubstances dissolved  in boiling water, and from fer-
 mented and  spirituous  liquors, by exposing them to
 heat and contact with air; under which circumstances
 they  undergo the acid  fermentation,  and afford the
 iiquor called vinegar.  Common vinegar consists of
 acetic acid combined with a large portion of water, and
 with this are in solution  portions of gluten, mucilage,
 sugar, and extractive matter, from which it derives its
 colour, and frequently some of the vegetable acids, par-
 ticularly the malic and the tartaric.  See Acetic Acid.
  Acetum aromaticcm.  Aromatic vinegar.  A pre-
 paration of the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia, thought to
 be an improvement of what has been named thieves'
 vinegar.
  Take of the dried tops  of rosemary, the dried leaves
 of sage, 0*" each four ounces ;  dried lavender flowers,
 two ounces;  cloves, two drachms; distilled vinegar,
 eight pounds.   Macerate for seven days, and strain the
expressed juice through paper.   Its virtues are  anti-
septic, and it  is a useful composition  to  smell  at in
crowded courts of justice, hospitals; &c. where the air
is offensive.
  Acetum  colchici.    Vinegar of meadow-saffron.
Take of fresh meadow-saft'ron root sliced, an ounce ;
acetic acid, a pint; proof spirit, a fluid ounce.  Mace-
rate the meadow-saffron root in the acid,  in a covered
glass vessel, for three days; then press out the liquor
and set it by, that the feculencies may subside; lastly,
add the spirit  to the clear liquor.  The dose is from
 3 ss to 3 iss.
  Acetum  distillatum. See  Acidum  acclicum di-
lutum.
  Acetum scill/e.   Vinegar of squills.   Take of
squills recently dried, one pound; dilute  acetic  acid,
six pints;  proof spirit,  half  a pint.  Macerate the
squills with the vinegar in a glass vessel, with a gentle
heat for twenty-four hours; then  express the liquor and
set it aside until the faeces subside.  To the decanted
liquor add the  spirit.  This preparation  of squills  is
employed as an attenuant, expectorant, and diuretic.
Dose, xv. to lx. drops.
  A'CHEIR.  (From a, neg. and xtrp, hand.)  With-
out hands.
  Aciu'colum.   By  this word Caelius  Aurelianus,
 Acut. lib. iii. cap. n, expresses the sudatorium of the
ancient baths, which was a hot room where they used
 to sweat.
  ACHILLE'A.    (Achillea, a, f.   Ax'M«a:  from
 Achilles, who is said to have made his tents with it,
or to have cured Telephus with  it.)  1. The name of
 a genus of plants in the Linnaean system.  Class Syn-
gencsia; Order, Polygamia superflua.
  2. The  pharmaceutical name of the milfoil.   See
 Achillea millefolium.
  Achillea ageratum. Maudlin, or maudlin tansy.
 P.alsainiia famina; Eupatorium Mcsues   This plant,
 the ageratum of the shops, is described by Linnaeus as
 Achillea :—foliis lanccolatis,  obtusis, acutoscrratis.
 it is esteemed in some countries as anthelminthic avd
 alterative, and  is given  in hepatic obstructions.  It
 possesses the virtues of tansy.
  Achillea millefolium.  The systematic name of
 the common yarrow, or milfoil.  Achillea; Myriophyl-
 lon; Chiliophyllon; Lumbus veneris; Militaris herba;
 Stratiotes;  Carpentaria; Speculum  veneris.   The
 leaves and flowers of this Indigenous plant, Achillea—
 foliis bipinnatis nudis; laciniis linearibus dentatis;
 caulibus superne sulcatis of Linnaeus, have an agree-
 able, weak, aromatic smell,and a bitterish, rough, and
 somewhat pungent taste. They are both  directed for
 medicinal use in the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia; in the
 present practice, however, they are almost wholly ne-
 glected.
  Achillea ptarmica.   The systematic name of the
 Bneeze-wort,  or bastard  pellitory.  I'scudopyrcthrum;
 Vyrethrum sylvestre; Draco sylvestris; Tarchon syl-
 vestris ; Sternutamentoria ;  Dricunculus prutensis.
 The flowers  and roots  of this plant, Achillea—foliis
 anceolatis, aeuminatis, argute  serratis,  have  a hot
 biting taste, approaching to that of pyreihrum, with
 which they also agree in their pharmaceutical proper-
      18
ties.  Their principal me is as a m tsticatory and sler
nutatorv.
  Achillea foliis pivnatis.  See Genipi vcrum.
  ACHI'LLES.  The son of Peleus and Thetis, ona
of the most celebrate:! Grecian heroes.  A tendon is
named after him, and  also a plant with which he is
said to have cured Telephus.
  Aciullis texdo.  The tendon of the gastrocnemil
muscles.  So called, because, as fable reports, Thetis,
the mother of Achilles, held him by that part when she
dipped him in the river Styx, to make  him  invulne-
rable.  Homer describes this tendon, and some writers
suppose it was thus named by the ancients, from their
custom of calling every thing  Achillean, that had any
extraordinary strength or virtue.  Others say it  was
named from its action in conducing to  swiftneas of
pace, the term importing so much.  The tendon of
Achilles is the strong and powerful tendon of the  heel
which is formed by tiie junction of the gastrocnemius
and soleus muscles, and which extends along  the  pos-
terior part of the tibia from the  calf to the heel.  Soe
Gastrocnemius externus, and Gastrocnemius intemus.
  When this tendon is unfortunately cut or  ruptured,
as it may be in consequence of  a violent  exertion, oi
spasm of the muscles of which it is a continuation, the
use of the leg is immediately lost, and unless  the  part
be afterwards successfully united, the patient must re-
main  a cripple for life.   When the tendon  has been
cut, the division of the skin allows the accident to be
seen.  When the tendon  has been ruptured, the  pa-
tient hears the sound like  that of the smack of a whip,
at the moment of the occurrence.  In whatever way
the tendon has been divided, there is a sudden inca-
pacity, or at least an extreme difficulty, either of stand
ing or  walking.  Hence  the patient falls down, mid
cannot get up again.  Besides these symptoms there is
a very palpable depression between the ends of  the
tendon; which depression is increased when the foot is
bent, and diminished, or even quite removed when the
foot is extended.  The patient can spontaneously bend
his foot, none of the flexor muscles being interested.
The power of extending the foot is still possible, as the
peronei muscles, the tibialis postfcus, and long flexors,
remain  perfect, and may perform this  motion.   The
indications are  to bring the ends of the  divided  parts
together, and to keep them so, until they have become
firmly united.    The first object is easily fulfilled by
putting the foot in a state of complete extension ; tin
second, namely, that  of keeping the ends of the  te:i
don in contact, is more difficult  It seems  unncces
sary to  enumerate the various plans devised  lo ac
complish these ends.  The following  is Desault's me
thod: After the ends of the tendon had been hrougli
into contact by moderate flection of the knee,  am
complete extension of the foot, he used to fill up tin
hollows on each side of the tendon with soft lint  ant
compresses. The roller applied to the limb,  made as.
much pressure on these compresses as on the tendon,
and hence this part could not be depressed too much
against the adjacent parts.  Desault next took a com-
press about, two inches broad, and long enough to reach
from the toes to the middle of the thigh, and placed it
under the foot, over the back of the leg and lower  pan
of the thigh. He then began to apply a few circles of
a roller round the end of the foot, so as to fix the lowrr
extremity of the longitudinal compress;  after cover-
ing the whole foot with the roller, he used to make the
bandage describe the figure of 8, passing it under the
foot and across the place where  the tendon  was  rup
tured, and the  method was  finished bv encircling the
limb upward with the roller as far as the upper end of
the longitudinal compress.
  A'CHLYS.   (AXuj.)   Darkness; cloudiness.   An
obsolete term, generally applied to a close, foggy air
or a mist.                                         '
  1. Hippocrates, de Morbls Mulienim, lib. it signifies
by this word air, condensed air in the womb.
  2. Galen interprets it of those, who, during sickness,
lose that lustre and loveliuess observed about the pupil
ofthe eye in health.
  3. Others express it by  an ulcer on the pupil ofthe
eye, or the scar left there  by an ulcer.
  4. It means also an opacity of the cornea; thes&ru<
as the callgo cornea of Dr. (  ulten.
  ACHMK LLA.  See Spilanthus acmella.
  A'CHOI.US.  (From a. priv. and x°Mi bile.*   U"
ficient in bile. 
A.CI
ACI
  .VCTlOR.  (.Ichor, oris. in. axoip, qu. avymo; from'
tXvr>] Drau •  according lo Bltuichard it is derived from
a, priv. and x<*P<>St space, as occupying  but  a small
compass.)   Lactumcn ; Abas;  Aoares; Cerion; Fa-
vus ;  Crusta lactea of authors.  The scald-head ; so
called from  the branny scales thrown off it.   A dis-
ease which  attacks the  httiiy scalp of the head, for
the most part, of young children, forming soft and scaly
eruptions.  Dr. Willan, in his description of different
kinds of pustules, defines the achor, a pustule of inter-
mediate size between the phlyzacium and psydracium,
which contains a straw-coloured fluid, having the ap-
pr »rance and nearly the consistence of strained honey.
   Appeared most frequently about  the head, and  is
succeeded by a dull white or yellowish scab.  Pustules
of this kind, when so large as nearly to equal  the size
of phlyzacia, are termed ceria or favi, being succeeded
by a yellow semi-transparent, and sometimes cellular,
scab, 1-ke a  honeycomb.  The achor differs from the
favus *nd tinea only in the degree of virulence.  It is
called favus when the perforations are large; and tinea
wl'?n they are like those which  are made  by moths in
cloth; but generally by tinea is understood a dry scab on
the hairy scalp of children, with thick scales and an
offensive smell.  When this disorder affects the face,
■t is called crusta lactea or milk  scab.  Mr. Bell, in his
Treatise on Ulcers, reduces the tinea capitis and crusta
lactea to some  species of herpes, viz. the  herpes  pus-
tulosus, differing only in situation.
  ACHORISTOS.  Inseparable.  This term  was ap-
plied by  the ancients, to symptoms, or signs, which are
inseparable from  particular  things.   Thus, softness is
Inseparable from  humidity;  hardness from fragility;
and a pungent pain iu the side is an inseparable symp-
tom of a pleurisy.
  ACHRAS.  The name of a genus of plants in the
l.innxaa system.   Class, Hexandria;  Order, -i/uuo-
gyniu.   The sapota plum-tree.
  Achras sapota.  The systematic name of the tree
which affords the oval-fruited sapota, seeds of which
are sometimes given in the form of emulsion  in calcu-
lous complaints.  It is a native of South America, and
bears a fruit like an apple, which  has, when ripe, a
luscious taste, resembling that  of the  marmalade of
quinces, whence it is called natural marmalade.  The
bark of this, and  the Achras mammosa is very astrin-
gent, and is used medicinally under the name of Cor-
tex jamaicens is.
   ACHRErOX.   Useless.   Applied  by  Hippocrates
to the limbs which, through weakness, become useless.
  ACHROl'A.  A paleness.
  A'CHYRO.V.  Axypor-   This  properly  signifies
bran, or chaff, or straw.  Hippocrates, de Morbis
Mulicrum, most  probably means by this word, bran.
Achyron also signifies a  straw,  hair, or any tiling that
sticks upon a wall.
   A'CIA.   (From ann, a point.)  A  needle with thread
;n it for chirurgical operations.
  A'CICYS.  Weak, infirm, or faint. In this sense
it is used by Hippocrates, de Morb. lib. iv.
  ACID. (Acidum, i. n.)   1. That which impresses
upon the organs of taste a sharp or sour sensation. The
word sour, which  is usually employed to denote the
simple impression, or lively and sharp sensation pro-
 luced on the tongue by certain bodies, may be  regarded
as synonymous to the word acid.  The only difference(
which can be established between them,  is,  that the
one denotes a weak sensation, whereas the other com-
prehends all the degrees  of force, from the least per-
ceptible to  the greatest degree of causticity:  thus we
say  that verjuice, gooseberries, or  lemons, are sour;
out we use the word acid  to express the impression
which the nitric, sulphuric, or muriatic  acids make
upon the tongue.
  2. Acids are an  important class  of chemical com
pounds   In the generalization of facts presented  by
Lavoisier and the associated French chemists, it was
the leading doctrine that acids resulted from the union
of a peculiar combustible base called the radical, with
a common principle technically called  oxygen, or the
acidifier. This general position was founded chiefly
on the  phenomena exhibited  in  the formation and
decomposition of" sulphuric, carbonic, phosphoric, and
nitric acids  ; and was extended by a plausible analogy
to other acids, the radicals of which were unknown.
   " I have  already shown,"  says Lavoisier, " thai
phosphorus is changed by combustion into an extremely
light, white, flaky matter.   Its properties ore- likewise
entirely altered  by this transformation; from being
insoluble in water, it becomes not only soluble, but so
greedy of moisture as to attract the humidity of the
air with  astonishing rapidity.  By  this means  it i<<
converted into a liquid, considerably more  dense, and
of more  specific gravity than water.  In the state of
phosphorus  before combustion,  it had scarcely any
sensible taste; by its union with oxygen it acquires an
extremely sharp and sour taste ;  in a word, from one
ofthe class of combustible  bodies, it is changed into
an incombustible substance, and  becomes one of those
bodies called acids.
  " This  property of a combustible substance,  to be
converted into an  acid by  the addition of oxygen, \v:
shall presently find belongs to a great number of bodies.
Wherefore strict logic requires that we should adtjpt a
common  term/or indicating all these operations which
produce analogous  results.   This is the true way to
simplify the study of science, as  it would be quite im-
possible to bear all its  specific details iu the memory
if they were not classically  arranged.  For this reason
we shall  distinguish the conversion of phosphorus into
an acid by its union with oxygen, and in general every
combination of oxygen with a combustible substance,
by the term  oxygenation;  from this I shall adopt the
verb to oxygenate ; and of consequence shall say, that
in oxygenating phosphorus,  we convert it into an acid.
  " Sulphur also,  in burning, absorbs  oxygeii  gas"e;
the  resulting acid  is considerably  heavier than the
sulphur burnt; its weight is equal to the sum of the
weights ofthe sulphur which has been burnt, and ofthe
oxygen absorbed ;  and, lastly, this acid is weight;/, in-
combustible, and miscible with water in all proportions.
  ''  I might  multiply these experiments, and show, by
a numerous succession of facts, that  all acids are
formed by the combustion of certain substances ; but
I am prevented from doing  so in this place by the plan
which I  have laid down, of proceeding only from facts
already ascertained  to such as are  unknown, and of
drawing my examples only from circumstances already
explained.  In the mean time, however, the examples
 above cited may suffice for giving a clear and accurate
conception of the manner  in which acids are formed.
 By these it may be clearly seen that oxygen is an ele-
 ment common  to them ell, and  which constitutes or
 produces their acidity ; and that they differ from eac:t
other  according to  the several  natures of the oxyge-
nated or acidified substances.  We must, therefore, in
 every acid, carefullv distinguish between the aclditia-
 ble base, which de Morveau calls the radical, and 'the
 acidifying principle or oxygen.'" Elements, p.  115.
  "  Although we have not yet been able cither to coin-
pose or to decompound this acid  of sea salt, we cannot
have the smallest doubt that it, like all other acids, is
composed by the union of  oxygen with  an acidiliable
 base.  We  have, therefore, called this unknown sub-
stance the muriatic base, or muriatic radical."'  1". 3-J
5th  Edition.
   Berthollet maintains, that  Lavoisier had given too
much latitude to the idea of oxygen being the universal
acidifying principle.  "In  fact," says he, "it is car-
 rying  the limits of analogy too far to  infer, that ull
acidity, even that cf the muriatic, fluoric, and boracic
acids, arises from oxygen, because  it gives acidity to
a great number of substances.  Sulphuretted hydrogen,
which really possesses the  properties of an  acid,
proves directly that acidity is not in all cases owing to
oxygen.   There is no better foundation for concluding
that hydrogen is the principle of alcalinity, not only in
the  alcalies, properly so called, but also in  magnesia,
lime, 6trontian, and barytes, because ammonia appear:;
to owe its alcalinity to hydrogen.
  "  These considerations  prove that oxygen may be
regarded as the most  usual  principle of acidity, but
that this species of affinity  for the alcalies may belong
to substances which do not contain oxygen ; that we
 must  not, therefore, always infer, from the acidity of
a substance,  that  it contains oxygen,  although this
may be an  inducement to  suspect its existence  in it;
still less  should we conclude, because a substance con-
tains oxygen, that it must  have acid properties ; on
the  contrary, the acidity of an oxygenated substance
shows that the oxygen has only experienced an incom-
plete saturation iu it, since its properties remain pre-
dominant."
  This generalization ofthe French  ehemu  i concern-
                                          IU 
ACI
AC1
 ng oxygen, was  f:r.-t experimentally combated by Sir
 fluniphiy Davy,  in a series of dissertations publishW
 ta the Philosophical Transactions.
  "His first train of experiments was instituted  with
 fite view of operating by voltaic electricity on muriatic
 Mid other acids freed from water.  Substances which
 anr  now known  by the names of chlorides of phos-
 chnrus and tin, but which he then supposed to contain
 5ry muriatic acid, led him to imagine that  intimately
 combined water was the real acidifying principle, since
 tild  properties were immediately  developed in the
 »bove substances by the addition of that fluid, though
 previously they exhibited no acid powers.   In July,
 J-iO, however, he advanced those  celebrated views
 concerning acidification, which, in the opinion of the
 best judges, display an unrivalled power of scientific
 research.   The conclusions  to which these led  him,
 were incompatible  with the  general hypothesis of
 Lavoisier.   He demonstrated that oxymuriatie acid is,
 as far as our knowledge extends, a  simple substance,
 which may be classed  in the  same order of natural
 liorties as oxygen gas, being determined like  oxygen to
 Ihe positive surface in voltaic  combinations, and like
uxvgen combining with  inflammable substances,  pro-
■lucing heat and light.  The combinations of oxymu-
 riatic acid with inflammable bodies were shown to
 be analogous to oxydes and  acids in their  properties
and powers of combination, but to differ from them in
being, for the most part, decomposable by  water;  and,
finally, that oxyniuriatic acid has a stronger attraction
for most  inflammable bodies than oxygen.  His pre-
ceding decomposition of the alcalies and earths having
 evinced the absurdity of that nomenclature which
eives to the general and essential constituent  of alca-
iiw nature, the term oxygen or acidifier;  his new dis-
covery of the simplicity of oxymuriatie acid, showed
the theoretical  system  of  chemical  language to  be
equally vicious  in another respect.  Hence  this philo-
sopher  most judiciously  discarded  the appellation
oxymuriatie acid,  and introduced in  its place the name
chlorine, which merely indicates an obvious and per-
 manent character of the substance, its greenish yellow
colour.  The more recent investigations of chemists on
fluoric, hydriodic, and hydrocyanic acids, have brought
 powerful analogies in support  of the chloridic theory,
 by showing that hydrogen  alone can convert certain
 undecompounded bases into acids well characterized.
 without the aid of oxygen."
  " After these observations on l..e  nature of acidity,
 we shall now state the general properties of the acids.
  " 1.  The taste of these bodies is  lor the most  part
 sour, as  their name  denotes; and  in  the stronger
 ttpecies t is acrid and corrosive.
  " 2. They generally combine with water in every
 proportion, with a condensation of volume and evolu-
 tion of heat
  " 3.  With a few exceptions they  are volatilized or
 decomposed at a moderate heat.
  " -1.  They usually change the purple colours of vege-
 tables to a bright red.
  " 5.  They  unite in  definite proportions with the
 alcalies,  earths, and metallic oxydes, and form the
 important class of salts.  This may be reckoned  their
 characteristic and indispensable property."
  "Thenard has lately succeeded in  communicating to
 many  acids apparently a surcharge  of oxygen, and
 thus producing a supposed new class of bodies, the
 oxygenized acids, which are, in reality, combinations
 of the ordinary acids with oxygenized water, or  with
 tliedeutoxideof hvdrogen."
  " The class of "acids has been distributed into three
 orders, according as they are derived from the mineral,
 rJie vegetable,  or  the animal  kingdom.   But a more
 specific distribution  is  now  requisite.   They  have
 also been arranged into those which have a single, and
 those whicli have a compound basis or radical.   Phis
 arrangement is not  only vague,  but liable in other
 respects to considerable objections.  The chief advan-
 tage of a  classification is  to give  general views to
 beginners in the study, by grouping together such sub-
 utances as have  analogous  properties or composition.
 I'liese objects  will be tolerably well attained by the
 following divisions und subdivisions.
   " 1st. Acids  from Ir-or^anic nature, or which are
 jjrocursble without  (raving  recourse to  animal or
 '70KetuuJe product".
   "iii. Acidit elaborated by means of organization
       20
  11 The first  group is subdivide J into three fcviilies.
1st. Oxygen acids; 2d. Hydrogen acids;  3d.  Ar.ifa
destitute of both these supposed acidifiers.
-Oxygen acids.
Non-metallic.
 11. Hypophospliorus.
 12. Phosphorus.
 13. Phosphatic.
 14. Phosphoric.
 15. Hyposulphurous.
 16. Sulphurous.
 17. Hyposuiuhuric
 18. Sulphuric
 19. Cyanic 1
             Family Ist.-
             Section 1st,
 1.  Boracic.
 2.  Carbonic.
 3.  Chloric.
 4.  Perchloric t
 5.  Chloro-Casbomc
 6.  Nitrous.
 7.  Hvponitric.
 8.  Nitric.
 9.  Iodic.
10.  Iodo-Sulphuric.

        Section 2d. Oxygen acids.—Metallic
 1.  Arsenic.               6.  Columbic.
 2.  Arsenious.             7.  Molybdic.
 3.  Antimonious           P.  Molybdous.
 4.  Antimonic             9.  Tungstic.
 5.  Chromic.

            Family 2d.—Hydrogen acids.
 1.  Fluoric.               6.  Hydroprussic, or
 2.  Hydriodic.                Hydro-cyanic.
 3.  Hydrochloric, prMuria- 7.  Hydrosulphurous.
    tic                    8.  Hydrotellurous.
 4.  Ferroprussic.           9.  Sulphuroprussic.
 5.  Hydroselenic.

  Family 3d.—Acids without Oxygen or Hydrogen
 1.  Chlof iodic.             3.  Fluoboric.
 2.  Chloroprussic,  or       4.  Fluosilicic.
    Chlorocyanic.

                             Organic Origin
                             Meconic.
                             Meniapermic.
                             Margaric
                             Melassic 1
                             Mellitic.
                             Moroxyllc
                             Mucic.
                             Nanceic?
                             Nitro-Ieuclc.
                             Nitro-saccharie
                             Oleic.
                             Oxalic.
                             Purpuric
                             Pyrolithic.
                             Pyromalic.
                             Pyrotartaric
                             Rosasie.
                             Saclactic.
                             Sebacic.
                             Suberic.
                             Succinic.
                             Sulphovinic 1
                             Tartaric.

  The acids of the last division are all decori|nrabIe
at a red heat, and  afford generally carbon, hjrhogen,
oxygen, and, in some few cases, also  nitrogen.  The
mellitic is found like amber in wood coal, and, like i"
is undoubtedly of organic origin."
  Acid, aceric.   See Aceric acid.
  Acid, acetic.  See Acetum.
  Acid, acetous. See Acetum.
  Acid, aerial.  See Carbonic  acid.
  Acid, atherial.   See JF.thers.
  Acid, aluminous. See Sulphuric ox u
  Acid, amniotic.  See Amniotic acid
  Acid, animal.  See Acid.
  Acid, antimonic.  See Antimony.
  Acid, antimonous.   See Antimony.
  Acid of ants.  See Formic acid.
  Acid, arsenical.  See Arsenic.
  Acid, arsenious.  See Arsenic.
  Acid, benzoic.  See  Benzoic acid.
  Acid, bolelic.  See Boletic acid.
  Acid, boracic.  See  Boracic acid.
  Acid, camphoric.  See Camphoric ttr.ta
  Arid, carbonic.  See Carbonic acid
  Acid, caseic.  See Caseic acid.
  Jicid, cetic.  See Otic acid.
Division 2d.-	-Acids of
1. Aceric.	24.
2. Acetic.	25.
3. Amniotic	26.
4. Benzoic.	27.
b. Boletic.	28.
6. Butyric.	29
7. Camphoric.	30.
8. Caseic.	31.
9. Cevadic.	rs-2.
10. Cholesterlc.	33!
11 Citric.	34.
12. Delplnnic.	35.
13. i:ilagici	36.
14. Formic.	37.
15. Fungic.	38.
16. Gallic.	39.
17. Igasuric.	40.
18. Kinic.	41.
19. Laccic.	42.
20. Lactic.	43.
21. Lampic.	44.
22. Liihic, or Uric.	45.
23. Malic.	46.
 
AC1                                                ACI
  Acid, chloric  See Chloric acid.
  Acid, chloriodic.  See CUoriodic acid
  Acid, chlorous.  See Chlorous acid.
  Acid, ckloro-carbonic.   See  Chloro-carbonous  acid
»"ld Phosgene.
  Acid, chloro-cyanic.   See Chloro-cyanic  acid.
  Acid, rkloro-prussic  See Chloro-cyanic acid.
  Acid, chromic.  See Chromic  acid.
  Acid, citric-  See Ci'fn'c acid.
  Acid, col limbic.  See Columbic acid.
  Acid, cyanic.  See Prussic acid.
  Acid, diphlogtsticated muriatic.  See Chlorine.
  Acid, dulcified.  Now called  jEther.
  Acid, ellegic.  See Ellagic acid.
  Azid, ferro-cliyazic.  See Ferro-chyazic acid.
  Acid, f: rri'-prussic.  See Fcrro-prussic acid.
  ■ In I, Tc> i dnlted-chyazic.   See Fcrro-prussic acid.
   Ici!, ffuoloric.  See Fluoboric acid.
  .le'd. fluoric.  See Fluoric acid.
  ■ ia l,jluorir, situated.  See Fluoric acid,
   lcii!.jiuo.<ilicic.  See Fluoric acid.
  Acid, formic.  See Formic acid.
  Acid, fungic.  See Fungic acid.
  Acid, n-.uiic.   See Gallic acid.
  Acid, hgiiriodic.   See Hydriodic add.
 ,Acid, hydrochloric.   See Muriatic acid.
  Acid, hydrocyanic.   See Prussic acid.
  Act I, inj'irihl.ioric.  See Fluoric acid.
  Acid, hudroji/iosjihorous.   See Phosphorous acid.
  Acid, hydrophtoric.  See Fluoric acid.
  Acid, hydrosulphuric   See Sulphuretted hydrogen.
  And, hydrothionic.   See Sulphuretted hydrogen.
  Acid, hyponilrous.  See Hyponitrous acid.
  Acid, hypophosphorous.  Pee  Hypophosphorous  acid.
  Acid, hyposulphuric.  See Hyposutphuric acid.
  Acid, hyposulphurous.  See  Hyposulphurous acid.
  Acid, igasuric.  See Igasuric acid.
  Acid, imperfect.  These  acids are so called in the
:hemical  nomenclature, which are not fully saturated
tvith oxygen.  Their  names are  ended in Latin  by
tsum, and  in English  by ous : e. g.  acidum nitrosum,
er nitrous acid.
  Acid, iodic.  See Iodic acid.
  Acid, iodosulphuric.  See Iodosulphuric acid.
  Acid, kinic.  See Kinic acid.
  Acid, krameric.  See Kramcric acid.
  Acid, laccic.  See Laccic acid.
  Acid, lactic.   See Lactic acid.
  Acid, lampic. See Lampic acid.
  Acid, lethic.  See Lethic acid.
  Acid, malic.  See Malic acid.
  Acid, manganesic.  See Manganesic acid.
  Acid, margaritic.  See Margaritic acid.
  Acid, meconic.  See Meconic acid.
  Acid, mellitic.  See Mellitic acid.
  Acid, menispermic.  See Mcnispcrmic  acid.
  Acid of milk.  See Mucic acid.
  Acid, mineral.  Those acids  which are found to ex-
ist in minerals, as the sulphuric, the nitric, &c.  See
 icid.
  Acid, molybdic.  See Molybdic acid.
  Acid, molybdous.  See Molybdous acid.
  Acid, moroxylic.  See Moroxylic acid.
  Acid, mucic.   See Mucic acid.
  Acid, mucous.  See Mucic acid.
  Acid, muriatic.  See Muriatic acid.
   icid, muriatic, dephlogisticated.
  Acid, nanceic.  See Nanceic acid.
  Acid of nitre.  See Nitric acid.
  Acid, nitric.   See Nitric acid.
  Acid, nitro-leucic.  See Nitro-leucic acid.
  Acid, nitro-muriatic.  See Nttro-murialic acid.
  Acid, nitro-saccharine.  See Nitro-saccharic acid.
  Acid, nitro sulphuric.  See Nitro-sulphuric acid
  Acid, nitrous.  See Nitrous  acid.
  Acid, (Enothionic.  See (Enothionic acid.
  Acid, oleic.   See Oleic acid.
  Acid, oxalic.  See Oxalic acid.
  Acid, oxiodic.  See Iodic acid.
  Acid, oxychloric.  See Perchloric  acid.
  Acid., oxymuriatie.  See Chlorine.
  Qcid, perchloric.   See Perc/Uoric acid.
  Acid, perfect.  An acid is termed perfect in the che-
mical nomenclature, when it is  completely saturated
with oxygen.   The names are ended in Latin by icum,
and in English by ic : e. g. acidum nitricum, or nitric
€cid.
  Acid, perlute.  See Perlate acid.
  Acid, pcrnitrous.  See Hyponitrous acid
  Acid, phosphatic.  See Phosphatic acid.
  Acid, phosphoric.  See Phosphoric acid.
  Acid, phosphorous.  See i'.'wspkorous ar.id
  Acid, prussic.  See Prussic acid
  Acid, purpuric.  See Purpuric acid.
  Acid, pyro-acctic.  See l'yro-acetic acid-
  Acid, pyrocitric.  See Pyrocitric acid.
  Acid, pyroligneous.  See Pyro-ligneous acta
  Acid, pyromucous.  See Pyro-mucic acid.
  Acid, pyrotartarous.  See Pyrotartaric acid
  Acid, rheuihic.   See Rlicumic acid.
  Acid, siiccho-lactic. See Mucic acid.
  Acid, saclactic.  See Mucic acid.
  Acid, sebacic.  See Sebacic acid.
  Acid, sclcnic.  See Scicaic acid.
  Acid, silicatcdfluoric.
  Acid, sorbic.   See Sorbic acid.
  Acid, stannic.  See Stannic acid.
  Acid, stibic.  See Stibic acid.
  Acid, stibious.  See Stibious acid.
  Act I, suberic.  See Suberic acid
  Acid, succinic.  See Succinic acid.
  Acid of sugar.  See Oxalic acid
  Arid, sulpho-cyanic.  See Sulphuro-pruxvic acta.
  Acid, sulphovinous.  See Sulp/tovinic acia.
  Acid, sulphureous.  See Sulphureous acid.
  Acid, sulphuretted chyazic.    See Sulphuro-prusete
acid.
  Acid, sulphuric.  See Sulphuric acid.
  Acid of tartar.  See Tartaric acid.
  Acid, tartaric.   See Tartaric  acid.
  Acid, telluric.  See Telluric acid.
  Acid, tungstic.  See Tungstis acid.
  Acid, uric.  See Lithic acid.
  Acid, vegetable.   Those which  are found in  the
vegetable kingdom, as the citric, malic,  acetic, Jfcc.
See Acid.
  Acid of vinegar.  See Acetum.
  Acid of vinegar, concentrated.  See Acctuni.
  Acid of vitriol.  See Sulphuric acid.
  Acid, vitriolic.  See Sulphuric acid.
  Acid, zumic.   See Zumic acid.
  ACIDIFIABLE. Capable of being converted into an
acid by an acidifying principle.   Substances possessing
this properly are called radicals and acidifiable bases.
  ACIDIFICATION".  (Acidijicatio; from acidum, an
acid.)  The formation of an  acid; also the  impreg-
nation of any thing with acid properties.
  ACIDIFYING.   See Acid.
  ACIDIMETRY.  The measurement of the strength
of acids.   This is effected by saturating a given weight
of them with an alkaline base;  the quantity  of which
requisite  for the  puipose, is the measure  of their
power.
  ACIDITY.  Acidilas.  'Sourness.
  ACIDULOUS.  Acidula, Latin;  acidule,  French.
Sligntly acid: applied lo those salts in  which the base
Is combined with such  an excess of acid, that they
manifestly exhibit acid properties, as the supertartrate
and the supersulphale of" potassa.
  Acidulous  waters.  Mineral waters, which contain
so great a quantity of carbonic acid gas, as to render
them acidulous, or gently tart to the taste.   See Mine-
ral waters.
  ACIDULUS. Acidulated.  Any thing blended with
an acid juice in order to give it a coolness and  brisk
ness.
  A'CIDUM.  (Acidum, i. n.;  from acco, to  be sour./
An acid.  See Acid.
  Acidum aceticum.  See Acidum acclicum dilutuni.
  Acidum aceticum dilutum.  Dilute  acetic acid.
Take of vinegar, a gallon.
  Distil the acetic* acid in a sand bath, from a glass
retort  into a receiver also of glass,  and  kept  cold;
throw away  the first pint, and keep for  use the »b
succeeding pints, whicli are distilled over.
  In this distillation, the liquor should  be  kept mode
rately boiling, and the heat should not be urged too
far, otherwise the  distilled acid will have an empyreu-
matic smell and taste, which it ought  not  to possess.
If the acid be prepared correctly, it will be colourless,
and  of a grateful, pungent, peculiar acid taste.   One
fluid ounce ought  to dissolve at least ten grains of car-
bonate of lime, or white marble.  This liquor is the
acetum distillatum ; the acidum acetosum of  the Loa-
                                           31 
ACI
AGO
 ion Pharmacopoeia of 1787, and the acidum  aceticum
 of that of 1822, and the  acidum aceticum dilutum of
 the present.  The compounds of the acid of vinegar,
 directed to be used by the new London Pharmaco-
 poeia,  are  acetum  colchici, acetum  scilla, ceratum
 ■plumbi acetatis,  liquor ammonia acetatis,  liquor
 plumbi acetatis, liquor plumbi acetatis dilutis,oxynul,
 oxyrnel scilla, potusse acetas,  and the  cataplasma
 sinapis.
  Acidum  aceticum  concentratum.   When the
 acid of vinegar  is  greatly concentrated,  that  is, de-
 prived of  its water, it is  called concentrated acid of
 vinegar, and radical vinegar.
  Distilled vinegar may be  concentrated by freezing :
 the congelation takes place at a temperature below 28
 degrees, more or  less,  according to its strength; and
 the congealed part is merely ice, leaving, of course, a
 stronger acid.  If this be exposed  to a very intense
 cold, it shoots into  crystals; which, being separated,
 liquefy, when the temperature rise?. and the liquor is
 limpid as water, extremely  strong, and has  a highly
 pungent acetous odour.  This is the pure  acid  of the
 vinegar; the foreign matter remaining in the uncon-
 gealed liquid.
  Other methods are likewise employed to obtain the
 pure and concentrated acid.  The  process of Wcsten-
 tlorf, which has been often followed, is to saturate soda
 with distilled vinegar; obtain  the  acetate by crystal-
 lization; and pour upon it, in a retort, half its weight
 of sulphuric acid.  By applying heat, the acetic acid
 is distilled over; and, should there be any reason to
 suspect the presence of any sulphuric acid, it may be
 distilled a second time, from a  little acetate  of soda.
 According to Lowitz, the best way of obtaining this
 acid pure, is to mix three parts of the acetate of soda
 with eight of supersulphate of potassa; both salts being
 perfectly dry, and in fine powder, and to distil from
 iliis mixture in a retort, with a gentle heat.
  It may also be obtained by distilling the verdigris of
commerce, with a gentle heat.   The concentrated arid
 procured  by these processes, was  supposed  to differ
 materially from the  acetous acids obtained  by distil-
 ling vinegar ; the two  acids were regarded as  differing
 in their degree of  oxygenizement, and  were  after-
 ward distinguished by the names of acetous and ace-
tic acids.   The acid distilled from verdigris was sup-
 posed to derive a quantity of oxygen from the oxyde of
 copper, from which it was expelled.   The experi-
ments of Adet have, however, proved the two acids to
 be identical; the  acetous acid, therefore, only  differs
from the acetic acid in containing more water, render-
 ing it  a  weaker  acid, and of a less active nature.
There exists, therefore, only one of acid vinegar,  which
 is the acetic; its compounds are termed acetates.
  Acidum acetosum.   See Acetum.
  Acidum jetiiereum.  See Sulphuric acid.
  Acidum aluminosum.  (So called because it exists
 in alum.)  See Sulphuric acid.
  Acidum Arsenicum.  See Arsenic.
  Acidum benzoicum.  Benzoic acid.  The London
 Pharmacopoeia directs it to  be made thus:—Take of
 gum benzoin a pound and a  half: fresh lime, four
ounces: water,a gallon and  a half: muriatic acid, four
 fluid ounces.  Rub together the benzoin and  lime ;
 t hen boil them in a gallon of the water, for half an hour,
constantly stirring ; and, when  it is cold, pour off the
liquor.  Boil what  remains a  second  time, in four
 pints of water, and pour off'the liquor as before.  Mix
the liquors, and boil down to half, then strain through
 paper,  and  add the muriatic acid  gradually, until it
ceases to produce a precipitate.   Lastly, having poured
 iff the liquor, dry the powder in a gentle heat;  put it
 into a proper vessel, placed in a sand bath;  and by a
 very gentle fire, sublime the  benzoic acid.  In this pro-
 cess a  solution of benzoate of  lime is first obtained;
 t lie muriatic acid then, abstracting the lime, precipi-
 lates the  benzoic  acid, which is crystallized by sub-
 limation
  The Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia forms a benzoate of
 soda, precipitates the acid by sulphuric acid, and after-
 ward crystallizes it 1 y solution in hot water, which
 dissolves a larger quantity than cold.
  Benzoic acid has a strong, pungent, aromatic, and
 peculiar odour.  Its crystals are ductile, not pulver-
 izable; it  sublimes in a moderate heat, forming a
 white irritating smoke.  It is soluble in about twemy-
 '"our times its weight of boiling water, which, as it
cools, precipitates 19-20ths of what it  had dissolved
It is soluble in alcohol.
   Benzoic acid is very seldom  used in the cure of dis-
eases ; but now and then it is ordered as a stimulant
against convulsive coughs and  difficulty of breathing.
The dose is from one grain to five.
   Acidum Boracicum.   See Boracic acid.
   Acidum caRBomcum. See  Carbonic acid
   Acidum catholicon.  See Sulphuric acid.
   Acidum citricum.  See Citric acid.
   Acidum muriaticum.  See Muriatic acid.
   Acidum muriaticum oxyge.natum.  See Oxygen-
ized muriatic acid.
   Acidum nitricum.  See Nitric acid.
   Acidum nitricum dilutum.  Take of nitric acid a
fluidounce; distilled water nine fluid ounces. Mix them.
   Acidum nitrosum.  See Nitrous acid.
   Acidum phosphoricum.  See Phosphoric acid
   Acidum primigenium.  See Sulphuric acid.
 , Acidum succinicum.  See Succinic acid.
   Acidum sulphureum.  See Sulphureous acid.
   Acidum sulphuricum.  See Sulphuric acid.
   Acidum sulphuricum dilutum.  Acidum  vitrio-
licum dilutum.  Spiritus vitrioli  tenuis.  Take  of
sulphuric acid a fluid  ounce and a half;  distilleu
water, fourteen fluid ounces  and a half.  Add the
water gradually to the acid.
   Acidum tartaricum. See  Tartaric acid.
   Acidum vitriolicum.  See Sulphuric acid.
   Acidum vitriolicum dilutum.  See Acidum sut-
phuricum dilutum.
   A'cies.  Steel.
   ACINACIFORMIS.   (From acinaces, a Persian
scimitar, or sabre, and forma,  resemblance.)  Acina
cifonn; shaped like a sabre,  applied  to leaves:  as
those ofthe mysembryantlicmum acinaciforme.
   ACINE'SIA. (From axivnata, immobility.)   A loss
of motion and strength.
   ACINIFORMIS.   (From  acinus,  a  grape,  and
forma, a resemblance.)  Aciniforin.   A name given
by the ancients to  some parts which  resembled the
colour and form of an unripe grape, as the uvea of the
eye, which was called tunica acinosa, and the choroid
membrane of  Uie  eye,  which they  named   tunica
aciniforma.
   A'CINUS.   (Acinus, i. in.;  a grape.)  1.  In ana-
tomy, those glands which grow together in clusters are
called by some acini glandulosi.
   2. in botany, a small berry, which, with several
others, composes the fruit  of the mulberry,  black
berry, &c.
   Acinus biliosus.  The small elandiforn. bodies of
the  liver, which  separate the  bile from the  blood,
were formerly called  acini biliosi:  they are now,
however, termed penicilli.  See Liocr.
   AC.MA STICOS.  A species of fever, wherein the
heat continues of the same tenor to the end. Actuarius.
   A'CME. (.From aKutj, a point.) The height or crisis.
A term applied by physicians to that period or state ol
a disease in which it is at its height.  The ancients dis-
tinguished diseases into four stages : 1. The Arche, the
beginning or  first attack.  2. Anabasis, the growtii.
3. Acme, the height.  4.  Paracmc, or the decline of the
disease.
   ACME'LLA. See Spilanthus.
   A CNE. okvij.  Acna.  A small pimple, or hard
tubercle  on the face.  Foesius says, that it is a small
pustule or pimple,  which  arises usually about the
time that the  body is in full vigour.
   Acne'stis.   (From a, priv. and Avau, to scratch.)
That part of the spine of the back, whicli reaches from
the metaphrenon, which is the part between the shoul-
der-blades, to the loins.  This part seems to have been
originally called so  in quadrupeds  only, because they
cannot reach  it to scratch.
   A'COE. aKorj.   The sense of hearing.
   ACOE LIUS.  (From a, priv. and KoiXta, the belly.)
Without  belly.  It  is applied  to those  who  are  so
wasted, as to  appear as if they  had no belly.  Galen
   ACOF'TUS. Akoitoj.  An epithet for honey, men
tioned by Pliny; because it has no sediment, which is
called koitt).
   ACONION. Akoviov.  A particular form of me
dicine among the ancient physicians, made of powders
levigated, and probably  like coliyria for the disorders
of the eyes.
   ACONITA.  (Aconita. a, f.: from  acrnitum, the 
ACQ                                          ACR
 name of a plant.)  A  poisonous vegetable principle,
 probably alcalinc, recently extracted from  the acont-
 tum napcllus, or wolf's bane, by Mons. Brandes  The
 details have not yet reached this country.
   ACONITE.  See Aconitum.
   ACONI'TUM.   (Aconitum, i. m.)  Aconite.  1. A
 genus of plants in the Linna an system, all the species
 of wliich have powerful effects  on the human body.
 Clas-s, Polyandria ; Order, Trygynia.
   2. The  pharmacopoeia!  name of the common, or
 blue, wolf's-bane.  See Aconitum napellus.
   Aconitum anthora. The root of this plant Aconi-
 tum—jloribuspentagynus, foliorum laciniis lincaribus
 of Liimaeu<s is employed medicinally.   Its virtues are
 similar to those of the aconitum napellus.
   Aconitum napellus.  Monk's  hood.   Aconite.
 Wolf's-bane.   Camorum.    Canicida.  Cynoctanum.
 Actonitum;—foliorum laciniis  linearibus,  supcrns
 latioribus, linea exaralis of  Linnaeus.  This plant is
 cultivated in our gardens as an ornament, but is spon-
 taneously produced  in  Germany,  and some other
 northern parts of Europe.  Every part is strongly poi-
 sonous, but  the root  is unquestionably the most pow-
 erful ; and, when first chewed, imparts a slight sensa-
 tion of acrimony;  but afterward,  an insensibility or
 stupor at the apex  of the tongue, and a pungent heat
 of the  lips, guuis, palate, and fauces are perceived,
 followed with a general tremor and sensation of chilli-
 ness. The juice applied to a wound seemed to affect
 the whole nervous system ; even by keeping It long in
 the hand, or on the  bosom,  we  are told unpleasant
 symptoms have been produced.  The fatal symptoms
 brought on by this poison are, convulsions, giddiness,
 insanity, violent purgings, both upwards and down-
 wards, faintings, cold sweats, and death itself.   Dr.
 Stoerk appears to be the first who gave the wolf's-bane
 internally, as a  medicine;  and since his experiments
 were published, 1762, it has  been generally and suc-
 cessfully employed in Germany and the northern parts
 of Europe,  particularly as  a remedy for obstinate
 rheumatisms ; and many cases are related where this
 disease was of sevaral years' duration, and had with-
 stood the efficacy of other powerful medicines, as mer-
 cury, opium, antimony, hemlock, &c. yet, iu a short
 time, was entirely cured by the aconitum.   Instances
 are also given us of its good effects in gout, scrofulous
 swellings,  venereal  nodes,  amaurosis, intermittent
 fevers, paralysis, ulceration, and scirrhus.  This plant
 has been generally prepared as an extract or inspis-
 sated juice, after the manner directed in the Pharma-
 copoeia : its efficacy is much diminished on being long
 kept. Like ail  virulent medicines, it should first be
 administered in small doses.  Stoerk recommends two
 grains ofthe extract to be rubbed into a powder,  with
 two drachms of sugar, and to begin with ten grains of
 this powder, two or three times a day.  We find, how-
 ever, that  the extract is oftener given from one grain
 to ten  for a dose;  and Stoll,  Scherekbecker, and
 others, increased this quantity considerably.  Instead
 of the extract, a tincture has been  made of the dried
 leaves macerated in six times their weight of spirits of
 wine, and forty  drops given for a dose.  Some writers
 say that the napellus  is not poisonous in Sweden, Po-
 land, &c.; hut it should  be noted that the  species
 which is not poisonous, is the aconitum lycoctonum of
 Linnaeus.
  Acopa.   Dioscorides's name for  the buck-bean or
 Minyanthcs trifoliata of Linnaeus.
  A COPON.  (From a, priv.  and koitoc, weariness.)
 It signifies originally whatever is a  remedy against
 weariness, and  is used in this sense by Hippocrates.
 Aph. viii. lib. ii.  But in time, the word was applied
 to certain ointments.   According lo Galen and  Paulus
 jEgineta, the Acopa pharmaca are remedies for indis-
 positions of body which are caused by Ring or vehe-
 ment motion.
  Acopos.  The name of a  plant in Pliny, supposed
 to be the buck-bean or Menyanlhcs  trifoliata of
 Linnaeus.
  A'COR.   (Acor, oris, m.; from aceo to be sour.)
Acidity.  It is sometimes used to express  that sour-
ness in  the stomach contracted  by indigestion, and
from whence flatulencies and acid  belching arise.
  Acor'pina. Indian tutty.
  ACO'RIA  (From a, priv. and icoptio, to satiate.)
Insatiability.  In Hippocrates, it means good appetite
 aid digestion.
  ACORN.   See Quercus robur.
  A'CORUS.  (Acorus, i. m.; aicopoi, from top), the
pupil; because it was esteemed good for the disorders
ofthe eyes.)   The name of a genus of plants in the
Linnrean system.  Class, Hexandria.  Order, Digynia
  Acorus  calamus.   The  systematic name of the
plant which is also called Calamus aromatwvs ;  Aco-
rus yerus ;  Caiamu.-.-  odoratus;  Calamus  vulgaris;
Diringa; Jacrranlatinga ;  Typha aromatica; Ctuva
rugosa.  Sweet-flag, or acorus.  Acorus ;  Scapi mil
crone longissimo foliaceo of Linnaeus.  The root has
been long employed medicinally.  It has a moderately
strong aromatic  smell; a  warm,  pungent,  bitterish
taste; and  is  deemed useful ns a  warm stomachic.
Powdered, and mixed with some absorbent, it forms  a
useful and pleasant dentifrice.
  Acorus palustris.   See TWspalustris.
  Acorus verus.  See Acorus calamus.
  Acorus vulgaris.  See Iris palustris.
  A'COS.  (Akos, from axcouai, to heal.)  A ieu.edy
or cure.
  ACO'SMI A.  (From a, neg. and koouoc, beautiful.)
Baldness; ill-health : irregularity, particularly ol" the
critical days of '"overs.
  Aco'ste.   (Firai aKo<pi, barley.)  An ancient food
made of barley.
  ACOTYLE'DON.   (Acotyledon, oris,  n.  from a,
priv. and kotoAjjcW.   Without a cotyledon ; applied
in botany to a seed or plant wliich  is not  furnished
with n cotyledon ; Semen acotyledon.)  All the mosses
are planta acotyledoncs.
  ACOU'STIC.   (Acousticus: from atcovw, to hear.)
1. Belonging to the ear or to sound.
  2.  That which is employed with a view to restore
the sense of hearing, when wanting or diminished.
No remedies of this kind, given internally, arc known
to produce any uniform eriect.
  Acoustic  nerve.  See Portio mollis.
  Acoustic duct.   See Meatus auditorius.
  Acr.e'palos.  See Acraipala.
  Acrai'pala. (A(cpa(7raXoj. From a, neg. and Kpat-
Ka\n, surfeit.) Remedies for the effects of a debauch
  Acra'sia.   (From  a,  and tctpato,  to mix.)  Un-
healthmess; intemperance.
  Acrati'a.   (From a, and A-paroc, strength.) Weak-
ness or intemperance.
  Acrati'sma.  (From axparov, unmixed wine.  The
derivation of this word  is the same as Acrasia, be-
cause the wine used on the occasion was not mixed
with water.)  A breakfast among the  old  Greeks,
consisting of a morsel of bread, soaked in pure un-
mixed wine.
  Acrato'meli.   (From aKparov, pure wine; and
utXi, honey.)  Wine mixed with honey.
  A'CRE.  (From a/cpss, extreme.)  The  extremity
ofthe nose or any other part.
  A'CREA.   (From expos, extreme.)  Acrotcria. The
extremities;  the legs, arms, nose, and cars.
  Acribei'a.  (From  axpiSris,  accurate.)  An  exact
and accurate description and diagnosis, or distinction,
of diseases.
  ACRID.   Acris.  A  term employed in medicine to
express a taste, the characteristic of which is pungency
joined with heat.
  ACRIMONY.   (Acrimonia, from acris, acrid.)  A
quality in substances  by which they irritate, corrode,
or dissolve others. It  has beeu supposed until very
lately, there were acid and alkaline acrimonies in the
blood, wliich produced certain diseases ; and although
the humoral  pathology is nearly and  improperly ex
ploded, the term venereal acrimony, and some others,
arc still and must be retained.
  A'CRIS.   1. Acrid.  See Acrid.
  2.  Any fractured extremity.
  Acri'sia.   (From a, priv. and (cpivir, to judge oi
separate.)  A  turbulent state of a disease, wliich will
scarcely suffer any judgment to be formed thereof.
  A'critus.   (From a, neg. and icpivio, to judge.)  A
disease without a regular crisis, the event of whi:li it
is hazardous to judge.
  ACROBY'STIA.   (From axpoc, extreme, and /?u«,
to cover.)  The prepuce which covers the  extremity
of the penis.
  ACROCHEIRE'SIS.   (From aKpoc, extreme, and
vtip, a hand.)  An exercise among the ancients.  Pro-
bably a species of wrestling, where they only held by
the hands.
                                        23 
ACT
ACT
  aCROCHEI RIS.  (From a/cpoj, extreme, and x«p,
a hand.)   Gorraeus says, it signifies the arm from  the
elbow to the ends of the fingers ;  x"P signifying  the
arm, from the scapula to the fingers' end.
  ACROCHO'RDON.   (From aKpos, extreme,  and
XopSvt a string.)  Galen describes  it  as a  round  ex-
crescence on the skin, with  a slender base ; and that
it hath its  name because of its situation on the surface
of the skin.   The  Greeks  call that excrescence an
achrochordon, where something hard concretes under
the skin, which is rather rough, ofthe same colour as
the skin,  slender  at the base and  broader obove.
Their size rarely exceeds that of a  bean.
  ACROCO'LIA.  (From aKpos, extreme, and kw\oi;
a limb.)  These are the extremities of animals which
are used in food, as the feet of calves, swine, sheep,
oxen, or lambs, and of the broths of which  jellies  are
frequently made.  Castellus from  Buda'us  adds, that
the internal parts  of animals are also called by  this
iiame.
  Achrolb'nion.   Castellus says  it is the  same as
Olecranon.
  ACRO.MA'NIA.   (From aicpo;, extreme, and p.avia,
madness.)   Total or incurable madness.
  ACRO'MION.  (From aicpov, extremity, and oiuos-
the shoulder.)  A process of the scapula or  shou>.(er-
blade.  See Scapula.
  ACROMPIIA'LIUM.   (Ak-pouipaXot.-; from  oko. „
extreme, and ouibaXos, the navel., Acroniphalon.  The
tip 01 the nave.
  ACUO'MPHALON.  See Acromphalium,
  Acro'nia.  (From axpov,  the extremity.)   The  am-
putation of an extremity, as  a finger.
  ACRO'PATHOS.  (From aKpos, extreme, and  xza-
6o;, a disease.)  Acropathus.  It  signifies  literally a
disease at the top or superior part.  Hippocrates in his
treatise De Superfcetatione, applies it to the internal
orifice 01 the uterus; and in l'raedict. lib. ii. to cancers
which apoear on the surface ofthe  body.
  ACROPATHUS.  See Acropathos.
  A'CROITS.   (From  aicoov, the  extremity, and  o\p,
the voice.)  Imperfect articulation, from a fault in the
tongue.
  ACROPO'STHIA.   (From  axpoc, extreme,  and
asocdrj, the prepuce.) The  extremity of the prepuce ;
jr that part which is cut off in circumcision.
  ACROTSILON.  (From  aicpos,  extreme, and \pi\us,
naked)  The extremity of the denuded glans penis.   .
  ACRO'SPELOS.   (From aKpos,  extreme, and jrtAo?,
black, so called because its ears, or tops, are often  of a
blackish colour.)  Acrospclus.  The bromus discordis,
or wild oat grass.
  ACRO'SPELUS.  See Acrospelos.
  ACROTE'RIA.  (From aKpos, extreme.)   The ex-
treme parts ofthe body  ; as  the hands, feet, nose, ears,
chin, &c.
  ACROTERIA'SMUS.    (From  aKpos,  summus.)
The amputation of an extremity.
  Acrotiiv'mia.  See Acrothymion.
  ACROTHYMION.   (From aicpos,  extreme,  and
Svuos, thyme.) Acrothymia. Acrothymium.  A  sort
of wart, described  by Cclsus, as hard, rough, with a
narrow basis, and broad top ; the top of the colour of
thyme; it  easily splits and bleeds.
  Acrothymium.   See Acrothymion.
  ACROTICUS.   (From aKpos,  summus;  whence
a\p<5n7S, vT°S'i summitas; cacumen.)   A itijease affect
ing the external surface.
  Acrotica.  The name of an order in Good's  No-
sology.
  ACROTISMUS.  Acrotismus;  (From a. priv.  and
KpoTos, pulsus, defect of pulse.)   Acrotism or pulse-
lessness.   A term synonymous with asphyxia, and ap-
plied to a species ofentasia in Good's Nosology.
  ACT^E'A.   (From ayio, to break.)  Actc.~ The el-
der-tree, so called  from  its  being easily broken.  See
Sambucus nigra,
  A'CTINE.  The herb Bunias, or Napvs.
  ACTINOBOLI'SMUS.   (From oktiv,  a ray,  and
0aA/\,j, to cast out.)  Diradiatio.   Irradiation.  It  is
applied to the  spirits, conveying the inclinations ofthe
tnind to the bodv.
  AOTINOLITH.  The name of  a mineral which  is
 mind in primitive districts.
  ["•This  mineral possesses  all the essential characters
 ,  hornblende. In fact, common  hornblende and ac-
'.ynolite, separated  only by slight differences, when
viewed  in the extremes, do in other cases insensibly
pass into each  other.  'Die actynolite has usually a
greater  transparency,  a more lively green  colour,
arising from the chrome whicli it contains, and differs
also iu the result of fusion by the blow-pipe.
  " The actynolite occurs in prismatic crystals which
are  commonly  long  and  incomplete,  sometimes
extremely minute and  even fibrous, and variously
aggregated  into masses more or less large.   Its pre-
vailing  colour  is  green, sometimes  pure  emerald
green, but varying from a dark or leek green to a palt
green, which is sometimes shaded with gray, yellow.
or brown.  Its  colours are  liable to change in conse-
quence of decomposition.  It scratches grass, but it*
prisms are often very brittle in a transverse direction
Its cross fracture  is often  a little chonchoidal, and
more shining than  that of common  hornblende.  It!
specific gravity is about 3.30.
  " It melts by the blow-pipe into a gray or yellowish
rrav enamel.  It contains, according to Langier, of
   "Silex................................  50.00
    Magnesia............................ 19-25
    Lime................................  9-75
    Alumine ............................  0.75
    Oxideofiron  ....................'•.■•  11-00
    Oxide of chrome  ....................  5.00

                                         G5.75
Its green- colour is derived from  the chrome, but is
often modified by the  large quantity of iron which is
present.   It presents  the following  varieties, which
pass into each other: 1. common actynolite • 2. g!a?sy;
3. acicular; 4. fibrous.
  " Actynolite is found in primitive rocks, or in veins
which traverse them ;  it is sometimes in metallic beds.
It is perhaps most common in  minerals which  contain
magnesia.  Its more distinct crystals occur  in talc,
quartz, and limestone.
  " It is found in  various parts of the United States
In  Maryland, near Baltimore, all  its varieties occur
in granite or gneiss.  In Pennsylvania, at Concord in
Chester  county, in large  masses of an emerald-green
colour.  In Connecticut, near New-Haven, in serpen-
tine ;  its structure  generally  radiated.  In Maine, at
Brunswick, all its varieties occur, sometimes in granite
and  gneiss, but   more  frequently  in limestone."-
Clcavcland's Mineralogy.  A.]
  ACTION.  (Actio,  nis. f.; from  ago,  to act.)   1
The operation or exertion of an active" power.
  2. Any faculty,  power, or function.  The actions or
functions of the body are  usually divided by physiolo-
gists into vital,  natural, or  animal.  1.  The vital
functions, or actions, are those which are absolutely
necessary to life, and without wliich animals cannot
exist; as the action of the  heart, lung?, and arteries.
2. The natural functions are  those which are instru-
mental in  repairing the several losses whicli the body
sustains: digestion, and  the formation of chyle, &c.
fall under this head.  3. The animal actions are those
which we perform at will, as muscular motion, ind all
the voluntary motions of the body.
  Independently of these properties, each part '.nay be
said to have an action peculiar to itself—for ins'unce.
the liver, by virtue of  a power which is pecul'ar r;> ftj
forms continually a liquid which is called bilo:  the
same thing takes place in the kidneys with reg'.rd to the
urine.   The voluntary muscles, in  certain states, be-
come hard, change their form, and contrac*..   These
are, however, referrible to  vitality.  It is upon thest
the attention of the physiologist ought  to be  particu
larly fixed.   Vital  action depends evidently upon  mi
trition,  and reciprocally, nutrition is  influenced bj-
vital action.—Thus, an organ that ceases to nourish
loses at the same time its faculty of acting; conse
qucntly the organs, the action of which is oftenest re
peated, possess a  more  active nutrition; and, on tlif
contrary, those that act  least, possess a  much slower
nutritive motion.
  The mechanism of vital action is unknown.  There
passes into the organ that acts an insensible molecular
motion, which is as little susceptible of description as
the nutritive motion.   Every  vital  action, however
simple,  is the same in  this respect.
  ACTUAL.  This word is applied  to anything en-
dued with u property or vir*:.e winch acts by an im-
mediate power inherent in it: it  is the  reverse of
potential: thus, a red-hjt iron or fire is called an actual 
ACU                                              ADA
•eautery, in contradistinction fron, caustics, which are
called potential cauteries.  Boiling water is actually
hot; brandy, producing heat in the body, is potentially
hot, though of itself cold
  >litual  ciiut-ni.  The  red-hot ircn, or  any red-hot
substance. $co'Actual.
  ACTUA'Rirs.  This word was originally a titleof
dignity given to physicians at the court of Constanti-
nople ; but became afterward the proper name of a
celebrated Greek physician, .John, (ihe son of Zachnry,
a Christian writer,)  who flourished there  about the
12th or 13th century.  He is said to be the first Greek
author who has treated of mild cathartics, as manna,
cassia, &c, though they were long before in use among
tile Arabians.  He appears also to  have first noticed
distilled waters.   His works, however,  are  chiefly
.".ompiled from his predecessors.
  ACTUATION.  (From ago, to act.)  That change
wrought on a medicine, or any thing  taken into the
body, by the vital heat, which is necessary, in order to
.Taake it act and have its efftect.
  ACUTTAS.  Acrimony.
  Acui'tio. (From aciio, to sharpen.)  The sharpen-
!ng an acid medicine by an  addition of something
more acid; or, in  general, the increasing  the force of
any medicine, by an addition  of something  that hath
the same sort of operation in a greater degree.
  ACULEA'TUS. (From aculeus, a prickle.) Prickly;
covered with  sharp-pointed bodies: applied to stems
covered with sharp-pointed bodies, the prickles of which
separate with the epidermis, as in Rosa ccntifotia-
  ACU'LEUS.   i From aeus,  a  needle; from aKn, or
itxic; cuspis,:   •<" :t.)  A prickle or  sharp point.  A
species of arm„«.  ■ " itli which  the stems, branches,
and other parts of  sweral plants are furnished; as in
the rose, raspberry, gooseberry.  The part on which it
grows is said to be aculeated,  thus:—
  Caulis aculeatzis ; as in the  Rosa canina
  Folia aculeata;  as in Solanum marginatum.
  Calix aculeatus ; as in  Solanum aculcatum.
  Stipula aculeata ; as in Rosa cinnamomia.
  Legumcn aculeatum ; as in  Scorpiurus muricata.
  From the direction it has :—
  Aculeus rectus,  not curved;  as in Rhamnus spina
 zhristi, and Rosa eglantcria.
  Aculeus incurvus, curved inward ;  as in Mimosa
 cineraria.
  Aculeus rccurvus, curved downward; as in  Rubus
 fruticosus, and Rosa rubiginosa.
  From the number in one place:—
  Aculeus solitarius ; as in Rosa canina.
  Aculeus bifidus, or geminatus, in pairs ; there being
two joined at the basis; as in Rhamnus spina chrisli.
  Aculeus trijidus, three in one ; as in Barbaris  vul-
garis.
  A'cclon.  (From a, neg. and ctAou, to  roll round ;)
so called because its fruit is not  involved  in a cup, or
sheath, like others.
  Aculos.  The fruit or acorn of the  ilex.
  A'culos.  See Aculon.
  ACU'.MEN.   1.  A point.
  2. The extremity of a bone.
  ACUMINATUS.  (From acuo, to point.)  Acumi-
nate; or terminated by a  point  somewhat elongated.
Applied by botanists to several  parts of plants.  An
acuminate leaf is seen in the Syringa vulgaris.  Acu-
minate leaf-stalk ;  as that of Saxifraga stcllaris.
  ACL'PUNCTU'RA.   (From acus,  a  needle,  and
punctura, a  prick.)  Acupuncture.  A bleeding  per-
formed by making  many small punctures.
  [The operation of making small punctures in certain
parts of the body  with a needle, for the purpose of
relieving diseases,  is  practised in Siam,  Japan,  and
other oriental  countries, for  the cure of headaches,
.ethargics, convulsions, colics, &c.  The practice of
acupuncture is not followed in England nor America.
In  a  modem French  work it has been highly com-
mended ;  but, the author sets  so rash an example, and
is so wild in his  expectations of what may be done
by the thrust of a needle, that the tenor of his observa-
tions will not meet with many approvers. For instance,
in one case, he ventured to pierce the epigastric region
so deeply, that the coats ofthe stomach were supposed
to have been perforated :   this was done for the cure
of an obstinate cough  and is  alleged to have effected
a cure.  But  if this be not enough  to excite wonder,
• am sure the author's suggestion to run a long  needle
into  the  right ventricle of  the  neart,  in  cases ol
asphyxia, must create that sensation.—See Cooper's
Surg. Diet.   A.J
  A curon.   (From a, neg. andirvpur, to happen.)  A
name of the Alisma, because it produces no  effect if
taken internally.
  ACUSl'ASTO'RIS   A name of the  Scandix an-
thriscus, the shepherd's needle, or Venus's comb.
  ACUTANGULARIS.   Acutangulatus.  Acutan-
gular: applied to parts of plants,  as caulis acutan-
gularis.
  ACUTE\  Sharply. Applied  in natural history to
express form ; as folium acut  dentatum; acuti cmar-
ginatus, which means sharply dentate, and with sh'irp
divisions.
  ACUTENA'CULUM.   (From acus, a needle, and
tenaculum, a handle.)  The  handle for  a needle, to
make  it  penetrate easy   when  stitching  a wound.
Hcister calls the portaiguille by this name.
  ACUTUS.  Sharp.   1.  Used by naturalists to de-
signate form; thus acute-leaved; as in rumex acutus
&.C.
  2.  In pathology, it  is applied  to a  sharp  pungent
pain ; and to a disease which is attended with violent
symptoms, terminates in a few days, and is attended
with  danger.   It  is  opposed to a chronic disease,
whii li is slow in  its  progress, and not  so generally
dangerous.
  ACY ISIS.  (From a, neg. and kvio,  to  conceiv
A debr! of conception, or barrenness in women.
  A  cyrus.   (From a, priv.  and xvpos, authority ; ..
named from its little note iu medicine.)  The Germ
leopard's-bane.  See Arnica montana.
  AD.EMONIA.  (From a, priv.  and Saiuuv, a g
nius of fortune.)   See  Ademonia.
  Adam's Apple.  See Pomum Adami.
  Adam's needle.  The  roots of this  plant,  Yucca
gloriosa of Linnaeus, are thick and tuberous, and ai.
used by the  Indians  instead  of bread; being first n
duced into a coarse meal. This, however, is only in
limes of scarcity.
  ADAMANTINE SPAR.  A stone  remarkable for
its extreme hardness, which conies from the peninsula
of Hither India, and also from China.
  [Its colour is  dark brown, and its internal lustre
usually very strong.  It comes from China, and almost
always contains grains of  magnetic oxide of iron.  A
specimen was found by chemists to contain.
    Alumine ............................ 86.50
    Silex................................  5.25
    Oxide of iron  .......................  6.50

                                        98.25
The corundum appears to belong to primitive rocks,
and  particularly to granite, into the composition of
which it sometimes enters; hence scales  of mica  and
particles of feldspar sometimes adhere to its surface.
  In the  United States, it is by some supposed to exist
in Maryland, near Baltimore; and  in Connecticut, at
Haddam, in  the same granite, which contains chryso-
beryl, &c.  It may bo  employed, like emery, in polish-
ing hard substances.—Cleav. Min.  A.]
  A'DAMAS.  (From a neg. and cauaio, to conquer;
as not being easily broken.) The adamant or diamond,
the most  precious of all stones, and which was for-
merly supposed to possess extraordinary cordial virtues.
  Adami'ta, or  Adamilum.   A hard  slone  in  the
bladder.
  [ADAMS, DR.  SAMUEL,  was the  only son of
Samuel Adams, late governor of Massachusetts.  He
was  born at Boston,  in  October,  1751.   His prepa-
ratory education was at a  Latin school in  his native
town.  He entered Harvard  University at the age of
fourteen years, and was graduated in 1770.  His pro-
fessional education was acquired under the direction
of Dr. Joseph Warren, and  he  practised in Boston.
When hostilities commenced with Great Britain, in
1775, Dr. Adams, imbued  with the patriotic  spirit ol
his father, engaged as surgeon in the hospital depart-
ment of the  United States' army.  Commencing his
public services at Cambridge, by attending the soldiers
who were wounded at Lexington and Bunker's Hill,
he afterward removed lo  Danbury, and  successively
to various stations in several of the states, and conti-
nued in  the service  during the revolutionary war;
after which  ho  returned  to  his native town with a
broken constitution, and   unable to recommence his 
ADD
 rrofessional pursuits: he died on the 17th of January,
 7t58.  He possessed a substantial mind, social feelings,
and a generous heart; and  his greatest  pleasure was
to  do good to his ieMow-inen.—Thacher's Med. Bio-
graphy.  A.]
  ADANSO NIA.   (From  Adanson who first de-
scribed the ./Ethiopian sour  gourd, a species of this
genus.)  The name of a genus  of plants.  Class, Po-
lyandria ; Order, Monadelphia.  Monkeys' bread.
  Adansosia dioitata.  This is the only species of
the genus  yet discovered.  It is called the ./Ethiopian
sour gourd and  monkeys' bread.  Baobab.  Bahobab.
It grows mostly on the west coast  of Africa, from the
Niger to the kingdom of Benin.  The bark is called
lalo: the  negroes dry it in  the shade;  then  powder
 nd keep it in little cotton bags; and put two or three
pinches into their food.   It is mucilaginous,  and gene-
rally promotes perspiration.  The mucilage obtained
from this hark is a powerful remedy against the epi-
demic fevers ofthe country that produces these trees;
so is a decoction ofthe dried leaves. The fresh  fruit
is  as useful as the leaves, for the same purposes.
   Ada'rces.  (From a, neg. and  otpxu, to see.)  A
saltish concretion found about the reeds and grass  in
marshy grounds in Gadatia, and so called because it
hides them.  It is used to clear  the skin with, iu lepro-
sies, tetters, &x.  Dr. Plott  gives an account of this
production in his Natural History of Oxfordshire.  It
was formerly in repute for cleansing the  skin from
freckles.
   Adarticulation.  See Arthrodia,
   ADDEPHA'GIA.  (From air,v, abundantly, and
0ayu,  to eat.)  Insatiability.  A voracious appeiite.
See Bulimia.
   ADDER.   See Coluber bcrus.
   ADDITAME'NTUM.  (From addo,  to  add.)  An
addition to any part, which,  though not  always, is
sometimes  found.  A term formerly  employed  as
synonymous with epiphysis, but  now only applied to
two portions of sutures of the skull. See Lambdoidal
 and Squamous Sutures.
   Addita.mentum coli.  See  Appcndicula caci ver-
 miformis.                             ,       „,.
   ADDUCENS. (From ad, and duco, to draw.)  1 he
 name of some  parts which draw those together to
 wliich they are connected.
   Adducens oculi. See Rectus interims oculi.
   ADDUCTOR.  (From ad, uxuiduco, to draw.)  A
 drawer or contractor.  A name given to several mus-
 cles, the office of which is  to bring forwards  or draw
 together thoae parts of the body to which  they are
 annexed.
   Adductor  brevis  femoris.   A  muscle ot the
 thigh, which, with the adductor longus and  magnus
 fenoris, forms the triceps adductor femoris.  Adduc-
 tor f.-maris sccundus of Douglas;  Triceps secundus
 of Winslow.   It is situated on the posterior part of the
 thigh, arising  tendinous from the os  pubis,  near its
 joining with the opposite os pubis below,  and behind
 the adductor longus femoris, and is inserted tendinous
 and fleshy, into the inner and up|>er part of the linea
 aspera, from a little below the  trochanter minor, to
 the beginning of the insertion of the adductor longus
 femoris.  See Triceps adductor femoris.
    Acductor femoris primus.  See Adiluctor longus
 femoris.
    Adductor  femoris  secundus.   bee Adductor
  bricis femoris.
    Addui tor femoris tertius.  See  Adductor mag-
  nus femoris.
    Adductor femoris quartus.  See Adductor mag-
   nus femom.
     Adductor indicis pedis.  An external interosse-
   ous muscle of Ihe fore-toe, which  arises tendinous and
   fleshy by two origins, from the root of the  inside of
   the metatarsal bone of the ftire-toe, from the outside
   of the root of the metatarsal  bone of the great toe, and
   from the os cuneiform internum.   It  is inserted, ten-
   dinous into the  inside of the root of the  first joint of
   the fore-toe.   Its use is to pull the fore-toe inwards
   from the rest of the small toes.
     Addi ctok longus femoris.   A  muscle situated
   nn the posterior part of  the thigh, which, with the
   adductor brevis, and  magnus femoris, lorms ihe tri-
   ceps  adductor ft maris  Adductor femoris primus of
   Douglas.  Tn'cips minus of Winslow.   It arises by a
   urettv strong roundish tendon,  from the  upper and
       ' 26
                     ADE,

interior part of the os pubis, and ligament of its syn
choudrosis, on the inner side of the;, peotlneus, and l»
inserted along the  middle  part  ot  the  Unea a.-pera.
See Triceps adductor femoris.
  Adductor magnus femoris.  A muscle which,
with the adductor brevis femoris, and the auuuctor
longus femoris, forms the Triceps adductor Juacris ,
Adductor femoris tertius et quartus of DougUs.  In-
ecus magnus of Winslow.  It arises from the sy rophy
sfrpubfs"and all along the fiat edge of the thyro:
foramen, from whence it goes to be inserted into tlw
linea aspera throughout its whole length,  fc^-e in-
aps adductor femoris.
  Adductor minimi digiti pedis.  An internal inter
rosseous muscle ofthe foot.  It  arises, tendinous and
fleshy  from the  inside of the root of the metatarsal
bone of the little toe.  It is inserted, tendinous, into
the inside of the root of the first joint of the little toe.
Its  use is to pull the little toe inwards.
  Adductor oculi.  See  Rectus tatcrnus oculi.  _
  Adductor pollicis.  See Adductor pollicis manus.
  Adductor  pollicis  manus.   A  muscle of the
thumb, situated on the hand.  Adductor pollicis;
Adductor ad minimum digitum.  It anses, fleshy, from
almost the whole length of the metacarpal bone that
sustains the middle finger; from thence its fibres are
collected together.   It is inserted,  tendinous, into the
inner part ol" the root of the first bone ot the thumb.
Its  use is to pull the thumb towaids the fingers.
  Adductor pollicis pedis.   A muscle of the great
toe, situated on the foot.  Antithenar of Winslow. It
arises, by a long, thin tendon, from the os calcis, from
the os cuboides, from the os cuneiforme externum, and
from the root of the metatarsal bone of the second toe.
It  is inserted into the external  os sesamoideuni, and
root of the metatarsal bone of the great toe.  Its use ia
to bring this toe  nearer to the rest.
  Adductor  prostata.   A name given by Sane
torini to a muscle, which he also calls Levator pros
taia  and which Winslow calls Prostaticus superior.
Albinus, from its office,  had very properly called it
 Compressor prostata.
   Adductor tertii digiti  pedis.   An external
 interosseous muscle of the foot, that arises, tendinous
 and fleshy, from the roots of the metatarsal bones of
 the third and little toe.  It is inserted, tendinous, into
 the outside of the root of the first joint of the third loe
 Its use is to pull the third toe outward.
   ADELPHIA. ('A.6t\ipia, a relation.)  Hippocrates
 calls diseases by this name that resemble each other.
   ADEMO'NIA. (From a,  priv.andSainuv, a genius,
 or divinity, or  fortune.)   Aduimonia.   Hippocrates
 uses this word for uneasiness, restlessness, or anxiety
 felt in acute disease, and some hysteric tits.
   A'DEN.   (Aden, cnis, m.; act/v, a gkmdJ
   1.  A gland.  See Gland.
   2.  A bubo. See Bubo.
   Adende'ntks.   An epithet applied to ulcers which
 eat and destroy the glands.
    ADE NIFORMIS. (From aden, a gland, and forma,
 resemblance.)  Adenilbrui.  1. Glandiform, or rescm
 bling a gland.
    2. A term sometimes applied to the prostate gland
    ADENO GRAPHY.  (Adcnographia ; from a&rjv, a
 gland, and ypaibio, to write.)   A txea'.ise on  tlw
 glands.
    ADENOl'DES.  (From  aini; a  gland, and tt&os
  resemblance.)  Glandiform : resembling a gland. An
  epithet applied also to the prostate gland.
    ADENO LOGY.  (Adenologia; frouia5ijv,agland,
    d \oy ns, a treatise.)  The doctrine ofthe glands.
  u nu~"n » "-«"«"./  - —- —~.....- — '..- glands.
  ADl'.NOUS.   (Alcnosus,  from arjiji',  a gland)
Gland-like.
  ADEPHA'GIA.   (From  aSn»,  abundautly, and
$ayur, to eat.)  Insatiable appetite.  See Bulimia.
  AD EPS.  (Adcps, ipis, m. and f.J  Fat.  An oily
secretion from the blood into the cells of the celluku
membrane.  See Fat.
  Adeps anserinus.  Goose-grease.
  Adeps pr.kparata.  Prepared lard.   Cut the lard
into small pieces, melt it over a slow fire, and press il
through a linen cloth.
  Adeps suilla.  Hog's lard.  This forms the basii
of  many ointments, and is used extensively lor culi-
nary purposes.
  ADEPT. (From Adipiscor, to obtain.) 1. A skilftf
alchymist.  Such are called so as pretend to sonic 
AD.                                             ADI
 extraordinary skill  in chemistry; but these have toe
 often proved'eiuier enthusiasts or impostors.
   2. The professors of  ilia Adepta P/ulotophia, that
 philosophy  the  cad of  whicli is the transmutation
 of metals, and  a universal remedy, were also called
 Adepts.
   3. So Paracelsus  calls that which treats of  the dis-
 eases that are contract! d by celestial operations, or
 communicated from heaven.
   ADFLA'TUS.  A  blast; a kind of erysipelas, or
 St. Anthony's fire.
   ADILESION.   (Adhesio; from adharo, to stick
 10 )  The ^towing together of parte.
   ADHESIVE.  (Adhasivus ;  from adharo, to stick
 to.)  Having the property of s tic king.
   Adhssive inflammation. That species of inflam
 tnation  which terminates by  nil  adhesion  of  the
 inflamed surfaces.
   Adh.esive plaster,   a plaster made of common
 litharge plaster and resin, is so called because it is used
 for its adhesive properties.  Sec  Emplastrum rcsinc.
   Adiiato da.  (A Zeylanic term,  signifying expel-
 ling a dead foetus.)  See Jasticia adhatoda.
   Adiachy'tis.  (Froma, neg. and rJiaxwi*!to diffuse,
 scatter,  or be profuse.) Decent in point of dress.  Hip-
 pocrates thinks the  dress of a fop derogatory from the
 physician, though thereby he hide his  Ljnoia.-ice, and
 obtain the good opinion of his patients.
   ADIA'NTHUM.   (Adiantum, i. a. a&iavtov ; from
 a, neg. and Siaivoj, to grow wet:  so called, because its
 leaves are not easily made wet) The name of a genus
 of plants  in the Linnrean system  Class, Crvptoga-
 mia; Order, Filiccs.  Maiden-hair.
   Adianthum aureum   The  golden  maiden-hair.
 See Polytrichum.
   Adianthum  capillus  veneris.    Maiden-hair.
 The leaves of this plant  are somewhat sweet and aus-
 tere to the palate, and possess mucilaginous qualities.
 A syrup, the syrop dc capillaire is prepared from them,
 which  is  much esteemed in France against catarrhs.
 Orange-flower water, and a proportion of honey, it is
 said, arc usually added.  It acts chiefly as a demulcent,
 sheathing the inflamed sides of the glottis.
   Adianthum pedatum. Adianthum canndensc. This
 piant is in  common use in France for the same pur-
 poses as the common adianthum capillus veneris in
 this country, and appears to be far superior to it.
   ADIAPHOROUS.   Adiaphorus.   A term  which
 implies the same with neutral; and  is particularly
 used of some spirits and salts, which arj neither of" an
 acid nor alcaline nature.
   ADIAPNEU'STIA.   (From the privative particle
 a, and dia-rvco), perspiro.) A diminution or obstruc-
 tion of  natural  perspiration, and that in which  the
 indents chiefly placed the cause of fevers.
   ADIARRH'E A.   (From a.  priv. and Siafttto, to
 flow out or through.)  A suppression of the necessary
 evacuations from the bowels.
  ADIPOCI RE.  (Adipocera, <e. f.; from adeps, fat,
 and ccra, wax.)   A particular spermaceti or fat-like
 substance formed by the  spontaneous conversion of
 animal  matter, under certain conditions.  This con-
 version  has long been well known, and is said to have
 been mentioned in  the works of Lord  Bacon.  " On
 the occasion ofthe removal of a very great number of
 human  bodies  from the  ancient  burying-place des
 Innocens at Paris, facts of this nature were observed in
 the most striking manner.  Fourcroy may be called
 the scientific discoverer of this peculiar matter, as well
 as the saponaceous ammoniacal substance contained in
 bodies abandoned to spontaneous destruction in  large
 masses.   This chemist read a memoir on the subject
 in the year 1789 to the Royal Academy of Sciences,
 from which the general contents are here abstracted.
   " At  the  time of clearing  the before-mentioned
 burying-place, certain philosophers were  specially
charged to direct the precautions requisite for securing
the health of the workmen. A new and singular ob-
ject of research presented itself, wliich had been neces-
sarily unknown to preceding chemists.   It was impos-
sible to  foretell what might be the contents of a soil
overloaded for successive aces with bodies resigned to
the putrefactive process.  This spot differed from com-
mon burying-grouuds, where each individual object is
surrounded by a portion  of the soil._ It was the bury-
ing-ground of a large district, wherein successive gene-
rations of the inhabitants had been deposited for up-
j wards of three centuries.  It  could not be, foreseen
 that the entire decomposition  might be  retaided fot
\ more than forty Mars ; neither was there any reason
 to suspect that 'any remarkable difference would  arise
 from the singularity of situation.
   " The remains of the human bodies immersed in this
 mass of  putrescence, were found in three different
 states, according to the time they  had been buried, the
 place they occupied, and their relative situations with
 regard to each other.  The most  ancient were simply
 portions of  bones, irregularly  dispersed in the soil,
 which had been frequently disturbed.  A second slate,
 in certain bodies which had always been insulated,
 exhibited the skin, ihe muscles, the tendons, and apo-
i neurosis,  dry,  brittle, hard,  more or less gray, and
 similar to what are called mummies in certain caverns
 where this change has been observed, as in the cata
 combs at  Rome, and the vault  of the Cordeliers at
 Toulouse.
   "The third  and  most singular state  of these soft
 parts was observed  in the bodies which filled the com-
 mon graves  or repositories.  By this appellation are
 understood cavities of thirty feet in depth, and twenty
 on each side, wliich were dug in thetmrying-grouiid of
 the Innocents, and  were appropriated to contain the
 bodies of the poor;  which were  placed in very close
 rows, each in its proper wooden bier.  The necessity
 for disposing a great number, obliged the men  charged
 with this employment to arrange them so  near  each
 other that these cavities might be considered when
 tilled, as  an entire mass of human  bodies separated
 only by two planks of* about half an inch thick.  Each
 cavity contained between  one thousand  and fifteen
 hundred.   When one common grave of this magnitude
 was filled a covering of about  one foot deep of earth
 was laid upon  it, and another excavation of the same
 sort was made at some distance. Each grave remained
 open about three years, which  was the time required
 to fill it.   According to the urgency of circumstances,
 the graves were again made on the same spot  after an
 interval of time, not less than fifteen years, nor more
 than thirty.   Experience  had  taught the  workmen,
 that this lime was not sufficient for the entire  destruc-
 tion of the bodies, and had shown them  the progress-
 ive changes which form the object of Fourcroy's me
 moir.
  • " The first of these large graves, opened in the pre-
 sence of this chemist, had been closed tor fifteen years.
 The coffins were in good preservation, but  a little set-
 tled, and  the wood had  a yellow tinge.   VVIier. ihe
 covers of several were taken oft*, the  bodies were ob
 served at the bottom, leaving a considerable distance
 between their surface and the cover, and flattened  as
 if they had suffered a strong compression.  The linen
 which had covered  them was slightly adherent to the
 bodies; and with the form of the different regions, ex
 hibited on removing the linen, nothing but irregular
 masses of a soft ductile matter of a gray-white colour
 These masses environed the bones on all sides, which
 hail  no solidity, but  broke by  any sudden pressure.
 The appearance of this matter, its obvious composition,
 and its softness, resembled common white cheese; and
 the  resemblance  was more striking from  the print
 which the threads of the linen had made upon its sur-
 face.  This white substance yielded to the touch, and
 became soft when  rubbed for a  time between  the
 fingers.
   " No very offensive  smell was  emitted  from these
 bodies. The novelty and singularity of the spectacle,
 and the example of the grave-diggers, dispelled every
 idea either of disgust or apprehension.   These  men
 asserted that they never found this matter, by them
 called gras (fat,) in bodies interred alone; but that
 the accumulated bodies of the common  graves  only
 were subject to this change.  On a very attentive ex-
 amination of a number of  bodies passed to this state,
 Fourcroy  remarked, that the conversion appeared  in
 different stages of  advancement, so  that, in  various
 bodies, the fibrous  texture and colour, more  or less
 red, were discernible within the fatty matter;  that the
 masses covering the bones were entirely of the same
 nature, offering indistinctly in  all the regions  a gray
 substance, for the most part  soft  and ductile, some-
 times dry, always easy to be separated in porous frag-
 ments, penetrated with cavities, and no longer cxhi
 biting any traces of membranes, muscles, tendons,
 vessels, or nerves.   On the frst inspection of tins* 
ADI
ADI
wmh. masses, it might have been concluded that they
were simply the ceMuh.r tissue, the compartments and
vesicles of which they very well represented.
  " By examining this substance in the different re-
gions ofthe body, it was found that the skin is particu-
larly disposed to this remarkable  alteration.  It was
afterward perceived  that the ligaments and tendons
no longer existed, or at least hail lost their tenacity;
so that the bones were  entirely unsupported, and left
to the action of their own weight  Whence their rela-
tive places were preserved in a certain degree by mere
juxtaposition : the least effort being sufficient to sepa-
rate them.  The grave-diggers availed  themselves of
this circumstance in the removal of the bodies.  For
they rolled them up  from  head to feet, and by that
neans  separated from  each other the  extremities of
Ihe bones, which had formerly been articulated.  In
e.11 those  bodies which  were changed  into  the fatty
matter, the abdominal cavity had disappeared.  The
teguments and muscles of this region being converted
into  the white matter, like the  other soft parts, had
subsided  upon the vertebral column, and were so flat-
tened as to leave no  place for the viscera;  and ac-
cordingly there was scarcely ever  any trace observed
in the  almost obliterated  cavity.  This  observation
was for a long time matter of astonishment to the in-
rejtigators.  In vain did they seek in the greater nuin-
o»r of bodies, the place and substance of the stomach,
the intestines, the bladder, and  even  the liver, the
spleen,  the kidneys, and the matrix in females.  All
these viscera  were confounded  together, and for the
most part no traces  of them were left.  Sometimes
only  certain irregular masses were found, of the same
nature  as the white  matter, of different bulks, from
that of a  nut to two or three inches  in diameter, in the
regions ofthe liver or ofthe spleen.
  "The thorax likewise offered an assemblage of facts
no less  singular and interesting.  The external part of
this cavity was flattened and compressed like the rest
of the  organs;  the  ribs,  spontaneously luxated in
their  articulations  with  the vertebrae, were  settled
upon the dorsal column; their arched part left only a
small space on each side between  them and the ver-
tebrae.  The pleura, the mediastinum, the large vessels,
the aspera arteria, and even the lungs and the heart,
were no longer distinguishable;  but for  the most  part
iiad entirely disappeared, and in their  place nothing
was seen but  some parcels of the fatty substance.  In
this case, the matter which was the pioduct of decom-
position of the viscera charged with blood and various
humours, differs from that of the surface of the body,
and the long  bones, in the  red or brown colour  pos-
sessed by the former.   Sometimes  the observers found
in the thorax  a mass  irregularly rounded, of the same
nature  as the latter, which appeared to them to have
arisen from the fat and fibrous substance of the heart.
The/ supposed that this mass, not constantly  found in
all the subjects, owed its existence to  a superabun-
dance of fat in this viscus, where  it was found.  For
the general observation presented itself, that, in similar
circumstances, the fat parts undergo this conversion
more evidently than the others, and afford  a larger
quantity ofthe white matter.
  " The external region in females exhibited the glan-
dular and adipose mass of the breast converted into the
fatty matter, very white and very homogeneous.
  " The head was, as has already been remarked, en-
vironed with the fatty matter ; the face  was no longer
distinguishable in the greatest number of subjects; the
mouth, disorganized, exhibited neither tongue nor pa-
late ; and the jaws, luxated and more or less displaced,
were environed with irregular layers  of the white
mailer.   Some pieces of the same  matter usually oc-
cupied the place of the parts situated in  the mouth ;
the cartilages of the nose participated  in the general
alteration ofthe skin; the orbits, instead of eyes,  con-
tained white  masses; the ears were equally disorgan-
ized ; and the hairy scalp, having undergone a similar
alteration to that ofthe other organs, still retained the
hair.  Fourcroy remarks incidentally,  that  the  hair
appears lo resist every alteration much  longer than
any  other part ofthe body.  The cranium constantly
contained the brain contracted in bulk;  blackish at the
surface, and absolutely changed  like the other organs.
In a great number of subjects which were examined,
this  viscus was  never found wanting, and it  v as al-
ways  iu  the  above-mentioned  state;   whicli  proves
   "   3d
that the substance of the brain \i grestly disposed  to
be converted into the fat matter.
  " Such was the state of the bodies found in the bu-
rial-ground des Innocens.  Its  modifications were also
various.   Its consistence in bodies lately changed, that
i3 to say, from three  to five years, was soft and  very
ductile, containing a great quantity of water.  In other
subjects converted into this matter for a long time, such
as those which occupied the cavities which  had been
closed  thirty or forty years, this matter is drier, mora
brittle, and in denser flakes.  In several, which were
deposited  in dry e*arth, various portions of the fatty
matter had become semitransparent  The aspect, the
granulated texture, and brittleness of this dried matter,
bore a considerable resemblance to wax.
  " The period of the formation of this substance  had
likewise an influence on its properties.  In general, all
that which had been formed for a long time was white,
uniform, and contained no foreign substance, or fibrous
remains; such, in particular, was that afforded by the
skin of the  extremities.  On the contrary, in  bodies
recently changed, the fatty matter was neither so  uni-
form nor  so pure as in the former;  bul it was  still
found  to contain portions of  muscles,  tendons,  and
ligaments, the texture of which, though already altered
and changed in its colour, was still  distinguishable.
Accordingly, as the  conversion was more or less ad-
vanced, these fibrous remains were more  or  less pene-
trated  with the fatty matter,  interposed  as it were
between the interstices of the fibres.  This observation
shows, that it  is not merely  the fat which  is thus
changed, as was natural enough to think at first sight
Other facts confirm this assertion.  The skin, as has
been remarked, becomes easily converted into very pure
white matter, as does likewise the brain,  neither of
which  has been considered by anatomists to be fat.   It
is true, nevertheless, that  the unctuous parts,  and
bodies charged with fat, appear more easily and speed-
ily to pass to the state under consideration.   This  was
seen in the marrow, which occupied the cavities of the
longer  bones   And again, it is  not to be supposed but
that the greater part of these  bodies had been ema-
ciated by the illness which terminated their lives;  not-
withstanding which, they were all  absolutely turned
into this fatty substance.
  " An experiment made by Poulletier de la Salle,  and
Fourcroy likewi e, evinced that a conversion does not
take place in the fat alone.  Poulletier had suspend.d
in his laboratory a small piece  of the  human liver, tj
observe what would arise to it by the contact  of the
air.  It partly  putrefied, without, however,  emitting
any very noisome smell.  Larva? ofthe deruiesr.es  and
bruchus attacked and penetrated  it  in various  direc-
tions ;  at last it became dry, and after more than ten
years' suspension, it was converted into a white friable
substance resembling dried agaric, which might have
been taken for an  earthy substance.  In  this  state it
had no perceptible smell.  Poulletier was  desirous of
knowing the state of this animal matter, and experi-
ment soon convinced him ami Fourcroy that it was far
from being in the stat«» of an earth.  It melted by heat,
and exhaled in the form of vapour, which had the
smell  of a very fetid fat; spirit of  wine separated a
concrescible oil, which appeared lo possess all the pro
perties of spermaceti.  Each of the three alcalies con
verted  it into soap; and, in a word, it exhibited all the
properties of the fatty matter of the  burial-ground of
the Innocents exposed for several months to  the air.
Here then was a glandular organ, which in the midst
of the atmosphere had undergone a change similar to
that of the bodies in the burying-place;  and this i'aL-t
sufficiently shows, that an animal substance w hich  is
very far from being  of the nature of grease, may be
totally  converted into this fatty substance.
  " Among tile modifications of this remarkable sub-
stance  in the burying-ground before-mentioned, it  was
observed that the dry, friable, and brittle matter,  was
mosi commonly found near the surface of the earth.
and the soft, ductile matter at a greater depth.  Four-
croy remarks, that this dry matter did not differ from
ihe other merely in containing less water, but likewise
by the  volatilization of one of its principles."
  The  grave-diggers  assert, that  near  three years are
required to convert  a body into this fatty substance.
But Dr. Gibbes of Oxford found, that lean beef secured
in a running stream, was converted into this fatty matter
at the end of a month.  lit judges from ftc       rua. 
ADI                                                ADI
 ning water is most favourable to this process.  He tool;
 three lean pieces of mutton, and poured on each a quan-
 tity ofthe three common mineral acids.  At the end of
 three days, each was much chansed: that in the nitric
 acid w:ts very soft, and  converted  into the fatty mat-
 ter;  that in tins muriatic acid  was not in that time so
 much altered . the sulphuric acid had turned the other
 black. Lavoisier fli inks that this process may hereafter
 prove of great use i'i  society.   It is  not easy to point
 out what animal  substance, or what situation, might
 be the best adapted for an undertaking of this kind.
  The result ol Fourcro\'s  inquiries  into the ordinary
 changes  ol' bodies  recently deposited in the  earth, was
 not very eueusive. The grave-diggers informed him,
 that those bodies interred do not perceptibly change  co-
 lour for the first seven or eight days: that the putrid pro-
 cessdisengages elastic fluid, which inflates the abdomen,
 and at length bursts it;  that this event instantly causes
 vertigo, taintness,  and nausea in  such persons as un-
 fortunately are within a certain distance of the scene
 where it takes place;  but that  when  the  object of its
 nction is nearer, a sudden privation of sense, and fre-
 quently death, is the consequence.   These men  are
 taught by cx|>crience,  that no  immediate danger is to
 be feared from the disgusting busir.ess they are engaged
 in, excepting at this period, which they regard with  the
 utmost  terror.  They resisted  every inducement and
 persuasion which  these philosophers made use of, to
 prevail  on them  to assist  their  researches  into the
 nature of this active and pernicious vapour.   Fourcroy
 •akes occasion from these  fact*, as  well as from  the
 pallid and unwholesome appearance of  the grave-
 diggers,  to reprobate  burials in great towns or their
 vicinity.
  Such bodies as are interred  alone, in the midst of a
 great  quantity of humid earth, are  totally destroyed
 by passing through the successive degrees of the ordi-
 nary putrefaction; and this destruction is more speedy,
 thewarmer Ihe temperature.  But if these insulated
 bodies be dry and emaciated; if the place of deposition
 be likewise dry, and the locality and other circum-
 stances   such, that the  earth, so far from receiving
 moisture from the atmosphere, becomes still more ef
 fecmally parched by the solar rays;—the animal juices
 tire volatilized and absorbed, the solids contract and
 harden, and a peculiar species of mummy is produced.
 But  every circumstance is very different in the com-
 mon burying-grounds.  Heaped together almost in con-
 tact,  the influence of  external bodies affects  them
 scarcely at all, and they become abandoned to a  pe-
 culiar  disorganization,  which destroys  their texture.
 and  produces the new and most permanent state of
 combination here  described.  From various observa-
 tions, it was found, that this fatty matter was capable
 of enduring in these burying-places  for thirty or forty
 years, and is at length corroded and carried off by  the
 aqueous  putrid humidity which there abounds.
  Among other interesting facts afforded by the chemi-
 cal  examination of this substance ore the following
 from experiments by Fourcroy.
  1. This substance is  fused at a '.ess degree of heat than
 that of boiling water, and may be purified by pressure
 through a cloth, which disengages a portion of fibrous
 and  bony matter.  2.  The  process of destructive dis-
 tillation  by a very graduated heat was begun, but not
 completed, on account of its tediousness, and the little
 promise of advantage it afforded. The products whicli
 came over were water  charged with volatile alcali, a
 fat  oil,  concrete volatile alcali, and no elastic  fluid
 during  the  time   the operation  was continued.  3.
 Fragments of the fatty matter exposed to the air during
 the hot  and dry summer of 1786 became dry, brittle,
 and almost  pulverulent at  the surface.   On a careful
 examination, certain  portions were observed  to  be
 semiiransparent, and more brittle than the rest. These
 liossessed all the apparent  properties of wax, and did
 not afford volatile alcali  by  distillation.   4. With
 water this fatty matter exhibited all the appearances
 of soap,  and afforded  a strong lather. The dried sub-
 stance did not form the saponaceous combination with
 the same facility or perfection as that which was  re-
 cent.  About two-thirds of this dried matter separated
 from the water by cooling, and proved to be the seini-
 tt.insparent substance  rese.ii lling  wax.   This was
 taken from the surface of the soapy liquor, which
 being then passed through the filter, left a white soft
shining  matter, wh;cH  vi as fusible and combustible.
5.  A; tempt j were  made  to ascertain the quantity of
volatile alcali in this substance, by the application' of
lime, and of ihe fixed alcalies, but without success: for
it  was difficult to collect and appreciate the first por-
tions which  escaped, and likewise to disengage the
last  portions.   The  caustic, volatile alcali, with the
assistance of a gentle heat, dissolved the fatty matter,
and  the solution became perfectly clear and transpa-
rent at the boiling temperature of  the mixture, which
was at 1KV F.   0.  Sulphuric  acid, of the specific
gravity of 2. 0, was poured u|joii six  times its weight
ofthe fatty matter, and mixed by agitation.  Heat w;n
produced, and a  gas or  effluvium of the most insup-
portable putrescence was emitted,  which infected the
air of an extensive laboratory foi several days.   Four
croy says, that the smell cannot be described, but that
it  is one of the most horrid and repulsive that can bi
imagined.  It did  not, however, produce any indispo
s.tion either in  himself or his assistants.   By dilution
with water, aiufthe ordinary processes of evaporation
and  cooling,  properly repealed, the sulphates of am-
monia and of lime were  obtained.  A substance waa
separated  from the liquor, which  appeared to be tin
waxy matter, somewhat  altered  by the action of tin
acid.  7. The "nitrous and muriatic acids were alsit
applied, aud  afforded  phenomena  worthy of remark,
but which  for the sake of conciseness are here omit-
ted.  8. Alcohol does  not act on  this matter at the
ordinary temperature  of the  air.   But  by boiling  it
dissolves one-third of its own weight, which is almost
totally separable by cooling as low as o.'i-'.  The  alco-
hol, after this process, affords by evaporation a portion
of that waxy matter which is  separable by acids, aud
is  therefore the  only portion soluble  in cold alcohol.
The quantity of fatty matter operated on was 4 ounces,
or 2304. grains, of which the boiling spirit  took up the
whole except 2G grains, whicli proved to be a mixture
of 20 grains of ainmoniacal soap, and 6 or 8 grains of
the phosphates of soda and of lime.  From this expe-
riment, wh.'ch was three times repeated with similar
results, it appears  that alcohol is well suited to afford
an analysis of the fatty matter.  It does  not dissolve
the neutral salts; when cold, it dissolves  that portion
of concrete animal oil from which the volatile alcali
had  flown  off;  and  when  heated, it dissolves the
whole of ihe truly saponaceous matter, which is after-
ward completely separated by cooling.  And accord-
ingly it was  found, that a thin plate of the fatty mai-
ler, which  had lost nearly the whole of its  volatile
alcali, by exposure  to the air for three  years, was
almost dissolved by the cold alcohol.
  The concrete oily or waxy substance obtained in
these experiments constitutes the leading object of
research, as being the peculiar substance with which
the other well-known matters arc combined.  It sepa-
rates spontaneously by the action of the air, as well as
by that of acids.  These last separate it in a state of
greater purity, the less disposed the acid may be to ope-
rate  in the way of combustion.  It is requisite, there-
fore, for this purpose, that the fatty matter  should
be previously diffused in  12  times its weight of hot
water; and the muriatic or acetous acid is preferable
to the sulphuric  or  the  nitrous.   The colour of the
waxy matter is grayish;  and though exposure to the
air, and also the action of the oxygenated muriatic acid
did produce an apparent whiteness, it nevertheless dis-
appeared by subsequent fusion.  No method was dis-
covered by which it could be permanently bleached.
  The nature of this wax or fat  is different from that
of any other known substance of the like kind.  When
slowly cooled after fusion, its texture appears crystal-
line or shivery, like spermaceti;  but a speedy cooling
gives it a semitransparency resembling wax.   Upon
the whole, nevertheless,  it seems  to  approach more
nearly to the  former  than to the latter of these bodies.
It has less smell than spermaceti,  and melts at 12*iu F.;
Dr. Bostock says 92°.   Spermaceti  requires 6° more of
heat to fuse  it, (according to  Dr. Bostock 20°.)   The
spermaceti did not so spteu.l.' become brittle by cooling
as the adipocire.  One ounce of alcohol ofthe strength
between 3!) and 40 degrees if  Bauine's aerometer, dis-
solved  when  boiling hot li gros of  this substance, out
the same quantity in like  circumstances dissolved only
:!0or 36* grains of spermaceti.   The separation of these
matters was also remarkably different, the spermaceti
being more speedily deposited, »nrt in t much more
regular  and  crystalline  form.   Ammonia di«snlve*
                                         29 
ADL                                            ads
with singular facility, and even in the cold, this con-
crete oil separated from the fatty matter; and by heat
If.  forms  a transparent solution, which is a true soap.
But no excess of ammonia can produce such an effect
With spermaceti.
  Fourcroy concludes his memoir with some specul-
 ations on the change to whicli animal substances in
peculiar  circumstances are subject.  In the modern
chemistry, soft animal matters are considered as a corn-
position  of the oxydes of hydrogen and carbonated
azote, more complicated than thoite of vegetable mat-
ters, and therefore more  incessantly tending to altera-
lion.  II" then the carbon be conceived  to unite with
the oxygen, either ofthe water which is present, or of
the other animal matters, and thus (escape in large quan-
tities in the form of carbonic acid g.is, we shall perceive
the reason why this conversion is attended  with so
great a loss of weight, namely, about nine-tenths of the
Whole.  The azote, a principle so abundant in  animal
matters, will form ammonia by combining with the
hydrogen; part  of  this will  escape in  the vaporous
form, and the rest will remain fitted in the fatly mat-
ter.  The residue of the animal mattcris deprived of a
great part of their carbon, of their oxygen, and the
whole of their azote, will consist of a much  greater
proportion of hydrogen,  together with carbon and a
minute quantity of  oxygen.   This, according to the
theory  of Fourcroy, constitutes the  waxy  matter, or
ndipocire, which, in combination with ammonia, forms
the animal soap, into which the dead bodies are thus
converted.
  Muscular fibre, macerated in dilute nitric acid, and
afterward well  washed in warm water, affords pure
idipocire, of a light yellow colour, nearly of the con-
iistence of tallow, of a homogeneous texture, and of
tourse free from ammonia. This is the mode in which
t is now commonly procured for chemical experiment.
   Ambergris  appears to contain  adipocire in large
juantity, rather more than half of it being of this sub-
stance.
   Adipocire  has been more  recently examined  by
Chevreul.  He found it composed of a small quantity
af ammonia, potassa, and lime, united to much marga-
rine, and to a very little of another fatty matter differ-
ent from  that.  Weak muriatic acid seizes the three
alcaline bases.  On  treating  the residue with a solu-
tion of potassa, the  margarine is precipitated in the
form of a pearly substance, while the other fut remains
dissolved.  Fourcroy being of opinion that the fatty
matter of animal carcasses, the substance of biliary
calculi, and spermaceti,  were  nearly identical, gave
'hem the same name of adipocire; but it appears from
the researches of Chevreul that these substances are
very different from each  other.
  In the Philosophical Transactions for 1--* 13, there is a
veiy interesting paper on the  above subject by Sir E.
Home  and Mr. Brande.  He adduces many curious
facts to prove that adipocire is formed by an incipient
■md incomplete putrefaction.   Mary Howard, aged 44,
died on the 12th May, 1790, and was buried in a grave
ten feet deep at the east end of Shoreditch churchyard,
ten feet to the east of the great common sewer, which
runs from north to south, and has always a current of
water in it, the usual level of which is eight feet below
the level ofthe ground, and two feet above the level of
the coffins in the graves.  In August, 1811, the body
was-taken up, with some others buried near it, for the
purpose of building a vault, and the flesh in all of them
was converted into  adipocire or spermaceti.   At the
full and new  moon the tide  raises  water into the
graves, which at other times  are dry.  To explain the
extraordinary quantities of fat or adipocire formed by
animals of a certain intestinal construction, Sir E. ob-
serves, that the current of water whicli passes through
iheir colon, while the loculated lateral parts arc full of
solid matter, places the solid contents  in somewhat
piiniiar circumstances to  dead bodies in the banks of a
joinmon sewer.
   The circumstance of amberg-is, which contains CO
 per cent, of fat, being found in immense quantities in
the lower intestines of the spermaceti whales,  and
 nevei  higher up than seven  feet from the onus, is an
 undeniable proof of" fat being formed in the intestines;
 and ar ambergris is only met with in whales out of
 health It is most probably collected there from the ab-
sorbents, under the  influence of disease, not acting so
tis to '.ake it into  the constitution.  In the  human
      30
colon, solid masses of fat are sometin.es met With tn a
diseased 3tnte of that canal.  A description and analysis
by Doctor Ure of a mass  of ambergris, extracted in
Perthshire from the rectum of a living woman, were
published in a London Medical Journal in September,
1817.  There i3 a case communicated by Dr. Babington,
of fat formed in the intestines of a girl  four and a half
years old, and passing oft' by stool.  Mr. Brande found,
on the suggestion of Sir E.  Home, that  muscle digested
in bile, is  convertible into fat, at the  temperature of
about 100".  If the substance, however, pass  rapidly
into putrefaction, no fat is formed.  Faeces voided by a
gouty gentleman after six  days' constipation, yielded,
on infusion  in water, a fatty  film. This process ot
forming fat in the lower intestines by means of bile,
throws considerable  light upon the nourishment da-
rived from clysters, a fact well  ascertained, but which
could not be explained.  It also accounts for the wast-
ing of the body, which so  invariably attends all coin
plainu of  the  lower  bowels.  It  accounts too for all
the varieties in the turns of the colon,  which we meet
with in so great a degree in different  animals.  This
property of the bile explains likewise the formation of
fatty concretions in the gall bladder so commonly met
with, and which, from these experiments, appear to be
produced by  the  action of the bile  on the  mucus
secreted in the gall  bladder;  and  it enables us to
understand how want of the gall bladder in children,
from mal-formation, is attended with  excessive lean-
ness, notwithstanding a great appetite,  and leads to an
early death.   Fat thus appears to be formed in the
intestines, and  from  thence  received  into the circu-
lation, and deposited in almost every part of the body.
And as there appears to be no direct channel  by which
any superabundance of it can  be thrown out of the
body, whenever its supply exceeds the consumption,
its accumulation becomes  a disease, and often a very
distressing one.
  [In the New-York  Medical  Repository, vol. ii. p.
325,  is related the case of" a person who was drowned,
and whose body was converted  into  this substance
after lying in the mud of a river for a year. We have
seen a piece of meat raised out of a well by pumping,
into which it had fallen, and where it was'completely
changed into adipocire.  A barrel of meat, which had
undergone a change and become adipocire, was raised
from the British frigate Hussar "sunk near Hell-Gate
during the revolutionary war, where il had remained
in eight or ten fathoms of salt water near fifty years
A single body of a female,  consisting of a solid mass
of adipocire, was dug up in dry ground, near the City
Hall in New-York.  A box of candles, taken from a
sunken wreck on the  coast of Brazil, was changed in
appearance and consistence, and  had become a mass
of adipocire.  The bones of a huge cetaceous  animal
were dug up in the low grounds about New-Orleans:
when they were exhibited as a show in  New-York,
in 1828, adipocire was discovered in the  cells of the
spongy part of the jaw-bone.  A.]
  ADIPOSE.  (Adiposus; from adeps, fat.)  Fatty;
as adipose membrane, &c.
  Adipose membrane.  Membrana  ailiposa.  The
fat collected in the cells of the cellular membrane.
  ADI'PSA.   (From a, neg. and <5nfa, thirst.)   1. So
the Greeks called  medicines, &c. which abate tliirnt.
  2.  Hippocrates applied this word to oxymel.
  ADITSIA.   (From a, neg.  and ltiLa, thirst.)  A
want of thirst  A genus of disease in the class locales,
and  order dysorcxia of  Cullen's  Nosology.   It  is
mostly symptomatic of some disease ofthe brain.
  ADI'PSOS.   So called because it allays thirst.)  1
The Egyptian palm-tree, the fruit of which  is said to
be the Myrobalans, which quench thirst.
  2.  Also a name for liquorice.
  ADJUTO'RIUM.   (From ad nnd  juvo, to help
A name ofthe humerus, from iu usefulness in liftiou
up the fore-arm.
  ADJUVA NTIA.  Whatever assists In preventing
or curing disease.
  Adnata tunica.  Albuginea oculi; Tunica alln-
gmea. oculi.   A membrane of the eye mostly confound-
ed with the conjunctiva.  It is, however, thus formed •
five ofthe muscles which move the eve, take their ori-
gin from the bottom of the orbit, and  the sixth arises
from thn edge  of it; they are nil inserted by  a tendi-
nous expansion, into  the anterior part of the tunica
sclerotica, wliich  expansion forms the adnata, and 
ADV
AWO
 glvees the whiteness  peculiar to the fore-part  of the
 ey°.  It lies between the sclerotica and conjunctiva.
   AD.N'ATUS.   (From adnrscor, to  grow to.)  A
 term applied to some parts which appear to grow to
 ethers:  as tunica  adnata,  stipula  adnata, folium
 adnatum.
   AUOLESCE'NTIA.  See Age.
   Ado'nio.n.  (From  Ac'weis, the youth  from  whose
 blood it was feigned to have sprung.)  Adanium.  See
 Jtrremisia abrotunum.
   Adontum.  See Adonion.
   ADO PTI'R.   Tubus intcrmedius.   A  chemical
 vessel with two  necks, used  to combine retorts to the
 cucurbits or matrasses in distillation, Willi retorts
 instead of receivers.
   A'dor.  A sort of com, called also spelta.
  A'dos.   Forge water, or water  in  wliich red-hot
 iron is extinguished.
  AD PONDUS OMNIUM. The weight ofthe whole.
 These words are inserted in  pharmaceutical prepara-
 tions, or pre*criptions, when  the last iugrcdii nt ought
 to Welsh as much as all the others put together.
  ADPRE3SUS.  Approximate^.  A term in botany,
 applied  to branches of leaves when  they rise in a
 direction nearly parallel to the Mem, aud are closely
 applied  to them, as in the branches of the Genista
 tiuctoria and leaves of the Thlaspi campestris.
  Adra  Rht'za.  Blancard says the root of the Aris-
 tolochia is thus named.
  Adra'chnb.  The strawberry bay-tree.  A species
 of Arbutus.
  Adr ara'gi.  An Indian name for our garden-saffron.
  ADROBO'LON.  (From ar"oof, large,  and /SuAoj,
 a globe, bole, or mass.)  Indian bdellium, which is
 coarser than the Arabian.  See Bdellium.
  ADSCENDEN9.  See Asccndens.
   ADSTRIC TIO.V.   Costivcness.
   ADSTRINGENT.  See Astringent.
   [ -YDI'LARIA. This is the most perfect variety of
 feldspar, and  bears  to  common  feldspar,  in  many
 respects, the relation of rock crystal to common quartz.
 Adularia is more or  less translucent, and sometimes
 transparent and limpid.  Its colour is white, either  a
 little milky, or with a tinge  #f green, yellow, or  red.
 But it is chiefly distinguished by presenting, when in
 certain  positions, whitish reflections, which are often
 slightly tinged with blue or green, and exhibit a  pearly
 or  silver lustre.   These reflections, which  are often
 confined to certain spots, proceed in most cases from
 the i iterior of the crystal.
   .\,<"ularia is sometimes cut into plates and polished.
 riie fish's eye,  moonstone, and argentine, of lapidaries,
 rotne chiefly from Persia, Arabia, and Ceylon,  and
 belong to adularia, as  do also  the  water opal  and
 giru-ilc ofthe Italians.—Cleuvl. Mtn.
  It has been found in the states of Maryland,  Penn-
 sylvania. New-York, and Massachusetts.  A.]
 ' ADUSTION.  Adustio.  I. An inflammation about
 tiie brain, and  its membranes, with a  hollowness of
 the eyes, a pale colour, and a dry body;  obsolete.
  2. Iu surgery, adustion signifies the same as cauter-
 ization,  and means the application of any substance
 to the animal body, which acts like fire.  The ancient
 surgeons, especially the Arabians, were  remarkably
 fo:nl of having recourse to adustion in  local diseases;
 ,iut the  use of actual  heat is very rarely admitted by
 the moderns.
  ADVENTITIOUS.  (Adventitius;  from  advenio,
 to come to.) Any thing that accidentally, and not in
 the  common course  of natural causes,  happens to
 make a part of another.  Something accruing ot befall-
 ing a person or thing from  without.   It  is used in
 medicine in opposition to hereditary; as when diseases
 may lue transmitted from the parent and also acquired,
 as is the case with gout and scrofula. They are  some-
 times hereditary, and very often adventitious.
  A DVERSIFO'LIA.  (From idoersus, opposite, and
foliwn, a leaf.)   A  plant with -alternate leaves.
  Advkrsifo li.s plant*.  1. Plants  the  leaves of
which stand opposite to each other on  the same stem
or branch.
  2. The name of a class in  Sauvages' Methodus Fo-
liorum.   Valerian, teasel,  honey-suckle,  &c.  are
examples.
  AD VERSUS.  Opposite. Applied in natural history
to parts which stand opposite to each other; asplantai
ndoersifolia; the leaves standing opposite  to each
, other on the same stem, a? in valerian, teasel, honey
 suckle, &c.
   ADYNA'MIA.   (Adynomin, a, f.; Atiuvauui, from
 a, priv. and Cwaptt, power.)  A defect of vital power
   Adyna'mle.   (The plural of  Adynamia.)  Thfl
 second order  of  the class neuroses of Cullen's Noso
 logy ;  it comprehends syncope, dyspepsia, kypochon
 driasis, and chlorosis.
   Ady'namon.  (From a, neg. and Xvvapnf, strength.)
 Adynamum.  Among ancient physicians, it signified  a
 kind of weak factitious wine, prepared froin must,
 boiled down with  water;  to be given to patients tfl
 whom pure or genuine wine might be hurtful.
   Adynamum. See Adynamon.                    <
   [jEDELITE. A mineral described by Kirwnn, con
 tabling, according  to Bergman, silex from 62 to
 parts, alumine from 18 to 20, lime from 8 to 16, wale
 3 to l.—CUav. Mm.  A.]
   jEDOI'A.  (From alius, modesty; or from a, neg.
 and ctScu,  to  see; as not being decent to the sight.)
 The pudenda, or parts of generation.
   iEDOPSO'PIIIA.  (From airJoia,  pudenda;  and
 $o'i>s<u, to  break wind.)  A term uied by Sauvagea
 and Sagar, to signify a flatus from the bladder, ot
 from the womb, making its escape through the vagina.
   /EDOPTO'SIS.  (JEdoptosis;  from  aiio'iov,  tha
 groin;  pi.  atSoia,  pudenda;  and n^ioois,  a falling
 down.)  Genital  prolapsl.   The name of a  genus ol
 diseases in Good's Nosology.
   jEGAGRO  PILUS   (From aiyaypoj,  a wild goat,
 and pila, a ball.)  JEgagropila.
   1. A ball found in the stomach of deer, goats, hogs,
 horned cattle,  as cows, &c.   It consists of hairs whicli
 they have swallowed from licking themselves.  They
 are of different degrees of hardness, but have no medi-
 cinal virtues.  Some rank  these balls  among  thu
 Bczoars.  Hieronymus Ve;Schius wrote a tieatise on
 the  virtues of this.
   2. A species of conferva found In Wallenfenmooi,
 from its resembling these coi\cretions, is also so named
   iE'GIAS.   A white speck  on the pupil of the eye.
 which occasions a dimness of sight.
   yEGI'DES.   Aglia.  A disorder of the eyes men-
 tioned by Hippocrates.   Foesius  thinks  the diseasa
 consists of small  cicatrices  in the eye, caused by an
 afflux  of corrosive  humours upon  the  part.  But in
 one passage of Hippocrates, Fofsius says it signifies
 small white concretions of humours which stick upou
 the pupil, and obscure the sight.
   jEGI'DION. A collyrium or ointment for inflamma
 tions and defluxions ofthe eyes.
   /ET.ILOPS.  1. The same as JEgylops.
  2. Wild  fescue grass,  so called  from  its supposed
 virtue in curing the disorder named .rEgylops. It is a
 species of Rramus in the Linnaean system.
   /EGINE'TA, P.vitus.  A celebrated surgeon ofthe
 island of yEglna, from which he derived his name.  Ho
 is placed by Le Clerc iu the fourth century; by ethers
 in the seventh. He was eminently skilled in his pro-
 fession, and his works are frequently cited  by Fabri-
 cius ab Aquapendente.  He is the first  author that
 notices the cathartic quality  of rhubarb.  He begins
 his book with the description ofthe diseases of women;
 and is said lo  be the first that deserves the appellation
 of a man midwife.
  ^Egine'tia.  Maiabrlan broom  rape.  A species of
 Orobancha.
  /E'GIS.   A  film on the eye.
  iEGO'CERAS.   (From ail,  a 6oati a,,Q' ittpaf, a
 horn;  s<-  called, because the pods were supposed  to
 resemble the  horns of  a  goat.)  Foenugreek.  See
 Triumella  Famnmgracum.
  yEGO LETHRON.  (From at\, n goat, and oXcSpps,
 destruction : so named from the opinion of its being
 poisonous to goats.)  Tournefort says it is  the C7ia-
 marododer.idron, now the Azclaa pontica of Linnaeus.
  iEGO'NYCHON.  (From ail, a goat, and owl, a
 hoof:  because of the hardness of the  seed.)  See
 Lithospermum officinale.
  iEGOPO'DIUM.  (JEgjpodium, i. n.; from ail, n
 goat, and zsovs, a foot: from its supposed resemblance
 to a goat's foot.)  A genus of plants in the Linnaean
 system.  Class, Pentandria ; Order, Digynia. GoOL-
 weed.   The following species was  formerly much
 esteemed.
  iEoopopit-M podaguaria.  Goatweed.  This plant
 is sedative, and was formerly applied to mitigate pains
                                         V 
AER
/EST
of gout, and to relieve piles, but noi now employed,  hi
Its earlier state it is tender and esculent.
  iEttOPROso'i'ON.   (From ail, a "oati  a|id zspoannrov,
a face: so  called because goats are subject to defects
in the eyes, or from having  in it some  ingredients
named after  the goat.)   A name of a lotion for the
eyes, when inflamed.
  A3GYLOP8.   UEgylops,  opis,  i.i.;  from ail, a
goat, and uuV, an  eye.)  Anchilops.  A  disease  so
named from the supposition that goats were very sub-
ject to it.  The term means a sore just under the inner
angle of the eye.  The best modem surgeons seem to
consider  the  aegylops only as  a stage  of the fistula
lachrymalis.  Paulus^Egineta calls it anchilops, before
it bursts, and aegylops after.  When the skin covering
'.he lachrymal sac has been for some time inflamed, or
subject to frequent returning  inflammations, it most
tommonly happens that  the puncta lachrymalia arc
jftected by  it; and the fluid, not having  an opportu-
nity  of passing off by them, distends the inflamed srciu,
so that at last it becomes sloughy, and bursts exter-
nally.  This is that state  of the disease which is called
pertect aigylop.i, or agylops.
  AIgy ptia muscata.   See Hibiscus abelmoschus.
  -rEGYPTI'ACUM. A name given to different  un-
guents of the detergent or corrosive kind. We meet
with a black,  a red, a white, a simple, a  compound,
and a magistral aegyptiacum. The simple aegyptiacum,
which is that usually found in our shops, is a composi-
tion of verdigris, vinegar, and  honey, boiled to a con-
sistence.  It is usually supposed to take its name from
its dark colour, wherein it resembles that of the natives
of Egypt.  It is improperly called an unguent, as there
is no oil, or rather fat in  it.
  .<EsY'rTiiFM piiarmacum ad aures.  ASiius speaks
of this as excellent for deterging foetid ulcers of the
ears, wliich he says it cures, though the patient were
born with them.
  AEIPATHEI'A.  (From o«, always, and aados, a
disease.)  Diseases of long duration.
  iENEA.  (From as, brass, so called  because it was
formerly made of brass.)   A catheter.
  ^EO'NION.  The common  house leek.  See Sem-
peruivun tcclorum.
  MO RA.  (From aiioata, to  lift up, to suspend on
high.)  Exercise without muscular action ; as swing-
ing.  A species of exercise used by the ancients, and
of which Aftius gives the following account.   Gesta-
tion, while it exercises the body, the body seems to be
at rest.  Of this motion there are several kinds. First,
swinging in a hammock, which, at the decline  of a
(ever, is beneficial.  Secondly, being carried in a litter,
in which  the  patient either sits or lies along.  It is
useful when  the gout, stone,  or such  other disorder
attends, as does not admit of violent motions. Thirdly,
tiding in a chariot, which is of service in most chroni-
cal disorders; especially  before the more violent exer-
cises can he admitted.  Fourthly, sailing in a ship or
ooa.t. This produces various effects, according to the
different agitation ofthe  waters, and, in many tedious
chronical disorders, is efficacious beyond what is ob-
served from the most skilful administration of drugs.
These are instances of a passive exercise.
  /EO.UALIS.  Equal.   Applied  by botanists to dis-
tinguish  length ;   as filimenta aqualia ; pedunculi
aquales, &c.
  /E'QUE.  Equally.  The same as ana.
  /EUUIVALVIS.  JEquicahe.  A botanical term,
implying, composed of equal valves.
  A'ER.  (Aer, eris, in.; froniaiyo.i  The fluid which
surrounds the globe.  See Air and Atmosphere.
  M'nx.  Darnel, or lolium.
  JErated alkaline  water.  An alkaline water impreg-
nated with carbonic acid.
  jERIAL.  Belonging to air.
  JErial Acid.  See Carbonic acid.                  \
  ~Erial plants. Those  plants are so called which,
after a  certain time, do  not  require that their roots
should be fixed lo any spot in order to  maintain their
life,  wliich they do by absorption from the atmosphere.
Such are a curious tropical tribe of plants called cadi,
the epidendrum, flos atris, and the ficus australis.
  jERI'TiS.   The Anagailis, or pimpcrnell.
  iEROLITE. A meteoric stone.
  AEROLOGIOE. Sec Aerology.
  AEROLOGY.   (Aerologia, a, f.;  from  atjp, the
air, and Xoyos, a discourse.)   Aerologice. That pari
      •Jfl
of medicine which treats of the nature and propt-i
tins Of air.
  Aero'meu.  Honey dew; also a name for manna
  /ERO.MI'TER.  An instrument for making the ne-
cessary corrections in pneumatic experiments to ascer
tain the mean bulk ofthe gases.
  AEROPHO BIA.  Fear of air or wind.
  1. Said to  be a symptom of phrenitis and  hydro
phobia.
  2. A name  of Hydrophobia.
  AERO PHOIJUS.  (From arjp, air, and (j>o6os, fear..
According to Ccelius Aurelianus, some phrenetic pa-
tients are afraid of a lucid, and others  of an obscure
air: and these he calls aerophobi.
  AERO SIS.   The aerial vital spirit of the  ancients
  AEROSTATION.  JErostatio.  A name commonly
but not very correctly, given to the art of raising heavj
bodies into the atmosphere, by buoyancy of heated air,
or gases of  small specific gravity, enclosed in a  bag,
wliich from being usually of a spherical form, is calicci
n balloon.
  A'RO'SUS LAPIS.  So Pliny calls the Lapis cala
minuris,  upon the supposition that it was a copper ore.
  ^Eru'ca.  Verdigris.
  jERU'GO.   (JErugo, ginis, f.,  from as, copper.)
1. The rust of any metal, particularly of copper.
  2. Verdigris.   See Verdigris.
  VErugo /eris.  Rusts of copper or verdigris.   See
Verdigris.
  .tErugo pr.epara'ta.  See Verdigris.
  JES.   Brass.
  AESCULAPIUS, said to be the  son  of  Apollo, by
the nymph Coronls, bom at Epidaurus, and educated
by Chiron, who taught him to cure the most dangerous
diseases, and even raise the dead; worshipped by the
ancients  as the god of" medicine.  His history is so in-
volved in fable, that it is useless 'o trace it minutely
His two sons,  Machaon  and  Podalirius, who ruled
over a small city in Thessaly, after his death accom-
panied the  Greeks to the siege  of  Troy: but Homer
speaks merely of their skill in the treatment of wounds;
and divine honours were not paid to their father till a
latter period.  In the temples raised to him, votive
tablets were hung up,on which were recorded ihe dis-
eases  cured, as they imagined, by his assistance.
  iE'SCULUS.   (JEsculus, i, in.; from erca, fond.)
The ranie of a genus of plants in ihe Linnaean system
Class, Hcptandria;  Order,   Monogynia.   Horso-
chesnut.
  -Escutos hippocastanum.  The systematic name
for the common horse-chesnut tree.   Castanea equina,
pavina.   .Esculus—foliolis septenis of Linnaeus.  The
fruit of this tree, when dried and powdered, is recom-
mended as  an errhine.  The bark is  highly esteemed
on the continent as a febrifuge;  and is, by  some,  con-
sidered as  being  superior in quality to the Peruvian
bark.  The bark intended for  medical use is to be
taken from tliose  branches  which are neither very
yo"*ig nor very old, and to be exhibited under similar
forms and doses, as  directed with  respect to the Peru-
vian bark.  It rarely disagrees with the stomach ;  oul
its astringent  effects  generally require the  occasional
administration of a laxative.  During the late scarcitv
of grain, some attempts were made to  obtain  starch
from the horse-chesnut, and not xvithoul success.
  jESTHE'TICA.  (From aiatidvoaai, to feel, or  per-
ceive.)   Diseases affecting the sensation.  The name
of an  oider of diseases iu Good's Nosology.  See  .Vd
sology.
  /ESTIV'ALIS.  (From astas, summer.)  jEstival
belonging to summer. Diseases of animals and plants
which appear in the summer.
  jEstivales plants.   Plants wliich flower in sum-
mer.  A division according to the seasons of the war.
  ,/ESTIVA'TIO.    Aestivation;  the  action of  the
summer, or its influence on things.
  A;stphara.   Incineration, or burning of the i«h,
or any other part of the body.
  A5STU.VRIUM.   A stove for conveying heat to all
parts  of  the body at  once.  A kind of vapour bath.
Ambrose Paie calls an instrument thus, which  'v de-
scribes for conveying heat to any particular part.  Pal-
marius,  De Morbis Contagiosis, gives  a contrivance
under this name, for sweating the whole body.
  iEs-n  v'tio.  The boiling up, or rather the ferment
ing of liquors when mixed.
  /K.STfS.  JF.stus, uf, ;:i ,  from the llebicw esh, 
JETH                                             AFF
beat.  Heat; appli'd to the feeling merely of heat, and
sometimes to that of  inflammation in which there is
heat and redness.
  AJstcs voi.ATicrs.  I. Sudden heat, or scorching,
whii h soon goes off", but which for a time reddens the
part.
  2. According to Vogcl, synonymous with phlogosis.
  3. I'mthrma rolaticum of Sauvagcs.
  A3TAS.  Str Age.
  Ai'THER.  (JFther, eris, m.;  from aSnp:  a sup-
posed fine  subtile fluid.)  AJlhcr.  A volatile  liquor,
obtained by distillation, from a mi-xture of alcohol and
b concentrated acid.
  The n.cdkal properties of aether, when taken  inter-
nally,  are  antispasmodic,  cordial,  and  stimulnnt.
Against nervous and lyphoid fever, all nervous dis-
eases,  but  especially tetanic affections,  soporose dis-
eases from debility, asthma, palsy, spasmopic colic,
hysteria. &c. it always enjoys  some share of reputa-
tion.   Regular practitioners seldom  give so much as
empirics, who sometimes venture upon  large quanti-
ties, with incredible benefit.  Applied externally, it is
of service in the headache, toothache, and  other pain-
ful affections.  Thus employed,  it is  capable of pro-
ducing two very opposite effects, according to its ma-
nagement ; for, if il be prevented from evaporating,
by covering the  place to which  it is  applied closely
with the hand,  it  proves a powerful stimulant and
rubefacient, and excites a sensation of burning heat,
as is the case with solutions of camphor in  alcohol, or
turpentine.  In this way it  is frequently used for  re-
moving pains in  the head or teeth.  On the contrary,
if it be dropped on any part of the body, exposed freely
to the  air,  its rapid evaporation  produces  an intense
degree of cold; and, as this is attended w ilh a propor-
tional diminution of bulk in the  part, applied in this
way, it has frequently contributed to the reduction of
the intestine, in cases of strangulated hernia.
  A-thek rectificaTus.  ^Etker vitriolicus.  Recti-
fied auher.  Take  of sulphuric  aether, fourteen fluid
ounces.  Fused potash, half an ounce.   Distilled
water, eleven fluid ounces.
  First dissolve the  potash in two ounces of the water,
and add thereto the aether, shaking them  well together,
until they are mixed.  Next, at a temperature of about
200 degrees, distil over twelve fluid ounces of rectified
miner, from a large  retort into a cooled receiver.  Then
shake the distilled aMher well with niuf fluid ounces of
water, and set  the  liquor by, so that the  water may
subside.   Lastly, f>our off ihe supernatant rectified
ither, and  keep it in a well-stopped bottle.
  Sulphuric aether  is impregnated with some sulphu-
reous acid, as is evident  in the smell, and with some
Etherial oil:  ai.d these require  a second  process to
separate  ihem.   Potash  unites to the acid, and  re-
quires to be added  in a state of solution, and in suffi-
cient quantities, for the  purpose of neutralizing  it;
and it also  forms a soap with the oil.  It  is  advantage-
ous also to  use a less quantity of water than exists in
the ordinary solution of potash; and therefore the
above directions are adopted in the last London Phar-
macopoeia.   For its virtues, sec JEther.
  AIther siLPHURicus.  Naphtha  vitrioli;  JEtlier
vitriolicus.  Sulphuric aHher.  Take of rectified spirit,
sulphuric acid, of each, by weight, a pound and a half.
Pour the spirit into a glass  retort, then gradually add
to it the acid,  shaking it  after each addition, and
Inking care that their temperature, during the mixture,
may not  exceed 120 degrees.  Place the retort very
cautiously into a sand bath,  previously heated  to 200
degrees, so  thai the  liquor may boil as speedily as pos-
sible, and .he aether may pass  ever  iulo a tubulated
receiver, to the tubulure of whicli another  receiver is
applied, and kept cold by immersion in  ice, or water.
Continue the distillation until a heavier part also begins
to pass over, and appear under the aether in the bottom
of the receiver.   To the liquor which  remains  in the
retort, pour twelve fluid ounces more of rectified spirit,
and repeat ihe.distillation in the same manner.
  It is  mostly employed as  an excitant, nervine, anti-
spasmodic, ard diuretic, in cases of spasms, cardialgia,
enteralgia,  fevers, hysteria, cephalalgia, and spasmodic
asthma.  The dose is from min. xx to 3 ij.   Exter-
nally, it cures toothache, and violent pains in the head.
See Jk'ther.
  iETHER  viTRiotlcus.  See JEthcr sulphuricus and
JEthcr rectificatus.
                                          C
  vEths'rea herba.  The plant formerly so cullrd la
suppo.-<!d to be the Eryngium.
  A/niERiAL on,.  See Oleum JEtherium.
  AiTlllOPS.  A  term applied formerly to  several
preparations, because of a black colour, like the skin
of an Ethiopian.
  AItihops antimoma'us.  A preparation of antl
mony and mercury, once in high repute, and still ein
ployed  by some practitioners in cutaneous disease-
A few grains are to be given at first, and the quantity
Increased ns the stomach can bear it.
  ASthiops martiai.is. A preparation of iron, for
merly in repute, but now neglected.
  JEtJuvps mineral.  The substance heretofore known
by this  n.une, is called  by the  Loudon College, Hy
drargttri sitlphuretum nigrum.
  AiTHMOID.  See Ethmoid.
  . I t/iuwid Arli ry.  See Ethmoid Artery.
  .Ethmoid Bone. See Ethmoid Bone.
  A*THU SA.   (JEthusa, <r> f.; from aiQova-a, Deg
garly.)  The name of a genus of plants of the Liiuiaan
system.  Class, Pentandria; Order, Digymu.
  Ah-nt s.v  meum.  The systematic name of the  ««iti
of the Pharmacopoeias.  Called also Meum athaman-
ticnm ;  Mcu ;  Spigncl; Baldmoney.  The root of thu
plant is recommended  as a  carminative, stomachic
and for attenuating viscid humours, and appears to be
nearly of the same  nature as lovoge, differing  in its
smell, being rather more agreeable, somewhat like that
of parsnips, but stronger, and being in its taste less
sweet, and more warm,  or acrid.
  AETIOLOGY.  (~:£ltiologia, a, f.; airioXoyia : from
a<7<a, a cause, and Xoyosi a discourse.)  The doctrine
of the causes of diseases.
  AITITES.  Eagle stone.  A stone formed of oxyde
of iron, containing in its cavity some concretion which
rattles on shaking the  stone.   Eagles were  said to
carry them to their nest, whence their name: and su-
perstition formerly ascribed wonderful virtues to Uiem.
  [This is  now arranged  among the ores of  iron Icy
the name of the nodular argillaceous oxide of iro-.i.
See Cleav. Min.  A.)
  AE'TIUS.   A physician,  called  also  Amidenus,
from the place of his birth.  He flourished at Alexan-
dria, about the  end of the fifth  century, and left six-
teen books, divided  into four tctrabiblia, on the  pru.
tice of physic and surgery, principally collected from
Galen and  other early writers, but with some original
observations.  He appears  very  partial to ihe use ol
the cautery, both actual and  potential, especially in
palsy;  which plan of treatment Mr. Pott  revived in
paraphlcgia; and it has since often been adopted with
success.  A*tius is  the  earliest  writer who ascribed
medical efficacy to the external use of the magnet, par
ticularly in  gout  and convulsions;  but rather on lite
report of others, than as what he had  personally ex
perienced.
  Aho'uox. JEtolium. Thegranum cnidium.  See
Daphne mezcrcon.
  iGTo'Nvi'iiVM.  See l.ithospcrmum.
  AFFECTION. (AJcctio,unis,f.  Thisiseipiessed
in Greek by izaQos-  hencepathema,passio.)  Any ex
isting disorder  of the whole body, or  a part of it; hp
hysterics, leprosy, &c.  Thus, by adding a  descriptive
epithet to the term affection, most distempers may be
expressed.  And hence  we say febrile  affection, cuta-
neous affection, &c, using the word affection synony-
mously with disease.
  AFFINITY.    (Affinitas, atis, f.;  a proximity of
relationship.)  The  term affinity is used indifferently
with attraction.  See Attraction.
  Affinity  ok aggregation.  See Attraction.
  Affinity, appropriate.  See Affinity, intermediate.
  Aifinity  op composition.  See Attraction.
  Affinity, compound.  When three or more bodes,
on account of their mutual affinity, unite and form one
homogeneous body, then the  affinity is termed  com
pound  affinity or attraction: thus,  if to a  solution of
sugar and water be added spirits of wine, these  three
bodies will form a homogeneous liquid by compound
affinity.
  Affinity, divellent. See Affinity, quiescent.
  Affinity, double.  Double elective  attraction.
When two bodies, each  consisting of two elementary
parts, come into contact, and are decomposed, so thai
their elements  become  reciprocally united, and pro-
duce two new compound bodies, the decomposition lrj 
AFF
AGA
 'hen termed decomposition by double affinity:  thus, if
 we aoa common salt, which consists of muriatic acid
 and soda, to nitrate of silver, which is composed ot nitric
 acid and oxyde of silver, these two bodies will be decom-
 pounded ;  for the nitric acid unites with the soda, and
 the oxyde of silve/ with  the  muriatic acid, and thus
 may be obtained two new bodies.  The common salt
 and nitrate  of  silver therefore mutually decompose
 each other by what is called double affinity.
  Affinity, intermediate.    Appropriate  affinity.
 Affinity of an intermedium is, when two substances of
 different kinds, that show to one another no component
 affinity, do, by the assistance of a third, combine, and
 unite into  a homogeneous whole: thus, oil and water
 are substances of different kinds, which, by means of
 alcali,  combine  and unite into a homogeneous sub-
 stance : hence the theory of lixiviums, of washing, fee.
 See Attraction.
  Affinity, quiescent.   Mr. Kirwan employs the
 term. Quiescent  affinity to mark that, by virtue  of
 which, the principle of each compound, decomposed
 by double affinity, adhere to each other; and liivd-
lenl affinity, to distinguish that by which the princi-
 ples of one body unite and change  order with those
of the  other: thus, sulphate  of potash is  not com-
pletely  decomposed by the nitric acid or by lime, when
either of these principles is separately  presented;  but
if the nitric acid be combined with lime, this nitrate of
lime will decompose the sulphate of potash.  In this
last case, the affinity ofthe sulphuric acid with the al-
cali is weakened by its affinity to the lime. This acid,
 therefore,  is subject to two affinities,  the one which
retains it to the  alcali, called quiescent, and the other
which  attracts  it toward the lime, called  divellcnt
 affinity.
  Affinity, reciprocal.  When a compound of two
bodies U decomposed by a third, the separated  princi-
 ple being in its turn capable of decomposing the new
 tombination : thus ammonia and magnesia will sepa-
 rate each other from muriatic acid.
  Affinity, simple.  Single  elective  attraction.  V '
 a body, consisting of two  component parts, be decom-
 posed on the approach of a third, which has  a greater
 affinity with one of those  component parts than they
 have for each other, then the decomposition is  termed
 decomposition by simple  affinity:  for  instance,  if"
 pure potash be added to a combination of nitric acid
 and lime, ihe union which existed between these two
 bodies  will cease,  because the  potash  combines with
 the nitric acid, and the lime, being disengaged, Is pre-
 cipitated.  The reason is, that the nitric acid has a
 greater affinity for the pure potash than for the lime,
 therefore it deserts the lime, to  combine with the pot-
 ash.   When two bodies  only enter  into  chemical
 union,  the affinity, which was  the cause  of  it, is also
 termed  simple or  single elective attraction; thus the
 solution of sugar and water is produced by simple affi-
 nity, because there are but two bodies.
  AFFLA'TUS.  (From  ad and flare, to blow.)  A
 vapour or  blast.  A species of erysipelas, which  at-
 tacks  people  suddenly, so named upon the erroneous
 supposition that it was produced by some unwhole-
 some wind blowing on the part.
  AFFUSION.   (Affusio; from ad,  and fundo, to
 pour upon.)  Pouring a liquor  upon  something.  The
 affusion of cold water, or pouring two or three quarts
 on the  patient's head and  body, is sometimes practised
 by physicians, but lately introduced  by Dr. Currie, of
 Liverpool, in the treatment of typhus fever, and which
 appears to possess a uniformity of success, which we
 look for in vain in almost  any other branch of medical
 practice.  The remedy consists merely in placing the
 patient in  a  bathing-tub, or other convenient vessel,
 and pouring a  pailful of cold water upon his body;
 alter which he is wiped dry, and again put to bed.   It
 should be no'.ed,
   First, That it is the low contagious fever in which
 the cold affusion is  to be employed:  the first symp-
 toms of which are a dull headache, with restlessness
 and shivering; pains in the back, and all over the body,
 the tongue foul, with great prostration of strength; the
 headache becoming more acute, the heat of the body, by
 the thermometer, 102° to 105°, or more; general restless-
 ness, increasing to delirium, particularly in the night.
   Secondly, That it is in the early stage of the disease
 we must employ the remedy; and generally in the state
 of the greatest  heat and exacerbation.
       34
  Thirdly, It is off tin on, not tmmcrston, that must t)»
employed.
  Since the first  publication of Dr. Cutrie's work, the
practice of  affusion has  been exlenjul  lliroughoul
England ;  and its efficacy has been established rn tome
stages of the disease, from which the author had origin
ally proscribed the practice of it.  One ofthe caution-
ary injunctions which had been given for the affusion
of" cold water in fever, was never to employ it in cases
where the  patient had a sense  -f chilliness upon Aim,
even if the  thermometer, app. * -' to the trunk of tie*
body, indicated a preternatural c'ci.ree of heat.  In hit
last edition of Reports, however, Dr. Currie has gives
the particulars of a case of this kind, in whicli the cold
affusion was so managed as to produce a successful
event.
  In fevers arising from, or accompanied by, topical
inflammation, his experience does not justify ihe use ol
cold affusion;  though, in a great vaiiety of these casts,
the warm  affusion  may  be used with  advantage
" And," says he, "though  I have used the cold af-
fusion in some instances, so late as the twelfth or foul
teenth  day of contagious fever, with safety and  suc-
cess, yet it can oidy be employed, at this advanced
period, in the  instances  in  whicli the  heat keeps up
steadily above the natural standard, and  the respira-
tion continues free.   In  such cases, 1 have seen il ap-
pease agitation and restlessness, dissipate delirium,
and, as it were, snatch the patient from impending dis-
solution.  But it is in the tarty stages of fever (let mc
again repeat) that it ought always  to be employed, if
possible; an.*1where, without any regard to the heat of
the patient, it is  had recourse to in the last stage of
fever, after every other remedy has failed, and the  case
appears desperate, (of which I have heatd several In-
stances,) can it appear surprising that the issue should
sometimes be unfavourable ?"
  Numerous  eommunicatlons from various practition
ers, in  the West and East Indies, in Egypt and Ame-
rica, also show the  efficacy of affusion in the raging
fevers of hot countries.
  AFORA. ( From a, priv. and fores, a door.)  Having
a door or valve:  applied to plants,  the seed vessel ol
which is not furnished with a valvule.
  AFTER-BIRTH.   See Placenta.
  A'ga crktessium.  The small Spanish milk-thistle.
  AGALACTA  TIO. See Agalactia.
  AGALA'CT*\..  (A)'oA«k7iu ;  from  c,  priv.  and
yaXa, milk.)  Agalaxis; Agaluctto ; Agalaclatio. A
defect of milk iu childbirth.
  AGALA'CTOS.  (From a,  priv. and yaXa, milk.)
An epithet given to women who have  no milk when
they lie in.
  AGALA'XIS.  See Agalactia.
  Agallochum.  See Lignum aloes.
  Agallochlm  verum.  See Lignum aloes.
  Aga'lluge.  See Lignum aloes.
  Ag.vllugi M.  See Lignum aloes.
  AGALMATOLITE   See Figurestone.
  AGARIC.   See Agaricus.
  Agaricoi des.  (From cyapiKos, the  agaric, ano
tiXos, resemblance.)  A  species of fungus like the
agaric.
  AGA'RICl'S.  Agaric.   The name of  a genus oi
plants  in the Linna-an system.  Class,  Cryptogamia,
Order, Fungi.  The plants of this genus appear to ap-
proach nearer to ihe nature of animal matter than any
other productions of the vegetable kingdom, as, beside
hydrogen, oxygen, and carbon, they contain a const
derable portion of nitrogen, and yield ainnioni-e by dis-
tillation.  Prof.  Proust  has  likewise  discovered  in
them the benzoic acid, and phosphate of li'ne.
  The mushrooms, remarkable for the quickness  of
their growth and decay, as well as for the fcetor attend-
ing their spontaneous decomposition, were unaccount
ably neglected by analytical chemists, though capaty
of rewarding their trouble, as is evinced by the rece.
investigations and discoveries of  Messrs. Vauquelits
and Braconnot.  The insoluble fungous portion of tin
mushroom, though  it resembles woody fibre in somt
respects, yet being less soluble  than it in alcalies, and
yielding a nutritive food, is evidently a  peculiar pro-
duct, to which accordingly the name of fungin has
been given.   Two new vegetable acids, the boletic and
fungic, were also fruits of these researches
  The six following species have  been  submitted tc
chemical  analysis;  the results  are affiled to each. 1 
AG A
AG A
 Ag-attcus campestris, on ordinary article of foo  ana-1
lyxed by Vauquelin, gave the following co.is uncus- l
1. Adi|iocire.  On expressing Ihe juice of the agaric, j
aud subjecting the remainder to the action of boiling
alkohol, a fatty matter is extracted, which falls down
in white flakes as the alkohol cools.  It  has  a  dirty
white colour; a fatly feel,  like spermaceti; and, ex-
posed to heat, soon melts, and then exhales the odour of
grease.  2.  An oily matter.  3. Vegetable albumen.
i. The sugar of mushrooms.  5.  An animal matter
soluble  in  water and alkohol: on being heated,  it
evolves the odour of roasting meat, like osniaaome.
 :. An animal matter not soluble iu alkohol. 7. Fungiu.
8. Acetate of potash.
  2. Agaricus voloacevs afforded Braconnot fungin,
gelatin, vegetable albumen, much phosphate of potash,
some acetate of potash, sugar of mushrooms, a brown
nil, adipocire, wax, a very fugacious deleterious matter,
uncombiued acid, supposed to be the acetic,  benzoic
r.iid, muriate of potash, and a deal of water; in all
14 ingredients.
  "J. Agaricus acris, or piperalus, was found  by Bra-
lounoi, after a minute analysis, to contain nearly the
same  ingredients  as the preceding, without the wax
aud benzoic acid, but with more adipocire.
  •k Agaricus stypticus.  From  twenty parts of this
Braconnot obtained of resin and adipocire 1.8, fungin
lii.7, of an unknown gelatinous substance, a potash
tall, and a  fugacious acrid principle, 1.5.
  5. Agaricus bulbosus, was examined by Vauquelin,
wlio found the following constituents: an animal mat-
ter insoluble in alkohol; osmazome; a soft fatty matter
of a yellow colour and acrid taste ; an acid salt, (not a
phosphite.)  The insoluble substance of the agaric
y ielded an  acid by distillation.
  l'>. Agaricus theogolus.   In this, Vauquelin found j
sugar of mushrooms ;  osmazome; a bitter acrid fatty
muter; an animal matter  not soluble in alkohol; a
salt containing a vegetable acid.
   Agaricus albis.  Sec Boletus laricis.
   A«jaricus campestris.   There are several species
 ot the agaric, which go by the term mushroom; as the
 Aga-icus chantarellus, dcliciosus, violaceus, &.C.; but
 thai which is eaten  in this country is  the Agaricus
 campestris of Linnaeus.  Similar to it in quality is the
 champignon,  or  Agaricus  pratensis.   Broiled  with
 salt and pepper, or stewed  with cream and some aro-
 matic, they are extremely delicious, and,  if not  eaten
 to excess, salubrious.  Great care should be taken lo
 ascertain that they are the  true fungus, and not those
 of a poisonous nature.  Catchup is made by throwing
 salt on  mushrooms,-which  causes tliem to part with
 their juice.
   Agaricus chantarellus.  A species of fungus,
esteemed a delicacy by the French.   Broiled with salt
 arid pepper, it has much the flavour of a roasted cockle.
  Agaricus chirurgorum.  See Boletus igniarius.
  Agaricus cinnamomeus. Brown mushroom.  This
 species of agaric is of a pleasant smell. When broiled,
 it gives a good flavour.
  Agaricus deliciosus. This fungus, well seasoned,
 and then broiled,  has the exact flavour of a  roasted
 'nuscle.  It is in season in September.
  Agaricus mineralis   A mineral; fie mountain
 milk, or mountain meal, of the Germans   It is one of
 the purest of the native carbonates of lime, found
 chiefly in the clefts of rocks, and at the bottom of some
 lakes, in a  loose or semi-indurated form.   It has been
 used  internally  in haemorrhages,  strangury, gravel,
 and dvsenterics;  and externally as an application  to
 old ulcers, and weak and watery eyes.
   [It  is composed of very minute particles, feebly
cohering, fine or  soft to the  touch, and  soiling the
fingers.  Its texture is  spongy, and hence it usually
swims for a moment when placed on water.  Itscolour
is white, either pure, or tinged with yellow, &c.   It is
a very pure carbonate of lime.
  Agaric mineral undoubtedly proceeds from the gra-
dual disintegration of other varieties of carbonate of
lime, and  is deposited from water in the cavities  or
fissures of other calcareous rocks.
  Var. 1.   Fossil  Farina.   This variety differs but
iittle from that just  described, and  has probably a
similar origin.  It appears  in thin, while crusts, light
as cotton, and very easily reducible to powder. These
crusts are attached to  the lateral or lower surfaces of
oeds of shell, limestone, &.c.—Clcav.  Min,  A.]
                                        C  2
  Agaricus hi'scaril-s.  Bug agaric; so en !'■.. from
it* Known  virtue in destroying  bugs.  This  reddish
fungus is the Agaricus—stipitatus lamcllisdimidiatix
solitarus, ftipite volvato,  apice duatato, basi orato, of
Linnaeus.   It is not much  known  in this country.
Haller relates that six persous of Lithuania perished
at one time, by eating  this kind of mushroom;  and
that  in others it has caused delirium  The following
account from Orfila, of the effects of this species in
the animal economy, is interesting.   Several  French
soldiers ate, at  two leagues from Pol.isck, in  Russia,
mushrooms of  the  above kind.  Four of them, of a
robust constitution, who conceived themselves proof
against the consequences under which their feebler
companions were beginning to  suffer, refused obsti-
nately to take an emetic.  In the evening, the follow ".tig
symptoms  appeared.  Anxiety, sense of suffocation,
ardent thirst, intense griping pains, a small and irregu-
lar pulse, universal cold sweats, changed expr<  >sio:i of
countenance, violet tint of the nose  and  lips,  general
trembling,  foetid stools.  These  symptoms becoming
worse, they were carried  lo  the hospital.  Coldness
and livid colour ofthe limbs,' n dreadful delirium, a-d
acute pains, accompanied them  lo tfie last moment.
One of them sunk a few hours after hi* admission into
the hospital; the three others had the same fate in the
course of the night.   On opening their dead bodies, the
stomach and intestines displayed  large spots of inflam-
mation and gangrene; and putrefaction seemed ad-
vancing very rapidly.  It is employed  externally  to
strumous phagedenic, and fistulous ulcers, as an eseha-
rolic.
  Agaricus piperatus.  The plant  thus n?m<"l by
Linnaeus, is the pepper mushroom ; also called pqip i
agaric.   It is the Fungus piperatus albus,lactco  -ucco
turgens of Ray.  Fungus albus acris.  When freely
taken, fatal consequences are related by several writers
to have been the result.  When this vegetable has even
lost  its acrid juice by drying, its caustic qualitysl.il
remains.
   Agaricus  pratensis.   The  champignon of Hud-
son's Flora Anglica. This plant has  but little smell,
and is rathetdry, yet when broiled  and stewcJ, e^tn
municates a good flavour.
   Agaricus  violaceus.  Violet mushroom.  This
fungus requires much broiling, but  when stiff:', iently
done and  seasoned, it is as delicious as an oyster.
Hudson's bulbosus is only a variety of this.
  AGATE.  A mineral found chiefly in  Siberia ae:d
Saxony, which consists of chalcedony blended with
variable proportions of jasper, amethyst,  quartz, opal,
heliotrope, and carnelion.
  [This name  is usually applied to an  aggregate ol
certain quartzy or siliceous  substances, intimately
combined,  possessing a great degree of haidnes-', a
compact and  fine texture, agreeable  colours, yariou-.iy
arranged and intermixed, and susceptible of a :.-i<>d
polish.  The  minerals  whicli most frequently  enter
into  the composition of  agates, are common chalce-
dony, carnelion, and jasper, to which are sometimes
added flint, hornstone,  common quartz,  amethy.tt,
heliotrope, and  opal. The chalcedony, however, is the
most common and abundant ingredient,  and may fre-
quently be  considered Ihe base of the agate:  in fact,
some agates are composed entirely of chalet aV'ry dif
ferently coloured.  In most cases, only two or  three ol
the aforementioned ingredients  occur in the  same
agate; but, though  variously intermixed, each ingre
dient usually remains perfectly distinct
  Agates exhibit the colours already mentioned, while
describing the simple minerals whicli  compose the.ii.
But these colours are often so arranged, as to pi,'»2nt
the resemblance of some well-known object.  Ueunc
arises much of  the beauty of agates ; and hence rJso
most  of the distinctive names they have r.ec.:.vet. in
the arts. Of these a few will be  mentioned.   1. Onyx
agate.  2.  Eyed agate.   3.  Dotted agate.   4.  Mow
agate.  5.  Dendritic agate.   0. Spoiled or  figured
agate.   7. Breccia agate.  8. Fortification agate, 0.
Ribband agate,  &c.  Cleav. Mm. A.]
  [Acatized wood.  This substance appears  to have
been produced by the process common y called the pe
trifaction of wood.  It is essentially composed of sili-
ceous earth, which it is highly probable has been gra-
dually deposited,  as the vegetable matter was  decom-
posed and removed.  Both its form  and texture indi-
cate  its origin.  Thus it presents rjore or iestUistinctlji
                                         33 
AGG
AGR
ihe form of Hit trunk, branches, roots, or knots, which
once belonged to the vegetable.  The surface is rough
ox longitudinally striated.  Its texture is fibrous, and
the fibres often  intertwined like those of  wood.  Its
longitudi ml fracture is usually fibrous or splintery, and
its cross  fracture  imperfectly conchoidal, with little
or no lustre.—Cleav. Min.
  Agalized wood has been found in various parts of
the United Str-.tes.  We have seen in the possession of
D>- Mitchill some remarkable specimens of siliceous
pcriiactionsor agatized madrepores, echini, &c. from
the West-Indian islands.   A.]
   AGE.  JEtas.  The ancients reckoned six stages of
life.
   1.  Puerilia, childhood, which is to the fifth year
if our age.
  ■2.  Adolescentia, youth, reckoned to the eighteenth,
Mid youth properly so called, to the  twenty-fifth year.
  3. '.Inventus, reckoned from the twenty-fifth to the
Ihirty-fifth year.
  4.  Virilis atas, manhood, from the thirty-fifth  to
the fiftieth year.
  5.  Senectus, old age, from fifty to sixty.
  6.  Crepita atas, decrepit age, which  ends in death.
  AGEN'E'SiA.  (Kytvnaia;  from a, neg. yevvaio,  or
yivopai, to beget.)  Male sterility, or impotency  in
man.  A term employed by  Vogel  and Good.  See
Nosology.
  A'GER.  (Ager, gri.  m.; from aypoc.)   The com-
mon earth or  soil.
  AGitR nature.  The womb.
   AGE RATUM.  (hynpaf] ov;  from a, priv. and yn
pa;, senectus : never old, evergreen ; because its flow-
ers preserve their beauty a long time.)  See Ackillaa
egeratnm.
   AGEU'STIA.  (From a, neg. and ycvopai, gusto,
to taste.)   Agheustia;  Apogeustia; Apogcusis.  A
defect or loss  of taste.  A genus of disease in the class
locales, and order dysasthesia of Cullen.   The causes
arc fever or  palsy, whence he forms two species: the
latter he calls organic, arising from some  affection in
the niPinbraneof the tongue, by which relishing things.
or those which have  some taste, are prevented from
coining into contact with the nerves ; the other atonic,
arising without any affection ofthe tongue.
   AGGLUTINA'NTIA. Adhesive medicines which
heal 1>\ causing the parts to stick together.
   AGGLUTINATION.   (Aggl.utinatio;  from  ad
and glutino,  to glue together.)   The adhesive union or
sticking together of substances.
   Aggluti'tio.  Obstruction  iu the oesophagus, or a
difficulty in swallowing.
   AGGREGATE.  (Aggregatus; from  aggrego, to
 assemble together.)   Aggregated or added  together.
 I. When bodies ofthe same kind are united, the only
 consequence is, that one larger body is produced.  In
 this case, the united mass  is called an  aggregate, and
 does not differ in its chemical properties from the bo-
 dies from which it was originally made.  Elementary
 writers call the smallest parts into which an aggregate
 can  be divided without destroying its chemical pro-
 perties, integrant parts.  Thus the integrant parts of
 common salt are the smallest parts which can be con-
 ceived to remain without change; and beyond these,
 any further subdivision cannot  be made without deve-
 loping th.e component parts, namely, the alcali and the
 acid ; which are still further resolvable into their con-
 stituent principles.
   2. A term applied lo glands, flowers, gems, &c.   An
  aggregate flo-ver is one whicli consists of a number of
  smaller flowers or fructifications, collected into a head
  by means of some  part common to them all. In this
  view aggregate flowers are opposed to simple flowers
  Which have a single fructification,  complete  in its
  parts, nine of which are common to many flowers.
    Aggregate ur.'-t,  A term applied in botany when
  two, three,  or even more gems appear  at  the 6ame
  time.
    Aggregate glands.  (From aggrego, to assemble
  together.)   Glandula aggregate.   An assemblage of
  glands, as those on some parts of the  internal surface
  nf the intestines.
    Aggregate  peduncle.  Clustered flower stalks,
  bo  called when several grow together, as  in vcrbascum
  v'grum.
    ■Aggregation, affinity of.  See Attraction.
    Aggregation, attraction of.  See Attraction
       ~3G
  AGGREGATUS.  See Aggregate.
  AGHEUSTIA.  See Ageustia.
  AGITATO'RIA.  Convulsive diseases.
  AGLACTA'TIO.  Defect of milk.
  AGLA'XIS.  Defect of milk.
  Aglium.  1. A shining tubercle or pustulft on ifta

  2 ' A white speck on *he eye.  See JEgides.
  A'gnacal.  A tree, wliich, according to Ray, grow*
about the  isthmus of Darien, and resembles a peai
tree, the fruit of which is a great provocative to venerv
  Agna'ta.  See Adnata tunica.
  AGNI'NA.   (Agnina;   from  agnus,  a  lamb.)
AStius calls  one of the membranes which involve the
foetus by the  name of  membrana  agnina, which ho
derives from its tenderness.  See Amnios.
  AGNOf A.  (From a, priv. and yivusKut, to know.)
Forgetfnlness.
  A'GNUS.   A lamb.
  Agnus castu3.   (Called agnus, trom  the down
upon its surface, which  resembles that upon a Iamb's
skin •  and vastus, because the chaste matrons, at the
feasts of Ceres, strewed them upon  their beds and lay
upon them.)   See Vitex agnus castus.
  rAgnus tartaricus.  This is a vegetable produc-
tion, and belongs to the ferns.  It  is the  root of the
Folypodium  Barometz, belonging to the class Crypto
gamia, and order Felice3 of Linnaeus. The  root of this
plant is covered With a  sort of orange-coloured wool
among the radicals, and  has a peculiar oblong  figure,
wliich, when put in a proper position, has a remote
resemblance to a sheep.  When pulled up by the roots,
the stipes ofthe leaves, except four, are cut away, and
those  left behind are trimmed to resemble legs, and
this Chinese juggle has had great sway  in the world,
and has deceived  even  Dr. Darwin, who  has figured
and noticed  it in his Botanic Garden as a plant grow-
ing in ties form of an animal.—Notes from Mitchill's
 Lectures. A.]
   Agomphi'asis.  A looseness of the teeth.
   A'oonk.  (Ayovi); from a, neg. and yovos, offspring.
so called because it was supposed to cause barrens js."1
Henbane.  See Hyosciamus nigcr.
   AGO'NIA.  Sterility, impotence, agony.
   Agoni'sticvi.   (A.yiavi?tKov; from  aywviau,  U.
struggle.)  A  term used by ancient physicians to sig
nii'y water extremely cold, which was directed to  bu
given in large  quantities, in acute erysipelatous fevers,
with  a view of overpowering or struggling with tha
 febrile heat  ofthe blocd.
   A'GONOS.  (From a, priv. and yovos,  or yovri,  ai
offspring.)  Barren.  Hippocrates calls those womeu
so who have  no children, though they might have if
the impediment were removed.
   AGRE'STIS.  1. Pertaining to the field; the trivial
 name of many plants.
   2. In the  works of some old writers, it expresses  an
 ungovernable malignity in a disease.
   A'GRIA.   1. A name of the Ilex aquifolium, or com
 mon holly.
   2. A malignant  pustule, of which the ancient sin
 geons, and particularly Celsus, describe two sorts ; one
 which has been so called, is small, and casts a rough-
 ness or redness over  the  skin, slightly corroding  it;
 smooth about its centre; spreads slowly;  and is of a
 round figure.  The  second ulcerates, with a violent
 redness and corrosion, so as to make the hair full oft';
 it is of an unequal form, and turns leprous.
    AGRIA'MPELOS.   (From aypios, wild, and auxt
 Xoc, a  vine.)   The wild vine, or white bryony.  See
 Bryonia.
    AGRIELA5A.   (From aypios, wild, and t\aia,  the
 oiive-tree.)   The oleaster, or wild olive.
    AGRI'FOLIUM.  (From  mi,-, a prickle, and <£iX
 Xr5v, a leaf.)  The holly-tree.   Which should rather be
 called acifolium, from its prickly leaves.
    AGRIMO'NIA.  (Agrimonia, a,{.;  from cypos, a
 field, and povos, alone: so named from its leing  the
 chief of all wild herbs.)  Agrimony.
    1  The name of a genus of  plants in the Linnaean
 system.  Class, Dodecandria ; Order D.gynia.
    2.  The pharniacopaeial name of the  common agri-
 mony.  See Agrimonia cupaloria.
    Agrimonia eupatoria.  The systematic name ot
 the common  agrimony. Agrimonai of the  pharma-
 copoeias ; Agrimonia—foliis caulinis pinnatis,folioli.
  undique scrratis, omnibus minutis intcrstimtis, fntc 
AUU
AUl
 *i»«» hispidis of Linnaeus.  It is common in fields a"bout
 hedges and shady places, flowering  in June and July.
 It has  been principally regarded in  the character of a
 mild astringent and corroborant, and many authors
 recommend it  as a do ibstruent, especially in hepatic
 and other visceral obstructions. Chomel relates two
 instances of its successful use in cases where the liver
 was much enlarged and  indurated.   It has been used
 with advantage in hnemorrhagjc affections, and to give
 tone to a lax and weak sta.e of the solids.  In cutane-
 ous d'snrder».  particularly in scabies, we have  been
 told thai i' iliauifests great efficacy.   For this purpose
 it was  given infused with liquorice in Ihe form of tea;
 but, according to Alston, it should bealwa}s  exhibited
 iu the state of powder.  It is best used while fresh,and
 the tops,  before the flowers are formed, possess the
•most virtue.  Cullen  observes  that the agrimony has
 some astringent powers, but they are feeble ;  and pays
 little attention to what has been said in Its favour.
  AGRIMONY.  See Agrimonia.
  Agrimony hemp.  See  Bidens tripartita.
  AGRIOCA RDAMUM.  (From  aypios, wild, and
 tcapdapov, the nasturtium.)  Sciatica cresses, or  wild
 garden cress.
  AGRIOCASTAMM.   (From aypios, wild, and
 tcas-avoy, the chestnut.)   Earth of pig-nut.   See Bu-
 niuin btil-'io-castanttm.
  AGRIOCI'NAR V.  (From aypios, wild, and Kivapa.
 artichoke.)  Wild artichoke : not so good as the cuiti
 vated for  any purpose.  See Cinara scolymus.
  AGRIOCOCCIME LA.  i From aypios, wild, kokkos,
 a berry, and pn\ca, an apple-tree.) ' The Pi-unus spi-
 nosa ot Linnaeus.
  AGRIOMELA.  The crab-apple.
  A'grion. Agriophyllon,  The peucedanum silaus,
 or hos's fennel.
  AGRIOPASTINA CA.   (From  aypios,  wild, and
 pastinaca, a carrot.)  Wild carrot, or parsnip.
  AGRIOPHY LLOX.   See .hrrion.
  AGRIORI'GANU.M.   (From aypios, wild,  aud opi-
 yai'Df,  marjoram.)  Wild mar/nom. See Origanum
 Mulgare.
  AGRIOSELI'NUM.  (From ayptos, wild, and o-tXi-
 i-ur, parsley.)   Wild  parsley.   Lee  timyrnium olusa-
 trum.
   AGRIOSTA'RI.   (From aypios, wild,  and  $-aiSi
 -.vneat.)  Field-corn, a species of Triticum.
   AGRIPA LMA.  (From aypios, wild, and zzaXpa, a
 palm-tree.) Agripalma  gallis.  The  herb mother-
 wort,  or wild-palm.
  Agripa'lma  gallis.   See Agripalma.
  AGBTPP.1E.  Those children which are  born with
 their feet foremost are so called, because that was said
 to be  the  case with  Agrippa the Roman,  who was
 named ab agropartu, from his  difficult birth.
  A GRIIM.   An impure sort of natron.  The purer
 sort was called  kalmyrhaga.
  AGROSTEMMA.  (A.ypov <;ippa, the garland  of
 the field.)  The name of a genusof plants.  Class De-
 candria ;  Order, Pcntagynia.  Cockle.
  Agrostemma  githago.  This   plant has   been
 called  Nigellastrum ;  Pseudo  melanthium ;  Lychnis
 segetum major; Githago; Nigclla officinarum ; I.yeh-
 no ides segetum. Cockle.  It has no particular virtues
 and is  fallen into disuse.
  AGROSTIS.  (From aypos, a field.)   The name ol
 a genusof plant*.  Class, Triandria; Order, Digynia.
 Bentgrass.
  AGRU'MINA.  Leeks ; wild onions.
  AGRY'PNIA.   (From  a,  priv. and  v-vos, sleep.";
 Watchfulness; sleeplessness.  The  name of a genus
 in Good's Nosology.  See Nosology.
  AGR YPNOCO'MA. (From aypvirvos, without sieep,
 and Kutua, a lethargy.)  A lethargic kind of watchful-
 ness, in which  the patient is stupidly drowsy, and yet
 cannot sleep.
  AGUE. See Febris Intermittens.
  Ague cake.   The popular name for a hard tumour
 most probably  the spleen on the left side of  the belly
 lower  than the false ribs in the region of Ihe spleen
 said to be the effect of intermittent fevers.   However
 frequent it might have been formerly, it is now very
 rare, and  although then  said to be owing tc the use of
 Bark, it is now  less frequent  since the bark  bas  been
 generally employed.
  Ague drop.   A medicine sold for the cure of agues,
 eomposed  of arsenite of potassa in solution in water.
 Tlie regular substitute for the quack  medicine called
 the tasteless ague drop, which has cured thousands ol
 that complaint, is the liquor arscnicalis, or Fowler's
 arsenical solution.
   Ague-free.   A name given by some  lo sassafras, on
 account of its supposed febrifuge virtue.
   AGUSTLNE.  (From a, priv. and yti$-ia. taste, thai
 is tasteless.) Augnstina.  A new earth discovered in
 the Saxon beryl, or beryl of Gcorgien Stadt, (a stone
 greatly resembling the beryl  of  Siberia) bv Proi'e-scr
 Tromsdorff, of Erfurth, in Germany, to which  he luv
 given the name ol" ugustine, on account of the pro-
 perty of forming salts which are  nearly di stitute of
 taste.  This earth is white and insipid : when moist
 cued with water, it is somewhat ductile, but is not
 soluble in that fluid.   Exposed to a violent heat, it be-
 comes extremely hard, but acquires no taste.   It com-
 bines with acids, forming stilts which  have little or no
 taste.  It does  not combine either in the humid or drv
 way with alcalies, or with iheircarbonates.   It retains
 carbonic acid but feebly.  It dissolves in acids equally
 well alter having been hardened by exposure to heat,
 as when newly precipitated.  With sulphuric  acid  it
 forms a salt which is insipid, and scarcely soluble, but
 an excess of acid  renders it soluble, and capable of
' crystallizing iu  stars.  With an excess of phosphoric
I acid it forms a very  soluble salt.   With nitrous acid it
1 forms a salt scarcely soluble.
   Aoutiguepoo'bi  braziliensis.  An Indian name
 ofthe arrow-root  See Maranta.
   [AIGUE  MARIA" E, called by some aqua marina; one
 ofthe precious stones which ha* been  found in  various
 parts of the United  States.  It  is a name sometime*
 employed to designate the beryl    A.]
   AIMATEI'A.  A black bilious and blood-like dis-
 charge from the bowels.
   AIMORRHCE'A.   See Hazmorrhagia.
   AIMO'RRHOIS.  See Hamorrhoi.i.
   AlPATHEl'A.    (From an, always, and SuOoc,  a
 disease.) Diseases of long continuance.
   Al pi.  Aipima coxera.  Aipipuca.  Indian wnr,-.,
 for Cassada.  See Jalropha manihot.
   AIR. This term was, till lately, used as the  generr.;
 name for such invisible and exceedingly rare fluids jh
 possess a very high  degree of elasticity, and  are n'jt
 condensible into the liquid state by any degree  of cor-J
 hitherto produced ; but as this term is commonly em-
 ployed to signify that compound  of  aeriform fluids
 which constitutes our atmosphere, it has been deemed
 advisable to restrict it to this signification, and to em-
 ploy as the  generic term the word Gas, for the different
 kinds of air, except what relates to our  atmospheric
 compound.
   Air, atmospheric. " The immense mass of perma-
 nently elastic fluid which surrounds the globe we in-
 habit,"  says  Dr.  Ure, "must consist of  a  general
 assemblage of everv kind of air which can  be  formed
 by the  various bodies that compose  its surface.
 Most of  these, however, are absorbed by  water;  a
 number of  them *redecomposed by combination wit'i
 each oilier, and some of them are seldom  disengaged
 iu considerable quantities by the processes of  nature.
 Hence it is  thai uic  *wer atmosphere consists chiefly
 of oxygen  and nitrogen, together with moisture and
 (he  occasional vaimins or exhalations of bodies.  The
 upper atmosphere -ferns to be composed of a large pro-
 portion of  hydrogfn a fluid of so much less  specific
 giavily than any other, that it must  naturally ascend
 to the highest  place, where, being occasionally set eti
 fire  byelectriciiy.il  appears to be the cause ofthe
 aurora borealis aiuS fiie-balls.   It  may easily lie un-
 derstood thai t\iit wii' only happen on the confines ct
 the respective  mosws of  common atn■.<>M<hericul aic,
 and of the  iiiftaiiiiUHble  air; that the ohmNisii"!! w.-i'
 extend progressively, though rapidly, in flashings ire, ;
 the  place where it commences; and that when by ai._,.
 means a stream of  inflammable air, in its ■■: ogress to-
 ward ihe upiiei atmosphere, is set on  nre at one end,
 its rgnit ton  mav be uv.icri more  rapid  than what hap-
 pens bighei up. wftert. otvgen is wanting, and at ihe
 Fame time  more deririw in its figure  and progressio:.,
 so as to form the appearance of a fire-ball.
   That the  air of the atmosphere is so transparent as
 to be invisible except by the blue colour  it  reflect,
 when in very  large masses, as  is  seen in the sky ot
 region above us, or m viewing extensive landscapes;
 thai it  is without  smell, except That of electricity
                                          37 
AIR
ALR
 which it sometiiiies very manifestly exhibits; altogether
 Without taste, and impalpable ;  not condensible by any
 degree of cold into the dense fluid state, though easily
 changing its dimensions with its temperature; that it
 gravitates and is highly elastic ; are among the nume-
 rous observations and discoveries which do honour to
 the sagacity of the philosophers of the  seventeenth
 century.  They likewise knew that this fluid is indis-
 pensably necessary to combustion, but no one, except
 tbc great, though neglected, John Mayow, appears to
 have formed any proper notion of its manner of act-
 ing in ihat process.
   The air ofthe atmosphere, like other fluids, appears
 to be capable of holding bodies in solution.  It takes
 up water in considerable quantities, with a diminution
 of its own specific gravity: from which circumstance,
 as well as from the consideration that water rises very
 I'.'fiitifully in the vaporous state in vacuo, it seems pro-
 bable, that the air suspends vapour, not so much by a
 real solution, as  by keeping its  particles asunder, and
 preventing their condensation.  Water likewise dis-
 solves or absorbs air.
   Mere heating or cooling does not affect the chemical
 properties of atmospherical air;  but actual  combus-
 tion, or any process of the same   ature, combines its
 axygen, and leaves its nitrogen separate.   Whenever
 a process of this kind is carried on iu a vessel contain-
 ing atmospherical air, which is enclosed either by in-
 verting  the  vessel over mercury, or by stopping its
 aperture in a proper manner, it is found that the pro-
 cess ceases alter a certain lime ; and that the remain-
 ing air (if a combustible body capable of solidifying the
 oxygen, such as phosphorus, have been employed,) has
 lost about a fifth part of its volume, and is of such a
 nature as to be incapable of maintaining any combus-
 tion for a second time, or of supporting the life of" ani-
 mals.  From these experiments it is clear, that one of
 "Jie following deductions must be true :—1. The com-
 bustible body has emitted some  principle, which,  by
 Minbining with the air, has rendered it unfit for the
 purpose of  further combustion; or, 2. It has absorbed
 part of the air which was fit for that purpose, and has
 left a  residue of a different nature; or, 3. Both events
 have happened ;  namely, that the pure part of the  air
 has been absorbed, and a principal has  been emitted,
 which has changed the original properties of the  re-
 mainder.
  The facts  must clear up  these theories.   The first
 Induction cannot be true, because the  residual air is
 not only of less bulk, but of less  specific gravity, than
 before.  The air cannot therefore have received  so
 much as it has lost.  The second is the doctrine of the
 philosophers who deny the existence of  phlogiston, or
 a principle of inflammability; and the third  must  be
adopted by those who maintain  that such a principle
escapes from bodies during combustion.  This residue
 was called phlogisticatcd air, in consequence of such
 an opinion.
  In the opinion that inflammable air is the phlogiston,
 it is not necessary to reject the second  inference that
 the air has been  no otherwise  changed than by the
 mere subtraction of one of its principles; for the pure
or vital part of the air may unite with inflammable air
supposed to exist in a fixed  state in the combustible
body ; and if the product of this union still continues
fixed,  it  is evident, that  the residue of  the air, after
combustion, will be the same as it would have been if
the vital part had been  absorbed  by any other fixed
 body.  Or, if the vital  air be absorbed while inflam-
 mable air or  phlogiston is disengaged, and unites
 with  the aeriform residue,  his residue will  not  be
 heavier  than before, unless the inflammable air it has
 gained exceeds in weight the vital air it has lost; and
 if  the inflammable air  falls  short of that weight, the
 residue will be lighter.
  These theories it was necessary to mention; but it
 lias been sufficiently proved by various experiments,
 that combustible bodies take oxygen from  the atmos-
 phere, and leave nitrogen ; and that when these two
 fluids  ure again  mixed in due proportions, they com-
 pose a mixture not differing from atmospherical air.
  The respiration of animals produces the same effect
 on  atmospherical air as combustion does, and their
 constant hent  appears  to be an effect  of the same
 nature.   When  an animal  is included in a limited
quantity of atmospherical air, it dies as soon as the
oxygen is consumed; and no other air will  maintain
 animal life but oxygen, or a mixture which contains
 it.  Pure oxygen maintains the life of animals much
 longer than atmospherical air, bulk for hulk.
   It is  to be particularly observed, however, that, in
 many cases  of combustion, the oxygen of the  air, in
 combining with  the combustible  body, produces a
 compound, not solid, or liquid, but aenforin.  The re-
 sidual air will therefore be a mixture  of the  nitrogen
 of the atmosphere with  the  consumed oxygen, con-
 verted into another  gas.   Thus, in burning charcoal,
 the carbonic acid gas generated, mixes with  the resi-
 dual nitrogen, a» d makes up exactly, when the effect
 of heat ceases, the  bulk of the original  air.   The
 breathing of animals, in like manner, changes the oxy-
 gen  into carbonic acid gas, without altering the atmos-
 pherical volume.
   There are  many provisions in nature  by which tho
 proportion of oxygen in the atmosphere, which is con-
 tinually consumed in respiration and combustion, is
 again restored to that fluid.  Iu fact there appears, as
 far as an estimate can be formed of the great and ge-
 neral operations of  nature, to be at least as great  an
 emission of oxygen as is sufficient to keep the general
 mass of the atmosphere at the same degiee of purity.
 Thus, in volcanic eruptions, there seems to be at least
 as much oxygen emitted or extricated  by fire from va-
 rious minerals, as is sufficient to maintain the combus-
 tion, and perhaps even  to meliorate the  atmosphere
 And in the bodies of  plants and animals, which appear
 in a  great measure to derive their sustenance and aug-
 mentation from  the  atmosphere and its contents, it is
 found that a large proportion of nitrogen exists.  Most
 plants emit oxygen in the sunshine, from which it is
 highly probable that they imbibe and decompose the oil
 of the atmosphere, retaining carbon, and  emitting the
 vital part.  Lastly, if to this we add the decomposition
 of water, there will  be numerous occasions in which
 this fluid will supply us wiih disengaged oxygen; while,
 by a very rational supposition, its hydrogen  may  be
 considered as having entered into the bodies of plants
 for the formation of  oils, sugars, iu icilages, &.C., from
 which it may be again extricated.
   To determine the  respirability or purity of air, it i=
 evident that recourse must be had to its comparative
 efficacy  in maintaining  combustion,  or  some  othei
 equivalent process.
   From (he latest and most accurate experiments, the
 proportion of oxygen iu atmospheric air is by measure
 about 21  per cent; and  it appears to be very nearly
 the same, whether it  be in this country or on the coas"i
 of Guinea, on low plains or lofty mountains, or even
 at the height  of 7250  yards above the level of the sea,
 as ascertained by Gay Lussac, in his atrial  voyase in
 September, 1805.  The remainder of the air is  nitro-
 gen,  with a small portion of aqueous vapour, amount-
 ing to about one per cent, in the driest  weather, and a
 still  less portion  of  carbonic acid, not exceeding a
 thousandth part of the whole.
  As oxygen  and  nitrogen differ in specific gravity in
 the proportion of 135 to  121, according to Kirvvan
 and of 139 to 120, according to Davy,  it has been pre-'
 sumed, that the oxygen would be more abundant  in
 the lower regions, and the nitrogen in the higher, if
 they constituted  a mere  mechanical mixture, wliich
 appears contrary to the fact.  On the other  hand, it
 has been  urged, that they cannot be in the state of
chemical combination, because they both retain theii
distinct  properties unaltered, and  no change  of tem-
 perature or density takes place on their union.  Bui
perhaps  it may be  said, that, as they have no repug-
nance to mix with each other, .13 oil and water have.
the continual agitation to which the atmosphere is ex-
posed, may be sufficient  to prevent two fluids, differ
ing not more  than oxygen and nitrogen in  gravity
from separating by subsidence, though simply mixed'
 On the contrary, it maybe argued, that  to saychemica'
combination cannot take place without producin" new
properties, which did not exist before in  the compo-
nent  parts, is  merely begging the question; lor thougk
this generally appears to be the case,  and often in &
very striking  manner, yet combination does  not al-
ways produce a  change of properties, as appears ir.
 M. Blot's experiments with various substances;  of
 which we may instance water, the refraction of which
is precisely the mean of that of the oxyeeu and hydro
gen, which arc indisputably combined in it.
  To !_'et  nd ofthe difficulty, Mr. Dalton of Manchester 
AIR                                              AiZ
 flamed an ingenious hypothesis, that  the particles of
 different gases neither attract nor repel each other; so
 that one gas expands by the repulsion of its own par-
 ticles, without any  more interruption from the pre-
 sence of another gas, than if it were in a vacuum.
 This would account for ihe state of atmospheric air, it
 is true; but it  does not agree with certain facts.  In
 the case of the carbonic acid gas in the Grotto del
 Cano,  and over the surface of brewers' vuts, why does
 nol this gas expand itself freely upward, if the superin-
 cumbent  gases do not press upon it 1  Mr. Dalton
 himself, too, instances  as an  argument for  his hypo-
 thesis, that oxygen  and hydrogen gases, when mixed
 by agitation, do not separate on standing.   But  why
 should cither oxygen or hydrogen require agitation, to
 diffuse it through a vacuum, in which, according to Mr.
 Dalton, it is placed 1
  The theory of Berlhollet appears consistent with all
 :he facts, and  sufficient to account for the  phenome-
 non.  If two bodies be capable of chemical combina-
 tion, their particles must have a  mutual attraction for
 each other. This attraction, however, may be so op-
 posed by concomitant  circumstances, that  it may  be
 diminished* in any degree.  Thus we  know, that the
 affinity of aggregation may occasion a body to combine
 slowly with a substance for whicli it  has a  powerful
 affinity, or even entirely prevent its combining with it;
 the presence of a third substance may equally pre-
 vent the combination ;  and so may the absence  of" a
 certain quantity of caloric.  But  in all these cases the
 attraction ofthe particles must subsist, though diminish-
 ed or counteracted by opposing circumstances.  Now
 we know  that oxygen and nitrogen  ore capable of
 combination; their particles, therefore,  must attract
 each other; but in the circumstances in which  they
 are placed in our atmosphere, that attraction is pre-
 vented from exerting itself, to such a degree as to form
 them  into  a chemical  compound, though it operates
 with sufficient force to prevent their separating by their
 difference of specific gravity.  Thus ihe  state of the
 atmosphere is accounted for, and every difficulty obvi-
 ated, without any new hypothesis.
  The exact specific gravity of atmospherical air,
 compared to that of water, is a very nice and impor-
 tant problem.    By reducing to  60°  Fahr. and to  30
 inches ofthe barometer, the results obtained with great
 care by Biot and Arago, the specific  gravity of atmos-
 pherical  air, appears to be 0.001220, water being re-
 presented by 1.000000.   This relation expressed frac-
 tionally is 1-8-20, or water is 820 times denser than at-
 mospherical air.  Mr. Rice, in the 77th and 78th num-
 bers of tlie Annals of Philosophy, deduces  from Sir
 George Shuckburgh's experiments 0.00120^55 for the
 specific gravity of air.  This  number gives water  to
 air as 827.437 to 1.  If with Mr. Rice we take the cubic
 inch of water=252.525gr, then  100 cubic  inches  of
 air by Biot's experiments will weigh 30.808 grains, and
 by Mr. Rice's estimate 30.519.  He considers with Dr.
Prout the  atmosphere to be a compound of 4 volumes
of nitrogen, and 1 of oxygen; the specific gravity of
the first being to that of the second as 1.1111 to 0.9722.
 Hence
  0.8 vol. nitr.sp.gr.............0.001166=0.000933
  0.2     oxy...................0.001340=0.000268
                                          0.001201
  The numbers are transposed in the Annals of Phi-
losophy by some mistake.
  Biot and Arago found the specific gravity of oxygen
to be  ...................................... 1.10359
»nd that of nitrogen ........................ 0.96913
air being reckoned,  ......................... 1.00000
Or compared to water as unity,—
  Nitrogen i3 ............0.001182338
  Oxygen,  ..............  0.001346379
  And 0.8 nitrogen....................  =0.00094587
      0.2oxygen  .........  ..........=0.0002ti'j:JT

                                        0.00121514

  And 0.79 nitrogen....................  =0.000934
      0.21oxygen ....................    =0.000283
                                          0.001217
A number which  approaches very nearly to the result
ef experiment.  Many analogies, it must be confessed,
favour Dr. Prout's proportions;  but the greater imiu-
 lx»r of experiments on the composition and density Oi
 the atmosphere  agree with Biot's  results.  Nothing
 can decide these fundamental  chemical  proportions,
 except a  new, elaborate, and most minutely accurate
 aeries of  experiments.  We shall then know whether
 the atmosphere contains in volume 20 or  21 per cent
 of e>\>gen."— Ire's Chem. Diet.
   Air, alcalinc.  See Ammoniu.
   Air, azotic.  See Nitrogen.
   Air, fixed.  See Carbonic acid.
   Air, fluoric.  See Fluoric acid.
   Air, hepatic.   See  llydcoin sulphuretted.
   Air, heavy inflamm.il'I,.   See' Carburettcdhydrogtu.
   Air, inflammable.  See Hydro"*n.
   Air, marine.  See Munohc acid.
   Air, 7iitrous.   See  Niirons.
   Air, phlogisticated.  See  Nitrogen.
   Air, phosphoric.  See 11 yd ritgen phospkurettei.
   Air, sulphureous.  See Sulphureous acid.
   Air, ri/al.  See Orygen.
   AISTHETE'RIUM. Xl'romatoQavOfiai, to perceive.;
 The s'lisorium commune, or common sensory, or seat,
 or origin of sensation.
   AIX  LA CHAPK'LLE.  failed A ken by the Ger
 mans.  A town in the south of France, where there is
 a sulphureous water, Thermae  Aquis-granensis, the
 most striking  feature  of wliich,  and what is  almost
 peculiar lo it, is the unusual  quantity of sulphur it con-
 tains: the whole, however, is so far united lo a gase-
 ous basis, as to be entirely volatilized by heat; so thai
 none is left in  ihe residuum after evaporation.  In co-
 lour it is  pellucid, in  smell sulphureous, and in  taste
 saline, bitterish, and rather alcaline.   The temperature
 of these waters varies considerably,  according to the
 distance from  the source and the spring itself.  In the
 well ofthe hottest bath, it is, according to Lucas, 136°
 Monet, 146°; at  the fountain where it is drank, it it,
 112°  This thermal water is much resorted to on the
 Continent for a  variety of  complaints.  It is found
 essentially serviceable  in the numerous symptoms of
 disorders  in the stomach and biliary organs, lhat follow
 a life of high  indulgence in the luxuries of the table
 in nephritic cases, which produce pain  in the loins'i
 and thick mucous urine with difficult micturition.  At,
 the heating qualities of this water are as decided as in
 any of the mineral springs, it should be  avoided in
 cases of  a general inflammatory tendency, in  hectic
 fever and ulceration of the lungs; and in a disposition
 to active  haemorrhagy.  As  a hot  bath, this water is
 even  more valuable and more extensively employed
 than as an internal remedy.  The baths of Aix la Cha-
 pelle may be said to be more  particularly medicated
 than any other that we are  acquainted with.  They
 possess  both temperature of any degree that can be
 borne; and a strong impregnation with sulphur iu its
 most active  forms; and a quantity of alcali, which is
 sufficient  to give  it a very soft soapy feel, and lo rcn
 der it more detergent than common water.   From these
 circumstances, these baths will be found of particular
 service in stiffness and rigidity of the joints aud  liga-
 ments, which  is left by the inflammation of gout and
 rheumatism, and in the debility of palsy, where the
 highest degree of heat which the skin can bear is re-
 quired.  The sulphureous ingredient renders it  highly
 active in almost every cutaneous eruption, and  in ge-
 neral in every foulness ofthe skin ; and here ihe inter-
 nal use of the water should attend that of the bath
 These waters are also much employed in the distress-
 ing debility whicli follows a long course of mercury
 and excessive saliva/ion.  Aken water is one  of the
 few natural springs lhat are hot enough to be employed
 as a vapour bath, without the addition  of artificial
 heat.  It  is employed  in cases iu which the hot bath
 is used;  and  is found to be a remarkably powerful
 auxiliary  in curing some of the worst species of cuta-
 neous disorders.  With regard to the dose of this wa
 ler to be begun with, or the degree of heat to Lathe in.
 it is in all cases best to begin  with small quantities and
 low degrees of heat,  and  gradually increase  them,
 agreeably  to the effects and constitution ofthe patient
 The usual time ol" the year for drinking these waters
 is from the beginning of May to the middle of June, oi
 from the  niiddlc  of August  to  the latter end of Sep
 teniber.
   Aizo'on.  (From ati, always, and ho, to live.)  Aho-
 urn.  1. An evergreen  aquatic plant, like the aloe, said
to possess antiscorbutic virtues.
                                         83 
ALA
ALB
   3. The house leek.  See Scmpervioum tectorum.
   Aizoum.  See Aizoon.
   Aja'va.   An ancient name of asecd used in the East
 is a remedy for the colic.
   A JUG A.   (From a, priv. and gvyov, a yoke.)   1.
 The name of a genus of plants in the Linnaean system.
   2. The pharmacopeia! name of the creeping bugloss.
 See Ajvga pyramidalis.
   Ajuga pyramidalis.  Consolida  media.  Bugvla.
 Upright bugloss.  Middle consound.  This plant, Aju-
 ga—caule tctragono foliis radicalibus maximis,  of
 Linnaeus, possesses subadstringent and bitter qualities:
 and has been recommended in phthisis, aphtha, and
 cynanchc.
   [ AKANTICONE.  The name of a mineral synony-
 mous with the epidote of Haiiy, pistazit of Werner,
 glassy actynolite of Kirwan. &x.  A.]
   A'KENSIDE, Mark.  An English physician, born
 at Newcastle-upon-Tyne,  in  1721; but more distin-
 guished  as  a poet,  especially  for  his " Pleasures
 of the Imagination."  After studying at Edinburgh,
 and graduating at Leyden, he settled in practice; but
 though  appointed  physician to  the  queen, as well
 as to St. Thomas's Hospital,  he  is said not to have
 been very successful.  He  died of a  putrid fever, in
 his 49th year.  He has left a Dissertation on Dysentery
 in Latin, admired for its elegance; and several small
 Tracts  in  the Philosophical  and London Medical
 Transactions.
   AL.  The Arabian article, which signifies the; it is
 applied to a word by way of eminence, as the Greek o
 is.  The Easterns  express the superlative  by adding
 God thereto, as the mountain of God, for the highest
 mountain;  and it is probable that Al relates to the
 word Alia, God : so Alchemy, may be the chemistry of
 God,  or the most exalted  perfection of chemical
 science.
  A'LA.  1. The wing of a bird.
  2. The arm-pit, so called because it answers to the
 pit under the wing of a bird.
  3. An accidental part of the seed of a plant; consist-
 ing of a membraneous prolongation from the side of" the
 seed, and distinguished by the number into
  Scmiva monoterygia:  one-winged, as in Bignonia.
  Dipterygia: two-winged, as in Bctula.
   Triptcrygia: three-Winged.
   Tctraptcrygia: four-winged.
  Polyptcrigia:  many-winged,  or  Molendinacea :
 windmill-winged,  for so the  many-winged seeds of
 some umbelliferous plants are termed.
  4. The two lateral or side petals of a papilionaceous
 or butterfly-shaped  flower.
  Ala auris.  The upper part of the external ear.
  Ala interna minor.  See Nympha.
  Ala nasi.  1. The cartilage of the nose which
 forms the outer part of the nostrils.
  2. The sides of the nose are called ala nasi.
  Ala vespkrtilionis.  That part of the ligament
 of the womb, which lies between the tubes and the
 ovarium ; so called from its resemblance to the wing
 of a bat.
  ALABASTER. Among the stones which are known
 by the name of marble, and have been distinguished
 by a considerable variety of denominations by statua-
 ries and others, whose attention is more directed to
their external character and appearance than  their
component parts, alabasters are tliose which  have a
greater or less degree of imperfect transparency, a gia-
nular  texture, are  softer, take a duller polish than
 marble,  and arc usually of a white colour.  Soine
 stones, however, of a veined and coloured appearance,
 nave been considered as alabasters, from their possess-
 .ng the  first-mentioned  criterion; and some transpa-
 rent and yellow sparry stones have also received this
 appellation.
  [Alabaster is  a  variety of compact  gypsum.  It  is
 found in compact masses of a  fine grain, whose frac-
 ture is even, or splintery, and  nearly or quite dull, or
sometimes a little foliated.  It is nearly opaque, and
its colours are commonly white or gray,  sometimes
shaded with yellow,  red, e^c. or variously mingled.
Its specific gravity is sometimes only 1.87.  It is some-
times in  concretions.
  Compact  gypsum, and some varieties of granular
gypsum, are employed in sculpture and architecture,
undei  the name of alabaster.  The same name is also
given to  certain varieties of carbonate of lime.  It may
      40
 be well  to employ the term  gypseous and calcaieous
 alabaster.—Clean. Min.
   The cabinet of the .New-York  Lyceum of Natural
 History contains some very fine specimens of gypseous
 alabaster, from various parts of the United Stales.  A.]
   ALiEFO'RMlS.   (Alwformis; from  Ala, a wing,
 and forma, resemblance.)  Wing-like. Any thing like
 a wing.
   Alai'a phthi'sis.  (From aXaios, blind, and 00«7iy,
 a wasting.)  A consumption from a  flux of humours
 from the head.
   [ALALITE.  A  rare mineral, consisting principally
 of silex, magnesia, and lime, found in. the form of pris-
 matic crystals, otherwise called diopskle.  A.]
   Alandahla.  The Arabian for bitter.  Thr bitter
 apple.  See Cucumis colocynthis.
   Alanfu'ta.  An Arabian  name of a  vein between
 the chin and  lower  lip, which was formerly opened to
 prevent foetid breath.
   Alaria  ossa.  The wing-like processes of the sphe-
 noid bone.
   ALARIS.  (Alaris ; from ala, a wing.)  Formed
 like, or belonging to a wing.
   Alaris externus.  Silu*culus alaris cttirrnus.  A
 name of the external pterygoid muscle;  so called be-
 cause it takes its rise from the wing-like  process ofthe
 sphenoid bone.
   Alaris vena.  The innermost  ofthe  three veins in
 the bend ofthe arm.
   Alate'rnus.  A species of rhamnus.
   ALA'TCS.  (From ala, a wing.)  Winged.  J Ap-
 plied to steins and leaf-stalks, when the edges or ar.gl-s
 are longitudinally expanded into leaf-like borders; as
 in JEnopordium acanthium; Lathyrus latifoluu, &c.
 and the leaf-stalk of the orange tribe, citrus, &.c
  2.  One who has prominent scapulae like thi A'ings
 of birds.
  Albagras  niqra.  So Avicenna  names tin  Lepra
 ichthyosis, or Lepra Gracorum.
  ALIiAME'NTUM.  (From  albus, white..   The
 white of an egg.
  Alba'num.  LTrir.ous salt.
  Alba'tio.   (From albus, white.)  Albificali    The
 calcination or whitening of metals.
  A'LBICANS.  (From albico, to grow  whiti  )  In-
 clining to white.  Whitish.
  Albica'ntia co'rpora.  Corpora  albicantitj.  lirU-
 lisii.  Two small round bodies or projections  f. /ni the
 base ofthe brain, of a white colour.
  ALBIN.  A  mineral found in Bohemia; s.e called
 from its white colour.
  Alei'ntm.   Sen Gnaphalium dioicum.
  ALBINUS Bernard Siegfrep, son of a physician,
 and  professor at Leyden of the same name, was boru
 near the end of the  17th century, and  prosecuted his
studies with so much zeal and  success,  that lie  was
appointed, on the recommendation of Boerhaave, pro-
fessor of  anatomy and  surgery, when only 20 years
old.  This office he filled for half  a  century, and ac
quired a greater reputation than  any of his" predeces-
sors.  He has left several valuable anatomical works;
and particularly very accurate descriptions, and plates
of the muscles and bones,  which  are still highly
esteemed.
  A'LBORA.  A sort of itch;  or rather of  leprosy-
Paracelsus says, it is a complication of the morphew,
serpigo, and leprosy. When cicatrices appear  in the
face like the serpigo, and then turn to small blisters of
the nature of the morphew,  it is  the albora.  It termi-
nates without ulceration,  but  by foetid evacuations in
the mouth and nostrils ; it is also seated in  the root of
the tongue.
  ALBUC.VSIS, an Arabian  physician  and  surgeon
of considerable merit, who  lived about the beginning
of the twelfth century.   He has  copied much from
preceding writers, but added  also many original ob-
servations; and his works may be still perused w ith
pleasure.  He insisted on the necessity of a  surgeon
being skilled in anatomy to enable him to  operate with
success, as well as acquainted with  the  materia  me-
dica, that he  may apply his remedies with propriety
He appears to have extracted polypi from  the nose, and
performed the operation of brtnehotomy.  He is the
first who left distinct descriptions  and delineations of
the instrunienis used in surgery, and of the manner ot
employing them.
  ALBUCI'NEA.  <6lbuginia; from albus, white* *o 
ALB                                               ALB
  sailed on account of its whit ■ colour.)  The name of a ;
  membrane of the eye and of the testicle.
   Albucinea oculi.  See Adnata tunica.
   Albuginea testis.  Tunica albuginea testis.  The
  innermost  coat of the testicle.  A  strong, white, and
  dense  membrane,  Immediately covering the body or
  substance  of the testicle.  On its outer surface it  is i
  smooth,  but rough and uneven on  the inner.   See
  Testicle.
   ALBU'GO.  A white opacity of the  cornea of the
 eye. The Greeks named it leucoma; the Latins, albugo,
 nebula, and  nubecula.  Some ancient  writers have
 called  it  pterygium, jahua oculi,  onyx, unguis,  and
 agides.  It is a variety of Cullen's Caligo cornea.
   [Albugo, (from albus, white.)  It is a  white opacity
 of the  cornea, not of a superficial kind, but affecting
 the very substance of thi3  membrane.  A.]
   Album balsamum.   The balsam of copaiba.   See
 Copaiba.
   Album Gr.ccum.  The white dung of dogs.  It was
 formerly  applied as a discutient, to the inside ofthe
 throat, in quinsies, being first mixed with honey;  me-
 dicines of this kind liave long since justly sunk into
 disuse.
   Album olus.   Pec Valeriana loeusta.
   ALBU MEN.   Albumine.   1.  Coagulable lymph.
 This stiDslance, which derives its name from the Latin
 for the white of an egg, in which it exists abundantly,
 and in  its purest natural  state, is one of the chief con-
 stituent principles of all the animal solids.  Beside the
 white of  egg, it abounds in the serum of blood, the vi-
 treous and crystalline humours of the eye, and the fluid
 of dropsy.  Fourcroy claims to himself the honour of
 having discovered it in the green feculae of  plants in I
 general, particularly in those ofthe cruciform order, in
 very young ones, and in the fresh shoots of trees, though
 Rouelle appears to have detected it there long before.
 Vauqueliu  says it exists also in the mineral water of
 Plombiercs.
   Seguin has found il in remarkable quantity in  such
  vegetables as ferment without yest, and afford a vinous
 liquor; and from a series of experiments,  he infers, that
 albumen is the true principle of fermentation, and that
 its action is more powerful in proportion to its solu-
  bility, three different degrees  of wliich he found it to
  possess.
   The chief characteristic of albumen  is its coagula-
  bility by the action of  heat.  If the white of an egg be
 exposed to  a heat of about 134° F. white fibres begin to
 appear in it, and at ISO3 it coagulates into a solid mass
 Iu a heat not exceeding  212 it dries, shrinks, and  as-
 sumes  the  appearance of horn.  It  is soluble in  cold
 water before it has been coagulated, but not after; and
 when diluted with  a  very large portion, it  does  not
 coagulate easily.  Pure alcalies dissolve  it, even after
 coagulation.  It is precipitated  by muriate of mercury,
 nitro-muriate of tin, aeetatc of lead, nitrate of silver,
 muriate of gold, infusion  of galls and tannin.  The
 acids and metallic oxydes coagulate albumen.  On the
 addition of concentrated sulphuric  acid, it  becomes
 black, and exhales a nauseous smell.  Strong  muriatic
 acid gives a viohet tinge to the coagulum, and at length
 becomes saturated with ammonia.  Nitric acid, at 70u
 F. disengages from it abundance of azotic gas; and if
 the  heat  be increased, prussic acid is formed;  after |
 which  carbonic acid  and   carburetted hydrogen are i
 evolved, and the residue consists of water containing a
 little oxalic  acid, and covered with a lemon-coloured
 fat oil.  If dry potassa or soda be triturated with albu-
 men, either  liquid or solid, ammoniacal gas is evolved,
 and the calcination of the residuum  yields an alcaline
 prus3iate.
   On exposure to the atmosphere in a moist state, albu-
 men passes  at once to the state of putrefaction.
   Solid albumen may be obtained by agitating white of I
 egg with  ton or  twelve  times  its weight of alcohol.
 This seizes  the water which held the albumen in solu-
 tion ; and this substance is precipitated under the form I
 of white flocks or filaments, which cohesive attraction j
 renders insoluble, and whicli  consequently  may  be i
 freely washed with water.   Albumen thus obtained is
 like fibrine, solid, white, insipid, inodorous, denser than
 water, and  without action or vegetable colours   It
 dissolves in  potassa and soda more easily than fibrine;
 but in acetic acid and ammonia, with more difficulty.
 When thette two animal principles are  separately dis- \
solved in  potassa, muriatic  acid added to the albumi- j
 nous, docs not disturb the solution, but It  produces  r
 cloud in the other.
   Fourcroy and  several other chemists have ascribed
 the characteristic coagulation of albumen bv heat to its
 oxygenation.  But cohesive attraction is the real cause
 ofthe phenomenon.  In proportion as the tempeiature
 rises, the  particles of water and albumen recede from
 each other, their affinity diminishes, and then the albu-
 men precipitates.  However, by uniting albumen with
 a large quantity of water, we diminish its coagulating
 property to such a degree, that heat renders the solution
 merely opalescent.  A new-laid egg yields a soft coagu-
 lum by boiling: but when, by keeping, a portion ofthe
 water has transuded so as to leave a void space within
 the shell,  Ihe concentrated albumen  affords a firm co-
 agulum.
   An analogous phenomenon is exhibited by acetate of
 alumina, a solution of which, being heated, gives a pre-
 cipitate in flakes, which re-dissolve as the caloric which
 separated  the particles of acid and base escapes, or as
 the temperature falls.  A solution containing  1-10 of
 dry albumen forms by heat a solid coagulum; but when
 it contains only 1-15, it gives a glary liquid.   One-thou-
 sandth part, however, on applying heat, occasions opa-
 lescence.  Putrid white of egg, and the pus of ulcer3,
 have  a similar smell.   According to Dr. Bostock,  a
 drop of a saturated solution of corrosive sublimate let
 fall into water containing 1-2900 of albumen, occasions
 a milkincss and curdy precipitate.  On adding a slight
 excess of the mercurial solution  to  the albuminous
 liquid, and applying heat, the precipitate which falls,
 being dried, contains in every 7 parts 5 of albumen.
 Hence that salt is the most delicate test of this animal
 product.   The yellow pitchy precipitate occasioned by
 tannin, is brittle when dried, and not liable to putrefac-
 tion.  But tannin, or infusion of galls, is a much nicer
 test of gelatin than of albumen.
   The cohesive  attraction  of coagulated  albumen
 makes ii resist putrefaction.  In  this stale it may bo
 kept for weeks under water without suffering change.
 By long digestion in weak nitric acid, albumen seems
 convertible into gc'atin. By the analysis of Gay Lussac
 and Thenard, 100 parts of albumen are formed of 52.883
 carbon, 23.872 oxygen, 7.540 hydrogen, 15.705 nitrogen ;
 or, in other terms, of 52.883 carbon, 27.127 oxygen and
 hydrogen,  in the proportion  for constituting water,
 15.705 nitrogen, and, 4.285 hydrogen  in excess.  The
 negative pole of a voltaic pile in high activity coagu-
 lates albumen; but  if the pile  be  feeble, coagulation
 goes on only at the positive surface.  Albumen, in such
 a state of concentration as it exists in serum of blood,
 can dissolve some metallic oxydes, particularly the pro-  #
 toxide of iron.  Orfila has found white of egg to be the
 best antidote to the poisonous effects of corrosive subli-
 mate on the human stomach.   As albumen occasions
 precipitates with the solutions of almost every metallic
 salt, probably it may act beneficially against other spe-
 cies of mineral poison.
  From its coagulability albumen is of great use in cla-
 rifying liquids.
  It is likewise remarkable for the property of render-
 ing  leather supple, for which  purpose a solution of
 whites of eggs in  water is used  by leather-dressers.—
 Ure's Chcm. Diet.
  2. In botany, the term albumen  is applied to a fari-
 naceous, fleshy, or horny substance, which  makes up
 the chief bulk of some seeds, as grapes, corn, palms,
 lilies, never rising out of the ground, nor assuming the
 office of leaves, being destined solely to nourish the ger-
 minating embryo,  till its roots perform their office.  In
 the date palm, this part  is nearly as hard as stone, hi
 mirabilis it is like wheat-flour.   It is wanting in seve-
 ral  tribes of plants, us those with compound or with
 cruciform flowers, and the cucumber  or gourd kind,
 according to Gardner.  Some few leguminous plants
 have it, and a great number of others, which, like them,
 have cotyledons  besides.  We  are not, however, to
 suppose, that "so important an organ is altogether want-
 ing, even in the above-mentioned plants.  The farina-
 ceous matter destined to nourish their  embryos, is un-
 questionably lodged in their cotyledons, the sweet taste
 of whicli, as they begin to germinate, often evinces its
 presence, and that it has undergone the same change as
 in barley.  The albumen of the nutmeg is remarkable
 for its eroded variegated appearance, and aromatic
quality; the cotyledons of this plant are very small.—
 Smith.
                                          41 
ALE
ALG
    ALBUMEN  ovi.  Albugo or.i; Aljuin.cn Moroni;
  Ovi albus liquor; Ovi candidum albumcntum ; Clu
  reta.  The white of an egg.
    ALBURNUM.  (From  albus,  white.)  The soft
  white substance, which, in trees, is found between the
  liber, or inner bark, and the wood.  In process of time
  it acquires solidity, becoming itself the wood   While
  soft, it perforins a very important part of the func-
  tions  of  growth, which  ceases  when it  becomes
  hard.   A new circle of alburnum  is annually formed
  over the old,  so that a transverse section of the trunk
  presents a pretty correct  register of the tree's age,
  each zone marking  one  year.  From  its colour and
  comparative  softness, it  "has  been  called  by some
  writers, the adeps arborum. The alburnum  is found
  in laryest quantities in trees that are vigorous.  In an
  oak six inches in diameter, this  substance  is nearly
  equal  iu bulk to the wood.
    A LBUS.  White.  This term  is applied to  many
  parts,  from their  white colour; as linea alba, lepra
  alba, macula  alba, Sec.
    A'LCAHEST.  An Arabic word to express a uni-
  versal dissolvent, wliich was pretended lo by Paracel-
  sus and Van  Helmont.  Some say that Paracelsus first
  used this word, and that it is derived from ihe German
  words al and gecst, i. e. all spirit: and  that Van Hel-
  mont borrowed the word,  and  applied it to  his inven-
  tion, which he called the universal dissolvent.
    ALCALI.  (Arabian.)   This word is spelt indif-
  ferently with a c or a k. See Alkali.
    ALCALIZATION.  The impregnating any spritu-
  ous fluid with an alcali.
    ALCANNA.  (Indian word.)   See Anchusa.
    A'lcaol.  The solvent  for  the preparation of the
  philosopher's stone.
    ALCARRAZES.    A  species  of  porous poitery
  made  in Spain.
    A'LCEA.   (Alcca, a. f.; from alien, strength.) The
  name  of a genus of plants in the Linnrean system.
  Mass, Monadelphia; Order, Polyandria. Hollyhock.
    Alc e.v jEfiYPTiACA villosa..  See Hibiscus Abel-
  moschus.
    Alcea Indica.  See Hibiscus Abelmoschus.
    Alcka rosea.  Common hollyhock. The flowers
  of this beautiful tree are  said  to  possess adstringcut
  and mucilaginous virtues.   They are  seldom used me-
  dicinally.
    Alchemia.  See Alchemy.
    ALCHLMl'LLA.   (Alchemilla, a. f.   So called be-
  cause it was celebrated by the old alchemists.)
    1. The name of a genus of  plants  in the Linnrxan
» system.  Class, Tetrandria; Order, Monogynia. La-
  dies' mantle.
    2. The pharmacopceiul name of the plant called  la-
  dies' manlle.  Sea Alchcmilla vulgaris.
    Alchemilla vulgaris.   Ladies' mantle.   This
  plant,  Alchemilla :—Fcliis lobatis of  Linnaeus, was
  formerly esteemed as an adstringent in haemorrhages,
  fluor  albus,  &c. given internally.   It  is fallen into
  disuse.
    ALCHEMIST.  One who  practises the  mystical
  art of alchemy.
    A'LCHEMY.  Alchemia; Alchimia; Alkima. That
  branch of chemistry which relates to the transmuta-
  tion of metals into  gold;—the forming a panacea  or
  universal  remedy,—an alcahest, or universal  men-
  struum,—a universal ferment, and  many other [ab-
  surdities.
    Alchimia.  See Alchemy.
    ALCHIMI'LLA.  See Alchemilla.
    A'lchttron.  1. Oil of Juniper.
    2.  Also the name of a dentifrice of Messue.
    A'LCHYMY.  Alchemy.
    A'LCOHOL.  See Alkohol.
    ALCYO'NIUM.   It is difficult  to  say what the
   Greeks called by this name.  Dioscorides  speaks  of
   five sorts of it.  It is  a spongy plant-like substance,
   met with on the sea-shore, of different shapes and  co-
   lours. This bastard sponge is  calcined with  a little
   salt, as a dentifrice, and  is used  to  remove spots  on
   :he skin.
    ALDER.   See Betula alnus.
    Alder, berry-bearing.  See Rhamnus frangula.
    Alder wine.  See Betula alnus.
    Aldrum.  See Alium.
    Aldum.  See Ahum.
    ALE.  Ccrcvisia; Liquor  ccrcris ;  Finnm hordca-
         42
c-uri   A fermented liquor made from malt and hops.
and' chieflv distinguished from beer,  made from the
same ingredients, by the quantity of hops used therein,
which  is greater in beer, and therefore renders the
liquor more bitter, and fitter for keeping.   Ale, when
well fermented, is a wholesome beverage,  but seems
to disagree with those subject to asthma, or any dis-
order ofthe respiration, or irregularity in the digestive
organs.  Tne  old  dispensatories  enumerate  several
medicated ales, such  as  cerevisia  oxydorica, for the
eyes , cerevisia antiarthritica, against  the gout; ce-
phalica, epileptica, &x.  See Beer.
  ALEI'ON.   (AXtiov, copious.)   Hippocrates uses.
this word as an epithet for water.
  ALEI'PHA.  (From aXti<j»o, to  anoint)   Any me-
dicated oil.
  ALELAI'ON.  (From aXs, wit, and cAaiov, oil.)
Oil beat up with salt, to apply to tumours.  Ca;-..i fre-
quently used it.                   ,  .      ,
  ALE'MA.  (From o. priv. and  Macs, hunger.;
Meat, food, or any thing that satisfies the appetite.
  ALEMBIC.  (Alembicus.  Some derive it from the
Arabian particle al, and uu6i£ ; from apGaivto, to as-
cend.   Avicenna declares it to be Arabian.)  Moors
head.  A  chemical  utensil made  of  glass, metal, oi
earthenware, and adapted to receive volatile product*
from retorts.  It consists of a body to which is fitted a
conical head, and out of this head descends laterally a
beak to be inserted into the receiver.
  ALE'MBROTH.  (A Chaldee word,  importing the
key of art.)   1. Some explain it as the name of a sail,
sal mercurii, or sal philosophorumSr artis ; others say
it is named alembrot and sal fusionis or sal fixionis
Alembroth desiccatum  is said to  be the sal tartari,
hence this word seems to signify alkaline salt, which
opens the bodies of metals by destroying their sulphurs,
and promoting their separation from the ores.  From
analogy, it is supposed to have the same effect in con-
quering obstructions and attenuating viscid fluids  in
the human body.
  2. A  peculiar earth,  probably  containing  a fixed
alkali, found in the island of Cyprus, has also this ap-
pellation.
  3. A  solution of the corrosive sublimate, to which
the muriate of ammonia has been added, is called sal
alembroth.
  Alepe'ksis. A species of ash-tree, wliich producer
manna.
  A'les.  (From aXc, salt.)   A compound salt.
  Alku'ro.n.  (From aXeu, to grind.)   Meal.
  ALEXANDERS  See Smyrnium olusatrum.
  Alexanders, round-Uavcd.   See Smyrnium perfo-
liatum.
  ALEXA'NDRIA.   (Alexandria.)    Ahxandrina.
The bay-tree, or laurel, of Alexandria.
  Alexa'ndrium.   Emplastrum  viride.   A plaster
described  by Celsus, made with wax,  alum, Sec.
  ALEXICA'CUM.   (From aXeho,  to drive away,
and kokov, evil.)  An antidote  cr amulet, to resist
poison.
  ALEXIPHA'RMIC. (Alexipharmicum\ fromoXtgui,
to expel, and ipapuaKov, a poison.)  Antipharmicum;
Caco-alexiteria. A medicine supposed to preserve the
body against the power of poisons, or to coirect  or ex-
pel those  taken.   The ancients attributed  this pro-
perty to some vegetables and even waters distilled from
them.   The term, however, is now very seldom used.
   ALEXIPYRE'TICUM.   (From aXcho,  to  drive
away, and avqeros- fever.)   A febrifuge.
   ALEXIPY'RETOS.  Alexipyretum.  A remedy for
a fever.
   Ale'xir.  An elixir.
   ALEXITE'RIUM.   (Alcxitcrium, i.n.;  from-aX^w,
to expel, and rr/ptoi, to preserve.)   A  preservative me-
dicine against poison, or contagion.
   ALGA. A sea-weed.
   Alo.c.   1.  The name of an order or  division of the
 class Cryptogamia  in the Linnaean system of plants.
 The  name of one  of the  seven families or natural
 tribes into which the whole vegetable  kingdom is  di-
 vided  by  Linnaeus in his Philosophia  Botanica.  He
 defines them plants, the root*, leaves, and stems pf wnich
 are all in one. Under  this description are compre-
 hended all the sea- w ceds and some other aquatic plants.
   2. In the sexual  system  of plants Alga constitute
 the third  order ofthe class, Cryptogamia.   From their
 admitting of little distinction of root, leaf, or stem, an<? 
ALI                                             Al.!
 Ihe parts of their flowers being  equally incapable of
 description, the genera are distinguished by the situ-
 ation of what is supposed to be the flowers or seeds,
 or by the resemblance which the whole plant bears to
 some other substance.
   The parts of fructification of the algs  are in caly
 cules of whicli there are three varieties:—
   I.  Peltu, target; a flat, oblong fruit, seen  in the Li-
 chen caninus.
   2.  Scutella,  the saucer;  a  round, hollow, or  flat
 fruit, as in Lichen stellaris.
   3  Tuberculum, the tubercle; a hemispherical fruit,
 observable in Lichen geographicus.
   In the fuci, the parts of fructification are sometimes
 In hollow bladders; and in some ofthe ulvae, it is dis-
 persed through the whole substance ofthe plant.
   A  LGAROTH.   (So called  from Victorius Alga-
 roth, a physician of Verona, and its inventor.)  Alga-
 rot; Algaroth ;  Mcrcurius vita;  Pnteis Algarothi;
 Pulvis angelicus •  .Vjrcurius mart's.  The antimo-
 nial  part of the butter of antimony, separated from
 some of  its acid by washing it  in water.  It is  vio-
 lently emetic in doses of two or three grains, and is
 preferred by many for making the emetic tartar.
   ALGE DO.  (From aXyos, pain.)   A  violent pain
 about  the  anus, pcrinrrum, testes,  urethra,  and blad-
 der, arising from the sudden stoppage of a virulent go-
 norrhoea.   A term very seldom used.
   ALGE .MA.  (From aXytio, to be  in pain.)  Algc-
 modes; Algematodrs.  Uneasiness; pain of any kind.
   A'LGOR.  A sudden dullness or rigour.
   Algosarel.  The Arabian term for the wild carrot,
 See Daucus sylvestris.
   Alha'gi.  (Arabian.)   A  species of  Hedysarum.
 The leaves are  hot and pungent, the  flowers  pur-
 gative.
   Alha'ndala.   An Arabian name for the colocynth,
 or bitter apple.
    Alha'sef.  (Arabian.)   Alhasaf.   A  sort of foetid
 pustule, called also Hydroa.
   A'lia squilla   (From aXioc, belonging to the sea,
 and <riciXXa, a shrimp.)  The prawn.  A species  of
 the genus cancer.
    A'lica.  (From alo, to nourish )  In general  signi-
 fication, a grain, a sort of food admired by ihe ancients.
■ It is not certain whether it is a grain or a preparation
 of some kind thereof.
    Alicastrum.  (From  alica,  as siliquastrum from
 siliqua.)   A kind of bread mentioned by  Celsus.
    A'licks.  (From  aXi^ai, to sprinkle.)   Little  red
 6pots in the skin, which precede the eruption of pus-
 tules in the small-pox.
    Aliena'tio mentis.  Estrangement ofthe mind.
    A LI E N A' TIO N.  (Alienatio ;  from  alisno, to
 estrange.)  A term applied to any wandering of the
 mind.
   ALIENA'TUS.  Alienated.   A leaf is so termed
 when  the first leaves give way to others totally differ-
 ent from them, and the natural habit of the  genus, as
 is the ease in many of the mimosa from New Holland.
   ALIFO RMIS.  Alreform, or wing-like.   A name
 given by anatomists and naturalists to some  parts from
 their supposed resemblance, as aliform muscles, Ace.
 See Alaformis.
   ALIMENT.   (Alimentum ; from  alo, to  nourish.)
 The name of aliment is given generally to every sub-
 etance, which being subjected to the action  of the or-
 gans of digestion, is capable by itself of affording nou-
 rishment.   In this sense an aliment is extracted neces-
 sarily  from vegetables or  animals ;  for only those
 bodies that have possessed life are capable of serving
 usefully in the nutrition of animals during a certain
 time.  This manner of  regarding aliments appears
 rather too confined.  Why refuse the name of ali-
 ments to substances whicli, in reality, cannot of them-
 selves afford nourishment, but which contribute effica-
 ciously to nutrition, since they enter  into the compo-
 sition of the organs, and of the animal fluids ?  Such
 are the muriate of soda, the oxyde of iron, silicia, and
 particularly water, which is found in such abundance
 in the bodies of animals, and  is so necessary to them.
 It appears preferable to consider as an  aliment every
 substance which can serve in nutrition; establishing,
 however, the important distinction between substances
 which can nourish of themselves, and those  which are
 useful to nutrition only in concert with the former.
   In respect  to  their nature, aliments are different
from  each other, by the proximate principles which
predominate  in iheir composition.  They may be dis-
tinguished into nine classes:—
  1st,  Farinaceous  aliments,  wheat,  barley, oats,
rice,  rye, maize, potato, sago, salep, peas,  haricots,
lentils, &c.
  2d,  Mucilaginous aliments: carrots, salsafy, igoats
beard) beet-root, turnip, asparagus, cabbage, lettuce,
artichoke, cardoons, pompions, melons, &c.
  3d,  Sweet  aliments:  the different sorts of sugar
figs, dates, dried grapes, apricots, &c.
  4th, Acidulous   aliments t  oranges,  gooseberries,
cherries, peaches, strawberries, raspberries, mulberries,
grapes, prunes, pears, apples, sorrel, &c.
  5th, Fatty and  oily aliments: cocoa, olives, swef.l
almonds, nuts, walnuts, the  animal  fats,  the  oils,
butter, &c.
  6th, Caseous aliments: the different sorts of milk,
cheese, Ace.
  7th, Gelatinous aliments:  the tendons, the aponeu
rosis,  the chorion, the cellular membrane,  young aui
mals, &c.
  8th, Albuminous  aliments:  the brain,  the  nerves,
eggs,  &c.
  9th, Fibrinous aliments:  the flesh and  the blood of
different animals.
  We might  add to this list a  great number of sub-
stances that  are employed as medicines, but which
doubtless  are nutritive, at least  in some of  their  im-
mediate principles;  such are manna, tamarinds,  the
pulp of cassia, the extracts and saps of vegetables, the
animal or vegetable decoctions.
  Among aliments  there are few employed such as
nature presents them ; they are generally  prepared,
and disposed  in such a manner as to be suitable to the
action of the digestive organs.   The preparations
which they undergo are infinitely various, according
to thesortof aliment, the people, the climates, customs,
the degree of civilization: even fashion is not without
its influence on the art of preparing aliments.
  In  the hand of the  skilful cook,  alimentary sub-
stances almost entirely change  their nature:—form,
consistence, odour,  taste, colour, composition,  &.c,
every thing is so modified that it  is impossible for the
most  delicate tastes to recognise the original substance
of certain dishes.
  The useful  object of cookery is to render aliments
agreeable to the senses, and of easy digestion ; hut it
rarely stops here : frequently with people advanced in
civilization its object is to excite delicate palates, or
difficult tastes, or to please vanity  Then,  far from
being a useful art, it becomes a  real scourge, which
occasions a  great number of diseases, and  has  fre-
quently brought on  premature death.
  We understand by drink, a  liquid which,  being in-
troduced  into the  digestive organs, quenches thirst,
and so by this repairs the habitual losses of our fluid
humours: the drinks ought to be considered as real
aliments.
  The drinks are distinguished by their chemical com-
position :—
  1st, Water of different sorts, spring water,  river wa
ter, water of wells, &c.
  2d,  The juices and infusions of vegetables and ani-
mals,  juices  of lemon, of  gooseberries,  whey,  tea,
coffee, &c.
  3d,  Fermented liquors:  the different sorts  of wine,
beer,  cider, perry, Sec.
  4th, The alcoholic liquors: brandy,  alcohol, ether,
rum, sack, ratafia.
  ALIMENTARY   Alimcntarius.   Nourishing  or
belonging to food.
  Alimentary canal.  Canalis  alimcntarius.  Ali-
mentary duct.  A  name given  to the whole of those
passages  which the food passes through from  the
mouth to the  anus.   This duct may be said  to be  the
true characteristic of an animal; there being no ani-
mal without  it, and whatever has it, being properly
ranged under  thcclass of animals.  Plants receive their
nourishment by the numerous fibres of their roots,  bul
have  no common receptacle for digesting  the food re
ceived, or for carrying off the excrements.  But in  all,
even the lowest degree of animal life, we may observe
a stomach, if not also intestines, even where we cannot
perceive  the  least formation of any  organs of  the
senses, unless that  cc  nmon one of  feeling, as  in
oysters. 
ALK
ALK
   Alimentary duct.  1. The alimentary canal.  See
 Slimentary canal.
   2. The thoracic duct is  sometimes so called.  See
 Thoracic duct.
   Alimos.  Common liquorice.
   A'limum.   A species of arum.
   Alipa'sma.  (From  aXu<po),  to anoint.)  An oint-
 ment rubbed  upon the body to prevent sweating.
   Alipovv.  A species  of turbith, found near Mount
 Ceti, in Languedoc.  It is a powerful purgative, used
 instead of senna, but is much more active.
   A LI PTA!.  (From aXeubu, to anoint.)  Those who
 anointed persons after bathing.
   Alisanders. The same as alexanders.
   ALISMA.  (Alisma;  from  aXs,  the  sea.)  The
 name of a genus of plants  in the Linnaean system.
 Class, Hexandria; Order, Polygynia.  Water-plantain.
   Alisma  plantaoo  aquatka.   The systematic
 name ofthe water-plantain, now fallen into disuse.
   A'lit.  Alilh.  Asafotetida.
  A'lkahat glaube'ri.  An alkaline salt.
   A'lkahest.  An imaginary universal menstruum,
 or solvent. See Alcakest.
  A'lkahest  glaube'ri.   An alkaline salt.
  ALKALESCENT.   Alkalesccns.   Any substance
in which alkaline properties are beginning to he deve-
loped, or to predominate, is so termed.
  A'LKALI.   (Alcali,  in  Arabic, signifies burnt; or
from  al and  kali, i. e. the  essence,  or the whole of
kali, the  plant from which it was originally prepared,
though now derived from plants of every kind. Alcali;
alifi ; alafor; alafort; calcadis.
  Alkalies may be defined, those bodies which com-
bine with acids, so as to neutralize or impair their ac-
tivity, and produce salts.  Acidity and alkalinity are
therefore two correlative terms of one species of com-
bination.  When  Lavoisier introduced oxygen as the
acidifying principle,  Morveau proposed  hydrogen as
the alkalifying principle, from its being a constituent
of volatile alcali  or ammonia.  But the splendid dis-
covery by Sir  II. Davy,  ofthe metallic basis of potassa
and soda, and of their conversion into alkalies, by com-
bination with oxygen, has banished for ever that hypo-
thetical conceit.   It is  the mode in which the consti-
tuents are combined, rather than the nature of the
constituents themselves, which gives rise to the acid
or alkaline condition.  Some metals combined  with
oxygen  in one proportion,  produce  a body  possess-
ed of alkaline properties; in another proportion, of
acid properties.  And on the  other hand, ammonia
and prussic acid prove that both the alkaline and acid
conditions can exist  independent of oxygen.  These
observations,  by generalizing our notions of acids and
alkalies,  have rendered the  definitions of  them very
imperfect.  The difficulty of tracing a limit between
the acids and alkalies is still increased, when we find
a body sometimes performing the functions of an acid,
sometimes of an  alkali.  Nor can we diminish this
difficulty by having recourse lo the beautiful law dis-
covered by Sir 11.  Davy, that oxysen  and acids go to
Ihe positive pole, and hydrogen alkalies, and inflam-
mable bases to the negative pole.   We cannot in fact
give the name of acid to all the bodies which go to the
first of these poles, and that  of alkali to those that go
to the second  ; and if we wished to define the alkalies
by bringing into view their electric energy, it would be
necessary to compare them  with the electric  energy
which is  opposite to them.  Thus we are always re-
duced to define alkalinity by the property which it has
of saturating acidity, because alkalinity and acidity
are two correlative and inseparable terms.  M. Gay
 Lussac conceives the alkalinity which  the metallic
 oxides enjoy, to be the result of two opposite properties,
 the alkalifying property  ofthe metal, and the acidifying
 of oxygen, modified both by the combination and  by
 Ihe proportions.
  The alkalies maybe arranged into three  classes:
 1st, Those which  consist of a metallic basis combined
 with oxygen.   These are three in number, potassa,
 soda, and lithia.   2d, That which contains no oxygen,
 viz. ammonia.  3d, Those containing oxygen, hydro-
 gen, and carbon.  In this class we have oconita, atro-
 pia, brucia, cicuta, datura, delphia, hyosciama, mor-
 phia, strychnia, and perhaps some other truly vegeta-
 ble alkalies.  The order of vegetable  alkalies may be
 ns numerous as that of vegetable acids,  The earths,
 lime, baiytes, and strontites, were enrolled among the
      11
alkalies by Fourcroy, but they have teen kept apart by
other systematic writers, and are called alkaline earths.
  Besides neutralizing acidity, and thereby giving birth
to salts, the first four alkalies having the following pro-
perties :—
  1st, They change the purple colour of many vegeta
bles to a green, the reds to a purple, and the yellows to
a brown.  If the purple have been reddened by acid.
alkalies restore the purple.
  2d, They possess this power on vegetable colours
after being saturated with carbonic  acid,  by which
criterion they  are distinguishable from  the akaline
earths.
  3d, They have an acrid and urinous taste.
  4th, They are powerful solvents or con isives  (if
animal  matter; with which, as well as with oils  in
general, they combine, so as to produce neutrality.
  5th, They arc decomposed, or volatilized, at a strong
red heat.
  6th, They combine with water in every proportion,
and also largely with alcohol.
  7th, They continue to be soluble in water when neu
tralized with carbonic acid; while the alkaline earths
thus become insoluble.
  It  is needless to detail at length Dr. Murray's specu
lations on alkalinity.  They seem to flow from a pa,
tial view of chemical phenomena.  According to him
either oxygen or hydrogen  may  generate alkalinity,
but the combination of  both principles is necessary lo
give this condition its  utmost  energy,   " Thus the
class of alkalies will exhibit the same relations as the
class of acids.   Some  are compounds of  a  base with
oxygen ; such are the greater number of  the metallic
oxydes, and probably of the earths.   Ammonia is a
compound  of a base with  hydrogen.  Potassa, soda,
barytes, strontites, and probably lime, are compounds
of bases with oxygen and hydrogen ;  and these last,
like the analogous order among the acids, possess the
highest power."  Now, perfectly dry and caustic ba
rytes, lime, and strontites, as well as the dry potassa
and  soda obtained by Gay Lussac and Thenard, are
not inferior in alkaline power to the same bodies after
they are slacked or combined with water.  100 parts
of lime destitute of hydrogen, that  is, pure oxyde of
calcium, neutralize 78 parts of carbonic acid.  But 132
parts of Dr. Murray's strongest  lime, that is, the hy-
drate, are required to produce the same alkaline effect.
If we ignite nitrate of  barytes, we obtain,  as is well
known, a perfectly dry barytes, or protoxide of bari-
um ; but if we ignite crystallized  barytes, we obtain
the same alkaline earth  combined with a prime equi-
valent of water. These two di ff'erenl states of barytes
were demonstrated  by M. Berthollet  in  an excellent
paper published in  the 2d  volume of the  Memoirs
D'Arcueil, so far back as 1809.  " The first barytes,"
(that from crystallized barytes) says he, " presents all
the characters of a combination ;  it is engaged with a
substance which diminishes its action on other bodies
which renders it more fusible, and whicli gives it  by
fusion Ihe appearance of glass.  This substance  is no-
ihing else but water;  but in fact, bv adding a  little
w atcr to the second barytes (that from" ignited nitrate',
and  by urging it at ihe fire, we give  it the properties
of the first." Page 47.   100 parts of barytes void of
hydrogen, or dry barytes, neutralize 28 1-2 of dry car-
bonic acid.  Whereas 111 2-3 parts of the hydrate
or what Dr. Murray has styled the most energetic, are
required  to produce the same effect   In fact, it is not
hydrogen which combines with the pure barylic earth
but hydrogen and oxygen in the state of water.   The
proof of this is, that when carbonic acid and that hy-
drate unite, the  exact quantity of water is disengaged.
The protoxide of barium, or pure barytes, has  never
been combined with hydrogen by any chemist.— Cre's
C/n in. Diet.
  Alkali causticum.  Caustic alkali.  An alkali is
so called when deprived of the carbonic acid it usually
contains, for it  then becomes more caustic, and more
violent in its action.
  Alkali, caustic volatile.  See. Ammonia.
  Alkali, phlogisticated.  Prussian  alkali.   When  a
fixed alkali is ignited with bullock's blood,  or  other
animal substances, and  lixiviated, it is found to be  in
a great measure saturated with prussic acid : from the
theories formerly adopted respecting this combination
it was called phlogisticated alkali.                  '
  Alkali hxum.  Fixed alkali,  '''hose alkalies are 
ALK                                               ALK
to called that emit no characteristic smell, and cannot
be volatilized, but with the greatest difficulty. Two
kinds of fixed alkalies have only hitherto been made
known, namely potassa and soda.  See Potassa  and
Soda.
  Alkali, fossile.  See Soda.
  Alkali, mineral.  See Soda.
  Alkali, Prussian.   See Alkali, phlogisticated.
  Alkali, vegetable.  See  Potassa.
  Alkali, volatile. See Ammonia.
  ALKALI'NA.   Alkalines.  A class of substances
described by Cullen as comprehending the substances
otherwise termed  anta,-ida.  They consist of alkalies,
and  other substances which  neutralize acids.  The
principal alkalines in use,  are the carbonates and sub-
carbonates  of soda and potassa, the subcarbonate of
ammonia, lime-water, chalk, magnesia and its car-
bonate.
  ALKALIZATIOX.   Alkulizatio.   The  impreg-
nating any thing with an alkaline salt, as spirit of
wine, ic.
  ALKAI.OMETER.  The  name of an  instrument
for determining the quantity ol  alkali  in commercial
potassa and soda.
  A'lkanet.  (Alkanah,  a reed, Arabian.)  See An-
chusa tinctoria.
  Alea nna.  SeeAnchusa.
  Alka nna vera   See  I.aasonia inrrmis.
  ALKEKE NGI.  (Arabian.)  The  winter-cherry.
See Pkysalis alkekengi.
  ALEE R.MRS.   A term borrowed from the Arabs,
denoting a celebrated remedy, ofthe form and consist-
ence of a confection, whereof the kermes is  the basis.
See Kermes.
   Alkima.  See Alchemy.
   A'LKOHOL.   (An Arabian word, wliich signifies
 uitimony: so called  from the usage of the Eastern
 adies to paint their eyebrows with antimony, reduced
 ki a most subtile  powder; whence  it at last came to
 signify any thing exalted to its highest  perfection.)
 Alcohol; Alkol;  Spiritus  vinos us  rcctificatus ; Spi-
 ritus vini rcctificatus ;  spiritus vini  concentratus;
 Spiritus vini rectificatissimus.
   1. This term is applied in strictness only to the pure
 spirit obtainable by distillation aud subsequent rectifi-
 cation from all  liquids thai have undergone vinous
 fermentation, and from none but such as are suscepti-
 ble of it.  But it is commonly used to signify this spirit
 more or less imperfectly freed from water, in the state
 in which it is usually met with  in  the shops,  and in
 which, as it was first obtained  from the juice of the
 grape, il was iong distinguished by the name of spirit
 of wine.  At present it is  extracted chiefly from grain
 or molasses in Europe, and from the juice ofthe sugar
 cane in the West Indies;  and in the diluted state in
 which it commonly occurs in trade, constitute s the
 basis of  tlie several spirituous liquors  called brandy,
 rum, gin, whiskey, and cordials, however  variously
 denominated or disguised.
   As we are not able  to compound alkohol imme-
diately from its ultimate constituents, we have recourse
to the  process of  fermentation, by which iu  principles
 are first extricated from the substances in  which they
 were combined, and then united into a new compound;
 to distillation, by  which this new compound, the alko-
 hol, is separated in a state of dilution with water,  and
 contaminated with essential oil; and to rectification,
 by which it is ultimately freed from these.
   It appears to  oe essential to the fermentation of
 alkohol,  that the fermenting fluid should contain sac-
 charine matter, wliich is indispensable to that  species
 of fermentation called vinous.  In France, where a
great deal of w ine is made, particularly  at the com-
mencement of the vintage, that is too weak lo be a
saleable commodity, it is a common practice to subject
this wine lo distillation, in older to draw off thespirit;
and as the essential oil that rises in this process is of a
more pleasant flavour than that of malt or  molasses,
the French brandies are preferred to any other; though
even in  the flavour of these there is a difference, ac-
sording to the wine from which they are produced.  In
the West Indies a spirit is obtained from the juice  of
the sugar-cane, which is highly  impregnated with its
essential oil, and well  known  by the name of rum.
The distillers in this  country use  grain, or  molasses,
whence they distinguish the products by the  name  of
 <alt spirits, am'  molasses spirits.  It is  said that a
very good spirit may be extracted from the husks Cf
gooseberries  or  currants, after wine has been  made
from them.
  As the process of malting dcvelopcs the saccharinr
principle of grain, it would appear to render it fitter for
Ihe purpose ; though it is the common practice to use
about three parts of raw grain with one of malt.   Foi
this two reasons may be assigned:  by using raw grain,
the expense of malting is saved, as well as the duty on
malt; and  the process of mailing requires some nicety
of attention, since, if it be carried too far, part of the
saccharine matter is lost, and if it be stopped too soon,
this matter will  not be wholly developed.  Besides, if
the malt be dried too quickly, or by any unequal heat,
the spirit it yields will  be less in  quantity, and more
unpleasant in tlavoui.  Another object of economical
consideration is, what grain  will afford the most spirit
in proportion to its price, as well as the best in quality.
Barley appears to produce less spirit than wheat;  and
if three  parts of law  wheat  be  mixed with one of
malted  barley, the produce is said to be particularly
fine.  This is the practice of ihe  distillers in Holland
for producing aspi.it of the finest quality; but in Eng-
land they are expressly prohibited from using more
than one part of wheat to two of other grain. Rye,
however, affords still more spirit than wheat.
  Other articles have been  employed, though  not ge
nerally, for the  fabrication  of  spirit, as carrots  aud
potatoes; and we  are lately informed by  Pioliessor
Proust, that from the fruit of the enrob tree he has ob
tained good brandy in  the proportion of a pint from
five pounds of the dried fruit.
  To obtain pure alkohol,  different  processes have
been recommended;  but the purest  rectified spirit  ob-
tained as above described, being  that which is least
contaminated with foreign matter, should be employed.
Rouclle recommends to draw off' half the spirit in a
water  bath;  to rectify this  twice more, drawing  off
two-thirds  each time;  to add water to this alkohol,
which will turn it milky by separating the  essential
oil  remaining in it;  to distil the spirit from this water;
and finally rectify it by one more distillation.
  Bauir.6 sets apart the first running, when about a
fourth is come over, and continues ihe distillation till
he  has drawn off about as much more, or till the liquor
runs off milky.  The last running he  puts into  the
still again, and  mixes  the first half  of what comes
over with the preceding first  product.  This process is
again repeated, and all the first products being mixed
together, are  distilled afresh.  Wiien about half  the
liquor is come over, this is  to be set apart as pure
alkohol.
  Alkohol  in this state, however, is  rot so pure as
when, to use the language of the  old chemists, it  has
been drpldcgmated, or  still further freed from  water,
by means ot  some  alkaline salt.  Boerhuave recom-
mended, fortius purpose, the muriate of soda, deprived
of its water of crystallization by heat, and added  hot
to the spirit.  But the subcarbonate of potassa is pre-
ferable.   About a third of the weight of the alkohol
should be added to it in a glass vessel, well shaken,
and then suffered to subside.   The salt w ill be moist-
ened by the water absoibed from the  alkohol;  which
being decanted, more of the salt  is to be added, and
this is to be continued  till the salt falls dry to (he bot-
tom of the vessel.  The alkohol in this slate will be
reddened by a portion  of the pure potassa, which il
will hold iu solution, from whicli it must be freed by
distillation in a water bath.   Dry muriate of lime may
be substituted advantageously for  the alkali.
  As alkohol is much lighter than water, its specific
gravity is adopted as the t>st of its  purity.  Fourcroy
considers it as rectified  to the highest  point when its
specific gravity is 829, that of water being 1000; and
perhaps this is nearly as far as it can be carried by  the
process  of  Rouelle or  Baume simply.  Bories found
the first measure lhat came over from  twenty of spirii
at 836 to be  820, at the  temperature of 71" F.   Sit
Charles Blagden, by the addition of alkali, brought i
to 813, at 60"  F.  Chaussier professes to have reduccc
it to 798; but he gives 998.35 as the specific gravity of
water.  Lovvitz asserts that he has obtained it  at 791
by adding as much alkali as nearly to absorb the spirit
but Ihe temperature is not indicated.  In the shops, i'
is about 835 or 840: according to the London College
it should be 815.         '
  It is by no means an easy undertaking to determine
                                         i6 
ALK
ALK
  tilt slicn: h or relative value o' spirits, even with suf-
  ficient accuracy for commer.al  purposes.  The fol-
  lowing requisites must be obtained before  this can  be
  Well done: the specific gravity ct  a certain number of
  Inixtuics of alkohol anr! water must be taken so near
  each other, as that the Intermediate specific gravities
  may not  perceptibly differ from tliose deduced  from
  the supposition of a mere mixture of fhe fluids; the
  expansions or variations of specific gravity in these
  mixtures inu?'. be determined al different temperatures;
  some easy :«ethod must be contrived  of determining
  the prcspiice and quantity of saccharine or oleaginous
  matter which the spirit may hold  in solution, and the
  effect of such solution on the  specific gravity; and
  laf.iy, the specific gravity of the fluid  must be ascer-
  tained by a proper floating instrument with agraduated
  Ktem or set of weights; or,  which  may be  more  con-
  venient, with both.
   The most  remarkable characteristic property of al-
 kohol, is its solubility or combination in all proportions
 with water;  a property possessed by  no other  com-
 bustible substance, except the acetic spirit obtained by
 distilling the dry acetates.  When it  is burned  in a
 chimney which communicates with the worm-pipe  of
 a distilling apparatus, the product, which is condensed,
 is found to consist of water, which exceeds  the spirit
 m weight about one-eighth part; or more accurately,
 100  parts  of  alkohol,  by combustion, yield 136 of
 water.  If alkohol  be burned  in closed vessels  with
 vital air, the  product is found lo  be water  and  car-
 bonic acid.  Whence it is  inferred that alkohol con-
 sists of hydrogen, united either to carbonic acid, or its
 acidifiable base; and that  the oxygen  uniting on the
 one part with the  hydrogen, lbrms water; and on the
 other willi the base of the carbonic acid, forms  that
 acid.
  The most  exact experiments on this subject are
 those recently made by De Saussure.  The alkohol he
 used had, at 62.8°,  a specific gravity or  0.8302; and by
 Richier's  proportions,  it consists  of 13.8 water,  and
 8,;. J of absolute alkohol.  The vapour of alkohol was
 made to traverse  a narrow porcelain tube  ignited;
 from which the products passed along a gluss  tube
 about six feet  in length, refrigerated by ice.  A  little
 charcoal was deposited in the porcelain, and a trace of
 oil iu the glass  tube.   The  resulting gas being  ana-
 lyzed in tin exploding eudiometer, with oxygen, was
 found to resolve itself into  carbonic acid and water.
 Three volumes of  oxygen disappeared for every two
 volumes of carbonic  acid  produced;  a proportion
 which  obtains in the analysis by oxygenation of ole-
 liaut gas.   Now, as nothing resulted but a combustible
 gas of this peculiar constitution, and condensed water
 equal to 1000-4064 ofthe original weight of the alkohol,
 we may conclude that  vapour of water and oletiam
 Kas are ihe sole constituents of alkohol.  Subtracting
 the 13.8 per cent, of water in the alkohol at the begin-
 ning of the experiment,  the absolute alcohol of Richter
 will consist of 13.7 hydrogen, 51.98  carbon, and 34.32
 oxygen.   Hence  Gay Lussac infers, that alkohol, in |
 vapour,  is  composed of one volume defiant gas, and I
one volume ofthe vapour of water,  condensed by che-
mical affinity  into one volume.
  Thesp. gr. of olefiant gas is.................0.97804
            of aqueous vapour is............0.62500
                                     Sum=1.00304
                   And alkoholic vapour is=1.6133
  These  numbers  approach  nearly  to  tliose which
would  result from two prime equivalents  of oleiiant
tra-i. combined with one ol* water; or ultimately, three
of hydrogen, two of carbon, and one of oxygen.
  The mutual action between alkohol and  acids pro-
luces a  light,  volatile, and inflammable  substance,
called o-ther. Pure alkalies unite with spirit of wine,
and form alkaline tinctuiss.  Few of the neutral suits
unite with this fluid, except  such as  contain ammonia.
The carbonated fixed alkalies are  not soluble in it.
From the strong attraction which exists between alko-
hol and water, it unites with this last in saline solu-
tions, and in most cases precipitates the salt  This is
ti pleasing experiment, which  never fails to surprise
those who  are  unacquainted with  chemical effects.
If, for example,  a saturated  solution of nitre in water
ne taken, aud an equal quantity of strong spiritof wine
tie poured upon  it, the mixture will constitute a weaker
spirit, which is incapable of holding the nitre in solu-
  tion ;  it therefore falls to the  bottom instantly, In the
  form of minute crystals.
    The degree of solubility of many neutral salts in
  alkohol have  been  ascertained by experiments made
  by Macquer, of which an account is published in the
  Memoirs of the Turin Academy.
    All  deliquescent salts are soluble in alkohol.  Alko-
  hol holding the strontitic salts in solution, gives a flame
  of a rich purple.  The cupreous salts and boracic acid
  give a green ;  the soluble calcareous, a reddish; the
  barytic, a yellowish.
    The alkohol of 0.825 has been subjected to a cold of
  — !fl° w'uhout congealing.
    When potassium and sodium are put in contact with
  the strongest  alkohol, hydrogen  is  evolved.  When
  chlorine is made to pass through alkohol in a Woolfe's
  apparatus, there is a mutual action.  Water, an oily-
  looking substance, muriatic acid, a little carbonic acid
  and carbonaceous matter, are the products.   This oily
  substance does not redden turnsole, though its analysis
  by heat shows it to contain muriatic acid.  It is white,
  denser  than water, has a cooling taste  analogous \o
  mint, and a peculiar, but not aethereous odour.  It is
  very soluble in alkohol, but  scarcely in water.  The
 strongest alkalies hardly operate on it.
   Il was at one time maintained, lhat alkohol did not
 exist in wines, but was generated and evolved by the
 heat of distillation.  On this subject Gay Lussac made
 some  decisive experiments.   He agitated wine with
 litharge in fine powder, till the liquid became as limpid
 as water, and then saturated  it with subcarbonate of
 potassa.  The  alkohol  immediately separated  and
 floated on the  top.   He distilled another portion  of
 wine in vacuo, at 59° Fahr., a temperature considera-
 bly below that of  fermentation. Alkohol came over.
 Mr. Brande proved  the same  position  by saturating
 wine w ith suhacetate of lead, and adding potassa.
   Adem and Duportal have substituted for  the redis-
 tillations used in converting wine or beer into alkohol,
 a single process of great elegance.  From the capital
 ofthe still a lube is led into a  large copper recipient.
 This is joined by a second lube to a second  recipient,
 and so on through a  series of four vessels, arranged
 like a Woolfe's apparatus.  The last vessel communi-
 cates with the worm of the first refrigeratory. This,
 the body of the still, and the two recipients nearest it,
 are charged with the wine or fermented liquor. When
 ebullition takes place in the still, the vapour issuing from
 it communicates soon the boiling temperature to th«
 liquor in the two recipients. From these the volatilized
 alkohol will rise and pass into  the  third vessel, which
 is empty. Alter communicating a certain heat to it,
 a portion of the finer or less condensible  spirit  will
 pass into the fourth,  and thence, in  a  little, into the
 worm of the first refrigeratory.  The  wine round  the
 worm  will likewise acquire  heat,  but more 6lowly.
 The vapour that in that event may pass  uncondensed
 through the first worm, is  conducted into  a  second,
 surrounded with cold water.   Whenever the still is
 worked off, it is replenished bv a stop-cock from the
 nearest recipient, which, iu its turn, is filled from  the
 second, and the second from the first worm tub.  It is
 evident, from this arrangement, that by keeping the
 third and fourth recipients at  a certain temperature,
 we may cause alkohol, of  any degree of lightness, to
 form directly at the remote extremity of the apparatus.
 The utmost economy of fuel and time is also secured!
 and n better flavoured spirit is obtained.   The  arriem
gout of had  spirit can scarcely be destroyed  by infu-
sion with charcoal and redistillation.   In this mude of
operating, the taste and smell  are excellent, from the
first.  Several stills on the above principle have been
constructed at Glasgow for the West India  distillers,
and  have been found extremely advantageous.  The
excise laws  do not permit their employment in the
home trude.
  If sulphur in  sublimation meet with the vapour of
alkohol, a very small portion combines with it, wliich
communicates a hydrosulphurous smell  to the fluid.
 1 he increased surface of  the two substances appears
to favour the combination.   It had been supposed, that
this was the only way in which thev could be united-
but Favre has lately asserted, that having digested two
drachms of flowers of sulphur  in an ounce of alkohoi,
over a  gentle lire not sufficient to make it boil, for
twelve hours, he obtained a solution that gave twenty-
three grains of precipitate.  A similar mixture left M 
ALL
AlL
 Biftnd f.u t. <;ionth in a place ex|>osed to the solar rays,
 afforded sixteen grains of precipitate; and another from
 which the light was excluded, gave thirteen grains.  If
 alkohol "Jc boiled with one-fourth of its weight of sul-
 phur ;br an hour, and filtered liot, a small quantity of
 minute crystals will be deposited on cooling; and the
 clear fluid will assume an opaline hue on being diluted
 wi'h an equal quantity of water, iu which state it will
 pass the  filter, nor will any sediment  be deposited for
 oev oral hours.  The alkohol used in the last-mentioned
 experiment did not exceed 840.
  Phosphorus is sparingly soluble  in  alkohol,  but  in
 greater quantity by heat  than  in cold.  The addition
 of water to this solution affords an opaque milky fluid,
 whicli becomes clear by  the subsidence of the phos-
 phorus.
  Earths  seem to have scarcely any action  upon alko-
 hol.  Quicklime, however, produces some  alteration
 in this fluid, by changing its flavour, and rendering it
 of a yellow colour.   A portion is probably taken up.
  Soaps are  dissolved with great facility in alkohol,
 with which they  combine more readily  than with
 water.  None ofthe metals, or their oxydes, are acted
 upon by  this fluid. Resins, essential  oils,  camphor.
 bitumen,  and various other substances, are dissolved
 with great facility in alkohol, from which they may be
 precipi'ated by the addition of water.   From its pro-
 perty of dissolving re>i:is, it becomes the menstruum of
 some varnishes.
  Camphor is not  only extremely soluble in alkohol,
 but assists the solution of resins in it. Fixed oils, when
 rendered drying by  metallic oxydes, are soluble in il, as
 well as when combined with alkalies.
  Wax, spermaceti, biliary calculi, urea, and all the
 animal substances  of a resinous nature, are soluble in
 alkohol;  but it curdles milk, coagulates albumen, and
 hardens the muscular fibre and coagulum ofthe blood.
  The uses of alkohol  are various. As a solvent of
 resinous substances and essential oils, it is  employed
 both in pharmacy and by the perfumer.   Wiin diluted
 with an equal quantity of water, constituting what is
 called proof  spirit, it is used for extracting tinctures
 from vegetable and other substances, the alkohol dis-
 solving the resinous parts, and the water the gummy.
 From giving a steady heat without smoke when burnt
 in  a lamp, it was formerly much employed to keep
 water boiling on the tea-table.   In thermometers, for
 measuring great degrees of cold, it is preferable to mer-
 cury, as we cannot bring it to freeze.  It is in Common
 use for preserving many anatomical preparations, and
 certain subjects of  natural  history; but to some  it  is
 injurious,  the  molluscae  for instance,  the  calcareous
 covering of which it in time corrodes.   It is of consi-
 derable use, too, in chemical analysis, as appears under
 the diifen-nt articles to which it  is applicable.
  From the great expansive power of  alkohol, it has
 been made a question, whether il might not N; applied
 with advantage  iu ihe working of steam  engines.
 From a series of experiments made by Eetancourt, it
 appears, that the steam of alkohol has, in all cases of
 equal temperature,  more than double the force of  that
 of water;  and that the steam of alkohol at 174° F.  is
 equal lo that of water2l2°; thus there is a considerable
 diminution of the consumption of fuel,  and where this
 is so expensive as to be an object of great importance,
 by contriving the machinery so as to prevent the alko-
 hol from 'leing lost,  it may possibly al some future time
 be  used with  advantage, if some other fluid of great
 expansive power, and inferior price, be not lound more
 economical.
  Alkohol may be decomposed by transmission through
 a red-hot tube:  il is also  decomposable by the strong
 acids, and thus affords that remarkable product, Ether,
 and Oleum Vim.— Urc's  Chcm.  Diet.
  2. The  alkohol of the  London  Pharmacopoeia is
 directed  to be made thus —Take of rectified spirit, a
 gallon ;  subcarbonate of potassa, three pounds.   Add a
 pound of the subcarbonate of potassa, previously
 heated to 300°, to the spirit, and  macerate for twenty-
 four hours, frequently stirring them; then pour off the
 spirit, and add  to it the  rest of the subcarbonate of
 potassa  heated to the same degree; lastly, with the aid
 of a warm bath, let the alkohol distil over, keep it in a
 well-stopped bottle.   The specific gravity of alkohol is
SO the specific gravity of distilled  water,  as 815 to
 3,000.
  ALLAGITE.   A carbosilicate of manganese.
   ALLAN ITE.  ,\ mineral, first recognised as a dis-
 tinct species by Mr. Allan or Edinburgh.  Itismassivfl
 and of a brow nis|,  black colour.
   [Before the blowpipe it froths, and is converted into
 scoria.  In nitric  acid it forms  a  jelly.  It contains
 silex 3o,4, lime 9.2, oxide of cerium 33.9, alumine 4.1,
 oxide ol iron 2.>.4,  volatile matter 4.0.  It  is found  in
 Greenland, and associated with mica and feldspar. A.l
   Allantoi'des.   (From aXXas, n  hog's pudding, und
 etios, likeness:  because  iu  some brutal animals it in
 long and thick.)  Mcmbrana atlantnidi-s. A membrane
 of the foetus, peculiar to brutes, which contains the
 urine discharged from the bladder.
   ALLELUIA.  (Hebrew.  Praise the  Lord.)  So
 named from its  many virtues.  See Oxu'is  acctosella,
   AI.'.-tiOOD.   See Chcnopodium honushtnricus.
   ALL-HEAL.   See Hcraclium and Stachys.
   ALHA'CEOUS. (Altiaccus; from allium,garlick.
 Pertaining to .rarlick.
   ALLIA'RIA.  (From allium, garlick: from its sinel
 resembling aarlick.)  See Erysimum alliaria.
   ALLIUM. (Allium,  i. n.; from oleo, to smell; be
 cause it  stinks: or from  uXcw, to avoid;  as  buini
 unpleasant to most people.)   Garlick.
   1. The name of a genus of plants in the Linutviu sys
 tern.   Class, Hcxandria; Order, Monogynia.
   2. The pharmacopoeia! name of garlick.  SteAlliu?x
 sativum.
   Allium cepa.   Ccpa.  Allium:—sciponudo inferni
 rcntricoso longiore, foliis terttibus, of Linmeus.  The
 Onion.  Dr.  Cullen says, onions are acrid and stimu-
 lating, and possess very little nutriment.  With bilious
 constitutions they generally produce flatulency, thirst,
 headache, and febrile symptoms: but where the tem-
 perament is phlegmatic, they tire of infinite service, by
 stimulating the habit and promoting the natural secre-
 tions, particularly expectoration and urine.  They are
 recommended in scorbutic  cases, as possessing anti-
 scorbutic properties.  Externally, onions are employed
 in suppurating poultices, and suppi ession of urine  in
 children is said to be relieved by applying them, roasted,
 to the pubes.
   Allium porrum.  The  Leek  or Porret.   Porrum
 Every part of this plant, but more particularly the root,
 abounds with a peculiar odour.  The expressed  juice
 possesses diuretic qualities, and is given in the cure  01
 dropsical diseases,  and calculous  complaints, asthma,
 and scurvy.   The  fresh roi» is  much  employed foi
 culinary purposes.
   Allium sativum.  Allium; Theriaea  rusticorum
 Garlick.  Allium:—caule planifolio bulbifero, bulbi
 composito, slaviinibus tricuspidatis, of Lfinloeus.  Tills
 species of Garlick, according to Linnaeus, grows spon-
 taneously in  Sicily; but, as it is much employed for
 culinary and medicinal purposes,  it  has been long very
 generally cultivated In gardens.  Every part of" the
 plant, but more especially the root, has a pungent acri-
 monious taste, and  a peculiarly offensive strong smell.
 This  odour is extremely penetrating and diffusive; for,
 on the root being taken Into the stomach, the alliaceous
 scent impregnates the whole system, arid  Is discover
 able in the various  excretions, as  in the urine, perspl
 ration, milk, &c.   Garlick is generally allied lo the
 onion, from which it seems only to differ in being more
 powerful in its effects, and in its active matter, being in
 a more fixed  state.   By stimulating the stomach, ihoy
 both favour digestion, and, as a stimulus,  are readily
 diffused over the system.  They may, therefore, be con-
 sidered as useful condiments with  the food of phleg-
 matic people,or tliose whose circulation is languid, and
 secretions interrupted;  but with thosesubjeci to inflam-
 matory complaints,  or where great irritability prevails,
 these roots, in their acrid state, may prove very hurtful.
 The medicinal uses of garlick are various; it has been
 long in estimation as an expectorant In pituitous asth-
 mas, and other pulmonary affections', unattended  with
 inflammation.  In hot bilious constitutions, therefore,
 garlick is improper: for  it frequently produces flatu-
 lence, headache, thirst, heat, and other inflammatory
 symptoms.  A free use of" it is said to promote the piles
 in habits disposed to this complaint.  Its  utility as  a
 diuretic in dropsies is attested by unquestionable au-
 thorities;  and its febrifuge power has not only  been
experienced in preventing the paroxysms of  intermit-
 tents, but even in subduing the plague.  Bergius  sayi
 quartans have been cuied  by  it: and he begins by
giving one bulb, or clove,  morning and evening, addi 
ALL
ALL
 every day one more, till four or five cloves be taken at
 a. dose: if the fever then  vanishes, the dose is to  be
 diminished, and it will be sufficient to take one or two
 Cloves, twice a day, for some weeks.  Another virtue of
 Jtarlick is that of an anthelminthic.  It has likewise been
 found of great advantage in scorbutic cases, and in cal-
 culous disorders, acting in these not only as a diuretic,
 but, in several instances, manifesting a  lithontriptic
 power.  That the juice of alliaceous plants, in general,
 has considerable effects upon human calculi, is to  be
 inferred from  the  experiments of Lobb, and  we are
 abundantly warranted in asserting that a decoction of
 the beards of leeks, taken, liberally, and  its use per-
 severed in for a length of time, has been found remark-
 ably successful  in  calculous and gravelly complaints.
 The penetrating and diffusive acrimony of garlick, ren-
 ders its extremal application useful  in many disorders,
 as a rubefacient, and more especially as applied to the
 soles ofthe feet, to cause a revulsion from  the head  or
 breast, as was successfully practised and recommended
 by Sydenham.  As soon as an inflammation  appears,
 the garlick cataplasm  should be removed, and one  of
 bread and milk be applied, to obviate excessive pain.
 Garlick has  also been variously employed externally,
 lo tumours and  cutaneous diseases: and, in certain
 cases of deafness, a clove, or small bulb of this root,
 wrapt in gauze  or  muslin, and introduced  into the
 meatus  auditorius, has  been  found an  efficacious
 remedy.  Garlick  may be administered  in  different
 forms;  swallowing the clove entire, after being dipped
 in oil, is recommended as most effectual; where this
 cannot be done, cutting it into pieces without bruising
 it, and swallowing these may be found  to  answer
 equally well, producing thereby no uneasiness in the
 fauces.  On being beaten up and formed into  pills, the
 active parts of this  medicine soon evaporate: this Dr.
 Woodville, in his  Medical  Botany, notices, on the
 authority of Cullen, who thinks that Lewis has fallen
 into a gross error, in supposing dry garlick  more active
 than fresh.   The syrup and oxymel of garlick, which
 formerly had a place in the British Pharmacopoeias, are
 now expunged.  The cloves  of garlick are  by some
 bruised, and applied to the wrists,  to cure agues, and
 to the bend of the  arm to cure  the toothache: when
 held in the hand,  they are said to relieve hiccough;
 When beat with  common oil into a poultice, they re-
 solve sluggish humours;  and, if laid on the navels  of
children,  they are  supposed to destroy worms in the
 Intestines.
  Allium victoriale.  Victorialislonga. Theroot,
which when dried loses its alliaceous smell and taste,
 is said to be efficacious in allaying the  abdominal
spasms of gravid females.
  ALLOCHROITE.  A massive opaque mineral of a
grayish, yellowish, or reddish colour.
  [This mineral resembles certain varieties of the gar-
 net in some of its physical characters, but  more parti-
cularly in composition.  It contains silex 37.0, lime
30.0, alumine 5.0, oxide of iron 18.5, oxide of manga-
nese 6.25 ;=96.75.  Cleav.Min.  A.]
  ALLOEO'SIS.  (FromaXXos, another.)   Alteration
 in the state of a disease.
  Ali.oeo'tica.  (FromaXXuf, another.)   Alteratives.
 Medicines which change the appearance of the dis-
ease.
  ALLOGNO SIS.  (From aXXoj, another, and yivut-
vkio, to know.)  Delirium ;  perversion of the judgment;
incapability of distinguishing persons.
  ALLOPHANE.   A  mineral of a blue, and some-
times a green or brown colour.
  ALLO PHAS1S.  (From aXXos,  another, and <j>au>,
to speak.)  According to Hippocrates,  a delirium,
 where the patient is not able to distinguish one thing
from another.
  ALLOTRIOPHA'GIA.  (From aXXorpios,  foreign,
and q>ayo>, to eat.)  In Vogel's  Nosology,  it  signifies
(he gpeedily eating unusual things for food.  See Pica.
  ALLOY.  Allay. 1. Where any precious  metal  is
 mixed with another of less value, the assayors call the
 latter the alloy, and do not iu general consider it in any
 other point of view than as debasing or diminishing the
 value of ihe precious metal.
  2. Philosophical chemists have availed themselves of
 this term to distinguish all metallic compounds in ge-
 neral.   Thus brass is called  an alloy of  copper and
 sine, bell metal an alloy of copper and tin.
  Every alloy is distinguished by the metal which pre-  ]
      43
j dominates in its composition, or which gives it lt» Vn
 lue.  Thus English jewellery trinkets are ranked undei
 alloys of gold,  though most of them  dieserve to  be
 placed under the head  of copper.  When mercuiy is
 one ofthe component metals, the alloy is called amal-
 gam.  Thus we have an amalgam of gold, silver, tin,
 &c.  Since there are about thirty different permanent
 metals, independent of those evanescent ones that con
 stitute the bases of the alkalies anc' 5arths, there ought
 to be about 870 different species of binary alloy.  Bui
 only 132 species have  been  hitherto made and exa-
 mined.  Some metals have so little affinity for others,
 that as yet no  compound of them has been effected,
 whatever pains have been taken.  Most of these ob-
 stacles to alloying, arise  from the difference in fusibility
 and volatility.   Yet a few metals, the melting point of
 which is nearly  the same,  refuse to unite.  It is obvi-
 ous that two bodies will not combine, unless their affi-
 nity or reciprocal attraction be stronger than the cohe-
 sive attraction of their individual particles.  To over
 come this cohesion ofthe solid bodies, and render afli
 nity predominant, they  must be penetrated by caloric
 If one be very difficult  of fusion, and the other very
 volatile, they will   not unite unless  the reciprocal
 attraction be exceedingly  strong. But  if" their degree
 of fusibility be almost the same, they are easily placed
 in the circumstances most favourable for making  an
 alloy.  If we are therefore far from  knowing all the
 binary alloys which are possible, we are still furthet
 removed from knowing all Ihe triple, quadruple, &c.
 wliich may exist.   It must  be confessed, moreover,
 that this department of chemistry has been imperfectly
 cultivated.
  Besides, alloys are not, as fur as we know, definitely
 regulated like oxydes in the proportions of their com-
 ponent parts.  100 parts of mercury will combine with
 4 or 8 parts of oxygen, to form two distinct oxydes, the
 black and the red ; but  with no greater, less, or inter-
 mediate  proportions.  But 100 parts of  mercury will
 unite with 1, 2, 3, or with any quantity up to  100 or
 1000, of tin or lead.  The alloys have the closest rela-
 tions in their physical properties with  the metals.
 They are all solid  at the temperature of the atmos-
 phere, except  some  amalgams ;  they possess metallic
 lustre, even when reduced to  a coarse powder: are
 completely opaque, and more or less dense, according
 to the metals which compose them ; are excellent con-
 ductors of electricity ;  crystallize  more or less per
 fectly ; some are brittle, others ductile and malleable;
 some have  a peculiar odour ; several  are very sono-
 rous and elastic.  When an  alloy consists of metals
 differently fusible, it is usually malleable while cold,
 but brittle while hot; as is exemplified iu brass.
  The density of an  alloy  is sometimes greater, some-
 times less than  the  mean density of its components.
 showing that, at the instant of their union, a diminu
 tiou or augmentation of volume takes place.  The re
 lotion  between  the expansion of the separate metali
 and that of their alloys, has been investigated only ii
 a very few cases.  Alloys containing a volatile inet.V
 are decomposed, in whole or  in part, at a strong heat
 This happens with those of arsenic, mercury, tellurium
 and zinc.  Those that consist of two differently fusibh
 metals, may often be decomposed by exposing them tt
 a temperature capable of melting only one of  them
 This operation is called  eliqualioii.   It is practised on
 the great scale to extract silver from copper.  The ar-
 gentiferous copper is melted with 31-2 tunes its weigh!
 of lead; and the triple alloy is exposed  to a sufficient
 heat.  The lead carries off the silver in  its fusion, and
 leaves the copper under the form of a  spongy  lump
 The silver is afterward recovered from the "lead by
 another operation.
  Some alloys oxydize more readily by heat and air
 than when the metals are sepnrately treated.  Thus 3
 of lead and  1  of tin, at a dull red, burn visibly, and
 are almost instantly  oxydized.  Each  by itself 'in the
 same circumstances, would oxydize slowly, and with
 out the disengagement of light.
  The lormation of an alloy must iie regulated  by the
 nature ofthe particular  metals.
  The degree of affinity between metals may be L-i some
 measure  estimated by the greater or less facility with
 which, when of  different degrees of fusibility or vola-
 tility, they unite, or with which  they can after union
 by separated by heat. Tie greater or less tendency  to
separate into different proportional alloys, by long-con 
ALO
ALO
 tlnued fusion, may also give some information on this
 subject.   Mr. Hatchett remarked, in  his  admirable
 researches on metallic alloys, that gold made standard
 with the usual precautions by silver, copper, lead, anti-
 mony, Slc. and then cast into vertical bars, was by no
 means a  uniform compound ; but that the top of the
 bar, corresponding to the metal at the bottom of the
 crucible,  contained the larger  proportion of  gold.
 Hence, for thorough combination, two red-hot cruci-
 bles  should  be employed ; and  the liquified metals
 should be alternately  poured  from the one into the
 other.  And to prevent  unnecessary oxydizement by
 exposure  to air, the crucibles should contain, besides
 flic  metal, a mixture of common salt and pounded
 charcoal.   The melted alloy should  also be occasion-
 ally stirred up with a rod of pottery.
  The most direct evidence of a chemical change hav-
 ing taken place in  the two metals by combination,  is
 when the  alloy melts at a much  lower temperature
 than the fusing points of its components.  Iron, which
 is nearly  infusible, when alloyed with gold acquires
 almost the fusibility of this metal.  Tin and lead form
 solder, an alloy more fusible than either of  its compo-
 nents; but the triple compound  of tin, lead, and bis-
 muth, is most remarkable on this account.  The ana-
 logy  is here strong, with the increase of solubility
 whicli salts acquire by mixture, as is exemplified iii
 the uncryslallizable residue of saline  solutions, or mo-
 ther  waters, as they are called.   Sometimes two me-
 tals will not directly unite, which yet, by the interven-
 tion of a  third, are made to combine.  This happens
 with mercury and iron, as has been shown by Messrs.
 Aiken,  who effected  this  difficult amalgamation by
 previously uniting the iron to tin or zinc.
  The tenacity of  alloys  is  generally, though  not
 always, inferior 10  the mean of the separate  metals.
 One  part of lead will destroy the compactness  and
 tenacity of a thousand of gold.  Brass made with a
 small proportion of zinc, is more ductile than copper
 itself; but when one-third of zinc enters into its com-
 position, it becomes brittle.
   In common cases, the specific gravity affords a good
 criterion  whereby  to  judge of the proportion  in an
 alloy, consisting of two metals of different densities.—
 Ure.
   ALLSPICE. See Myrtcs Pimento.
   ALLUVIAL. That which is deposited in valleys,
 or in plains, from neighbouring mountains, or the over-
 flowing of rivers.   Gravel, loam,  clay, sand, brown
 coal, wood coal, bog iron ore, and calc tuff, compose
 tiie alluvial deposites.
  A'LMA.   The first motion of a foetus to free itself
 from its confinement.
  2.  Water.—Rulandus.
  Almabri.   A stone like amber.
  Alma'nda cathartica.  A plant growing  on tile
 shores of  Cayenne and Surinam, used  by the inhabit-
 ants  as a  remedy for the  colic;  supposed to be ca-
 thartic.
  Alme'nb.  Rock salt.
  ALMOND.  See Amygdalus.
  Almond, bitter.  See Amygdalus.
  Almond, sweet.  See Amygdalus.
  Almond paste.  This cosmetic for softening the skin
 and  preventing chops, is  made  of four  ounces of
 blanched bitter almonds,  the white of an egg, rose wa-
 ter and rectified spirits, equal parts, as much as is suf-
 ficient.
  Almonds of the ears. A popular name for the  ton-
 sils, which have been so called from their resemblance
 to an almond in shape. See Tonsils.
  Almonds of the throat.  A vulgar name for the ton-
 sils.  See  Tonsils.
  Alnabati.   In Avicenna and Serapion, this word
 means the siliqua dulcis, a gentle  laxative. See Ce-
 ratonia siliqua.
  ALNUS.  (Alno, Italian.)  The alder.   The phar-
 macopositil name of two plants, sometimes used in  me-
 dicine, though rarely employed in the present practice.
  1.  Alnui rotundifolia; glutinosa;  viridis.   The
 common alder-tre.   '"•"> B'tuia alnus.
  2.  Alnus nigra.  The blacK oi uerry-bcaring alder.
See Rhamnus Franguta.
  A'LOE.  (Aloe, is.  ft. from ahlah, a Hebrew word,
signifying growing near the sea.)  The name of a ge-
nus of plants of the Linneean system.  Class Hexan-
  n ■ OrHpr. Mamimmia.   The AlOC.
                                          D
a • Order, Monogynia-  The Aloe.
  Aloe Caballina.  See Alo' perfoliata.
  Aloe' Guineensis.  See Aloe perfoliata.
  Aloe perfoliata.  Aloe Succotorina ; Alol Zoc*
torina.  Succotorinc aloes is  obtained from a variety
of the Aloe perfoliata of Linnaeus .—foliis cauli.iis
dentatis, amplrxicaulibus vaginantibus, fioribus co-
rymbosis ccrnuis,  pedunculatis subcvlmdricis.  It is
brought over wrapped in skins, from the Island of Sci
cotora, in the Indian Ocean;  it is of a bright surface.
and in some degree pellucid;  in the lump of a yellow-
ish red colour, with a purplish cast; when reduced
into powder, it is of a golden colour.  It is hard and
friable in very cold weather ;  but in summer it softens
very easily between the fingers.  It iscxtremelj bitter,
and  also accompanied with  an aromatic flavour, but
not so  much  as to cover its disagreeable taste.  Its
scent is rather agreeable, being somewhat similar to
that of myrrh.  Ol" late this sort has been v< ry scarce,
and its place in a  great measure supplied by  another
variety, brought from the Cape of Good Hope, which
is said to  be obtained from the Aloe spicala of  Lin-
naeus, by inspissating the expressed juice of the leaves,
whence it  is  termed in  the  London  Pharmacopoeia
Eitractum alols spicata.
  The Aloe hepatica, vcl Barbadcnsis, the common or
Barbadoes or hepatic aloes, was thought to come from
a variety of the Aloe perfoliata described .—fioribus
pedunculatis, ccrnuis corymbosis, subcylindricis, foliis
spinosis, confertis, dentatis, vaginantibus, planis, ma-
culate : but Dr. Smith has announced,  that it will be
shown in Sibthorp's Flora Graeca, to be from a distinct
species, the Alot vulgaris, or  trueaXonof Dioscorides;
and  it is therefore termed in the London Pharmaco-
poeia, Aloes vulgaris extractum.  The best is brought
from Barbadoes in large gourd-shells; an inferior sort
in pots, and the worst in casks.  It is darker coloureu
than the Socotorine, and  not so bright; it is also drier
and more compact, though sometimes the sort in caska
is soft and clammy.  To  the taste it is intensely billet
and nauseous, being almost wholly without that  aro-
ma wliich is observed in the Socotorine.  To the smell
it is strong and disagreeable.
  The Alut caballina, vcl Guineensis, or horse-aloes,
is easily distinguished from both the foregoing, by its
strong rank  smell; in other  respects it  agrees pretty
much with the hepatic, and  is now not unfrequently
sold in its place.  Sometimes it is prepared so pure
and bright as scarcely to be distinguishable by the eye,
even from the Socotorine, but its offensive smell  be-
trays it; and if this also should  be dissipated by art,
its wanting the aromatic flavour of tne finer aloes will
be a sufficient criterion.   This aloe is  not admitted
into the materia medica, and is employed chiefly by
farriers.
  The general nature of these three kinds is nearly the
same.   Their particular differences only consist in the
different proportions of gum lo their resin, and in their
flavour.  The smell and taste reside principally in 'he
gum, as do the principal virtues ofthe aloes.  Twelve
ounces of Barbadoes aloes yield nearly 4 ounces of
resin, and 8 of gummy extract.  The same quantityof
Socotorine aloes yields 3 ounces of resin and 9 of gum
my extract.
  Aloes is a well-known stimulating purgative, a pro-
perty which it possesses not  only when taken inter
nally, but also by external application.   The cathartic
quality of p.loes does not reside in the resinous part of
the drug, but in the gum, for the pure resin has little
or no purgative power.  Its medium dose is from 5 to
15 grains nordoes  a larger quantity operate moreeffec-
tuaily.  Its operation is exerted on the large intestines;
principally on the rectum. In small doses long conti-
nued, it often produces much heat and irritation,  par-
ticularly about the anus, from which it sometimes  oc-
casions  a  bloody discharge; therefore, to those who
were subject to piles, or of an hemorrhagic diathesis,
or even  in a state of pregnancy, its exhibition has been
productive of considerable mischief; but on the con-
trary, by those of  a phlegmatic constitution, or those
suffering from  uteri'.e obstructions  (for the stimulant
action of aloes, it Iras been supposed, may b.-; extended
to the uterus, and  in some cases of dyspejtsia, palsy,
gout, and worms, aloes may be employed as a laxative
with peculiar advantage.   In  all diseases of the bilious
tribe, aloes is the strongest puiite, and ihe best prepara-
tions for this purpose are the pih.la ex aloe cum myrrhs,
the tiiictura aloe's,  or the  exfrattiim colocynthidis
                                         49 
ALO
ALT
 compositum.  Its efficacy in jaundice is  very consi- ■
 (lerable,  as  it proves a succedaneum to  the bile, of
 wliich in that disease there is a defective supply to the
 intestine either in quantity or quality. Aloes there-
 fore may be considered as injurious where inflamma-
 tion or irritation exists in  the bowels or neighbouring
 parte,  in pregnancy, or in habits disposed to piles; but
 highly serviceable in all hypochondriac affections, ca-
 chectic habits, and persons labouring under oppression
 of the stomach caused by irregularity.   Aromatics cor-
 rect the offensive qualities of aloes the most perfectly.
 The canella alba answers tolerably, and without any
 inconvenience; but some rather prefer the  essential
 oils for this purpose.  Dr. Cullen  says, " If any medi-
 cl'ie be entitled to the appellation of a stomach purge,
 it is certainly aloes.  It is  remarkable with regard to
 it, that it operates almost to  as good  a purpose in a
 small as  in a large dose ; that one or two grains will
 produce one considerable dejection, and 20 grains will
 do no more, except it be that in the last dose the opera-
 tion will  be attended with gripes, &c.  Its chief use
 is to render the  peristaltic motion  regular, and it is
 one of the best cure3 in habitual costi veness.  There Is
 a difficulty we meet with in  the exhibition of purga-
 tives, viz. that they will not  act but in their full dose,
 and will not produce half their effect  if given in half
 the dose.  For this purpose we are chiefly confined to
 aloes.  Neutral salts in  half their dose will not have
 half their effect; although even from these,  by large
 dilution, we may obtain this property ; but besides
 them  and  our present  medicine, I know no other
 which has any title to it except sulphur.  Aloes some-
 times cannot be employed. It has the effect of stimu-
 lating the rectum more than other purges, and with
justice has been  accused  of exciting Inemorrhoidal
 swellings, so that we ought to abstain from it in such
 coses, except when we want  to promote thein.  Aloes
 has the effect of rarifying the blood and disposing to
 lircmorrhagy, and hence it is not recommended in ute-
 rine fluxes.  Foetid  gums  are of the  same nature in
 producing haemorrhagy, and perhaps this isthe founda-
 tion of their emmenagogue  power."   Aloes  is admi-
 nistered either simply in powders, which is too  nause-
 ous, or else  in composition;—1.  With purgatives, as
 soap, scammony, colocynth, or rhubarb.  2. With
 aromatics, as canella, ginger,  or essential  oils.  3.
 With bitters, as gentian.   4-  With emmenagogues, as
 iron, myrrh, wine, &cc.  It may be exhibited in pills as
 Ihe most convenient form, or  else dissolved in wine, or
 diluted alkohol.  The officinal  preparations of aloes
 are the following:—
    1. Pilulae Aloe's.
   2. Pilula Alofis Composita
   3. Pilula; Aloes cum Assafcetida.
   4. Pilula Aloe's cum Colocynthide.
   5. Pilula Aloes cum Myrrha.
   fi Tinctura Aloes.
   7. Tinctura Aloe's Althcrialis.
   8. Tinctura AloSs et Myrrha.
   9. Vinum AloCs.
  10. Extractum Alois
  11. Decoctum Aloes Compositum.
  12. Pulvis Aloes Composite.
  13. Pulvis AloSs cum Canella.
  14. Pulvis Alois cum Guaiaco.
  15. Tinctura AloCs Composita.
  16. Extractum Colocynthidis Compositum.
  17. Tinctura Benzoini Composita.
  Aloe Socotorina.  See Aloe perfoliata.
  Aloe Zocotorina-  See Aloe perfoliata.
  Aloeda'ria.   (From aXori, the aloe.)  Compound
 purging medicines: so called  from having aloes  as the
 chief ingredient.
  Alokphanoina.  Medicines formed  by a combina-
 tion of aloes and aromatics.
  ALOES.   Fel natura.  The inspissated juice of the
 aloe plant.  Aloes is distinguished into three  species,
 rocotorine, hepatic, and caballine; of which the two
 first are directed for  officinal use in  our  pharmaco-
 poeias. Sec Alot perfoliata.
  Aloes i.ionum.  See Lignum Aloes.
  ALOETIC.  A medicine wherein aloes is the chief
 or fundamental ingredient
  Ai.ouotro'phia.  (From aXoyos, disproportionate,
 »nd 7pctp<o, to nourish.)  Unequal nourishment, as in
 the tickets.
  ALO'PECES.   (From aXwrij"-, the fox.)  The psore
      SO
■ muscles are so called  by Fallopiiis and  Vesalhi*  t»
 cause in the fox they are particularly strong.
   ALOfE CIA.   (From aXornrjl, a fox : because the
 fox is subject  to a distemper that resembles it; oi, as
 some  say, because the fox's urine will occasion bald
 ness.)  Baldness, or the falling off of  the hair.  A ge
 nus of disease in Sauvages' Nosology.
   ALOPECUROIDEA.   (From alopecurn.o,  the for-
 tail grass.)   Resembling  the  alopecuru.-.  The name
 of a division of grasses.
   Alo'sa.  (From aXhxttf, to take:  because il is ra
 venous.)   See  Clupea alosa.
   Alosa'nthi. (From uXj, salt, and av9os> a flower)
 Alosanthum.   Flowers of salt.
   A'losat.  Quicksilver.
   Alosohoc.  Quicksilver.
   A'LPHITA.  (Alpluta,  the plural  of aX^irov, th«
 meal of barley in general.)  By Hippocrates this term
 is applied to barley-meal either toasted or fried. Ga-
 len  says that xpiuva is coarse meal, aXivpov is fine
 meal, and aXqiira is a middling sort.
   Alfht'tidon.   Alphitedum.  It is  when a bone is
 broken into small fragments like alphite or bran.
   Alpho'nsin.  The name of an instrument for ex
 trading balls.  It is so called from the name of its m
 ventor, Alphonso Ferrier, a Neapolitan physician.  It
 consists of three branches, which separate from each
 other by their elasticity, but are capable of being closed
 by means of a tube in which they are  included.
   ALPHOSIS.  The specific name of a disease in the
 genus Epichrosis of Good's Nosology.
   A'LPHUS.  (AX0os; from aXtbatvio, to change: be-
 cause it changes the colour ofthe skin.)  A species of
 leprosy, called by the ancients  nitilago, and  which
 they divided into alphus, melas, and leuce. Sec Lepra
   A'lpini  balsamum.  Balm of Gilead.
   ALPI'NUS, Prosper, a  Venetian, born  in 15.»3,
 celebrated for his skill in medicine and botaety.  After
 graduating at  Padua, he went  to Egypt, and  during
 three years carefully studied the plants of that country,
 and  the modes of treating diseases there ; of which
 he afterward published  a very learned account.   He
 has left also some  other  less impcrtant works.   He
 was appointed physician to the celebrated  Andrew
 Doria ; and subsequently botanical professor at Padua,
 which office he retained till his death  in 1616.
   A'LSINE.  (Alsine, es. f.; from aXaac, a grove: so
 called  because it  grows in great abundance in woods
 and shady places.)  The name of a genus of plants in
 the Linnrean system.   Class, Pentandria; Order, Tri-
 gynia. Chickwecd.
   Alsine  media. Morsus gallina centunculus. The
 systematic name for the plant called chickweed, which.
 if boiled tender, may be eaten like spinach, and forms
 also an excellent emollient poultice.
   ALSTON, Charles, born in  Scotland in l'i^3, was
 early attached to the study of botany, and distinguished
 himself by opposing the sexual system  of Linnaeus.
 He  afterward  studied under Boerhaave at Leyden ;
 then returning to his native country, was materially
 instrumental, in conjunction with the celebrated Alex-
 ander Monro,  in  establishing the medical  school at
 Edinburgh, where he was appointed  professor of bo-
 tany and  materia  medica.   He died  in  1700.  His
 " Lectures on  the Materia Medica,"  a posthumous
 work, abound in curious  and useful facts, whicli will
 long preserve their reputa ion.
   ALTERATIVE,  (Allerans;  from altero, to
 change.)   Alteralive  medicines are  those remedies
 which are given with a view to re-establish the healthy
 functions of the animal economy, without producim-
 any sensible evacuation.
   Altern e plant.e.  Alternate leaved plants. The
 name of a  class  of plants  in  Sauvages' Methodus
 foliorum.
   ALTERNAJNS.   Alternate; placed alternately  *A
 term applied by botanists to leaves, gems. &c. '
   ALTEKNUS.  Alternate.  In botany, this term is
 applied to branches and leaves when they stand singly
 on each side, in such a manner lhat between every
 two on one  side  there is but one on   the  opposite
 side, as on  the branches  of the  Altkaa  ofUcinalis.
 Rhamnus  catharticus,  and leaves of the Malca ro
 tundifolia,
   ALTILE'A.  (Althaa, a. f.: from aXOem, to heal
 so called from its supposed qualities in healing.)  j
 The name of a genus of plants of the Linncean system 
ALU
ALU
Ofcss,  Monadelphia.;  Order,  Polyandria.   Marsh-
mallow.
  2.  The pharmacopoeia! name ofthe marsl^mallow.
See Althca Officinalis.
  Alth.ea  officinalis.   The systematic name of
the marsh-mallow.  Malvaviscus ; Aristaltkaa.  Al-
thaa :—foliis  simplicibus tomentosis.  Th J mucila-
ginous matter with which this  plant abounds, is the
medicinal part of the plant; it is commonly employed
for its  emollient and demulcent qualities in tickling
coughs, hoarseness, and  catarrhs, in  dysentery, and
difficulty and heat of uriue.  The leaves and root are
generally selected for use.  They relax the passages in
nephritic complaints, in which last case a decoction is
the best  preparation.  Two  or three ounces of the
fresh roots may be boiled in a sufficient quantity of
watei to a quart, to which one ounce of  gum-arabic
may  be added.  The following is given wliere it is re-
quired  that large quantities should be used.  An ounce
of the  dried roots is to be boiled  in water, enough to
leave two or  three pints to be  poured off for use: if
more of the root be used, the liquor will be disagree-
ably  slimy.  If sweetened, by adding a  little more of
the root of liquorice, it will be very palatable.  The
root had formerly a place in  many of the  compounds
in the  pharmacopoeias, but now it is only directed in
the form of syrup.
  Althe'jhs.   (From  aXdciv, to cure, or heal.)  Hip-
pocrates often  uses this word to signify the cure of a
distemper.
  ALU DEL.  A hollow  sphere  of stone,  glass, or
earthenware,  with a  short neck projecting at each
end,  by means of wliich one globe  might be set upon
the other.  The up|>ermost his no opening at  the top.
They were used iu former times for the sublimation of
several substances.
  ALUM.  See Alumen.
  Alum  earth.  A massive mineral of a blackish
brown colour, a  dull lustre, an earthy and somewhat
slaty fracture, sectile and rather soft, containing cliar-
coal silica, alumina, oxyde of iron, sulphur, sulphates
of lime,  potassa, and  iron, magnesia, muriate of po-
tassa.  and water.
   Alum slate.  A massive mineral of a bluish black
colour, or slate containing alum.
   ALU MEN.   (Alum, an Arabian word.)  Assos;
Azub ; Aseb ; Elanula;  Sulphas  alumina acidulu^
cum potassA;  Super-sulphas  alumina  ct potassa;
Argilla vitriolata.   Alum.  This important salt has
been the object of innumerable researches both with
regard to its fabrication and composition.  It is pro-
duced, but in a very small quantity, in the native state;
and  this  is mixed  with heterogeneous matters.   It
efMore-sces in various forms upon ores during calcina-
tion, but  it  seldom occurs crystallized.   The greater
part of this salt is factitious, being extracted from mi-
nerals  called alum ores, such as,
  1.  Sulphuretted clay.  This  constitutes the  purest
of all  aluminous ores,  namely, that of La Tolfa, near
Civita  Vecchia, iu Italy.  It is white, compact, and as
bard as indurated clay,  whence it is called pctra alumi-
naris.  It is tasteless and mealy; one hundred parts
of this ore contain above forty of  sulphur and fitly of
clay, a small quantity of potassa, and  a little iron.
Bergman says  it contains forty-three of sulphur iu one
hundred, thirty-five of clay, and twenty-twoof siliceous
earth.  This ore is first torrefied to acidify the sulphur,
which then acts on the cloy, and forms the alum.
  2.  The pyritaceousclay, which is found at Schwem-
sal, in  Saxony, at the depth of ten or twelve feet.  It
is a black and hard, but brittle substance, consisting of
clay, pyrites, and bitumen. It  is  exposed to the  air
for two years,  by which means the pyrites are decom-
posed, and the alum is formed.   The alum  ores of
Hesse  and Liege are of this kind; but  they are first
torrefied,  which is  said to  be  a disadvantageous
method.
  3.  The schistus aluminaris contains a variable pro-
portion of petroleum and pyrites intimately mixed with
it.  When the last are iu a very large quantity, this
ore is rejected  as containing too much iron. Professor
Bergman  very properly suggested, that  by adding a
proportion of clay, this ore may turn  out advantage-
ously for producing alum.  But if the petrol be consi-
derable, it must be torrefied.  The mines of Becket in
Normandy, and those  of Whitby,  in Yorkshire, are
•f this  species.
  4.  Volcanic aluminous ore.  Such is that of i-'aita-
terra near Naples.   Ii is in the form of a white saline
earth, after it has effloresced in the air • or else it is in
a 6tony form.
  5.  Bituminous a'.um ore is called shale, and is in the
form of  a schistus, impregnated with so  much oily
matter, or bitumen,  as to be inflammable.   Il is found
in Sweden, and also in the coal mines at Whitehaven,
and elsewhere.
  Chaptal has fabricated alum on a large  scale from
its component parts. For this purpose he constructed
a chamber 91 feet  long, 48 wide, and 31 high in tha
middle.  The walls are of common masonry, lined
w ith a Dretty thick coating of plaster.  The floor  is
paved  with  bricks,  bedded  in  a mixture of raw and
burnt clay;  and this pavement is covered with ano-
ther, the joints of which overlap tliose of the first, and
instead of mortar, the bricks are joined with a cement
of equal parts  of pitch, turpentine, and wax, which,
after having been boiled till  it ceases to swell, is used
hot.  The  roof is of wood, but  the beams are very
close together, and  grooved lengthwise, the interme-
diate space being  filled up by planks fitted into the
grooves, so that the whole is put together without a
nail.  Lastly, the whole of  the inside is covered with
three or four successive coatings ofthe cement above-
mentioned, the  first being laid on as hot as possible;
and  the outside of the wooden roof was varnished  in
the same manner.   The purest and whitest clay being
made into  a paste with water, and formed into balls
half a foot in diameter, these are calcined in a fur-
nace, broken to pieces, and  a stratum of the frogmen.
laid  on the flew.  A due proportion of sulphur is then
ignited in the chamber, in the.samc manner as for the
fabrication of sulphuric acid ; and the fragments of
burnt clay, imbibing this as it forms, begin  after a few
days to crack and  open, and exhibit an  efflorescence
of sulphate of  alumina. When the  earth has com-
pletely effloresced, it is taken out of the  chamber, ex-
posed  for some  time in  an  open shed, that  it may be
the more intimately penetrated by the acid, and is then
lixiviated and crystallized in the usual manner. The
cement answers the purpose of lead on this occasion
very effectually, and,  according to Chaptal, costs no
more than lead would at three farthings a pound.
   Curaud.au has lately recommended a process  fot
making  alum without  evaporation.   One hundred
ports of clay and five of muriate of soda are kneaded
into a paste with water,  and  formed into loaves
With  these a reverberatory furnace  is  filled, and a
brisk fire is kept up for  two hours.  Being powdered,
and  put into a sound cask,  oae-fourth of their weight
of sulphuric acid is poured  over ihem by degrees, stir
ring the  mixture well at each addition.  As soon as
the  muriatic gas is dissipated, a quantity of watei
equal  to the acid is added, aud the mixture stirred as
before.  When  the  heat is abated, a little more water
is poured in; and this is repeated till eight or ten times
as much water as  there was acid is  added.  When
the whole has  settled, the clear liquor is  drawn off
into  leaden vessels,  and a quantity of water equal  to
this liquor is poured on the sediment.  The two liquors
being  mixed, a solution of potassa is added to them,
the alkali in which is equal  lo one-fourth of the weight
of the  sulphuric acid.   Sulphate of potassa  may be
used, but twice as much of this as of the alkali is
necessary.   After a certain  time, the liquor, by cool-
ing,  affords crystals of alum equal to three times the
weight of the acid used. It is refined by dissolving it
in the smallest possible quantity of boiling  water.
The residue may be washed with more water, to be
employed in lixiviating a fresh portion of the ingre
dients.
  Its sp. gravity is  about 1.71.  It reddens the vege-
table Wues.  It  is soluble in 16 parts of water at 60c",
and  in 3-4 of its weight  at 212".  It effloresces superfi-
cially on exposure to air, but the interior remains long
unchanged.  Its water of crystallization is sufficient at
a gentle heat to fuse it.  If the  heat  be increased it
froths up, and loses fully 45  per cent, of its weight in
water.  The spongy residue is called burnt  or calcined
alum, and  is used  by surgeons as a mild  csclmrotie.
A violent heat separates a great portion of its acid.
  Alum was thus analyzed by Berzehus: 1st, 20 parts
(grammes) of pure  alum lost, by the heat of a spirit
lamp, 9 parts, which gi«* 45 per cent, of" water.  Tin
dry salt was dissolved 'n water, and its acid precipi 
ALU
ALU
 tatsd by munate of barytes ;  the  sulphate of which,
 obtained  after ignition, weighed 20  parts; indicating
 in 100 parts 34.3 of dry sulphuric acid.  2d, Ten parts
 of alum were dissolved in water, and digested with an
 excess  of ammonia.    Alumina, well washed  and
 burned, equivalent to 10.67 per cent, was obtained.  In
 another experiment, 10.86 per cent, resulted.   3d, Ten
 parts of alum dissolved in water,  were digested with
 carbonate of strontites, till the earth was completely
 separated.  The  sulphate of  potassa,  after ignition,
 weighed  1.815, corresponding  to 0.981 potassr  -
 100 parts  to 9.81.
  Alum, therefore, consists of
      Sulphuric acid........34.33
      Alumina..............lO.te'O'
      Potassa...............  9.81
      Water...............45.00

       ■                    100.00
   or, Sulphate of alumina........36.85
      Sulphate of potassa.........18.15
      Water.....................45.00

                                 100.00
  Thenard's analysis, Ann. de Chimie, vol. 59, or  Ni-
cholson's  Journal,  vol. 18,  coincides perfectly with
that of Berzeliu-s in the product of sulphate of barytes.
From 400  parts of alum, he obtained 490 of the igniled
baryticsalt; but the alumina was  in greater  propor-
tion, equal to  12.54  per cent, and the sulphate of  po-
tassa less, or 15.7  in 100 parts.
  Vauquelin, in his last  analysis, found 48.58 water;
end by Thenard's statement there are indicated
                34.23  dry acid,
                 7.14  potassai,
                12.54  alumina,
                46.09  water.

               100.00
  If we rectify Vauquelin's erroneous estimate of the
sulphate of barytes, his analysis  will  also coincide
with  the  above.   Alum, therefore,  differs from the
simple  sulphate  of  alumina  previously described,
which consisted of 3 prime equivalents of acid and 2
of earth, merely by  its  assumption of a  prime of  sul-
phate of potassa.  It is probable that all the aluminous
salts have a similar  constitution. It is to be observed,
moreover, that the number 34.36  resulting from  the
theoretic  proportions,  is,  according  to Gilbert's  re-
marks on the Essay of Berzelius, the just representation
of the dry acid in 100 of sulphate of barytes, by a cor-
rected analysis, which makes the prime of barytes 9.57.
  Should  ammonia be  suspected in alum, it  may be
Detected, and its quantity estimated, by mixing quick-
lime with the saline solution, and  exposing the mix-
ture to  heat  in a retort, connected with a Woolfe's
apparatus. The water of ammonia  being afterward
saturated  with an acid, and evaporated to a dry salt,
will  indicate  the quantity of  pure ammonia in  the
alum.   A variety  of alum, containing both potassa and
ammonia, may also be  found.  This will occur where
urine has  been used, as well as muriate of potassa, in
its fabrication.  If any of these bisulphates of allu-
mina and  potassa be acted on in a watery solution, by
gelatinous alumina, a  neutral  triple salt is  formed,
which precipitates in a nearly insoluble state.
  When alum in  powder is mixed with flour or sugar,
■nd calcined, it forms the pyrophorus of Homberg.
  Mr. Winter first mentioned, that  another variety of
Blum can  be made with soda, instead of potassa.  This
salt, which crystallizes  in octahedrons, has been also
made with pure  muriate of soda, and bisulphate of
alumina, at the laboratory of Hurlctt, by Mr. W. Wil-
son.   It is extremely difficult to form, and effloresces
like the sulphate of soda.
  On the  subject of soda-alum, Dr. Ure published  a
•hort paper in the  Journal of Science for July, 1822.
The form and taste of this salt are exactly the same as
tliose of common  alum  ; but it is less hard, being easily
crushed between the fingers, to which  it imparts an
appeal ance of moisture,  its specific gravity  is  1.6.
100 parts of water at 60° F. dissolve 110 of it; forming
a solution, whose sp. gravity is 1.296.  In this respect,
potassa alum is very different.  For 100 parts of water
dissolve only from 8 to  9 parts,  forming a saturated so-
lution, the sjiecific gravity of* Inch is no  more than
 1.04U5.  Its constituents are, by Dr. Ure's analysis,—
   Sulphuric acid..........34.00    4 primes, 33.SS
   Alumina...............10.75    3   -   10.82
   Soda*..................  6.48    1   —    G.79
   Water..................49.00   25   —   48.43

                          100.23            100.00
 Or it consists of 3 primes sulphate of alumina--)-! sul-
 phate  of soda.  To each  of the former, 5 primes ol
 water  may be assigned,  and to the latter  10, as id
 Glauber's salts.
   The only injurious contamination of  alum is sul-
 phate  of iron.  It is  detecte*1  by  ferro-prussiate ol
 potassa.
   Oxymuriate of alumina, or the chloride,  I/bs been
 proposed by Mr. Wilson of Dublin, as preferable ,o
 solution of chlorine, for discharging the turkey-red dx.
   Alum is used in large quantities in many manufac-
 tories.   When  added  to tallow, it  renders it  harder.
 Printer's cushions, and the blocks used in the calico
 manufactory, are rubbed with burnt alum to remove
 any greasiness, which might prevent ihe ink or colour
 from sticking.   Wood sufficiently soaked in a solution
 of alum does not easily take fire: and the same is true
 of paper impregnated with  it, which is fitter lo keep
 gunpowder, as  it also excludes moisture.  Paper iiu
 pregnated with alum is useful in whitening silver, and
 in silvering brass without heat.   Alum  mixed  in milk
 helps the separation of its butter. If added in  a very
 small quantity to turbid water,  in  a few minutes it
 renders it  perfectly limpid, without any  bad taste or
 quality ;  while the sulphuric acid imparts to it a very
 sensible acidity, and does not precipitate as soon, or so
 well, the opaque earthy mixtures that render it turbid
 It is used in making  pyrophorus, in tanning, and in
 many other manufactories, particularly in the art of
 dying, in which it is of the greatest and most  impor-
 tant  use, by cleansing and opening  the pores on the
 surface of the substance to be died,  rendering it fit for
 receiving the colouring particles, (by which the alum
 is generally decomposed,) and at the same time making
 the colour fixed.  Crayons generally consist of the
 earth of alum, powdered and tinged for the purpose.—
 Ure's Chem. Diet.
   In medicine it is  employed internally as a  powerful
 astringent in cases of passive haemorrhages from t!i«
 womb,  intestines, nose, and sometimes lungs.    In
 bleedings of an active nature, i. e. attended with fever,
 and a plethoric state of the system, it is highly impro-
 per.  Dr. Percival  recommends  it in the colica picto-
 num and other chronic disorders  of the bowels, at-
 tended with obstinate  constipation.  (See Percival'g
 Essays.)  The dose advised in these casts is from 5 to
 20 grains, to be repeated every four, eight, or  twelve
 hours.  When duly persisted in, this  remedy proves
 gently laxative, aud mitigates the pain.
   Alum is also powerfully tonic, and is given with this
 view in the dose of 10 grains made into a bolus threi
 times a day, in such cases  as require powerful  tonic
 and astringent remedies. Another  mode of adminis-
 tering it is in the  form of whey made  by boiling a
 drachm of powdered alum in a pint  of milk for a few
 minutes, and to be taken in the quantity of a  tea-cup
 full three times a day.  Dr. Cullen  thinks il ought  to
 be employed with  other astringents  in diarrhoeas.  In
 active haemorrhages, as  was observed, il is not useful
 though a powerful medicine in  those which are  pas
 sivc.  It should be given in small doses, and graduall
 increased. It  has been tried in  the diabetes withoi
 success;  though, joined with nutmeg, it has been mor
 successful in intermittents, given in a  large dose, a ■
 hour or a little longer, before the  approach of  the p»
 roxysm.   In gargles, in relaxation  of the uvula, an ■
 other swellings of the mucous membrane of im* faucet,
 divested  of acute inflammation. ;lhas Deen used wici
 advantage.
  Externally, alum  is much employed by surgeons n
 a lotion for the eyes, and is said to be preferable to su.
 phate of zinc or acetate  of lead in the ophthalm'
 meinbranarum.  From two to five grains dissolved if
 an ounce of rose-water, forms a proper collyrium.  :
 is also applied as a styptic lo bleeding vessels, and l
 ulcers, where there is  too copious a secretion of  piu
 It has  proved successful in inflammation ol  the eye.,
 in the form of cataplasm, wliich is  made by slirrin»
or shaking a  lump of alum in the whites of  tw<
eggs, till they  form a coagulum, which is applied ti,
the eye between two pieces of thin  linen rag.  Alun. 
ALU
ALV
 ts ea-so emp oyed as an injection in cases of gleet or
 fluor albus.
   When deprived of its humidity, by placing it in an
 earthen pan over a gentle fire, it is termed burnt alum,
 alnmen eisiccatum, and is sometimes employed by sur-
 geons to destroy fungous flesh, and is a principal ingre-
 dient iu most styptic powders.
   Alum is also applied to many  purposes of life; in this
 country, bakers  mix a quantity with  the bread, to
 render it white;  this mixture makes the bread better
 adapted for weak and relaxed bowels; but in opposite
 states of the alimentary canal,  this practice is highly
 pernicious.
   The officinal preparations of alum arc:
   I. Aluiuen exsuecatum.
  2. Solutio sulphatis cupri ammoniati.
   3. Liquor aluininis compositus.
   4. Pulvis sulphatis aluminis compositus.
   Alumen catinum.   A name of potassa.
   Alumen commune.  See Alumen.
   Alumen crystallinum.  See Alumen.
   Alumen exsiccatum. Dried Alum.  Expose alum
 in an earthen vessel to the fire, so that it may dissolve
 and boil, and ""t the heat be continued and increased
 until the bo.ung  ceases. See Alumen.
   Alumen factitium.  See Alumen.
   Alumen romanum.  See Alumen.
   Alumen rubrum.  SeeAlumen.
   Alumen rupeum.  See Alumen.
   Alumen rutilum.   See Alumen.
   Alumen ustum.  See Alumen.
   ALU MINA.   Alumine.   Terra Alumina.   Earth
 of alum.   Pure  clay.  One of the primitive earths,
 which, as constituting the plastic principle of all clays,
 loams, and boles, was  called argil or the argillaceous
 earth, hut  now,  as being obtained in greatest purity
 from alum, is styled alumina.  It was deemed elemen-
 tary matter till  Sir H. Davy's celebrated electro-che-
 mical  researches  led to the  belief of its  being, like
 barytes and lime, a metallic oxyde.
   The purest native alumina is found in the oriental
 gems, the sapphire and ruby.  They consist of nothing
 but this earth, aird a small portion of colouring matter.
 The native poicelain clays or kaolins, however white
 and soft,  can never be regarded as  pure alumina.
 They usually contain fully half their weight of silica,
 and frequently other eartlis.  To obtain pure alumina
 we dissolve alum in 20 times its weight of water, and
 add to il a little of the solution of carbonate of soda, to
 throw down any iron which may be present.  We then
 drop the supernatant liquid into  a quantity of the water
 of ammonia, taking care not to add so much of the
 aluminous solution as will saturate the ammonia.  The
 volatile alkali unites with  the  sulphuric acid of the
 ilum, and the earthy basis of the latter is separated in
 a white spongy precipitate.  This must be thrown on
 a filter, washed, or edulcorated,  as the old chemists
 expressed  it, by repealed affusions of water, and then
 dried.  Or if an alum, mode with ammonia instead of
 potassa, as is the case with some French alums, can be
 got, simple ignition dissipates its  acid and alkaline con-
 stituents, leaving pure alumina.
  Alumina prepared  by the first process is  white, pul-
 verulent, soft to the touch, adheres to the tongue, forms
 a smooth paste without grittiness in the mouth, insipid,
 inodorous,  produces  no change  in vegetable colours,
 insoluble in water, but mixes with it readily in every
 proportion, and retains a small quantity with consider-
 able force; is infusible in the strongest heat of a fur-
 nace, experiencing merely a condensation  of  volume
 and consequent  hardness, but is in small quantities
 melted  by the oxyhydrogen  blowpipe. Its specific
 gravity is 2000 in the state of powder, but  by ignition
 it is augmented.
  Every analogy leads to the belief that alumina con-
 tains a peculiar metal, which may be called  aluminum.
 The first evidences obtained of  this position are  pre-
 sented in  Sir H. Davy's researches.  Iron  negatively
 electrified  by a very high power being fused in contact
 with pure alumina, formed a globule whiter than pure
 iron which effervesced slowly in water, becoming
 covered with a white powder.  The solution of this in
muriatic acid, decomposed by an alkali, afforded alu-
mina and  o.xyde of iron.  By  passing potassium in
vapour through  alumina  heated  to  whiteness,  the
greatest part of the potassium became converted into
Lotasso, which formed a coherent mass with that part
 of the alumina not decompounded ; and in Ihis mae»
 there  were  numerous  gray  particles,  having  the
 metallic lustre, and which became white when heated
 in the air, and which slowly effervesced in water.  Iu
 a similar evperimeut made by the same illustrious che-
 mist, a strong red heat only being applied to the alu-
 mina, a muss was obtained, which look fire sponta-
 neously by exposure to air, and which effervesced vio-
 lently in water.   This  mass was probably an alloy ol"
 aluminum  and potassium.   The conversion of potas-
 sium into  its deutoxydc, dry potassa,  by  alumina,
 proves the presence of oxygen in the latter.  When
 regarded as an oxyde, Sir H. Davy estimates its oxygen
 and  basis to be to one  another as 15 to 33; or as 10 to
 2-2.  The  prime equivalent  of  alumina  would thus
 appear to be 1.04-2.2=3.2.  But Berzelius's analysis of
 sulphate of alumina seems  lo indicate  2.136  as the
 quantity of the earth which combines with five of the
 acid.  Hence aluminum will come to be represented by
 2.136—1=1.1315.
   Alumina which has lost  its plasticity by ignition,
 recovers it by being dissolved in an acid or alkaline
 menstruum, aud then  precipitated.  In this stale it Li
 called a hydrate, for when  dried in a steam  heat it
 retains much water; and therefore resembles in coin-
 position  wavellite, a  beautiful   mineral,  consisting
 almost entirely of alumina, with  about 28 per cent, of
 water.
   Alumina is widely diffused in  nature.   Il is a con-
 stituent of every soil, and of almost every rock.  It is
 the  basis of porcelain,  pottery, bricks, and crucibles.
 Its affinity  for vegetable colouring matter, is maue use
 of in the preparation of lakes, and in the  arts of dying
 and  calico, printing.  Native combinations of alumina,
 constitute  the  fullers'  earth,  echrcs,  boles,  pipe-
 clays, &c.                                   <
   The salts  of alumina have the following general
 characters:
   1.  Mosi of them are very soluble in water, and their
 solutions have a sweetish acerb taste.
   2.  Ammonia throws down their earthy base, even
 though they have been previously acidulated with
 muriatic acid.
   3.  At a strong red heat they give out  a portion of
 their acid.
   4. Phosphate of ammonia gives a white precipitate.
   5.  Hydriodate of potassa  produces a flocculeni pre
 cipitate of a white colour,  passing into  a permanent
 yellow.
   6.  They  are  not affected  by oxalate of  ammonia
 tartaric acid, ferroprussiate of potassa, or tincture of
 galls: by the first two tests they are distinguishable from
 yttria; and by the last two, from that earth and glucina.
   7.  If bisulphate of potassa be added to  a solution of
 an aluminous salt moderately concentrated, octahedral
 crystals of alum will form.
   ALUMINITE.  A mineral of a snow white colour,
 dull, opaque, and having a fine efcrthy  fracture.  It
 consists of sulphuric acid, alumina, water, silica, lime,
 and  oxyde of iron.
   ALUMINOUS.   Pertaining to alum.
   Aluminous waters.   Waters impregnated with par
 tides of alum.
   ALUMINUM.   See  Alumina.
   ALUSIA.  (From aXvois, a wandering.)  A lysis ;
 Illusion; Hallucination.  A  term used by Good to a
 species of his genus Empathemata.  See Nosology.
   ALVEARIUM.  (From alveare, a bee-hive.)  That
 part  of the meatus auditorius externus  is  so  called,
 which contains the wax of the ear.
   ALVE'OLUS.   (A diminutive of alveus, a cavity.)
 The  socket of a tooth.
   A'LVEUS.  (Alveus, i. m., a cavity.)  A cavity.
   Alveus AMecLLEscENS.  That part ofthe duct con-
 veying the chyle to the subclavian vein, which swells
 out.
   Alveus communis.  The common duct, or commu-
 nication of the  ampullae of the membranaceous semi-
 circular canals in the  internal ear, is so  termed  by
 Scarpa.                                    ,
   ALVIDU'CA.  (From alvus, the belly, and duco, tn
 draw.)  Purging medicines.
   ALVIFLUXUS.   (From alvus, and fluo, to flow.)
 A diarrhoea, or purging.
   ALVUS.  (Alvus, i*. f- and sometimes m. ab allu-
 endo, qua sordes alluuntnr.)  Tbe belly, stomach, and
entrails.
                                         53 
AMA
AMB
   A'LVCE.  (Fiom oXuu,  to be  anxious.)  That
 anxiety which attends low fevers.
   ALY'PIA.  (From o, neg. and Xiiin?, pain.)  With-
 out pain ; applied to a purgation ofthe humours, with-
 out pain.                         \
   ALY'PIAS.  Alypum.  A species of turbith,  the
 globularia ulypum; so called because it purges with-
 out pain.
   ALYSIS.  See Alusia.
   ALY SMUS.  (From aXvio, to be restless.)  Rest-
 lessness.
   ALY'SSUM.  (From a, neg. and Xvaaa, the bite of
 a mad dog; so called because it was foolishly thought
 to be a specific in the cure of the bite of a mad-dog.)
 Mad-wort.  See Murrubium alyssum.
   Alybsum GaLeni.  See Murrubium verticillatum.
   Alyssum Plinii.  See Galium album.
   Alyssum verticillatum.  The Murrubium verti-
 cillatum.
   A'lzum.  Aldum; Aldrum.   The name of the tree
 which produces gum  bdellium, according  to  some
 ancient authors.
   A'MA  (Apa, together.)  A word used in compo-
 sition.
   AMADINE.  A substance, the properties of which
 are intermediate between those of starch and gum.
 See Starch.
   AMADOU.  A  variety  of the boletus  igniarius,
 found on old ash and other trees. It is boiled in water
 to extract its soluble parts, then dried and beat with a
 mallet to loosen  its texture.   It has now the appear-
 ance  of  very  spongy doe-skin leather. It  is  lastly
 Impregnate with a solution of nitre, and dried,  when
 it is called spunk, or German tinder; a substance  much
 used on the continent for lighting fires, either from the
 collision of flint and steel, or from the sudden conden-
 Batioii of air in the atmospheric pyrophorus.
   AMA'LGAM.   (Amalgama;  from apa and yaptiv,
 to marry.)   A substance produced by mixing mercury
 with a metal, the  two being  thereby incorporated.
 See Alloy.
  Amame'lis.  (From apa,  and pijXta, an apple.)
The bastard medlar of Hippocrates.
  AMANI'T^E.  (From a, priv. and pavia, madness;
so called, because they are eatable and not poisonous,
 like  some others.)   A  tribe  of fungous productions,
 called mushrooms, truffles, and morells, and by  the
 French, champignons.
   A mara dulcis.  See Solanum dulcamara.
  Ama'racus.  (From a, neg. and papaivw, to decay:
because it keeps its virtues a long time.)  Marjoram.
  Amaranth, esculent.  See Amaranthus oleraceus.
  AMARA'NTHUS.  (Amaranthus, i.  m.; from a,
neg. and papaivut, to decay : because the flower, when
cut, does not soon  decay.)  The name of a genus of
plants  in the Linnaean  system.  Class, Monacia;
 Order, Pentandria.
  Amaranthus  olera;bus.    Esculent amaranth.
 The leaves of this, and several other species, are eaten
 in India the same as cabbage is here.
  AMA'RUS.  Bitter.  See  Bitter.  The  principal
 bitters used medicinally are,
  1. The pure bitters; geutiana lutea, humulus  lu-
 pulus, and quassia amara.
  2.  Styptic bitters; cinchona officinalis, croton cas-
earilla, quassia simarouba.
  3. Aromatic bitters; artemisia absinthium, anthe-
 inis nobilis, hyssopus, &c.
  Amatoria fkbris.   (From  amo, to  love.)   See
 Chlorosis.
  Amatoria veneficia.  (From amo, to  love,  and
 teneficium, witchcraft.)  Philters.  Love powders.
  Amato'rius.   A term given to a muscle ofthe eye,
 by which that organ is moved in ogling. See Rectus
 inferior oculi.
   Amatzqui'ti.  An Indian term. Sec Arbutus unedo.
   AMAURO'SIS.   (Amauroses, is. f.  A/jaupuxric;
 from apavpou), to darken or obscure.)  Gutta sercna;
 Amblyopia.  A disease of the eye attended with a di-
 minution or total loss of sight, without any visible in-
jury to the organ, and arising from a paralytic affection
 of the retina and optic nerve.  A genus  of disease in
 the class  locales, and order dysasthesia of Cullen.  It
 arises generally from compression of the optic nerves;
 amaurosis  compressions;  from debility, amaurosis
 utonica;  from spasm, amaurosis spasmodka; or from
 poisons, amaurosis venenata.
      54
   The symptoms of amaurosis are noted for being very
 irregular.  In many cases, the pupil is very much di-
 lated, immoveable, and of its natural black colour.
 Sometimes, however, in the most complete and incura-
 ble cases, the pupil is of its natural size, and  the iris
 capable of free motion.  In some cases, the pupil has
 a dull,  glassy, or horny appearance.  Sometimes its
 colour is greenish, occasionally whitish  and opaque,
 so as to be liable to be mistaken  for an incipient cata-
 ract. Richter mentions a degree of strabismus, as the
 only symptom, except the loss of sight, as invariably
 attendan on amaurosis.
   The bl ndness  produced by amaurosis, is generally
 preceded by an  imaginary appearance of numerous
 insects, or substances, like cobwebs, interposing them-
 selves between objects and the eye.  The origin of a
 cataract on  the other  hand, is usually attended with
 a simple cloudiness of vision.
   Violent contusions of the head, apoplectic fits, flashed
 of lightning, frequent exposure to the rays of  the sun,
 severe exercise, strong passions, drunkenness, and
 other causes of paralytic affections, are enumerated as
 producing this complaint.   Sometimes tumours within
 the cranium, bony projections, &c.  have been  found
 compressing the optic nerves: but in many instances
 no morbid appearance could be traced, to account foi
 the blindness.
   The disorder is generally difficult to be removed: but
 is sometimes much benefited by general and local sti-
 mulants, persevered in  for a considerable time.   If
 there are marks of congestion in the head, local bleed-
 ing,  active purging, and other evacuations, would  be
 proper in the first instance.  Blisters  and issues behind
 the ear or neck should also be tried.  Richter speaks
 of much  success from the use of medicines acting stea-
 dily on  the  bowels, after premising  an emetic. Mr
 Ware observes, that in  some cases  the pupil  is con-
 tracted,  indicating  probably, internal inflammation;
 and  then the internal use of mercury, especially the
 oxymuriate, will  be most beneficial.  Electricity has
 beeu sometimes serviceable, taking the aura or sparks,
 or even gentle shocks :  but galvanism is certainly pre-
 ferable.  Errhines are often useful, as the compound
 powder of asarabacca;  Mr. Ware particularly recom-
 mends the hydrargyius vitriolatus of the former Lon-
 don  Pharmacopoeia.  Stimulants have been sometimes
 usefully  applied to the eye  itself, as the vapour of oil
 of turpentine, an infusion  of capsicum, &c.   Where
 the  intention of a blister is to stimulate, it is  best ap-
 plied to the temple on the affected side.
   AMBER.  Succinum.  A beautiful bituminous Sub-
 stance, which takes a good polish, and, after a slight
 rubbing,  becomes so electric, as to attract straws and
 small bodies ; it was called r/Xeicrpov, electrum, by the
 ancients, and hence the  word electricity.  '■ Amber is
 a hard, brittle, tasteless substance, sometimes perfectly
 transparent, but mostly scmitransparent or opaque,
 and  of a glossy surface: it is  found of all colours, bul
 chiefly yellow or orange, and often contains leaves or
 insects;  its specific gravity is from 1.065 to 1.100; its
 fracture is even, smooth, and glossy ; it is capable of a
 fine  polish,  and becomes electric by friction ;  when
 rubbed or heated, it gives a peculiar  agreeable smell,
 particularly when it melts, that is at 550" of Fahren-
 heit, but  it then loses its transparency : projected on
 burning coals, it burns with a whitish flame, and a
 whitish-yellow smoke, but  gives very little soot, and
 leaves brownish ashes; it  is .neoluble in water and
alcohol,  though the latter, when highly rectified, ex-
tracts a reddish colour from it; but it is" soluble in the
sulphuric acid, which then  acquires a reddish-purple
colour, and is precipitable from it by water.  No other
acid  dissolves it, nor is it soluble iu  essential or ex-
pressed oils, without some decomposition and  long di-
gestion ;  but pure  alkali dissolves it.   By distillation
it affords a small quantity of water, with a little ace-
tous  acid, an oil, an.i a  peculiar acid.  The oil rises
at first colourless:  hut, as the heal increases, becomes
brown, thick, and empyreumatic.  The oil may be
rectified  by successive distillations, or it mav be oh
tained very light and limpid at once,  if it be put into a
glass alembic with water, as the elder Rouelle directs
 and distilled at a heat not greater than 212° Fahr.  h
requires to be kept in stone bottles, however, to retain
this state; for in glass vessels it becomes brown by the
 action of light.
  Amber is met with plentifully in regular mines in 
AMB
AMB
some parts of Prussia.  The upper surface is composed
of sand, under which is a stratum of loam, and under
this a bed of wood, partly entire, but chiefly mouldered
or ctianged into a  bituminous substance.  Under the
wood is a stratum of sulphuric  or rather aluminous
mineral, in which the amber is found.  Strong sulphu-
reous exhalations are often perceived in the pits.
  Detached pieces are also found occasionally on the
sea-coast in various countries.  It has been found in
gravel beds near London.  In the Royal Cabinet at
Berlin there is a mass of 181bs. weight, supposed to be
the largest ever found.  Jussieu asserts, that the deli-
cate  insects  in amber, which prove the tranquillity of
its formation, arc  not European.  Hauy has pointed
out the following distinctions between mcllite and co-
pal, the bodies which  most closely  resemble amber.
Mcllite is infusible by heat.  A bit of copal  heated at
the end of a knife takes fire, melting into drops, which
flatten as they fall;  whereas amber burns with  spit-
ting  and  frothing; and when its  liquefied particles
t'.rop, they rebound  from  the plane which  receives
them.  The origin of amber is at present involved in
perfect obscurity, though the rapid progress of vegeta-
ble chemistry promises soon to throw light on it.  Va-
rious frauds are practised with this substance.  Neu-
mann states as the common practices of workmen, the
two following: The one consists in surrounding the
amber with sand in an iron pot, and cementing it with
a gradual fire for forty hours, some small pieces placed
near the sides of  the vessel being  occasionally taken
nut  for judging of the effect of the operation: the se-
Lond  method, which he  says is that most generally
practised, is  by digesting and boiling the amber about
twenty .hours with rapeseed oil, by wliich it is rendered
both clear and hard.
  Werner has divided it  into two sub-species, the
white and the yellow :  but there is little advantage in
the distinction.  Its ultimate constituents are the same
w ith tliose of vegetable bodies in general; viz. carbon,
hydrogen, and oxygen.
  In the second volume of the Edinburgh Philosophi-
cal  Journal,  Dr. Brewster has given an  account of
some optical properties of amber, from which he con-
siders it established beyond a doubt that amber is an
indurated vegetable  juice;  and that the  traces of a
regular structure, indicated by its action upon polarized
light, are not the effect ofthe ordinary laws of crystal-
lization by which meUite has been formed, but are pro-
duced by the same causes which influence the mecha-
nical condition of gum-arabic, and other gums, which
are known to be formed by the successive  deposition
and  induration of vegetable  fluids."—Ure's Chem.
Diet.  See Oleum Succini, and Succinic Acid.
  [Amber has heretofore been chiefly obtained  from
the shores of the  Baltic in Prussia.  It  has however
been found in other countries.
  In the state of New-Jersey, on Crosswick's creek,
four miles from Trenton, it occurs in alluvial soil. The
amber is both yellow and whitish, and occurs in grains
or small  masses, seldom exceeding an inch in length.
ft rests on lignite or carbonated wood, or even pene-
trates it, and is sometimes connected with pyrites.
The  stratum of lignite, which contains the amber, rests
on a coarse, ferruginous sand, and  is covered by a soft
bluish clay, embracing masses of pyrites.  Above the
clay  is a bed  of sand.  Amber exists also near Wood-
bury, in  the same state, in large plates in a bed of marl;
also  at Camden, opposite Philadelphia, where a trans-
parent specimen, almobt white, and several inches in
diameter, has been found in a stratum of gravel.
  Most naturalists are induced to believe that amber is
a resinous juice, which once proceeded from certain
trees, but has since been gradually  mineralized in the
interior  of the earth.   It occurs  in masses, whose
weight usually varies from a fraction of an ounce to a
few  pounds;  and its largest masses, which are ex-
tremely rare, do not  much exceed 201hs.—Cleav.  Min.
  The largest  mass perhaps ever seen, was  recently
found between Memel and Koningsberg, measuring 14
inches in length,  by 9  1-4 in breadth, aud weighing
211bs.—Month. Mag. Oct. 1811.  A.]
  AMBER SEED.  See Hibiscus  abelmoschus.
  AMBERGRIS.  (Ambragrisea,  a. f.)  A concrete,
found  in very irregular masses, floating on the sea
near the Molucca islands, Madagascar, Sumatra, on
the coast of Coromandel, Brazil, America, China, and
Japan.   It has also been taken out ofthe intestines of
the Physeter macrocephalus, the spermaceti whale.
As it has not been found in any whales but such aa
are dead or sick, its production is generally supposed
to be owing to disease, though some have ft little too
peremptorily affirmed  it  to be the cause of the morbid
affection.   As no  large piece has ever been found
without a greater oi less quantity of the beaks of the
Sepia octopodia, the common food of the spermaceti
whale, interspersed throughout  its substance, there
can be little doubt of its originating in the intestines of
the whale;  for if it were occasionally swallowed by il
only, and then caused disease, it would be frequently
found without these, when il is met with floating or
thrown upon the shore.
  Ambergris  is  found of  various  sizes, generally in
small fragments, but  sometimes so large as lo weigh
near two hundred  pounds.  When  taken  from the
whale it is not so hard as it becomes afterward on ex
posure to the air.  Its specific gravity ranges from 780
to 926.  If  good, it adheres like  wax to the edge of a
knife with wliich it is scraped, retains the impression
ofthe teeth or nails, and emils a fat odoriferous liquid
on being penetrated with a hot needle.  Il is geneially
brittle ; but, on rubbing it with the nail, it  becomes
smooth like  hard  soap. Its colour is either  while,
black,  ash-coloured, yellow, or blackish ; or il is va-
riegated, namely, gray with black specks, or gray with
yellow specks.   Its smell is  peculiar, and not easy to
be counterfeited.  At 144° it melts, and at 212" is
volatilized  in the form of a white  vapour.   But, on a
red-hot coal, it burns, and is entirely dissipated.  Wa
ter has no action on it;  acids, except nitric, act feebly
on it;  alkalies  combine with it,  and form  a soap;
aether and the volatile oils dissolve it; so do the fixed
oils, and also ammonia, when assisted by heat; alko-
hol dissolves a  portion of it, and is of great use  in
analyzing it,  by separating its constituent parts.  Ac
cording to Boillon la Grange, who has given the latest
analysis of it, 3820 parts of ambergris consist of adipo-
cire 2016 parts, a resinous substance 1167, benzoic acid
425, and coal 212.  But Bucholtz could find no benzoic
acid in it.  Dr. Ire examined two different specimens
with considerable attention.  The one  yielded ben-
zoic acid, the other, equally genuine to all appearance.
afforded none.
   An alkoholic solution of ambergris, added  in minute
quantity to lavender water, tooth powder, hair pow-
der, wash  balls, Sec.  communicates its  peculiar fra-
grance.  Its  retail price being in London so high as a
guinea per oz. leads  to many adulterations.  These
consist of  various mixtures of benzoin,  laLdauum,
meal, ice. scented with musk.  The greasy appear-
ance and smell whicli heated ambergris exhibits, afford
good criteria, joined to  its solubility in hot aether aud
alkohol.
  It has occasionally been employed in medicine,  but
its use is mostly confined to the  perfumer.  Dr. Swe-
diaur took  thirty grains of it without perceiving any
sensible effect.   A sailor, who took half an  ounce of
il, found it  a good purgative.— L're's Chem. Diet.
  [Ambergris, which is a concretion from the intestines
of the spermaceti whale, also contains a considerable
portion of  fatty matter,  amounting in some specimens
to 60 percent.  It  is only found in the unhealthy ani-
mal.  Its chief constituent is a substance very analo-
gous to cholesterine, and to which Peltier and Caven-
tou have given the name of ambrctne.  By digestion in
nitric acid,  ambreine is converted into a peculiar acid
called the ambreic acid.   IVcbstcr's Manual of Chem.
Boston, 1828.  A.]
  The medical  qualities of ambergris are stomachic,
cordial, and antispasmodic.   It is very seldom used in
this country.
  AMBLO SIS.  (ApSXuiais  ; from apGXou, to taute
abortion.)  A miscarriage.
  Amblo'tica.  (ApBXiariKa; from apSXoio,  to cause
abortion.)  Medicines which were supposed to occa
sion abortion.
  AMBLYGONITE.  A  greenish-coloured  mineral
lhat occurs in granite,  along with green  topaz and
tourmaline, near Pinig,  in Saxony. It seems to be u
species of spodumine.              ,   ,       »>
  AMBLYOPIA.  (Amblyopia, a. f.;  from «u6Ao{
dull,  and  uUV,  the eye.)    Amblyosmus;  Amblyles
Hippocrates  means by this word, dimness  of sight to
which old  people are  subject.  Paulus Actuanus, and
the best modern writers, seem to think that amblyopia 
AME
A ME
 means the same thing as the incomplete amaurosis.
 See Amaurosis.
  Amblyo'smus.   See Amblyopia.
  Amblytes.  See Amblyopia.
  A'mbo.  An Indian name of the mango.
  A'mbon.  (From apBaivio, to ascend.)   Celsus uses
 thi* term to signify the margin or  tip of the sockets in
 which the heads ofthe large bones are lodged.
  A'mbone.  The same as ambe.
  A'MBRA.  Amber.  Also an aromatic gum.
  Ambra cineracea.  Ambergris and gray aniber.
  Ambra grisea.  Ambergris.
  A'mbram.  Amber.
   AMBREINE.   See Ambergris.
  Ambreic acid.  See Ambergris.  A.]
  Ambre'tte.  See Hibiscus abelmoschus.
  Ambulati'va.  (From ambulo,  to walk.)  A species
(if herpes;  so called because it walks or creeps, as it
 vere, about the body.
  AMBU'STIO.   (Ambustio, onis.  f.; from amburo,
to burn.)  See Burn.
  AMBUSTUM.   A burn or scald.
  Ame'lla.  The same as achmella.
  AMENORRHEA.  (Amenorrhea, a. f.;  from a,
priv.  pnv,  a  month, and fttu, to flow.)  A  partial
or total obstruction of the menses in women from other
causes than pregnancy and old  age.   The  menses
should be regular as to quantity and quality ; and that
this discharge should ohserve the monthly period, is
essential  to health.  When  it is obstructed,  nature
makes her efforts  to obtain for it some other outlet.
When these efforts of nature  fail, the consequence
may be, pyrexia, pulmonic diseases, spasmodic»affec-
tions,  hysteria, epilepsia, mania,  apoplexia, chlorosis,
according to the  general habit and disposition of the
patient.   Dr.  Cullen places  this genus  in the class
locales, and order  epischeses.   His  species  are, 1.
Emansio mensium; that  is, when the menses do not
appear so early as is usually expected.  See Chlorosis.
2. Suppressio mensium, when, after the  menses ap-
pearing and continuing as usual  for 6ome time, they
cease  without pregnancy occurring.  3. Amenorrhaa
difficilis,  vcl Menorrhagia difficilis, when this flux is
too small  in  quantity,  and  attended with  great
pain, &c.
  The causes of a suppression of the menses  appear
mostly to operate by inducing a constriction of the ex-
treme vessels; such as cold, fear,  and other depressing
passions, an indolent life, the abuse of acids, &c.  It
is sometimes symptomatic of other  diseases, in wliich
considerable debility occurs, as  phthisis  pulmonalis.
When the discharge has been some time interrupted,
particularly in  persons  previously healthy,  haemor-
rhages will often happen from other outlets, the nose,
stomach, lungs, &c. even in some instances a  periodi-
cal discharge of blood from an  ulcer has occurred.
The  patient  generally becomes  obstinately  costive,
often  dyspeptic; colicky pains, and various hysterical
symptoms likewise are apt to attend.  The means of
chief efficacy in restoring the uterine function are those
calculated to relax spasm, assisted sometimes  by such
as increase arterial action, particularly in protracted
cases.  The former will be employed with most pro-
bability of success, when symptoms of a menstrual
effort  appear.  They are, especially the hip-bath, fo-
mentations to the  hypogastrium,  sitting over a vessel
of hot water, so that the vapour may be applied to the
 pudenda; with antispasmodic medicines, as the com-
 pound galbunum pill, castor, &c. but especially opium.
 If the patient be plethoric, venisection should be pre-
 mised.  In cases of long standing, the object will be to
 bring  about a determination of  blood to the  uterus.
 This  may be accomplished by emmenagogucs, of whicli
 savine and canthan  are most  to be relied upon;
 though the latter wouia be improper, if hematuria had
 occurred.  Certain cathartics are also very usef m, par-
 ticularly aloes, which appear to  operate especially on
 the rectum, and  thus sympathetically influence the
 uterus.   Electric shocks passed through the hypogas-
 tric region, may likew ise contribute to the cure.
  In  cases of scanty and painful  menstruation, the
 means pointed out above as calculated to take off con-
 striction  of toe uterine vessels, should be resorted to;
 especially the hip-bath, and the free use of opium.
  Amentaue* plants.  Amentaceous plants.  A di-
 vision of plants   n  natural   arrangements of  bota-
 nists.
      50
   AMENTA'CEUS.  Having an amentum or catkin,
 as the willow, birch, beech, poplar, &c.
   AMENTIA.   (Amentia,  a.  f.;  from a, priv.  and
 mens,  the mind.)  Imbecility of intellect, by which the
 relations of things  are either  not  perceived, or not
 recollected.  A disease in the class neuroses, and order
 vesania of Cullen.  When it originates at birth,  it  is
 called  amentia congenita, natural stupidity; when from
 the infirmities of age, amentia senilis, dotage  or child-
 ishness ; and when from some accidental cause, amentia
 acquisita.
   AMENTUM.  (Derived from  its fancied resem
 blance to a cat's-tail, and by Festus, from  the Greek
 Aupa,  a bond or thong.)  Julus; Nucamenlum;  Ca-
 tulus.   Catkin.   A species of inflorescence, considered
 by some as a species of calyx.   It is a simple peduncle
 covered with numerous chaffy scales, under which are
 the flowers or parts of fructification.  The distinctions
 of catkins are into,
   1. Cylindrical: as in Corylus avellana; Beta alba;
 Alnus.
   2. Globose  as in  Fagus sylvatica ; Platanus orien-
 talis;  Urtica pilulifera.
   3. Ovate : as in the Female Pinus sylocstris.
   4. Filiform: seen in Fagus pumila and Castanea
 pumila.
   5. Attenuate, slender towards the end:  as in Fagus
 castanea.
   6. Thick: in Juglans rcgia.
   7. Imbrecatc, scaly, as in Juniperus communis,  and
 Salix fusca.
   8. Paleaceous, chaffy: as in Pinus sylvestris.
   9. Naked: the scales being so smaller wanting,  that
 the parts of fructification  appear naked, as in Excoc-
 caria.
   American balsam.  See  Myroxylum Peruiferum.
   [American centaury.  This is the Chironia angu-
 lans of Linnaeus.  It is a  native of damp,  rich soils,
 in the  middle and southern parts of  the United States,
 where it is commonly known by the name of centaury.
 Every  part of the plant is a pure, strong bitter,  and
 communicates its qualities to both water and  alkohol.
 It appears to be a remedy in considerable  use at the
 south  for intermittent fever.   On the stomach  it exerts
 an invigorating  influence, and  promotes appetite  and
 digestion.  It may be given in powder, in doses of ten
 or twenty  grains, or in infusion, which  is the more
 common mode.—Bigelov's Sequel, &c.  A.]
   [American columbo.  This is the Frasera /fallen
 of Michaux.  It is a tall, rank, perennial  plant, grow-
 ing spontaneously in the southern and western parts
 of the United States.  It  is  the Swertia frazera of
 Smith, in Rees's Cyclopedia. The root, which is large
 and fleshy, has a considerable degree of bitterness, and
 when  cut in slices and dried, has some  resemblance to
 ihe  imported columbo.  Owing to its  comparative
 cheapness, it has been substituted  in druggists' shops
 for columbo, to which it is  incomparably  inferior in
 bitterness.   It is however an article of considerable
 tonic powers, and, when fresh, is said to be emeiic and
 cathartic.—Big. Seq.  A.]
   [American hellebore.  Veratrum viride.   The
 plant  bearing this name grows on wet  meadows, and
 on the  banks of brooks throughout the United States.
 It sends up a tuft of large plaited  leaves early in ths
 spring, and in June produces a panicle of green flowers
 It is often designated by the name of poke- root, though
 a very different  plant from the Phytolacca.
   Its properties resemble tliose ofthe Veratrum Album
 of Europe, to wliich plant it is  so r.Ioselv allied in ap-
 pearance, that many botanists  have considered them
 the same species.  The root has u bitter taste, accom-
 panied with acrimony, and leaves a permanent im-
 pression on the mouth and fauces.   It abounds with a
 resinous juice, which adheres closely to a knife  with
 which it ha; been cut.  This is taken  up bv alkohol,
 and precipitated by water. The decoction  lias an Lt-
 tensely bitter  taste, probably owing to an extractive
 principle.   The distiiied water has  a  sliehtly un-
 pleasant taste, without bitterness or pungency.  Ve-
 ratrine probably exists in  this root.
|   Like the white Hellebore, it is an acrid  emetic, and
 a powerful stimulant, followed by sedative effects
 From the sum  of my observations respecting it, I am
 satisfied that the root, when  not  impaired by  long
 keeping or exposure, is,  in sufficient  doses,  a strong
 emetic, commencing its operation  tardily, but conti- 
AMM                                           AMM
numg it in many instances for a long time;  in large
doses affecting the functions of the brain and  nervous
system, in a powerful  manner, producing giddiness,
impaired vision, prostration of strength, and  diminu-
tion of the vital powers.
  From three to six grains in  powder will commonly
occasion vomiting, the activity being in some  decree
proportionate to the freshness ofthe article. Dr. Ware
found, that doses somewhat larger  did not act with
undue violence, in the case of some alms-house pa-
tients. A wine,  prepared like that of white hellebore,
has produced relief  in gout and rheumatism, in doses
of less than a fluid drachm.—Big. Mat. Med.   A.]
  [American Senna.   Cassia Rlarilandica. This is a
tall plant, with yellow flowers, growing in most parts
of the United  States.   Its botanical affinity  to the
Cassia Senna, probably first led to a suspicion of its
cathartic powers.   Its leaves abound with resin, and
have also some  extractive and volatile matter.  An
ounce of the dried leaves, infused  in  water,  proves
cathartic, and the plant, being easy of acquisition, is
not unfrequently used  for this purpose by  country
practitioners.—Big. Sea.  A.]
  America'num  tuberosum.   The  potatoc.   See
Solanum toberosum.
  Ametuy'sta piiarmaca.  (From  a, neg. and pcOv,
wine.)  Medicines which were said either to prevent
»r remove the effects of wine.—Galen.
  AMETHY'STUS. (From a, neg. arid/i£0eo7et.>, to be
inebriated: so called, because in former times, accord-
ing to Plutarch, it was thought to prevent drunkenness,
—Ruland. in Lex. Chem.)  The  amethyst. " A  gem
of a violet colour, and great brilliancy, said  to be as
hard as the ruby or sapphire, from which it only differs
in colour.   This is called the oriental amethyst, and is
very  rare.  When it  inclines  to the  purple or  rosy
colour, it is more esteemed than when  it is nearer to
the blue.  These amethysts  have  the same  figure,
hardness, specific gravity, and other qualities, as the
best sapphires  or rubies,  and come from the same
places, particularly from Persia, Arabia, Armenia, and
the West Indies.  The occidental amethysts are merely
coloured crystals or quartz."
  AMIANTHUS.  See Asbestos.
  Ami'culum.   A little short cloak.  It is the same as
the amnios, but anciently meant a covering  for the
pukes of boys, when they exercised in the gymnasium.
—Rhodius.
  AMIDLNE.  A  substance  produced, according  to
Saussure, when we abandon  the  paste of starch to
itself, at the ordinary temperature, with or without the
contact of air.
  A'midum.  See Amylum.
  Amin^'um.   A wine produced in Aminaea, formerly
a  province of  Italy;  called also Salcrnum.   Also  a
strong wine vinegar. Galen mentions Atninaum Nca-
politanunt, and Aminaum Siculum.
  A'MMI.  (Ammium,  i. n. Appi; from apuos, sand,
from its likeness to little gravel-stones.)   1. The name
of a genus of plants in the Linnean system.
  2. The pharmacopceial name of the herb  bishop's
weed, of which there are two sorts.  See Sison ammi
and ammi ma jus.
  Ammi majus.  The systematic name  for the ammi
vulgare of the shops.  The seeds of this plant, Ammi—
foliis inferioribus pinnatis, lanceolatis serratis  ; supe-
rioribus, multifidis, linearibus, of Linnaeus; are less
powerful than  those of the  Sison  ammi, but were
exhibited with the same views.
  Ammi ve'rum. Sec  Sison Ammi.
  Ammi vuloarb.  See Ammi majus.
  Ammion.  Ammium.  Cinnabar.
  Ammocho'sia. (From  appos, sand,  and xCb>> t0
pour.) A remedy for drying the body by sprinkling it
with hot sand.— Oribasius.
  •AMMO'NIA.  (Ammonia, a. f; so called because it
is obtained from sal ammoniac,  which received its
name from being dug out of the earth nenr the  temple
of Jupiter Ammon.) Ammonia  gas.  The substance
so called is an aeriform or alkaline air.   "There is a
saline body, formerly brought from Egypt, where it
was separated from soot by sublimation, but which is
now made abundantly in Europe, called  sal ammo-
niac.  From  this salt  pure ammonia can be readilv
obtained  by  the following process; Mix unslacked
quicklime with  its own weight of sal ammoniac, each
in fine powder and introduce them into a glass retort.
Join to the beak of the retort, by a collar of caoiit
chouc, (a neck of an Indian rubber bottle answers
well,) a glass tube  about 18  inches long, containing
pieces of ignited muriate of lime.  This lube should
lie in a horizontal position, and its free end, previously
bent obliquely by the blowpipe,  should dip into dry
mercury  In  a pneumatic  trough.  A  slip of porous
paper, as an additional  precaution, may be tied round
the tube,  and kept moist with aether.  If a gentle heat
from a charcoal chaffer or lamp be now applied to the
bottom of the retort, a  gaseous  body  will bubble  up
Ihiough the mercury.  Fill a little glass tube, sealed at
one end,  with the gas, and transfer it,  closely stopped
at the other end, into a basin containing water.  If the
water rise instantly and fill the whole tube, the gas is
pure, and may be received for examination.
  Ammonia  is a  transparent, colourless, and conse-
quently invisible gas,  possessed of etasticity, and the
other mechanical  properties of the atmospherical air
Its specific gravity is an important datum in chemical
researches, aud has been  rather  differently slated.
Now as no aCriform body is more easily obtained iu a
pure state than ammonia, this diversity, unong accu-
rate experimentalists, shows the nicety of this statical
operation.  Biot and Arago make  it = 0.59669 by ex-
periment, and by  calculation from  its elementary
gases, they make it = 0.59438. Kirwan says that 100
cubic inches weigh 18.16 gr. at 30 inches of bar. and
61° F., which compared to air reckoned 30.519, gives
0.59540.  Sir II. Davy determines  its density to be
= 0.590, with which estimate the  theoretic calculations
of Dr. Prout, in the sixth volume  ofthe Annals of Phi-
losophy,  agree.
  This gas  has an exceedingly  pungent smell, well
known by the old name of spirits of  hartshorn.   An
animal plunged into it speedily dies.   It extinguishes
combustion, but being itself to a certain degree com-
bustible,  the flame of a taper immersed  in it is enlarged
before going out.   It has a very acrid taste.   Water
condenses it very  rapidly.
   Water is capable of dissolving easily about one-third
of its weight of ammoniacal gas, or 400 times its bulk.
Hence, when placed in contact with a  tube filled with
this gas, water rushes into it with explosive velocity.
   Ammoniacal gas, perfectly dry,  when  mixed with
oxygen, explodes  with the  electric spark, and is con-
verted into water and  nitrogen, as has  been shown in
an ingenious paper by Dr. Henry.   But the simplest,
and perhaps most accurate mode of resolving ammo-
nia into  its elementary constituents, is  that first prac-
tised by Berthollet, the celebrated discoverer of its
composition.  This consists in making the  pure  gas
traverse  very slowly an ignited  porcelain tube of  a
small diameter.
   The alkaline nature of ammonia is demonstrated,
not only  by its neutralizing acidity, and changing  the
vegetable reds to purple or green, but also by its being
attracted to the negative pole of a voltaic arrangement.
When a pretty strong electric  power is applied to
ammonia in its liquid or solid  combinations, simple
decomposition is effected; but in contact with mercury,
very mysterious  phenomena occur.  If a globule ol
mercury be  surrounded with  a little water of ammo-
nia, or placed in a little cavity in a piece of sal ammo-
niac, and then subjected to the voltaic power by two
wires, the negative touching the mercury, and  the
positive  the  ammoniacal compound,  the globule is
instantly covered  with a  circulating  film,  a white
smoke rises from  it, and its volume enlarges, while it
shoots out ramifications of a semi-solid consistence
over the salt.  The amalgam has  the  consistence of
soft butter, and may be cut with  a  knife.  "Whenever
the  electrization  is suspended,  the crab-like fibres
retract towards the central mass, which  soon, by the
constant formation of white saline films, resumes its
pristine globular shape and size.  The enlargement of
volume seems to amount occasionally lo ten times tiiat
of the mercury, when a small globule is employed.
Sir H. Davy, Bcrzelius, and Gay Lussac and Thenard,
have studied this singular  phenomenon with grcal
care. They  produced the very same substance  by
putting an amalgam of mercury and potassium into the
moistened cupel of sal  ammoniac.  It  becomes live or
six times larger,  assumes the consistence of butter,
wniie it retains its metallic lustre.
  What  takes place  in these experiments?  In  ihe
second case, the substance of metallic aspect which we
                                         57 
AAM
AA1M
obtain is an ammoniacal hydruretof mercury and po-
tassium.  There is formed, besides, muriate of potassa.
Consequently a  portion of the potassium of the amal-
gam decomposes the water, becomes potassa, which
itself decomposes the muriate of ammonia.  Thence
result hydrogen and ammonia, which, in the nascent
state, unite to the  undecomposed amalgam.  In the
first experiment, the  substance  which, as  in  the
second, presents  the metallic aspect, is only an ammo-
niacal hydruretof mercury;  its formation is accom-
panied by the perceptible evolution of a certain quan-
tity of chlorine  at  the positive pole.  It is  obvious,
therefore, that the salt is decomposed  by the electricity.
The hydrogen of the muriatic acid, and the ammonia,
both combine with the mercury.
  Ammonia  is  not affected  by a  cherry-red heat.
According to Guyton de Morveau, it becomes a liquid
at about 40°—0", or at 0" the freezing poiut of  mer-
cury ; but it is uncertain whether  the appearances he
observed may not  have been owing to hygrometric
water, as happens  with chlorine gas.  The  ammo-
niacal liquid loses its pungent smell as its temperature
sinks, till at—50° it gelatinizes, if suddenly cooled; but
if slowly cooled it crystallizes.
  Oxygen, by means of electricity, or a mere red heat,
resolves  ammonia  into water and nitrogen.  When
there is a considerable excess of oxygen, it acidifies a
portion  of the  nitrogen into  nitrous acid,  whence
many fallacies in analysis have arisen.  Chlorine and
ammonia exercise so powerful an action on each other,
that when mixed suddenly, a sheet of white flame per-
vades them.  The  simplest way of making  this tine
experiment, is to invert a matress, with a wide mouth
and conical neck, over another with a taper neck, con-
taining a mixture of sal ammoniac and lime, heated by
a lamp.  As soon as the upper vessel seems to be full
of ammonia, by the overflow of the pungent gas, it is
to be cautiously lifted  up, and inserted, in a perpen-
dicular direction, into a wide-mouthed glass  decanter
or flask, filled with chlorine.  On seizing the  two ves-
sels  thus joined with  the  two  hands covered with
gloves, and suddenly inverting them, like a sand-glass,
the heavy chlorine and light ammonia,  rushing  in
opposite directions, unite, with the evolution of flame.
As one volume of ammonia contains, in a condensed
state, one and a half of hydrogen, wliich requires for
its saturation just one and a half of chlorine, this quan-
tity should resolve the  mixture into muriatic  acid and
nitrogen, and thereby give a ready analysis of the alka-
line  gas.  If the proportion of chlorine be  less,  sal
ammoniac and nitrogen are  the  results.  The same
thing happens on  mixing the aqueous  solutions  of
ammonia and chlorine.  But if large bubbles of chlo-
rine be  let up in  ammoniacal water of moderate
strength, luminous streaks are seen in the dark to per-
vade the liquid, and the same reciprocal change of the
Ingredients is effected.
  Gay Lussac and Thcnard state, that when 3 parts of
ammoniacal gas and 1 of chlorine are mixed together,
they condense into sal  ammoniac, and azote, equal to
1-10 the whole volume, is given out.
  Iodine  has an  analogous  action  on  ammonia;
(seizing a portion of its hydrogen to form hydriodic acid,
whence hydriodate of ammonia results; while another
portion of iodine unites with the liberated  nitrogen to
form the explosive pulverulent iodine.
  Cyanogen and ammoniacal gas begin to act  upon
each oilier whenever they come into contact, but some
hours are requisite to render the effect complete.  They
unite in  the proportion nearly of 1 to 1 1-2, forming a
compound which gives  a dark orange-brown colour to
water, but dissolves in only  a very small  quantity of
water.  The solution does not produce prussian blue
with the salts of iron.
  By transmitting  ammoniacal  gas  through  charcoal
Ignited in a tube, prussic or hydrocyanic acid is formed.
  The action of the alkaline metals on gaseous ammo-
nia, is very curious.  When potassium is fused in that
gas, a very fusible olive-green substance, consisting of
potaseium, nitrogen, and ammonia is  formed; and a
volume of hydrogen remains exactly  equal  to what
would result from the action on water of the quantity
of potassium employed.  Hence, according to Thenard,
the ammonia is divided into two portions.  One  is
decomposed, so  that its nitrogen combines with the
potassium,  and  Its hydrogen remains free, while the
other is absorbed in whole or in part by the nitroguret
       58
of potassium.   Sodium acts in the tame manner.  "Tin
olive substance is opaque, and it is only when in plate*
of extreme thinness that it appears seinitranspai cut; it
has  nothing of the metallic appearance; il is ia-av ier
than water; and, on minute inspection, seems imper
fectly crystallized.   When it is exposed to a heat pro-
gressively increased, it melte, disengages ammonia, and
hydrogen, and nitrogen, in the proportions constituting
ammonia; then it  becomes solid, still preserving its
green colour, and  is converted  iuto  a nitroguret of
potassium or sodium.  Exposed to the air at  the ordl
nary temperature, it attracts only its humidity, but not
its oxygen, and  is slowly transformed into ammoniacal
gas,  and  potassa or soda.  It burns vividly when  pro-
jected into a hot crucible, or when heated  in a vessel
containing oxygen.   Water and  acids produce  also
sudden decomposition, with the extrication  of heat.
Alkalies or alkaline salts are produced.  Alkohol like
wise decomposes it with  sjinilar results.  The  pre-
ceding description of the compound of ammonia with
potassium, as prepared by Gay Lussac and TUenard,
was  controverted by Sir H. Davy.
  The experiments of this accurate chemist led to the
conclusion, that the presence of moisture had modified
their results. In proportion as more precautions are
taken to keep every tiling absolutely dry', so in propor-
tion  is less ammonia regenerated.   He seldom obtained
as much as 1-10 of the quantity absorbed;  and he
never could procure hydrogen and nitrogen in the pro-
portions constituting ammonia; there was always an
excess of nitrogen.   The  following  experiment was
conducted with the utmost nicety. 31-2 gr. of potas-
sium were heated in 12 cubic inches of ammoniacal
gas; 7.5 were absorbed, and 3.2 of hydrogen evolved.
On distilling the olivc-ccloured solid in a lube of plati-
na, 9 cubical inches of gas were given off, and half a
cubical inch remained in the tube and adapters.  Of
the nine cubical inches, one-fifth of a cubical inch only
was ammonia; 10 mcasuies of  the  permanent gas
mixed with 7.5 of oxygen, and  acted upon  by the
electrical spark, left a residuum of 7.5.  He infers that
the results of the analysis of ammonia, by electricity
and  potassium, are the same.
  On the whole we may legitimately infer, that there
is something yet unexplained in these phenomena.
The potassium separates from ammonia as much hy-
drogen, as an equal weight of it  would from water
If two volumes of hydrogen be thus detached from the
alkaline  gas, the remaining volume, with  the volume
of nitrogen, will be left to combine with the potassium,
forming  a triple compound, somewhat analogous to
the cyanides, a compound capable of condensing am-
monia.
  When ammoniacal  gas is transmitted over  ignited
wires of iron,  copper, platina, &c. it is decomposed
completely, and though the metals are not increased in
weight, they have become extremely brittle.   Iron, at
the same temperature, decomposes the ammonia, with
double the  rapidity that platinum does.   Al a high
temperature, Die protoxyde of nitrogen  decomposes
ammonia.
 _ Of the ordinary metals, zinc is  the only one which
liquid ammonia oxydizes and then dissolves.  But it
acts  on many of the metallic oxydes.  At a high tem-
perature the gas deoxydizes  all those which are re-
ducible by hydrogen.  The oxydes soluble in liquid
ammonia, are the oxyde of ziuc; the protoxyde and
peroxyde of copper; the oxyde of silver; the third and
fourth oxydes of antimony ; the oxyde of tellurium ;
the protoxides of nickel, cobalt, and iron the peroxyde
of tin, mercury, gold,  and platinum.  The first five
are very soluble, the rest less so.  These combinations
can  be obtained by evaporation, in the dry state, only
with copper, antimony, mercury,  gold, platinum, and
silver; the four last of which  are  very remarkable for
their detonating property.   See the  particular metals.
  All the acids  are susceptible of combining with am-
monia, and they almost all form with it neutral com-
pounds.  Gay  Lussac made the important discovery,
that whenever the acid is gaseous, its combination
with ammoniacal gas takes place  iu a simple ratio of
determinate volumes, whether a neutral or a subsall
be formed.
  Ammoniacal salts have the following general cha
racters:—
  1st, When treated with a  caustic  fixed alkali aj
earth, they cxha'e ihe peculiar smell ol" ammonia 
A MM
AMN
  2d, They are generally soluble in water, and crys-
tallizable.
  3d,  They are all decomposed at a  moderate  red
neat;  and if the  acid  be fixed, as the  phosphoric or
boracic, the ammonia comes away pure.
  4th, When they are dropped into a solution of mu-
riate of platina, a  yellow  precipitate  falls."—Cre's
Chem. Diet.
  The preparations of ammonia in use are,
  1. Liquor ammonite.  See Ammonia liquor.
  2. The sub-carbonate of ammonia.  See Ammonia
subcarbonas, and  ammonia subcarbonatis liquor.
  3. The acetate of ammonia.  See Ammonia acetatis  I
liquor.
  4. The muriate  of ammonia.  See Sal ammoniac.
  5. Ferrum ammoniaium.
  6. Several tinctures and spirits, holding ammonia in
volution.
  Ammonia, argentate of.   Fulminating silver.
  Ammonia acetata.  See Liquor ammonia acetatis.
  Ammonia  muriata. See Sal ammoniac.
  Ammonia pRiEParata.  See Ammonia subcarbonas.
  Ammoniac,  sal.  See Sat Ammoniac.
  AMMONI'ACUM.   (AppoviaKov;  so called from
Ammonia, whence it was brought.)  Gum-ammoniac.
A concrete gummy resinous juice, composed of  little
lumps, or tears, of a s'rong  and somewhat ungrateful
smell, and nauseous  taste,  followed by a bitterness.
There has, hitherto, been no information had concern-
ing the plant wliich affords  this drug ; but Wildeiiow
considers it to be the Heracltum gummiferum, having
raised that plant from the seeds, which are sometimes
found in the drug. It  is imported here from Turkey,
and from the  East Indies.   It consists, according to
Braconnot, of 70 resin, 18.4 gum. 4.4 glutinous matter,
6 water, and 1.2 loss in 100"parts.  Gum aimiioniacum
is principally employed as an expectorant, and is fre-
quently prescribed in asthma and chronic catarrh.  Its
dose is from 10 to  30 grains.  Il is given in the form of
pill or diffused in water, and is frequently combined
with squill, or tartarized antimony.  In large doses it
proves purgative.   Externally, il is applied as a discu-
tient, under the form of plaster, lo white swellings of
the knee, and  to indolent tumours.   The officinal pre-
parations are ammoniacum purificatum.  Emplastrum
Bmmoiiiaci; Empl. aminoniaci cum hydrargyro; Mis-
tura aminoniaci.
  Ammoni* acetatis liquor. A solution of ace-
tate of ammonia; formerly  called Aqua ammonia ace-
tata. Takeofsub-carbonateof ammonia, two ounces;
dilute acetic acid, four pints.  Add the acid 10 the salt,
until  bubbles  of  gas shall  no longer arise, and mix.
The effervescence is occasioned by the escape of car-
bonic acid gas, which the acetic acid expels, and neu-
tralizes the ammonia.
  If the acid rather  predominate, the solution is more
grateful to the taste : and provided that acid be cor-
rectly prepared, the proportions here given  will be
found sufficient;  where the  acid cannot be depended
on, it will be right to be regulated rather by the cessa-
tion of effervescence than by quantity.
  This preparation was formerly known in the shops
under the name of spirit of Mindererus.   When assist-
ed by a warm regimen, it proves an excellent and pow-
erful sudorific ; and, as it operates without quickening
the circulation, or increasing the heat of the body,  it is
admissible in  febrile  and inflammatory diseases, in
which the use  of  stimulating sudorifics  are attended
with danger.   Its  action  may likewise be determined
to the kidneys, by walking about in the cool air.  The
common  dose is  half  an ounce, either by itself, or
along with other medicines, adapted to  the same in-
tention.
  Ammoni.e carbonas.  See Ammonia  subcarbonas.
  Ammonia liquor.  Liquor of Ammonia.   Take of
muriate of  ammonia eight  ounces; lime newly pre-
pared, six ounces; water, four pints.  Pour on the lime
a pint of the water, then cover the vessel, and set them
by for an  hour; then  add the muriate of ammonia,
and the remaining water  previously made boiling hot,
and cover the vessel again; strain the liquor when it
has cooled;  then  distil from it twelve fluid ounces of
the solution of ammonia  into a receiver cooled to the
temperature  of 50°.  The specific gravity of this solu-
tion shoum  be to that of distilled water, as 4.960 to
1000.
  Lii.c is capable of decomposing muriate of ammo-
 nia at a temperature much below that of boiling wa
 ter; so that when the materials are mixed, a solution
 of ammonia and of muriate of lime is obtained.  Thif
 being submitted to distillation, tht ammonia pas.-en
 over with a certain  portion of ihe water, leaving be-
 hind the muriate of lime dissolved  in the rest.  The
 proportion of" water directed seems, however, unneces-
 sarily great, which obliges the operator to employ largei
 vessels than would otherwise suffice.   But the process
 now directed is certainly much easier, more economi-
 cal, and more  uniform in its results,  than  that of
 former pharmacopoeias.
1   This preparation is colourless and transparent  with
 a strong peculiar smell;  it parts with the ammonia in
 the form of gas, il"  heated to 130 degrees, and requires
 to be kept, with a cautious exclusion of atmospherical
 air, with the carbonic acid of  which il readily  unites
 on  this Inner account,  the propriety of keeping  it in
 small bottles  instead of a large one, has  been  sug-
 gested.
   This is the aqua  ammonia pura of the shops, am
 the alcali volatile eaisticum.
   Water of ammonia is very rarely given  internally,
 although it may be used in doses of tenor twenty drops,
 largely diluted,  as  a powerful stimulant in asphyxia
 and similar diseases.  Externally it is applied to the
 skin as a  rubefacient, and in the form of  gas to the
 nostrils, and to the eyes as a stimulant: in casts of
 torpor, paralysis, rheumatism, syncope,  hysteria, and
 chronic ophthalmia.
   Ammonia- murias.  See Sal ammoniaca.
   Ammom* nitras.  Alcali volatile nitratum; Sal
 ammomacus  nitrosus;  Ammonia  nitrata.   A sail
 composed of the nitric acid and ammonia, the virtues
 of which are internally diuretic and deobstruent, and
 externally resolvent and sialogogue.
   Ammonia subcarbonas.  Subcarbonate of ammo-
 nia. This  preparation was formerly called ammonia
 praparaia, and sal colalilis sails ammoninei, and sal
 volatilis.  It is  made thus -.—Take of nun hue of am-
 monia, a pound: of prepared chalk, drie.d, a pound
 and a half.   Reduce  them  separately lo powder ;
 then mix them together, and sublime in a heat gra-
 dually raised, till Ihe retort becomes red. In this pre-
 paration a double decomposition lakes place, the car-
 bonic acid ofthe chalk uniting with the ammonia, and
 forming subcarbonate of ammonia, which is volatilized
 while muriate offline remains in the vessel.
   This salt possesses nervine and stimulating powers,
 and is highly beneficial in the dose of" from  two to
 eight grains, in nervous affections, debilities, flatulency,
 and acidity from dyspepsia.
   Am.moni.b subcarbonatis liquor.   Liquor am-
 monia  carbonatis.   Solution of subcarbonate  of am
 monia.  Take  of  subcarbonate of ammonia, loui
 ounces; distilled water  a pint.  Dissolve the subcar
 Donate of ammonia in the water, and filter the solution
 through paper.  This preparation possesses the pro-
 perties of ammonia in  its action on the human body
 See Ammonia subcarbonas.
   Ammonicated copper, liquor of.   See Cvpri ammo
 niati liquor.
   Ammo'nion.   (From afifios,sand.)   ASiius uses this
 term lo denote  a collyrium of great virtue in many
 diseases ofthe eye, which was said to remove sand or
 gravel from the eyes.
   AMMONITES.   Petrifactions, which have  like-
 wise been distinguished by the name of cornua ammo-
 nis, and are called snake-stones by the vulgar,  consist
 chiefly of  lime-stone.  They are  found of all sizes,
 from the breadth of half an inch to more than two feet
 in diameter; some of them  rounded, others greatly
 compressed, and lodged in different strata of stones
 and clays.   They appear to owe their origin to shells
 ofthe nautilus kind.
   AMMO'NIU.M.   Berzelius first gave this name to a
 supposed metal which with oxygen he conceives to
 form the alkali  called ammonia.  It is now generally
 used by all chemists. See Ammonia.
   AMNE'SIA.  (From  a, priv. and uvnois,  memory.)
 Amnestia.  Forgetfulness;  mostly a  symptomatic
 affection.
   Amne'stia.   See Amnesia.
   AMNIOS.   (From apvos, a lamb, or lamb's skm.)
 Amnion.  The  soft  internal  membrane which  sur-
 rounds the foetus.  It is very thin and pellucid  in Ihe
 early stage of pregnancy, but acquires considerable 
AMP
AMY
thickness and strength in the latter months.  The am-
nios contains a thin watery fluid, in which the foetus
is suspended.  See Liquor amnii.
  AMNIOTIC.  (Amnioticus; from amnios: so called
because it is obtained from the membrane of that
name.)  Of or belonging to the amnios.
  Amniotic acid.  Acidum amnioticum.  A peculiar
acid found in the liquor ofthe amnios of Ihe cow.  It
exists in the form of" a white pulverulent powder.  It
is slightly acid to the taste, but sensibly reddens vege-
table blues.  It is with difficulty soluble in  cold, but
readily soluble in boiling water,  and in alkohol.
When exposed to a strong heat, it exhales an odour of
ammonia and of prussic acid.  Assisted by heat, it de-
composes carbonate of potassa,  soda, and  ammonia.
It produces no change in  the solutions of silver, lead,
or mercury, in nitric acid.  Amniotic acid may be ob-
tained by evaporating the liquor of the  amnios of the
cow to a fourth part, and suffering it to cool; crystals
of amniotic acid will be obtained in considerable quan-
tity.  Whether this acid exists in the liquor of the am-
nios of other animals, is not yet known.
  AMO'MUM.   (Amomum, i. n.;  from an Arabian
word, signifying  a  pigeon, the foot  of  wliich  it was
thought to resemble.)  The name of a genus of plants
iu the Linnoean system.   Class  Monanaria; Order,
Monogynia.
  Amomum  cardamomum.  The former systematic
name for  the  cardamomum minus.   See Elcttaria
cardamomum.
  Amomum granum paradisi.   The systematic name
of Ihe plant whicli affords the grains of paradise.   Car-
damomum  majus; Meleguctta;  Mamguetta; Carda-
momum  piperatium.   Grains  of  paradise, or  the
greater cardamom seeds, are contained  in a  large
brown, somewhat triangular flask,  the thickness of
one's thumb, and pyramidal.  The seeds are angular,
and of a reddish  brown colour,  smaller than pepper,
and resemble very much the seeds ofthe cardamomum
minus.  They are extremely hot, and similar in virtue
to pepper.
  Amomum verum.  Truestone parsley. The fruit is
about the size of  a grape, of a strong and grateful aro-
matic taste, and  penetrating smell.  The seeds have
Deen given as a carminative.
  Amomum zingiber.  The former systematic name
of the plant which affords ginger. See Zingiber offici-
nale.
  Amo'rge.  See Amurca.
  AMPELITE.  The aluminous ampelite, is the alum
slate; and the graphic, the graphic slate.
  AMPELOSA'GRIA.   (From  ap-eXos, a  vine, and
•ypiof, wild.)  See Bryonia alba.
  AMPHEMERI'NA. See Amphemcrinos.
  AMPHEMERI'NOS.  (Fom apibi, about and nptpa,
a day.)  Amphemerina.   A fever of one  day's du-
ration.
  AMPHIARTHRO'SIS.  ApcHapBpioats;  from apd>t,
both, and apflpcurrt?, an articulation:  so  called from
its partaking both of diarthrosis and synarthrosis.)  A
mixed species of connexion of bones, which admits of
an  obscure morion, as is  observed in the metacarpal
and metatarsal bones, and the vertebrae.
  AMPHIBIUM.  (From apipi,  ambo, and (3tos, vita.)
An amphibious animal, or one that lives both on land
and in the water. The amphibious animals, according
to  Linnaeus, are a class, the heart of which  is fur-
nished wiih one ventricle and  one auricle, in wliich
respiration is in  a considerable degree voluntary.
  AMPHIBLESTROl'DES.   (From ap<pt6Xcs-pov,  a
 t.et, and ei&os, a resemblance.)  Reteform or net-like;
 a term which has been applied to the retina.
  Amphibolc.  Some species of actionize and horn-
 blende have this name.
  [This is the name given by Hady, to a mineral, the
 synonyms of which are :—
            Tremolith of Werner,
            LaTremolithe of Brochant,
             Grammatite of Brogniart,
            Trcmolite of Cleaveland.  A.]
    iMrmBOMTKS.  Trap rocks are so called in gco-
  ogy, the basis of which is hornblende.
   AMPHIBRA'NCHIA.   (From  apcbi,  about, and
 Bpavxia,  the jaws.) The fauces or parts about  the
 lonsi'ls, according to Hippocrates and loesius.
   Amphicau'stis.   (From ap<p:, about, and Kavs-is,
 ripe corn.)    A sort of wild barley.
       CO
  2. Eustachius says, it was also  to express the  pn
vate parts of a woman.
  AMPH1DEON.  (From  aud)i, on lioth sides,  and
lain), to divide.)  Amphidaum ; Amphidium. The 03
tincae, or mouth of the womb, which opens both way»,
was so cai'ed by the ancients.
  AMPHiDIARTHRO SIS.  The  same as Amphiar-
throsis.
  Amfhigene.  A name of vesuvian.
  [This name is given by Hauy lo that crystalline sub-
stance, frequently found among volcanic productions,
and whicli  other  mineralogists  have  called  Leu-
cite.  A.]
  AMPIHMERI'NA.  (From apipt, about, and >ipcpa,
a day.^  A fever of one day's continuance.
  AMi'HIME'TRION.  (From apcbi, about,  and  prr-
rpa, the womb.)  Amphimetrium.   The  parts about
the womb.  Hippocrates.
  A'mpiiiplex.  (From audi, about,  and zzXcktio- to
connect.)  According to Rufus Ephcsius,  the  part
situated between the scrotum and anus, and which is
connected  with the thighs.
  Amphipneuma.   (From  apqii, about,  and  avtvpa,
breath.)  A difficulty of breathing.—Hippocrates.
  AMPHI'POLIS.   (From apibi, about, and zzoXeui, to
attend.)  Amphipolus.  One who attends the bed of a
sick person, and administers to him.—Hippocrates.
  Amphismi'la.   (From  apipi,  on both  sid'S,  and
opiXrj, an incision-knife.)  A dissecting knife, with an
edge on both sides.   Galen.
  AMPLECTENS.  Embracing, clasping.
  AMPLEXICAULIS.   (From  umplector,  to  sur
round,  and caulis, a stem.)  Embracing  or clasping
the stem.  Folium amplexicaulc is  a leaf, the base oi
which surrounds the stem, as in Papacer somniferum
and Carduus marianus; and the Scncsio hirsutus, ha»
a leafstalk which embraces the stem as its base.
  AMPULLA.  (ApSoXXa; from  uio&tXXui, to  swell
out.)  A bottle.
  1. All bellied vessels are  so called in  chemistry, af
bolt-heads, receivers, cucurbits, &c.
  2. In anatomy this term  is applied by Scarpa to the
dilated  portions of the membranaceous semicircular
canals, just within the vestibulum ofthe tar.
  3.  In botany;  it is  a small  membranaceous  bag
attached to the roots and the cmersed leaves of some
aquatic plants, rendering them buoyant.— Thompson.
  AMPULLE'SCEVS.  (From ampulla,  a bottle.)
The most tumid part of the thoracic duct is  called al-
veus ampullcscens.
  AMPUTATIO.  (From omputo, tocut off.)  Ectome.
Amputation; a surgical operation, which consists in
Ihe removal of a limb or viscus: thus we  say, a  leg,
a finger, the penis, &c. when cut off, are amputated;
but when speaking of a tumour or excrescence,  it is
said to be removed, or dissected out.
  A.MULE'TUM.   (From   appa, a bond;  because it
was tied  round  the person's neck;  or  rather from
uuvvto, to defend.'1   An amulet, or charm ; by wearing
which  the person was supposed to be defended  from
the admission of all evil:   in particular, an antidote
against the plague.
  Amu'rca.  (From apepyw, to press out)  Amorgc.
1. A  small  herb, whose expressed juice is used in
dying.
  2. The sediment of the olive, after the oil has been
prosed from it; recommended  by Hippocrates and
Galen as an application to ulcers.
   Amu'tua.  (From apvrfio, to scratch.)   Medicines
that, by vellicating or scratching, as it were, the bron
chia, stimulate it to the discharge of whatever is to
be thrown off the lungs.
   A'myche.  (From apvaau), to scratch.)
   1. A superficial laceration or exulceration of tbo
skin :  a slight wound.—Hippocrates.
   2. Scarification.—Galen.
   AMY GDALA.   (Amygdala, a. f.; A/u> caXi;; from
apvecio, to   lancinate:  so called, because  after the
green  husk  is removed from the fruit, there appea,"
upon  the shell certain  fissures, as it were  lace-
 rations.)
   1. The fruit called the  almond.  See  Amygdalis
 communis.
   2. The tonsil glands of the throat are sometimes
 termed, from their resemblance, Amygdala.
   Amvudalaamara. The bitter almond.   SecAmyg
 dalus  communis. 
AMY
ANA
   ■Amygdala dulcis. The sweet almond.  See Amyf-
 dolus communis.
   Amygdalae oleum.   See Amygdalus communis.
   AMYGDALOID.   (Amygdaloides;  from amygda-
 lus, an almond, and ti<5oj, resemblance.) Almond-like.
   1. A name given to some parts of the body and to
 parts of  vegetables  and minerals,  which  resemble
 almonds.
   2. A compound mineral consisting of spheroidal par-
 ticles or vesicles of lithomarge, green earth, calc spar,
 steatite imbedded in a  basis of fine-grained green-
 stone oi wacke, containing sometimes, also, crystals of
 hornblende.
   [Amygdaloid is a compound  rock, composed of a
 basis, in wliich are imbedded various simple minerals.
 But these imbedded  minerals are not crystals  aud
 grains, apparently of coiemporaneous origin with the
 basis itself, as in the case of porphyry. On the con-
 trary, their form, though sometimes irregular, is usually
 spheroidal or oval, like that of an almond ; and hence
 the  name of this rock, (from Amygdala, an almond.)
 —Clcav.  Min.   A.]
   AMY'GDALUS.  (Amygdalus, i. m.; from amyg-
 dala, the derivation of which  look to.)   The name of
 a genus of plants in the Linnaean system.  Class Ico-
 tandria ; Order, Monogynia.  The almond-lree.
   Amygdalus communis.  The systematic name of
 the  plant which affords the common almond.  Amyg-
 dalus—foliis serratis infimis glandulosis, fioribus w-
 silibus geminis of Linnaeus.
   The almond is a native of Barbary.  The same tree
 produces either bitter or sweet.  Sweet  almonds are
 more in use as food than medicine; but they are  said
 to be difficult of digestion, unless extremely  well com-
 minuted.  Their medicinal qualities depend upon the
 oil which they contain in the farinaceous matter, and
 which they afford on expression, nearly in the propor-
 tion of half their weight.  It is very similar to  olive
 oil; perhaps rather  purer, and  is used for the  same
 purposes. The oil thus obtained is more agreeable iu
 the palate than most of the other expressed oils, and is
 therefore preferred for internal use, being generally
 employed with a view to obtund acrid juices, and to
 soften and relax the solids, in tickling  coughs, hoarse-
 ness, costiveness, nephritic pains, &.c.  Externally, it
 is applied against tension and rigidity of  particular
 parts.   The milky solutions of almonds  in watery
 liquors, usually called  emulsions, possess, in a certain
 degree, the emollient qualities ofthe oil, and have this
 advantage over pure oil, that  they may be given in
 acute or inflammatory disorders, without danger ofthe
 •11 effects which  the oil  might sometimes produce by
 turning rancid.  The officinal preparations of almonds
 are the expressed oil, the confection, and (he emulsion ;
 to the latter, the addition of gum-arabic is sometimes
 directed, which renders it a  still more useful  demul-
 cent in catarrhal affections, stranguries, &.c.
   Bitter  almonds yield  a large quantity of oil,  per-
 fectly similar to that obtained from sweet almonds, but
 the matter remaining after the expression of the oil, is
 more powerfully bitter than  the almond in iu. entire
 state.   Greal part of the bitter matter dissolves by the
 assistance of heat, both in water and rectified spirit;
 and a  part arises also with both menstrua in distilla-
 tion.   Bitter almonds  have been long known to be
 poisonous to various brute animals; and some authors
 have alleged that they are also deleterious to the human
 species;  but the facts recorded upon this point appear
 to want  further  proof.  However, as  the  noxious
 quality seems to reside in that matter  which  gives it
 the bitterness  and flavour, it is very probable,  that
' when this is separated by distillation, and taken in a
 sufficiently concentrated state, it may  prove a poison
 to man,  as is the case  with the common  laurel, to
 which it appears extremely analogous.  Bergius tells
 us.  that bitter almonds, in the form of emulsion, cured
 obstinate iuterinittents, after the hark had failed.  A
 simple water is distilled from bitter almonds, after the
 oil is pressed out, which possesses the same qualities,
 and in the same  degree, as that drawn from  cherry-
 stones.  These afforded, formerly, the now-exploded
 aqua cerasorum nigrorum, or black cherry-water.
   Amygdalus persica.  The systematic name of the
 common  peach-tree.  The fruit is known to be grateful
 and wholesome, seldom disagreeing with the stomach,
 anlcss this organ is not in a  healthy state, or the fruit
 has been eeten to excess, when effects similar to those
of the  othrr  dulco-acid summer fruits may be pro-
duced.   The flowers, including  the calyx as .veil  an
the corolla, are ihe parts of the persica used  lor medi-
cinal purposes.   These have an agreeable  but weak
smell, and a bitterish taste.  Boulduc  observes, " tlint
when distilled,  without addition, by the heat of  a
water-balh, they yield one-sixth their weight, or more,
of a  whitish liquid, wliich communicates  lo a consi-
derable quantity of other liquids a tlawuir like that ol
the kernels of liuits.  These (lowers lune a cathartic
effect, and  especially to children, have  been success-
fully given in the character  of a vermifuge ; for  this
purpose, an infusion of a drachm of flowers dried; or
half an ounce in their recent state, is ihe requi?.lc dose.
The  leaves of the peach are also found to possess an-
thelmintic  power, and from a  great number oi  experi-
ments appear to have been given with  invariable suc-
cess  both to  children and adults.  However, as the
leaves and flowers of this plant manifest, in  some de-
gree, the quality of those of the laurocerasus, they
ought to be used with caution."
  A'myla.  (From  amylum, starch.)  This term has
been applied  to some chemical fiecula, or highly pul-
verized residuum.   Obsolete.
  Amy'leon.  Amylion.  Starch.
  AMYLUM.   (Amylum, i. n.  ApvXov;  from  o.
priv. and pvXrj, a mill; because it was formerly made
from wheat, without the assistance of a mill.)  Amy-
leon ; Anylion.  See Starch.
  AMY RIS.  (From a,  intensive, and pvpov, oint-
ment, or balm;  so called from its use, or smell.)  The
name of a genus of plants in the Liuiuean  system.
Class,  Octandria; Order,  Monogynia, of which  two
species are used in medicine.
  Amyris klemifera.  The systematic name of the
plant from which il is  supposed we obtain the retin
called gum-elemi.  The plant is described by Linnaeus:
Amyris :—foliis  ternis quinato pimiatisquc  subtus lo-
mentosis.  Elemi is brought here from the Spanisr
West Indies: it  is most esteemed when sottish, some-
what transparent, of a pale whitish colour, inclining a
liltle to green, and of a strong, though not unpleasant
smell.   It is only used in ointments and plasters, and is
a powerful digestive.
   Amyris gileadensis.  The systematic name ofthe
plant from which the opobalsamum is obtained.  Il has
been called by a variety of names, as Balsamum genu-
inum antiquorum ; Balsamelaon ; JEgyptiacum balsa-
mum' Balsamum Asiaticum; Balsamum Judaicum,
Balsamum Syriacum; Balsamum c Mecca; Balsamum
Alpini:  Oleum  balsami;  Carpobalsamum; Xylobal-
samum.  Balsam, or halm of Gilead; Balsam of Mecca.
A resinous juice, obtained by making incisions into the
bark of the Amyris:—foliis lernatis  integcrrimis,
pedunculis uniflorislateralibusof'Linnaeus.  This tree
grows  spontaneously, particularly near to Mecca, on
the Asiatic side of the Red Sea.   The juice of the fruit
is termed carpobalsamum in the pharmacopoeias, and
that of the wood and branches xylobalsamum.  The
best sort is a spontaneous exudation from the tree, and
is held in so high estimation by the Turks, that it is
rarely, if ever, to be met with genuine  among us.  The
medicinal virtues of the genuine balsam of Gilead, have
been highly rated, undoubtedly with  much exaggera-
tion.  The common balsam of Mecca  is scarcely used;
but its qualities seem to be very similar to those of the
balsam of  Tolu, with perhaps more  acrimony.  The
dose is from 15 to 50 drops.
  A'myum.  (From a, priv. and pvs, muscle.)  A limb
so emaciated that the muscles scarcely appear.
  ANA.   In medical prescriptions  it  means  "of
each."  See A.
  Ana'basis.  (From avaSatvu), to ascend.)
  1.  An ascension, augmentation, or increase of a dis-
ease, or paroxysm.   It is  usually meant of fevers.-
Galcn.
  2.  A species ofthe equisetum, or horse-tail plant
  Anaba'tica.   (From avaSuivoi, to  ascend.)  An
epithet formerly applied to a  continual fever, when il
increases iu malignity.
  ANABE'XIS.  (From ava6nrru>, to cough up.)  An
expectoration of matter by coughing.
  ANABLE'PSIS.   (From  ava and (jXcrroi,  lo see
again.)  The recovery of sight after it has been lost.
  Anablysis.  (From  ava aud  /JXt^u, tu gush oir
a"ain.)  Ebullition or effervescence.
  Ana'bole.  (From avaSaXXu),  to  cast  up.)  Tht
                                         61 
ANiE
ANA
ftscharge  of  any thing  by vomit;  also dilatation, or
extension.—Galtn.
  Anabrochk'sis.  (From ava and (ipoxcoi, to reab-
sorb.)  The reabsorptiin of matter.
  Anabroohi'smos.  (From avaSpoxcii, to reabsorb.)
Anabrochismus.  The taking up and removing the hair
r»i  the  eyelids,  when  they become  troublesome.—
Galen, ./Kgineta, and others.
  ANABRO'SIS.  (From  evafiposKio, to devour.)  A
corrosion  of  the solid  parts, by sharp  and  biting
humours.—Galen.
  ANACA'RDIUM.  (From ava, without, and KaoSia,
a heart.)   Without heart; because the  pulp of' the
fruit, instead of having the  seed enclosed, as is usually
the case, has the nut growing out of the end of it.   The
nameof a genus of plants.  Class, Enneandria; Order,
Monogynia.
  Anaoardium occidentals.  The cashewnut.   The
oil of this  nut is an active caustic, and employed as
such in its native country:  but neither it, nor any part
of the fruit, is used medicinally in this country.   It is
a useful marking ink, as  any thing written on linen or
cotton with it, is of a brown colour, which gradually
grows blacker, and  is very durable.
  Anacardium orientals.  The Malaccabsan.  See
Amcrnnia  tomentosa.
  ANACATHA'RSIS.   (From ava, and  KaOatpopat,
to purge up.)  An expectoration of pus, or a purgation
by  spitting, contra-distinguished from  catharsis, or
evacuation downwards.  In this sense the  word is
used by Hippocrates and Galen.  Blanchard denotes,
by this  word, medicines which operate upwards, as
vomiting, &c.
  ANACATHA'RTIC.  (Anacatharticus; from ava-
KaQaipouat, to purge upwards.)  Promoting  expecto-
ration, or vomiting.
  Ana'uhron.  Mineral  alkali.
  ANA'CLASIS.  (1 roin avuicAaw,  to bend back.)  A
reflection or reenrvature of any of the members, accord-
ing to Hippocrates.
  ANA'CLISIS.   (From avaxXtva, to recline.)   A
couch, or sick-bed.—Hippocrates.
  Anuo'che.  (From avaKioxcio, to  retard.)  Delay
In the administration of medicines; also slowness in
Ihe progress of a disease.—Hippocrates.
  ANACCELIA'SMUS.  (From ava, and KoiXia, the
bowels.)  A gentle purge, which was  sometimes used
to relieve the lungs.
  Anacolle'ma.  (From ava, and KoXXaui, to glue
together.)   A  collyrium made of  agglutinam  sub-
stances, and stuck on the forehead.— Galen.
  Anaconcholi'smos.  (FromaraKoyxoA(<Jw,tosouiid
as a shell.)  A gargarism: so called, because the noise
made in the throat  is like the sound of a shell—Galen
  ANACTE'SIS.  (From  avaKraouat,  to recover.)
Restoration of strength;  recovery from  sickness.—-
Hippocrates.
  ANACUPHI'SMA.  (From avaKovibifr, to lift up.)
A kind  of exercise mentioned by Hippocrates, which
consists in lifting  the body up and down,  like  our
weigh jolt, and dumb bells.
  Anacyck'sis.   (From avarvKaio, to  mix.)   The
mixture of substances, or  medicines,  by pouring  one
upon another.
  ANACY (.'LEON.  (From  avaKVKXow,  to wander
about )  Anacycleus.  A mountebank, or wandering
quack.
  ANACYRI'OSIS.  (From ava, and auooc, autho-
rity.) By  '-his word, Hippocrates means that gravity
and authority which physicians should preserve among
jick people and their attendants.
  ANADII'LO'SIS.  (From  avaiivXoio,  to redupli-
cate.)  A reduplication or frequent return of a parox-
ysm, or  disease.— Galen.
  Ana'dosis.  (From  aval, upwards,  and Siiuipt, to
give.)  1-  A vomit.
  2. The distribution of aliment all over the body.
  3. Digestion.
  Ana'drome.   (From a ceo, upwards, and Sptpio, to
run.) A pain which runs  from the lower extremities
to the upper partn ofthe  tody.—Hippocrates.
  An;e'dks.  (From a,  priv. and  aif5u,j, a shame.)
Shameless.  Hippocrates uses  this  word  metaphori-
cally for without restraint; and applies it to water
rushing  into the aspera arteria.
  ANAESTHESIA.  (Anasthesia,  a. f. Ava iff 0r/<r«i;
from a, priv. and  aiirOavopai.  to feel./   Loss of the
sense of  touch.   A genus of disease In  the Class
Locales, and order Dysasthesia of Cullen.
  ANAGA'LLIS.   (From  avayeXaio,  to laugh; be-
cause, by  curing the spleen, it disposes  persons to be
cheerful.)   1. The  name of a genus of plants  in the
Linnaean system.
  2. The  phannacopceial  name of  the  anagalh*
arvensis.
  Anagallis arvensis.  The systematic name for the
Anairallis—foliis indivisis, caule procumytnle of Lin-
naeus.  A  small and delicately formed plant,  which
does not appear to possess any particular properties.
  AnaGargali'ctUm.  (From ava, and yapyapewv, the
throat.)  A gargarism, or wash for the throat.
  Anagaroari'stcm.  A gargle.
  ANAGLY'PHE    (From avayXvtpio,  to  engrave./
A part of the fourth ventricle of the brain was fi irmerly
thus called, from its resemblance to a pen, or style.
  ANAGNOSIS.   (From   avayiviocKu, to know.)
The persuasion, or certainty, by which medical men
judge of a disease from its symptoms.—Hippocrates.
  ANA'GRAPHE.  (From avaypaibia,  to write.)  A
prescription or receipt.
  ANALCINE.  Cubic zeolite.  A mineral found In
granite, gneiss, trap rocks, and lavas,  at Calton Hill,
Edinburgh, in Bohemia, and Ferroe islands.  From its
becoming feebly electrical by heat, it has got this  name
[Derived from AvuXiric.  Weak.]
  Anale'ntia. A fictitious term used by Paracelsuu
for epilepsy.
  ANALE'PSIA.  (From ava, and XapSavio, to take
again.)  A species of epilepsy, which proceeds from a
disorder of the stomach, and with which the patient is
apt to be seized very often and suddenly.
  ANALE'PSIS.   (From avaXapSivu, to restore.)  A
recovery of strength after sickness.
  ANALE'PTIC.   (Analrpticus; from avaXap&avu,
to recruit or  recover.)  That which recovers the
Ptrensth which has been lost by sickness.
  A.NALO'SIS.  (From avaXicKio, to consume.)  A
consumption, or wasting.
  ANA'LYSIS.  (AraXuffi;; from avaXvio, to resolve, i
The resolution by chemistry, of any matter into its
primary and conslitueni parts. The processes and ex-
periments which  chemists have recourse to, are ex-
tremely numerous  and diversified, yet  they may be
reduced to two species, whicli comprehend the whole
art of chemistry.  The first  is, analysis, or decompo-
sition ;  the  second, synthesis, or  composition.   In
analysis, the parts of which bodies are composed, are
separated from each other:  thus, if we reduce  cinna-
bar, which is  compns.-d of sulphur and mercury, and
exhibit these two  bodies in  a separate state, we say
we have decomposed or analyzed cinnabar.  But if,
on the contrary, several bodies be mixed  together, and
a new substance be produced, the process is then term-
ed  chemical composition,  or synthesis: thus,  if by
fusion and sublimation,  we combine mercury with
sulphur, and produce cinnabar, die operation is termed
chemical  composition,  or  composition by synthesis.
Chemical  analysis consists of a great variety of  opera-
tions.  In these operations the most  extensive know-
ledge of such properties of bodies a9 are already dis-
covered must be applied, in order to produce simplicity
of effect, and certainty in the results.   Chemical ana-
lysis can hardly be executed with success, by one who
is not in possession of a considerable number of simple
substances in  a state of great purity, many of which,
from their effects, are called reagents.  The word ana-
lysis is often applied by chemists to denote that series
of operations, by which the component parts of  bodies
are determined, whether they be merely separated, or
exhibited  apart from each  other; or whether these
distinctive properties be exhibited by causing them to
enter into new combinations, without  the perceptible
intervention of a separate state; and, in the chemical
examination  of bodies, analysis or  separation  can
scarcely ever  be  effected, without  synthesis  taking
place at the same time.
  ANAMNESIS.  (From avauipvyaKio, to remember.)
Remembrance, or recollection of" what has been done.
— Galen.
  ANAMNESTIC.  (From the same.)  A remedy
for bad memory, or whatever strengthens the memory.
  ANA'NAS. The egg-shaped pine-apple.  See Pro-
mclia Ananas.
  Ana'nck.  (From  avai'icafa, lo compel.)  Neces 
ANA
ANA
Rly.  It Is applied to any desperate operation.—Hip-
pocrates.
  Anapiialanti'asis.  (From avaibaXavros, bald.) A
thinness of hair upon the eyebrows.— Gorraus.
  Ana piiora.  (From avaqjepw, to  bring up.)   It is
applied to a person who spits blood.—Gorraus.
  ANAPHORY'XIS.  (From nvaipopvoaw,  to  grind
down.)  The reducing of any tiling  to dust, or a very
fine powder.
  ANAPHRODI'SIA.  (Anaphrodisia, a. f.; from a,
priv. and aQpofiicia, the feast of Venus.)  Impotence.
A genus of.disease in the class Locales, and order Dy-
sorexia of Cullen.  It either arises from paralysis, aixi-
plirodisio paralytica;  or from gonorrhoea, anaphrodi-
sia gonorrhoica.
  Anaphro'meli.  (From  a,  neg.  acJpoj, froth, and
HtXi, honey.)   Clarified honey.
  ANAPLA SIS. (From avairXuffo-o), to restore again.)
A restoration of flesh where it has been lost; also the
reuniting a fractured bone.—Hippocrates.
  AN APLERO'SIS.  (From avarrXreoow, to fill again.)
The restitution or filling up of wasted parts.—Galen.
  Anailero'tica.   (From the same.)  Medicines re-
newing flesh: incamatives, or such medicines us fill
up  a wound so as to restore it to its original shape.—
Galen.
  Anapleu'sis.  (From aiairXcvio, to  float  upon.)
The retting of a bone, $• > thai it drops off, and lies upon
the flesh.  Exfoliation, or separation of a bone.—Hip-
pocrates, JEgmita, Sec.
  AN'APNEU'SIS. (From avaitvivut, to respire.)  Res-
piration.
  ANA'PXOE.  Respiration.
   ANAPTOSI3.  (From avntmlw, to fall back.)  A
relapse
   Ana ptysis.  The sam* as Anacatharsis.
   Anarrhegni'mia.   (From ava,  and jnfvvvpt, to
break again.)   Anarrhexis.   A fracture;  the   fresh
opening of a wound.
   ANARKHGE'A.   (From ava, upwards, and }>tio, to
 flow.)  A flux of humours from  below upwards.—
 Schneider de Catarrho.
   Anarrho'pia.  (From ava, upwards, and ^tiru, to
 creep.)  A flux of humours, from  below upwards.—
 Hippocrni-s.
    A'NAS.   (Ana-:, tis. f.; from  vcu,  to swim,  a
 nando.)   A genus of birds in the Linnaean system.
    Anas tyoNus. The swan.  The flesh of the young
 swan or cygnet is tender, and a great delicacy.
    Anas domestica.  The  tame duck.   The flesh of
 this  bird is  difficult of  digestion,  and  requires that
 warm and stimulating condiments be taken with it to
 enable the stomach to digest it
   AN ASA'RCA. (Anasarca, a. f.; from ava, through,
 and oaol, flesh.)   Sarcites.  A species of dropsy from
 a serous humour, spread between the skin  and  flesh,
 or rather a general accumulation of lymph in the cel-
 lular system'.   Dr. Cullen  ranks this genus  of disease
 in  the class Cachexia, and the order Intumescentia.
 He enumerates  the following species, viz.  I.  Ana-
 sarca sirosa :  as when the due discharge of serum  is
 suppressed, &c.  2. Anasarca oppilata :  as when the
 blood-vessels are considerably pressed, whicli happens
 to  many pregnant women, Szc.   3. Anasarca exanthc-
 maticu: this  happens after ulcers, various  eruptive
 disorders,  and particularly after the erysipelas.  4.
 Anasarca anamia happens when the blood is rendered
 extremely poor from considerable lossesof it.  5.  Ana-
 sarca d'biliiim: as when feebleness is induced by long
 illness, &c.
    This species of dropsy shows itself at first with a
 swelling of the feet and ancles towards the evening,
 wliich, for a time, disappears again in the morning.
 The tumefaction is soft and inelastic, and when pressed
 upon by the finger, retains its mark for some lime, the
 skin bee "lining much paler than  usual.  By degrees the
 swelling  ascends upwards, and occupies the trunk  of
 the body; and at last, even the face and eyelids appear
 full and bhiaied ; Ihe breathing then becomes difficult,
 the urine is small in quantity, high coloured, and de-
 posits  i  reddish sediment; the belly is costive, the
 perspiration  much obstructed, the countenance yellow,
 and a  otisiderable  degree of thirst, with emaciation
 ofthe whole body, prevails.  To these symptoms suc-
 ceed torpor,  heaviness, a troublesome  cough,  and a
 slow  fever.    In  some  cases the  water oozes out,
 thiouch the pores of the cuticle ; in others, being too
gross  to pass by these, it  raises the cuticle in snifl!)
blisters; and sometimes the  skin, not allowing Uw
water to escape through it, is compressed and hard-
ened, and is at ihe sunn: time so much distended as to
give the tumour a considerable degree of  firmness.
For the causes of this disease,  sec Hydrops.
  In those who have died of  anasarca, the whole of
the cellular membrane has been distended with a fluid,
mostly of  a serous character.  Various organic  dis-
eases  have occurred ; and the blood is said to be altered
in consistence, according to the degree of the disease.
In general a cure can be more readily effected when il
arises from topical or general debility, than when occa-
sioned by visceral obstruction ; ond in  rrecent cases,
than in tliose of long continuance.  The skin becoming
somewhat  moist, Willi a diminution of thirst, and in-
creased flow of" urine,  are very favourable.  In wine
few cases the disease goes oft" by a spontaneous crisis
by vomiting, purging, &.c.  The indications of treat-
ment  in anasarca are, 1. To evacuate ihe fluid already
collected.   2. To prevent its returning again.   The
first object  may be  attained mechanically by an opera-
tion ;  or by the use of those means, which increase the
action ofthe absorbents: the  second by removing any
exciting causes, which may still continue to operve
and at the same time endeavouring to invigorate the
system.  Where the quantity of fluid collected is such
as  lo disturb the more  important  functions,  the
best mode of relieving the patient  is to make a lew
small incisions with a  lancet, not too near each other,
through the integuments on the fore and upper part of
each thigh; the dischaige  may be assisted by pressure,
and when a sufficient  quantity has been evacuated, it
is better to heai ihem by the first intention.   In the use
of issues or blisters, there is some risk of inducing gan-
grene, especially if applied to the legs: and the sum?
lias happened from scarifications  with the cupping in-
strument.  Absorption may be promoted by friction,
 and bandaging the parts, which will at the  same time
 obviate farther effusion ; but most powerfully by the
 use of different evacuating remedies, especially those
 which occasion a sudden considerable discharge ot
 fluids.  Emetics have been often employed with ad-
 vantage ;  but  it is  necessary to guard against weaken-
 ing the stomach  by the frequent repetition of tliose
 wliich produce much nausea; and perhaps  the benefit
 results not so much from the  evacuation produced by
 the mouth, as from their  promoting other excretions :
 antimonials in particular  inducing perspiration,  and
 squill increasing the flow of urine, Sac.; for wliich pur-
 pose they may be more sately given in smaller doses.
 in very torpid habits, mustard  may claim  the prefer
 ence.  Cathartics are of much greater and more gene-
 ral utility ; where the  bowels are not particularly irri-
 table, the more drastic purgatives should be'employed
 and repeated  as often as the  strength will allow ; giv
 ing, for example, every second or third morning, jalap,
 scammony, colocynth, or  gamboge, joined  with  calo
 mel or the supertnrtrate of potassa and some aromatic.
 to  obviate  their griping.  Elaterium  is perhaps the
 most powerful, generally vomiting as well as purging
 the patient, but precarious in its strength  ami  there-
 fore better given in divided doses, till a sufficient effect
 is  produced.  Diuretics are  universally pioper,  and
 may  be given in the intervals, where purgatives can
 be borne, otherwise constantly persevered iu ; but un
 fortunately the effects  of  most of them are uncertain.
 Saline substances in  general appear to stimulate the
 kidneys, whether  acid, alkaline, or neutral  but the
 acetate, and supertartrale of potassa, are chiefly re-
 sorted to  in dropsy.  Dr. Feiriar, of Manchester, has
 made an important remark of the  latter salt, lhat its
 diuretic power is much promoted by a previous opera
 lion on the bowels, which encourages ihe more libera!
 use of it; Indeed, if much relied upon, a drachm or two
 should bie given three limes or oftener in the day.   Ith
 obviously, therefore, best adapted to tliose cases, in
 which  the strength is not greatly iuipaiied ;  and the
 same holds with the  nauseating  diuretics,  squill, col-
 chicum, and  tobacco. The latter has been  strongly
 recommended by Dr.  Fowler of York, in the form ol
 tincture ; ihe colchicum, as  an oxymel by some Ger-
 man physicians ; but the squill is most in use, though
 certainly very precarious if  given alone.   In languid
 and  debilitated habits, we prefer Ihe more stimulant
 diuretics, as juniper, horseradish, mustard, garlic, the
 spiritus aetheris nitrici, &c.; even  turpentine, or the 
ANA
AiNC
 tinctura canthandis, may be  proper, where  milder
 means have failed.  Digitalis is often a very powerful
 remedy, from the utility of which in inflammatory dis-
 eases we might expect il to answer best in persons of
 great natural strength, and not much exhausted by the
 disorder; but  Dr. Withering expressly states that its
 diuretic effects appear most certainly and beneficially,
 where the  pulse is feeble or intermitting, the counte-
 nance pale, the skin cold, and the tumours readily pit-
 ting on pressure;  which has been since confirmed by
 other practitioners: it should be begun with in small
 doses two or three times a day, and progressively in-
 creased ill] the desired operation on the  kidneys ensues,
 unless alarming symptoms appear  in  the mean time.
 Opium and  some other narcotics have been occasion-
 ally useful  as  diuretics in dropsy, but  should  be only
 regarded as adjuvants, from  their uncertain  effects.
 In the use of diuretics, a very important rule is, not to
 restrict the  patient from drinking  freely.  This  was
 formerly  thought necessary  on theoretical  grounds;
 whereby the thirst was aggravated to a distressing de-
 gree,  and the operation of' remedies  often prevented,
 especially on the kidneys.   Sir  Francis Mihuan  first
 taught the impropriety of this practice, which  is now
 generally abandoned ;  at least so long as the  flow of
 urine is increased in proportion  to the  drink taken,  it
 is corsidered  proper  to indulge the patient with it.
 Another evacuation, whicli it is very desirable to  pro-
 mote  in anasarca, is that by the skin, but this is with
difficulty  accomplished: nauseating emetics are the
most powerful means, but transient in their effect,  and
 their  frequent  use cannot  be borne.  If a gentle  dia-
phoresis can be excited, it  is as much as we could ex-
pect ; and perhaps on the whole most beneficial to the
patient.  For this  purpose the compound powder of
ipecacuanha, saline substances, and  antimonials iu
small doses, assisted by tepid drink, and warmth ap-
 plied to the  surface, may be had recourse to.  Some-
times much relief  is obtained  by promoting perspira-
tion locally  by means of the vapour-bath.  Mercury
has been  much employed in dropsy, and certainly ap-
pears often  materially to  promote  the operation of
other evacuants, particularly squill and digitalis; but
its chief utility is where there  are obstructions of the
viscera, especially the liver, of whicli, however, ascites
is usually the first  result:  its power of increasing ab-
sorption hardly appears, unless It is carried so far as to
affect the mouth, when it is apt  to weaken the system
so much as greatly to limit its use.  The other indica-
tion of invigorating the constitution, and  particularly
the  exhalant arteries,  may be accomplished by tonic
medicines, as the several vegetable bitters, chalybeates
in those who are remarkably pale, and, if there be a
■anguid circulation, stimulants may be joined with
them : a similar modification will be proper in the diet,
 which should be always as nutritious  as  the  patient
can well digest; directing also in torpid  habits pungent
articles, as garlic, onions, mustard, horseradish, &c. to
be freely  taken, which will be farther useful  by pro-
 moting the urine.   Rhenish wine, or punch made with
 hollands and supertaitrate of potassa, may be allowed
 for the drink.  Regular exercise, such  as the  patient
can bear, (the   limbs being properly supported, espe-
cially by a well-contrived laced stocking) ought to be
enjoined, or  diligent friction of the skin,  particularly
ofthe affected  parts, employed when the tumefaction
Is usually least, namely, in the morning.  The cold
 bath,  duly regulated, may also,  when  the patient is
convalescent,  materially  contribute  to  obviate  a
 relapse.
  AN ASP A SIS.   (From ava, and cnram,  to draw to-
gether.)  Hippocrates uses this word to signify a con-
traction of the stomach.
  Ana'ssytos.  (From ava, upwards, and aevopai, to
a«itate.)  Anassytus.  Driven forcibly upwards. Hip-
pocrates  applies this epithet to air  rushing violently
upwards; as in hysteric fits.
  Anasta'ltk a    (From  avas-cXXto,  to contract.)
Styptic or refrigerating medicines.
  ANA'STASIS.   (From avasyjut, to  cause to rise.)
 !. A recoverr from sickness; a  restoration of health.
  2.  It likewise signifies a migration of humours, when
expelled from one place and obliged to remove to ano-
 ther.— Ilippt rules.
  AN ASTOMO SIS.  (From ava, through, and 7opa,
 a mouth. 1   The communication of  vessels with  one
 another.
      34
   ANASTOMOTIC   (Anastomoticus,  from ava,
 through,  and <?opa, the  moulh.)  That wliich opens
 the  pores and mouths of the vessels, as cathartics, di-
 uretics, deobstruents, and sudorifics.
   ANATASE.  A mineral found only in "O-uiphiny
 and Norway.
   [This name is given by Haiiy and Brogniart, to the
 octahedral oxideof Titanium, which has been found in
 various parts of the United States, in the forms of
             The oxide of titanium,
             The ferruginous oxide,
             The silico- calcareous oxide.
 See  Bruce's Mineralogical  Journal, in which mane
 rous specimens are figured and described by >>im.  A.1
   Ana'tes.  (From nates, the buttocks.)  A itM.ase
 ofthe anus.  Festus, &.C.
   ANATO'MIA.  See Anatomy.
   ANA'TOMY.   (Avaropia, or  avaropij, Anatomia,
 a. f. and Anatomc, es;  from ava, and repvu, lo cut
 up.)  Androtomy.  The dissection or dividing of or
 ganized substances to expose the structure, situation,
 and  uses of" parts.  Anatomy is  divided into that of
 animals strictly so called, also, denominated zootomy,
 and  that of vegetables or phytotomy.
   The anatomy of  brute animals and vegetables is
 comprised under the term  comparative anatomy, be-
 cause their dissection  was   instituted to  illuskate or
 compare by analogy their structure and functions with
 those ofthe human body.
   Anatomy, comparative.  Zootomy.  The dissec-
 tion of brutes, fishes, polypi, plants,  Ate. to illustrate.
 or compare them with the structure and functions of
 the human body.
   ANATRE'SIS.   (From ava, and rrrpaai, to perfo-
 rate.)  A perforation  like  that which is  made upon
 the skull  by trepanning.
   ANATRI'liE   (From avarpiGio, to rub.)  Friction
 all over the body.
   Anatri'psis.   Friction  all  over the body.—Mos-
 chionde Morb. Mulieb. and Galen.
   Ana'tron.  (Arabian.)   The  name of a lake in
 Egypt, where it was produced.  See Soda.
   Ana'trope.   (From avarpevto, to subvert.)  Jlna
 trophe ; Anatropha.   A relaxation or subveision  of
 the stomach, with loss of appetite and nausea.  Vo
 miting; indigestion.— Galen.
   Ana'trum.  Soda.
   ANAU'DIA.   (From a, priv. and auSi), the speech.)
 Dumbness ;  privation  of  voice ;   catalepsy—Hip-
 pocrates.
   Ana'xyris.  (From nalvois, the sole.)   The herb
 sorrel; so called because its leaf is shaped like the sole
 of the shoe.
   ANCEPS. (Anceps, ipitis. adjective.)  Two-edged;
 that is, compressed, having the edges sharp like a two-
 edged sword ; applied to stems and leaves of plants, as
 in the SisyrincJiium striatum,  Iris  grammea',' and
 leaves of the Typha latifolia.
   A NCHA.  (Arabian, to  press upon, as being the
 support of  the  body.)  The thigh.—Ai-iccnna, P\>
 restius, fee.
  A'NCHILOPS.   (From  ayxt,  near, and wu\ the
 eye.) A disease in the inward comer of the eye. See
 *Egilops.
   ANCHOR AXIS.   (From ayKiov, the elbow.)  The
 projecting part of the elbow on which we iean, called
 generally the olecranon.  See Ulna,
  Anchoralis  processus. The olecranon,a process
 of the ulna.
   ANCHOVY.  See Clupea cncrasicolus.
  Anchovy Pear.  See Grias cauliflora.
  ANCHU'SA.   (Anchusa, a. f. ;  from u> \a>, to
 strangle:  from  its supposed constringent qual'iix ; or,
 as others say, because  it strangles serpents.)  1. The
 name of  a genus of plants in  the  Linuaean system.
 Class, Pentandria ; Order, Monogynia.
  2.  The name in  some pharmacopoeias for the alka
 net  root and bugloss.  See j/nchusa officinalis, and
 Anchusa linctoria.
   Animus a officinalis.   The officinal  bugloss.  In
 some pharmacopoeias it is  called Buglossa;~ Buglos
 sum angustifolium  majus; Buglossum vulgare ma
jus; Buglossum sylvest're ;  Bugtossuiu sativum.  An
 chusa—foltis lanceolatis  strigosis.  spitis  secundis
 imbricatis, calycibus quinquc  jartitis, of LimiEeus,
 it was formerly esteemed as a cordial in melancho'
 lie and hypochondriacal diseases. It is seldom used 
ANC
ANL»
tn modern practice, and Uien only as an aperient and
refrigerant.
  Anchusa tinctoria.  The systematic name for the
ftnehusa or alkanna of the pharmacopoeias.   This
plant grows wild in France, but  is  cultivated in our
gardens.  The root is externally of" a deep purple co-
lour.   To oil, wax, turpentine, and alkohol, it imparts
a beautiful deep red colour, for  wliich purpose it is
used.  Its medicinal properties are scarcely percep-
tible.
  A'nchyle.  See Ancylr.
  ANCHYLOMERl'SMA.    (From  ayxvXopai,  to
bend.)  Sagar uses this  term to express a concretion,
or growing together of the soft parts.
  ANCHYLOSIS.  (From ayxvXvpat, to bend.)  A
stiff"joint.  It is divided into the true and spurious, ac-
cording  as the  motion is  entirely or but  partly lost.
This stale may arise from various causes, as  tumefac-
tion ofthe ends of the bones, caries, fracture, disloca-
tion, &c. also dropsy of the joint, fleshy excrescences,
aneurisms, and other tumours.  It may also be owing
to the morbid contraction  of the flexor muscles, in-
duced by the limb being long kept iu a particular posi-
tion, as a relief to pain, after burns, mechanical  inju-
ries, &c.  The rickets, white swellings, gout, rheuma-
tism,  palsy, from lead  particularly,  and some other
disorders, often lay the foundation for anchylosis : and
the joints are very apt to become stiff in advanced life.
Where the joint is perfectly immoveable, little can  '.«•
done  for the patient; but in ihe spurious form of   ■
complaint, we must first  endeavour  lo remove . y
cause mechanically obstructing the motion of the  •■■ it,
and then to get rid of the morbid contraction o. .he
muscles.  If inflammation exist, this must lie first sub-
dued  by proper  means.  Where  extraneous  matters
have been deposited, the absorbents must be excited to
remove them: and where the parts are preternaturally
rigid, emollient applications will  be  serviceable.  Fo-
mentations, gentle friction of the joint and of the
muscles, which  appear rigid, with the camphor  lina-
ment, &c. continued for  half an hour or more two  or
three times a day; and frequent attempts to move the
joint to a greater extent, especially by  the patient ex-
erting the  proper muscles, not with  violence, but
steadily for some time, are the most successful means:
but no rapid improvement is to be expected in general.
Sometimes, in obstinate cases, rubbing the part  with
warm brine occasionally, or applying stimulant  plas-
ters of  ammoniacum,  &c. may expedite the cure;
and in some instances, particularly as following rheu-
matism,  pumping cold water on the part every morning
has proved remarkably beneficial.  Where there is a
greal tendency to contraction of the muscles, it will be
useful to obviate this by some mechanical contrivance.
It is proper to bear in mind,  where, from the nature of
the case, complete anchylosis cannot be  prevented,
that the patient may be much less inconvenienced by
its being mads to occur in a particular position; thai
is in the  upper extremities generally a  bent, but in the
bip or knee an extended one.
  A'nci.  A term formerly applied to those who have
a distorted elbow.
  A'ncinar.   Borax.
  ANCIP1TIUS.  (From Anceps.)  Two-edged: ap-
plied to a leaf  which is compressed and sharp at  both
idges, as thai of the Typha lalifolia.
  Ancirome'le.   See Ancylomele.
  A'NCON.   (From ayKa^opat, to embrace;  avorov
ayKciadai erepio o$-cio to o$-cov : because the bones meet-
ing aud  there uniting, are folded one into another.)
The elbow.
  ANCONE'US.  (From aywv, the elbow.)   Asmall
triangular muscle, situated on the back part of the el-
bow.   Anconeus  minor of Winslow ; Anconeus vel
cubitalis Riolani of Douglas.  It arises from the ridge,
and from the external condyle of the humerus, by a
thick, strong, and short tendon: from this it  becomes
fleshy, and, after running about three inches obliquely
backward, it is inserted by its oblique fleshy fibres into
the back part or ridge of the ulna.  Its  use is to extend
ihe fore-arm.
  Amconeus externus. See Triceps extensor cubili.
  Anconkus internus.  See 'Triceps  extensor cubiti.
  Anconeus major.  See Triceps extensor cubili.
  Anconeus minor.  See Anconeus.
  AN CONOID.   (Anconoideus; from ayKutv, the el
tow)  Belonging to the elbow.
  Anconoid process.   See  Vina
  A'NCTER.  (AyKTm\, a bond, or bulton.) A fibula
or button, by whicli the lips of wounds arte held to
gether.— Gorraus.
  ANCTERIA SMUS. (From ayK-rna, a button.)  The
operation of closing the lips of wounds  together by
loops, or buttons.— Galen.
  Ancu'bitus.  A disease ofthe eyes with a sensation
as if sand were in them.—Job. Anglic. Ros.Ang.
  A'NCYl.E.   (From aywXos, crooked.)  Anckyle
A species of contraction, called a stiff* joint.—Galen
  Ani-yi.ion.  See .-tin i/lni'lossum.
  ANCYLOBLE I'llAHUX. (Ancyloblepharum, 1.1;
from  ayKvXn, a  hook, and jSXc^apov, an eyelid.)  A
disease of the eye, by whicli the eylids are closed to-
gether.—Aeiius.
  ANCYLOGLO'SSUM.  (Ancyloglossum,i.n.\ from
ayxvXn, a hook, and yAu>o-<ra, the tongue.)  Ancylion
of ASginetn.  Tongue-tied.   A contraction of the frue-
nulum ofthe tongue.
  ANCYLOME'LE.  (From  ayxvXos, crooked, and
pyXi;, a probe.)   Ancyromcle: Anciromele.  A crooked
probe, or a probe wiih a hook, with whicli surgeons
search wounds.— Galen, Sec.
  ANCYLO'SIS.  See Anchylosis.
  Ancylo'tomus.  (From ayKvXv, a hook, and rtpvui,
to cut.)   A crooked chirurgical knife, or bistoury.  A
knife for looseningthe tongue, not now used.
  A'ncyra.  (A) Kvpa,  an anchor.)   A chirurgUa.
hook.  Epicharmus uses ihis word for the membrum
virile, according to Gorraeus.
  ANCYROI'DES.   (Ancyroides processus;  from
ayievoa, an anchor, and  ct&os, a likeness.)  A procsss
of the scapula was so called, from its likeness to the
beak of an anchor. The coracoid process of the sca-
pula.  See Scapula.
  Ancyrome'le.  See Ancylomele,
  ANDALUS1TE. A massive mineral, of a flesh, and
sometimes rose-red colour, belonging to primitive coun
tries, and first found in Andalusia in Spain.
  [It has  been found also in  the United States.  The
hardness of this mineral  is nearly equal to that of co-
rundum.  Its specific gravity is 3.16.  Its structure is
more or less distinctly crystalline.  It is perfectly infu
sible by the blow-pipe.   It contains  alumine 52, silex
38, potash 8, iron 2.
  It  differs from feldspar by its greater hardness and
its infusibility;  and from  corundum, by its structure
and less specific gravity.  Some mineralogists, how-
ever, are inclined to believe this mineral to be feldspar
intimately mixed with corundum ; and hence its haid
ness.—Clcav. Min.  A.]
  Anderson's pills. These consistof Barbadoes aloes,
with a proportion 6f jalap, and oil of aniseed.
  [ANDERSON, ALEXANDER, M.D.  Dr. Ander-
son, of the city of New-York, received his degree of
Doctor in Medicine from the Medical  faculty of Co-
lumbia College.   He afterward turned his attention
to the subject of engraving in wood, and finally aban-
doned his profession of a physician for the employ
ment of  an engraver, ,in which he now stands  pre
eminent, being a  self-taught artist.   His wood en-
gravings   are  excellent, and many  of them  equal
copperplate.  He has made this art subservient to his
first profession, by engravings illustrating the intes-
tines,  blood-vessels, &c, as well as subjects of botany
and natural history.  He is a modest, unassuming
man, and  is now (1829) in the height of nis reputation
and usefulness.   A.]
  [ANDERSON', JAMES, M.D.  Having successfully
terminated his academical  pursuits at an early age,
Dr. Anderson commenced the study of medicine under
the direction  of his father,  a very respectable physi-
cian from Scotland. He attended a course of lectures,
by Professors Shippen and  Morgan, in the school of
Philadelphia, then in its  infancy ;  and next sailed foi
Edinburgh, at that time the focus of medical literature.
Circumstances,  which it is unnecessary to  mention,
not permitting him to remain long enough  to obtain  a
degree, he returned to this country with an ample cer-
tificate, signed  by his preceptors, Cullen, the elder
Munro, and the whole board of professors.  Immedi
ately  on  his  return, he commenced the practice of
physic in conjunction with his father.  Deeply versed
in general, and  particularly in  medical science, and
devoted almost beyond example to the performance of
his professional duties, he soon obtained u reputation. 
ANE                                            ANE
 unenjoyed  by any of his competitors.   Fcr a period
 of upwards of thirty years, he retained a practice of
 an extent certainly without a parallel in this section
 of the country.   Advancing rapidly toward his six-
 tieth year, and feeling the infirmities consequent on a
 life so laborious, he  retired to his scat near Chester-
 town.  In this situation, however, he was not allowed
 the repose which he anticipated.  Though the native
 vigour of his constitution was broken down by the in-
 vasion of disease, and by those accidents to wliich his
 course of life subjected him, he attended almost to
 the close of it, to  the calls of his  patients.  He died
 December 8th, 1820,  at Ins scat in the vicinity of Ches-
 tertown, Maryland,  in the  69th year  of his  age.—
 Thacker's Med. Biog.  A.]
  Andi'ra.   A tree of Biazil, the fruit of which is
 bitter and astringent, and used as a vermifuge.
  ANDRAN YTO'MIA.  (From avnp,  a man,  and
 repvio, to cut.)  Andranatome.   The dissection of the
 human body, particularly of the male.—M. Aur. Sc-
 verinus, Zootome Democrit.
  Andrapodocape'lus.  (From avfpoiroSov, a slave,
and KanrjXos, a dealer.)   A crimp.  Galen calls by this
namu the  person whose office it was  to  anoint aud
slightly to wipe the body, to cleanse the skin from foul-
ness.
  ANDREOLITE.  A species of crop-stone
  ANDROCCETE'SIS.  (From avep, a man, and koi-
Ttta, to cohabit with.)   1. The venereal act.
  2. The infamous act of sodomy.—Moschion, Szc.
  ANDROGYNUS.   (From  avep, a man, aud yvvr/,
a woman.)   1. An hermaphrodite.
  2. An effeminate person.—Hippocrates.
  3. A plant is said to he androgenous, which produces
both male and female flowers from the same  loot, as
the walnut, beech, horn-beam, nettle, ice.
  ANDRO MACHUS, of Crete,  was physician to the
emperor Nero.  He invented a composition, supposed
.o be an  antidote against  poison, called after him,
 Thcriaca Andromachi, which he dedicated to that em-
peror in a copy of Greek verses  still  preserved. This
complicated preparation long retained its reputation,
bat is now deservedly abandoned.
  Andro'nion.   Andronium.  A kind  of piaster used
 by iEgineta for carbuncles, invented  by Andron.
  ANDROPO'GON.   (From avtjp, a man, ana nutyiov,
 a beard.)  The name of a genus of plants in the Lin-
 itECan system.  Class, Polygamia: Order, Monacia.
  Andropogon nardus.  The systematic name of
 Indian nard or spikenard.  Spica nardi;  Spica Indi-
 ca.   The root  of this plant  is an ingredient in the
 mithridate  and theriaca; it is moderately warm and
 pungent, accompanied with a flavour not disagieeable.
 It is said to be used by the Orientals as a spice.
  Andropogon sch*nanthus.  The systematic name
 of the camel-hay, or Sweet-rush.  J uncus othralus ;
 Fanum camelorum;  Juncus aromaticus.  The dried
 plant is imported  into  this country from Turkey and
 Arabia.  It has an agreeable  smell, and a warm, bit-
 terish, not  unpleasant taste.   It  was formerly em-
 ployed as a stomachic and deobstruent.
  ANDRO TOMIA.  Androtome. Human dissection,
 particularly of the male.
  ANDRY, Nicholas, a physician, born at Lyons in
 1658.  He was made professor of medicine at Paris in
 1701, and lived to the age of 84.  Besides a Treatise on
 Worms, and other minor publications, and  contribu-
 tions in the Medical  and Philosophical Journals, he
 was author of a work, still esteemed, called "Ortho-
 pedie," or the art of preventing  and removing defor-
 mities in children;  wliich he  proposed  to effect by
 regimen, exercise, and various mechanical  contri-
 vances.
   Ankbium    (From  avufijirui,  to ascend.)   The
 herb alkanct, ev,  called liom  ils quick growth.  See
 Anchusa.
   ANELESI3.  (From avctXao, to roll up.)  Aneile-
 ma.  An involution of the guts, such as is caused by
 flatulence and gripes. —Hippocrates.
   ANE'MIA.  (From avtpos, wind.)  Flatulence.
   ANE'MONE.  (Fiom avepos, wind ; so named, be-
 cause it does not open its flowers till blown upon by
 llio wind.)  The name of a genus of plants in the Liu-
 oiean system.  Class,  Polyandria; Order, Polyginia.
 The wind flower
   Anemone hipatica.  The systematic name for the
 nepatica nobilit of the pharmacopoeias.  Herba trini
talis.  Hepatica, or herb trinity.  This plant possesses
mildly adsti ingent and corroborant virtues, with w hich
intentions infusions of it have been drunk as tf a, or
the powder of the dry leaves given to the quantity of
half a spoonful at a time.
  Anemone nemorosa. The systematic name of the
ranunculus albus of the pharmacopoeias.  The bruised
leaves and flowers are said  to cure  tinea capitis ap-
plied to the part.  The  inhabitants of Kainskatka,  it
is believed, poison their arrows with th? root of this
plant.
  Anemone pratensis.   The  sysiemat'c runic for
the Pulsatilla nigricans ofthe pharmacopoeia   This
plant, Anemone—pedunculo  involucralo, pctalis  ipice
rcfiexis, foliis bipinnatis,  of Linnaus, has been re-
ceived into the Edinburgh pharmacopoeia upon tht
authority of Baron Sloerck, who recommended  it as
an effectual remedy for most of the chronic  diseases
affecting the eye, particularly amaurosis, cataract, and
opacity of the cornea, proceeding from various causes.
He likewise found it of greal service  in venereal
nodes, nocturnal pains, ulcers, caries, indu: uied glands,
suppressed menses, serpiginous eruptions, melancholy,
and palsy.  The plant, in ils recent state, has scarcely
any smell;  but its taste is extremely aciid, and, when
chewed, it corrodes the tongue and fauces.
  AXENCETHALUS.  (Froma.priv.andcyictqiaXos,
the brain.)  A  monster without  brains.  Foolish.—
Galen de Hippocratc.
  A'neos.  A loss of voice and reason.
  ANEPITHY'MIA.   (From a. priv. and tniOu/ua,
desire.)   Loss of appetite.
  A'NESIS.  (From  avivpi, to relax.)  A  remission*
or relaxation, of a disease, or symptom,  .ietius,  &.c.
  Ane'sum.  See Anisum.
  ANE THUM   (Anctlium, i. n.  Avcdov ; fiom  avev,
afar, and Stio, to run: so called because its roots run
out a great way.)
   1. The name of a genus of plants in the Linnaean
system.  Class, Pentandria ; Order, Digynia.
  2. The  pharmacopoeia!  name of the  common dill.
See Ancthum gravcolens.
   Anethum PdMiuLiiji.  The systematic name foi
the faniculum of the shops.  Sweet leimel, Ancthum—
fruclibus ovatis of Linnaeus.  The seeds and roots of
this indigenous plant  are  directed by the colleges of
London and Edinburgh.  The seeds have an aromatic
smell, and a warm sweetish taste, and contain a  large
proportion of essential oil.   They are stomachic and
carminative. The root has a  sweet taste, but vi ry
little aiomatic warmth, aud is said to be pectoral anil
diuretic.
  Anethum graveolens.  The systematic name of
the Anethum of the shops.  Anethum—fructibus com
pressis, of  Linnaeus.—Dill. Amt.   This plant is a
native of Spain,  but  cultivated in several  parts of
England.  The seeds are directed for use by the Lon-
don and Edinburgh Pharmacopoeias : they have a mo-
derately warm, pungent taste, and  an aromatic, but
sickly smell.  There is an essential oil, and a distilled
water prepared  from them, which are given  in  flatu-
lent colics and dyspepsia.  They are also said lo pro
mote Ihe secretion of milk.
  ANE TICA.   (Aneticus;  from  avtnpat, to relax.)
Medicines which assuage pain, according to Andr
Tiraquell.
   Anetus.  (From avin.pt, remilto.)  A name  given
by Good, in his Study of Medicine, to a genus ol dis-
eases which embraces intermittent fevers.  See .Y->
solo™.
   ANEURI'SMA.  (Aneurisma,  mat is, neut.  Avtv-
pvapa; from avtvpvvn,  to dilate.)  An  aneurism;  a
preternatural tumour formed by the dilatation  of an
artery.  A genus of disease ranked by Cullen in the
class Locales, and order Tumores.  There are  three
species of aneurism:  1. The true aneurism, aneurisma
verum, which is known by the presence of a pulsating
tumour.  The artery either seems only enlarged at u
small part of its  tract, and the tumour has a deter
minnte border,  or it seems dilated for n considerabls
length, in which circumstance the swelling is obloug,
and loses itself so gradually in the surrounding  parts,
that its margin cannot  be exactly ascertained.   The
first, which is the must common, is  termed  circum-
scribed true aneurism ; the last, tile diffused true  aneu
rism.  The symptoms of the circumscribed true aneu-
rism, take  place as follows: the first thing  the patient 
ANE
ANE
 perceives Is Rn extraordinary throbbing In some par-
 ticular situation, and, on paying a liitleuiore attention,
 he discovers there a small pulsating tumour, which
 entirely disappears when compressed, but returns again
 as soon as the pressure  is removed.  It is commonly
 unattended with  pain or change in the colour of the
 skin.  Wuen once tlie tumour has originated, it con-
 tinually fiows larger, and at length attains avery con-
 siderable size.  I:i proportion as it becomes larger, its
 pulsation  becomes weaker, mid, indeed, it is almost
 quite lost, when the disease has acquired much mag-
 nitude. The  diminution of the  pulsation has  been
 ascribed to the coats of the artery, losing their dilatable
 and elastic quality, in proportion as they are distended
 and indurated ; and, consequently, the aneurisma! sac
 being no longer capable of an alternate diastole and
 systole from the action of the heart. The fact is also
 Imputed to the coagulated blood, deposited on the inner
 surtaee of the sac, particularly in large  aneurisms, in
 which some of the blood is  always interrupted in its
 motion.  In true aneurisms, however, tlie blood does
 not coagulate  so soon, nor so often, as  in false ones.
 Whenever such coagulated blood lodges  in  the sac,
 pressure can only  produce a partial disappearance of
 the swelling.   In  proportion  as  the aneurisma!  sac
grows  larger,  the  communication into  the artery
beyond the tumours is lessened.  Hence, in this state,
the pulse below the swelling becomes weak end small,
and the limb frequently cold and edematous.  On dis-
section, the lower continuation of the artery is found
preternatui ally small, and contracted.   The pressure
of the tumour on  tlie adjacent parts also  produces a
 variety of symptoms,  ulcerations, caries, &c.  Some-
times an  accidental contusion, or concussion,  may
detach a  piece of coagulum from the inner surlace of
 tlie cyst, aud the circulation through the sack be ob-
structed by it.  The coagulum may possibly be  im-
 pelled  quite into  the artery  below, so  as to induce
 important  changes.   The danger of  an aneurism
 arrives when it is on the point of bursting, by wliich
 occurrence tlie patient usually bleeds to death; and
 this sometimes happens in a few seconds.  Tlie fatal
 event may generally be foreseen, as the part  about to
 give way becomes particularly tense, elevated,  thin,
 ■oft, and  of a dark purple colour.  2.  The false or
 spurious  aneurism,  aneurisma spurium, is always
 owing to  an aperture  iff the  artery, from which the
 blood gushes into the cellular substance.   It may arise
 from  an artery being lacerated in violent exertions;
 but the most common occasional cause is a wound.
 This is particularly apt to occur at the bend of the arm,
 where the artery is exposed to be injured in attempting
 to bleed.   When this happens, as soon as tlie puncture
 has been  made, the  blood gushes out  with  unusual
 force, of a bright scarlet colour and in nn  irregular
stream, corresponding to  the  pulsation of the artery.
It flows out, however, in an even and less rapid stream
when pressure is employed higher up than ihe wound.
These  last are the most decisive marks of tlie artery
being opened;  for blood often flows from a vein with
great  rapidity,  and in a  broken current, when  the
vessel is very turgid and situated immediately over the
artery, which imparts its motion to it.   The  surgeon
endeavours precipitately  to stop the haemorrhage by
 pressure; and he commonly occasions a diffused false
 aneurism.  The external wound in  the skin is closed,
so that the blood cannot escape from it;  but insinuates
 itself inlo the cellular substance.   The  swelling thus
 produced is uneven, often knotty, and extends upwards
 and downwards,  along the  tract of the vessel.   The
skin is also usually of a dark purple colour.  Ils size
 increases as long as the internal haemorrhage continues,
 and, if this should proceed above a certain pitch, mor-
tification of the limb ensues.  3. The varicose aneu-
rism, aneurisma varicosum: this was first described by
 Dr. W. Hunter.  It happens when the brachial artery
 is punctured in  opening a vein: the blood then rushes
 into the vein,  which becomes varicose.  Aneurisms
may happen in any part of tlie body, except the latter
species, which can only take place where a vein runs
 over an artery.  When an artery has been punctured,
 the tourniquet should be applied, so as to stop the flow
«if blood  by compressing the vessel above; then the
 most likely plan of obviating the, production of spurious
aneurism  appears to  be applying a firm compress
 immediately over  the wound,  and securing  it  by  a
 bandage, or in any other way, so as effectually to close
                                         E2
the orifice,  yet  not  prevent  ihe  circulation tliroupn
other vessels:  afterward keeping  the limb a.- quiet as
possible, enjoining  the  antiphlogistic  regimen,  and
examining daily that no extravasation has happened,
which would require the compress being fixed inorce
securely,  previously  applying the  tourniquet,  and
pressing the effused Wood as much as possible into the
vessel.  If there should be  much coldness or swelling
ot Ur' limb below, il will be proper to rub it frequently
null some spirituous or oilier stimulant embrocation
It is only  by trial Hint it can be certainly determiner!
when the wound is closed; but always better  not to
discontinue the pressure prematurely.  The same plan
may answer, when the disease has already come ou.
if the blood can  be entirely, or even mostly, pressed
into the artery again;  nt any rate, by determining th;:
circulation on  collateral branches, it will give greater
chance of success to a subsequent operation.  There is
another mode, stated to have sometimes succeeded,
even when there was much coagulated blood; namely,
making strong pressure  over the whole  limb,  by a
bandage applied uniformly, and moistened to make .
sit closer, as well as to obviate inflammation; but thij
does not appear  so good a  plan, at least in slighter
coses.   If however the tumour be  very  large, and
threatens lo burst, or continues spreading, the opera-
tion should  not be delayed.  The tourniquet  being
applied, a free incision is to be made into the tumo.ii,
the extravasated blood removed,  and the  artery lied
both above and below ihe wound,  as near to it ns may
be sate; and if any branch  be given oil' between, this
must  be also secured.  It is better not to make the
ligatures tighter,  than may be necessary to stop the
How of blood ;  and to avoid  including any nerve it'pos
sible.  Sometimes,  where  extensive  suppuration or
caries has occurred, or gangrene is to be apprehended,
amputation  will be necessary: but this must  not be
prematurely resolved upon,  for  often after several
weeks the pulse has returned iu the limb below. In
the true aneurism, when small and recent, cold and
astringent  applications are  sonietimes   useful; or
making pressure on the tumour, or on the artery  above,
may succeed ;  otherwise an operation becomes  neces-
sary to save the patient's life;  though unfortunately it
oftener fails in this than in the spurious kind ; gangrene
ensuing, or haemorrhage ; this chiefly arises from the
arteries being often extensively diseased, so that  they
are more  likely to give way, and there is less  vital
power in the  limb.  A great improvement has  liee;i
made in the mode of operating iu these cases  by Mr
John  Hunter,  and other modern suigeons, namely
instead of proceeding as already explained  in the spu-
rious aneurism, securing  the  artery some way  above,
and leaving Ihe rest in a great measure to the powers
of nature.  It has been now proved by many instances,
that when the current of the blood is thus interrup'ed,
the tumour  will cease to enlarge,  and oil  11 be  < ';u-
sidcrably diminished  by absorption.  II.ere is  reason
for believing loo, that tlie cures effected spontaneously,
or by pressure, have been usually owing to the trunk
above  being obliteiated. There  are  many obvnus
advantages in this mode of proceeding; it is more ^a^y,
sooner performed, and disorders the system less,  par
ticularly as you avoid having a large unhealthy sore tu-
be healed ; besides there is less probability ofthe ve.,sel
being diseased at some distance from the tumour.  In
the popliteal  aneurism, for example, the artery may bj
secured rather below the middle of the thigh, where it is
easily come at.   The tourniquet therefore being applied,
and the vessel exposed, a strong ligature is to be  parsed
round it; or,  which is perhaps preferable, two ligatures
a little distant, subsequently cutting through the  artery
between them, when the two portions contract among
the surrounding flesh. It is proper to avoid including
the nerve or vein, but not unnecessarily detach the
vessel from its attachments.   For greater security one
end of each  ligature, after being tied, may be passed
through the  intercepted portion of artery, that they
may not be forced off.  Then the wound is to be clot en"
by adhesive  plaster,  merely leaving the ends ot Hie
ligatures hanging out, which will after some time coiue
away.   However it must be remembered that 'Hemor-
rhage is liable to occur, when this happens, even three
or four weeks after the operation; so lhat  proper  pre-
cautions are required, to check it as soon as possible:
likewise the system should be lowered previously, and
kept so during the cure.  When a  true  aneurism 
ANG
A«tJ
 cannges into the spurious form, which i3 known by the
 tumour spreading, becoming  harder, and with a less
 distinct pulsation, the operation becomes immediately
 necessary.  When an aneurism is out of the reach of
 an operation, life may  be  prolonged by occasional
 bleeding,  a spare  diet,  &c;  and when  the  tumour
 becomes  apparent externally, carefully  guarding  it
 fiom injury.  In the varicose aneurism  an operation
 will be very seldom if ever required,  the growth ofthe
 Minour being limited.
   Aneurisma spurhm.  See Aneurisma.
   Aneurisma varicosum.  See Aneurisma.
   Aneurisma verum.  See Aneurisma.
   ANE'XIS.  (From  avtxu>, to project.)   A swelling,
 or protuberance.
   ANGEIOLO'GY.  (Angeiulogia, a.f.;  fromayytioj',
 a  vessel, and  Aoyos,  a discourse.)   A dissertation, or
 reasoning, upon  the vessels of the body.
   ANGEIOTTSMUS.  (From ayyciov,  a vessel, and
 repvu), to cut.)  An angeiotoinist, or skilful dissector of
 the vessels.
   ANGEIO'TOMY.   (Angeiotomia ; from ayyttov, a
 vt ssel, and rcpvui, to cut)  The dissection of tlie blood-
 vessels of an animal body ; also the opening of a vein,
 or an artery.
   ANGELICA.  (So called from  its supposed angelic
 virtues.)  1. The name of a genus  of plants in the
 Linnaean system.  Cla-s Pcntandria; Order, Digynia.
 Angelica.
  2. The pharmacopceial name ofthe garden angelica.
 Seee Angelica archangetica.
   Angelica archangelica.   The  systematic name
 for the angelica  of the shops.  Milzadella Angelica—
foliorum imparl  lobato of Linnaeus.  A plant' a native
 of Lapland, but  cultivated in our gardens.  The roots
 of angelica have a fragrant, agreeable  smell, and a
 bitterish, pungent taste.   The stalk,  leaves, and seeds,
 wlUch are also directed in the pharmacopoeias, possess
 the same qualities, though in an inferior degree. Their
 virtues arc  aromatic  and carminative.   A sweatmeat
 is made,  by the confectioners, of" this root, which is
 extremely agreeable to the stomach, and is surpassed
 only by that of" ginger.
   Angelica, garden.   See Angelica archangelica.
   Angelica pilula.  Anderson's Scots pill.
   Angelica sativa.  See Angelica sylvestris.
   Angelica sylvestris.  Angelica  sativa.   Wild
 angelica.   Angelica—foliis  aquulibus  ocato-lanceo-
 latis serratis, of Linnspus.  This .species of angelica
 possesses similar properties to the garden species, but
 in a much inferior degree:  It is only used when the
 latter cannot be obtained.  The seeds, powdered and
 put in the hair, kill lice.
   Angelica, wild.  See Angelica sylvestris.
   ANGELICUS.  (From ~angelus, an angel.)  Some
 plants, &c. are so called, from" their  supposed  superior
 virtues.
   Anoehcus pulvis.  Submuriate of mercury.
   ANGELI'NA. Angelina zanoni acosta.  A tree of
 vast size, sometimes  above sixteen feet, thick,  growing
 in rocky and sandy  places in Malabar in the  East
 Indies.   It bears ripe fruit in December.   The dried
 Iteavos healed are said to alleviate  pain and stillness of
 the joints, and dismiss swelling of  the testes caused by
 CAternal violence; and are also said to be useful in the
 cure of venereal complaints.
   Anqelin*  cortex.  The  name  of the tree from
 which the Cortex Angelina is procured.   It is a native
 of Grenada.  This bark has been  recommended us an
 anthelmintic for children.
   Anokloca'cos.   The purging  Indian plum.  Sec
 Myrobalanus.
   A'noi. (From ungor, anguish; because of their pain.)
 Buboes in the groin.—Fallopius de Morbo Gallico.
   ANGIGLOSSES.  (From  aymiXn,  a  hook,  and
 yXiooca, the tongue.)  A person who stammers.
   ANGINA.  (Angina, a. f.; from ayxn>i tostrangle;
 because it  is often attended w ith a sense of  strangu-
 tntion.)   A sore throat.  See Cynanchc.
   Angina iini.  A  name used by  some of tlie  later
 Greeks writers to express what the more ancient writers
 of this nation called  linozostrcs, and the Latins epili-
 num. which is  the t went a or dodder, growing on the
 linum or flax, as that on the  thyme  was called epithy-
 vium.  See Cuscnta.
   Angina maligna.  Malignant or putrid sore throat.
 Bee Cynanchc maligna.
|   Angina parotide a.  The mumps.  See  Cynandu
parotidea.
   Angina pectoris. Syncope ang nosa ot Dr. l any.
 An acute constrictory pain at the lower end of" the
 sternum, inclining rattier to the left side, and extending
 up into the left arm, accompanied with great anxiety
 Violent palpitations of the heart, laborious breathings,
 and a sense of suffocation, are the characteristic syinp
 toins of this disease.  It is found to attack men much
 more frequently than women, particulr :ly those  who
 have short necks, who are inclinable to  corpulency,
 and who, at the same time, lead an inactive and seden-
 tary life.   Although it is sometimes met with in  per
 sons under the age of twenty, still it more frequently
 occurs in  those who  arc between forty and fitly   In
 slight cases, and  in Ihe first stage of  the disorder, tlie
 fit comes on by going up hill, up stairs, or  by walking
 at a quick pace after a hearty meal; but as the disease
 advances, or becomes more violent, the paroxysms are
 apt to be excited by certain passions of the  mind ; by
 slow walking, by riding on horseback, or in a carriage;
 or lev sneezing,  coughing, speaking, or straining at
 stooh   lu some cases, they attack the patient from two
 to four in the morning, or whilst sitting or  standing,
 without any previous exertion or obvious cause.  On
 a sudden,  he  is  seized  with an  acute pain  in the
 breast, or  rather at the extremity of the sternum, in-
 clining to the left side, and extending  up into the  arn>,
 as far as  the insertion  of the deltoid  muscle, accom-
 panied by a sense of suffocation, great anxiety, and an
 idea that  its continuance or increase, would certainly
 be fatal.   In the  first stage of the disease, the uneasy
 sensation at the end of the sternum, witli the other un-
 pleasant symptoms, which seemed to threaten a  sus-
 pension of life by a perseverance in exertion, usually
 go off upon the person's standing still, or turning  from
 the wind; but, in a more advanced stage, they do not
 so readily recede, and the paroxysms  are  much more
 violent. " During the  fit, the pulse sinks, in a greater
 or less degree, and becomes irregular; the face and
 extremities are pale, and bathed in a cold sweat,  and,
 for a while, the  patient is perhaps  deprived of the
 powers of sens.' and voluntary motion.   The disease
 having  recurred  more or less frequently during the
 space of  some years, a violent attack at last puts  a
 sudden period to his exi-ti-n,;e.  Angina pectoris  is
 attended with a consider.il» degree of danger ; and  it
 usually happens lhat the person is carried off suddenly.
 It mostly depends upon an ossification ofthe coronary
 arteries, and then we can never expect to effect a  radi
 cal cure.  During the paroxysms, considerable relief  is
 to be obtained from  fomentations, and administering
 powerful  antispasmodics, such  as opium and aether
 combined together.  The application of a blister to the
 breast is  likewise attended sometimes with a  good
| effect.  As the painful  sensation  at the extremity of
 the sternum often admits of a temporary relief,  from
 an evacuation of wind by the mouth, it may be proper
 to give frequent doses of carminatives, such as pepper
 mint, carraway,  or  cinnamon water. Where  these
 fail in the desired effect, a few drops of ol. anisi, on  a
 little sugar, may be substituted.
   With the view of preventing the recurrence of the
 disorder,  the patient should  carefully guard against
 passion, or other emotions of the mind: lie should use
 a light, generous diet, avoiding every thing of a heat
 ing nature ; and he should take care never to overload
 the stomach, or  to use any kind of exercise iunnedi
 ntely  after eating.  Besides these  precautions, he
 should endeavour to counteract obesity, which has
 been considered as a  predisposing cause : and this is to
 be effected most safely by a vegetable diet, moderate
 exercise at proper limes, early rising, and keeping the
 body perfectly open.  Il has been observed that angina
 pectoris is a disease always attended with  considera-
 ble danger, and,  in most instances, has proved  fatal
 under every mode of treatment.  We are given, how
 ever,  to  understand, by Dr.  Macbride, that of  latt
 several cases of it have been Heated with  great sue
 cess, and the disease  radically removed, by inserting  a
 large issue on each thigh. "These, therefore, should
 never be  neglected.  In one case, with a \ iew  of cor.
 reeling, or draining oft' the irritating fluid, he ordered,
 instead of issues, a mixture of lime water with a  little
 ofthe spirituous juniper! comp., and an alterative pro-
 portion of Huxliam's antimoniul wine, together w  ilh  a
 plain,  light, perspirable  diet.  From  this course Uiu 
ANI
ANI
  fwttient was soon apparently mended ;  but it was not
  until after the insertion of a"  large issue in eacli thigh,
  that he was restored to parted health.
    Angim  tonsillaris.  See Cynanche tonsillaris.
    Angina trachlalis.  See Cynanche trachelitis.
    ANGlOCARPI.  The name given hy Personn  to  a
  division of funguses which bear their seeds internaily.
  Fhey  are  either hard or  membranous tough  and
  leathery.
    ANGIOLO GV    (Angiologit.;  from  eyyucv,  a
  vessel, and Xoe/oc, a discourse )   The doctrine of the
  vessels ofthe human body.
    ANGIOSPERMIA.  (From ayyoc, a  vessel,  and
'  tnreppa, a  seed.)  The name  of »n order of plants in
  the class  Didynamia  of the sexual system of  Lin
  nieus, the seeds of which are lodged in  a  pericarpiuin
 ■or seed- vessel.
   Anuiosperm.e herbx.  Those plants, the seeds of
  whicli are  enclosed  in a covering or vessel.
   A'NGLICUS.   (From  Anglia,  England.)    The
  sweatina sickness, which was so endemic and fatal in
  England, was called Sudor Anglicamis.   See  Sudor
  Anglicus.
   Ango'lam.  A very  tall tree of Malabar, possessing
  vermifuee powers.
   Ango'ne.  (From ayxv, to strangle.)  A nervous
  sort  of quinsy,  or  hysteric  suffocation, where  the
  fauces are contracted and stopped up without inflam-
  mation.
   A'NGOR.  (Angor,  oris. m.: from Ango.)  Agony
  or intense bodily pain.— Gal'n.
   A'NGOS.  (Ayyos,   a vesjeL)  A vessel.   A  col-
  lection of  humours.
   ANGULATUS.  Angled.—A  term used to desig-
  nate stein, leaves, petioles, &c. which present several
  acute angles in their circumference.   There are seve-
  ral varieties of angular stems.
   1.  Triangulalus, three-angled;  as  in Cactus trian-
  gularis.
   2.   Quadranguiatus, four-anglod;  as  in  Cactus
  '.etragonus.
   3.  Quinqueanguiatus,  five-angled;  as in  Cactus
  pentagonus.
   4.  Hexangulatus, six-angled;  as  in Cactus keta-
  &onus.
   '.i.  Multiangulatus,  many-angled;  as  in  Cactus
  cercus.
   6.  Obtusangularis,  obtuse-angled; as in Scrofula-
  ria nodosa.
   7.  Acutangulatus. acute-angled ; as in Scrofularia
  aquatica.
   8.  Caulis triqueter,  three-sided, but with flat sides ;
  as in Hedyearum triquetrum, Viola  mirabUis, Carex
  acuta.
   9.  Caulis tetaquetrus, quadrangular with flat  sides;
  as in Hypericum quadrartgularc, Mentha officinalis.
   For angular leaves, See Leaf, Petiole, Sec.
   ANGULOSUS.   Angular.
   ANorsTu'R.e cortex.  A  bark imported from An-
  gustura. See Cusparia.
   ANHELA TION.   (Anhclatio; from  anhelo, to
 breathe with  difficulty.)  Ankelitus.  Shortness of
 breathing.
   ANHYDRITE.  Anhydrous gypsum.  There  are
 six varieties of this mineral su hate of lime.  1. The
 compact—2. The granular.   3.  The fibrous.  4. The
 radiated.  5. The sparry or cube spar.  (5. The silici-
 ferous or vulpinite.
   Anhydros.  A name given by the ancient Greeks,
 to express one  of those kinds of Strychna or  night-
 shades, which, when taken internally, caused madness.
   ANHYDROUS.   (From a, neg. and v&iap, water.
 Without water.
   Anice'ton.  (From  n, priv. and vuctj, victory.)  A
 name of a plaster invented by Crito, and so called be-
 cause it was thought an infallible or invincible remedy
 for achores, or scald-head. It was composed of litharge,
 alum, and turpentine, and is described by Galen.
   Ami.  The name ofthe Indigo plant.
   A'NIMA. A  soul:  whether  rational, sensitive, or
 vegetative.  The word is pure Latin, formed of avt-
 uos, breath. It is sometimes used by physicians to de-
 note the principle of life in the body, in which sense
 Willis calls the blood anima brutalis.  By chemists it
 was used figuratively for the volatile principle  iu bo-
 dies, whereby they were capable of being raised  by the
 fire- and by the old writers on  botany, materia me-
! dica,  and pharmacy,  it was fiequenlty employed to
 denote us great eihc'acy : hence aiiimn, heputes, aloes,
 rhabarbari, &c.
   Anima axoes.  it, fined aloes.
   Amma artu uloiium.  A name of the Hermodac
[ ivies.   See Hcmmdacliflus.
   Anima iucpatis.  Sal martis.
   Anima pulsion! m.  The soul of thn lungs.  Ana.uie
 given  to saffron, on account of us use in astlunas.
   Am.m\ riiabaroar   The best rhubarb.
   Anima gaturni.  A preparation of lead,
   Anima veneris.  A preparation of (.upper.
   ANIMAL.   An organized body endowed with hie
I and voluntary motion.  The elements which enter into
| the com|«isition  of the bodies of animals are sollf,
 liquid, gaseous, and luroiilinable.
   Soliil Eli ments.  Phosphorus, sulphur, < ;ti lion, iron
 manranesc, potassium, lime, soda, magnesia, silicaj
 and alumina.
   Liquid kUcmenls.  Muriutic  acid; water, which in
 this case may be considered us an clement, enters into
 the organization, and constitutes  three-fourths ofthe
 bodies of anihuiis.
   Gaseous Elements.  Oxygen, hydrogen, azote.
   Inconfinabl"  Elements.  Caloric, light, electric, ana
 magnetic fluids.
   These diverse elements,  united with each other,
 three and three, four and four,  Sec. according  to lawn
 still unexplained, thriu what wie  name the proximate
 principles oi  anmiais.
   Proximate Materials, or Principles.   These are di
 vided  into azntized, and nou-azotized.
   The azotized principles are : albumen, fibrin, gela
 tin, mucus,  cheese-curd principle, urea, uric  acid,
 osmazome, colouring matter ofthe blood.
   Tlie non-azotized principles are: the acetic, benzoic,
 lactic,  formic,  oxalic,  rosacic,  acids; sugar of milk,
 sugar  of diabetic urine, picromel, yellow colouring
 matter of bile, aud of other liquids or solids which be-
 come  yellow accidentally, the  blistering principle ol
 cxinthurides, spermaceti, biliary calculus, the odorif"-
 rous principles of ambergris, musk, castor, civet, &:•
 which are scarcely known, except for their faculty of
 acting on the organ of smell.
   Animal  fats are  not immediate, simple, proximate
 principles.  It  is proved that  human  fat, that of tlie
 pig, of the sheep, &c. are principally (brmed  by two
 fatty bodies,  stearin, and elain,  which present  very
 different characters that may be easily separated.
   Neither is the butter of the cow a simple body; it
 contains acetic acid, a yellow colouring principle, vi
 odorous principle, which is very manifest in fennetu
 ed cheese.
   We must not reckon among these substances, ad'
 pocire, a matter whicli is seen iu bodies long buried
 the earth ;  it is composed of margarine, of a fluid aci«
 fat, of an orange colouring principle, and of a peculiai
 odorous substance.  Nor must  this subsiance  be cot
 founded with spermaceti, and the biliary calculus,
 which are themselves very different from each olher.
 It does not contain a single  principle  analogous tc
 them.
   Organic Elements.  The  materials  or  principles
 above  mentioned  combine  among themselves,  and
 from  their combination arise the organic, elements,
 which are solid or liquid. Tlie laws or forces that go-
 vern these combinations are entirely unknown.
   Organic Solids.  The solids  have sometimes the
 form of canals, sometimes that of large or small plates,
 at other times  they  assume that  ot niemoranes.  In
 man the total  weight  of solids is generally eight or
 nine times less than  that of  liquids.  This proportion
 is nevertheless  variable according to many circi/m-
etauccs.
  The ancients believed that all the organic solids
 might be reduced by ultimate analysis to  simple fibres,
 which they supposed were formed of  earth, oil, and
 iron.  Haller, who admitted this idea of  the ancients,
 owns that  this  fibre is visible only to the eye  of ine
 mind.   Invisibilis est eafibra sola; mentis acie dis-
 tmguimut.  This is just the same as if he hod  saki
 that it  does not exist at all, which nobody at present
doubts.
  The ancients also admitted secondary fibres, which
they supposed  to be formed  by particular  modilica
 lions of the simple fibre. Thence, ihe nervous, nine
cular, parenchymatous, osseous librt
                                         fill 
AN \
ANO
  Chaussier has lately proposed to admit four sorts of
fibres, whicli he calls luminary, nerval, muscular, and
albuginous.
  Science was  nearly in this state when Pinel con-
ceived the idea of distinguishing the organic solids, not
by fibres, but by tissues or systems.  Bichat applied it
to all the solid parts of the bodies of animals: the
classification of Bichat has been perfected  by Dupuy-
trcn and Richerand.

           Classification of the Tissues.

 I. Cellular..................................
             (. Arterial.
 2. Vascular  < Venous.
             f Lymphatic.
             j Cerebral.
             I Ganglaic.
3.  Nervous
4.  Osseous

;*>.  Fibrous
G. Muscular
             t Fibrous.
             < Fibro-cartilaginous.
             ( Dermoid.
               Voluntary.
               Involuntary.
 7.  Erectile..................................
 8.  Mucous..................................
 0.  Serous ..................................
10.  Horny or ) Hairy.
   Epidemic  j Epidermoid.
11.  Parenchymatous, Glandular.
  These systems, associated with each other and with
the  fluids, compose the organs or instruments of  life.
When many organs  tentf by their action  toward a
common  end, we name them, collectively considered,
an apparatus.   The number of apparatus, and their
disposition, constitute the differences  of animals.—
Magendie.
  Animal actions.  Actiones animates.  Those ac-
tions, or functions, are so termed, wliich are performed
through the means  of the  mind.   To this class be-
long the external  aud internal senses, the voluntary
action of muscles, voice, speech, watching, and sleep.
See Action.
  Animal Heat.  See Heat, animal.
  Animal UZconomy.  See (Economy, animal.
  Animal Oil.   Oleum animale.  Oleum animate Dip-
nolii. An empyreumatic oil, obtained from the bones
of animals,  recommended as an  anodyne and anti-
spasmodic.
  A'nimk oummi.   The  substance which  bears this
name in the shops is a resin. See Hymcncea courbaril.
  A'nimi deliquium. (From animus,  the mind, and
dclinquo, to leave.)  Fainting.  See Syncope.
  A'NIMUS.  This word is to be  distinguished from
anima; which generally expresses  the  faculty of rea-
soning, and animus, the  being  in  which  that faculty
resides.
  Anin'ga.  A root which  grows  in the Antilles
islands, and  is used by BUgar-bakers for refining their
sugar.
  ANISCA'LPTOR. (From anus, the  breech, and
scalpo, to scratch.)  The latissimus dorsi  is so called,
because it is the muscle chiefly instrumental  iu  per-
forming this office.—Bartholin.
  Anisotaciiys.  (Frdm aviaos, unequal, and TayyS\
quick.)  A quick and unequal pulse.—Gorraus.
  ANI'SUM.  (From a. neg. and  «roc, equal.)   See
Pimpinella anisum.
  Anisum sinense.   See Jllicium anisatum.
  Anisum stellatum.   See Illicium.
  Anisum vuloare.  See Pimpinella anisum.
  ANNEAL.  We know too little  of the arrangement
of particles to determine what it is that constitutes or
produces brittleness in any substance.  In a conside-
rable number of instances of hodies which are capable
 if undergoing ignition, it is found that sudden cooling
renders them hard and brittle.  This is a real inconve-
nience in glass, and  also in steel,  when this metalic
Hubstanee is required to be soft and flexible.  The in-
conveniences are avoided by cooling them very gradu-
ally, and this process is called annealing.  Glass vessels,
tir other articles, are carried info an  oven or apartment
near the great furnace, called the leer, where they are
permitted to cool, in a greater or less time, according
to their thickness and bulk.  The  annealing of steel,
 >r other  metallic bodies, consists  simply in heating
them and suffering them to cool again, either upon the
      70
 hearth of the furnace, or in any other situation whet?
 the heat is moderate, or at least the temperature is no*
 very cold.
   Annoto.  See Bixa orleana.
   ANNUAL.   (Annuus, yearly.)  A term applied in
 botany to plants and roots, which are produced from
 the seed, grow to their full extent, and die in one year
 or season, as Papaver somniferum, Helianthus annuus,
 Hordeum triticum, &c.
   Annue'ntes.  (From annuo, to nod.)   Some mus-
 cles of the head were formerly so called, because they
 perforin  the office of nodding, or bending the head
 downwards.—Cowper, &c.
   ANNULAR.  (Annularis;  from Annulus, a ring,
 because it is ring-like, or  the ring is worn on  it, or it
 surrounds any thing like a ring; thus, annular bone, &c
   Annular bone.  Circulus osseus.  A ring-like bone
 placed before the cavity of the tympanum in ihe foetus.
   Annular cartilage.  See Trachaa.
   ANNULA'RIS.   Annularis digitus.   The  ring
 finger.  The one between the little and middle fingers.
   Annularis processus. See Pons varolii.
   A'NNULUS.  (Annulus, i. m., a ring.)   A ring.  In
 botany applied to the slender  membrane surrounding
 the stem of the fungi.
   Annulus abdominis.   The abdominal ring.   An
 oblong separation of terfdinous fibres, called an open-
 ing, in each groin, through which the spermatic chord
 in men, and the round  ligament of the uterus in wo-
 men, pass.  It is through this part that the abdominal
 viscera fall in  that species of hernia, which is called
 bubonocele. See Obliquus externus abdominis.
   A'NO. (Aru, upwards; in opposition tokutio, down-
 wards.)  Upwards.
   ANOCATHA RTIC.   (From  avto, upwards, and
 Kadaipco, to purge.)  Emetic, or that which purges up-
 wards.
   ANOCHEI'LON.  (From avio, upwards, and x«Xoc
 the lip.)  The upper lip.
   Ano'dia.  (From a, neg. and oios, the way.)  Hip-
 pocrates uses this word for inaccuracy and irregularity
 in the description and treatment of a disease.
   ANODYNA. See Anodyne.
   ANODYNE.  (Anodynus;  from a, priv. and ioSvvti,
 pain.)   Those medicines are termed Anodynes, which
 ease pain and procure sleep.   They are  divided into
 Ihree sorts; paregorics, or such as assuage pain; hyp
 notics, or such as relieve by procuring sleep; and nar-
 cotics, or such as ease the patient by stupifying him.
   Ano'dynum martiale.  Ferrum ammoniatum pre-
 cipitated from water by pota>sa.
   Ano'dynum minerals.  Sal prunella.
   ANOMALOUS.   (From a- priv. and vopoc, a  law.;
 This term is often applied to those diseases, the symp
 toms  of  which  do not appear with that regularity
 which is generally observed in diseases.  A disease is
 also said to be anomalous, when the symptoms are so
 varied as not to bring it uuder the description of any
 known affection.
  ANO MPHALOS.  (From a, priv. and optfaXos, the
 navel.1   Anompkalus.  Without a navel.
  ANONYM! 'S.  (Anonymus, from a, priv. and ovo-
 pa, uame.)   Nameless;  some eminences of the brain
 are called columna  anonyma;  and  it was formerly
 applied to one ofthe cricoid muscles.
  ANO RCHIDES.   (From  a, priv. and  opyts, the
 testicle.)  Children are so termed  which come into the
 world without  testicles.   This  is a very common oc-
 currence.  The testicles of many male infants  at the
 time of birth are within the abdomen.  The time  of
 their descent is  very uncertain,  and instances  have
 occurred  where they have not reached tlie scrotum at
 the age often or fifteen.
  ANOREXIA.  (Anorexia, a, f.; from  a, priv. and
 optt-ic, appetite.)  A want of appetite, without loatli-
 ing of food.  Cullen ranks this genus of disease in the
class Locales, and order Dysoreiite.   He believes it M
 be generally symptomatic, but enumerates two species,
 viz. the Anorexia humoraiis, and tlie Anorexia atonica.
See Dyspepsia.
  ANO'SMIA.   (Anosmia, a, f.; from a, neg. and os<u,
to smell.)  A loss ofthe  sense of smelling.   This genus
of disease is arranged by Cullen in tlie order Locales,
 and order Dysesthesia.  When it arises frpm a dis-
ease ofthe Schneiderian membrane, it is termed Anos-
mia organica;  and when from  no manifest  cause
Anosmia atonica.. 
ANT
ANT
  A NSER.  (Anser, eris. in.; a  goose  or  gander.) |
 S he name of a genus of birds.
  Anser dome'sticus.  The tame goose.  The flesh
of this bird is somewhat mmilarto that of the duck,
and requires  the assistance of spirituous and stimu-
lating substances, to enable the stomach to digest it.
Both are very improper for weak stomachs.
  ANSERl'NA.  (From anser, a goose; so called be-
cause geose eat il.)  See Potentilla  anserina.
  ANT.  See Formica rufa
  Ant, acid of.  See Formic acid.
  ANTACID.  (Antacidus;  from av7«. against, and
acidus, acid.)  That which destroys acidity.  The ac-
tion of antacids in the human stomach, is purely che-
mical, as they merely combine with the acid present,
and neutralize it.  They ore only palliatives, tlie gene-
ration of acidity being to be prevented by restoring the
tone of the stomach and its vessels.  Dyspepsia and
diarrhoea are the diseases in which  they are employed.
The principal antacids in  use are  the alkalies; e. g.
Liquoris potassae, gutt. \v. or from  5 to lo  gr. of sub-
r;arbonate of potassa, or soda dissolved in water.  The
solution of  soda called double soda-water, or that of
potassa supersaturated with  carbonic acid,  is  more
frequently used, as being  more  pleasant   Ammonia
has been recommended as preferable to every other
antacid, from 10 to 20 drops of the liquor amnioniae in
a cupful of water.  The liquor cal< is, or lime  water, is
likewise used to correct acidity, two or three ounces
being taken occasionally.  Creta praeparata  alone, or
Willi the addition of a small quantity of any  aromatic
—chelae cancrorum praeparatae; magnesia also audits
carbonate, are used for the same purpose.
  ANTAGONIST.  (.ijiru,jonuruj, counteracting.) A
term applied  to  those muscles which have  opi>osite
functions.  Such  are  the flexor and extensor of any
limb, the one  of which contracts it,  the other  stretches
it out; and also the abductors and adductors.  Soli-
tary muscles are tliose without any antagoni:>t, as the
heart, Sec.
  ANTALGIC.   (Antalgicus; from avji, against,
and aXyoj,  pain.)   That which relieves pain.
  ANT ALKALINE.   (Antalkalmus;  from  ai»7«i
 against, and alkali, an alcali.)  That which  possesses
 the power of neutralizing alkalies.  All the acids are
 of  this class.
  ANTAPHRODISI'AC.   Antaphrodisiacus;  from
 a*?!) against, and Aippoifln, Venus. Antivcnereal, or
 whatever extinguishes amorous desires.
  Antaphrodi'tic.  The same.
  Antapo'dosis.    (From  av7airo8iSu>pt,   to recipro-
cate.)  A vicissitude, or return of the paroxysm of
fevers.—Hippocrates.  Called by Galen cipidosis.
  Antarthri'tic.  See Antiarthritic.
  Antasthma'tic See Antiasthmatic.
  Antatro'phic  See Antiatrophic.
  Anteche'sis.  (From avJexQpni, to resist.)  A vi-
olent  stoppage in  tlie bowels, which resists all efforts
lo remove it.—Hippocrates.
  Antela'bium.  (From ante, before, and labium, a
lip.)  The extremity ofthe lip.
  Antk'mbasis.  (From avn, mutually, and cpSaivio,
lo enter.)   A coalescence, or union of bone.—Galen.
  Anteme'tic  See Antiemetic.
  Antenea'smus.  (From am, against, and rttveopos,
Implacable.)  That species of madness in which the
patient endeavours to destroy himself
  Antephia'ltic  See Antiphialtic.
  Antepile'ptic  See Anticpileptic.
  ANTERIOR.  Before.   A term applied  to  what
may be situated before another of the same kind, as a
muscle, a projection, eminence, lobe, artery, Sec.
  Anterior auris.   Musculus anterior auris.   One
ofthe common muscles of the ear,  situated before the
external ear.  It arises thin and membranous, near the
posterior part of  the  zygoma, and  is inserted into a
small eminence on the back of the helix, opposite to the
concha, which it draws a little forwards and upwards.
  Anterior  intercostal.  Nervus intercostalis an-
terior.  Splanchnic nerve.  A branch of tlie  great in-
tercostal that is given off in the thorax.
  Anterior  mallei.  See Laxator tympani.
  ANTHE'LIX.  See Antihclix.
  Anthe'lmia.  (From avn, against, and tXpivs, a
worm ; so called,  because it was thought of great vir-
tue  in expelling worms.)  See Spigclia anthe'lmia, and
Marilandica.
  ANTHELMINTIC.   (Anthelminticuf; from avn,
against, and fXjiiyj.n worm.)  Whatever procures ths
evacuation of worms from the stomach and intestines.
The greater  number of  anthelmintics  act  mechani-
cally, dislodging the worms, by the sharpness or rough-
ness of their particles, or by their cathartic operation.
Some seem lo have no other qualities 'nan those  of
powerful bitters by which they either prove noxious to
these animals, or remove  that debility of ihe digestive
organs, by which the food is not properly assimilated,
or the secreted fluids  poured into the intestines are not
properly prepared; circumstances from  wliich  it has
been supposed ihe generation of worms may arise.
The principal medicines  belonging to this class, aie,
mercury, gamboge, Geolfru-a inermis, lauaeeluiii, po-
lypodium  filix mas,  spigclia maiilaudica,  aricniisia
sanlonica, olea Europun, slantiuin piilverisutuin, fenj
limaturae, and dolichos pruriens; which see under II,en
respective heads.
  A N'l'HE.MlS.  (Anthemis, midis. firm. ; from av
6tu,flono ; because it beats an abundance of llowers.)
1. The name of a genus of plants  in the Lmnaean
system.   Class, Syngencsia; Order, Polygamia su-
prrflua.
  2. The name in the London Pharmacopoeia for cha-
momile.  See Anthemis nobilis.
  Anthemis cotiila.   The systematic name  of the
plant called Cotulafalida •  Chamamelum fatidum, in
the  pharmacopoeias.   Mayweed.  Stinking chamo-
mile.  This plant, Anthemis:—rmpia.ulis conicis
pa lets sctaceis, seminibus nudis, ol  l.inmcus,  has a
very disagreeable  smell;  the leaves, a  strong,  acrid,
bitterish taste; the flowers, however, are almost insi-
pid. It is said to have been useful in hysterical affec-
tions, but is very seldom employed.
  Anthemis nobilis.  The systematic name for the
Chamamelum; Chamamelum nobile; Chamumilla ro-
mana; Euar.themon of Galen.  Anthemis of ihe last
London pharmacopoeia. Common chamomile. Anthe-
mis—foliis pinnato-compositis linearibus  acutis sub-
villosis, of Linnaeus.  Both the leaves and flowers  of
this indigenous plant have a strong though not un-
grateful smell, and a very bitter, nauseous taste ; but
the latter are the bitterer,  and considerably more aro-
matic.  They possess tonic  and  stomachic qualities,
and are much employed to restore tone to the stomach
and intestines, and as  a  pleasant  and cheap  bitter.
They have been long successfully used for the cure of
intermittents, as well as of fevers of the-irregutar ner-
vous kind, accompanied  with visceral obstructions.
The flowers have been found useful in  hysterical af-
fections, flatulent or spasmodic colics, and dysentery;
but, from  their laxative  quality, Dr. Cullen tells  us
they proved hurtful in diarrhoeas.  A simple infusion
is frequently taken to excite vomiting, or for promoting
the operation of emetics.   Externally they are used in
the decoctum pro fomento, and are an ingredient in
the decoctum malva compositum.
  Antiii: mis pyrethrum.  The plant from which we
obtain the pyrethrum of the pharmacopoeias; Aste-
rantium; Buphthalmum  creticum;  Bellis montana
putescens acris;  Dentaria;  Herba salivaris; Pes
Alexandrinus.   Spanish  Chamomile; pellitory  of
Spain.   Anthemis :—caulibus  simplicibus unifioris
decumbentibus—foliis pinnato-multifidis, of Linnaeus.
This root, though cultivated in this country, is gene-
rally imported from Spain.  Its taste  is hot and acrid,
its  acrimony residing in a resinous principle.  The
ancient Romans, it is said, employed the root of this
plant as a pickle.  In its recent state, it is not so pun-
gent as when dried, and yet, if applied to the skin., it
produces inflammation.   Its qualities are stimulant;
but it is  never used, except as a masticatory, for re-
lieving toothaches, rheumatic affections of the  face,
and paralysis of the tcngue, in which it affords relief
by stimulating the excretory ducts of the salival glands.
  ANTHERA.  (From avOos, a flower.)
  1. A compound medicine used by the ancients; so
called from its florid colour.—Galen. .Egineta.
  2. The male part ofthe fructification of plants:—so
called by Linnaeus, by way of eminence.   The male
genital organ of plants consists of three parts, the fiia
ment, anther, and pollen.  The  anthera is the little
head or extremity which rests on  the filament.
  Different terms are applied to the anthers from their
figure:
  1. Oblong; as in Lilium candtdum. 
ANT                                           ANT
  2.  Glooose,  as in Mcrcurialis annua,
  3.  Semilunar; as in Fragaria vcsra.
  4.  Angular; as in Tulipa gesneriana,
  5.  Linear; as in the grasses and Protea.
  6.  /Ji'rfj mows; as in Digitalis purpurea.
  7  Arrow shaped; as in Crocus sativus.
  8  .fii/id, parted  half way down in two;  as in the
grasses and Erica.
  9.  Shield like, or peltate, of a round shape; as in
Taxus baccata.
  JO. Dentate, with a tooth-like margin; as in Taxus
haecata.
  11. Hairy ; as in Lamium album.
  12. Bicorn, with  two divisions like horns; as in
arbutus uva ursi and Vaccinium myrtillus.
  13. Cristate, having cartilaginous points.
  14. Crucial; as in Mellitis.
  15. Double or twin-like;  as in Callisia and Hura.
  Hi. Rostrate; as in Osbeckia.
  17. iitAuiaie, or  awl-shaped;  as in the genus /fo-
 lio.
  18. Cordate; as in Cupraria.
  19. Reniform, kidney-shaped; as in Tradescantia
 lid Ginora.
  20. Trigonal, or three-cornered ;  as in the .Rose.
  21.  Tetragonal, or four-cornered, as in  Cannabis
and Dictamnus.
  From their situation:
  22. Erect, with  its base upon the apex of the fila-
ment ; as in Tulipa gesneriana.
  23. Incumbent, lying horizontally upon the filament,
as in Amaryllis formossima.
  24. Versatile when the incumbent anther adheres
so loosely to the filament, that the least  agitation of
..ie plant puts it in motion ;  as in Scoale cereale.
  25. Lateral, adhering  laterally to the filament; as
in Dianthcra.
  26*. Sessile, the filament  almost wanting; as in
dristolochia clematitis,
  27. Free, not united to any other anther.
  23. Connate, united together; as in Viola odorata.
  ANTHODIUM.   A species of calyx, whicli contains
many flowers being common to them all.
  It  is distinguished from its structure into,
  1.  Monophyllous, consisting of one leaflet perfect at
its base, but cut at its limb or margin ; as  in Trago-
pogon.
  2.  Polyphyllous, consisting of several leaflets ; as in
Carduus and Centaurea.
  3.  Simple, consisting of one series of leaflets; as in
Cacalia porophyllum.
  4.  Equal, when all the leaves of the Anthodium
simplex are ofthe same length, as in Ethulia.
  5.  Imbrecate or squamose, as in Centaurea cyanus.
  t).  Squarrose, the leaflets bent backward  at their
extremities.
  7.  Scabrous, rough, consisting of dry leaflets; as in
Centaurea glastifolia and jacea.
  8.  Spinous, the  leaflets having thorns;  as in Cynaa
scolymus and Centaurea sonchifolia.
  9.  Turbinate; as in Tarconanthus camphoratus.
  10. Globose ; as in Centaurea calcitrapa.
  11. Hemispherical, round below and flat above; as
in Anthemis and Chrysocoma.
  12. Cylindrical, long and round; as with  Eupato-
rium.
  13. Calcyculate, the basis surrounded by another
■mall leafy anthodium. as  in Lcontodon taraxacum,
Senecio, and Crcpis.
  ANTHOPHYLLITE.  A massive  mineral, of  a
brown colour, found al Konigsberg, in Norway.
  [This substance has been observed only in amor-
phous masses, whose longitudinal fracture  is foliated,
or radiated, and whose cross fracture is uneven.  The
lustre ofthe most perfect laminae is somewhat metallic.
Its natural joints, of which two are much more perfect
than the others, are parallel to the faces of a rectan-
gular four-sidca prism.  It is rather difficult to break,
and strongly scratches  fluate of  lime, but produces
little or no effect  on glass.  It is feebly translucent at
the edges, and Its colour is brown, tinged with violet.
Its powder is whitish, and rough to the touch.  Its
specific gravity varies from 3.11, to 3.29.  Before the
blow-pipe  it Is infusible. Il contains silex 62.66, alu-
mine 13.33, magnesia 4.0, lime 3.33, oxide of iron 12.00,
manganese 3.25, water 1.43.  It is softer, lighter, and
has  less lustre, than Labrador stone.—Cleav. Min.  A.]
       TO
   ANTHOPHY'LLUS.  (From av6os,n flower, und
 d>vXXov, a leaf; so called from the fragance ofthe
 flowers and the  beauty of the leaves.)   The clove is
 so termed when it has been suffered to grow to matu-
 rity.—Bauhin.
   ANTHOPHY'LLUS.  (From avBos, a flower, and
 ttjtXeio, to  love.t  A florist.
   A'NTHORA.  (Quasi antithora.  AvriBooa; from
 avn, against, and  $opa, monkshood:  so   called,
 because it is said to counteract the effects ofthe thorn
 or monkshood.)  A species of Wolfsbane.  See Aco-
 nitum anthora.
   A'nthos  flores.  The flowers of the rosmarinu*
 •Are so termed in some pharmacopoeias.  See Rosma-
 rinus officinalis.
   ANTHRA'CIA. 1. The name of a genii3 of diseases
 in Good's Nosology.  See Nosology.
   2. A name of the carbuncle.  See Anthrax.
   ANTHRACITE.   Blind  coal,  Kilkenny coal,  or
 glance coal.  There are three varieties, conchoidal,
 slaty, and columnar.
   [When pulverized and heated, it becomes red, and
 slowly consumes with  a very light  lambent flame,
 without smoke,  and when pure emits no sulphureous
 or bituminous odour; it leaves a variable proportion
 of reddish ashes.   Slaty glance coal consists of car
 bon, with from  3  to  30 per  cent of earth and iron.
 This mineral occurs iu imbedded masses, beds,  oi
 veins, in  primitive, transition, and ffoetz rocks.  It it
 found in gneiss, in micaccoucshistus, in mineral veins.
 with calcareous spar,  native silver, mineral pitch, and
 red iron ore; and has been discovered by Jameson  in
 the independent coal formation in the Isle of Arran.—
 Phillips's Min.
   The coal of Rhode-Island  is mingled with quartz,
 and occasionally with fibrous asbestos ; yet it has but
 little hydrogen, and less bitumen.  It  is overlaid  by
 coarse shale, containing numerous and strong  impres-
 sions of ferns.
   In Pennsylvania there are two great coal formations;
 one situated S. E. of the mountains, and the other  N.
 W.  The former is the  Anthracite or glance coal, ex-
 tending almost from Delaware along the head waters
 of the Lehigh and Schuylkill, and to Wilkesbarre  on
 the Susquehannah, and along tlie Juniata.—Mitchill's
 Notes to  Phil. Min.
   This formation of Anthracite has  been traced  for
 ninety or a hundred miles iu the state of Pennsylvania.
 and mines have been opened in  many places on th6
 branches of the Susquehannah, Schuylkill, and Dela-
 ware rivers, and some of them bordering on the states
 of New-Jersey and New-York.  In many places it is
 near the surface, and appears to be inexhaustible.  I'
 is now extensively used as fuel, and its consumption is
 increasing.   A.]
   Antiiraco'sis oculi. A red, livid, burning, sloughy
 very painful tumour, occurring on tlie eyelids.—JEai-
I acta.
|   ANTHRAX.  (Anthrax,  acis. m.; from avQpa\, a
i burning  coal.)  Anthracia ;  Anthroeosia ;  Anthro-
 coma;  Carbunculus; Carbo ; Rubinus versus ; Codi-
 sclla;  Granatrislum;  Pruna;   Persicus  ignus of
 Avicenna.  A hard and circumscribed inflammatory
 tubercle  like  a  boil, which  sometimes forms on the
 cheek,  neck, or back, and  in a few  days becomes
 highly gangrenous.  It then  discharges an extremely
 foetid sanies from under tlie black core, which, like a
 burning  coal, continues destroying the surrounding
 parts  It is supposed to arise from a peculiar miasma,
 is most common in warm climates, and often attends
 the plague.
   ANTHROPOGRA'PHY.  (Anthropographia; from
 avdmoTtos, a man, and ypa0u, to write.)  Description
 ol the structure of man.
   ANTHROPOLOGY.   (Anthpopoloo-ia;  from
 avOptairos, a mun, and  Xoyos, a discourse.)   Tlie  de-
 scription ot man.
   ANTHYPNO'TIC.   (Anthypnoticus ; from  av7i,
 against,  and virvoc,  sleep.)   That which  prevents
 sleep or drowsiness.
   AftTHYPOClklNDRI'AC. (Anthyporhonertacus,
 from avfi,against, and biroxovtpia, the hypochondria^
 I hat which is adapted to cure low-spiritedness or dis
 orders ot the hypochondria.
   ANTHYSTER1C.   (Anthystcricus;  from  avlt
 against, and uj-tpa, the womb.)  That which  relieve
 the hysteric passion 
ANT                                           ANT
   A'NTl   (Ai'7i, against.)  There are many names
 Mimpound'ri with this word, as Antiasthnratic; Anti-
 hysteric ; Antidysenteric, Sec.;  which signify medi-
 cines against the asthma, hysterics, dysentery, Sec.
   A.ntia'gra.   (From avjias, a tonsil, and aypa, a
 prey.)  Antiagri. A tumour i if the tonsils.— Ulpian,
 Roland, Sec.
   ANTIARTHRI'TIC.  (Antiarthriticus; from
 iv7«, against, and apSpiJis, tie gout.)  Antiartiiritic.
 Against the gout.
   ANTI ASTHMATIC.  Antiasthmaticus; from
 tv'fi, against, and aoOpa, an istlmia.)   Antasllunatic.
 Against the asthma.
   ANTIATROPHIC.  (Antiitrophieus; from  av7i,
 agonist, and afpodiia, an atio ihv.)  Against an atro-
 phy or wasting away.
   A N T I C A C H E' C TIC  (Anticachecticus ; from
 a»7«- against, and  Kaxc\ia, a cachevy.)  Medicines
 against a cachexy, or  bad hal.it of bodv.
   ANT1CARD1UM.   (From  nv7i, against, or oppo-
 site, and Kap£ia,tiie heart.)  Tlie hollow at tlie bottom of
 the breast, commonly  called icrobiculus cordis, or the
 pit ofthe stomach.
   ANTICATARR1IAL.    Auticatarrhalis;  from
 ri7c against, and Ka"]appn. a  tatarrh.)  That which
 relieves a catarrh.
   ANTICAUSOTIC.   (fiom  av7c  against, and
 Kavcos, a burning fever.)   It^u.edies against burning
 fevers.  We read, iu  Corji. Puarin. of Juuken, of a
 syrupus anticausoticus.
   A'nticheir.  (From avjt, usainst, and x«p, the
 hand.)  The thumb.—Oat™.
   Anticne'mion.  (From  a-m, against, or opposite,
 and trniprj, the calf of the l<f.)  That part ofthe tibia
 which is bare of flesh, and opposite the calf of the leg.
 The shin-bone.—Galen.
   ANTICO'LIC.  (From avn, against, and kwXiktj,
 the colic.)   Remedies againot the colic.
   Antidia'stolk. (From a»-ri, against, and rJiajrtXXcii,
 to distinguish.)  An exact and accurate distinction of
 one disease, or symptom, from another.
   ANTIDI'NIC.  (From ain, against,  and Snos, cir-
 cumgyration.)  Medicines against a vertigo, or giddi-
 ness.—Blanehard.
   ANTIDOTARIUM.  (Antidotarium, i.  n.;  from
 avnooTos, an  antidote.)   A term  used by former
 writers for what we now call a dispensatory ; a place
 where antidotes are prescribed and prepared.  There
 are antidotaries  extant of several authors, as those of
 Nicholaus,  Mesue, Myrepsus, Sec.
   AN'TI'DOTUS.  From  am, against, and SiSwpt,
 to give.) 1. An antidote.
   2. A preservative against sickness.
   3  A remedy.—Galtn.
   ANTIDYSENTERIC.   (Antidysentcricus; from
 avn,  against,  and  ivccvrtpia, a  flux.)  Medicines
 against a dysentery.
   ANTIEMETIC. (Antiemeticits; from am, against,
 and epeui, to vomit.')  Antemctic.  That whicli pre-
 vents or stops vomiting.
  ANTIEPHIALTIC. (Antiephialticus ; from am,
 against, and rdtaXri?;, the nightmare.)   Antephialtic.
 Against the nightmare.
  ANTIEPILEPTIC.  (Antiepilepticus;  from avn,
 against, and ciriXnip'Si the  epilepsy.)   Antepilcptic.
 Against epilepsy.
   ANTIFEBRILE. (Antifebrilis; from avn, against,
 and febris, a fever.)  A febrifuge, a remedy against
 fever.
   ANTIHE'CTIC. (Antihecticus ; from avn, against,
 and Iktikos, a hectic fever.)   A remedy against a hec-
 tic fever
   Antihe'cticum poterii.  Antimonium diaphore-
 ticum Jbviale.  A  medicine invented by  Poterius,
 formerly extolled as effectual in hectic fevers, but
 now disregarded.  It is an oxyde  of tin and clialy-
 beated regulus of antimony, in consequence  of their
 deflagration with nitre.
  ANTIHE'LLX.  (Antihelix, lids. m.; from avn,
 against, and cXil, the helix.)  The  inner circle of the
 external ear, so called from its opposition to the outer
circuit, called the helix.
  ANTHELMINTIC.  See Anthelmintic.
  ANTIHYSTER'IC.  (Antihystericus;  from avn,
against, and bstpiKa,  hysterics.)  Medicines whicli
prevent or relieve hysterics.
  Antii.e'psis.  (From amXapBavu, to take hold of.)
 The securing of bandages or ligatures from slipping
 —Hippoerati s.
  AN 1'ILO B1UM.  (From avn, opposite, and AotJoj,
 the bottom of the ear.)  The tragus or that part of
 the ear which is opposite the lobe.
  ANTILOI'MIC. (Antiloimicus; from avn, against,
 and Xotpos, the plague.)   Remedies or  preventives
 against the plague.
  AN'ITLOPUS.  The antelope.   An African beast
 resembling a deer, the hoofs and horns of which were
 formerly eiven in hysteric and epllectic cases.
  AN TIL V SSI'S.   (From avn, against, and Xvoaa,
 the bite of a mad dog.)  A medicine or remedy again*
 tlie bite of a mad dog.
  ANTIMONIA'L.   (Antimonialis;  from antimo-
 nium,  antimony.)  An nntimonial  or composition in
 which  antimony is a chief ingredient.  A preparation
 of antimony.
  Antimonialpowder.  See Antimonialis pulvis.
  Antimonia'lis pulvis. Antimonial powder.  Take
 of sulphuret of antimony, powdered, a pound ; harts-
 horn shavings, two  pounds.   Mix  and  throw them
 into a broad iron pot heated to a white  heat, and stir
 the mixture constantly until it acquires nn ash colour.
 Having taken it out, reduce it to  powder, and put it
 into a  coated crucible, upon which another inverted
 crucible,  having a small hole in its bottom, is to be
 luted.  Then raise the fire by degrees to a white heat,
 and keep it so for two hours.  Reduce the rcriduary
 mass to a very fine powder.  The dose is from five to
 ten grains.  It is in  high esteem as a febrifuge, sudo-
 rific, and antispasmodic.  The diseases in which it is
 mostly exhibited arc, most  species of asthenic  and
 exanthematous  fevers,  acute rheumatism, gout,  dis-
 eases  arising from  obstructed perspiration, dysuria,
 nervous affections, and spasms.
  This preparation was  introduced into the  former
 London pharmacopoeia as a substitute for a medicine
 of extensive celebrity, Dr. James's powder; to whicli,
 however, the present form more nearly  assimilates in
 its  dose,  and it is more manageable in  its adminis-
 tration, by the reduction ofthe proportion of antimeny
 to one-half.
  Antimonic acid.  See Antimony.
  Antimonious  acid.  See Antimony.
  Antimonii oxydum.   Oxyde of Antimony.  This
 preparation is now directed to be made by dissolving
 an ounce of tartarized  antimony, and two drams of
 subcarbonate of ammonia, separately  in distilled
 water,  mixing the solutions and boiling, til! the oxyde
 of antimony is  precipitated, which  is to be washed
 with water, and dried.  This must not be confounded
 with the  old calcined or diaphoretic antimony, being
 a much more active preparation.  See Antimony.
  In its effects, it will be found to agree pretty much
 with the antimonium  tartarizatum ; but  it is  very
 little employed.
  Antimonii sulpiiuretum pn.EciPiTATUM. Sulphur
 antimonii pracipitatum.   Precipitated  sulphuret of
 antimony.  This preparation of antimony appears to
 have rendered that called  kermes mineral unneces-
 sary.   It  is made thus:—Take of  sulphuret of anti-
 mony,  in powder,  two pounds;—ofthe solution of
 potassa, four pints:—of distilled water, three pints.
  Mix; and boil the mixture over a slow fire for three
 hours, stirring it well, and occasionally adding distil-
 led  water, so that the same measure may be preserved.
Strain  the  solution quickly through a double linen
cloth, and while it  is yet hot, drop in  gradually, as
much sulphuric  acid as may be required to precipitate
the powder; then wash away the sulphate of potassa
 by hot  water; dry the precipitated sulphuret of anti-
mony, and  reduce it  to powder. In this process part
of tlie  water  is  decomposed, and  its oxygen unites
partly with the antimony; the oxyde of antimony, as
well as the potassa, combines with sulphur and hydro-
gen, forming hydrosulphuret of antimony and hydro- -
guretted sulphuret of potassa: if the solution be allow-
ed to cool, the former of these partly precipitates, con
stituting the kermes mineral;  but the addition of the
sulphuric acid throws down tne whole of it at once,
mixed with some sulphur, furnished with the decom
position of the hydroguretted sulphuret of potassa.
  As an alterative and sudorific, it is in high estima-
tion, and given in  diseases of the skin and glands
and, joined with calomel, it is one of the most power
ful and pesetrating alteratives we are in possession oi 
ANT
ANT
  Antimonii tartarizati visum.   Wine of tartar-
ized antinionv.  Take of tartarized  antimony, one
ccruple;  boiling distilled water, eight fluid ounces;
rectified spiiit, two fluid ounces.  Dissolve the tartar-
ized antimony in the boiling distilled water, and add
the spirit to the filtered liquor.  Four fluid drachms of
this contain one grain of tartarized antimony.
  ANTIMONITE.   A salt formed  by the combina-
tion of the antimonous  acid witli alkaline  and  other
bases.   Seo Antimony.
  ANTIMO'NIU.M.   See Antimony
  Antimonium calcinatum.  An oxyde of antimony.
  Antimonium diaphorkticum.  An old  name for
an oxyde of antimony.
  Antimonium tartarizatum.  Tartarus emcticus ;
Tartarum emeticum;  Tartarus antimonialus ;  Tar-
tris antimonii  cum potassa; Tartarum stibiatum.
Tartar emetic.   It is obtained by boiling tlie fusible
oxyde of antimony with supertartrate of  potassa, the
excess of tartaric acid dissolves the oxyde, and a  triple
salt is obtained by crystallization.  The London Phar-
macopoeia directs thus  Take of glass of antimony
finely legivated, supertartrate of potassa in powder, of
each a  pound; boiling distilled water a gallon; mix
the glass of antimony and the supertartrate of potassa
well together, and then add  them  by degrees to the
distilled water,  which is  to be kept boiling and con-
stantly stirred;  boil  the whole for  a quarter of an
hour, and then set it by.  Filter it when cold, and
evaporate the filtered liquor so that crystals may form
in it.  A solution of this salt in dilute wine is ordered
in the  Ptiarmacopoeia.  See  Antimonii   tartarizati
vinum.
  Tartar emetic is the most useful of all the antimo-
nial preparations.  Its action is not  dependent on the
state of tlie stomach, and, being  soluble in w titer, its
dose is easily managed, while it also acts  more speed-
ily.  In doses of from one to three, four, or five grains,
it generally acts powerfully as an emetic, and is em-
ployed whenever we wish to obtain the effects wliich
result from full vomiting.  As patients are  differently
affected by this medicine, the safest mode of exhibiting
it is: Be. Antimonii tartarazati,  gr.  iii.  Aqua distil-
lata, | iv. Misce et cola.  Dosis *§ ss. omni florae quad-
rante, donee supervenerit vomitus.
  For  children, emetic tartar is not so  safe for an
emetic as ipecacuanha powder: when great debility
of the system is present, even a  small dose has been
known to prove fatal.  Sometimes it proves cathartic.
In smaller doses it excites nausea, and proves a pow-
erful diaphoretic and expectorant.  As an emetic it is
chiefly given in the  beginning of fevers and febrile
diseases; when  great debility is present, and in the
advanced  stages of typhoid fever, its use  is improper,
and even  sometimes fatal.   As a  diaphoretic, it  is
given in small doses, of from an eighth to a quarter of
a grain; and as an expectorant, in doses still smaller.
Emetic tartar, in small doses, combined with calomel,
has been found a powerful yet safe alterative in ob-
stinate eruptions ot" the skin.  Be. Antimonii tartari-
zati, gr iv.  Hydrargyri submuriatis, gr. xvi.  Con-
fectionis rose  gallics, q.  s.   Divide in  pil.  xxiv.
Capiat i. mane  nocteque ex thea sassafras.
  In the form of powder, or  dissolved in water, it is
applied by  a pencil to warts and obstinate ulcers: it is
also given  in the form of clyster, with a  view to pro-
duce irritation  in soporose diseases, apoplexy, ileus,
and strangulated hernia.  The  powder  mixed with
any fluid, and rubbed on the scorbiculus cordis, excites
vomiting.  Another property wliich  tartar emetic lias,
when rubbed on the skin, is that of  producing a crop
uf  pustules very like to  the small-pox, and with this
view it is  used against rheumatic  pains, white, and
other obstinate  swellings.  Tlie best antidote ngoinst
the bad effects of too large a quantity of this and other
Biuimonial preparations, is a decoction of the bark of
cinchona;  in defect  of which, tea  and other astrin-
gents may  be used.   In a larger dose, this salt is capa-
ble of acting as a violent poison.  Tlie best antidotes
are demulcent  drinks, infusions of bark, tea, and sul-
phuretted  hydrogen  water, whicli  instantly converts
the energetic  salt into a relatively mild  sulphuret:
anodynes are useful  afterward.
   Antimonium vitripactum.  Glass of  antimony.
An oxyde of antimony, with a little sulphuret.
   ANTIMONV.  (Antimonium, i. n.  Avripoviov.
Tlie origin of  this word is very obscure.  The most
       71
:eceived etymology  is, from  avn, against, and povos,
a monk; because"Valentine, by  an injudicious ad-
ministration of it, poisoned his brother monks.)   Sti-
bium.  A metal found native, but very rarely; it dw,
in that state, a metallic lustre, and is found in ina*e«
of different shapes; its colour is white, between those
of tin and silver.  It generally contains a small por-
tion of arsenic.   It is likewise met with in  the state of
an oxyde, antimonial ochre.  The most abundant ore
of it is that in which it is combined  with sulphur, the
gray  ore of antimony,  or  sulphuret of antimony
The colour of this ore is bluish, or steel-gray, of a me
tallic lustre, and is often extremely beautifully varie-
gated.   Its  texture  is either  compact,  foliated, or
striated.   The striated  is  found both crystallized,
massive, and disseminated: there  are many varieties
of this ore.
  Properties  of Antimony.—Antimony is  a metal of
a grayish  white, having a slight bluish  shade, and
very brilliant.  Its texture is lamellated, and exhibits
plates crossing each other in every direction.  Its sur-
face is covered with herbarisations and foliage.  Its
specific gravity is  6.702.  It is sufficiently  hard to
scratch  all the  soft metals.   It is very brittle, easily
broken, and pulverizable.  It  fuses at 810" Fahr.  It
can be volatilized, and burns by a strong heat When
perlectly fused, and suffered to cool gradually, it crys-
tallizes  in octahedra.   It unites  with sulphur and
phosphorus.  It decomposes water strongly  at a red
heat.   It is soluble in alkaline sulphurets.  Sulphuric
acid, boiled upon antimony, 13 feebly decomposed
Nitric  acid dissolves il  in the cold.  Muriatic acid
scarcely acts upon it.  The oxygenated muriatic acid
gas inflames it, and the liquid  acid  dissolves it with
facility.  Arsenic acid dissolves it by heat with diffi-
culty.  It unites, by fusion, with  gold, and renders it
pale and brittle.  Platina, silver, lead, bismuth, nickel,
copper, arsenic, iron, cobalt, tin, and zinc, unite with
antimony by fusion, and form with it compounds,
more or less brittle.  Mercury does not alloy with it
easily unless very pure.   We are  little  acquainted
with the action of alkalies upon it.  Nitrate of potassa
is decomposed by it.   It  fulminates  by  percussion
with oxygenated muriate of potassa. Antimony forms
three,  probably  four,  distinct combinations with
oxygen:
  1. The protoxyde, a blackish gray powder obtained
from  a mixture of powder of antimony and water at
the positive pole of a voltaic circuit.
  2. The dcutoxyde, obtained by  digesting the metal
in powder, in muriatic acid, and pouring the  solution
in water of potassa.  "Wash  and dry tlie  precipitate.
It is a powder of a dirty white colour which melts in
a moderate red heat, and crystallizes as it  cools.
  3. The triloxydc, or  antimonious acid, wliich as
immediately produced by the combustion ofthe metal,
called formerly, from its fine white colour, the argen-
tine flowers  of antimony.  It forms the  salts called
antimonites with the different bases.
  4. The peroxyde, or antimonic acid.  This is formed
when  the metal in powder  is ignited along  with six
times its weight of nitre  in a silver crucible.  The
excess of potassa and nitre  being afterward sepa-
rated by hot water, tlie antimoniate  of potassa is then
to be decomposed by muriatic acid, when the insolu-
ble antimonic acid of a straw colour will be obtained.
  Methods of obtaining antimony.   1. To  obtain anti-
mony, heat 32  parts of filings of iron to redness, and
project on them, by degrees, 100 parts of antimony;
when the whole is in fusion, throw on it, by degrees,
20 parts of nitrate of potassa, and after a few micutes
quiet fusion, pour  it into an iron melting cone, pre
viously heated and greased.
  2. Il may also  be obtained  by melting eight parts of
the ore mixed with six of nitrate of potassa, and three
of  supertartrate of potassa, gradually projected into a
red-hot crucible, and fused.
  To obtain perfectly pure antimony, Margraaf melted
some pounds ofthe sulphuret in a luted crucible, and
thus  scorified  any metals  it might  contain.  Of tlie
antimony thus purifi'.d,  which iay at tlie bottom, he
took sixteen ounces, wliich  he oxydized cautiously
first with a slow, and afterward  with a  strong heat,
until it  ceased to smell of  sulphur, and acquired a
grayish-white colour. Of tliisgray powder he took foui
ounces,  mixed  them with six drachms of supertartratt
of potassa, ant*  tluee of charcoal, and kept them in 
ANT
ANT
fusion in  a well-co»ered and imed crucible, for one
uour, and thus obtained a metallic button that weighed
one ounce, seven drachms, and twenty grains.
  The metal, thus obtained, he  mixed with halt its
weight of desiccated subcarbonale of soda, and cover-
ed the mixture with the same quantity of the subcar-
bonate.   He then melted it in  a  well-covered  and
hited crucible, in a very strong heat, for half an hour,
and thu* obtained a button which weighed one ounce,
six drachms, and seven grains, much whiter anil more
beautiful than the former.  This  he again treated with
one  and a  half ounce of subcarbonate of soda, and
obtained a button, weighing  one  ounce, live drachms,
and six grains.   This  button was still purer than the
foregoing.  Repeating these fusions with equal weights
of subcarbonate of soda tliree  times more,  and an
hour and a half each time, he at last obtained a button
so pure as to amalgamate  with mercury with ea.-e,
very hard, and in  some degree malleable; the scoria;
formed in the last fusion  were transparent,  which
indicated  that they contained no  sulphur, and hence it
is tlie obstinate adherence of the sulphur that renders
the purification of this metal so difficult.
  "Chlorine gas and antimony combine with combus-
tion, and a bichloride results. This was formerly pre-
pared by distilling a mixture of two parts of corrosive
sublimate  with  one  of antimony.   The  substance
which came over  having  a  fatly consistence,  was
called butter of antimony.  It is frequently crystal-
lized in  four-sided prisms.   It is fusible and volatile
at a moderate heat; and is resolved by water alone
into  the  white  oxyde and  muriatic acid.  Being  a
bichloride, it is  eminently corrosive, like  the  bichlo-
ride of mercury, from wliich it is formed.   It consists
of 45.7 chlorine + 54.3 antimony, according  to Dr.
John Davy's analysis, when the composition of the
suiphuret is corrected by its recent exact analysis by
 Bcrzclius.   But 11 antimony -4- 2 primes chlorine
 = 9.0, give the proportion  per cent of 44.1 +  55.5;
 3 good coincidence, if we consider the circuitous pro-
 cess by which  Dr. Davy's analysis  was performed.
 Three parts of corrosive sublimate, and one of metal-
 lic  antimony,  are the equivalent  proportions for
 making butter of antimony.
   Iodine and antimony combine by the aid of heat
 into a solid iodine, of a dark red colour.
   The phosphurel of this metal is obtained by fusing
 It with solid phosphoric acid. It is a white semicrys-
 talline substance.  The sulphuret of antimony exists
 abundantly in nature.   It consists, according to Berze-
 Iius, of 100 antimony + 37.2J sulphur.  The  propor-
 tion given by the equivalent ratio is 100 + 30.5.   The
 only important  alloys of antimony are those of lead
 and tin;  the former constitutes type-metal, and con-
 tains about one-sixteenth  of antimony;  tlie  latter
 alloy is employed for making the plates on which mu-
 sic is engraved.
   The salts of antimony are  of two different orders ;
 In the first, the deutoxyde acts the part of a salifiable
 base; in  the second, the tritoxide and peroxide act the
 part of acids, neutralizing the alkaline and other bases,
 to constitute the antimonites and antimoniates.
   The only distinct combination ofthe first order enti-
 tled lo our attention, is the triple salt called tartrate of
 potassa and antimony, or tartar  emetic, and which, by
 Gay Lussac's new views, would be styled cream-tar-
 trate of antimony.  This constitutes a valuable and
 powerful medicine, and therefore the  mode of pre-
 paring it should be correctly and clearly defined.  As
 the dull white deutoxyde of antimony is the true basis
 of this compound salt, and as that oxyde readily passes
 by mismanagement into the tritoxide or  antiinonious
  acid, which is  altogether unlit  for the purpose,  ade-
 quate pains should be taken to guard against so capital
  an error.   In the British pharmacopoeias, the glass of
  antimony is now directed as the basis of tartar emetic.
  More complex  and precarious formulae were formerly
 introduced  The  new edition  of  the Pharmacoj^e
  Franchise has  given a recipe, which appears, with a
 slight change of proportions, to be  unexceptionable.
 Take of the" sulphuretted vitreous oxide of antimony,
  levigated and  acidulous tartrate of potassa,  equal
  parts.  From a powder, which is to be put into an
  earthen  or silver vessel, with a sufficient quantity of
  pure water.  Boil the mixture for half an hour, adding
  boiling water from time to time; filter the hot liquor
  and evaporate to dryness '" a porcelain capsule; dis-
solve  In  boiling water the result of the cvapoi atirm.
evaporate till  the  solution acquires  the spec, grav
l.llil, and then  let it repose, thai crystals be obtained
which, by  this process,  will  be  pure.   By auothei
recipe, copied,  with some alteration, from Mr. Phil-
lips's prescription, into the  appendix of the French
Pharmacopoeia, a subsulphate of antimony is formed
first of all, by digesting two parts of sulphuret of anti-
mony in  a moderate heat, with three parts of oil of
vitriol.   This insoluble subsulphate being well washed,
is then digested ill a quantity of boiling wuter, with its
own weight of cream of tartar, and evaporated at the
density 1.1G1, after which it is filtered hot.  On coo!
ing, crystals of the triple  tartrate are obtained.   One
might imagine, that there is a chance of obtaining bv
this process  a mixture of sulphate  of potassa, and per-
haps of a triple sulphate of  antimony,  along with the
tartar emetic.  Probably this does not happen, for it
is said lo yield crystals,  very  pure, very white, and
without any mixture whatever.
  Pure tartar emetic is iu colourless and  transparent
tetrahedrons or oclohedrons.  It reddens litlnus.  Its
taste is nauseous and  caustic.  Exposed to the air, il
effloresces  slowly.   Boiling water dissolves half ilj
weight,  and cold water  a fifteenth part.  Sulphuric,
nitric, and muriatic acids, when poured into a solution
of  this salt, precipitate its cream of" tartar; and soda,
potassa,  ammonia, or their carbonates,  throw down
its oxyde of antimony.  Barytes, strontites, and lime
waters occasion not only a precipitate of oxyde of an-
timony,  like the alkalies, but also insoluble tartrates of
these earths.  That produced by the alkaline hydro-
sulphurels  is  wholly  formed of kermes; while  that
caused by sulphuretted hydrogen, contains both kermes
and cream of tartar.  The decoctions of several varie
ties of cinchona, and of several bitter and astringent
 plants, equally decompose lartar emetic; and the pre-
 cipitate  then always consists of the oxyde of antimony,
 combined  with the vegetable matter  and  cream of
 tartar.   Physicians ought, therefore, to beware of such
 incompatible  mixtures.   When tartar emetic  is ex-
 posed to a  red heat, it first blackens, like all organic
 compounds, ond afterward leaves a residuum of me-
 tallic antimony and subcarbonate of potassa.  From
 this circumstance, and the deep brownish red precipi-
 tate, by hydrosulphurets, this antimonial combination
 may readily  be recognised.   The precipitate may
 further  be  dried on a  philter, and  ignited with  black
 flux, when  a globule of metallic antimony will  be ob-
 tained.  Infusion of galls is an active precipitant of
 tartar emetic.
    The composition of this salt, according to M. Thce-
 nard, is 35.4 acid, 39.6 oxyde, 16.7 potassa, and 8.2
 water.  The  presence of the latter ingredient is obvi-
 ous, from the undisputed phenomenon  of efflorescence.
 If we adopt the new views of M. Gay Lussac, this salt
 may be  a compound of a prime equivalent of tartar r=
 23.B25, with a prime equivalent of deutoxidu of anti-
 mony = 13.  On this hypothesis, we would have tin.
 following proportions:
2 primes acid,	= 16.75	45.4
1 prime potassa,	= 5.U5	16.2
1 prime water,	= 1.125	3.1
4 oxyde of antimony,	= 13.00	35.3
36.825
100.0
  But very little confidence can be reposed iu such
atomical representations.
  The deutoxyde seems to have the property of com-
bining with sulphur in various  proportions.  To this
species of compound must be referred the liver of an-
timony, glass of antimony, and crocus mctailorum of
the  ancient  apothecaries.   Sulphuretted  hydrogen
forms, with the deutoxide of antimony, a compound
which possessed at one time great celebrity in medi-
cine, and of which a modification  has lately been in-
troduced into the art of calico printing.  By dropping
hydrosulphuret of potassa, or  of ammonia, into the
cream tartrate, or into mild muriate of antimony, the
hydrosulphuric of the metallic oxyde precipitates of a
beautiful deep orange colour.  This is kermes mineral.
Cluzel's process for obtaining a  tine kermes, light,
velvety, and of a deep purple-brown, is the following;
one  part of pulverized sulphuret of antimony, 22 1-a
parts of crystallized subcarbonato of soda, and 200
parts of water, are to be boiled together in an iron pot
Filter the  hot liquor  into warm earthen pans  aim! 
ANT
ANT
Btfow them  to  cool  very  slowly.  At the end of 24
hours, the kermes i3 deposited.   Throw it on a filter,
wash it with water which  had been boiled and  then
cooled out of contact with air.  Dry the kermes  at a
temperature of 85°,  and preserve in corked  phials.
Whatever may be the  process employed,  by boiling
the liquor, after cooling and filtration, on new sulphuret
of antimony, or upon that which was left in the former
operation, this new liquid will deposite, on cooling, a
new quantity of kermes. Besides the hydrosulphuret-
ted oxyde of antimony, there is formed a sulphuretted
hydrosulphuret of potassa or soda.  Consequently the
alkali seizes a portion ofthe sulphur from the antiino-
uial  sulphuret, water is decomposed; and, while a
a portion of its hydrogen unites to the alkaline sul-
phuret, us oxygen, and the other  portion of its  hydro-
gen,  combine with  the sulphuretted antimony.  It
seems, that the resulting kermes remains dissolved in
the sulphuretted hydrosulphuret of  potassa or soda ;
hat as it is less soluble in the cold than the hot, it is
partially precipitated by refrigeration.  If we pour into
the supernatant liquid, after the kermes is deposited
and removed, any acid,  as  the dilute nitric, sulphuric,
or muriatic,  we decompose the sulphuretted hydrosul-
phuret of potassa or soda.   The alkaline  base being
laid hold of,  the sulphuretted hydrogen and sulphur to
which they were united are set at liberty ;  the sulphur
and  kermes fall together, combine with it, and  form
an orange-coloured compound, called the  golden sul-
phuret of antimony.  It is  a hydroguretted sulphuret
of antimony.  Hence, when  it is digested  with warm
muriatic acid, a large residuum of sulphur  is obtained,
amounting sometimes to 12 per cent.   Kermes is com-
posed, by Thenard, of 20.3 sulphuretted hydrogen, 4.15
sulphur, 72.76 oxyde of antimony, 2.79 water and loss-
and the golden sulphuret consists of 17.87 sulphuretted
hydrogen, 68.3 oxyde of antimony, and 12  sulphur.
  By evaporating the supernatant kermes liquid, and
cooling, crystals form,  which have  been   lately em-
ployed by the calico  printer  to give a topical orange.
These crystals are dissolved in water, and the solution,
being thickened with paste or gum, is applied to cloth
in the usual way.   When  the doth is  dried,  it is
passed through a dilute acid, when the orange precipi-
tate  is deposited and fixed on tlie vegetable fibres.
  An empirical antimonial  medicine, called James's
powder, has been much used in this country.  The
inventor called  it his fever powder, and was  so suc-
cessful in his practice with it, that it obtained very
great reputation, which it still in some measure retains.
Probably, the success of Dr. James was  in a  great
measure owing to his  free use of the bark, which he
always gave as largely  as the stomach would bear, as
soon as  he  had completely evacuated the primae viae
by the use of his antimonial preparation, with which at
first  he used to combine some mercurial.   His speci-
fication,  lodged in  chancery, is  as  follows:  " Take
antimony, calcine it with a continued protracted  heat,
In a  flat, unglazed, earthen vessel, adding to it  from
time to time a sufficient quantity of any  animal  oil
and  salt, well dephlegmated; then boil it in  melted
nitre for a considerable time, and separate the powder
from the nitre  by dissolving it  in water."  The real
recipe has  been studiously concealed, and a false one
published in its stead.   Different formulae have been
offered for imitating it.   That of Dr. Pearson furnishes
a mere mixture of an oxyde of antimony, with phos-
phate of lime.  The real powder of James, according
to this chemist, consists of 57 oxyde of antimony, with
43 phosphate of lime.  It seems  highly probable that
•uperphosphate of lime would  act on oxyde of anti-
mony in a way somewhat similar to cream of tartar,
and produce a more chemical combination than  what
can  be derived from a precarious ustulation, and cal-
cination of  hartshorn shavings and sulphuret of anti-
mony, in ordinary hands.  The  antimonial medicines
arc  powerful deobstiuents, promoting particularly the
cuticular discharge. 'The union of this metallic oxyde
with sulphuretted hydrogen, ought undoubtedly to
favour its medicinal agency in chronic diseases of the
skin.  The kermes deserves more credit  than it has
hitherto received from  British physicians.
   The  compounds,  formed by  the  antiinonious and
 antimonic acids with the bases,  have not been applied
 to any use.  Muriate of barytes may be employed as a
 test lor tartar emetic.   It  will show, by a precipitate
 iiistluble in nitric acid, if sulphate ol potassa be pre-
sent.  If the crystals be regularly formed, more tattai
need not be suspected."— Ure's Chem. Diet.
  The preparations of antimony formerly in use were
very many :  those now directed to be kept are ;—
  1.  Sulphuretum antimonii.
  2.  Oxydum antimonii.
  3.  Sulphuretum antimonii pracipitatum
  4.  Antimonium tarlarizatum.
  5.  Vinum antimonii tartarizati.
  6.  Pulvis antimonialis.
  ANTI'MORIS.  (From  avn, against,  and  uoivi,
death, or disease.)  A medicine to prolong life.
  ANTLNEPHRl'TIC.  (Antinephriticus; from avn,
against, and  vcbpins, a disease of the kidneys.*■   A
remedy  against disorders ofthe kidneys.
  ANTIODONTALGIC.   (Antiodontalgicus;  from
avn, against, and oSovraXyta, the toothache.)  Against
tlie toothache.                   .
  ANTIODONTALGICUS.  An insect described by
Germi in a small work published at Florence 1794, so
called from its property of allaying the toothache.   It
is a kind of curculio found on a species of thistle, Car-
duus spinosissimus.  If twelve or fifteen of these in-
sects, in the state of larva, or when come to perfection,
be bruised and rubbed slowly between the  fore-finger
and thumb until they have lost their  moisture, and  if
the painful tooth, where it is hollow, be touched with
that finger, the pain ceases sometimes instantaneously
A piece of shamoy leather will answer the same pur-
pose with the finger.   If the gums  are inflamed, the
remedy  is  of no avail.  Other insects possess the pro-
perty of curing the toothache;  such as the Scarabcus
ferrugineus  of Fabricius;  the Coccinella septempunc
tata,"or lady-bird;  the Chnjsomela  populi, aud the
Ckrysomcla sanguinolenta.  This property belongs  to
several kinds ofthe Coleoptera.
  ANTIPARALY'TIC. (Antiparalyticus; from avn,
against, and irapaXvais,  the  palsy.)   Against the
palsy.
  ANTIPATHY.  (Antipathia, a. f.  Avt-aOns, from
avniraQtia, to Have  a natural  repugnance or dislike ;
from avn, against,  and -iraBos, an affection.)  1. An
aversion to particular objects.
  2.  The  name of a genus of diseases in some classifi-
cations.
  ANTIPERISTA LTIC.   (Antiperistaltics ; from
avn, against, and rtois-tXXoj, to contract.)  Whatsoe-
ver obstructs the peristaltic motion ofthe intestines.
  Antiperi'statis.  (From avn, against, and -coi^tr
pi,  to press.)  A compression on all sides.   Theo-
phrastus de  igne.
  ANTIPHA'RAIIC.   (Antipharmicus; from  oiti,
against, and q>appaxov, a poison.)  The same as  alexi-
phannic.  Remedies or preservatives against poison.—
Dioscorides.
  ANTIPHLOGISTIC.  (Antiphlogisticvs; fromav-
ri, against, and cbXcyio, to burn.)  A term applied to those
medicines, plans of diet,  mid other circumstances,
which tend to oppose inflammation, or wliich, in other
words, weaken the system by diminishing tlie activity
of the vital power.
  ANTIPHTHI'SIC.   (Antiphthisicus;  from  avn,
against, and cjQtcrts,  consumption.)  Against a con-
sumption.
  Anti'phthora.  (From avn, against, and rpQopa,
corruption.)  A species of wolfsbane which resists cor
ruption.  See Aconitum antliora.
  ANTIPHY'SIC.  (Antiphysicus; from am, against,
and  qtvoaio,  to  blow.)   A carminative or remedy
again-t wind.
  ANTIPLEURI'TIC. (Antipleuriticus; from avn,
against, and  nXcvnins, pleurisy.)  Against a plcurisv.
  ANTIPODA'GRIC.  (Antipodagricus; from avn,
against, and 7ror5aypa, the gout.) That which relieves
or removes the gout.
   Antipraxia.   (From am against, and vpaoeno, to
work.)   A contrariety of functions and temperaments,
in divers  parts.   Contrariety of symptoms.
   ANTIPYRE'TIC.    (Antipyreticus;  from  avn.,
against, and jreptroc, fever.)  Against a fever.
   Antiquartana'ria.   (From  am,  nuaiust, and
quartana, a quartan fever.)  Remedies  against quar
tan  agues.
   Antiqua/rticum.  The same as Antiquartanariu.
   ANTIRRHI'NUM. (Avntftvov; from «in against,
 and /its, the nose: so called because  it represents the
 •lose of a calf.)   The name of a genus of plants in the 
ANT
ANT
 Llnnatan system.  Class, Didynamia; Order, Angio-
 $permia
  Antirrhinum elatine.  The systematic name of
 the plant we call tlueiv.:, or female speedwell.  Ela-
 tine of the shops.   The leaves of this plant  have a
 roughish bitter taste, but no  smell.  It was formerly
 much used against scurvy and old ulcerations, but now
 Wholly forgotten.
  Antirrhinum linaria.  The systematic name for
 the linaria of the pharmacopoeias.  Osyris;  Urina
 ria; Antirrhinum—foliis lanceolatis linearibua con-
 fertis, caule erccto, spicis tcrminalibus scssilibus,jto-
 ribus imbricatis of. Liniueus.  Common toad-llax.  A
 perennial  indigenous plant, common in  barren pas-
 tures, hedges, and  the sides of roads, flowering from
 July to September.  The leaves have a  bitterish and
 somewhat saline taste, and  when rubbed between the
 fingers, have a  faint smell,  resembling  Unit of elder.
 They are said to be diuretic and cathartic, and in both
 characters to act powerfully, especially in the first;
 hence  the name urinaria.  They have been  recom-
 mended in dropsies and other disorders requiring pow-
 erful evacuations.   The linaria has also been used as a
 resolvent in jaundice, and such diseases as were sup-
 posed  to arise  from visceral obstructions.  But the
 plant has been chiefly valued for  its effects when ex-
 ternally applied, especially in hemorrhoidal affections,
 for which both the  leaves and flowers have been em-
 ployed in various forms of ointment, fomentation, and
 poultice.  Dr.  Wolph first  invented  an  ointment of
 this plant for the piles.  The Landgrave of Hesse, to
 whom he was physician, constantly interrogated him,
 to discover  its composition;  but Wolph obstinately
 refused, till the prince  promised to give him a fat ox
 annually for the discovery:  hence, to  the following
 verse, which  was made  to  distinguish  the  linaria
 from the escula, viz.
  " Escu..a lactcscit, sine lactc linaria crescit."  The
 hereditary Marshal of Hesse added,
  " Escula nil nobis, sed dat  linaria taurum."
  ANTISCO'LIC.  (Antiscolicus; from avn, against,
 and 0KioXn\, a  worm.)   Remedies against  worms.
 See Anthelmintic.
   ANTISCORBUTIC.  (Antiscorbuticus.from avn,
 against, and scorbutus, tlie scurvy.)  Medicines which
 cure the scurvy.
   ANTISEPTIC.   (Antisepticus,  from avn, against,
 and 017:7111, to putrefy.)   Whatever possesses a power
 of preventing  animal substances from passing into a
 state of putrefaction, and  of obviating putrefaction
 when already begun. This class  of medicines com-
 prehends four orders:
  1. Tonic antiseptics; as cinchona, cusparia, cha-
 maemelum, &c. wliich are suited for every condition
 of body, and are, in general, preferable to other anti-
 septics:, for those with relaxed habits.
  2. Refrigerating antiseptics; as acids,  which are
 principally"adapted for the  young, vigorous, and ple-
 thoric.
  3. stimulating antiseptics; as  wine and alkohol,
 best adapted for the old and debilitated.
  4. Antispasmodic antiseptics; as camphor and asa-
 fretida, which are to be selected for irritable and hys-
 terical habits.
  [" The presence  of air, though not necessary to pu-
 trefaction, materially accelerates it, and  those gases
 which contain no oxygen, are very efficient in check-
 ing or altogether preventing  the  process.  Carbonic
 acid  also remarkably retards putrefaction;  and if
 boiled meat be carefully confined in vessels containing
 that gas, it remains for a very long time unchanged, as
 Deen in Mr. Appert's method of preserving meat."
  " There are several substances which, by forming
 acw combinations with animal matter, retard or pre-
 vent putrefaction;  such as chlorine, and many of the
 saline and metallic compounds; sugar, alkohol, volatile
 oils, acetic acids, and many other vegetable substances,
 also stand in the list of antiputrefactives, though their
 mode of operating is by no means understood."—
 Webster's Man. of Chem.
  The alkaline earths and salts are antiseptics,  and act
 Dy absorbing the acids formed in the process of putre-
 faction. Carbon or charcoal of wood  is one of the
 most  powerful  antiseptics.   It  will restore  tainted
meat,  and  purify  offensive water.  Casks are now
charred to contain water on long sea voyages, and  it
will continue pure and sweet in these for a tong time.
j Charcoal in powder  Is successfully used In tlie ccro
I of looseness of the bowels, and it has been known to
; cure intermittent fevers.  A.)
   Anti'spasis.  (From avn,  against, and  r/rriiw, to
, diaw.)  A  revulsion.   The turning the course of the
 humours, while they  are actually in motion.—Galen
   ANTISPASMODIC. (Antispasmodicus; from avn.
 against, and airaopos, a spasm.)  Possessing the power
 ot allaying, or  removing, inordinate motions in the
 system, particularly  those  involuntary  contractions
 whicli take place in  muscles, naturally subject 11 the
 command of the will.  Spasm may arise from various
 causes. One of the most frequent is a strong irritation,
 continually applied; such as dentition, or worms.  In
 these cases, narcotics  prove  useful, by diminishing
 irritability  and sensibility.  Sometimes spasm arisen
 from  mere debility; unii tlie obvious means of re-
 moving this is by the  use of  tonics.  Both  narcotics
 and tonics, therefore, ure  occasionally useful as  anti-
 spasmodics, such as opium, camphor, and  aether, in
 the one class, uud zinc, mercury, and Peruvian bark,
 iu the other.  But there are, farther, several other
 substances, which cannot be  with propriety referred
 to either of these classes; and to these, the title of an-
 tispasmodics is more exclusively appropriated.  Tlie
 principal antispasmodics, properly so called, are mos-
 chus, castoreum, oleum  animate empyreumaticum,
 petroleum,  ammonia, asafiielida, sagapenum. galba-
 num,  Valeriana, crocus,  melaleuca  leucadendron.
 The narcotics, used us  antispasmodics, are aether,
 opium, camphor.  The tonics, used as antispasmodics,
 are cuprum, zincum, hydrargyrum, cinchona.
   ANTI'THENAR.  (From avn, against, and Scvap,
 the palm of tlie hand or foot.)   A muscle of the foot
 See Adductor pollicis pedis.
   ANTITRA G1CUS.   Antitragus.   One of  the
 proper muscles of the ear, the Use of wliich  is to turn
 up the tip of the antitragus a  little outwards, and to
 depress the extremity of the antihelix towards it.
   ANTITRAGUS.  (Antitragus, 1. in. from avn, and
 -payas, the  tragus.)   An eminence of the outer ear,
 opposite to  the tragus.
   ANT1VENE REAL.  (From avn,  against, and
 vencreus, venereal.)  Against the venereal disease.
   ANTO'NII  SANCTIICNIS. (So called because
 St.  Anthony was supposed to cure it miraculously.
 In the Roman missal, St. Anthony is implored as being
 the preserver from all  scrts of tire.)  St. Anthony's
 fire.   See Erysipelas.
   Antophv'llon.  (From avn, against, and qivXXov
 a leaf; so called because its leaves are opposite.)  The
 male caryopnyllus.
   A'NTRUM.  (Antrum, i. n. a den or cave.)   1  .*
 cavity which has a small opening into it
   2. The cochlea of the ear.
   Antrum  buccinosum.  The cochlea of the ear
   Antrum  genje.  See Antrum of Highmore.
   Antrum  iiioumorianum.  See Antrum  of High-
 more.
   Antrum  of hioiimore.  (From the name of an
 anatomist, who gave the first  accurate description of
 it.)  Antrum Highmorianum; Antrum gena; Sinus
 maxillaris  pituitarius; Antrum maxilla supcrioris.
 Maxillary sinus. A large cavity in the middle of each
 superior maxillary bone, between the eye and the roof
 of the mouth, lined by the mucous membrane of the
 nose.   See  Maxillarc supcrius, os.
   One or both a/itra are liable to several morbid affec-
 tions.  Sonietimes their membranous lining inflames
 and secretes pus. At other times, in consequence of
 inflammation,  or other causes, various excrescences
 and fungi are produced in them.  Their bony parietes
 are occasionally affected with exostosis,  or  caries
 Extraneous bodies may be  lodged on them, and it is
 even asserted that insects may be generated in them,
 and cause, for many years, afflicting pains.  Abscesses
 in the antrum are by far the most common.  Violent
 blows  on  the  cheek, inflammatory affections of the
 adjacent parts, and especially of the pituitary mem
 brane lining the nostrils, exposure to cold and damp
 and, above all  things, bad teeth, may induce inflam-
 mation and suppuration in the antrum.  The firs!
 symptom is a pain, at first imagined  to be a tooth-
 ache, particularly if there should be a carious tooth at
 this part of the jaw.  This pain, however, extends
 more  into the nose than that usually docs winch arises
 ti .ni a decayed tooth; it also affects, more o- less, the 
ANU
ANY
eyt, the orbit, and the situation of the frontal sinuses.
But even such symptoms are insufficient to character-
ize the disease, the nature of which is not unequivo-
cally e\ inceil, till a much later period.  The complaint
ti, in  general, of much longer duration than one en-
' irely dependent on a caries of the tooth, and its vio-
 Dnce increases more  and more, until at last a hard
 utnour becomes perceptible below the cheek-bone.
1'he swelling by degrees extends over the whole cheek;
but it afterward rises to a point, and forms a very cir-
cumscribed  hardness,  which  may be felt above  the
back grinders.   This symptom is accompanied by red-
ness, and sometimes by inflammation and suppuration
of the external parts.  It is not uncommon also, for
the outward abscess to communicate with that within
the antrum.   The  circumscribed elevation of  the
tumour, however, does not occur in all cases.  There
are instances in which the matter makes  its way to
wards the palate, causing  the  bones of the part to
swell, and at length rendering them  carious, unless
timely assistance be given.   There are other cases.
In which the matter escapes  between 'he fangs and
sockets of the teeth.  Lastly, there are other examples,
in which matter, formed  in  the antrum, makes its
exit at the nostril of the same sidt When the patient
is lying with his head on the opposite one, in a low
position.  If this mode of evacuation should be  fre-
quently repeated, it prevents the  tumour both from
pointing externally, and bursting, as it would do if the
purulent matter could find no other vent.   This eva-
cuation of the pus from the nostril is not very com-
mon.  The method of cure consists in extracting  one
of the dentes molares from the affected side; and then
perforating through the socket into the bony cavity.
A  mild injection  may afterward be  employed to
cleanse the sinus occasionally.
  Antrum maxiLl.e.  See Antrum of Highmore.
  Antrum maxillare.  See Antrum of Highmore.
  Antrum pylori.  A concavity of the stomach ap-
proaching the pylorus.
  Anty'lion.   (From Antyllus,  its  inventor.)  An
astringent application, recommended by Paulus AEgi-
neta.
  A'NUS.  (Anus, i. ma.se. quasi onus; as carrying
the burden of the bowels.)
  1. The fundament; the lower extremity of the great
intestine, named the rectum, is so called; and its office
is to form an  outlet for the faeces.  The anus is  fur-
nished wiih muscles which are peculiar to it, viz. the
•sphincter, which forms a broad circular band of fibres,
and keejis it habitually closed, and the levatores  ani,
which serve to dilate and  draw it up to its natural
situation, after  the expulsion of the faeces.   It is also
surrounded, as well as the whole of the neighbouring
intestine, with  muscular fibres, and a very loose  sort
of cellular substance.  The anus is subject to various
diseases, especially piles,  ulceration,  abscesses,  ex-
crescence 1, prolapsus; and imperforation in new-born
infants.
  2. The term anus is also applied to a small opening
of the third ventricle  of the brain, whicn  leads  into
tlie fourth.
  [Fissure of the  anus.  In the New-York Medical
and Physical Journal, a very Interesting case of this
malady Is related by the patient himself.  He was  suc-
cessfully operated upon by Professor Alexander H. Ste-
vens, M.D., ofthe College of Physicians and Surgeons
nf New-York.  The fissure was on one side, and the
Incision wan made directly upon  It and through the
sphincter.  The relief from the most agonizing  pain
was immediate and permanent.  We find a note on the
subject of this disease in the Philadelphia edition of
Cooper's First Lines of the Practice of Surgery, which
We quote.
   " Baron Boyer has recently called the attention of
Surgeons to what ho has denominated fissure of the
anus. Though this disease was noticed  by iEtlus, it
passed unobserved by modern surgeons until the  time
nf Sabatier,  who  imperfectly described  it.  Baron
lloycr has met With many coses of it, and  it is  now
understood by all the surgeons of Paris, where it is said
lo he not uncommon.  It lias been generally confounded
with ulcerated piles, blind fistula,  or other diseases of
Ihe rectum.  The symptoms it ocensions have  been
considered Inexplicable by the surgeon, though exceed-
ingly distressing to tlie patient.  Fissure of the anus is
 tn oblong ulceration  of the extremity of the rectum,
just where the mucous membrane joins the skin.  The
ulceration is generally a  little above  the anus, so that
it is  not easily discovered, unless the sides of the rec-
tum  are drawn outwards, and the gut partially everted.
Moreover,  the  fissure  Is  superficial,  and  presents
nothing striking to the  eye,  and is, therefore, more
likely to pass unobserved.  The  mucous membrane is
more red  than natural  at  the edges of the  ulcerated
portion, which is  entirely absorbed;  but  there  i>:
nothing unnatural to be felt wiin the  fingers, except
a very remarkable constriction, which accompanies, or
rather precedes, this disease.  It would appear, tha'
this  constriction is, indeed, the cause of the malady,
which results from the efforts to  evpel hardened feces
through the contracted passage.  The introduction of
ihe finger causes exquisite pain."
  " Tlie first  symptom of the disease, is pain felt  in
evacuating the  rectum, greatly aggravated  by costive
ness, and rendered most excruciating by the  hardness
ofthe ficces.  Hence the sufferer is led to use injections
and mild laxative medicines.  In the commencement,
the pain subsides at the expiration of about half an
hour; in its progress, the paroxysms lengthen to several
hours' duration, and the patients writhe in agony, not
knowing what  position  to  put themselves in.  They
suffer least in bed, and remain there several days with-
out leaving it.  The pain has accessions without any
known cause, and often ceases in the same manner."
  " The pain appears  to be  owing to  a retention of
excrementitious matter near the extremity of the rec-
tum, the expulsion of which is prevented by the con-
striction of the sphincter ani.  The faeces  are, some-
times, streaked with a line of blood, especially if they
be hard; but this  is not always  me case:  sometimes
there is a discharge  per anum of a White liquid matter
in small  quantities; this is what would be  expected
from an inflamed or ulcerated mucous membrane, but
occasionally the ulceration extends to the muscular
coat of ihe intestine.1'
  " These symptoms vary in different patients.   In
delicate and nervous women, a variety of remote symp-
toms occur, and often conceal the origin of the primary
complaint, which is mistaken fur cancer of the rectum,
ulceration ofthe womb, &c."
  " In this disease there are two distinct occurrences:
viz. constriction of the anus, and ulceration or fissure.
The former is the cause ofthe latter.  Ulceration with
out constriction, as we every day see in fistula iu ano,
does not occasion so severe pain as is felt in this com-
plaint.  With respect to the treatment of this com-
plaint, if it be slight, it will sometimes yield to laxative
medicines and  the  application of leeches  to the peri
noeuiri. But these means are not generally sufficient
It is then necessary to divide with the knife the whole
of the sphincter ani, and that if  possible, immediately
at the seat of the fissure.  The  incision should be at
least one-third of an inch deep, especially  near th"
verge of the anus, and an inch  long.  After the ope-
ration, or at any rate, before cicatrization  begins, a
tent is to be introduced  and kept in the rectum, with-
out  wliich  the  operation would be  unsuccessful
When the fissure is in the anterior part of ihe anus, as
the sphincter could  not be safely divided in that direc-
tion, it is best to cut towards tlie coccyx.   After the
cure the rectum is found more ample than before.''  A.]
   Ani s, artificial.  An  accidental opening in the
parietee of the abdomen, to which opening some part of
Ihe intestinal canal  leads, and through which the faeces
are either wholly or in part discharged.  When stran-
gulated hernia occurs, in which the intestine is simplj
pinched, and this event is unknown; when  it has not
been relieved by the usual means; or when tlie ne-
cessary operation has not been  practised in  time; the
 protruded part becomes gangrenous,  and  the faces
escape.  But if the patient should be at last operated
 upon, his faeces are discharged through the wound, and
 the intestines are more easily emptied.  In both coses
 the excrement continues to be discharged from the ar-
 tificial opening.   In this way an artificial anus  is
 formed, through which the excrement is evacuated
 during life.
   Any'drion.   (From  a,  priv.  and wtap, water; so
 called, because they who eat of it become thirsty.)  A
 species of nightshade, according lo Blancard.
   Anvpeu'thynus.  (From a, neg. and  virtvOvios
 blunieable.)  Hippocrates, in his Precepts,  uses  this
 word to signify tin accidental event, which cannot be 
AIM!
APH
charged on the physician, and for whir!; he U not ac-
countable.
  AO'RTA.   (Aorta, a. f.\ from arjp, air, and n;ptu,
to keep:  so called because the ancients supposed lhat
only air  was contained in it.)  The great artery of
the  body, which arises from the left ventricle of the
heart, forms a curvature in the chest, and descends
into the abdomen.  See Artery.
  Apalachi'ne gallis.  (From atruXa«oi, to repel;
because it  is supposed to repel infection.)  See II.x
cassinc.
  APARl'NE.  (From pivri, a file;  because its bark is
rough, and  rasps like a tile.)  Goose-giass.  See Ga-
lium aparine.
  Aparthro'sis.  (From atro  and ipCpov, a joint.;
Articulation.
  APATITE.   A phosphate of lime mineral, of a
white wine yellow, green and red colour, found 1:1
primitive rocks in Cornwall and Devonshire.
  [There are  several varieties of  Ihe phosphate of
lime.  The first variety  (apatite)  yielded  hlaproth,
lime 55.00, phosphoric acid, 45.00.
  Its solubility In acids, and  inferior hardnrs*, may
serve to distinguish it from thecurysoberil, tourmaline,
topaz, chrysolite, beryl, emerald, and some varieties of
quartz;  all of  which it more or less resembles, espe-
cially the emerald, bery., and  chrysolite.  From  car-
bonate of lime it differs by its greater hardness,  and
want of effervescence in acids;  and  it does not, like 1 he
fluale of lime, when its powder is  thrown into warm
sulphuric acid, yield a gas capable  of corroding glass,
unless from the accidental presence  of a small quantity
of that salt The variety of phosphate of lime, called
apatite,  usually in crystals,   sometimes presents  a
low six-sided prism, the primitive form.
  The same gangure, which contains the crystals, often
embraces grains or small  granular masses, having a
ciystalhne structure, but nearly or quite destitute of a
retiular  form.  The apatite occurs  in veins, or is dis-
seminated in granite, gneiss, or other primitive rocks.
It is  a.-.sociated  with  quartz, feldspar, fluate of lime,
garnets, tlie oxydes of iron, tin, &c.
  Apatite has been found in Maryland, Pennsylvania,
and New-York; also in the States  of Connecticut and
Maine.—CI. Min.   A.]
   APELLA.  t.From a, priv. and pcllis, skin.)  Short-
 ness  of the prepuce.  Galen  him-s this rami' to all
 whose  prepuce, either through disease,  section, or
otherwise, will not cover the L'lanr-.
  APE PSIA.   (Apepsia,  a f.~ Arty in: from a,  priv.
and iteirTui, to digest.)  Indigestion.  See  Dyspepsia.
  Ape riens  palpebrarum  rectus.  See levator
palpebra supenoris.
  APERIENT.   (Aperiens; from aperio, to  open.)
 I. That which gently opens the bowels.
  2. Applied also to muscles, the olfice of which  is to
open parts ; as ihe levator palpebrae superioris, which
is called, iu some anatomical works, aperiens palpebrae.
  Aperi'staton.  Sec Apcrislatus.
  Aperi status.  (From a, neg. and irtoisrvut, to sur-
round.)  Aperistaton. An epithet used by Galen, of
an  ulcer whicli  is not dangerous,  nor  surrounded by
inflammation.
  Ape rtop. ocult.  Stee Levator palpebra superioris.
  APETA LI'S.  (From a, priv. aud petalum, a petal.)
Without a petal or corol.
  Apetal* plant*.  Plants  without  petals.   The
 name of a division of plants in  most systems of botany.
  Apeuthy'smenus.   (From a?ro and tv9vs, straight.)
A name formerly given to the intestiuum rectum, or
straight gut.
  APEX.   1. The extremity of a part; as the apex of
the tongue, apex ofthe nose, Sec.
  2. The extremity of a leaf, apex folii.
  3. The anthera of a flower of Touruefort, Rivlnus,
and Ray.
  Aphani'smus   (From a<bavrX,u>,  to remove from the
Bight.)   The removal, or gradual decay, of a disorder.
  APHANITE.  The name given by HaQy to a  rock
apparently homogeneous,  but  really compound, in
which amphibole is the predominant principle.
  APHiE'RESIS.  (From atbaipaa, to remove.)   This
term was formerly much used in the schools of surgery,
to signify that part of the art which consists  in taking
off any diseased or preternatural part of the body.
  APHELXIA.   (Aphelzia,   a.  f.;  from acbtXKio,
ebstraho to separate or abstract.)   Revery.  A genus
of  discuses in Good's classification  constituted  tf
absence or abstraction of mind.   See Nosology.
  Apiiepse'ma.   (From  arro, and c^u), to boil.)   A
decoction.
  A PHiesis.   (From a<iiyui, to remit.)  The  remis-
sion or termination of a disorder.
  APhiste sis.   (From atbipipt, lo draw from.)   An
ali.-cess.
  Aphlogistic lamp.  One which burns without flame.
  A'phodos.  (From «,to, and  oios, departure.)  Ex-
crement.   The dejection of the body.
  APHO NIA.  (Ai/jujioi; from a, priv. and 0wvif. the
voice.)   A suppression of the  voice, without either
syncope or coma.  A  genus of disease  in the class
 Locales, and order Dyscincsia, cf Cullen.
  1. When It takes place from n tumour of the fauces,
or about the glottis, it is termed aphonia gutturalis.
  2. When from a  disease of the trachea, aphonia
 truchralis.
  3. And when from a paralysis, or want of nervous
 energy, aphonia atonica.
!   APHORIA. (Aphoria, <r. f.; from a, negative, and
 ifiti>o),fero,paris.'t  Barrenness.  The name of a genus
 of  diseases in Guod's new classification.  See Noso
 log?.
   APHORISM.   (Aphorismus; from aynp-.'ui, to dis
 tinguisli )  A maxim, or principle, comprehended  in a
 short sentence.
   API!RITE. Earth  foam.   A carbonate of  lime
 usually found in calcareous veins at Gera in Misnia and
 Thuringla.
   [API1RIZ1TE. A variety of schorl, sometimes in
 nine-sided prisms, terminated at one extremity by three
 laces, and at the other by six, of which three are
 larger than the others, mid stand on those three lateral
 edges of the prism, each of wliich contains an angle
 of 120°.—CI.  Min.  A.)
   APHRODISIA.  (From Aebpoitrri,  Venus.)   An
 immoderate desire of venery.
   APH RODISIA C   (Aphrodisiacus; from aQpoSecria.
 venery.)  That which excites a desire for venery.
   Aphrodisia'sticon.  (From aebcos, froth.)  A trod'
 so called by Galen, because It was given hi dysenteries,
 where the stools were frothy.
   Apiirodi'sius morbus.  (From  Acppofcrn, Venus.)
 The venereal disease.
   APHTHA.  (Aphtha, a. f.  Aydat; from aemo, tr.
 inflame.)  The thrush.  Frog, or sore mouth.   Aphtha
 lactucimen of Sauvages.   Ulcera  serper.tia oris, Ol
 spreading ulcers in the mouth, of Celsus.  Pustula
 oris.  Alcol/t.  Vcsicula gingivarum. Acacos.  Aphtha
 infantum.  A disease ranked  by Cullen in the class
 Pyrexia, order Exanthemata.  Children  are very sub-
 ject to it.  It appears  in small, white ulcers upon  the
 tongue, gums, and around the  mouth and  palate,
 resembling small particles of curdled milk.  When the
 disease is mild, it is confined to these parts ;  but when
 it  Is violent and of long standing, it is apt to extend
 through the whole course of the alimentary canal, from
 the mouth down to the  anus;  and so to excite severe
 purgings,  flatulencies, and other  disagreeable symp-
 toms.  The disease when recent and  confined to the
 mouth, may In general be easily removed; but when
 of long standing, and extending down to the stomach
 aud intestines, it very frequently proves fatal.
   The thrush sometimes occurs as a chronic  disease
 both in warm climates and in tliose northern countries
 where  the  cold  is  combined  with  a  considerable
 degree of moisture, or  where  the soil  is of a  very
 marshy nature.  It may, in some cases,  be considered
 as an idiopathic  affection; but it is more usually symp-
 tomatic.  It shows itself, at first, by an uneasy sen-
 sation, or  burning heat in the stomach, which comes on
 by  slow degrees, and  increases  gradually in violence.
 After some time, small pimples, of about the size of a
 pin's head, show themselves on the tip and edges of the
 tongue; and these, at length,  spread over the whole
 inside of the mouth, and occasion such  a tenderness
 and rawness, that the patient cannot take any food of
 a solid nature ;  neither can he receive any vinous or
 spirituous liquor into his mouth, without great pun-
 gency and pain being excited; little febrile heat attends
 but there  Is a dry skin, pale countenance, small pulse,
 and cold extremities.  These symptoms will probably
 continue  for some  weeks, the general  health  being
 sometimes better and sometimes worse,  .mil then the
 patient Will be  attacked w»th acrid eructations. 01 
AI'I
APO
 Severe purging.-;, which greatly exhaust h.s strength,
 Und produce considerable emaciation of the whole
 body.  After a little time, these symptoms cease, and
 he again enjoys better health ; but, sooner or later, the
 acrid matter shows itself once more in the mouth, with
 greater  virulence than  before,  and makes frequent
 translations to the stomach and intestines, and so  from
 these to the mouth again, until, at last, the  patient is
 reduced  to a perfect skeleton.  Elderly people, and
 persons with a shattered constitution, are most liable
 to its attacks.  The treatment of the thrush in children
 is generally to be begun with  the exhibition of a gentle
 emetic: then clear the bowels, if confined, by rhubarb
 and magnesia, castor oil, or other  mild  aperients;  or
 sometimes in gross, torpid habits by a dose of calomel.
 In general  the prevalence  of acid in the primae viae
 appears to  lead  to  the complaint;  whence antacid
 remedies prove beneficial  in its progress: when the
 patient is costive, giving the  preference to magnesia ;
 ivhen relaxed, to chalk, which may  be sometimes
 ,oined with aromatics, the mild vegetable astringents,
 or even a  little  opium, if the diarrhoea be urgent.
 Where the  child is very weak, and the aphthae of a
 dark colour, the decoction of bark or other tonics must
 be had recourse to.  The separation ofthe sloughs and
 healing ofthe ulcers may be promoted by washing the
 mouth occasionally with the honey of borax, diluted
 Willi two or three parts of rose water; or where  they
 are of a dark colour, by the decoction of bark,  acidu-
 lated with sulphuric  acid.  The diet should be  light
 and nutritious, especially where there is much debility.
 As the complaint is subsiding, particular attention is
 required to obviate tlie bowels becoming confined.  In
 the  chronic aphthae affecting grown persons, pretty
 much  the same  plan of treatment is to be pursued :
 besides which, the compound powder of ipecacuanha
 and other diaphoretics, assisted by the occasional use
 of the warm bath, wearing flannel next the skin, par-
 ticularly iu  a damp cold climate, &c. appear to be
 beneficial.
   APHYLLUS.  (From a, priv. and fvXXov, a leaf.)
 Leafless.  A term applied to parts of plants which arc
 so conditioned when similar parts of other plants have
 leaves. Thus a stem is said to be aphyllous when it is
 altogether void of  leaves.    Linnaeus uses the term
 nudus.  Examples are found in  Cuscuta Europaa,
 dodder; Asphodelus jistulosus, Sec.
   Aphyll.e plant.e.   Aphyllous  plants, or  plants
 without leaves.  Some plants being entirely devoid of
 leaves, are  naturally  arranged  under  one  head,  to
 which this name is given.
   A'PIS.  The name of a genus of insects in  the Lin-
 naean system.  The bee.
  Apis mkli.ifica.   The systematic name  of the
 honey-bee.  It was formerly dried and powdered, and
 thus given internally as a diuretic.   It is to the industry
 of this little animal that we are indebted for honey anil
 wax.  See Mel and Cera.  The venom  of  the  bee,
 according to Foniana, bears a close resemblance to
 that of the viper.   It is contained  in a small vesicle,
 and has a hot acrid taste like thai of the scorpion.
  A'PIUM.  (Apium,  i. n.;  fromrimos, Dorici, amos,
 mild: or from apes, bees; because they are fond of it.)
 1.  The name of a genus of plants in the Linnoean  sys-
 tem.  Class, Pcntundria; Order, Digynia.
  2.  The pharmacopoeial name of the herb smallage.
See Apium gruveolens.
  Apium oraveolens.  The  systematic name for the
apium  of the pharmacopoeias. Apium—foliolis cau-
linis, cunciformibus, umbcllis, sessilibus, of Linnaeus.
Smallage  The root, seeds, and fresh plant, arc ape-
rient and carminative.
  Apium iiortense.   See Apiumpetroselinum.
  Apium petroselin'.'m   The systematic name for
the petroselinum ofthe pharmacopoeias.  Petroselinum
vulgare.  Apium hortsnse. Common parsley.  Apium
—foliis cauliris lincaribus, involuccllis minutis, of
Linnaeus.  Both the roots and  seeds of this plant were
formerly directed by the London College for medicinal
use,  and  the root is still retained  in the Edinburgh
Pharmacopoeia:  the  former have  a  sweetish  taste,
Bccoiiipanied with a slight warmth or flavour, some-
what resembling that of carrot; the latter are iu taste
warmer and  more aromatic than any other part of the
plant, and manifest considerable bitterness. T'le roots
sre said  to  be aperient and diuretic, and have been
employed in  nephritic pains  and obstructions of urine. |
  The seeds possess aromatic and carminative powers
 but are seldom prescribed.
   [APLOML of  Haiiy,  Brochant,  Brogniart.  Thii
 very rare mineral has been observed only in dodecae-
 drons with rhombic faces, marked by striae, parallel to
 the shorter diagonals.  This dodecaedron is supposed to
 Do uerived from a cube by one ofthe most simple laws
 ol decrement: viz. that of a single range of particles
 parallel to all the edges of a cube.   Hence its name
 from the Greek AirXoos, simple.
   The Aplome gives fire with steel, and feebly scratches
 quartz.  Its  specific gravity is  3.44.  Its fracture  i:i
 some parts is uneven and nearly dull; while in others
 it  is shining and slightly conchoidal.  Its  colour is
 usually  a deep brown,  sometimes  yellowish green.
 It is usually opaque, but the small crystals often trans-
 mit an orange-coloured light.
   It is fusible by the blow-pipe into a blackish glass.   I:
 is  composed of silex, 40.0, alumine 20.0,  lime  14.5.
 oxyde of iron 14.5, manganese  2.0,  ferruginous silex
 2.0; = 93.00.
   It differs from the garnet in the direction of its suite
 and its inferior specific gravity.   It has been found in
 Siberia and Saxony.—CI.  Min.  A.]
   APLONiE.  A deep orange-brown mineral, mostly
 considered to be a variety of the garnet.
   APNEU'STIA.  (From a,  and -vtio, to breathe.*)
 A defect or difficulty of respiration, such as happens in
 a cold, &c.   Focsius.
   Ap.noia'.  The same.—Galen.
   Apocapni'smus.   (From avo, and (caffrwj, smoke.)
 A fumigation.
   Apocalha'rsis.  (From airo, and xadaipw, to purge.;
 An evacuation of humours.  A discharge downwards,
 and sometimes applied, with little discrimination, to
 vomiting.
   Apocaulize'sis.  (From airo/rauXI[«i>, to break trail*
 versely.)  A  transverse fracture.—Hippocrates.
   APOCENO'SIS.   (From airo, and kzvou,  to evacu-
 ate.)  1. A flow or evacuation of any humour.
   2. The name of an order  in  the  class locales of
 Cullen, which embraces diseases characterized by  a
 superabundant flux  of blood,  or other fluid, without
 pyrexia.
   Apo'cope.   (From aro, and Koirru,  to cut from.;
 Abscission, or the removal of a part by cutting it off.
   Apo'crisis.   (From alto,  and Kcivut, to  secrete
 from.)   A secretion  of  superabundant humours.—
 Hippocrates.
   Apocru'sticon.   See Apocrustinum.
   Apocru'stinum.  (From aitoxpovio, to repel.)  Apo
 crusticon.   An astringent  or repellent medicine.—
 Galen.
  Apocyb'sis.  (From airo, and Kva, to bring forth.)
 Parturition, or the bringing forth of a child.—Galen.
  Apodacrv'tica.   (From a-o,  and Saxpv, a tear)
 Medicines  which, by exciting tears, remove super-
 fluous humours from the eyes, as onions Jfcc.—Pliny.
  Apogku'sis. See Ageustia
  Apogeu'stia.   See Ageustia.
  Apooinome'sis.   (From airoyivopai, to be absent.)
 The remission or absence of a disease.—Hippocrates.
  Apoqlauco'sis.    (From airo,  and  yXarxos,  sky-
 coloured ; so called because of its bluish appearance.)
 Sec Glaucoma.
  Apo gonum.  (From airo, and ynopat, to beget.)  A
 living foetus in tlie womb.—Hippocrates.
  AroLEPsis.  (From  airo,  aud XapGavw, to take
 from.)   An interception, suppression, or retention of
 urine,  or  any other natural  evacuation.—Hippo
 crates.
  Apolino'sis. (From airo,  and Xivov, flax.) The
 method of curing  a fistula, according to .Egineta, by
 the application of raw flax.
  Apo lysis.   (From airo, and Xvio, to release.) The
solution or termination of a disease.   The removal of
a bandage.—Erolianus.
  APoMa'GMA.  (From otto, and parno, to cleanse
from.)  Any thing used to cleanse  and wipe awav
lllth from sores, as sponge, Sec—Hippocrates.
  Apomatiie'ma.   (From  airo, neg. and pavdnvto,  tt
learn.)   Hippocrates  expresses, by this term, a forget
lulnessof all that has been learnt.
  Apo'meh.  (From airo, from, and peXi, honey.)  Ar
oxyinel, or decoction, marie w ith honey.
  APON EURO SIS.   (From airo, and irupui, a nerve-
from mi erroneous  supposition of the  ancients, that L 
APO   •
APO
wan formed by the expansion of a nerve.)  A lendi-
uoun expansion. See Muscle.
  Al'O'NIA.  (From a, priv. and irovos, pain.)  Free-
dom from pain.                             ^
  Apomtro'sis.  (From airo, and virpov, nitre.)  The
sprinkling an ulcer over with nitre.
  Apopalle'sis.   (From ajroiraXXa),  to  throw  off
hastily;)  An  abortion, or premature expulsion of a
foetus.—Hippocrates.
  Avopai.sis.   See Apopallesis.
  Apopeda'sis.  (From aro, and ttrroau, to jump
from.)  A luxation.
  APOPHLEGMA'SIA.   (From  airo, and i>Xtypu.
ohlegni.)  A discharge  of phlegm or mucus.
  APOPHLEGM.VTIC.   (Apophlegmaticus;  from
airo,  and itXeypa,   phlegm.)   Apophleginiitizantiii :
Apophlcgmulizonta.  1. Medicines  which excite  tin
secretion of mucus from tlie mouth and nose.
  2. Masticatories.
  3. Errhiues.
  Apopulbgmatizantia   See Apophlegmalic.
  Apophlegmatizonta.  See Apophlegmalic.
  Apophra'xis. (Fromaire, and ibpaatna, to interrupt.)
A suppression of the menstrual discharge.
  Apopiitha'rma.   (From airo, and QOeiaw, to cor-
rupt.)  A medicine to procure abortion.
  Apophthe'gma.   'From  a^oqjdcyyopat, to speak
eloquently.)  A short maxim, or axiom ; a rule.
  Apo'phthora.   (From cnroQdcipo), to be abortive.)
An abortion.
  Apophy'ades.  The ramifications of the veins and
arteries.—Hippocrates.
  Apo'phyas.  (From avoqivu, to proceed from.)
Any  thing  which grows or adheres to another, as a
wart  to the  finger.
  APOPHYLLITE.   Iclithyophthalmile.    Fish-eye
stone.  A  mineral composed  of silex,  potassa,  and
 water, found in the iron mine of Utoe, in Sweden.
  [This mineral  occurs iu laminated masses, or in
regular crystals, having a strong, and peculiar externa!
lustre,  which is intermediate between vitreous and
pearly.  When exposed to the flame of a lamp it exfo-
liates.  Before the blow-pipe  it melts with some diffi-
culty into a white enamel.  Its fragments, placed in
 cold nitric acid, are gradually converted into a whitish,
 flaky substance.  Its powder forms a jelly in nitric or
 muriatic acid. It contains silex 51, lime 23,  potash 4
 water 17.   It is lighter and harder than sulphate of
 barytes, but much   less hard  than adularia, both of
 which it may resemble.—CI. Min.   A.J
  APOPHYSIS.  (From a-xjchvio, to proceed from.
 1.  In anatomy. Appendix; Probole, Eephysis : Pro-
cessus; Productio;  Projectura; Protuberunt.iu.   A
process, projection, or protuberance of a bone beyond
a plain surface; as the nasal apophysis of the frontal
 bone, &c.
  2. In botany, this word is applied to a fleshy tuber-
cle under the  basis of the capsule or dry fruit adher-
ing to the frondose mosses.
  Apople'ota vena.  A name formerly applied to the
internal jugular vein  ; so called because  in apoplexies
it appears full and turgid.—Bartholin.
  APOPLECTIC.   (From airo-X^ia, an  apoplexy.)
Belonging to an apoplexy.
  APOPLE'XY.   (Apoplexy, a. f.;  from airo, and
trX>7<7<r<ii, to strike or knock  down; because  persons,
when seized with this  disease, fall down suddenly.)
A sudden abolition, in  some degree, of the powers of
sense and motion, the  patient lying  in a sleep-like
state; the action of  the heart remaining,  as well as
the respiration, often with a stertorous noise.  Cullen
arrantres it  in the class Neuroses, and order Comulii:
  1. When it takes place from a congestion of blood,
it is termed Apoplexia sanguinea.
  2. When there is an  abundance of scrum, as in per-
sons  of a cold phlegmatic temperament,  Apoplexia
serosa.
  3. If it arise from water in the ventricles of  the
brain, it is called Apoplexia hydrocephalic a.  See Hy-
drocephalus.
  4. If from a wound,  Apoplexia traumatica.
  5. If  from poisons, Apoplexia venenata,
  0. If  from the action of suffocating exhalations,
Apoplexia suffocata.
  "7. If  from passions of the mind, Apoplexia mentalis
  8. And when it is  joined with catalepsy, Apoplexia
eat alev Uca.
                         F
   Apoplexy makes its attack chiefly at nn advanceu
 period of life; and most usually on those who arc of a
 corpulent habit, with a  short  neck, and large head ;
 and who lead an inactive life, make use of a full diet,
 or drink to excess.  The immediate cause of apoplexy.
 is a compression of the brain, produced  (either  by an
 accumulation of blood iu the vessels of the head, and
 distending tin m to such  a degree, as to compress  the
 medullary portion of the  brain; or by an effusion of
 blood from the red vessels, or of serum from the exha-
 lants ; which fluids  are accumulated in such a pian
 tity as  lo occasion  compression. These  states, of
 overdistension and of effusion, may be brought  ou hv
 whatever  increases the  afflux, and impetus of  th;
 blood in tlie arteries of the head; such as violent ht.-
 of passion, great exertions of muscular strength, scvcie
 exercise, excess  in  venery,  stooping down  lor any
 length of time, wearing any thing too tight about the
 neck, overloading the stomach, long exposure 'o  e\
 cessivc cold, or a vertical  sun, tlie sudden suppression
 of any long-accustomed evacuation, the application of
 the fumes of certain narcotic and metallic substances,
 such as opium, alkohol,  charcoal, mercury, &c and
 by blows, wounds,  and  other external  injuries:  in
 short, apoplexy may be produced by whatever  deter-
 mines too great  a flow of blood to the brain, or pre
 vents its free return from that organ.
   The young, and those of a full plethoric habit, are
 most liable to attacks of the sanguineous apoplexy:
 and those of a phlegmatic constitution, or who  are
 much advanced  in  life, to tlie serous.   Apoplexy is
 sometimes preceded by headache, giddiness, dimness
 of sight, loss of  memory, faltering of the tongue in
 speaking,  numbness in the  extremities, diowsiness,
 stupor, and   nightmare,  all  denoting  an  affection
 of the  brain;  but it  niore usually  happens that,
 without much previous indisposition, the person falls
 down suddenly, the countenance becomes florid, the
 face appears swelled and puffed up, the vessels of the
 head, particularly of the neck and temples, seem tur
 gid and distended with blood; the eyes are prominent
 and fixed, the breathing is difficult and performed with
 a snorting noise, and the pulse is  strong  and full
 Although the whole body is  affected with the loss of
 sense and motion, it nevertheless takes  place often
 more  upon one side than the other, whicli is  called
 hemiplegia, and in this case,  the side least affected
 with palsy is somewhat convulsed.
   Iu forming  an opinion  as  to the event, we must be
 guided  by the violence of the symptoms.   If the fit is
 of long duration, the respiration laborious and sterto-
 rous, aud the person much advanced iu years, the dis-
 ease, in all  probability,  will terminate  fatally.  In
 some cases, it goes off'entirely; but it more frequently
 leaves a state of mental imbecility behind it, or termi-
 nates in  a hemiplegia, or in death.  Even when an
 attack  is recovered from, it most frequently returns
 again, after a snort period  of time, and in  the end
 proves fatal.  I n dissections of apoplexy, blood is often
 found effused on the surface and in the cavities ol" .ne
 brain;  and iu other instances, a turgidity and disten-
 tion of the blood-vessels are to be observed.   Li some
 cases, tumours have been found attached to different
 parts of the substance of the brain, and in others, no
 traces of any real affection of it could be  observed.
   On an attack of sanguineous apoplexy, all compres-
 sion should be remoi ed from the neck, the patient iaid
 with his head a good deal raised, «nd a free admission
 of cool  air allowed.  Then blood should be  taken
 freely from the arm or the temporal artery, or the jugu-
 lar vein; which  it  may  be  sometimes necessary to
 repeat, if the symptoms continue, and the patient is
 mill plethoric; or if  blood can less be spared, cupping
 or leeches may lessen the congestion in the brain.
.The next object should be thoroughly to evacuate  the
 bowels by some active purgative, as calomel joined
I with jalap, or with  extract of colocynth, or followed
1 by infusion of senna and some neutral salt, with u lit
I tie tartarized  antimony or tincture of ji.Up repeated
| every two hours till it operates; or a draught of tinc-
i ture of senna and wine of aloes, where the bowels arc
 very torpid, mtiv  answer the purpose.   Stimu.ant
 clysters will also be proper, particularly if the patient
 cannot swallow, as common salt and syrup of  buck-
! thorn,  with  a proper  quantity of gruel, infusion of
 senna or iniiision of colocynth; or a turpentine clyster
, in elderly torpid habits.  Cold  should then be applied
                                          81 
APO
AFO
asslduouslv  .o the  scalp, the hair being previously
shaved, and a blister to  the back of the neck; and
diaphoretic  medicines may be exhibited, avoiding,
however, those which contain opium. Sinapisms to the
feet may also be useful, particularly if these are cold.
If under these means, the sensibility does not gradually
return, some of the gentle diffusible stimulants will be
proner,  as  ammonia, mustard, aether, camphor, Sec.:
and  at  this period, a blister to the scalp may come in
aid.  By some practitioners emetics are recommended,
but thc'r  use is  hazardous, especially  if sufficient
evacuations be not premised: and  the same may he
observed of sternutatories.  In the serous form ot the
disease, general bleeding is inadmissible,  and even
the local abstraction of  blood should be very spa-
ringly made; the  bowels should  be kept open, espe-
cially by aloetic or mercurial formulae, but not  pro-
curing profuse  discharges; and the other secretions
maintained, especially by the  use of the diffusible
stimulants  already mentioned; blisters to  the head,
and  errhines may be here  also useful.  When apo-
plectic symptoms have been occasioned by opium, or
other narcotics, the  timely discharge  of this by an
active emetic will be the most important measure;
but in a plethoric habit, bleeding should be premised;
subsequently various stimulants may be employed, as
ammonia,  vinegar, &c. endeavouring to procure a
determination to the surface, and rousing the patient
from his torpid state. The prevention  of the san-
■niineous form of  the disease will  be best attempted
By abstemiousness, regular moderate  exercise, and
keeping up the evacuations; an issue or seton may
also be useful; but under urgent circumstances, bleed-
ing, especially topical, must be resorted to.   In leuco-
phleginatic  habits,  a more nutritious  diet will be

  APOPNI'XIS.   (From airoimyio, to suffocate.)  A
suffocation.—Mcschion.            ...
  APOPSOPHE'SIS. (From airo, and ^oebcui, to emit
wind.i  The emission of wind by the  anus or uterus,
according to Hippocrates.
   APOPSY'CHIA.  (From uiro, from, and u/i>x>7> trie
mind.)  The highest degree of deliquium, or fainting,
according to Galen.
  APO'PTOSIS.   (From airoiriirrui, to fall down.) A
prolapsus, or falling down of any part through relaxa-
tion.—Erotian.
  Aporb'xis.  (From airo, and opcyio, to stretch out.)
 A play with balls, in the gymnastic exercises.
  Apo'ria.  (From a, priv. and iropoc,  a  duct.)  Rest-
 lessness, uneasiness, occasioned by the interruption ot
 perspiration, or any stoppage of the natural secretions.
   ApoRRHi'psis.    (From  airo,5p!irra, to cast off.)
 Hippocrates used this word to  signify that  kind of
 insanity where the  patient tears off  his clothes, and
 casts them from him.
   Ai-osceparni'smus.  (From airo, from, and cKtirap-
 „Cu, to strike with a hatchet.)  Deasciatio.  A spe-
 cies of fracture, when part of a bone is chipped oft.-

   Aposcha'sis.  (From airo, and oxal<o, to scarify.)
 Aposchasmus. A scarification.  Vcnesection.-W^-

 P"?APOSEPEDINE.  The  products of  the fermenta-
 tion of cheese have been examined by M. Bracconnot,
 who has shown that the substance, called by Proust
 caseous oxide, has no claim to such a title, and pro-
 noses to call it Aposepcdine, from airo, ana ayreduiv,
 (result of  putrefaction).  To obtain  tins substance,
  he curd of skim-milk, spontaneously coagulated, is to
 be mixed with water, and exposed  in an open vessel
 until  the  putrefaction  has fully obtained its height
 By filtration, a liquor is obtained which  on being con-
 centrated by evaporation,  yields a product of a veiy
 foatid odour, owing apparently to the presence of an

  vapours of acetic acid pass over and a liquid>of the
  mnsistenrpof syrup remains; which, on cooling, con-
  crelle^Sto ifSnutated, reddish mass like honey, and
  of-i saline bitter taste.  Treated by alkohol, it is sepa-
  n£d hitSle and insoluble portion  The latter
    TheAposepedine of M. Bracconnot; the former .,
  the casealeof ammonia of Proust.- Webster's Man.

    I^osi't'ia.    (From  arro,  from, and ottos, food.)
  /ipositios.  A loathing of food— Galen.
   ^pospa'sma.   (From amcirau, to tear off.)   A vio-
lent, Irregular fracture of a tendon, ligament, &c.

^Aposphacbli'sis.   (From ano,  and eSaKtXos, a
mmlification.)  Hippocrates uses  this word to denote
^mdrtification ofthe flesh in wounds, or fractures,
rauoed by too tight a bandage.
  APO'STASIS.   (From  arro, and i<rrpi, to  reced?
from.)  1. An abscess, or collection ol  ^iter.
  2. The coming away of a fragment of bone by frac-

tU3C'When  a distemper passes away by some outlet,
Hinpocrates calls it an apostasts by excretion.
  4  When  the morbific matter, by its own  weight,
falls and  settles on any part, an apostasts by settle

m 5* When one disease turns to another, an apostasis
by metastasis.                               .
  APOSTA'XIS.   (From  airoras"". to "'--'"  from.)
Hippocrates uses this word to express the deffuxion or
distillation of any humour,  or fluid: as blood Iro.n the

  APOSTELUS.   An apostle.    An  ointment  and
other things were formerly so designated from some
famous inveuter; as unguentum apostelorum, because
it has twelve ingredients in i».     ■
  APOSTEMA.   (Apostcma,atis.\i.\  from aipi-nut,
to recede.)  The  term given by the ancients to ab-
scesses in general.  See Abscess.
  APOSTEMA'TIAI.  Those who, from  an  inward
abscess, void  pus downward,  are thus  called by
Aretaeus.                                .    „ ,.„
  Aposteri'gma.  (From  airo<rvpiy^, fiuao.)  uaien
uses this word to denote a rest ot a diseased part, a
cushion.                                   ....„,
  Apo'strophe-    (From  airo,  and  s-ptdw,  to  turn
from.)  Thus Paulus Algineta expresses an aversion
 for food.                  „             .      r  „
   APOSYRINGE'SIS.  (From  airo,  and avpiy\,  a
 fistula.)  The  degeneracy  of  a sore into  a fistula.—
 Hippocrates.                                  „
   APOSY'RMA.   (From airo, and ovpui, to rub ott.)
 An abrasion or disquamation of the bones oi skin.—
 Hipvocrates.
   APOTANEUSIS.   ^From  airo, and rmin, to ex-
 tend.)  An  extension, or elongation, of any  meinbc:
 or substance.                             ___
   Apotelme'sis.  (From  airo, and rtXpa, a bog.) An
 expurgation of filth, or firces.
   APOTHECA.   (AffoOiivij; from airon&Vr, to re
 posit)   A shop, or vessel, where medicines are sold,
 or deposited.
   APOTHECARY.  (Apothecarius; from ano, and
 nSimi, pono, to put:  so called from his employ  being
 to prepare, and keep in readiness, the various articles
 in the Materia Medica, and to compound them for the
 physician's use; or from airofcVfi a shop.)  In  every
 European country, except Great Britain, the apothe-
coxy is ihe same as we name in England ihe druggist
and chemist.
  APOTHERAPEI'A.   (From airo, and 3tpi-cvu>, to
cure.)  A perfect cure, according to Hippocrates.
  Apotiierapeu'tica.   (From airo^roaiTEuu), to heal.)
Therapeutics.   That part of medicine which teaches
the art of curing disorders.
  Apotiiermum. (From airo, andStpprji heat.)   An
acrimonious pickle, with mustard, vi.icgar, and oil.—
Galen.
  APO THESIS.   (From airo, and nOinit, to replace.)
The reduction of a dislocated bone, accotditig to  Hip-
pocrates.
  APOTHLl'MMA.  (From airo, and $Xi<m, to press
from.)  The dregs or expressed juice of a plant.
  Apothrau sis.  (From ui7o, and Spai'*>, lo break.)
The taking away the splinters of a broken bone.
  Apo'tocus.  (From uiro, and tiktw, to bring forth.)
Abortive ; premature.— Hippocrates.
  Apotre'psis.  (From airo, and tdeinu, to turn train.)
A resolution or reversion of a suppuialing tumour.
   Apotropk'a.   (From airoTptfroi, to avert.)   An
amulet, or charm, t» avert diseases.—Foesius.
   A'POZEM.  (Apoiema.  From  airo, and gsu, to
boil.)  A decoction.
   Apozeu'xis.  (From  airo, and gcvyivpi,  to sepa-
rate.)  The separation or removal of morbid parts.—
 Hippocrates.
   Apo'zymoj  (From airo, and ^17, ferment )  Fer
I mented. 
APP
AQU
  APPARATUS.  (From apparco. to appear, or be
ready nt hand.)  This  term is ui plied to  the instru-
ments and the preparation and arrangement of every
thing necessary in the  performance of any operation,
medical, surgical, or chemical.
  Apparatus altus.  See Lithotomy.
  Apparatus major.  See Lithotomy.
  Apparatus minor.  Sec Lithotomy.
  Apparatus, pneumatic.  The discovery of aSri-
form fluids has, in modern chemistry, occasioned the
necessity of some peculiar  instruments, by means of
whicli those substances may, in distillations, solutions,
or other operations, lie caught, collected, and properly
managed.  The  proper instruments for this are styled
tlie pneumatic apparatus   Any kind of air is specifi-
cally lighter then any  liquid;  and, therefore,  if not
decomposed by it, rises through it iu bubbles.  On  this
principle rests the essential part of  the  apparatus,
adapted to such operations.  Its  principal  part is the
pneumatic trough, which is a kind of reservoir lor the
liquid, through which tlie gas is conveyed  and caused
to rise, and is filled either with water or with quick-
silver.   Some inches below its brim a horizontal shelf
is fastened, in dimension about  half or tlie tlnrd.part
ofthe tro ,gh, and in the water-trough this is provided
oh its foremost edge with a  row of holes, into which,
from underneath, sliort-necked funnels are fixed.  The
trough is filled with water sufficient to cover the shelf,
to support the receivers, which being previously rilled
with water are  placed invertedly,  their  open  end
turned down upon the above-mentioned holes, through
which afterward the gases, conveyed there and di-
rected by means of the funnels, rise in the  form of air
bubbles.
  In tome cases the trough must  be filled with quick-
filvrr,  because water  absorbs or decomposes some
kinds of air.  The price and specific  gravity of that
metal make it  necessary to give to tlie  quicksilver
trough smaller dimensions.  It is  either cut in marble,
or made of wood well joined.   The  late  Karsto has
contrived an apparatus, which,  to the advantage of
saving room, adds that of great conveniency.
  To disengage gases, retorts of  glass, cither common
or tubulated, are employed, and placed in a sand-bath,
or healed by a lamp.   Earthen, or coated glass retorts,
are  put in  the  naked fire.  If  necessary, they are
joined  with  a  metallic or  glass  conveying pipe.
When,  besides the aeriform, other fluids are to he col-
lected, the middle or intermediate bottle finds iu. use ;
and lo  prevent, after cooling, the rising of the water
from the trough into the disengaging vessel, the tube
of safety is employed.  For the  extrication of gases
faking place in solutions, for which no external heat is
required, the  bottle called disengaging bottle, or proof,
may be  used.  For receivers,  to collect  disengaged
airs, various cylinders of glass are used, whether gra-
duated or not, either closed at one end or open at both;
and in this last case, they are made air-tight by a stop-
per fitted by grinding.   Besides tliesc, glass bells and
common bottles are employed.
  To combine with  water, in  a commodious way,
some gases that  are  only gradually and slowly  ab-
sorbed  by it, the glass apjiaratus of Parker is ser-
viceable.
  APPENDI'CULA.  A little appendage.
  Appendicula c*cl  vermipoemis.  A  vermicular
process, about four inches in length, and the size of a
goose-quill, which hangs to the intestinum caecum of
the human body.
  APEPNDtcuL*  eppiloic«. Appendices coli adiposa.
The small appendices of tlie colon and rectum, which
ire filled with adipose substance.   See Omentum.  .
  APPENDICULA'TUS.   Applied to leaves, leaf-
Ftalks, &c. that are furnished with an additional organ
(or some particular purpose not essential to it; as  the
Dionaa  mvscipula, the leaves  of which  terminate
c?.ch in a  pair of toothed irritable lobes, that close
over and imprison insects;  as also the leaf of the JVe-
pentha distillatorea, which bears a covered pitcher full
of water; the ieaves of our Vtriculum, whicli have
numerous bladders attached to  them which seem, to
secrete air and  float  them; and the petiolus of  the
Dips acus pilosus, which  has little leaves at its base,
  APPENDIX.  1. An appendage; that  which  be-
rongeth to any thing.
  2.  See Apopkysis.
  APPLE.  See Pyrus
  Apple, acid of.  See Malic acid.
  Apple, pine.  See Bromclia  an anus,
  Apple, thorn.  See Datura stramonium.
  Appropriate affinity.   See .qffinily intermediate
» APRICOT.  See Prunus armemaca.
  APYRE'XIA.  (From a, priv. and irvpt\ta, a fever.
 Apyrexin.  Without fever.—The intcrmis-ion of fever-
 ish heat
  APYRI'NUS.  (From a, priv. and mpnv, r,uclsu$,r%
 kernel.)  Without a kernel.
  Apyrin* plant*.  Plants  without kernels.  Tl»r
 name in Gerard's arrangement of a clus-s of plants.
  APYROUS.  Bodies wliich sustain  the action of n
 strong heat for a considerable time, without changed!
 figure or other properties, have been called apyrous;
 but the word is now very seldom used.  Il is synony
 moils with refractory.
  A UUA.  See Hater.
  Aqu* aeris fixi.   Water  impregnated with fixed
 air.  This  is liquid carbonic  acid, or water  impreg-
 nated with carbonic acid.  It sparkles iu the glass, has
 a pleasant acidulous taste, and forms an excellent be
 verage.   It diminishes  thirst, lessens the morbid heat
 of the body, aud acts us a powerful  diuretic.  It  is
 also an excellent remedy in increasing irritability of
 the stomach, as in advanced pregnancy, and it is one
 of Ihe best anti-emetics which we possess.
  Aqua alumims  composita.  Compound solution
 of  alum,  formerly  called aqua aluminosa  bateann.
 See Liquor aluminis compositus.
  Aqua ammonia ace.tatj;.   See Ammonia acetatis
 liquor.
  Aqua AMMONi.es pur*.  See .Ammonia.
  Aqua aneti. See Anethum gravcolens.
  Aqua calms.  See Calcis liquor.
  Aqua carui.  See Carum carui.
  Aqua cinnamomi.  Sec Lauras cinnamomum
  Aqua ccelestis.  A preparation of copper.
  Aqua cupri ammoniati.   See  Cupri  ammcmiutl
 liquor.
  Aqua cupri vitriolati comtosita.  This pie
 pa ration of the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia  is  used
 externally, to stop haemorrhages of the  nose, and othej
 parts.   It is made thus: R Cvpri vitriolati, Aluminis,
 sing.  3SS.  Aqua purm,  \ iv. Acidi  vitriolici,  3 ij
 Boil the salts in water until they are dissolved; then
 filter tlie liquor and add the acid.
  Aqua distillata.  Distilled water.   This is matii
 by distilling water in e'ean vessels, until about two
 thirds have come over.  In nature, no water is found
 perfectly pure.  Spring or river water always contain*
 a portion  of saline matter, principally sulphate  o".
 lime; and, from this impregnation, is unfit  fur a mun
 ber  of pharmaceutic preparations.  P.y  distillation, ;i
 perfectly pure water is obtained.  The  London Col
 lege directs  ten gallons of commou water ; of which,
 first distil four pints, which are to be thrown away;
 then distil  four gallons.  This distilled water js to be
 kept in glass vessels. See Water
  Aqua foeniculi.   See Ancthum fmniculum.
  Aqua fortis.  This name is given to a weak and
 impure  nitric acid, commonly used in  the arts.  It  h
 distinguished by the terms double and single, the single
 being only half the strength of the other. The artists
 who use these acids call the more concentrated acid,
 which  is much stronger even than the double aqua
 fortis, spirit of  nitre.  This distinction appears to fce
 of some utility, and is  therefore not improperly re-
 tained by chemical writers.  See Nitric acid.
  Aqua kali pr.jeparati.  See Potassa subcarbotia
 tis liquor.
  Aqua kali pcri.  See Potassa liquor.
  Aqua lituaroyri acetati.  See Plumbi acetatis
 liquor.
  Aqua  lituaroyri   acetati  composita.   Sea
 Plumbi  acetatis liquor dilutus.
  Aqua marine.   See Beryl.
  Aqua Mentha piperita.   See Mentlia piperita
  Aqua menth.e sativ-E.  See Mentha viridis.
  Aqua menthjE viridis.  See Mentha viridis
  Aqua de  napoli.  See Aquetta.
  Aqua piment.e.  See Myrtus puiuntn.
  Aqua pulegii.  See Mentha Pulcgium.
  Aqua regia.  Aqua regalis.  This  acid, winch m
 a mixture of the nitric and muriatic acids, lately called
 nitro-muriatic, and now chlorine, was formerly called
 aqua regalis, because it was,  at  that lime, the only 
At£U
ARB
 Kid that vf .is  ttiiivn to be able to dissolve gold.  See
 Chlorine.
  Aqua rose.  Sec Rosaccntifolia.
  Aqua styptica.   A name formerly given to a com-
 bination of powerful aslrinfents, viz. sulphate of cop-
 ■per, sulphate  of alum,  and  sulphuric acid.   It has'
 been applied  topically to check  haemorrhage,  and,
 largely diluted with water, as a wash in purulent oph-
 thalmia.   See  Aqua cupri vitriolati composita.
  Aqua Toffania.  See Aquetta.
  Aqua vit.e. Ardent spirit of the first distillation
 has been distinguished in commerce by this name.
  Aqua  zinii vitriolati' cum  camphora.  Aqua
 mtriolia .  campkorata.  This  is made by  dissolving
 half an ounce of sulphate of zinc in a quart of boiling
 water, adding  half an  ounce  of camphorated spirit,
 and filtering.   This, when  properly diluted, is a  use-
 ful  collyrium for inflammations of the eyes, in which
 there is a weakness ofthe parts.  Externally, it is ap-
 plied by surgeons to scorbutic and  phagedenic ulcera-
 tions.
  Aquje distillate.  Distilled waters.  These are
made by introducing vegetables, as mini, penny royal,
Sec. into a still with water; and drawing off as much
as is found to possess the propertiesof the plants.  The
London College orders the waters to be distilled from
dried herbs, because fresh are not ready at all times of
the  year.   Whenever the fresh are used, the weights
are  to be'  increased.  But whether the fresh or dried
herbs are employed, the operator may vary the weight
according to the season  in which they have been  pro-
duced and collected.   Herbs and seeds, kept beyond the
space of a year, are  improper for the distillation of
waters.  To every gallon of these waters, five ounces,
by measure, of proof spirit are to be added.
  Aquje minerales.  See Mineral waters.
  Aqua stillatiti.e  simplk.ls.   Simple distilled
waters.
  Aqu.e  stillatiti/e  8Pir.iTi>09.e.   Spirituous dis-
tilled waters, now called only spiritus;  as  spiritus
pulegii.
  AQUjEDUCT.   A qua ductus; a canal or  duct, so
named because it was supposed  lo cany a watery
fluid.
  Aqu.educt of fallopius.  A canal in the petrous
portion ofthe temporal  bone, first accurately described
by Fallopius.
  Aquatic nut. See  Trapa nutans.
  Aquatics plant.e.   Aquatic  plants, or such as
grow in or near water.   A natural order of plants.
  AUUATICUS.   (From aqua,  water.)  Aquatic;
 or belonging to the water.
  AQUEOUS. (Aquosus, watery-)  Of the nature of,
 or resembling water.
  Aqueous  humour.  Humor Aquosus.   The  very
 limpid watery fluid, which fills both chambers of the
 ?ye.  See Eye.
 ' AUUE'TTA.  The name of a liquid poison, made
 use of hyjhe Roman women, under the Pontificate of
 Alexander VII.  It was prepared and sold in drops, by
Tophania, or Toffania, an infamous woman who re-
 sided at Palermo, and afterward at Naples.  From her,
 these drops  obtained the  name  of .li/na  Toffania,
Aqua dclla Toffana ; and also Aqua di Napoli.   This
 poison is  said  by some  to be a composition of  arsenic,
 and by others of opium and cantharides.
  AO.U1FO LIUM.   (From acus, a needle, and folium,
 a leaf; so called on account of its prickly leaf.)  See
 Ilex aqutfotium.
  A'CUILA.  (Atrof, the eagle.)  1. A species of the
 extensive genus Falcv of ornithologists.
  ■2. Aquila, among the ancients, had many other epi-
 thets joined with  it, as rubra, salutifera, volans, &c.
  3. A chemical name formerly used for sal-ammoniac,
 niercurius prrecipitalus, arsenic, sulphur, and the phi-
 losopher's stone.
  Aquila alba.  One  of Ihe names given  to calomel
 Dy the ancients.  See Hydrargyri submurias.
  Aquila alba philosopiiorum.  Aqua  alba gany-
 rwus.  Sublimated sal-ammoniac.
  Aorii.A ccei.kstis.  A panacea, or cure  for all dis-
 eases ; a preparation of mercury.
    .cuila veneris.   A  preparation  of the   an-
 cients, maae witn verdigris and sublimed   sal animo-
 Ijcc
    -jiviLm lignum   Eagle-wood.   It is generally sold
 5W me agauocnum.   Si e Lignum aloes.
  Aquil/e  ven.e.  Branches of the jugular vcids,
Which are particularly prominent in the eagle.
  AQUILE'GIA.  (From aqua, water, and lego, to
gather;  so called from the shape of its leaves, which
retain water.)  The herb columbine.
  1. The name of a genus of  plants in  the Linnaearr
system.  Class, Pohfandria; Older, Pentagipria,
  2. The name in the pharmacopoeias, for the colum-
bine. See Aquilegia vulgaris.
  Aquileoia vulgaris.  The systematic nameof the
columbine.  The  seeds, flowers, and  the whole pl&nf,
have been used medicinally, the first in exanthcinatous
diseases, the latter chiefly as an antiscorbutic.   Though
retained in several foreign pharmacopoeias, their  uti-
lity seems to be not allowed in this country.
  Aquili'na.  (From Aquila, an eagle; so called from
the resemblance of its leaves to eagle's wings.)  The
trivial nnroe of a species of pteris-.  See Ptcris.
  AQUU'LA.  (Diminutive of aqua.) A small quan
tity of very fine and limpid water. This term is ap-
plied to the pellucid water, which distends the capsule
of the crystalline  lens, and the  lens itself.   Paulus
ASgineta uses it to denote  a tumour consisting of a
fatty substance under the skin of the eyelid.
  Arabic gum.  See Acacia gummi.
  A'racalan.  An amulet.
  A'raca mira.  (Indian.)   A shrub growing in  the
Brazils, the roots of  which  are diuretic and antidy-
senteric.
  ARA'CHNE.  (From arag, Hebrew, to weave; or
from apaxvti, a spider.)   The spider.
  ARACHNOID.    (Aracanoides; from apaxw]i  a
spider, and ti&os, likeness; so named  from its rcsem
blance to a spider's web.)  Web-like.
  Arachnoid membrane.   Membrane  arachnoides.
I. A thin membrane ofthe brain, without vessels and
nerves, situated between the dura and pia mater, and
surrounding the cerebrum, cerebellum,  medulla  ob
longata, and medulla spinalis.
  eZ The term is also applied by some writers to the
tunic of the crystalline lens and vitreous humour of
the eye.
  ARACK.   (Indian.)   An  Indian spirituous liquor,
prepared in many ways, often from rice; sometimes
from sugar, fermented with  the juice of cocoa-nuts;
frequently from toddy, the juice of which flows from
the cocoa-nut tree by  incirion, and  from other sub
stancs.
  A'rados.   (From apaScur, to be  turbulent.)   Hippo-
crates uses this term to signify a commotion in thf
stomach, occasioned by the fermentation of ils contents
  Ar/eo tica.  ^Frorn apacoa, to rarefy.)    Things
which rarefy the fluids of the body.
  ARA'LIA.  (From ara, a bank in the sea ;  socallcd
because it grows upon the banks near the sea.)  The
name of a genus  of plants in the Linme an system.
Class, Pcntandria ; Order,  Penlagynia.  The berry-
bearing angelica.  Of the several  species of this iree,
the roots of  the  nudicaulis, or naked-stalked, were
brought over from North Amei tea, where it grows, and
sold here for sartaparilla.
  Ara'nea.   (From apaui, to knit  together.)
  1. The name of a genus of insects.
  2. Tlie spider.
  ARANTll "S, Julius  Cjesxk,  a celebrated anato
mist and physician, born at Bologna, about  the year
1530. After  studying under Vcsalius, and others, he
graduated and became  professor  there, and died in
1589.  In his first work, "C, ir/e  Human Fuetus," he
described  the furamcti ovale,  and ductus arteriosus-,
and corrected several  errors in the  anatomy of the
gravid uterus, which had been generally derived from
the examination of brutes.  He afterward showed that
the blood, after birth, could only pass fiom the right to
Ihe left side  by the heart through the vessels of the
lungs, thus preparing for the discovery of the circu-
lation ol"  Harvey.  A  Treatise on Tumours, anil a
Commentary on part of Hippocrates, were ilso writ-
ten by him
  ARA'TRl'M.  The plough.  A plan: Yin this for a
trivial name, because its roots are  found to hinder the
plough : hence rcmora aratri  See Ononis spinosa.
  ARBOR.   A tree.  1. In botany, a plant, consisting
of  one trunk which rises  to a great height, is very
durable, woody, and divided  at its top Into  bi anchrV
w Inch do not  perish in the winter; as the  oak, elm
ash, Sec. 
ARC                                           ARE
  ■5. in anatomv, it is applied to  parts which ramify
Se n tree, as the Arbor vita ofthe cerebellum.
  3. In chemistry, applied to crystallizations wliich ra-
mify like branches.
  Arbor dian*.  See Silver.
  Arbor vit.e.  The tree of life.
  1. The cortical substance of the cerebellum is so
disposed, that, when cut transversely, it appears rami-
fied like a tree, from wliich circumstance it is termed
arbur vita.
  2. The name of a tree  formerly in high estimation in
medicine.  See Thuya occidentalis.
  Arbores.  One of the natural divisious  or families
oi* plains. Trees consist of a single and durable woody
trunk,  bearing branches, which do not perish in the
winter, as Tilia, Fraxinus, Pyi-us, Sec.
  ARBUST1VA.  (From arbustum, a copse of shrubs
or trees.)  The name of an order of plants in Lin-
naeus's natural method.
  ARBUTHNOT, John, a physician, born in Scotland
soon after  tlie  restoration, celebrated for his wit and
learning.  He graduated at Aberdeen, and  settling in
this metropolis, had  the good fortune to be al Epsom,
when Prince  George of  1 leumark  was taken ill there;
whom, having  restored  to  health, he was appointed
physician lo Queen Aune, but never got into very ex-
tensive practice.  His chief medical publications were
'-On Ihe Choice of Aliments," and " On the_ Ltfects of
Air upon Human Bodies."  He died in  1735.
  ARBUTUS.  The name of a  genus of plants in
the Linmean system. Class, Decandria; Order, Mo-
nogynia.
  Arbutus, trailing. See Arbutus ura ursi.
  Arbutus unedo.  Amatzquiil; Fnedo papyraeea,
A decoction of  the bark  ofthe root of this plant is re-
commended in fevers.
  Arbutus uva ursi   The systematic name for the
officinal trailing Arbutus; Bear's berry ; Bear's whor-
tle-berry ; Bear's wlwrts ; or Bear's bilberries ; called
also  Vaccaria.  Arbutus—caulibus procumbentibus,
 foliis  integerrimis, of Linnaeus.  This plant, though
 employed by the ancients in several diseases, requiring
adstringent medicines, had almost entirely fallen into
 disuse until the middle of the present century, when  it
 first drew the attention  of physicians,  as a useful re-
 medy in calculous  and  nephritic complaints, which
 diseases it appears to relieve by its  adstringent qualities.
    A'rca arcanorum.   Tlie  mercury of the philo
 gophers.
    A rca cordis.  The  pericardium.
   ARCA'NU.AL A secret  A medicine, tlie prepara-
 tion or efficacy of which  is kept from the world, to
 enhance its  value.  With the chemists, it is a thing
 secret and incorporeal;  it can only be  known by ex-
 perience, for it is the virtue of every thing, which ope-
 rates a thousand times more than  the thing itself.
   Arcanum  cathohcum.    Bezoar,  plantain, and
 colrhicum.
   Arcanum duplex.   Arcanum  duplicatum.    A
 name  formerly given to the combination of potassa
 and sulphuric acid,  more commonly called vitriolated
 tartar, and now sulpliate of potassa.
   Arcanum tartari.  The acetate of potassa.
   Arce'rthos.  Juniper.
   ARCHAI'US. 1. Tlie universal archteus, or  prin-
 ciple of Van  Helmont, was the active principle of the
 material world.  See Vis vita.
   ■2. Good health.
    A'r< he.  (From apxn,lhebeginning.)  The earliest
 stage  of a disease.
    Arche'nda.  (Arabian.)  A powder made of the
 leaves of the ligustruin. to check the  foetid odour of
 the feet
    Archeo'stis.  White briony.
    [ARCHER, JOHN, M. D. ofthe state of Maryland,
 a  celebrated practitioner  of  medicine.   Many con-
 tributions of his,  on  various   subjects  of  medical
 science, are to be  found in the  New-York  Medical
 Repository.  He was  the first who introduced the
 Seneca snake-root (polygala senega) as a remedy in
 Croup. He died in 1614.  A.]
   Archil.  See Lichen roeella.
    [There are several lichens which abound in colour-
 ki" matter;  of these the most remarkable is the lichen
 micella, which -grows in the south of France, and  in
 the Canary Islands; and which  affords the beautiful,
 but perishable blue, called litmus,  archil, or tmnsol:
The moss is dried, powdered, mixed with peariMtS
and  urine, and allowed to ferment, during which It
becomes red and then blue; in this state it is mixed
with carbonate of potassa and chalk, and dried.  It i»
used for dying silk and  ribands; and by the chemists
as a most delicate trest of acids, whicli it indicates by
passing from blue to red ; ihe blue colour is restored by
alkalies,  « hich do not render it green.  Cudbear ap-
pears to  be  a similar preparation of the lichen tar
larvus.— Wt aster's Man. Chem.  A.]
  Archill a.  See l.iilu n roeella.
  Aruhi tiioios.  (From  apxVi the chief, and .JcXot.
a chamber.)  The sudatorium, or principal roou. ol
the ancient baths.
  ARCHOPTO MA  (From apxos, the anus, and rr-r-
tui, to fall down.)  A bearing down of the rectum, or
prolapsus ani.
  A'rciios.   (From ap.VJi !l"  arch.)  The anus; so
called from its shape.
  ARCTA'TIO.   (From  arclo, to  make  narrow)
Aretitudo.   Narrowness.
  1  A constipation of  the intestines, from inflam-
mation.
  2.  A preternatural strajtness of the pudendum  rr>u-
liebre.
  ARCTIUM.  (From ap/croc, a beai ; so called from
its roughness.)  The name of a genus of plants in (tie
Linna-an system.   Class, Xiwgcncsia; Order, Pohj'■■■>
mi's aqualis.  The burdock.
  Arctium  lappa.  The  systematic name for the
herb elot-bur, or burdock.  Bardana; Arctium;  Bri-
lanmea ; llaphis.  The plant so called in the pharma-
copoeias, is  the  Arctium—-foliis cordatis, inirniibua,
petiolatis, of Linnaeus.   It grows wild in uncultivated
grounds.  The seeds have  a bitlerish subacrid  taste:
they are  recommended as  very efficacious  diuretics,
given either in the form of emulsion, or in powder, to
the quantity of a drachm.  The roots taste sweetish,
with a slight austerity  and bitterness: they are es-
teemed aperient, diuretic, and sudorific; and are  sai.t
to act  without  irritation, so as lo be safely ventured
upon  in acute disorders.   Decoctions of them have
been used in rheumatic,  gouty, venereal, and otner
disorders ; and are preferred by sonle to tliose of sai-
saparilla. Two ounces of the roots are to be boiled in
three pints of water, to a quart; to  this, two drachma
of sulphate  of potassa  have been usually added.  Of
this decoction, a pint should  be taken every day i.'i
scorbutic and rheumatic cases, and  when  intended as
a diuretic, in a shorter period.
  ARCTIZITE.   The foliated species of sccpoiite.
See Scapolite.
  ARCTU'RA.  (From arcto, to  straiten.)   An ir>-
flammation of the finger, or toe, from a curvature of the
nail.—Linnaus.
  ARCUA'LIA.   (From arcus, a  bow.)   Arcualis.
The sutura coronalis is  so named, from  its bow-lifce
shape; and, for the-same reason, the bones of the sin-
ciput are called arcualia ossa.—Bartholin.
  ARCUA'TIO.   (From arcus, a bow.)  A gibbosity
ofthe fore-parts, with a curvationof the  sternum, of
the tibia, or dorsal vertebrae.—Avicenna.
  A'rcul.e.  (A dim. of area, a chest.)  The orbits
or sockets ofthe eyes.
  A'RDAS.  (From  artuto, to defile.)  Filth, excre-
ment, or refuse.—Hippocrates.
  ARDENT.   (Ardens; from ardco, to burn.)  Burn-
ing hot.  Applied to ftvers, alkohol, Sec.
  ARDOR.  (Ardor, oris. in.; from  ardeo, to burn.)
A burning heat.
  Aruor febrilis.  Feverish heat.
   Ardor urin*:.  Scalding of the  urine, or a sense
of heat in the urethra.
   Ardor ventriculi.  Heartburn.
   A'REA.  1.  An empty space.
  2. That  kind of baldness where the crown  of the
head is left  naked, like the tonsure  of a monk.
   ARE'CA.  The name of a genus  of plants of the
class Palma.
   Areca indic a.  An inferior kind of nutmeg.
   Are'gon.  (From apnyui, to help; so called from lis
valuable qualities.)  A resolvent ointment.
   Arema'ros.  Cinnabar.
   ARENA.  Sand, or gravel.
   Arena'mel.  (From arena, sand; so called becatise
it was stiid lo be procured from sandy places.)  Arena-
men.  Bole-anneuic.
                                         as 
ARG
ARI
  ARENA'TIO.  (From arena, sand.)  Saburation,
M the sprinkling of hot sand upon the bodies of pa-
tients.— Baccius de Thermis.
  [Arendalite.  The same as Arendate; both of
which are synonymous with Epidote.  A.]
  Arendate.  See Epidote.
  Avtit'NTES.  (From  area, to dry  up.) A sort of an-
cient cupping-glasses, used without scarifying.
  ARE OLA.   (A diminutive of area, a void space.)
A small red or brown circle, which surrounds the nip-
ples of females.  During  and after  pregnancy, it be-
comes considerably larger.
  Areometer.  See Hydrometer.
  Aret*:noi'des.  Sec Arytanoides.
  AUET^E'US,  of  Cappadocia;  a  physician, who
piactiicd al Rome, but at what period is uncertain,
though the most probable opinion places him between
the reigns of Vespasian and Adrian.  Eight books of
his remain " On the Causes, Signs,  and  Method of
treating acute and chronic Diseases," written  in the
Greek language, and admired for their pure style, and
luminous descriptions, as well as the judicious  prac-
tice generally  recommended.   He was partial to the
use of hellebore and other drastic  medicines; and ap-
pears  lo have been among the first to  recommend
canlharides for blistering the skin.
  ARETE.   (Aptri;, virtue.)  Hippocrates uses this
 word to mean corporeal or mental vigour.
  Are'us.  A pessary, invented by ^Egineta.
  A'RGAL.  Algol.  Crude tartar, in the state in
 which it is taken from the inside of wine-vessels, is
 known in the shops by this name.              .
   Argasy'llis.  (From apyos, a  serpent;  which it is
 said to resemble.)   The plant which was supposed to
 produce gum-ammoniac.   See  Heracleum gummi-
 ferum.
   A'rgema.  (From apyos,  white.)  Argemon.   A
 small white ulcer of the globe of the eye.—Erotianus.
 Galen, See.
   Aro-entate of ammonia.  Fulminating silver.
   [This mineral has a laminated or rather slaty struc-
 ture  Its lamime or layers, often curved or undulated,
 are seldom perfectly parallel;  but their surface has
 almost  always a  pearly  lustre, somewhat shining.
 According to Bournon, these laminae are composed ot
 minute rhombs, whose  summits are so  deeply trun-
 cated perpendicularly to the axis, that only a very thin
 portion of the  rhomb remains.   Indeed this  mineral
 sometimes presents the  primitive rhomb.   It is trans-
 lucent, at least at the edges; and its colour is white,
  Enaued with gray, green, or red.   It is easily broken;
  and its spec. grav. is 2.64.
    It is nearly a pure carbonate of lime, often contain-
  in"  a little oxide  of iron or manganese. Hence at
  a "red  heat  it often becomes  reddish  brown— CI.
  Min.  A.]                        .,         _
    Argenti kitras.  Argcntum nitratum;  Causti-
  cum  lunare.   Nitrate of  silver.  Take  of silver an
  ounce; nitric acid, a fluid ounce; distilled water, two
  fluid ounces.   Mix the nitric acid and water, and dis-
  solve the silver therein on a sand bath; then increase
  the heat  gradually that the nitrate of silver  may be
  dried  Melt the salt in a crucible over a slow fire
  until the water being  evaporated, it shall cease to
  boil; then pour it quickly into moulds of convenient
  shape   Its virtues are corrosive and astringent.  In-
  ternally it is exhibited in very small quantities, in epi-
  lepsy, chorea, and other nervous affections, and exter-
  rally it is employed to  destroy fungous excrescences,
  callous "ulcers, fistulas, Sec.  In the latter disease, it is
  used as an injection; from two grains to three being
  r"issolved in an ounce of distilled water.
    ARGE'NTUM.   (Argcntum, i. m.;  from apyos,
  white, because it is of a white colour.;   Silver. See
   Silver                _
     Aroentum fusum.  Crude mercury.
     Aroentum mobile.   Crude mercury.
      Vrgentum nitratum.  See Argenti nilras.
      VrgentuM vivum.   See Mercury.
     •Urges.  (From apyos, white.)   A serpent, with a
   WiitUli  skin, decmeu  by Hippoc.a es  exceedingly
    venomous.                  .  ..           „.i-,„,
     ARGILLA.  (Argilla, a. f.; from apyos, while.)
    Argil.  White clay. See Alumina.
     Argili.a vitriolata.  Alum.
     ARGILLACEOUS.  Of or belonging to argilla, or
    aluminous earth.  See Alumina.
         au
L  Aro-illaceous earth.  See Alumina.
   Araillaceous schistus.  See Clay-slate.
   AltGILLITE.  See Clay-slate.
   rARGILOLITE.  This mineral often strongly le-
 sembles certain varieties of compact limestone, or cal-
 careous marl.  Its texture is sometimes porous, and
 someUmes compact, or even slaty.  Its fracture is duff
 and earthy, sometimes  splintery or  conclioidal.  In
 hardness, also, it differs little from indurated marl, oi
 the softer varieties of compact limestone, and is some
 times nearly friable.  Its particles are sufficiently hard
 to scratch iron, although its masses may be c it by a

   "it"adheres but  sliglitly to the tongue, and yields au
 argillaceous odour when  moistened.  In water it gra-
 dually crumbles, but never forms a ductile paste,   it
 is opaque; and its colour is gray, often tinged  with
 yellow or blue;  also rose, or  pale red,  brown, ol
 brownish red, and somciimes greenish.  It very  often
 presents white, brown, or greenish spots, nearly round,
 and is sometimes striped.                       .
    It hardens by exposure to heat, but is generally in
 fusible by the blow-pipe: some varieties melt at theii
 surface.  It does not effervesce with acids, by which it
 is distinguished from those minerals which it most re-
 sembles.
    Claystone seems to approach very near to jasper, or
  petrosilex, in a state of decomposition, and sometimes
  to tripoli.—CI. Min.  A.)
    Argyri'tis.  (From upyvpos, silver.)  Litharge,  or
 spume of silver.   A kind of  earth was formerly  so
  named, which is taken from silver mines, and  is be
  spangled with many particles of silver.
    ARGYRO'COME.    (From  apyuoos,  silver, anc
  Koun,  hair.)   A species of gnaphatium or  cudweed
  was so named from its white silvery  floscules.
    Argyroli'eanos.  The white olibanum.
    Argyro'phora.  An antidote, in the composition
  of which there is silver.                     .
    ARGYROTROPHE'MA.   (From apyos, white, and
  rpoepnua, food.)  A white cooling food,  made with
  milk.' Milk diet—Galen.
    Ariieumati'stos.  (From  a, neg. andJimuaTi^u
  lo be  afflicted with rheums.)   Not being afflicted witx
  gouty rheums.                               .
     ARICY'MON.  (From uoi and kvui, to be quicklj
  impregnated.)  A woman who conceives quickly an»
  often.                         ,             .  . %
     ARILLUS.  (From  ar<rVf, to be dry or  parched.)
  The  seed-coat or tunic of  the  pernianenx husk thai
   invests a seed, which drying  falls off*  spontaneoujly.
   It is  a peculiar membrane,  thick,  and   loosely sur-
   rounds the seed.
     The varieties of arilli are,
     1. The succulent, pulpy;  li'.;e a berry in Evonymut
   europeus and Latia.
     2.  Cartilaginous ; in Coffea Arahica.
     3. Dimidiate,  half round; as in Taxus baccata.
     4.  Lacerate, cut-like; as in the mace of the Myns
   tica moschata.
     5.  Reticulate,  net-like, surrounding the seed  like a
   net;  as in the Orchis tribe.
     6.  Tricuspid ; as in  Malva coromandiliana.
     7.  Hirsute, hairy; as in  Giranium  incanum.
     8.  Villous; in Geranium dissectum.
     ARISTA.  (From  arco, to dry.)   The awn: a
   sharp beard, or  point, or bristle-like  filament, which
   proceeds from the husk or glume of grasses.  Its  dis-
   tinctions are into,
     1.  Naked, without villi; as  in Slipa  arguens  and
   juncea.
     2.  Plumose, having white villi; as in Stipapennata
     3.  Straight, as in Bromus secalinus, and mollis.
     4.  Geniculate, having a knee-like  bend;  as with
   Acena saliva.
     5. Recurved, bent back; as in Holcus  lanitus, and
   Agrostis canina.
     6. Tortile, twisted  like a  rope;  as  in Agrostii
    rubra, and Aira montann.
      7. Terminal, fixed to ihe apex of the nusk: it is so
    in Agrostis miliacea.
      8. Dorsal, fixed to the back or outward part ol the
    husk: as in Agrostis canina; Bromus; Alopecuria.
      9.  I'ncinate,  hooked; as in  Panicum hirtcllum.
      AUISTALTH/E'A. (Fromapis-os,best,andaXr>aw»,
    the  altlurto  The common  marsh-mallow   See Ai
    thaa officinalis. 
ARK
ARN
  AJUSTATUS.  (From arista, the awn.)  Awned.
 Applied to leaves, leaf-stalks, &c. when terminated
 by a long rigid spine, which in a leaf does not appear
 as a contraction.  In Galium aristatum, the leaf-stalk
 is awned.
  ARISTOLO'CHIA.    (Aristolockia,  a.  f.;  from
 aptarof, good, and Xoxia or Xoxcia, parturition; so
 called because it was supposed to be ot sovereign use
 in disorders incident to child-birth.)  1. The name of
 a genus of plants in  the Liniutaii system.  Class,
 Gynandrta; Order,  Hcxandria.
  2. The pharmacopceial  name of tlie long-rooted
 birthworl   See  Aristoloehia longa.
  Aristolociha  anquicida.  "Snake-killing  birth-
 wort.   Aristoloehia—foliis  cordatis,  acuminatis ;
 caule volubili, fructiceso ; pedunculis sulitariis ; sti-
 pulis cordatis, of Linnaeus.  The juice of the root of
 this plant has tlie  property of so stupifying serpents,
 that they may  be handled with impunity.  One or
 two drops are sufficient;  and if more be dropped into
 the mouth, thpy  become convulsed.  So ungrateful is
 the smell of the root to  those reptiles, that it is  said
 they immediately  turn  from it.   The juice is  also
 esteemed as a preventive  against the effects usually
 produced by the bite of venomous serpents.
  Aristolociha  clematitis.   Aristoloehia tenuis.
 The systematic name of  the Aristoloehia rulgaris of
 some pharmacopoeias.   An extract is ordered by the
 WirteinberL' Pharmacopoeia, and tlie plant is retained
 in that of Edinburgh.   It  is esteemed as possessing
 antipodagric virtues.
  Aristolociha fabacea.  See Fumaria bulbosa.
  Aristolociha lonoa.  The systematic name for
 the aristoloehia of  our pharmacopoeias.   Aristoloehia
  -foliis  cordatis,  petiolatis, integcrrimis,  obtusius-
 culis ; caule infirmo, fioribus solitariis.  The root ol"
 this plant  only  is in use; it possesses  a somewhat
 aromatic smell, and a warm bitterish taste, accompa-
 nied witli a slight degree of pungency. The virtues
 ascribed to Uiis root by the ancients were very  con-
 siderable ;  and it was frequently employed in various
 diseases, but particularly in promoting tlie discharge
 of the lochia; hence its name.   It is now very rarely
 used, except in  gouty affections, as an aromatic  sti-
 mulant
  Aristolociha rotunda.  The root of this species
 of  birthwort, Aristolockia—foliis  cordatis, subsessi-
 libus, obtusis; caule infirmo; fioribus  solitariis, of
 Linnaeus;  is used indiscriminately with that cf the
 aristoloehia longa.  See Aristolockia longa.
  Aristolociha  serpe.ntaria.   The  systematic
 name for tlie Serpentaria virginiana of tlie pharma-
 copoeias. Aristoloehia;  Colubrina virginiana; Vi-
 perina;  Viperina virginiana;  Pestilochia;  Con-
 trayerva virginiana.  Virginian  snake-root   The
 plant which affords this root is the Aristoloehia—
 foliis  cordato oblong is  planis;  caulibus  infirmis
 Mexuosis teretibus ; fioribus solitariis.  Caulus geni-
 culata valde nodosa.  Flares ad radicem of Linnaeus.
 Snake-root has  an  aromatic  smell, approaching to
 that of valerian, but more agreeable; aud a warm,
 bitterish, pungent  taste.  It was first recommended
 as a medicine of extraordinary power, in counteract-
 ing the poisonous effects of the bites of serpents; this,
 however, is now wholly disregarded: but as it  pos-
 sesses  tonic and antiseptic virtues, and is generally
 admitted as a powerful stimulant and diaphoretic, it
 is employed, in the present day, in some fevers where
 these effects are required.  A tinctura is directed both
 by the London and Edinburgh Pharmacopoeias.
  Aristolochia tenuis. See Aristolochiaclematitis.
  Aristolochiatrilobata.  Three-Iobed birthwort
 The root, and every part  of this plant, Aristolochia—
 foliis trilobis, caule volubili, fioribus maximis of Lin-
 naeus, is diuretic, and is employed in America against
 the bite of serpents.
  Aristolochia vulgaris.   See  Aristolochia  cle-
 matitis.
  Aristophanei'on.   (Fxom Aristophanes, its  in-
 ventor.)  The name of an ancient  emollient plaster,
 composed of wax,  or pitch.—Gorraus.
  [ARKTIZIT.    This mineral is  otherwise called
 Werneritc, after  the  celebrated German mineralogist
 Werner.
  The Werrterite, a rare mineral, occurs in eight-sided
prisms, terminated by four-sided summits, whose fices
form,  with the alternate  lateral planes on which they
stand, an anglcof about 121°. Or it may becalkdalour
sided prism, truncated on its lateral edges.  The primi-
tive form appears to be a quadrangular prism, witfc
square bases.  It also occurs in irregular grains.
  The Weruerile strikes lire with steel, but is scratched
by feldspar.  Its fracture is both imperfectly foliated
and uneven, with a moderate lustre, a little pearly oi
resinous.  Its specific gravity is 3X0.
  It is usually more or less translucent; and its colour
is greenish gray, or olive green, and sometimes white.
The surface of the cry.-ials sometimes has the lusui
and aspect of an enamel.
  Ketone the blow-pipe, it froths and melts into an
opaque, white enamel.  A mean of two analyses, by
John, gives  silex 45.5, alumine 33.5, lime V.\.-i-2, oxi-iv.
of iron 5.75, oxide of manganese 1.47='.)t).4-l.
  Its mode of fusion by the blow-pipe, and its imper
fiectiy foliated structure, may  serve to distinguish  il
from most minerals which it resembles.
  This mineral  is  sometimes  in tabular  masses, but
most commonly iu crystals wliich ure easily  recog-   t
nised.  The general form of  these crystals, .certain
small faces being neglected,) is a very oblique rhomb,
or rather four-sided prism, so  flattened that  some of
its edg(« become thin and sharp, like the edge of uu
axe.  The primitive form is a lbur-sided pi ism, the.
ba-.es of whicli are parallelograms,  with angles of
101" 30', and 78° 30'.   The integrant particles are
oblique,  triangular prisms.  M. llaiiy has described
five secondary forms.—CI. Min.  A.]
  ARMA.   (Arma, orum. pi.  n. Arms.)  In botnnv,
applied to a species of armature or offensive weapons.
They are one ofthe seven  kinds of fulcra, or props of
plants enumerated  by Linnaeus in his Delineatin
planta.   They are pungent points in some part of e
plant.  In the present day, arma is used as a generic.
term embracing the  aculeus, furca,  spina, and sti-
mulus.
  ARMATU'RA.  1. See Arma.
  2. The amnios or  internal  membrane which sur-
rounds the foetus.
  ARMATURE.  See Arma.
  A'rme.  (From apo>, to  adapt.)  1. A junction of
the lips of wounds.
  2. The joining ofthe sutures of the head.
  [ARMENIAN  STONE.   Quartzy or calcareous
substances, penetrated by the azure carbonate of cop
per, have been called  by this name, the copper giving
a most beautiful blue colour.   A.]
  Armi'lla.  (Diminutive of armus, the arm.)  The
round ligament  which  confines the tendons of the
carpus.
  ARMORA'CIA.    (From  Armorica,  the  country
whence it was brought.)   See  Cochlearia Armoracia.
  ARMSTRONG, John, a Scotch physician, born in
1709, who, after  graduating at Edinburgh, settled in
London,  but met with  little success, having distin-
guished  himself  less  in his profession than as a poet,
particularly  by his  "Essay on  the Art of Preserving
Heath,"  iu  blank verse.   He afterward  attended the
army in  Germany,  which brought  him more  into
notice as a physician.   He attained the age of seventy.
and  died in pretty good circumstances.   His  profes-
sional publications are not  of much no'.e; the  princi-
pal one is entitled " Medical Essays."  He is supposed,
however, to  have contributed  materially to a  useful
Treatise on the Diseases of Children, published by his
brother George,  who, after practising many years as
an apothecary, obtained a diploma iu  medicine.
  A'RNICA.   (Arnica, a.  t.  ApviKn;  from  ap;,  a
lamb;  because  of the  likeness of the  leaf ot  tins
plant to  the coat  of the  lamb.)  Arnica.  1. The
name of a genus of plants in the Linnatan system
Class, Syngenesia; Order,  Polyertimia supcrflua.
  ■2. The phaimacopaeial name of the Mountain ai trie*
See Arnica montana.
  Arnica Montana.  The systematic name f-" "he
arnica of the pharmacopoeias.   Arnica  fob a  »•«»».-.■
integris; cavlinis  geminis eppositis,  of Linnaeus.
Doronicum  Germanieum.   Acyrus.  The flowers ol
this  plant are  verv generally employed on the Conti-
nent. Of the advantages  derived  from  their use, in
paralytic aud other affections, depending upon a want
of nervous energy, there are several proofs: and theii
extraordinary virtues, as a febrifuge and antiseptic,
have been highly extolled by  Dr. Collin, of Vienna.
Much caution  is neces-ary in  regulating the nose, a» 
ARS
ARS
it is a medicine very apt to produce vomiting, and
much uneasiness of the stomach.  See Arnica.
  Arnica suedensis.  See Inula dysenterica.
  Arno'tto.  A  Spanish name for a shrub.  See
Bixa orleana.
  ARO'MA.   (Aroma,  matis, neut. ; from  api,  in-
tensely, and ogui, to smell.)   Spirilis rector.  The
odorous principle of plants,  and  other  substances,
which have their characteristic smell.  This is called
by the moderns, aroma.  Water charged with aroma,
is called the distilled water ofthe substance made use
of: thus  lavender and peppermint waters are water
impregnated with  the aroma  of the lavender and
peppermint.
  Aromata.   (Apwpara,  sweet  spices,  herbs, &c.)
Aromatics.
  AROMA'TIC.   (Aromaticus;  from   apoipa,  an
odour.)  A term applied to a grateful  spicy scent,
and an agreeable pungent taste, as cinnamon bark,
cardamoms, &.c.
  Aromatic vinegar. See Acetum aromaticum.
  Aromatic.e plant.e.  Odoriferous or  strong and
agreeable smelling plants.  The name of  a  class of
plants in some natural arrangements.
  Aroma'ticus cortex.  A name  for canella alba.
Cortex win!' ■ rius.
  AROMA'n  UJ'LA.   (From apupa, an odour, and
iruiXaj, to sell.; A  druggist; a vender of drugs and
spiccries.
  AROUEBUSA'DE.   (A  French word,  implying
good  for  a gun-shot  wound.)  Aqua sclopelaria;
Aqua  vulncraria;  Aqua catapultarum.   The name
of a spirituous water, distilled  from a farrago of aro-
matic plants.
  ARRA'CK.   A spirituous liquor distilled from rice,
and drunk, in the rice countries,  as  brandy is in this
island.  Its effects  on the animal  economy are  the
same.
  ARRAGONITE.   A mineral of a greenish and
pearly gray colour, found at Arragon in  Spain, Eng-
land, and  Scotland.
  [Although this mineral is composed chiefly of lime
and carbonic acid, yet there  is reason to believe, that
other ingredients are essential to its  true composition.
It differs  from pure carbonate of  lime  in  hardness,
specific gravity, and crystalline structure.
  In nitric acid it dissolves with effervescence.  The
analysis  of no mineral has ever so much exercised
the talents, exhausted the resources, and disappointed
the expectations ofthe most distinguished chemists of
Europe, as that of arragonite.  Vauquelin and Four-
croy obtained  lime  58.5, carbonic acid 41.5; and the
analysis of Biot and Thenard, conducted with much
ingenuity, scarcely differs from this, except in giving
a little water.   With these, both Chevenix and Kla-
proth agree, in finding  the arragonite to contain lime
and carbonic acid in nearly the same proportions as in
the common carbonate of lime.  Kirwan  in his mine-
ralogy, published  in 1794, conjectured that  the arra-
gonite might  contain  strontian; and very recently
Professor Stromeyer of Gottingen  has discovered in
this mineral between three and  four per cent, of the
carbonate of strontian.  This discovery will  very pro-
bably lead to  a solution of the  preceding difficulty;
but it is important that the analysis should be repeated
by different chemists.—CI. Min.  A.]
   A'rraphus. (From  a, priv. and pa<Jr;, a suture.)
 Without  suture.  It is  applied to the cranium when
naturally without sutures.
   Arrangement of Minerals.   See Minerals, arrange-
 ment of.
   ARRH AT A.  (From a, neg. and pew, to flow.)  The
 suppression of any natural flux,  as  the menses, Sec.
   ARRHIZUS.  (From a, priv.  and pi^a, a root:
 without root.) Applied to paraatical plants, which
 have no roots, but  adhere and imbibe their nourish-
 ment by ainastomosing of the vessels; as Viscum al-
 bum, and Loranthus europeus.
   ARROWHEAD.  The Sagittaria sagittifolia of
 Linnaeus. The roots of this plant are said to be escu-
 lent, but it must be in times of very great scarcity.
   Arrow-root. See Maranta.
   Arrow-shaped.   See Leaf.
   ARSE'NIATE.   (Arsenias, atis. in.;  from arscni-
 cum,  arsenic.)  A  salt formed  by a confbination of
 irscnic acid with salifiable bases; as arseniate of am-
 monia, which is produced by the  union of ammonia
 with arsenic acid.   The only one used in medicine is
       86
the superarseniatc of potassa, which is in solution n
the liquor arsenicalis.  See Arsenicalis liquor.
  A'RSENIC.   (Arsenicum, i. n.; from the Arabic
term Arsanek, or from apcrrv,  for aprnv, mae-culus;
from its strong and  deadly powers.)   The name of a
metal scattered, in great abundance, over the minora
kingdom.  It is found in black, heavy masses of" little
brilhancy, called native arsenic or testaceous arsenic,
This exists in different parts of Germany.   Mineral
ized  by sulphur, it  forms sulphurized arsenic.  Thh
mineral is met with in Italy, about Mount Vesuvius
There are two varieties of this ore, ft hich differ from
each other in colour, occasioned by the different pro-
portions of their component  parts.   The one is called
yellow  sulphurized arsenic, or orpiment; the other, red
sulphurized arsenic, or realgar, or ruby arsenic; both
are met with in  Hungary and different parts of Ger
many.   The colour of the first ore is a lemon-yellow,
inclining sometimes to a green; the colour of the latter
is a ruby-red; il is more transparent than the former,
and found in compact and  solid masses, sometimes
crystallized in bright needles. Arsenic united to oxy-
gen, constitutes the ore called native oxyde of arsenic.
This ore is scarce,  it is generally found of an earthy
appearance, or as an efflorescence, coating native, or
metallic  arsenic; its colour is  a whitish  eray; it is
rarely met with crystallized.   Arsenic exists  likewise
alloyed with cobalt, antimony, tin, copper, lead, and
various other metals.
  Method of obtaining Arsenic.   In order to  obtain
metallic arsenic, mix two parts of the white oxyde of
arsenic of commerce, with one of black flux (obtained
by detonating one part of nitrate of potassa with two
of supertartrate of potassa),  and put the mixture into
a crucible, or melting pot.   Invert over this anothei
crucible, lute the two together  with a little  clay and
sand, and apply gradually a red heat to the lower one.
The oxyde of arsenic will be reduced, and  be found
lining the upper crucible in small crystals of a metal-
lic brilliancy.
  The charcoal of tlie black flux takes in this process
the oxygen from the white oxyde, and forms carbonic
acid gas; which flies oft" during  the process, and the
oxyde becomes reduced to the metallic state.  This re-
duction of the oxyde is greatly facilitated by the alkali
of the  flux.
  Remark.—In order to  obtain arsenic in a state  of
absolute purity, the metal thus obtained  must be re-
duced  to a powrder, dissolved by heat in nitro-muriatic
acid, and then precipitated  by immersing into the so
lulion a plate of zinc.  The arsenic is thus precipitated
in a fine powder, and may be reduced to a moss, by
exposing it .n a covered crucible to a moderate heat.
  " It is among  tlie most combustible of the metals,
burns with a blue flame, and  garlic smell, and sublimes
in the state of arsenious acid.
  Concentrated sulphuric acid does not attack arsenic
when cold;  but if it be boiled  upon  this metal, sul-
phurous acid gas is emitted, a  small quantity of sul-
phur sublimes, and the arsenic is reduced to an oxyde.
  Nitrous acid readily attacks arsenic, and converts it
into arsenious acid, or, if much be employed, into ar-
senic acid.
  Boiling muriatic acid dissolves arsenic, but affects il
very little when cold.  This solution  affords precipi-
tates upon the addition of alkalies.  The addition of
a Utile nitric acid expedites  the solution; and this so
lution, first heated and condensed  in a close vessel, is
wholly sublimed into a thick liquid, formerly termed
butter of arsenic.   Thrown in powder into chlorine
gas, it burns with a bright  white  flame, and  is con
 verted into a chloride.
   None of the earths or alkalies act upon it, unless it
be boiled a long while in fine powder, in a large pro-
 portion of alkaline solution.
   Nitrates detonate with arsenic, convert it into  ar
senic  acid, and this, combining with tlie base of the
 nitiRte, forms an urseniate, that remains at the bottom
 of the vessel.
   Muriates have no action'npon it;  but if tliree pai ts
 of chlorate of potassa be mixed with one part of ar-
 senic in fine powder, wliich must  be done with great
 precaution, and a very light hand, a very small quan-
 tity of this mixture placed on  an anvil, and  struck
 with a hammer, will explode with flame and a con-
 siderable report; if touched with fire, it will burn wilh
 considerable rapidity; and if thrown into concentrated
 sulphuric acid, at the  instant of contact a flame rises 
                        ARS

 Into the air lilw  a flash of lightning, which is so bright
 as to dazzle the  eye.
   Aisonic  readily  combines with sulphur  by fusion
 and sublimation, and forms a yellow compound called
 orpiment, or a red called realgar.   The nature of these,
 aud  their difference, are not accurately known;  but
 Foui eroy considers the  first as a  combination of sul-
 phur with the oxyde, and tlie second as a combination
 of sulphur with  the metal itself, as he found the red
 sulphuret converted into the yellow by due action of
 acids.
   Arsenic is soluble iu fat oils in a boiling heat;  the
 solution is black, and  has the consistenceof an oint-
 ment when cold.  Most  metals  unite with arsenic;
 which exists in  the metallic state in such alloys as
 possess tlie metallic brilliancy.
   Iodine  and arsenic  unite, forming an  iodide, of a
 dark, purple-red colour, possessing the properties of
 an acid.  It is soluble in water, and its solution forms
 a soluble  compound with potassa.
   Arsenic combines w ith hydrogen into a very noxious
 compound, called arsenuretted hydrogen gas.  To pre-
 pare  it, fuse in a covered crucible 3 parts of granu-
 lated tin, and  1  of metallic arsenic in powder;  and
 submit  this alloy, broken in pieces, to the  action of
 muriatic acid in a class retort.   On applying a mode-
 rate heat, the arsenuretted hydrogen comes over, and
 may be received in a  mercurial or water pneumatic
 trough.  Protomuriate of tin remains in the retort.
   A prime equivalent of hydrogen is to one of arsenic
 as 1 to 76; and 2 consequently as I to 38.  Gehlen fell
 a victim to his researches on this gas; and therefore
 the new experiments requisite to elucidate its consti-
 tution must be conducted with circumspection.   It
 extinguishes flame, and instantly destroys animal life.
 Water  has no  effect upon it.  From the experiments
 of Sir H.  Davy, and Gay Lussac and Thenard, there
 appears to  be a solid compound of hydrogen and  ar-
 senic, or a hydruret.  It is formed by acting with the
 negative pole of a voltaic battery on arsenic plunged
 in water.  It is reddish brown, without lustre, taste,
 and smell.  It is not decomposed at a heat approaching
 to cherry-red;  but  at this temperature it absorbs oxy-
 gen ; while water and arsenious acid are formed, with
 the evoluton of heat and light  The proportion ofthe
 two constituents is not known.
   Arsenic is used in a variety of arts.  It enters into
 metallic combinations, wherein a white colour is  re-
 quired.   Gloss manufacturers use it; but its effect in
 the composition of  glass does not seem to be  clearly
 explained.   Orpiment and realgar are used  as pig-
 ments."
   Arsenic and  its various preparations are the most
 active of all poisons.  That which is mostly taken, is
 the white oxyde, or arsenious acid. See Arsenious acid.
   [Arsenical pyrites, or arsenical iron, is found in the
 Highlands of New-York, on the west side ofthe Hud-
 son.  In the town  of  Warwick,  in Orange county,
 of this state, there  is a huge vein of  it in  a  moun-
 tain range, sufficient, as is said by a traveller, to poison
 the whole world.  A.]
  ARSENIC ACID.  Acidum arsenieum; Acidum
 arsenicale.   " We  are indebted  to  the illustrious
 Schcele for the discovery of this acid, though Macquer
 had  before noticed  its  combinations.  It  may be  ob-
 tained by various methods.  If six parts ol" nitric acid
 be poured on one of the concrete  arsenious acids, or
 white arsenic of the shops, in the pneumalo-ehemical
 apparatus, and heat be  applied,  nitrous gas will  be
 evolved, and a  white concrete substance, differing iu
 its properties from the arsenious acid, will remain  in
 the retort.  This is the arsenic acid.  It may equally
 be procured by  means of aqueous chlorine, or by heat-
 ing concentrated  nitric acid with  twice its weight of
 the solution of the arsenious acid in  muriatic acid.
 The con ;?ete acid should be exposed to a dull red heat
 for a few  minutes.  In either cose an acid is obtained,
 that does not crystallize, but attracts the moisture  of
 the air, has a sharp, caustic taste, reddens blue vege-
 table  colours, is fixed in the irn,, and of the specific
gravity of 3 391.
  If the arsenic acid be exposed to a red beat in a glass
retort, it melts and  becomes transparent, uut assumes
 a milky hue on cooling.  If the heat be increased, so
 tnat the  retort begins  to melt, the acid boils, and
sublimes into the neck of the  retort.   If a covered
crucible be used instead of the glass retort, and  a vio- |
                       ARS

 lent  heat applied, the  acid  boils strongly, and  in
 quarter of an  hour begins to emit fumes.  These, on
 being received in a glass bell, are found to be arsenious
 acid; and  a small quantity of a transparent glass,
 difficult to fuse,  will be found lining the sides of the
 crucible.  This is arseniate of alumina.
   Combustible substances decompose  this acid.   If
 two parts of arsenic acid be mixed with about one .it
 charcoal, the mixture introduced  into  a  glass retoit,
 coated, and  a  matrass adapted to il;  and the retort
 then  gradually heated in  a reverberatory furnace, till
 the bottom is red; the mass will be inflamed violently,
 and  the acid  reduced, and  rise to the neck of  the
 retort in the metallic state, mixed with a  little oxyde
 and charcoal powder.  A few drops of water, devoid
 of acidity, will be found in the receiver.
   Willi sulphur  the phenomena  are different.   If a
 mixture of six  parts of arsenic acid, and one of pow
 dered sulphur, be digested  together, no change will
 take  place: but on evaporating to dryness, and distil-
 ling in a glass  retort, fitted with a receiver, a violenl
 combination will ensue, as soon as the mixture is suf-
 ficiently heated to melt the sulphur.  The whole mass
 rises  almost at once, forming a  red sublimate, and sul-
 phurous acid passes over into the receiver.
   If pure arsenic acid be diluted with a small quan
 tity of" water, and hydrogen  gas, as it  is evolved by
 the action of sulphuric  acid  on iron, be received into
 this transparent solution, the  liquor grows turbid, and
 a  blackish  precipitate is  formed, which,  being well
 washed with distilled water, exhibits all  the pheno-
 mena of arsenic.   Sometimes, too,  a blackish-gray
 oxyde of arsenic  is found  in this process.
   If sulphuretted hydrogen gas be employed  instead
 of simple hydrogen gas, water and a sulphuret of ar-
 senic  are obtained.
   With phosphorus, phosphoric acid is obtained, and a
 phosphuret of arsenic, which sublimes.
   The arsenic acid is much mure soluble than the ar-
 senious. According to  Lagrange, two parts of watei
 are sufficient for this purpose.  It cannot  be crystal
 lized  by any means; but, on evaporation,  assumes a
 thick honey-like consistence.
   No acid has any  action upon it:  if some of them
 dissolve it by means of the water that renders them
 fluid, they do not produce any alteration in i'.  The
 boracic ami phosphoric are vitrifiable with it by means
 of heat, but without any  material alteration in their
 natures.  If phosphorus acid be heated upon it for
 some  time,  it saturates itself  with  oxygen, and be-
 comes phosphoric acid.
   The arsenic acid combines with the earthy and alka*-
 line bases, and forms salts very different  from thoso
 furnished by the arsenious acid.
   All these arscniales are decomposable by charcoal,
 whicli separates arsenic from them by means of heat.
   All its salts, with the exception of tiioseof potassa,
 soda,  and ammonia, are insoluble in water; but except
 arseniate of bismuth, and  one or two more, very solu
 blc in an excess of arsenic acid.  Hence, after barytes
 or oxyde of lead  has been precipitated by this acid,
 its farther addition re-dissolves the precipitate.  This
 is  a useful criterion of the acid, joined to its reduction
 to the metallic  state by charcoal, and the  other cha
 racters already detailed.   Sulphuric acid decomposes
 the arseniates at a low temperature, but the sulphates
 are decomposed by arsenic acid at a red heat, owing
to the greater fixity of the latter.  Phosphoric, nitric,
 muriatic, and iluoric acids,  dissolve,  and probably
 convert into subsalts all the arseniates.   The whole ol
 them, as well as arsenic acid  itself when decomposed
at a red heat by charcoal,  yield the characteristic gar
lie smell of  the  metallic  vapour.  Nitrate of silver
gives  a pulverulent  brick-coloured precipitate, w'th
arsenic acid.   The  acid  itself does not distuib  the
transparency of a solution of sulphate of copper;  bul
a neutral arseniate eives with  it a bluish green pre
cipitate; wilh  sulphate of cobalt, a  dirty red;  and
with  sulphate of nickel,  an  apple-green precipitate
These precipitates redissolve, on adding a small quan
tity ofthe acid which previously held them in solution.
Orfila says,  that  arsenic  acid  gives, with  acetate ol
copper, a bluish-white precipitate, but that it exercises
no action either on the muriate or acetate of cobalt;
but with the amnionio-muriate, it gives a rose-coloured
precipitate.   Arsenic acid ought to  be accounted f
more  violent poison than eve'i the arsenious. 
ARS
ARS
  The arseniate of barytes is insoluble, uncrystalliza-
ble, soluble in an excess of its acid, and decomposable
by sulphuric acid, which precipitates a sulphate of
barytes.
  The bin-arsemate of potassa is made on the great
scale in Saxony, by fusing together equal parts of nitre
and arsenious acid; dissolving the melted mass, and
crystallizing the salt.
  Ofthe arseniate of strontian nothing is known, but
no doubt it resembles that of barytes.
  With lime-water this  acid  forms a precipitate of
arseniate of lime, soluble in an excess of its base, or in
an excess of its acid, though insoluble alone.  The aci-
dulous arseniate of lime affords on evaporation little
crystals, decomposable by sulphuric acid.   The sa/ne
salt may be formed by adding carbonate of lime to the
solution of arsenic acid.   This acid does  not decom-
pose the nitrate or muriate of lime: but the saturated
alkaline arseniates decompose them by double affinity,
precipitating the insoluble calcareous arseniate.
  If arsenic acid  be saturated with magnesia, a thick
substance is formed near the point of saturation.  This
arseniate of magnesia is soluble in an excess of acid;
and on being evaporated  takes the form of a jelly, with-
out crystallizing.  Neither  the sulphate,  nitrate, nor
muriate of magnesia is  decomposed by arsenic acid,
though they are by the saturated  alkaline arseniates.
  Arsenic acid, saturated with potassa, does not easily
crystallize.  This arseniate, being evaporated to dry-
ness, attracts the humidity of the air, and turns the
syrup of violets green, without altering the solution of
litmus.  It fuses into a white glass, and with a strong
fire is converted into an  acidule, part of the alkali be-
ing abstracted by the silex and alumina of Ihe crucible.
If exposed to a red heat with charcoal in close vessels,
it swells up very much, and arsenic is sublimed.  It is
decomposed by sulphuric acid ; but in the humid way
the'decomposition is not obvious, as the arsenic acid
remains in solution.  On evaporation, however, this
acid and sulphate of potassa are obtained.
  If arsenic acid be added to the preceding salt, till it
ceases to have any effect on the syrup of violets, it will
redden  the solution of litmus; and in  this state it
affords  very regular  and very transparent crystals, of
the figure of quadrangular prisms, terminated  by two
tetrafidral  pyramids, the angles  of which answer to
those of the prisms.  These crystals are the arsenical
neutral salt of Macquer.  As this salt differs from the
preceding arseniate by its crystallizability, its redden-
ing solution of litmus, its not decomposing the calcare-
ous and magnesiau salts like it, and its capability of
absorbing an  additional portion of potassa, so as to
become neutral, it ought to be distinguished from il by
the term of  acidulous arseniate of potassa.
  With soda in sufficient quantity to saturate it, arse-
nic acid forms a salt crystallizable like the acidulous
arseniate  of potassa. To form the neutral arseniate,
carbonate of soda should be added to the acid, till the
mixture be decidedly alkaline.   This salt crystallizes
from the  concentrated solution.  It is much more so-
luble in hot than in cold water.  Pelletier says, that
the crystals are hexaedrul prisms, terminated by planes
perpendicular to their axis.  This neutral arseniate of
soda, however, while it differs completely from that of
potassa in this respect, and in becoming deliquescent
instead ol" crystallizable ou the addition of  a surplus
portion of arsenic acid, resembles the arseniate of po-
tassa in its decomposition  by charcoal, by acids, and
 by the earths.                     .
   Combined with ammonia, arsenic acid  forms a salt
 affording  rhomboidal crystals analogous to those ofthe
 nitrate of soda.
   The  arseniate of soda and ammonia is formed by
 mixing the two separate arseniates; and the compound
 nalt gives crystals with brilliant faces.  If wc redis-
 solve the crystals, and then recrystallize, we should
 ndd a little ammonia, otherwise the salt will be acidu-
 lous ft cm the escape of some ammonia.
   Arsenic acid saturated with alumina forms a thick
 solution, which, being  evaporated to dryness, yields
 a  salt insoluble in  water, and decomposable  by the
 sulphuric, nitric, and muriatic acids, as well as by all
 the other earthy and alkaline bases.   The arsenic acid
  readily dissolves the alumina of the crucibles in which
  it is reduced  to a state ol  fusion; and thus it attacks
 silex also, on which it has no effect in the humid way.
   liv the iissistai.ee of a strong lire, as  Fourr.rnv
        iyi
asserts, arsenic  acid  decomposes the  alkaline and
earthy sulphates, even that of barytes; the sulphuric
acid flying off in vapour, and the arseniate remaining
in the retort.   It acts in the same manner on  the ni-
trate  from which it expels the pure acid.  It likewise
decomDOses the muriates at  a  high  temperature, the
muriatic acid being evolved in the form of gas, and the
arsenic acid combining with their bases, which it *t-
turates; while the arsenious acid is too volatile to
have this effect.   It acts in the same manner on the
fluates, and still more easily on the  carbonates, with
which, by the assistance  of heat, it excites a brisk
effervescence.  Lagrange, however, denies that it acts
on any of the neutral salts, except the sulphate of po-
tassa and soda, the nitrate of potassa,  and the muriates
of soda and ammonia, and this  by means of heat.  Il
does not act on the phosphates, but precipitates the
boracic acids from solutions of borates when heated.
  Arsenic acid does not act on gold or platina; neither
does it on mercury or silver, without the aid of a strong
heat; but it oxydizes  copper, iron, lead, tin, zinc, bis-
muth,  antimony, cobalt, nickel, manganese, and ar-

  This acid is not used in  the  arts, at least directly,
though indirectly it forms a part of some compositions
used in dying.  It  is likewise one of  the mineralizing
acids combined by nature with some of tlie metallic
oxydes."—Ure's Chem. Diet.
  Arsenic, oxyde of.  See Arsenious  acid.
  Arsenic, white.  See Arsenious acid.
  Arse'nical caustic.  A species of caustic  said to
possess useful properties, independent of those of de-
stroying morbid parts to which il is  applied.  It is
composed of two parts of levigated antimony to one of
white arsenic.  This is the caustic so extensively em-
ployed under the name of arsenical, caustic, by  the late
Mr Justamond,  in his treatment of cancers.
  [Arsenic is a powerful, a dangerous, and  yet a
valuable caustic. Small tumours, excrescences, warts,
Sec, may be easily and safely removed by it.  Alone,
it gives much pain; and in large quantities, and ap-
plied to an extensive  surface, is extremely dangerous
Its painful action may be modified and more safely
applied  by mixing one part of white arsenic with
one of powdered  opium,  and  two of lapis  calami-
naris.  A.]
   Arsknica'lis liquor.   Arsenical solution.  Take
of sublimed oxyde of arsenic, in very fine powder, sub
carbonate of potassa from tartar, of each 64  grains :
distilled water a pint  Boil  them together in a iilass
vessel, until the arsenic be entirely dissolved.   When
the solution is cold, add compound spirit of laveuder,
four  fluid drachms.   Then add as  much distilled
water as may exactly fill a pint measure.  This pre-
paration  accords with the formula of Dr. Fowler, ot
Stafford, who first introduced it in imitation of a cele-
brated popular remedy for intermittents, sold under the
name of the tasteless ague-drop.  Thecoiupound spirit
of lavender is only intended to give some colour and
taste, without wliich  it tvould  be more liable to mis-
takes.  Where  the dose  is  small, and the effects so
 powerful, the most minute attention to its proportion
 and  preparation  becomes necessary.   Each junce
 contains  four grains of the oxyde, and each  drachm
 half a grain;  but  it will rarely be proper to gu beyond
one-sixteenth of a grain as a dose.
   Arsenical solution.  See Arsenicalis liquor.
   Arsenici oxydum praparotum. See Arsenici oxy
 dum sublimatum.
   Arsenicum album.  Arsenici oxydum sublimatum;
 Arsenici oxydum praparatum.  Reduce while arsenic
 into powder,  then put it into a crucible and expose l'
 to the fire, so as to sublime it into another crucible iu
 verted over the former.  This is intended to rendei
 the arsenic more pure.
   Arsenicum album.   White arsenic.   See Arscniout
 acid.
   Arsenicum crystai.li.num.  See Arsenious acid
   ARSENIOUS ACID.  White arsenic.  Oxyde of
 arsenic.  Arsenicum crystallmuin, risigallum, aquila,
 arfar, aquila, zarnick, artancck.   Rat's bane.  The
 earliest chemists were embarrassed  in  the determina-
 tion of the nature of the  poisonous white substance
 known in commerce by the ntuye ol" white  arsenic
 " Fourcroy was the  first  who distinguished by  ihi*
 name the white arsenic of  the shops, which Sr.heel«
I had proved to be a compound of the  mcial arsenic will. 
                       ARS

 oeAygem, and which the authors of the new chemical
 nomenclature had consequently termed oxyde of arse-
 nic.  As, however, it manifestly exhibits the proper-
 ties of an acid,  it has a fair claim to the title; for
 many oxydes and acids are  similar iu this, that both
 consist of a base united with oxygen, and the only dif-
 ference between them is, that the compound in which
 the acid properties are manifest is termed an acid, and
 that in which they are not is called an oxyde.
   This acid, which is one of the most virulent poisons
 known, frequently occurs in  a native state, if uot very
 abundantly;  and  it is  obtained  in  roasting several
 ores, particularly those of cobalt.  In the chimneys of
 tlie furnaces where this operation is conducted, it ge-
 nerally condense in  thick  seraitransparent masses;
 though sometimes it assumes the form of a powder, or
 of little needles, in which state  it was formerly called
 flowers of arsenic.
   The arsenious acid reddens the most sensible blue
 vegetable colours, though  it  turns the syrup of violels
 green  On exposure to the air it becomes opaque, and
 covered with a slight efflorescence.  Thrown on incan-
 descent coals, it evaporates in white  fumes, with a
 strong smell of garlic.  In close vessels it  is volati-
 lized ; and, if tlie  heat  be strong, vitrified.  The re-
 sult of tliis vitrification is a transparent glass, capable
 of crystallizing in tetraedra, the angles of which are
 truncated.  It is easily altered by hydrogen and car-
 bon, which deprive it of its oxygen at a red heat, aud
 reduce the metal, the one forming water, the other car-
 bonic acid  with the oxygen taken from it;  as it is by
 phosphorus, and  by sulphur, which  are in  part con-
 verted into acids "by its oxygen, and in part form an
 arsenical phosphuret or sulphuret with tlie arsenic re-
 duced to the metallic state.  Hence Margraaf and Pel-
 letier, who particularly examined the phosphurets of
 metals, assert they might be formed with  arsenious
 acid.  Its specific gravity is  3.7.
   It is soluble in  thirteen limes  its weight of boiling
 water,  bnl requires eighty times  its  weight of cold.
 The solution crystallizes, ami the acid assumes the
 form of legular  tetraiedrons, according to Fourcroy;
 but, according to Lagrange,  of oclaldrons,  and  these
 frequently varying in figure by different laws of decre-
 ment.  It crystallizes much better by slow evaporation
 than by simple cooling.
   The solution  is very acrid, reddens blue  colours,
 unites with tlie earthy bases,  and decomposes the alka-
 line sulphurets.   Arsenious acid is also soluble in oils,
 spirits, and alkohol; the last taking up from 1 to - jxer
 cent.  It is composed of 9.5 of metal =3 oxygen; and
 its prime equivalent is therefore 12.5.  Dr. Wollaston
 first observed, that when a mixture of it with quick-
 lime is heated in  a glass tube, at a certain temperature,
 ignition suddenly pervades the mass, and metallic arse-
 nic sublimes. As  arseniate  of lime  is found at the |
 bottom of the tube, we perceive that a portion of the
 arsenious acid is robbed of its oxygen, lo complete the
 acidification of the rest.
   There are even some metals, which act upon the so-
 lution, and have a tendency to decompose the acid so
 as to form a blackish precipitate, in which the arsenic
 is very slightly oxydized.
   The action of the other acids upon the arsenious is
 very different from that which they exert on the metal
 arsenic.  By boiling, sulphuric acid  dissolves a small
 portion of it, wliich is  precipitated as the solution
 cools. The nitric acid does not dissolve it, but by the
 help of heat converts it into arsenic acid.  Neither the
 phosphoric nor the carbonic acid acts upon  it; yet it
 enters into a vitreous combination with the phosphoric
 and boracic acids.  The muriatic acid dissolves it by
 means of heat, and forms with it a volatile compound,
 which water precipitates; and aqueous chlorine aci-
 difies it completely, so  as to convert it into arsenic
 acid.
   The arsenious  acid combines with the earthy and
 alkaline bases, forming Arsenites.  The earthy arse-
 niates possess little solubility; and hence the solutions
 of barytes, strontian, and lime, form precipitates with
 that of arsenious acid.
  This  acid enters into another kind of combination
 with the earths, mat formed by ritrification.  Though
 a  part of this volatile acid sublimes  before the glass
enters Into fusion, part remains fixed In the vitrified
substance, to which it imparls transparency, a homo-
geneous densit). and considerable  gravity.   The arse-1
                       ARS
                    »
 nical glasses  appear lo contain a kind of triple sail,
 since the salt and alkalies enter into an Intimate com
 binationat the instant of fusion, and remain aftenvairl
 perfectly mixed.  All of them have the inconvenience
 of quickly growing dull by exposure to the air
   With  the fixed alkalies  the arsenious acid forms
 thick arsenites, wliich  do not crystallize; which art
 decomposable by fire, ihe arsenious acid being volati
 lized by the heat; and  from which all the other acids
 precipitate this in powder.  These saline compounds
 were formerly termed  livers,  because they were «ii|>-
 posed to be analogous to the combinations of sulphui
 with the alkalies.
   With  ammonia it forms a  salt capable of ci vstallizn
 tion. If this be heated a little, the ammonia is detour
 posed, the  nitrogen  is  evolved, while ihe hydrogen,
 uniting   with  part of the oxygen of the acid, form-
 water.
   Neither the earthy nor alkaline arsenites  have yet
 been much examined;  what is known of them being
 only sufficient to distinguish them from the arseniates.
   The arsenious  acid is used iu numerous instances  in
 the arts, under the name of white arsenic, or of arse-
 nic simply.  In many cases  it is reduced, and acts  in
 ils metallic stale.
   Many  attempts have been made to Introduce it into
 medicine;  but as it  is  known to  be  one of the nret
 violent  poisons, it is probable that the fear of its n.id
 effects may deprive society ofthe advantages it iuii!!ii
 afford in this way.   An arseniate of pota.-su was ex-
 tensively used  by the late Dr. Fowler, of York, who
 published a treatise on it, in  intermittent and  remittent
 fevers.   He likew ise assured the writer, lhat  he hud
 found it extremely efficacious  in periodical headache,
 and as a tonic  in nervous and other  disorders ;  and
 that he never saw the least ill eft'eel from its  use, due
 precaution being  employed in  preparing and aduiinL-
 tering it.  Externally it  has been employed as a caustic
 to extirpate cancer, combined w ith sulphur, with bole,
 Willi antimony, and with the leaves of crowfoot; hut
 it always gives great pain, and is uot unattended with
 danger.  Febvre's remedy was water one pint,extract
 of  hemlock 5j.  Goulard's  extract  i iij. tincture ol
 opium 3 j. arsenious acid gr. x.  With this the cancel
 was wetted morning and evening ; and  at the same
 time a small quantity of a weak solution was adminis
 tered internally.   A still milder application  of  this
 kind has been  made from a solution of one grain in  a
 quart of water, formed into a poultice with crumb nf
 bread.
   It has been more  lately used as an alterative w'th
 advantage  in  chronic  rheumatism.  The symptou.s
 which show the system to be arscnificd are thickecs--,
 redness,  and stiffness of tlie  palpebra, soreness of the
 gums, ptyalism, itching  over tlie surface of the body,
 restlessness, cough, pain at  stomach, aud headache.
 When tlie latter symptoms supervene, the  adminis-
 tration of the medicine  ought to be immediately sus-
 pended.  It has also been recommended against chin-
 cough; and has been used in considerable doses  with
 success, to  counteract the poison  of venomous  ser
 pents.
  Since  it acts on the  animal economy as  a deadly
 poison in quantities  so minute as to be insensible lo
 the taste when diffused  in water or other vehicles,  it
 has  been often given with  criminal   intentions  aud
 fatal effects.  It  becomes therefore a matter of the
 utmost importance  to  present a systematic  view of
 the phenomena characteristic of the poison, its opera
 tion, and consequences.
  It is a  dense substance, subsiding speedily after ogi
 tation in water.   Dr. Ure  found  its sp. gr.  to  vary
 from 3.723 to 3.730, which  is  a little  higher lhan the
 number  given  above:  72  parts dissolve in  1UO0 of
 boiling water, of  which 30 remain in it, after it cools.
 Cold water dissolves, however, only 3-1000 or 1-10 of
 tlie preceding quantity.  This water makes the syrup
 of  violets green, and reddens litmus paper.  Lime
 water gives a fine white precipitate wilh it of arsenite
of lime, soluble in an excess of the  arsenious solution;
gulphuretted  hydrogen  gas, and  hydrosulphurettco
water, precipitate a  golden  yellow sulphuret of ar-
senic.  By this means, 1-100000 of arsenious acid may
be detected in water.  This sulphuretdried on a filter,
and heated  in  a glass  tube with a bit of caustic po
tassa, is decomposed in  a few minutes, and converted
into sulphuret  of potassa, which remains at the hot 
ARS                                               ARS
hmi, and  metallic  atsenic of a  bright steel  lustre,
which  sublimes, coating ihe sides of the tube.  The
hydTosulphureisof alkalies do not affect the arsenious
solution, unless a drop or two of nitric or muriatic
acid be (toured in, when the characteristic golden yel-
jow precipitate falls.  Nitrate of silver  is decomposed
ny the  arsenious acid, and  a very peculiar  yellow
■rseiiite of silver precipitates; wliich, however, is apt
to be  redissolved by nitric acid, and therefore a  very
minute addition of ammonia is requisite.  Even  this,
however, also, if in much cxces.', redissolves the silver
precipitate.
  As the nitrate of silver 13 justly regarded as one of
the best precipitant tests of arsenic, the mode of using
it has been a subject of much discussion.  This excel-
lent test waj first  proposed by Mr. Hume of Long
Acre, in May 1809.  Phil. Mig. xxxiii. 401.  The pre-
sence of muriate of soda indeed, in the  arsenical solu-
tipn, obstructs, to a certain degree, the operation of
this reagent  But that salt is almost always present in
the prima via, and is  a usual ingredient in soups, and
other vehicles of  the poison.  If, after the water of
ammonia has been added, (by plunging ihe end of a
glass  rod dipped in  it  into the supposed  poisonous
liquid,) we dip another rod into a solution  of  pure
nitrate of silver, and transfer it into the  arsenious  solu-
tion, either  a fine yellow cloud will be formed,  or at
first merely a white  curdy precipitate.  But at the
second or third immersion ofthe nitrate rod, a central
spot of yellow will  be perceived surrounded with the
white muriate of silver.  At the next immersion, this
yellow cloud on the surface will become very conspi-
cuous.  Sulphate of  soda does not  interfere in the
lea^t with the silver test.
   The  aramoniaco-sulphate,  or  rather  ammoniaco-
acetate of copper, added in a somewhat dilute state to
an arsenious solution, gives a fine grass-green and a
very characteristic  precipitate. This  green arseniate
of copper, well washed, being acted on  by an excess
of sulphuretted  hydrogen water, changes  its colour,
and becomes of a  brownish-red.  Ferro-prussitte of
potas -a changes it into a blood-red.   Nitrate  of silve,
converts it into the yellow arsenite of silver.
   Lastly, if the precipitate be dried  on a filter, and
 placed on a bit of burning coal, it will  diffuse a  garlic
odour.   The cupreous test will detect  1-110000 of the
 weisht of the arsenic in water.
   The Voltaic battery, made to act by two wires on a
 little  arsenious  solution  placed on  a  bit of  window-
glass, developes metallic arsenic  at the negative pole,
and if this  wire be  copper,  it will be whitened like
tombac.
   We may here remark, however, that the most ele
gant  mode  of using all these precipitation reagents is
 upon a plane of glass; a mode practised by Dr.  Wol
 laston iu general chemical research, to an extent, and
 with a success, which would be incredible in  oilier
 hands than  his.  Concentrate by heat in a  capsule
 the suspected poisonous solution, having  previously
 filtered it if necessary.  Indeed, if it  be very much
 disguised with animal or vegetable matters, it is better
 first of all to evaporate to dryness, and  by a few drops
 of nitric acid to dissipate the organic products.   The
 clear liquid being now placed in  the middle of the bit
 of glass, lines are to be drawn out from it in different
 directions.  To one of these a particle of weak amnio-
 uiacal water being applied, the weak  nitrate of silver
 may then be brushed over it with a hair pencil.  By
 placing the glass in different  lights, cither over white
 paper or obliquely before the eye, the slightest change
 of tint will be perceived.  The ammoniaco-acetate
 should be applied to another filament of the drop, deut-
 aeetate of iron to a third, weak ammoniaco-acetate of
 cobalt to a  fourth, sulphuretted water to a fifth, lime
 water to a sixth, a drop of violet-syrup to a seventh,
 and the two galvanic wires at the opposite edges of the
 whole.  Thus with one single drop of solution many
 exact experiments may be made.
    But the  chief, the decisive  trial or experimentum
 crusis remains, which  is to take a little of the dry
 matter, mix it with a small  pinch of dry black  flux,
 put it into a narrow glass tube sealed  at one end, and
 after cleansing its sides with a feather, urge its bottom
  ivith  a blow-pipe till  it be  distinctly red-hot  for it
  minute.  Then garlic fumes will  be  smelt, and the
  ueel-lustred coating of metallic arsenic will be seen
  Iti the tube about one-fourth of an inch above its b:it-
t'/fli   Cut the tube across at that point by means ol i
firr" file, detach the seale of arsenic with the point ot a
penknife; put a frigtnent of it into the bottom of n
small wine-glass alt-ng with a few drops of ammoni-
aco-acetate  of copper, and triturate them  well toge-
ther  for a few minutes with a round-headed glass rod.
The  mazarine  blue colour will soon be transmuted
into  a lively grass-green, while  the metallic scale will
vanish.   Thus we distinguish perfectly between a par-
ticle of  metallic arsenic and  one of annualized char
coal. Another particle of the scale may be placed  be-
tween two smooth and bright surfaces of copper, with
a touch of fine oil;  and while they are firmly pressed
together, exposed to a red-heat.  The  tombac alloy
will appear  as a white stain.  A third particle may be
placed on a  bit of heated metal, and held a little under
the noslrils, when the garlic odour will be recognised
No danger can  be apprehended, as the fragment need
not exceed the tenth of a grain.
   It is to be observed, that one or two of the precipi
tation tests may be equivocal from admixtures of van
ous  substances.  Thus  tincture of ginger  gives with
the  cupreous reagent a green  precipitate;—and   the
writer of this article was  at first led to suspect from
that appearance, that an empirical tincture, put into
his hands for examination, did  contain  arsenic.   But
a  careful analysis  satisfied  him of its genuineness.
Tea covers arsenic from  the  cupreous test.  Such
poisoned tea becomes, by its addition, of an obscure-
olive or violet red, but yields scarcely any precipitate.
Sulphuretted hydrogen,  however, throws down a  fine
yellow sulphuret of arsenic.
   The true  way of obviating all these sources of falla-
cy, is to evaporate carefully to dryness, and expose  the
residue to heat in a glass tube.  The arsenic sublimes,
and may be afterward operated on without ambi-
guity.  M. Orfila has gone into ample  details on the
modifications produced  by wine, coffee, tea, broth,  Sec.
on arsenical tests, of which a good tabular abstract is
given in Mr. Thomson's London Dispensatory. But it
is evident that  the differences in these menstrua, as
also in beers, are so great  as to render precipitations
and changes of colour by reagents very unsatisfactory
 witnesses, in a case of  life and death.  Hence the me-
 thod of evaporation above described should never be
 noglected.  Should the  arsenic be combined with oil,
 the  mixture ought to be boiled  with water, and the oil
 then separated hy the capillary action of wick-threads.
 If with resinous substances,  these may  be  removed by
 oil of turpentine, not by alkohol, (as directed by Dr.
 Black,) which is a good solvent of arsenious acid.  It
 may moreover be observed, that both tea and coffee
 should be  freed from  their tannin  by  gelatin, which
 does not p.ct on the arsenic,  previous to the use of re-
 agent for the poison.  When one part ofthe arsenious
 acid in watery solution  is added to ten parts  of milk,
 the  sulphuretted hydrogen present in the latter, occa-
 sions the white colour  to pass into a canary yellow;
 the  cupreous test gives it  a slight green tint, and the
 nitrate of  silver  produces no visible change, though
 even more arsenic be added ; but the hydrosnlphurets
 throw  down a golden  yellow, with the aid of a few
 dropsof an  acid. The liquid contained  in the stomach
 of a rabbit  poisoned with a solution of  tliree grains of
 arsenious acid, afforded a white precipitate with ni
I trate of silver, grayish-white  with  limn water, green
I with the ammoniaco-sulphatc, and deep yellow with
1 sulphuretted hydrogen  water.
j   The preceding copious description of the habitudes
 of arsenious acid in different circumstances, is equally
| applicable  to the soluble arsenites.   Their poisonous
i operation, as well as that ofthe arsenic acid, has  been
; satisfactorily referred by Mr. Brodie to the suspension
| of the functions of the heart and brain, occasioned by
i the absorption of these substances into the circulation,
 and their constant determination to the nervous sys-
 tem and the alimentary caiiul. This proposition  was
 established  by numerous experiments on  rabbits  and
 dogs.   Wounds were inflicted, and  arsenic being ap-
 plied to them, it was found that in a short time death
 supervened with the same symptoms of inflammation
 of the  stomach and bowels, as if the poison had been
 swallowed.
   He divides the morbid affections inlo three classes :
 1st, Tliose  depending on the nervous system,  as palsy
 at first of the posterior extremities,  and then of the
 ust of the  body, convulsions, dikusricn of the nunils 
ARS
ARS
and General insensibility: So", Those which indicate
disturbance in the organs of circulation; for exai.ipl',
the  feeble, slow,  and intermitting pulse, weak con
tractions ot tlie heart immediately after death, und the
impossibility of prolonging them, as  may be done In
sudden deaths from other causes, by artificial respira-
tion: 'id, Lastly, those wliich depend on lesion of the
alimentary canal, as the pains of the  abdomen, nau-
seas, and vomitines, in those animals which were suf-
fered to vomit.  At  one  time it is the nervous system
that is most remarkably affected, and  at another the
organs of circulation.   Hence  inflammation of tlie
stomach and  intestines, ought not to be considered as
the immediate cause of death, by the greater number of
cases of poisoning by  arsenic.  However, should tin
animal not sink under the first violence of the poison,
if the inflammation has had  time to be  developed,
there is no doubt that  it may destroy life.   Mr. I'ari
states, that a woman who had taken arsenic resisted
the alarming  symptoms wliich at first appeared, but
died on the fourth day.   On opening her body the mu-
cous membrane of the stomach  and intestines was
ulcerated to a great  extent.  Authentic cases of poison
are recorded, where no trace of inflammation was
perceptible iu the prima via.
  The effects of arsenic have been graphically repre-
sented by Dr. Black : ' The symptoms produced by a
dangerous dose of arsenic begin to appear in a quarter
by an hour, or not much longer, after It is taken.  First
sickness, and great distress at stomach, soon followed
by thirst, and burning heat in the bowels.  Then come
on violent vomiting and severe colic pains, and exces-
sive and  painful purging.   This brings on faintlngs,
with cold  sweats, and other signs of great debility.
To this succeed painful cramps, and  contractions of
the legs and thighs, and extreme weakness, and death.'
Similar results  have followed the incautious sprink-
ling of schirrous ulcere with powdered arsenic, or the
application of arsenical pastes. The  following more
minute specification of symptoms is given  by  Orfila:
 'An austere taste in the mouth; frequent ptyalism ;
continual  spitting; constriction of the  pharynx and
 as>ph gus;  teeth set  on edge;  hiccups; nausea;
 vomi'ing of  brown or  bloody  matter;  anxiety; fre-
 quent fainting fits;  burning heat at the precordia ; in-
 flammation oi' tlie lips, tongue, palate, throat  stomach;
 acute pain of stomach, rendering the mildest drinks
 intolerable;  black  stools of an indescribable foetor;
 pulse frequent, oppressed, and irregular, sometimes
 slow and unequal;  palpitation of the heart; syncope;
 unextinguishable thirst; burning sensation  over the
 whole body,  resemb'ing a consuming fire; at times an
 icy coldness ; difficult respiration ; cold sweats; scanty
 urine, of a red or bloody appearance; altered expres-
 sion of countenance; a livid circle round the eyelids;
swelling and  itching of the whole body, which be-
comes covered with livid spots, or with a  miliary
 eruption ; prostration of strength; loss of feeling, espe-
cially in the feet and  hands; delirium, convulsions,
nometimes accompanied with an insupportable pria-
 pism ; loss of the hair; separation of the epidermis;
 -lorrible convulsions; and death.'
   It is uncommon to observe all these frightful symp-
  oms combined in one individual; sometimes they are
 altogether wanting, as is shown by the following case,
 related by M. Chaussicr:—A  robust  man  of  middle
 age swallowed arsenious acid  iu large fragments, and
 died without experiencing other symptoms than slight
 syncopes.  On opening  his stomach, it was found to
 contain the arsenious  acid in the very same stale  in
 which  he  had swallowed it.  There  was no appear-
 ance whatever of erosion orinflammat'on  n the intes-
 tinal canal,  Etmuller mentions a young girl's being
 poisoned by arsenic, and "ritcse stomach and  bowels
 were sound to all appearance, though the arsenic was
 found  in  them.   In general,  however, inflammation
 does extend alone the whole canal, from the mouth to
 the rectum.   The stomach  and duodenum  present
 frequenll/ gangrenous points, eschars, perforations of
 all their  coats; the villous coat in particular,  by this
 n;id all other corrosive  poisons, is commonly detached,
 is :f it were scraped off or reduced  into a paste of a
 reddish-grown colour.   From these considerations we
 may conclude, that from the existence or non-existence
 of Intestinal lesions, from  the extent or  seat of the
symptoms alone, the physician should not venture to
pronounce definitively < n tlie fact of poisoning.
   The result  of Mr. Brodie's  expeilmente on brute*
teaches, that ihe  inflammations of tlie  intestines um.
stomach are more severe when the poison has been
applied to an external wound, than when il has been
thrown into the stomach itself.
  The best remedies against this poison  in  the sto
mach, arc copious draughts of bland liquids of a muci
laginous consistence, to Inviscate the  powder, so as
to procure  its complete ejection by vomiting.  Sul-
phuretted hydrogen condensed in water,  is Ihe only
direct  antidote to its virulence; Orfila  having found,
that when dogs were  made to swallow that liquid,
after getting a poisonous dose of arsenic, lliey reco
vered, though  their  oesophagus was tied  to  prevent
vomiting;  but when the same dose  of poison w as
administered in the same circumstances, without the
sulphuretted water,that it proved  fatal.
  When the riscrra are to be subjected after death to
chemical investigation, a ligature ought to be thrown
round  the esophagus  and the  bcginiiiuz of the colon,
and  the intermediate stomach and intestines removed.
Their  liquid contents should be emptied into a basin ;
and  thereafter a portion of hot water introduced into
the stomach, and worked thoroughly up and down this
viscus, ns well as the intestines.
  After filtration,  a  portion of the liquid should  be
concentrated by evaporation in a porcelain  capsule,
and  then  submitted to the proper reagents above de-
scribed.  We may also endeavour to extiact from the
stomach by digestion in boiling water, with a  little
ammonia,   the arsenical impregnation,  which  has
been sometimes known to adhere in minute  particles
with wonderful obstinacy. This precaution ought,
therefore, to be attended to.  The heat will dissipate
the  excess of ammonia in  the above  operation;
whereas, by adding potassa or  soda, as  prescribed  by
the German chemists, we introduce animal matter in
alkaline solution, whicli complicates the investigation.
  The matters rejected from the patient's bow els before
death, should  not be  neglected.  These, generally
speaking, are best treated by cautious evaporations to
dryness;  but we  must beware of heating the resi
 duum to 400°, since at that temperature, and  perhaps
 a little under It, the arsenious acid itself sublimes.
   Vinegar,  hydroguretted alkaline sulphuiets, nnr
 oils, are of no use as counterpoisor.s.   Indeed, whei
 the  arsenic exists in substance in the stomach, ever
sulphuretted hydrogen water is of no avail, howeve.
effectually it neutralize an arsenious solution.  Syrups.
linseed tea, decoction of mallows, or tragacanth, an"
warm milk, should  be.administercd as copiously a*
possible, aud vomiting provoked by tickling the fauces
with a feather. Clysters of a  similar natuie may bi
also employed. Many persons  have (escaped death b;
having taken the poison mixed with rich soups; anr.
it is well known,  that when it  is prescribed as a medi
cine, it acts most beneficially when given soon after •
meal.  These  facts  have led  to the  prescription o,
butter and oils;  the use of which is, however,  noi
advisetible, as they screen the  arsenical particles from
more proper menstrua,  and even  appear to aggravate
its virulence.  Morgagni, in his great work on  the scab
and causes of disease, states, that at  an Italian feas-
i the dessert was pur|Kisely sprinkled over with arsenic
 instead of flour.  Those of the guests who had previ
 ously  ate and drank little, speedily perished; those whr
 had their stomachs well filled, were saved by vomiting
 He also mentions the case of three children who ate n
 vegetable  soup poisoned with orseuic.  One  of their
 who  took only two spoonfuls, had no vomiting, ant
 died ;  the other two, who had eaten the rest,  vomited,
 and got well.  Should  Ihe poisoned patient  be  inca
 pnble of vomiting, a tube of caoutchouc, capable 01
 being attached to a syringe, may be had  recourse to
 The tube first serves to introduce the drink, and t
 withdraw it after a few instants.
   The following  tests of arsenic  and corrosive sub!
 mate  have been lately proposed by Brugnatelli: Tab
 the starch of wheat boiled in water until it is of a
 proper consistence, and recently prepared; to this add
 a sufficient quantity of iodine to make n of a blur
 colour;  h is afterward  to be diluted with pure watcj
 until it becomes of a beautiful azure.  If lo this, some
 drops of a watery solution of arsenic he added,  tin
 colour changes to a reddish  hue,  and finally vanishes
 The solution of corrosive sublimate poured into iodin
 and sta.ch, produces  almost the same change, ft 
ART
ART
arsenic; but if tolheflmd acted on bythe arsenic we add
eewme drops of sulphuric  acid, the original blue colour
ts restored with more than its original brilliancy, while
It does not restore the colour to the corrosive sublimate
mixture.— Ure's Chem. Diet.
  ARTEMISIA.   (From a queen of that name, who
firs/used it; or from Aprtpts, Diana; because  it  was
formerly  used in the diseases of women, over whom
she presided.)  The name of a genus of plants in the
Linnaean system.  Class,  Syngcnesia;  Order, Poly-
gamia supcrfi.ua,
  Artemisia abrotanum.  The systematic name for
the Abrotanum of the  pharmacopoeias.  Abrotanum
mas;   Adonion;  Adonium;  Abralhan.   Common
southernwood.  Artemisia—foliis sctaceis ramosissi-
mi.i of Linnaeus.  A plant possessed of a strong, and,
to most  people, an agreeable  smell; a pungent, bitter,
and somewhat nauseous taste,   ft is supposed to sti-
mulate tlie whole system,  but more particularly the
uterus.  It is very rarely used unless by way of fomen-
tation, with which intention the  leaves are directed.
  Artkmisia absinthium.  The systematic name for
the Absinthium vulgare of the pharmacopoeias. Com-
mon  wormwood.   Falsely  called in  our markets
Absinthium Romanum, or Roman wormwood.   Absin-
thium Ponticum of Dioscorides and Pliny, according to
Murray.  Artemisia—foliis compositis muWfidis fiori-
bus subglobusis pcndulis;  rcceptaculo  villoso of Lin-
naeus.  This plant  is a  native of Britain, and grows
ibout rubbish, rocks, and sides of roads.  The leaves
of wormwood have a strong disagreeable smell: their
taste is nauseous, and so intensely bitter as to be pro-
verbial.   The flowers are more aromatic and less bitter
than the leaves, and the roots discover an aromatic
warmth  without bitterness.   This species of worm-
wood may be considered the principal of the herba-
ceous bitters.  Its virtus,  (in the words of Bergius.)
is  antiputredinosa, antacida,  anthtlmlntica, resolvens,
tonica, spasmodica.  And  although it is now chiefly
employed with a view to the two last-mentioned quali-
ties, yet we are told of its good effects in a great variety
of diseases, as intermittent  fevers,  hypochondriasis,
obstructions of the  liver  and  spleen,  gout,  calculi,
scurvy, dropsy, worms, &c.  Cullen thinks it is pos-
sessed of a narcotic power, and lhat there  is  in every
bitter, when largely employed, a power of destroving
the sensibility and irritability of the nervous system.
   Externally,  wormwood  is used in  discutient  and
antiseptic fomentations.  This  plant may be taken in
powder, but it is more commonly preferred in infusion.
The Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia directs a tincture ofthe
flowers, which is, in the opinion of Dr. Cullen, a light
and agreeable bitter, and, at the same lime,  a strong
impregnation of the wormwood.
   Artkmisia ciiinensis.  Mugwortof China.  Mn.ra
Japonica;  Musia patlra.  A soft lanuginous sub-
stance, called Moxa, is  prepared in Japan, from the
young leaves of this species of mugwort,  by  beating
them  when   thoroughly  dried, and  rubbing  them
between the hands, till only the fine fibres  ure  left.
Moxa is celebrated in  the eastern countries for pre-
venting and curing many disorders, by being burnt on
the skin; a little cone of it laid upon the part, previ-
ously moistened, and set on fire on the top, burns down
with  a temperate  and glowing heat, and  produces a
dark-coloured spot, the ulceration of which is proihoted
bv putting a little garlic, and the ulcer is either healed
up when the eschar seimrates, or kept running  for a
 length of time, as different circumstances may require.
   Artkmisia qlaqialis.    Mountain  wormwood.
 I'his is found on Alpine  situations, und has similar
 virtues to common wormwood.
   A rtkmisia judaica.  The systematic name for the
 Sanlonicum of the pharmacopoeias, according  to some
 botanists.  See Artemisia  santonica.
   Artkmisia maritima.  The systematic name  for
 the Absinthium maritimum of the  pharmacopoeias.
 Sea wormwood.  Falsely called in our markets, Ro-
 man  wormwood.   Artemisia—foliis muUipartitir,
 tomentocis;  raermis cernuis; flosculis famineis term's
 of Linnueus.  This plant  grows plentifully about the
 sea-shore, and in  salt marshes.  The specific differ-
 ences between it and the common wormwood, arte-
 misia absinthium,  arc  very evident.  Its taste and
 smell are considerably less unpleasant than those of the
 common wormwood, and even the essential oil, which
 contains the whole of if flavour concentrated. Is some-
wnat less ungrateful, ar.d the watery  extract some
what less bitter than those of the common wormwood
Hence it is pieferred, in those cases where the Artemi-
sia absinthium is supposed to be too unpleasant for the
stomach.  A conserve of the tops of this plant was
directed by the London pharmacopoeia.
  Artemisia pontica.  The systematic name for the
Absinthium ponticum, or Roman wormwood, not now
used medicinally.
  Artemisia rupestris.  The systematic name loi
the Genipi album of the pharmacopoeias.  At temisia--
foliis pinnatis;  caulilus  adscmdcntibus;  fioribus
globosis,  ccrmuis;  rcceptaculo pappiso.  It has  a
grateful smell, and is used in  some  countries in the
cure of intcrmittents and obstructed catamenia.
  Artemisia  santonica.   Absinthium santonicnm
Alexandrinum;  Sementina;  Absinthium scriphium
JEgyptium; Schcba Arabum;  Zcdoarie sctnvn; Xan
tolma;  Lumbricorum semina; Cina; Semen, contra;
Semen sanctum ; Artemisia Judaica.  The Tartarian
southernwood or wormseed. Artemisia—foliis cauli-
nis linearibus, pinnato-multifidis; ramis indivis.s,
spicis secundis rrficxis; fioribus quinqueficris of" Lin-
naeus.  The seeds ure small, light, and oval, composed
of a number of thin membraneous coats of a yellowish-
green colour, with a cast of brown, easily friable, upon
being rubbed between  the  fingers, into  a fine chaffy
kind of substance.  They are brought from the Levant;
have a moderately strong and riot  agreeable smell,
somewhat of the wormwood kind, and a very  bitter
subacrid ta-te.   Their  virtues  are extracted both by
watery  and  spirituous menstrua.  They are esteemed
to be stomachic, emmenagogue, and anthelmintic; but
it is especially for the last-mentioned powers that they
are now  administered, and from their efficacy in thi?
way  they have obtained the name of wormseed.  To
adults the dose  in  substance is from one  to two
drachms, twice a day.   Lewis thinks that the spiritu-
ous extract is the most eligible  preparation of the san
tonic urn, for the purposes of an anthelmintic.
   Artkmisia vulgaris.  Mugwort.  This plant, At
temisia—foliis  pmnatifidis, plant's, incisis,  suhtui
tomentosis ; raccmis simplicibus, rccurvatis ; fioribus
radio quinquefioro of Linnauis, is slightly bitter, ami,
although in high esteem in former days, is now almost
wholly  forgotten.
   Artemo'nium.  (From Artemon,  its  inventor.)  A
collvriur.i, or wash for the eyes.
   ARTERIA.  (Artcria,  a.  f.;  from  atop, air, and
rijptoi, to keep; so called because the  ancients believed
they contained air only.)   Sec Artery
   Arteri'aca.   (From  aprnpta, nn artery.)   Medi-
cines formerly used against disorders  of ihe aspern
arteria, or trachea.
   Arteri.e adii'os.e.  The arteries wliich secrete the
 fat about the kidneys are so called.  They are branches
ofthe capsula and diaphragmatic, renal, and spermatic
 arteries.
   Arteri* venos.*. The four pulmonary veins were
so called by the ancients.
   Artkrio'sus  ductus.  See Ductus arteriosus.
   ARTERIO'TOMY.  (Artcriotomia,tr.f.;  from ap
 TTtpta, an artery, and rtjivto, to cut.)  The opening of
 an artery.  This operation is frequently performed on
 the temporal artery.
   A'RTERY.  Arteria.  A membraneous  pulsating
 canal,  that arises from  the heart and gradually be-
 come;  !e.?s as It proceeds from It.  Arteries  are com-
 posfd of three membranes; a common, or external; n
 muscular; and an internal one, which is very smooth
 They lire only two in  number, the pulmonary artery,
 and the aorta, and these originate from the heart; the
 pulmonary  arlcry from  the  right ventricle, and the
 aorta from the left:  the other arteries are all branches
 ofthe aortn.  Their termination is either i:i the veins,
 or in capillary  exhaling vessels, or they anastomose
 with one another.  It is by their means that the blood
 is carried from the heart to every part of the Dody, for
 nutrition, preservation of life, generation of heat, nnrt
 the secretion ofthe different fluids.   The action ofthe
 arteries, called the pulse, corresponds with that of the
 heart, and is effected by the contraction of their mus-
 cular, and great elasticity of their outermost coat.

               A table of the Arteries
   All the arteries originate from the pulmonary  urtcrj
 and  the aorta. 
ART
ART
   "The pulmonary artery emerges from the right ven-
tricle of the heart, soon divides  into a right and left
branch, which are distributed by innumerable ramifi-
cations through the lungs.
  The aorta arises from the left ventricle of the heart,
and supplies every part of the body with blood, in the
following order.
  a. It forms an arch.
  b. It then descends along the spine; and,
  c. It divides into the two iliacs.
  a. Tlie arch or tiik aorta gives off three branches.
  1. The arteria  innominata, which divides into the
right carotid and right subclavian.
  -2  The left caro'.id.
  ?. The left subclavian.
  I The carotids  are divided into  external  and in-
terna?.
  The external carotids give off
1.  The thyroid,
i.  The lingual,
3.  The labial,
4.  The infiriitrpharyngeal,
5.  The occipital,
6.  The posterior auris,
7  The  internal maxillary, from which the spinous
  artery of the dura mater, the  lower maxillary, and
  several branches about the palate and orbit arise,
3.  The temporal.
  The internal carotid affords,
1.  The ophthalmic,
2.  The middle cerebral,
3.  The commnnicans, whicli inosculates with the ver-
   tebral.
  II. The suoclatnans give off the following branches.
'..  The  internal mammary, from which the  thymic,
  conies phrenici, pericardiac, and phrenico-pericar-
  diac arteries arise,
2. The inferior thyroid, wliich gives off Ihe  fracAcal,
  ascending  thyroid, and transversalis humeri,
i  The vertebral, which proceeds within tlie vertebrae,
   and forms within the cranium the basilary artery,
   from which the anterior cerebelli, the posterior ce-
   rebri, and many branches about the brain, are given
   off,
4. The cervtcalis profunda,
5. The cervicalis supcrficialis,
l>. The superior intercostal,
7. The supra-scapular.
   As soon as the subclavian arrives at  the arm-pit, il
Is  called  tlie axillary artery;   and  when the latter
reaches the arm, it is called the brachial.
   The axillary artery gives off,
1. Four mammary arteries,
2. The sub-scapular,
3. The posterior circumflex,
4. The anterior  circumflex, which ramify about the
    shoulder-joint
   The brachial artery gives off,
I. Many lateral branches,
2. The profunda humeri superior,
3. The profunda humeri inferior,
4. The  great anastomosing  artery, which  ramifiea
    about the elbow-joint.
  The brachial artery then divides, about the bend of
the arm, into the ulnar and radial arteries, which are
ramified to the ends of the fingers.
   The ulnar artery gives off,
1. Several recurrent branches,
2. The common inlerosseal, of which the dorsal ulnar,
     the palmaris profunda, the palmary arch, and the
     digitals, are branches.
   The radial artery gives off,
1. The radial recurrent,
2  The supcrficialis cola,  and  then divides into the
    palmaris prof unda, and the  digitals.
   b. The descending aorta gives off,
   In the breast,
1. The bronchial,
2. The oesophageal,
3  The intercostals,
t The inferior diaphragmatic.
   Within the abdomen,
L. The caliac, which divides into three branches:
   ;. The hepatic, from which are given off, before  it
     reaches the liver,
     a. The duodeno-gastric, whicli sends off the right
      gastro-epiploic and the pancreatico-duodenal.
    p. The pylorica superior hepatic*;
  2.  The coronariu vintriculi,
  3.  The  splmic,  which emits the great and small
    pancrcalict, the posterior gastric, tlie left gastro-
    epiploic, and the vasa brevia;
•2. The superior mesenteric,
3. The cmulgcnts,
4. The spcrmalics,
5. The inferior mesenteric,
6. The lumbar arteries,
7. The middle sacral.
  c.  The  aorta  then bifurcates into the ilivcs, each
of which divide into external and internal
  The internal  iliac, colled also hypogastric, gives off]
1. The lateral sucruls,
'2. The gluteal,
3. The ischiatic^
•1. The/milieu, from which tlie external hamorrlcoidal,
    the perineal, Mid the arteria penis arise,
5. The obturatory.
  The external  iliac gives off, in the groin,
I. The epigastric,
2. The circtiiitllcj ia iliaca ;
  It  then  pns.-es under Poupart's  ligament, and  is
called the femoral artery; and sends off,
I. The profunda,
■2. The  ramus  anastomoticus magnus, which runs
    about the knee joint;
  Having reached the ham, where it gives  off some
small branches, it is termed the popliteal.  It then di-
vides into the anterior and posterior tibial.
  The tibialis antica gives off,
1. The recurrent,
2. The internal malleolar,
3. The external malleolar,
4. The tarsal,
5. The metatarsal,
6. The dorsalis externa halicis.
  The posterior tibial sends off;
1. The nutritia tibia,
2.  Many small  branches,
3  The internal plantar,
4. The  external plantar, from  which  an arch b
     formed, that gives off the digitals of the toes.
  ARTHANI TA.  (From opros, bread ; because it ire
the food of swine.) The herb sow-bread.  See  Cy-
clamen Europeum.
  Artiire'mdoi.us. (From apOpov, a joint, and tp-
SaXXio, to impel.) An Instrument for reducing luxated
bones.
  Aft'HRI'TIC.   (Arthriticus;  from  apOpiris,  the
gout.)  Pertaining to the gout.
  Autiirith.a  herba. The JEgopodium podagraria
and  several other plants, were so called.
  ARTHRITIS.  (Arthritis, tidis, firm.;  from  ap-
Opov, a joint: because  it is commonly confined lo  the
joints.)   The gout.  Dr. Cullen, in his Nosology, gives
it the name of podagra, because he considers the foot
to be the scat of idiophalic gout.   It is arranged in the
class Pyrexia-, and  order phlcgmu-io-, and is divided
into four species, the regular, atonic, retroccdent, and
misplaced.  Pee Podagra.
  ARTHROCA'CE.  (From apOpov, a joint, and KaKtj,
a disease.)  An ulcer ofthe cavity ofthe bone.
  ARTIIRO'DIA.  (Arthrodm, a. f.;  from apOpoia, to
articulate.)  A species of diorthrosis, or moveable con-
nexion of bones, iu whicli the head of one bone is re-
ceived into the superficial cavity  of another, so as to
admit of motion iu every direction, ns the head of the
humerus with the glenoid cavity of the scapula.
  ARTHRODY NIA.  (ArthroJiinin, a. I*,;  from ap,
Opav, a joint, aud oivrtj, pain.)   Pain in a joint.   It is
one  of the terminations  of acute rheumatism.   See
Rheumatisnnts.
  ARTilROPCO'SIS.   (Arthropuosis, is.  f.;  from
apOoav, a joia', and irvov, pu«.)    Artlirvpyosis.   A
collection of pus in a joinj.  It is however frequently
applied to other affections.   See Lumbar absciss.
  ARTHROSIA.   (Arthrosia ; from aeOpow, to art!
culate: whence arthrosis, arthrilcs.)  The name of a
genus of disease in Good's  new ciassificiiiion, which
embraces rheumatism, gout, and white swelliug.   See
Nosology
  ARTHROSIS.   (From  aaBpoto, to articulate, «
join together.)   Articulation.
  ARTICHOKE.   See Ctnara scolymus.
  Artichoke, French.   See Cinara scolymus.
                                          ill 
ARU
ASA
  Artichoke, Jerusalem.  See Hclianthus luberosus.
  AETiCULA'R.  (Articularis; from articulus,  a
•oint.)  Belonging to a joint.
  Articularis morbus.  A name given to a disease
Which more immediately infests the articuli, or joints.
The morbus articularis is synonymous with the Greek
word arthritis, and our gout.
  Articularis vkna.   A branch of the basilic vein is
so  called because it passes under the joint of  the
shoulder.
  ARTICULATION.  (Articulalio; from articulus,
ti joint.)  The skeleton is composed of a great number
•if bones, which are all so admirably constructed, and
with so much affinity to each other, that the extremity
of every bone is  perfectly adjusted to the  end of the
bone with which it is connected: and this connexion
is termed their articulation.  Anatomists  distinguish
three kinds of articulation; the first they name Diar-
ihrosis;  the second,  Synarthrosis;  and  the  third,
Amphiarthrosis;  which sec, under their respective
heads
  ARTICULA'TUS.   Articulate; jointed.  A term
applied to roots, stems,  leaves, &c, when they are ap-
parently  formed of distinct pieces united as if one
piece  grew out of  another, so as to form a jointed, but
connected whole: in  the  Radix arliculata, radicals
shoot out from each joint, as in  the Oxalis acctocella,
Wood sorrel.  The Caulis arliculata Is exemplified in
the Cactus fiagclliformis  and Lathyrus sylvestris;
the Cactus opuntia and Cactus ficus indiea have arti-
culate leaves.  The Oxalis acetosella articulate leaf-
stalks.
  ARTICULUS.  (From artus, a joint; from apdpov.)
1.  A joint  See Articulation.
  2. Botanists apply this term to that part of the stalk
of grasse.-; which  is intercepted, or  lies between two
knots, and also to the knot itself.
  Arti'scus.   (From aproj, bread.)   A  troch;  so
called because it is made like a little loaf.
  Arto'creas.   (From apros, bread, and xpeas, flesh.)
A nourishing food, made of bread and various meats,
boiled together.— Galen.
  Arto'gala.   (From  apros, bread, and yaXa, milk.)
A cooling food made of bread and milk. A poultice.
  Arto'meli.   (From  apros, bread, and pcXi, honey.)
A cataplasm made of bread and honey.—Galen.
  ATU'.M.   (Arum, i. n.;  from the Hebrew word ja-
ron, which  signifies a  dart; so  named  because  its
leaves are shaped like a dart; or apa, injury.)   1. The
name  of a genus of plants in the Linnaean  system.
Class, Gynandria;  Order, Polyandria.        m
  2. The pharmacopaeial name of the common arum.
See Arum maculatum.
  Arum  dracu.nculus. The systematic name of the
plant  called, in English, dragon's  wort, and  many-
leaved arum ;  Dracunculus polyphyllus ;  Colubrina
dracontia;  Serpentaria gallorum;  Erva  de Sancta
Maria;  Gigarus serpentaria;  Arum polyphyllum.
The roots and leaves of this plant are extremely acri-
monious, more so than the Arum maculatum, with
which il  agrees in medicinal virtues.
  Arum  maculatum.   The  systematic  name for
common  arum, or  wake-robin; the arum of the phar-
macopoeias.   Arum—acaulc;  foliis hastatis, inte-
gcrrimis; spadice clavato  of  Linnaeus.   Common
arum or wake-robin.  The root is  the medicinal part
of this plant, which,  when recent, is very acrimo-
nious ; and, upon  being chewed, excites an intolerable
sensation of burning and  prickling in the  tongue,
which continues  for several hours.   When cut  in
slices and applied to the skin, it has been  known to
produce  blisters.  This acrimony, however, is gradu-
ally lost by drying, and  may be  so  far dissipated  by
the application of  heat,  as to leave the root a bland fa-
rinaceous aliment   In this state it has been made into
a wholesome bread.  It has ulso  been prepared  as
starch.   Its medicinal quality, therefore, resides wholly
tn the active volatile  matter, and consequently  the
powdeied root mu3l lose much of its power, on being
long kept.  Arum is certainly a powerful stimulant,
and, by promoting the  secretions, may be  advantage-
ously employed in  cachectic  and chlorotic cases in
rheumatic affections, and in various other complaints
of phlegmatic and torpid constitutions; but more es-
pecially  iu  a weakened or relaxed  state  of the sto-
mach, occasioned by the prevalence of vi.-cid mucus:
If this root is given  in  powder,  great care  should  bo
      UK
taken  that it be youi.g and newly dried, when it may
be used in the dose of a scruple, or more, twice a day,
but in rheumatisms, and other disorders requiring the
full effect of this medicine, the root should be given in
a recent state ; and, to cover the insupportable uun-
gency it discovers on the tongue, Dr. Lewis advisw us
to administer it in the form of emulsion,  with gum-ara-
bic  and spermaceti, increasing the dose from ten grains
to upwards of a scruple, three or four times a day.  In
this way, it generally occasioned a sensation of slight
warmth about the stomach, and  afterward, in the re-
moter  parts,  manifestly promoted  perspiration, ar.il
frequently produced a plentiful sweat.  Several  obsli
nale rheumatic pains were removed by this medicine.
The root answers quite as well as garlic for catn plasms,
to be applied  on the feet in  deliriums.  The London
College, in their Pharmacopoeia, 1788, ordered a con-
serve, in the  proportion of half  a pound of the  fresh
root to a pound and a half of double refined sugar, beal
together in a  mortar, which appears to be one of the
best forms  of exhibiting arum, as its virtues are de-
stroyed by drying, and are  not extracted by any men-
struum.   It  may be  given  to  adults in doses  of a
drachm.
  ARUNDINACEUS. (From arundo, a reed.) Arun-
dinaceous or  reed-Iikc.
  ARu.NDiNAtE.e  plant.e.   Arundinaceous plants.
A name given to a class of plants by Ray, from  their
appearance.
  ARUNDO.   (Arundo, inis, f.; supposed to be de-
rived from  area, because it soon becomes dry.)  The
name of a genus of plants in the Linnaean system
Class Triandria ; Order, Digynia.
  Arundo bambos.   The bamboo plant.  The young
shoots of this  plant are prepared  by the natives of" both
Indies  with vinegar, garlic, pepper, &c. into excellent
pickles, which promote  the appetite and assist di
gestion.  A substance called Tabashcer or Tabachir,
wliich is a concretion of the liquor in the cavities of
the cane, and extracted at certain seasons,  is much
esteemed as a medicine by the orientalists.
  Arundo saccharifera.  The name of the sugar-
cane.  See Saccharum officinale.
  ARYT^E'NO.  Belonging  to  the  arytenoid  carti-
lage.  Some  muscles  are so named  because  they are
connected with this cartilage: they have  also the ter
minal  najne  of the part they go to; as arytano-epi
glottidcus.
  Aryt.eno-epiglottideus   A muscle of the epi
glottis   Arytano-Epiglottici of Winslow.  It is com-
posed of a number of fibres running between the aryte-
noid cartilage and epiglottis.  It  pulls the side of the
epiglottis towards the external opening of the glottis,
and when both  act,  they pull it  close upon  the
glottis.
  ARYTENOID.  (AryUnoidcus and Arytanoidcs ;
from apu7«"'u, a funnel, aud u&os, shape.)  The  name
of some parts, from their being funnel-shapped.
  Arytenoid  cartilage.   Cartilage aryt.anoidea
The name of two cartilages of  the larynx.  See La
rynx.
  ARYT.ENOIDETS.   Applied to  some  muscles
vessels, nerves, &c.
  ARVT.tNoiDEfs major.  See Arytanoidcus trans
versus.
  Aryt-EN'Oideus minor.   See Arytanoideus  obli
quits.
  Arytjenoideus obliquus. A muscle ofthe glottis
Arytanoidcus minor  of Douglas.  It arises from Hit
base of one arytaenoid cartilage, and crossing its  fel-
low, is inserted near the tip ofthe other  arytamoid car-
tilage.   This muscle is  occasionally  wanting;  but
when  present, and both muscles act, their use'is to
pull the arytaenoid cartilages towards each other.
  Aryt.bnoidki s.TitANsvKRsus. An  azygos or jin-
gle  muscle  of the glottis.   Arytanoidcus ~major of
Douglas.  It arises Iroin the side of one  arytaenoid car
tilnge from near its  articulation with  the cricoid tn
near its tip.  The fibres run across, and  are inserted in
the  same manner into the other arytaenoid cartilage
Its use is to shut the glottis, liv bringing the two aryia*.
noid cartilages, with their ligaments, nearer lo each
other.
  ASAFOETIDA.  (Ast. fatida, <s, f.;  from the He
brow word a.-,i, to heal.) "  See Firula.
  Asa'piiatum.   (From a, neg.  and  aaq\>r\s, clear, so
called by reason of their minuteness.1   An iutercuta 
ASB
ASC
 neous disorder, generated in the pores, like worms
 with black heads
  Asa'phia.  (From a,  neg.  and trains* clear.)   A
 d( t- ct in utterance or pronunciation
  ASARABACCA.  See Asarum Europaum.
  A'SARUM.  (Asarum, i. n.; from a, neg. and oai-
 *w, to adorn; because it was not admitted into  the
 ancient coronal wreaths.)   1. The name of a genus of
 plants in the Linnrran system.  Class,  Dodecandrta;
 Order, Monogynia.
  2. The  pharmacopoeia!  name  of  the asarabacca.
 See Asarum Europaum.
  Asarum europ.eum.  The systematic name of the
 asarabacca of the shops.  Nardus montana; Nardus
 rustica; Asarum—foliis reniformibus, obtusis, binis
of Linnaeus.  This plant is a  n.itive.of England,  but
not very common.  Its leaves are extremely acrid, and
are occasionally used, when powdered, as'a sternuta-
tory.   For this purpose, the leaves, as being less acrid
than the roots, are preferred, and  in moderate doses,
 not exceeding a few groins, snuffed  up the nose,  for
several evenings, produce  a pretty large watery dis-
 charge, which continues  for several days together, by
 which headache, toothache,  ophthalmia, and  some
 paralytic and soporific complaints have been effectu-
 ally relieved.
  Prior to the introduction of ipecacuanha, the leaves
 and root of this plant were frequently employed on
 account of their emetic power: the dose of the dried
 leaves was 20 grains; of the dried roots 10 grains.  As
they were occasionally violent in their operation, they
have fallen into disuse.
  Asarum hypocistis.   A parasitical plant which
 grows in warm climates, from the roots of the Cistus.
 The juice, succus hypocisttdis, is a mild astringent, of
 no  particular  smell  nor  flavour.  It has fallen into
 disuse.
  ASBESTOS.  Asbestus.   A mineral of which there
 are five varieties, all  more or less flexible  and fibrous.
 1. Amianthus occurs in very long, fine, flexible, elastic
 fibres, of a white, greenish, or reddish  colour.  It is
 somewhat unctuous to the touch, has a  silky or pearly
 lustre, and  is slightly translucent.  Sectile ; tough ;
 sp. grav. from 1 to 2.3.
  The ancients manufactured cloth out of the fibres
 of asbestos, for the purpose, it is said, of wrapping up
 the bodies of the dead, when exposed  on the funeral
 pile.   Several  moderns have  likewise succeeded in
 making this cloth, the chief artifice of which seems to
 consist in the admixture  of flax and a liberal use of
 oil; both  which substances are afterward consumed
 by exposing the cloth for a certain time  to  a red heat
 Although the cloth of asbestos, when soiled, is restored
 to its primitive whiteness by heating in the fire, it is
 found, nevertheless, by several authentic experiments,
 that its weight diminishes  by such treatment.  The
 fibres of asbestos'exposed  to the  violent  heat of the
 blow-pipe, exhibit slight indications effusion ; though
 the parts, instead of running together, moulder away,
 and part fall down, while the rest seem to disappear
 before the current of air.  Ignition impairs the flexibi-
lity of asbestos in a snght degree.
  2. Common asbestos occurs in masses of fibres of a
dull greenish colour, and of  a somewhat pearly lustre.
 Fragments splintery.  It is scarcely flexible, and greatly
 denser than amianthus.  It is more abundant than
 amianthus, and is found usually  in serpentine,  as at
 Portsoy, the Isle of Anglesea, and the Lizard  in Corn-
 wall.  It was  found  in the limestone of Glentilt, by
 Dr. M'Culloch, in a pasty state, but it soon hardened
 by exposure to air.
  3. Mountain  Leather consists not of parallel  fibres
 like the preceding, but interwoven  and interlaced so as
 to become tough.  When iu very thin pieces it is called
 mountain paper.  Its colour is yellowish-white, and its
 touch meagre.  It is found at Wanlockhead, in La-
 narkshire.   Its specific gravity is uncertain.
  4. Mountain Cork, or  Elastic Asbestos,  is, like the
preceding, of an interlaced fibrous texture; is opaque,
has a meagre feel and appearance, not unlike common
cork, and  like it, too, is somewhat elastic.  It swims
on water.   Its colours are white, gray, and yellowish-
Ijrown; receives an  impression from the  nail;  very
rough; cracks when  handled, and melts  with difficulty
before the blow-pipe.
  5. Mountain Wood, or Ligniform asbestos, is usually
maefrivc, of a brc wn  colour, and having the aspect of
                                          G
 wood.  Internal lustre  glimmering  Soft, sectile, and
 tough; opaque; feels  meagre; fusible into a black
 slag.  Sp. grav. 2.0.  It is found In the Tyrol; Dan
 phiny; and  in Scotland, at Glentilt, Portsoy, and  Kil
 druuile.
   Ascai.oni'ths.  A species of onion.
   ASCA'RIDES.  The plural of ascaris.
   ASC Alt IS.   (Ascaris, ulis ; from cbkcw,  to move
 about; so called from  its continued troublesome  mo-
 tion.)  The name of  a genus of intestinal worms.
 There are several species of this genus.  Those whiclr
 lyelong to the human body are:—     ,
   1.  Ascaris vermiculuris, tlie thread or maw worm
 wliich is very small and slender, not exceeding hull as
 inch in length ;  it inhabits the rectum.
   2.  Ascaris bumbricoides, the long and round worm
 which is a foot in length, and about  the breadth of
 goose-quill.
   ASCF.'NDENS.   (From  ad and scando, to ascend.,
 Adsccndens.  Ascending.  Applied to muscles, leaves'
 stalks, Sec. from  their direction ; as musculus obliquus
 ascendens, folium  uscendens,  caulis ascendens, the
 leaves of the geranium vitifolium and stems of the
 hedysarum onobrychis, Sec.
   Ascmmiens  obliquus   See Obliquus interims ab
 dominus.
   A'scta.  An  axe or  chisel.  A simple bandage; so
 called from its shape in position.—Galen.
   ASCIDIATUS.   (From  ascidium,)  Ascidiato or
 pilcherform: a term applied to a leaf and other parts
 of plants which are so formed;  the folium ascidiatum
 is seen in the Nepenthes  Distillatoria,  and in  Sa
 raccnia.
   ASCIDIUM.   (From  ooki&iov,  a small  bottle.)
 The  pitcher.  A term  introduced by Willdenow  into
 botany to express a hollow foliaceous appendage, re-
 sembling  a small pitcher.  It is of rare  occurrence,
 but has been found as a caulinar, foliar, and zpedun
 cular or floral appendage.
   1.  The caulinar belongs to the Austalasian plant Ce
 pkalotus follicularis.
   2.  The foliar is  peculiar to the genus Nepenthes.
   3.  The peduncular on the Surubea quianensis.
   ASCITES.   (Ascites, a. m.;  from aoKoc, a sacn,
 or bottle; so called from its bottle-like protuberancy.;
 Dropsy of the  belly.   A tense,  bul scarcely elastic,
! swelling ofthe abdomen from accumulation of water
• Cullen  ranks this  genus of disease in  the class Ca-
l chexia, and order,  Intumescentia.   He  enumeiates
I two species:
   1.  Ascites abdominalis, when the water is in the
 cavity of the  peritonaeum, which is known by tha
 equal swelling ofthe parietes ofthe abdomen.
   2.  Ascites  saccatus,  or encysted dropsy, in whicli
 the water is  encysted, as in  tlie ovarium:  tlie fluctua
 tion  is here  less evident, and the swelling is at firs;
 partial.
   Ascites is often preceded  by  loss of appetite, slug-
 gishness, dryness of the skin, oppression at the chest,
 cough, diminution of the natural discharge of urine,
 and  costiveness.   Shortly  alter the appearance of
 these symptoms, a protuberance is perceived in the
 hypogostriuin, whicli extends gradually, and  keeps on
 increasing, until the whole abdomen becomes at length
 uniformly swelled  and tense.   The distension  and
 sense of  weight, although  consideiable,  vary some-
 what according to the posture of the body, Ihe weight
 being felt the most on  lhat side on which the patient
 lies, while, al the same time, the distention becomes
 somewhat less on the opposite side.  In general, the
 practitioner  may be sensible of the fluctuation of the
 water, by applying his left hand on one side of the
 abdomen, and then striking on the other side with his
 right. In some  cases,  it will  be obvious to  the ear.
 As the collection of water becomes more considerable,
 the difficulty of breathing  is  much increased,  the
 countenance exhibits a pale and bloated appearance,
 an immoderate thirst, the skin is dry and parched, and
 the  urine is very scanty,  thick, high coloured, and
 deposits a lateritious sediment.   With respect to the
 pulse, it  is  variable, being sometimes considerably
 quickened, and, at other times, slower than natural.
 The  principal diflicjilty, which prevails in ascites, is
 the being able to distinguish, with certainty, when the
 water is in the cavity of the abdomen, or when it is in
 the different  states  of encysted  dropsy.   To form a
 just judgment, we should attend to the following  cir 
ASC
-instances•—When the preceding symptoms gave
susnicion of a general hydropic diathesis; when at
Same tune, some degree of dropsy appears in other
Darts of the body; and when, from its first appearance,
fhe swel ing  has been equally diffused over the whole
bellv we may generally presume that the water is in
the cavity of the abdomen. But when an  ascites has
not been preceded by any remarkable cachectic state
ofthe^ystem, and when'at its beginning,  the tumour
ana tension had appeared iu one part of thet belly more
than another, there is reason to suspect an encysted
dropsy.  Even .when the tension and tumour of th#
belly have become general, yet, if the system oi'the
bodv in general appear to be little affected; if the pa
Ss"uength kittle impaired ; if^Pg*1^
tinue Drettv entire, and the natural sleep be little inter
 uptedP Vnhe menses in females continue to flow as
iKsnnl-  if there be yet no anasaroa, or, though it may
have al eadytake/ place, if it  be still confined to the
 owerextremSes, and there be no leuw^lep™^
•iilerKss or sallow colour in the countenance; it there
beSver,C so much thirst and scarcity of urine.
a  occur In  a more general affection:  then.according
as more of these different circu.nstanc«s '^ke -D'ace
there will be the stronger grounds to«W%™*f™
■i«citf s to be of the encysted kind.  The encysten iorni
ffte disease scaicely admits of a V*««^J™$
it* «m»re«s to a fatal termination is generally very
 fow and the peritonaeal dropsy is mostly very- obrt -





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  B'aIcLEPF ADES, a ^^J^^^foTe
  Prusa, In  Bithynia, who' Aou™J»  "St rhetoric,
  the tine of Pompey.  He on^ZAtaSeif to the
  out not meeting with successapplied h.msel. ^
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  from the novelty of his theory an  h       particles
   poses disease to "™J*™ *f S obstructed by the
   ,f the blood f""^""^Chinee pain, fever, &c. en-
   rtraitness of the vesst?>w«n  . H   \t  remedies, as
   ,ued.  He deprecated tntuseo^w       ,0VCQ,|ys.
   emetics and pu^ativ««, butflwquertry emp y  ^

   ters, when c^'VT^S^'ftJS food  or drink for
   relied oi. a complete abstinence I om 10     e

   three days or more 5  ^J^L   i„  pleurisies, and
   allowed  animal fo°d a", S violent pain, he pre-
   other complaints •«*n-f",t^? of a chronic nature,
   scribed bleeding; but in "^ °nce* exercise, baths,
   depended  MMy^^"emaiii at present.
    and frictions.  None of his wor*        on
    He »H.™ldtoh.^g^»wXhe  retained to a
    servation of Mi own uc°:. !.    „ fan,
    great age, and d»edatlenathJ*roni a tan.
     ASCLEPIAS. (Fromfr'!"'Krap11,,the god of
    after its discoverer; or J^.jSX.tsIn the Lin-
    medicine.)  The nameof a genus °n>'"   7),wa.
    ruenn system.  Class, *«"^.Xe\ Tjft plant
      ASCLKPIAS SVRIACA. »*"*" ° thd ntao to th« llU,
    is particularly ooisonous to dous, ami
         08
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UieAso'D«s  (Frem «&., to nauseate.)  A «*»«*«
loalhhie, or a fever with much «ense ot heat and nau-

" aTpadia'lis.  A suppression of  urine from au to-

Pt"e*tLATUHUMra-See Lignum aloes.
  ASPALATHU8.  (From «, and enraco, because the


Linyn^an system. Class, Diadelphia; Order, Dccan-

''"a'.pat »thus canariensis. The systematic nam*
 nf^rro^wood nee, or lignum rhodium ofthe an
 ?f *,,,   An e-er.al oil is obtained  from t'.ie roots,
 which is used principally as a perfume but is „ut
 cXnt cordial and carminative given internally.  The
 b?"t p epaS, is a tincture, made by macerating four
 ounces of the wood in a pint of  rectified spirit.
   AS1' \RAG1N. Whitetransparentcrystals,of a; ecii
 liar vegetable principle, which spontaneously form if,
 a^arMus juice which has been evaporated to the cor,
 Xncl of syrup  Thev arc in the form of rhomboid*

 weous  taste.   They d ssolve in hot water,but M'M»"«'J
 taSrtd w a er, a.ul not at all in alkohol. Cm being: 1eat
 •ed, they swell  and eniit penetrating vapours  wlmh
  affect the eyes and nose like wood-smoke.  ™«5£™
  tion doesnot change vegetable bluwr»« »^ ^
  by hydrosulphuret ol potassa, oxalate or ammo u», ab-

  late of lead  or infusion of galls- V™|C*trifur"«^ i
  monia from it;  though none is ev«K«l by tmuratiiu. it
  with  potassa.  The  asparagus juice     d  M, ft
  heated tocoagulate the f^«£"i^& d£$.  AtoJ
 | to spontaneous evaporation for 1J> or ^o «• j 
ASV
ASP
with the tspsragtn crystals, others in needles of little
Consistency appear, analogous to mannite, from which
tlie first, can be  easily picked out.—Vauquelin and
Robiquet.  Annates de Chimte, vol. Iv.  and Nichol-
son's Journal, 15.
  ASPA'RAGUS.  (Asparagus, «'.  m. AnrapayoSt a
young shoot before it  unfolds its  leaves.)  1. The
name of « genus of plants in the Limitcan system.
Class, Hexandria; Order, Monogynia.  Asparagus.
  2. The pharmacopceial name of the sparage.  Sec
Asparagus officinalis.
  Asparagus officinalis. The systematic name of
the asparagus, the root of which has been esteemed as
a diuretic.  It is mostly employed as a food, but it
contains very little nourishment.  A peculiar vegeta-
ble principle, called asparagin, has been  found in this
plant.  See Asparagin.
  [ASPARAGUS  STONE.  This is one ofthe va-
rieties of the phosphate of lime.  Vauquelin found it
to contain lime 54.ei8, phosphoric acid 45.72; by which
analysis it appears to differ but little from  Apatite,
Ihe other variety, whicli ^ec.  A.]
  Aspa'sia.   (From «, for ava, together, and o-iruw, to
draw.)  A constrictive medicine  for tlie pudendum
mulie&rc.  Capivac
  ASPER.   Rough.  Applied  to parts which  are
rough, as linea aspera, Sec.
  In the language  of botany, scoter and  asper arc
used synonymously.
  Asper caulis.   Caulis soaber.  Scabrous stem; is
when it is thickly covered with papillae which are not
visible, but can be felt when running the linger along
't;  as in Galium aperine, Lilhospcrmum  arvense,
Centaurea nigra, Sec.
  Aspera artkria.  (So called from the inequality
of its cartilages.)  See Trachea.
  ASPERLFOLLE.  (From asper,  rough.)  Rough-
leaved plants.  The name of a class and of an order
of plants given by Boerhaave, Ray, Linnaeus, &c.
  ASPE'RULA.   (A diminutive of asper, the seeds
being rough.)  The name of a genus ol plants  in the
Linnaean system.   Class,  Tetraniria; Order, Mono-
gynia,
  Asperula odorata.  Tire systematic  name for the
officinal matrisylva. Woodruff.  It is a low umbelli-
ferous plant, growing wild in woods and copses, and
flowering in May.   It hath an agreeable odour, which
is much unproved by moderate drying; the teste is a
little austere.  It imparts its flavour to vinous liquors;
and is  commended as  a cordial  and deobstruent
remedy.
  Aspualti'tis.  1. A kind of trefoil.
  2. The last vertebra of the loins.
  ASPHALTUM.   Asphallus.  This substance, like-
wise called  Bitumen Judaieum, or Jews' Pitch, is a
smooth, hard, brittle, black or brown substance, which
breaks with  a polish, melts easily when healed, and
when pure bums without leaving any ashes.  It is
found in a soil or liquid state or the surface of the
Dead sea, but by age grows dry and hard. The same
kind of bitumen is likewise found in the earth in other
parts of  the world; in China; America, particularly
in the island of Trinidad ;  and some parts of  Europe,
as the Carpathian hills, France, Neufchatel, &c.
  According to Neumann, the asphaltum of the shops
is a very different compound from the native bitumen;
and varies, of course, in ils properties, according to
tlie nature of the  ingredients made use of in forming
it.  On this account, and probably from other reasons,
the use of  asphaltum, as an article of the  materia
medica, is totally laid aside.
  The Egyptians used asphaltum in embalming, under
the name of muniia mineralls, for which  it is well
adapted.  It was used for mortar at Babylon.
  [This bitumen  is dry and solid, and usually very
brittle, but  often  too hard to receive an impression
from the finger nail.  In some varieties its fracture is
more or less conchoidal, and shimng with a  resinous
lustre; in others, it is  earthy, or uneven, or nearly
dull.  The earthy variety is less hard than the others,
%nd seems to be intermediate between Maltha and
ite harder kinds of Asphaltum.—CI. Min.
  The ancient bricks of Babylon, several of  which I
save  had the  best  opportunities to examine, have a
portion of bitumen adhering to them.  This is black,
tad emits, by burning, a somewhat aromatic vapour.
.t appears to have  lost  none of its peculiar qualities,
during the term of 3000 or 4000 years, twice  It wan
first incorporated as a cement, in the walls and lower*
constructed  by the ancient  inhabitants  of  Shinaar.
The  specimens I possess  of modern  bitumen from
Bosrah, or Its vicinity, are substantially the same with
that used of old.
  Asphaltum of St. Antonio,  at the western extremity
of Cuba, Is compact, deep  black, and eatable of sup
porting a flame when  heated and set  on fire.  That
from Trinidad island is not so pure; but Is  stated to
be much more abundant  Specimens from St. Ste-
phens, near the Alnbaiua river, were sent me  by Mr
Magoffin.—MilchiU's Notes to Philips's Mm.   A.]
  ASPHO'DELUS.  (Asphodelus, i. m. ti"in morris,a
serpent, and  SciXos, fearful; because it destroys the
venom of serpents: or from  airoicXos,  ashes, because
it was formerly sown upon the graves of the dead.
1.  The name of a genus of  plants in the Linnaean sya
tern.   Class, Hcxandria; Order, Monogynia.
  2. The pharmacopueial name of the daffodil-  See
Asphodelus ramosus.
  Asphodblus ramosus.  The systematic name foi
the officinal, or branched  asphodel.   Asphodelus .—
cauknudo; foliis rnriformibus, carinatis, lavibus, at
Linnaeus.  The plant was formerly supposed to beefri
cacious in the cure of sordid ulcers.  It is now wholly
laid aside.
  ASPHY'XIA.  (Asphyxia, <c. f.; from a, priv. ane"
oqivlis, a pulse.)  The state ofthe body, during life, ir
wliich the pulsation of the heart and arteries canno
be perceived.  There are  several species of asphyxio
enumerated by different authors.  See Syncope.
  Aspidi'scus. (From aim;, a buckler.) Thesphinctei
muscle of the anus was  formerly so called fiom ite
shape.—Calius Aurclianus.
  [ASPINWALL,  Willlam, M.  D.  was  born ir.
Brookline, Mass., on the 23d of May, (old style,) 17«.
His ancestors emigrated from  England  about the year
1630.   He was tilted  for College  by the  Rev. Amos
Adams, minister of Roxbury, and was fraduated at
Harvard  University, in 1764.   It was the personal
interest wliich he  took in the  revolutionary contest,
acting upon a mind deeply imbued  with a sense of
his country's wrongs,  that gave strength and tone to
his sentiments in after life.  Dr. Aspinwall's language
on political  subjects was bold and strong, his creed
being that of a democratic republican.  In the unhappy
scenes of party excitement, he unwaveringly adhered
to what he deemed  original and fundamental  princi-
ples;  but he aimed to preserve a good conscience, and
to do  justice to the honest opinions, the pure motives,
and  undoubted integrity of his opponents.  He was
not a political persecutor; and, when  he was in the
councils of the State, resolutely declined acting with
his coadjutors, who were disposed to drive from office
Incumbents, whose only fault was what they deemed
political heresy.
  After the  death  of the eminent and distinguish,:,!
Dr. Zabdiel Boylston, the first inoculator of small-pos
in America, Dr. Aspinwall  established himself in that
undertaking, and erected hospitals for that purpose iti
Brookline.   Perhaps  no practitioner  in the  United
States ever inoculated so  many persons, or acquirt 1
such  skill and celebrity  in  treating this maligna it
disease, as Dr. Aspinwall.  Besides  his practice in
this dLsorder when it generally spread, he was allowed,
after  the year 1788, to keep a hospital open  at JI
times, to  which great numbers resorted, and from
which they returned with warm expressions of satis-
faction.  He  continued in  the successful treatment ot
this disease, till the general introduction of vaccine
Inoculation.    He had  made ample accommodation
for enlarged practice, and  established  what might
have  beeij justly deemed a sure foundation for pros-
perity, when vaccine inoculation was first introduced*.
He well knew that if vaccination possessed the virtues
ascribed to it. his schemes  of fortune  and usefulness
arising from inoculation at his hospital, were ruined;
that ho should be involved in loss, and his .anticipa-
tions  of fortune would be  blasted.  But as an hortwr
man and faithful physician, he deemed it his duty tn
inquire into the efficacy of the novel substitute.  With
the utmost alacrity, therefore, he gave the experiment
a fair trial,  promptly  acknowledged its efficacy, atnl
relinquished his own  establishment   The foregoing
is  corroborated by the following statement, recently
made by Dr. Waterhouse, in the Medical Intelligencer 
ASP                                             ASl
  M The late Dr. Aspinwall, a man of great sagacity,
and uncommonly well grounded in the principles of
has profession, gave evidence of" it on the first sight of
a vaccine pustule.   I had invited all the elder physi-
cians of Boston, and iho vicinity of Cambridge, to cee
the first vaccine  pustules ever raised in the  new
world.  They gave them  the ordinary inspection on
Ihe skin; all but Dr. Aspinwall, whose attention was
i ivetled on  the  pustule, its areola, and effloTesc* nee.
He came a second time, and viewed  the  inocuHted
part in every light, and reviewed it, and seemed loath
to leave the sight of it.  He seemed wrapped in seri-
ous thought, and said repeatedly—' This pustule is bo
iike small-pox, and yet it is not small-pox, that should
it, on scabbing, take out a  portion of the true skin, so
r.s to leave an indelible mark or pit behind, I shall be
fady to conclude that it is a  mild species of small-
pox,  hitherto  unknown here.'  He had been in the
habit of examining the  small-pox  pimple and pustule
through glasses, to know  if it  'had taken;' and he
remarked, that they were peculiar, unique, and unlike
i'.uy other eruption  he ever saw; but that  this kine-
pock came the nearest to it.  Some time after, I gave
liim a portion of the virus to make his own experi-
ments, and observe ihe progress of its inoculation,
and coincidence of the constitutional symptoms; when
he observed, that its progress, febrile  affection, and '
uiode of scabbing, were very like small-pox, and so of
the indelible mark left on the arm; yet, throughout
ihe whole visible affection, different.  To crown the
..hole of his honourable conduct, he some time after
t juk all those of my family whom  I had vaccinated,
into his small-pox  hospital, the only licensed one in
the state, and there tested them to his satisfaction,
luid one to the very verge of rigid experiment: and
then he said to me and others—* This new inoculation
i'/ yours is no sham.  As a man of humanity, Irejoice
m it, although it  will take from me  a  handsome
annual  income.'   His  conduct throughout was so
ttroiigly marked with superior intelligence, generosity,
mid honour, as to excite my esteem and respect; and
I accordingly dedicate this  effusion of gratitude to the
memory of the Hon. William Aspinwall, M. D.; a
gentleman respectable in public life as a counsellor,
and an honour to  his profession as a physician."—
Thaclt. Med. Biog.   A.]
  ASPLE'NIUM.  (Asplenium, ii. n.;  from a, priv.
c'Xnv, the spleen; because it was supposed to remove
disorders of the  spleen.)   The name of a genus of
plants in the Linnaean system.   Class, Cryptogamia ;
Order, Filices.
  Asplenium  ceTerach.  The systematic name of
the herb spleenwoi t.  Miltwaste.  Scolopendria vera ;
DorodUla.  This small bushy plant, Asplenium—fron-
dibus pinnatifidis, lobis  alternis  confluentibus obtusis
of Linnaeus, grows upon old walls and rocks.  It has
an herbaceous, mucilaginous, roughish taste, and is
recommended as a  pectoral.  In Spain it is  given,
with great success, in nephritic and calculous diseases.
  Asplenium ruta muraria.  The systematic name
for the ruta muraria of the  pharmacopoeias.  It is
supposed by some to possess specific virtues in the cure
of ulcers of the lungs, and is exhibited in the form of
decoction.
  Asplenium scolopendrium.  The systematic name
fui the scolopendrium of the pharmacopoeias.  Philli-
tis;  Lingua cervina.   Harts-tongue.   This indige-
nous plant, Asplenium—frondibus simplicibus, e.ordato
lingulatis, integerrimis; stipitibus hirsutis of Lin-
naeus : grows on most shad}' banks, walls, Sec.  It has
a slightly astringent and  mucilaginous sweetish taste.
When fresh and rubbed,  it imparts a disagreeable
binell.  Darts-tongue, whicli is one of the .fine capillary
herbs, was formerly much used to  strengthen the vis-
cera,  restrain haemorrhages and alvine  fluxes, and to
ripen obstructions of the liver and spleen, and for the
general purposes of demulcents and pectorals.
  Asplenium triciiomanes.  The systematic name
for the trichomanrs of the pharmacopoeias.  Common
maidenhair ^or  splecuwort.   Asplenium—frondibus
pinnatis, pinnis subrotundis,  crcnatis of Linnaeus.
This  plant  is admitted into the Edinburgh Pharmaco-
:xeia: the leaves have a mucilaginous, sweetish, sub-
astringent taste,  without any particular flavour: they
we esteemed useful in disorders of the breast, being
 •Jj-posed  to promote  the expectoration  of tough
flilegm, and to open obstructions of the viscera.
       100
  ASS.  See Asinus
  Ass's milk.  See Asinus.
  Assaba.  A shrub found on the coastof Guinea, MM
leaves of wliich are supposed to disperse bubOe«
  ASSAFOE'TIDA.   See Ferula assafxtida.
  ASSARABA'CCA.  See Asarum Europeum.
  Assa'rium.  A Roman measure of twelve ounces
  Assarthro'sis.  Articulation.
  ASSAY.   Essay.   This operation consists  in de-
termining the quantity of valuable or precious metal
contained in any mineral or metallic mixture, by ana
lyzing a small part thereof.  The practica1 difference
between the  analysis and the assay of an ore, con
ststs in this: The analysis,  if properly made,  deter
mines the nature and quantities of all the parts  of the
compound; whereas the object of the assay consists itt
ascertaining  how  much  of the particular metal in
question may be contained in a certain determinate
quantity of the material  under examination.  Thus,
in tlie assay of gold or silver, the baser metals are con-
sidered as of no value or consequence;  and the proh
lem  to be resolved is simply,  how much of each is
contained iu the  ingot or piece of metal intended to be
assayed.
  ASSIMULA'TTOIV'.   (Assimilalio, from  ad, and
similis, to make like to.)  The conversion of the food
info nutriment.
  Assiste'ntes.  (From aa", and sisto, to staeid  near.]
A name  of  the  prostate  glands, so called  because
they lie near the  bladder.
  ARSO'DES.   (From acaopat, to nauseate, or from
assare, to burn.)  Asodes.   A continual fever, attended
with a loathing of food.
  A'STACUS.   (Astacus, i. m.; from a, neg. and
ra^u, todistil; so called from the hardness and dryness
of its shell.)   The name of a genus of sheli-fish.
  Astacus  fluvlatilis.   The  officinal  crevis,  at
cray-fish.  See Cancer astacus.
  Astacus .marinus.  The lobster.  See Cancer gam
mar us.
  A'stapsis.   (From ;-a#ic, uva passa.) A raisin.
  Astera'ntium.  (From as-»;p, a star.)   The pell?
lory; so called from its star-like form.   See Anthcmii
pyrethrum.
  Astericum.   (From the star-like appearance of th.'
flowers.)  The pellitory.   See Anthemis pyrethrum.
.  ASTHE'NIA.  (From a, priv. and oOtvos, strength.
Extreme debility.   The  asthenic diseases form  oik
great branch of  the Brunonian arrangement.
  ASTHE.NOLOGY.   (Asthenologia, a. f.; from a
priv. and cdevos,  strength, and Aoyoc, a treatise.) Tim
doctrine of diseases arising from debility.   The disci
pies  of the  Brunonian  school, as they denominate
themselves, maintain peculiar opinions on this subject
  A'STHMA.  (Asthma, matis, neut.: from aoOpalto
to breathe wilh difficulty.)    Difficult respiration
returning  at  intervals,  with  a  sense of stricture
across the  breast, and  in the lungs;  a  wheezing
hard cough, at first, hut more free towards the close ol
each paroxysm, wilh a discharge  of mucus, followed
by a remission.  It is  ranked by Cullen in the class
Neurosis, and order Spasmi. There are, according lo
him, three species of asthma:—
  1. Asthma spontancum, w hen without any manifest
cause.
  2. Asthma plethoricum,when it arises from plethora
  3. Asthma exanthematicum, originating from the re
pulsion of some acrid humour.
  Asthma rarely appears before  the age of puberty,
and seems to attack men more frequently than women,
particularly those of a full habit, in  whom  it  never
fails, by frequent repetition, to occasion some degree
of emaciation.  In some  instances, il arises  from an
hereditary predisposition,  and in many others, it seeing
to depend upon a particular constitution of" the  lungs.
Dyspepsia always  prevails, and appears to bca\ ery
prominent feature  in the  predisposition.  Its attacks
arc most frequent during  the heats of summer,  in the
dog days, and  iu general commence about midnight
On the evening preceding an  attack of asthma, the
spirits are often much affected, and  the person expe-
riences a sense of fulness about the stomach, with las
situde, drowsiness, and a pain in the head.  On the
approach of the succeeding evening, he perceives  a
sense of tightness and stricture across the breast, and
u sense of ctraitness in the lungs', impeding respiration.
The  difficulty of breathing continuing to increase fo» 
A*ST
AST
 tmw length of time, both inspiration and expiration
 •re performed slowly, and with a wheezing noise: the
 speech becomes difficult  and uneasy, a propensity  to
 coughing succeeds, aud the patient can no longer re-
 main in a horizontal position, being as it were threat-
 ened  with  immediate suffocation.   These symptoms
 tisually continue till towards the approach of morn-
 ing, and then a remission commonly taxes place; tlie
 breathing becomes less laborious  and more  full, and
 the person  speaks and coughs  with  greater ease.   If
 Hie cough is attended with an expectoration of mucus,
 he  experiences   much  relief, and  soon falls asleep.
 When he awakes in the morning, he still feels some
 degree of tightness  across his breast, although his
 breathing is probably more free and easy, and he can-
 not bear the least motion, without rendering this more
 difficult and uneasy; neither can he continue in bed-,
 unless his head and shoulders are raised to a consider-
 able height.  Towards evening,  he again  becomes
 drowsy, is much troubled with  "flatulency in  tlie sto-
 mach, and  perceives a  return of   the difficulty of
 breathing, which continues to iucrense gradually, till
 it becomes  as violent as on the night before.  Alter
 some  uiizhts passed iu this way, Ihe fits at length mo-
 derate, and  suffer more considerable  remissions, par-
 ticularly when they are attended by a copious exper-
 loration in the mornings, and this continues from time
 to time throughout the day; and the disease going oil'
 at last, the patient enjoys his usual rest by night, with-
 out further disturbance.  The pulse is not necessarily
 affected in this disease, though often quickened h,y the
 difficulty of breathing;  and sometimes slight pyrexia
 attends.  In  plethoric  habits, the  countenance   is
 flushed and turgid  during the fit; but in others rather
 pale and shrunk: in the former,too,some difficulty of
 breathing and wheezing usually remain in tlie interval;
 in others the  recovery is  more complete.  On this  is
 founded the common distinction of asthma  into the
 humid, pituitous, or catarrhal, and the dry, spasmodic,
 or nervous forms.  The exciting causes are various:—
 accumulation of blood, or viscid mucus in the  lungs,
 noxieus vapours, a cold and foggy atmosphere, or  a
 close hot air, the repulsion of eruptions, or other me-
 tastatic diseases, flatulence, accumulated feces, vio-
 lent passions, organic diseases in the thoracic viscera,
 Sec.   Sometimes the fits  return  at pretty regular
 periods; and  it is generally difficult to obviate future
 attacks, when it has once occurred:  but it often con-
 tinues to recur  for many years, and seldom proves
 fatal, except  as inducing hydrothorax, phthisis, Sec.
 The treatment must vary according to the form of the
 disease.  In young persons of a plethoric habil, with
 great  dyspnoea,  a flushed countenance, accelerated
 pulse, Sec. the abstraction of blood will be found  to
 afford marked  relief;  but under  opposite  circum-
 stances, it might be  highly injurious, and we should
 always avoid repeating it unnecessarily.  In ambigu-
 ous cases, cupping may be preferred, or leeches to the
 chest, with  blisters.  Mild cathartics should  also be
 employed; or where costiveness  appears to induce the
 fits, those of a more active nature. Nauseating emetics
 are of considerable service, especially  where  the pa-
 tient is distressed with viscid mucus, not only by pro-
 moting perspiration  and  expectoration, but also by
 their antispasmodic power, the return of a paroxysm
 may often  be prevented by their timely  use.  Squill
 combined with ipecacuanha is one of the best forms.
 Where the disease is of tlie purely spasmodic charac-
 ter, opium will be found the most powerful palliative
 remedy, especially if combined  with aether, though it
 unfortunately loses some  of its  power by repetition;
 the foetid gum resins are also useful, particularly where
 the bowels are torpid  ; and other antispasmodics may
 be occasionally employed.  The practice of smoking,
 or chewing tobacco, has sometimes appeared extremely
 beneficial; and a cup of strong coffee has sften afforded
 speedy relief.  Means shouid also  be employed for
 strengthening the system; and where there appears a
 tendency to serous effusion, digitalis may be very useful.
 But by far the most important part of the treatment
consists in obviating or removing the several exciting
causes, whether operating on  the lungs immediately,
or through the medium of the primae viae, &c.  Indi-
vidual experience can alone ascertain what state of the
atmosphere  as to temperature,  dryness, purity, &x.
shall be most  beneficial to asthmatics, though a good
deal depends on habit ia this respect:  but a due regu-
 lation oftliis, as well as of the diet, and other parts o/
 regimen, will usually afford more  permanent relief
 than any medicines we can employ.
   A'S'I'ITKS.  (from  ad, and slo, to  stand  near.)
 A  name given by tin. ancients to the prostate glands,
 because they  are situated mar the bladder.
   ASTRA C'ALLS.  (Astragalus, i. in.; A^pnyaXcr,
 a cockle, or die : because it is shaped like the die used
 in ancient games.)   l. The ankle-bone, a bone of the
 tarsus, upon  which the  tibia moves.  Also called the
 sling-bone, or first bone of the loot,   Baltislaos; oris
 trios; talus;  quatrio; Ulroros;  cavicula;  cavilla;
 diaiebos; pi za.  Il is placed posteriorly and superiorly
 in  the tarsus, and is formed of two parts, one letrgt-
 which is called its body, the other small, like a pro'
 cess.  The  part where these two unite is termed the
 neck.
  2. The name of a genus of plants in tlie Linnaean
 system.   Class, Diadelphia : Older, Decandria.
  Astragalus excapus.  Stemless milk-vetch.  The
 root of this plant, Astragalus acaulis excapus ;—Icgu-
 minibus  lunatis; foliis nllosis ol  Linnaeus, is said to
 cure confirmed syphilis, especially when in the form
 nf nodes and  nocturnal pains.
  Astragalus tragacantha.  The former system
 atic uame for the plant which affords the gum  traga
 cantll.  See Astragalus verus.
  Astragalus  verus.   Coat's  thorn.   Milk-vetch.
 Spina kirci:  .Istragalus tragacantha; Astragalus
 aculeatus.  We are indebted to a French traveller, of
 ihe  name of  Olivier, for  the discovery that the gum
 trngacanth of commerce, is the pioduce of a species of
 astragalus not belbre known.  He describes it under the
 name of astragalus verus, being different both from Ji.
 tragacantha of Linnaeus, and from the A. gummifera
 of Labillardiere.  It grows in  the  North of Persia.
 Gum-tragacanth, or gum dragant, or dragon, (wliich
 is forced from this plant  by the intensity of the solar
 rays, is concreted into irregular lumps or vermicular
 pieces, bent into a variety of shapes, and  larger er
 smaller proportions, according to the size of the wound
 from which it issues,) is brought chiefly from Turkey,
 in irregular lumps, or long vermicular pieces bent into
 a variety of shapes: the best sort is white, seini-trant,-
 parent, dry, yet somewhat soft lo the touch.
  Gum-tragacanth differs from all the  other known
 gums, iu  giving a thick  consistence to a much larger
 quantity of water; and in being much more difficultly
 soluble, or  rather dissolving only imperfectly.    Put
 into water, it  slowly imbibes a great quantity of the
 liquid, swells  into a large volume, and forms a soft
 but  not fluid  mucilage;   if more water be  added, a
 fluid solution may be obtained by agitation  but the
 liquor looks turbid and wheyish, and on standing, the
 mucilage  subsides, the limpid water on the surt'aim
 retaining little of the gum.  Nor  does the admixture
 of the preceding more soluble gums promote its union
 with the water,or render its dissolution more durable:
 when gum-tragacanth and gum-arabic  are dissolved
 together  in water, the tragacanth separates from  the
 mixture more speedily than when  dissolved  by itself.
  Tragacanth is  usually preferred to the other  gums
 for  making  up troches, and other  like purposes, and
 is supposed likewise to be the inosteffectu.il as a medi-
 cine; but on  account of its imperfect solubility, is
 unfit for liquid forms.  It  is commonly given in pov/-
 der, with  the  addition of other inatenals of similar
 intention;  thus, to one part of giun-traiincaiith  are
 added one of gum-arabic, one of starch, and six of
 sugar.
  According to Bucheltz, gum-tragacanth is composed
 of 57 parts of a matter similar to gum-arabic, and 43
 parts of a peculiar substance, capable  of swelling in
 cold water without dissolving, aud assuming the ap
 pearance  of a thick jelly.   It is  soluble in boiling
 water, and then forms a mucilaginous solution.
  The demulcent qualities of this  gum are to be con
 sidered as similar lo those of gum-arabic.  It is seldom
 given alone, but frequently in combination with more
 powerful medicines, especially in the form of troches.
 for which it  is peculiarly well adapted:  it gives nam.,
to an officinal compound powder, and was an ingre
dient in the compound powder of cerusse.
  ASTRA'NTIA.  (From aarpov, astrum, a star ; so
called from the star-like shape of its flowers.)  The
name of a genus of plants in  the Linnaean system.
Class, Pentandria; Order, Dyginia.
                                        101 
A  H
ATM
   istrantia major.   Astrantia vulgaris.
  ■listrantia nigra.  The  herb sanicle master-wort
A rustic purge in the time of Gerard.
  A'strape.  (Fromarpa7r7<i), to corruscate.)  Light-
•ung.   Galen reckons it among the remote causes of
epilepsy.
  ASTRI'CTUS.  (From astnngo, to bind.)   When
ispplied to the belly,  it signifies costiyeness; thus,
alvus astricta.
  ASTRINGENT.  (Astringens; from astringo,to
'.•onstringe.)   Adstringent.  That which, when applied
to the body, renders the solids denser and firmer, by
contracting their fibres, independently of their living,
or muscular power. Astringents thus serve to dimi-
nish excessive discharges; and  by causing  greater
compression ofthe nervous fibrillae, may lessen morbid
sensibility or irritability.  Hence they may tend indi
.-ectly to restore the strength, when impaired  by these
causes.  The chief articles of this class are the acids,
ilium, lime-water, chalk, certain preparations  of cop-
per, zinc,  iron, and lead;  the gallic acid, which is
commonly found united with the true astringent prin-
ciple,  was long mistaken for  it.  Seguin first distin-
guished them, and, from the use of this principle in
tanning skins, has given it the name of tannin. Theif
characteristic differences are, the gallic acid  forms  a
black  precipitate  with  iron; the astringent principle
forms an insoluble compound with albumen.
  ASTRONO'MY. (Astronomia; from a$pov, a star,
and vopos, a law.)  The knowledge  of the heavenly
hodies.  Hippocrates ranks  this and astrology among
the necessary studies of a physician.
  ASTRUC,  John, a  learned physician,  born  in
France, 1684.  He studied and took his degrees al
Moutp lier, and became afterward  a professor there.
L'u 17-JJ, he was appointed physician  to the  king of
Poland, but soon returned to  his native country, was
made  consulting physician to the French  king, and
professor of  medicine  at Paris,  where  he attained
'/real celebrity.  He was author of numerous  medical
and philosophical works, but especially one " on Ve-
nereal Diseases," which deservedly became extremely
popular, and was translated into various modern lan-
guages.  He lived to the advanced age of 82.
  ATA'XIA.  (From  a, neg. and raaaio,  to order.)
Want of regularity in the  symptoms of a disease, or
01 the functions of an animal body.
  ATE'CNTA.   (From a, neg. and tiktw, to bring
forth.)  Venereal  impotency: inability to procreate
children.
  ATHAMANTA. (Athamanta, a. foem ;  so named
Jrom Athomas in Thessaly.)   The name of a genus
of plants in the Linnaean system.  Class, Pcntandria;
Order, Digynia.
  Athamanta cretensis.  The systematic name for
the daucus creticus of the pharmacopoeias.  Myrrhus
annua.  Candy carrot.  The  seeds  of this plant,
Athamanta—foliolis linearibus planis,hirsutis ; pcta-
l'i bipartitis; seminibus oblongis  hirsutis,  of Lin-
naeus,  are brought from the isle of Candy: lb ■ey have
an  aromatic  smell, and a  slightly-biting taste;  and
are occasionally   employed   as  carminatives,  and
diuretics in  diseases of the prims  viae and  urinary
passages.
  Athamanta oreoselinum.  1 he systematic name
"or the officinal oreoselinum. Black mountain  parsley.
The root and seed  of this plant, Athamanta--foliolis
dicaricatis of Ljnnaeus, as  well as the whole herb,
were  formerly used medicinally   Though formerly
in so high  estimation as to obtain the epithet of poly-
chresta, this plant is seldom  used in the practice of
:he present day.  An  extract and tincture prepared
from  the  root were said to be attendant, aperient,
ileobslrucnt, and lithontriptic.  The oil obtained by
distillation from the seed was esteemed to allay  the
toothache; and the whole was recommended as an
antiscorbutic and corroborant.
  ATHAMANTICUM.  See JEthusa meum,
  ATHANA'SIA.   (From  a, priv.  and Savaras,
death; so called  because its flowers do not  wither
easily.) 1. The immortal plant.  A  name given to
'.ansy; because when stuffed  up the nose of a deud
:orpse, it is said to prevent putrefaction.  See Tana-
mum vulgare.
  2. It means also immortality.
  3. The name of  an antidote of Galen, and  another
of Oribasius
      102
  4. It is the name also of a collyrium  described by
Afitius, and of many other compositions.
  A i-hara.  (From adrip, corn.)  A panada, or pap
for children, made of bruised corn.
  ATHEROMA.  (Atheroma, atis, n. AOtjpopa, pulse
pap.)  An encysted tumour that contains a soft sub-
stance of the consistence of a poultice.
  ATHRIX.  (AApiJ, debilis, weak.)
  1. Weakness.
  2. (From a, priv. and Qptl, a pair.)  Baldness.
  ATHY'MIA.   (From a, neg. aud dvpos, courage;
  1. Pusillanimity.
  2. Despondency or melancholy.
  ATLAS.  (Atlas, antis, m.; from ArXaio, to sus-
tain, because it sustains the  head ;  or from the fable
of  Atlas,  who was  supposed to support  the world
upon his shoulders.)  The name of  the first vertebra
This vertebra differs very much from the others.  Ser
Vertebra.   It has no  spinous process which would
prevent the neck from  being bent backwards, but in
its place it has a small eminence. The great foramei<
of this is much larger than that of any other vertebra
Its body, which is small  and thin, is,  nevertheless, firm
and hard.  It  is  somewhat  like a ring, and is distin-
guished into its great arch, which serves in the place
of its body, and its small posterior arch.  The atlas is
joined superiorly  to the  head Dy ginglymus ; and infe-
riorly, to the second cervical vertebra,  by means  of
the inferior oblique processes, and the odontoid process
by trochoides.
  ATMOMETER.  The name of  an instrument to
measure the quantity of exhalation from  a humid sur
face in a given time.
  ATMOSPHERE.  (Atmosphera, a. f.; from arpos,
vapour, and aqjatpa, a globe.)  The elastic  invisible
fluid which surrounds the earth to an unknown height,
and encloses it on all sides.  Neither the properties
nor the composition of the atmosphere, seem to have
occupied much the attention of the ancients.  Aris-
totle considered it as one ofthe four elements, situated
between the regions of water and fire, and mingled
with two exhalations, the dry and tlie moist; the first
of  which occasioned thunder, lightning, and wind
while the second produced rain, snow, and hail.
  The opinions of the ancients were vague conjectures,
until the  matter  was explained by the sagacity  ot
Hales, and of those philosophers who  followed  his
career.
  Boyle proved beyond a doubt, that the atmosphere
contained two distinct substances:—
  1. An elastic fluid distinguished by the name of air.
  2. Water in  a state of vapour.
  Besides these two bodies, it was supposed that  the
atmosphere contained a great variety of other sub-
stances which  were continually mixing with  it  fror.
the earth, and which often altered its  properties, ant
rendered it noxious or fatal.  Since the discovery ol
carbonic acid gas by Dr. Black, it has heen ascertained
that this elastic fluid always constitutes a part of the
atmosphere.
  The constituent parts of the atmosphere, therefore,
are:—
  1. Air.  2. Water.  3. Carbonic acid  gas.  4. Un-
known bodies.
  1. For the properties,  composition, and account  of
the first, see Air.
  2. Water.—That th«  atmosphere contains water,
has been always  known.  The  rain and dew which
so often  precipitate from it, the clouds and fogs with
wliich it is often obscured, and which  deposite moisture
on all bodies exposed to them, have  demonstrated  its
existence in every age.  Even when the aunosphere
is perfectly transparent, water may be extracted from
it in abundance by certain  substances.  Thus, if con-
centrated sulphuric acid be exposed to air, it gradually
attracts so much moisture, that its weight is increased
more than tliree  times: it is converted into diluted
acid, from which tlie water may he separated by dis-
tillation.  Substances wliich have tlie property of ab-
stracting water from the atmosphere, have receh e<t
the epithet  of hygroscopic, because they  point out tlie
presence of that  water.  Sulphuric acid,  the fixed
alkalies, muriate of lime, nitrate of lime, and, in gene-
ral, all deliquescent salts, pojsoss this property.  The
greater number of animal and vegetable bodies like-
wise possess it.  Many of tliemtakew atei from moist air,
but give it out again to the air wlien dry.  These bodies 
ATM
augment in bulk when tney receive ^'""'J^
diminish again when they part with  it.  Hence some
of them have been employed as ^orn-^yr ''*■-»
bums ofthe quantity of moisture contained »»  "« ™
around them.  This they do by means ot *« > ""^
or diminution of their length, occasioned b, theaaoi
tion or abstraction of moisture.  This change of length
is precisely marked by means of an index,   rhejmost
ingenious and accurate hygrometers are thoset ot i«us
sure and Deluc.  In the first, the substance employed
to mark the moisture is a  human hair, which oy us ]
contractions and dilatations is made to turn round^aii
index.  In the  second, instead  of a hair, a very tint ]
thin slip of whalebone is employed.  The scale  is
divided into 100°.  The beginning of the scale indi-
cates extreme dryness, the end of it indicates extreme
moisture.  It is graduated by placing it  tmninair
made as dry as possible by means of salts, and atter-
ward in air saturated with moisiure.  This gives tnc
extremes of the scale, and the interval  between them
is divided into 100 equal parts.
   The water, which constitutes a component part ot
the atmosphere, appears to be in the  state ot  vapour,
and chemically combined with air in the same manner
as one gas is combined with another.  As the quantity
of the water contained in  the atmosphere varies con-
siderably, it is impossible to ascertain its amount with
 any degree of accuracy.
   I  Carbonic  acid  gas.-Tl* existence of carbonic
 gas as a constituent part  of the atmosphere, was ob-
 served by Dr. Black immediately after he had ascer-
 tained the nature of that peculiar fluid. It we expose
 a pure alkali or alkaline earth to the atmosphere, t ts
 gradually converted into a carbonate by the absorption
 of carbonic acid gas.  This fact  which had been Iqng
  known, rendered the inference that carbonic  acid gas |
  existed in the atmosphere unavoidable, as soon as the
  difference between a pure alkali and its carbonate had
  been ascertained to depend upon that acid.  Not only
  alkalies and alkaline earths absorb carbonic acid when
  exposed to the air, but several of the metallic oxydes

  Carbonic acid gas not only forms a constituent part
  ofthe atmosphere near  the surface of the earth, bu
  at the neatest heights which the industry of man has
  been able Impenetrate.  Saussure  found it at the top
  of Mount Blanc, the highest point of the old continent;
  a point covered with eternal snow, and  not exposed
  to the influence of vegetables or animals.  Lime-water,
  oUlutea with its own weight of distilled water, formed
  a Dellicle on its surface after an hour and three-quarters
  exposure to the open air on that mountain; and slips
  of paper moistened with pure  potash, acquired the
  property of effervescing with acids after being exposed
  an hour and a half in the same place  This was at a
  height no less than 15,668 feet above  the level of  he
  sea   Humboldt has more lately ascertained the exist-
  ence of this gas in air, brought  by Mr. Garnerm trom
  a height not  less than 4280 feet above the surface of
  the earth, to which height he had  risen in an air-bal-
  loon   This fact is a sufficient proof that the presence
  of carbonic acid in air does not depend upon the vici-

   mNo°w!haesecaarrbonic acid gas is considerably heavier
   than air, it could not rise to great heights in the atmo-
   sphere unless it entered into combination with he air.
   We are warranted, therefore, to conclude, that car-
   bonic acid  is  not merely  mechanically mixea, but that
   U is chemically combined with  the other constituent
   parts of the atmosphere.  It is to the affinity which
   exists between carbonic acid and air that we are to
   ascribe  the  rapidity with which it disperses itself
   through the  atmosphere,  notwithstanding  its great
   specific gravity.  Fontana mixed 20,000 cubic inches
   of carbonic acid gas with the air of a close room, and
   vet half an hour after he could not discover the traces
   of carbonic acid in that air.  Water impregnated with
   carbonic acid, when exposed to the air, very soon loses
   the whole of the combined gas. And when a phial
    full of carbonic acid gas  is left uncorked, the gas, as
    Bereman  first ascertained, very soon disappears, and
    the phial is found filled with common air.
     The difficulty of separating this gas from air, has
    hitherto prevented the possibility of determining with
    accuracy the relative quantity of it in a given bulk of
    "ir- but from the experiments which have been made
    wemar conclude with some degree, of confidence, that
                     ATM

it is not very different from 0.01.  From the experi
ments of Humboldt, it appears to vary from O.OUj »
0.01.  This variation will by no means appear impro-
bable, if we consider that immense quantities ol car-
bonic acid gas must be constantly mixing  wilh tnc
atmosphere, as it is formed  by the respiration ot ani-
mals, by combustion,  and several other  processes
whicli are going on continually. The quantity, indeed,
wliich is daily formed by these processes is so great,
that at first sight it appears astonishing that it does not
increase rapidly.   The consequence of such an increase
i would be fatal, as air containing 0.1 of carbonic acid
extinguishes light, and  is destructive to animals.  But
 there is reason to conclude, thai this gas is decomposed
 by vegetables as rapidly as it forms.
I   4.  Bodies found m the atmosphere.—From what I.as
 been advanced, it appears that the atmosphere con-
i sists chielly  of  three  distinct elastic  fluids  united
! together by chemical affinity;  namely, air, vapour mid
i carbonic acid gas; differing  in  their  proportions at
 different times und in different places;  the average
  proportion of each is,
  K                1)8.6 air
                    1.0 carbonic acid
                    0.4 water
                 100.0

But besides these bodies, which may be considered as
the constituent parts of the atmosphere, tne existence
of several other bodies has been suspected m it.  It is not
meant in this place to include among those  bodies
electric matt r, or the substance ot clouds and togs,
aud  those other  bodies which are considered  as the
active agents in the phenomena of meteorology, but
merely those  foreign  bodies which have been occa-
sionally found or suspected in  air.  Concerning these
bodies, however, very little satisfactory is known  at
present, as we are not in the possession of instruments
sufficiently delicate to ascertain their presence.  U •:
can indeed detect several of them actually mixing with
air, but what becomes  of them  afterward we are
 unable to say.                          ....
   1 Hydrogen gas is said to  have been  tound in air
 situated near the  crater of volcanoes,  and it  is very
 possible that it may exist always in a very small propor-
 tion in the atmosphere, but this cannot be ascertained
 till some method of detecting the presence of hydrogen
 combined with a great proportion of air be discovered.
   2. Carburetled  hydrogen gas is often  emitted  by
 marshes in considerable quantities during hot weather.
 But its presence has never been  detected in  air; so
 that in all probability it ic again decomposed by some
 unknown process.                               .
   3  Oxygen eas is emitted abundantly by plants during
 the day. There is some reason to conclude that this is
 in consequence of the property which plants  have ot
 absorbing and decomposing carbonic acid gas.  Now
 as this carbonic acid gas is formed at the expense ol
 the oxygen of the atmosphere, as mis oxygen is again
 restored to the air by the decomposition of the acid,
 and as the nature of atmospheric air remains unaltered,
 it is clear that there  must be an equilibrium between
 these two processes; thai is  to say,  all the carbonic
 acid formed by combustion must bo again decomposed,
 and all the oxygen abstracted must be again restored.
 The oxygen gas which is thus continually returning to
 the air, by combining with it, makes its component
 oarts always to continue in the same ratio.
 P 4 The smoke and other bodies which are com.nually
 carried into the air  by evaporation &c are probacy
 soon deposited again, and cannot t^re °ie  te cm
  sidcred with propriety as forming  part of the atmo

  EP!!C There is another set of bodies,, which are occ*


  body, have attracted a great  deal ot attention,  l nest



  different places as I^S^tesSllw
  human body, has been  consmt           ^ ^

  point in all ages.  »f,n« Avoided as pernicious,to
 ; brated as "e^^m   It is well known that in pit*
 ■ the human ^^°^in such a state as lo suffo
  c^^stSnmneously those who  attempt t, 
a TO
ATO
 breathe it.  Some places tire frequented by peculiar
 diseases.  It is known that those who are much in the
 apartments of persons ill of certain  maladies, arc
 extremely apt  to catch the infection; and in prisons
 and other places, where crowds of people are confined
 together, when diseases once commence they are wont
 to make dreadful havoc.  In all these  cases, it has
 been supposed that  a certain  noxious matter is dis-
 solved by the  air, and that it is the action of this
 matter which produces the mischief.
  This  noxious matter is, in many cases, readily dis-
 tinguished by the peculiarly disagreeable smell which
 it communicates to  the  air.  No doubt this matter
 differs according  to  the diseases  which it communi-
 cates, and the  substance from which it has originated.
 Morveau lately attempted to ascertain its nature; but
 he soon found  the chemical tests hitherto discovered
 altogether insufficient for that purpose.  He has put it
 beyond  a doubt, however, that this contagious matter
 is of a compound nature,  and that it is destroyed alto-
 gether by certain  agents.   He exposed infected air to
 the action of various bodies, and he judged of the re-
 sult by the effect which these bodies had in destroying
 the foetid smeU of the air.  The following is the result
 of his experiment:
  1.  Odorous bodies, such as benzoin, aromatic plants,
 Sec. have  no effect  whatever.  2. Neither have the
 solutions of myrrh, benzoin, Sec.  in alkohol,  though
 agitated in  infected  air.  3.  Pyroligneous  acid  is
 equally inert  4.  Gunpowder, when fired in infected
 air, displaces a  portion of it; but  what remains, still
 retains ils  foetid  odour.   5. Sulphuric  acid has no
 effect; sulphurous acid weakens  the odour, but does
 not destroy it.   Distilled vinegar diminishes the odour,
 l.ut its action is slow and incomplete.   7. Strong acetic
 acid  acts instantly, and destroys the foetid odour of in-
 fected air  completely.  8.  The fumes of nitric  acid,
 first employed by  Dr. Carmichael  Smith, are equally
 efficacious.  9.  Muriatic acid gas, first pointed out as
 a proper agent by Morveau himself, is equally  inef-
fectual.  10. But the  most powerful agent  is oxymu-
riatie acid gas, first proposed by Mr. Cruickshanks, and
now  employed with the greatest success in the British
navy and military hospitals.
  Thus  there are four substances  which have the
property of destroying contagious  matter, and of  puri-
 fying the air; but acetic acid cannot easily be obtained
 in sufficient quantity, and in a state of sufficient con-
 centration to be employed with advantage.  Nitric acid
 is attended with inconvenience, because it is almost
 always contaminated  with nitrous  gas.  Muriatic acid
and  oxymuriatie  acid are not attended with these
inconveniences; the last deserves the preference, be-
cause it acts with greater energy and rapidity.  All
 that  is necessary is to mix together  two parts of salt
 with one part of  the black  oxyde of manganese, to
 place the mixture in  an open  vessel in  the  infected
chamber, and to pour upon it two parts of sulphuric
acid.  The fumes of oxymuriatie acid are immediately
exhaled, fill the  chamber, and destroy the contagion.
  Ato'chia.  (From  a, neg. and 7-0x05, offspring;  from
tiktw, to bring forth.)   1. Inability to bring forth chil-
dren.  2. Difficult labour.
  ATOMIC  THEORY.   In the  chemical combina-
tion of bodies with each other, it is observed that some
unite in all proportions; others iu all proportions as far
as a certain point,  beyond which  combination no
longer takes place; there  are also many  examples, in
which bodies unite in one proportion only, and others
 in several proportions; and these proportions are defi-
nite,  and in the intermediate  ones  no  combination
ensues.  And it is remarkable, that when  one body
enters into combination with another, in several dif-
 ferent proportions, the numbers indicating the greater
 proportions are exact  simple multiples of that denoting
 the smallest proportion. In other words, if the smallest
 portion in which  B combines with A, be denoted by
 10 A may combine with twice 10 of  B, or with three
 tirr»:s 10, and so on; but with no  intermediate quan-
 tities.  Examples  of  this kind have  of late so much
 increased in  number,  that the law  of simple multiples
 bids fair to become universal with respect at least to
chemical compounds, the  proportions of which  are
 definite.  Mr. Dalton  has founded what may be termed
 the  atomic theory of the  chemical constitution of
 bodies.  Till this theory  was proposed, we  had no
 adequate explanation of the uniformity of the propor-1
      104
 tions of chemical compounds;  or ot the nature of the
 cause which renders combination in other proportions
 impossible.  The following is a brief illustration ofthe
 theory :   Though we appear, when we effect the che-
 mical union of bodies, to operate on masses, yet it is
 consistent with the most rational view of the consti-
 tution of bodies, to believe, that it is only between their
 ultimate particles, or atoms, that combination takes
 place.  By the term atoms, it has been already stated
 we  are  to understand the smallest  parts  of  which
 bodies are composed.  An atom, therefore,  must be
 mechanically indivisible, and of course a fraction of an
 atom cannot exist, and  is a contradiction in  terms
 Whether the atoms of different bodies be of the same
 size, or of different sizes, we have no sufficient  evi-
 dence.  The probability is, that the atoms of different
 bodies arc of unequal sizes; but it cannot  be  deter-
 mined whether their sizes bear  any regular proportion
 to their relative weights.   We are equally ignorant of
 their shape;  but it is probable, though not essential to
 the  theory, that they are spherical.  This, however,
 requires a little qualification.  The atoms of all bodies,
 probably consist of a solid corpuscle, forming a n ucleus,
 and of an atmosphere of heat, by which that corpuscle
 is surrounded, for absolute contact is never supposed to
 lake place  between the atoms of bodies.  The figure ol
 a single atom may therefore be supposed to be sphe
 rical.  But in compound  atoms, consisting of a  single
 central atom surrounded by other atoms of a different
 kind, it is  obvious that the figure (contemplating the
 solid corpuscles only) cannot be spherical;  yet  rf we
 include the atmosphere of heat, the figure of a com-
 pound atom may be spherical, or some shape approach-
 ing to a sphere.  Taking for granted that combination
 takes place between  the  atoms of bodies  only,  Mr.
 Dalton has deduced from the relative weights in which
 bodies unite, the relative weights of their ultimate par-
 ticles or  atoms.  When only  one combination of any
 two elementary bodies exists, he assumes, unless the
 contrary can  be proved, that its elements are united
 atom to atom; 6ingle combinations of this sort lie calls
 binary.  But if several compounds can  be  obtained
 from the same elements, they combine, he supposes, in
 proportions expressed  by some simple multiple of the
 number of atoms.  The following table ex Dibits a vie w
 of tiiese combinations:

 1 Atom of A-f-1 atom of B=l atom of C, binary.
 1 Atom of A-f2 atoms of B=l atom of D, ternary.
 2 Atoms of A+l atom of B—1 atom of E, ternary.
 1 Atom of A+3 atoms of B=l atom of F, quaternary
 3 Atoms of A+l atom of B=l atom of G, quaternary.

  A different classification of atoms has been proposed
 by Berzelius,viz. into 1.  Elementary uoms.   2.  Com-
 pound atoms.  The compound atoms he divides  again
 into three different species; namely; 1st, Atoms formed
 of only two elementary substances, united or compound
 atoms of the first order.   2dly, Atoms composed of
 more than  two elementary substances, and these, as
 they  are only  found in  organic  bodies, or bodies
 obtained by the destruction of organic matter, he calls
 organic atoms.   3dly, Atoms  formed by the union ot
 two or more  compound atoms; as, for example,  the
 salts. These he calls compound atoms of the second
 order.  If elementary atoms of different kinds  were of
 the same size, the greatest number of atoms of it that
 could be combined with an atomot B would be 12- for
 this  is the greatest number of spherical bodies that'eau
 be arranged in contact  with a sphere of the  same
 diameter.  But this equality of size, though adopted by
 Berzehus, is not necessary to the  hypothesis of  Mr
 Dalton, and is, indeed, supposed by him not to exist
  As an illustration of the mode in whicli the weight
 of the atoms of bodies is determined, let us  suppSse
 that any two elementary substances, A and B, form a
 binary compound, and that they have been proved ex
 peuiuentally to unite in the proportion Ivy weight, of
 five  to the former,  to  four of  the latter, then  since
 (according  to the hypothesis) they  unite particle to
 particle, tliose numbers will express the relative weight
ot their atoms.  But besides combining atom  to atom
singly, 1 atom of A may combine with 2 of B, or with
 J, 4, &c. or one atom of B may combine with 2 of A,
or with J, 4, &c.  When such a series of compounds
exists, the relative proportion  of their elements ought
 necessarily  on analysis to be  proved to be 5 of A to 4 
ATO
ATO
 of B, or 5 to (4 •(-4= J 8 or 5 to (4+4+4=) 12, tec, or
 contrariwise, 4 of B to 5 of A, or 4 to (5+5=) 10 or 4 to
 £+5+5=) 15.  Between these there ought  to be no
 .ntermediate compounds, and the existence of any such
 (as 5 of A to 6 of B, or  4 of B to 7£ of A) would,  if
 clearly established,  militate  against the hypothesis.
 To verify these numbers, it may be proper to  examine
 the combinations of A and B with some third sub-
 stance, for example, with C.   Let  us suppose that A
 and C  form a  binary compound,  in which  analysis
 discovers 5 parts of A, and 3 of C.  Then if C  and
 B are also capable of forming a binary compound, tlie
 relative proportion of its elements ought to be 4 of B to
 3 of C, for these numbers denote the relative weights
 of  their atoms.   Now this is  precisely the method by
 which Mr. Dalton has deduced the relative weights of
 oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen, the first two from the
 known composition  of water, and the last two from
 the proportion of the elements of ammonia.   Extend-
 ing the  comparison to a variety of other bodies, he has
 obtained a scale ofthe relative weights of their atoms.
 In several instances additional evidence is acquired of
 the accuracy of the weight assigned to an element, by
 our obtaining the same number from an investigation
 el* several of its compounds.  For example,
  1. In water, the hydrogen is to the oxygen as 1 to 8.
  2. In olefiantgas, the hydrogen  is lo the carbon as
 I to 8.
  3. In carbonic acid, the oxygen is to the carbon as
 8 to 6.
  Whether,  therefore, we determine the weight of tlie
 atom of carbon from the proportion in which it com-
 bines with hydrogen, or with oxygen, we arive at the
 same number 6, an agreement  which, as it occurs in
 various other instances, can scarcely be an accidental
 coincidence.  In similar  manner,  8 is  deducible, as
 representing the atom of oxygen, both from the combi-
 nation  of that base with  hydrogen, and with carbon,
 and 1 is referred to be the relative weight of the atom
 of  hydrogen, from  the two principal compounds into
 whicli it enters.  In selecting the  body which should
 be  assumed as unity, Mr. Dalton has been induced lo
 fix on hydrogen, because it is that body which unites
 with others in ihe smallest proportion.  Thus in water,
 we have 1 of hydrogen, by weight, to 8 of oxygen ; in
 ammonia, 1 ol" hydrogen to 14 of nitrogen; in carbu-
 retted hydrogen, 1 of hydrogen to 6 of carbon; and in
 sulphuretted hydrogen, I of hydrogen to 16 of  sulphur.
 Taking for  granted that  all these  bodies are binary
 compounds, we  have the following scale of numbers
 expressive of the relative weights of tlie atoms of their
 elements:
      Hydrogen.............................  1
      Oxygen...............................  8
      Nitrogen............................14
      Carbon..............................  6
      Sulphur..............................16
  Drs.  Wollaston and Thomas, and Professor Berze-
 hus, on the other hand, have assumed oxygen as  the
 decimal unit, (the first making  it 10, the second 1, and
 the third 100,) chiefly with a view to facilitate the esti-
 mation of its numerous compounds with other bodies.
 This perhaps is to be  regretted,  even though  the
 change may  be in some respects eligible, because it is
 extremely desirable that chemical writers should em-
 ploy a  universal  standard  of comparison  for  the
 weights of the atoms of bodies. It is easy, however,
 to reduce the number to Mr. Dalton's by the  rule of
 proportion.  Thus, as 8, Mr. Dalton's number for oxy-
 gen, corrected by the latest experiments, is to 1, his
 uumber for hydrogen, so is 10, Dr. Wallaston's number
 for oxygen, 1.25 the number for hydrogen.  Sir H. Davy
 has assumed with Mr. Dalton, the atom of hydro-
 gen as unity ; but that philosopher and Berzelius also
 have modified the  theory, by taking for granted that
 water is a compound of one proportion (atom) of oxy-
 gen and two proportions (atoms) of hydrogen.  This
 is founded on the fact that two measures of hydrogen
 gas and one of oxygen gas are necessary to form water;
 and on the supposition that equal  measures of differ-
 ent gases contain equal numbers of atoms.  And as in
 water the hydrogen is to the oxygen by weight as 1 to
 3, two atoms or volumes of hydrogen must, on this hy-
 pothesis, weigh 1, and 1 atom or volume of hydrogen
8;  or if we denote a single atom of hydrogen by 1,  we
must express an atom  of oxygen by 16.  It is objec-
tionable, however,  to this modification of the atomic
 theory, that it contradicts a fundamental  propcwtloii
 of Mr. Dalton, the consistency of which with mecha-
 nical principles he has fully shown; namely, that that
 compound of any two elements which is with most
 difficulty decomposed, must  be  presumed, unless  the
 contrary can be proved, to be a binary one.  It is easy
 to determine, in the manner already explained, the re-
 lative weights of the atoms of two elementary bodies
 which unite only in one proportion; but when  one
 body unites in different proportions wjth another, it is
 necessary in order to ascertain the weight of its atom,
 lhat we should know the smallest proportion in which
 the former combines with the latter.  Thus if we have
 a body A, 100 parts of which by weight combine with
 not less than 32 of oxygen, the relative weight of its
 atom will be to that of oxygen as 100 to 32;  or reducing
 these numbers to their lowest terms, as 25 to 8;  and
 the number25 will therefore express the relative weight
 of the atom of A.  But if, in the progress of science,
 it should be found that .100 parts of A are capable of
 uniting with 16 parts of oxygen, then the  relative
 weight of the atom of A must be doubled; for as  100
 is to 16, so is 50 to 8.  This example will  serve to ex-
 plain the  changes that have been sometimes made in
 assigning the weights of the atoms of certain bodies,
 changes wliich it must be observed  always consist
 either in a multiplication or division of the original
 weight by some simple number.  There are, it must be
 ackiiowledged, a few cases  in which  one body coin
 bines with another in different  proportions; and yei
 the greater proportions are not multiples of the less by
 any entire number.  For example, we have  two  ox-
 ydes of iron, the first of which consists of 100 iron  and
 about 30 oxygen ;  the second of  100 iron and about 45
 oxygen.  But the  numbers 30 and 45 are to each other
 as I to U.  It will, however, render  these numbers ]
 and It consistent with the law of simple multiples; if
 we multiply each  of them by 2, it will change them to
 2 and 3;  and if we suppose that there is an oxyde of
 iron, though it has not yet been  obtained experiment
 ally,  consisting of 100 iron  and 15  oxygen; for the
 multiplication of this last number by 2 and 3 will then
 give  us the known oxydes  of  iron.   In  some cases
 where we have the apparent anomaly of one atom of
 one substance united with li of another, it has been
 proposed by Dr. Thomson to remove  the difficulty by
 multiplying both numbers by 2, and  by assuming  that
 in such compounds we have two  atoms of the  one
 combined with 3 atoms of the other.  Such combina-
 tions, it is true, are exceptions  to a  law deduced by
 Berzelius, that in all inorganic compounds one of the
 constituents is in the state of a single atom;  hut they
 are in no  respect  inconsistent with the views of  Mr
 Dalton, and are indeed expressly admitted by him tn
 be compatible with this  hypothesis, as well  as con-
 firmed by experience.  Thus,  it will appear in  the
 sequel, that some of the  compounds  of oxygen wilh
 nitrogen are constituted  in this  way.  Several objec-
 tions have  been proposed  to the theory of Mr. Dalton;
 of these it is only necessary to notice the moat impor-
 tant.  It has been  contended that we have no evidence
 when one  combination only of two  elements exists,
 that it must be a binary one, and that we might equally
 well suppose it to be a compound of 2 atoms of the
 one body with  one atom of the other.  In answer to
 this objection, we may urge the probability, that when
two elementary bodies A and B unite, the  most ener-
getic combination will be that in  which one atom of A
is combined with  one  atom  of  B ;  for an additional
atom of B will introduce a new force, diminishing the
 attraction  of these elements for each  other, namely,
the mutual repulsion of the atoms of B; and this re-
 pulsion will be greater in proportion as we increase
 the number of the  atoms of B.  2dly, It has been said,
that when more than one  compound  of two elements
exists, we have no proof which of them is the binary
compound, and which the ternary. For example, thai
we might suppose  carbonic acid  to be a compound ol
an atom of charcoal, and an atom of oxygen;  and car-
bonic oxyde of an  atom of oxygen, with two atoms of
charcoal.  To this objection, however, it is a satisfac-
tory answer that such a constitution of carbonic acid
and carbonic oxyde would be directly conttadictory of
a  law of  chemical  combination ; namely, that it is
attended, in most  cases, with an increase of specific
gravity.  It would  be nbsurd, therefore-  to suppose
carbonic acid, which is the heavier body, to he only
                                       105 
ATR
ATR
 once compounded, and carbonic oxyde, which is  the
 'ighter. to be twice compounded.  Moreover, it is uni-
 versally observed, that  of chemical  compounds,  the
 most simple are the most difficult to be  decomposed;
 and this being the case with carbonic oxyde, we may
 naturally suppose it to be more  simple than  carbonic
 acid.  3dly, it has been remarked, that instead of sup-
 posing water to consist of  an  atom of oxygen united
 with an atom of hydrogen, and  that the atom of  the
former is 7£ times heavier than  that of the latter,  we
might with equal probability conclude, that  in water
we  have 7£ times more atoms in number of oxy-
gen  than of hydrogen.  But this, if admitted, would
involve the absurdity that  in a  mixture of hydrogen
and oxygen gases so contrived that the ultimate atoms
of each should be equal in number, 7 atoms of oxygen
would desert all the proximate atoms ot hydrogen in
order to unite with one at a distance, for which they
must have naturally a less affinity.
  ATONIC.  Atonicus.   Having a diminution of
strength.
  A'TONY.  -(Atonia,   from  a,  neg. and reivw,
to extend.)  Weakness,  or  a  defect  of  muscular
power.
  ATRABI'LIS.  (Atrabilis, from  alra, black, and
bilts, bile.)   1. Black bile.
  2.  Melancholy.
  Atrabiliar* capsul*.  (From atra, black, and
bilis.)  See Renal glands.
  ATRACHE LUS.  (From o,  priv. and TpaxiX°St
the neck.)  Short-necked.
  Atraoe'ne.  See Clematis vitalba.
  Atra'sia.  (From a, neg. and nrpato,  to perforate.)
At.esia. 1. Imperforate.
  2.  A disease where the natural openings, as the anus
or vagina, have not their usual orifice.
  Atreta'rum.   (From a, neg. and rpaui, to perfo-
rate.)  A suppression of urine from the menses being
retained in  the vagina.
  A'TRICES.   (From a, priv. and $pil, hair.) Small
tubercles about  the anus  upon  which hairs will not
grow.—Vaselius.
  A'trici.  Small sinuses in  the  rectum, which
do not  reach  so  far  up  as to  perforate  into  its
cavity.
  A TRIPLEX.   (Atriplex, ids. f.; said to be named
from its dark  colour, whence  it was called Atrum
olus.)  The name of a genus of plants in the Linnaean
system.   Class, Polygamia; Order, Monacia.
  Atriplex fietida.  See Chiiuipodium vuloaria.
  Atriplex hortensis.  Bee Atriplex saliva.
  Atriplex sativa.  The systematic  name for the
atriplex hortensis of  the  pharmacopoeias.   Orache,
the herb and seed of this plant, Atriplex—caule erecto
herbacco, foliis triangularibus, of Linnxus, have been
exhibited medicinally as antiscorbutics, but the prac-
tice of the present day appears to have totally rejected
them.                    „ „             .,
  ATROPA.  (Atropa, a. f., from  Arpowoj, the  god-
dess of destiny:  so called from its fatal effects.)  The
name of a genus of  plants in  the Linnaean system.
Class, Pentandria; Order, Monogynia.
  Atropa  belladonna.   The  systematic name  for
the belladonna of the pharmacopoeias.  Solanum melo-
nocerasus; Solanum lethale.  Deadly nightshade or
dwale.  Atropa—caule herbaceo; foliis  ovatis intc-
gris of Linnaeus.  This plant has been  long known
as a strong  poison of the narcotic kind, and the berries
have furnished  many instances of their  fatal  effects,
particularly upon children that have been tempted to
eat them.  The  activity of this plant depends on a
principle sui gcnoris called Atropia.  (See Atropia )
The leaves were first used internally, to  discuss  scir-
 rhous  and cancerous tumours;  and from the good
effects attending their use, physicians were  induced to
 employ them internally, for the  same disorders; and
 there are a considerable number of well-authenticated
 facts, whicli prove them a very serviceable  and im-
 portant remedy.  The dose, ut first, should be small;
 and gradually and cautiously increased.  Five grains
 are  considered a powerful dose, and apt to promote
 oimness of sight, vertigo. Sec.
   Atropa mandragora.   The  systematic name  for
 the plant which  affords the radii mandragora of  the
 pharmacopeias.  Mandrake.  The boiled root Is em-
 ployed in the form of poultice, to discuss indolent  tu-
 mours.
      l()il
  ATROPHIA.   (Atrophia, a f.; from a, neg. and
-ptiptii, to nourish.)  Marasmus.   Atrophy. Nervous
consumption.  This disease is marked  by a gradual
wasting of the body, unaccompanied either by a diffi-
culty of breathing, cough, or *ny evident fever, but
usually attended with a loss of appetite and impaired
digestion.   It is arranged by Cullen  in the class Ca-
chexia, and order Marcores. There are four species :—
  1. When it takes place from too copious evacuations,
it is termed atrophia  inanitorum; and tabes  nutri-
cum;—sudatoria;—& sanguifluxu, Sec.
  il. When from famine, atrophia famelicorum.
  3. When from corrupted nutriment, atrophia  cata-
chymica.
  4. And when from an interruption  in  the digestive
organs, atrophia debilium.
  The atrophy of children is called paidatrophia.  The
causes which commonly give  rise to atrophy,  are a
poor diet,  unwholesome air, excess  in  venery, fiuor
albus, severe evacuations, continuing to give suck too
long, a free use of spirituous liquors, mental uneasi-
ness, and worms ; but it frequently comes on without
any evident cause.   Along with  the  loss of appetite
and impaired  digestion, there  is a  diminution  of
strength, the face is pale and bloated, the natural heat
of the  body is somewhat diminished, and the lower
extremities are  tedematous.  Atrophy,  arise  from
whatever  cause it may, is usually very difficult to
cure, and not unfrequently terminates in dropsy.
  A'TROPHY.  See Atrophia.
  ATROPIA.  A  poisonous vegetable principle, pro
bably alkaline, recently exti acted from  the Atropa
belladonna, or deadly  nightshade, by Brnndes. He
boiled two pounds of dried leaves of atropa belladonna
in a sufficient quantity of water, pressed the decoction
out, and boiled  the remaining leaves again in water
The decoctions were mixed, and  some sulphuric acid
was added, in order to throw down the albumen and
similar bodies; the solution is thus rendered thinner,
and passes more readily through  the  filter.  The de-
coction was  then  supersaturated with  potassa,  by
which  he obtained a  precipitate  that, when washed
with pure wa. c i and dried, weighed 89 grains.  It con-
sisted of smal. crystals, from which by solution in
acids, and precipitation  by alkalies, tlie new alkaline
substance,  atropia, was  obtained in a stale of purity.
  The external  appearance of atropia  varies consi-
derably, according  to the different methods by which
it is obtained.  When precipitated from the decoction
of the  herb by solution of potassa, it appears in the
form of very small short crystals, constituting a sandy
powder.  When thrown down by ammonia from an
aqueous solution of its salts, it appears in flakes like
wax, if the solution is much diluted; if concentrated,
it is gelatinous like precipitated  alumina: when ob-
tained  by the cooling of a hot solution in alkohol, it
crystallizes in long, acicular, transparent, brilliant crys-
tals, often  exceeding one inch in length, which are
sometimes feathery, at other limes star-like in appear
ance, and sometimes they are single crystals. Atropia,
however, is obtained in  such a crystalline state only
when rendered perfectly pure by repeated solution in
muriatic acid, and precipitation by ammonia.  When
pure, it has no taste.  Cold water has hardly any effect
upon dried atropia, but  It dissolves  a small quantity
when it is recently precipitated;  and boiling water
dissolves still more. Cold alkohol dissolves but  a mi-
nute portion of atropia ; but when boiling, it readily
dissolves it.  Ether and oil of turpentine, even when
boiling, have little effect on atropia.
  Sulphate of atropia crystallizes in rhomboidal tables
and prisms with square bases.  It is soluble in four or
five parts of cold water.  It seems to effloresce in the
air, when  freed  as much as possible from adhering
sulphuric acid, by pressure  between the folds of blot-
ting paper.  Its composition by Brandes seems to be,
      Atropia,..........................38.93
      Sulphuric acid,....................36.5'.;
      Water,  ..........................24.55

                                      100.00
  This ana'.ysi.i would make the  prime equivalent of
atropia so  low as  5.3,  oxygen being  1.   Muriate of
atropia appears  in beautiful white brilliant crystals,
which  are either cubes or square plates similar to the
muriate of daturia.  He makes the composition of this
salt to he' 
ATT                                            ATT
      Atropia,..........................39.19
      Muriatic acid.....................25.40
      Water,  ....:.....................35.41

                                       100.00
  This analysis was so conducted  as to be entitled to
little attention.  Nitric, acetic, and  oxalic acids dis-
solve atropia, and form acicular salts, all  soluble  in
water  and alkohol.   Mr. Brandes was obliged to dis-
continue  bis experiments  on the properties of this.
alkali.  The violent headaches, pains in the back, and
giddiness, with frequent nausea, which the vapour of
atropia occasioned white he was working on it, had
such a bad effect on his weak health, that he has en-
tirely abstained from any further experiments.
  He once tasted a small quantity of sulphate of atro-
pia.  The taste was not bitter, but merely saline; but
there soon followed violent headache, shaking in the
limbs, alternate sensations of heat and cold, oppression
of tlie chest, and difficulty in breathing, and diminished
circulation of the blood. Th e violence of these symp-
toms ceased in half an hour.  Even the vapour of tlie
different salts of atropia produces giddiness.  When
exposed for a long time to the vapours of a solution of
nitrate,  phosphate,  a.  sulphate of atropia, tlie pupil
of the  eye is dilated.  This  happened  frequently  to
him, and when be tasted tlie salt of atropia, it occurred
to such a degree, that it remained so for twelve hours,
and the different degrees of light had no influence.—
Schweiggcr's Journal, xxviii.  1.
  We may observe on the above, that it  is highly im-
probable that atropia should have a saturating power,
Intermediate between potassa and soda.
  ATTE'NUANT.  (Attcnuan; ; from attenuo,  to
make thin.)  An attenuant or diluent is that which
possesses the power of imparting to the blood a more
thin and more fluid consistence than it had, previous
to its exhibition; such are, water, whey, and all aque-
ous fluids.
  ATTOLLENS.  (Attollens;  from attollo, to lift
up.  Lifting up: a term applied  to some muscles, the
office of which is to lift up the parts they are affixed to.
  Attollens aurem.  A common muscle of the ear.
Attollens auricula ofvAlbinus and Douglas; Superior
auris of Winslow ; and Attollens auriculam of Cow-
per.  It arises thin, broad, and tendinous, from the
tendon  of the occipito-frontalis, from  which it  is
almost inseparable, where it covers the aponeurosis of
tlie temporal muscle:  and is  inserted into the upper
part of thie ear, opposite to the antihclex.  Its use is
to draw tlie ear upwards, and to make the parts into
which it is inserted, tense.
  Attollens occcli.  One  of the muscles  which
pulls up the eye.—See Rut us superior occuli.
  ATTo'mTus  morbus.   (From attono, to surprise;
bo called because the person falls down suddenly.)
Attonitus stupor.  The apoplexy and epilepsy.
  ATTRACTION.   (Attractio; from   attraho, to
attract.)   Affinity.  The terms attraction, or affinity,
and repulsion, in the language of modern philosophers,
are-employed merely as the expression of the general
facts, that the masses or particles of mailer have a
tendency to approach and unite  to, or to recede from
one  another, under certain circumstances.  The term
attraction is used  synonymously with affinity.  Sec
Affinity.
  All bodies have a tendency or power to attract each
other more or less, and it is this power which is called
attraction.
  Attraction is mutual:  it extends  to indefinite dis-
tances.   All bodies whatever, as well as their compo-
nent  elementary particles, are endued with it.  It  is
not annihilated, at how great a distance soever, we
suppose them to be placed from each other; neither
does it disappear though they be  arranged ever so near
each other.
  The nature of this reciprocal attraction, or at least
the cause which produces it, is altogether unknown to
us.  Whether it be inherent in all matter, or whether
it be the consequence of some other  agent, are ques-
tions beyond the reach of human understanding; but
its existence is nevertheless certain.
  " The instances of attraction which are exhibited by
the phenomena around us, are exceedingly numerous,
and continually present themselves to our observation.
T*ie effect of gravity, which causes the weight of bo-
dies, is so universal, that we can  scarcely form an idea
now  the universe  could  subsist without it.  Othci
attractions, such as those of magnetism and electricity,
ure likewise- observable;  and every experiment  in
chemistry tends to show, that  bodies are compose d of
various principles or suhstunci s, which adhere to each
other with various degrees of force, and may hescpa
rated by known methods.  It is a question among phi
losophers, whether all the attractions whicli oluain be
tween bodies be referrlblc to one ueneral  can.* modi-
fied by circumstances, or whether various original and
distinct  causes act upon the particles of bodies it ons
and  the same lime.  The  philosophers, at the Degin
ning of  the present century, were disposed to consider
the several attractions as essentially different, because
the laws of their action differ from each other; but the
moderns appear disposed to generalize this subject, and
to consider all the attractions which exist between bo-
dies, or  at least those which are permanent, as de; end
ing upon one and tlie same cause, whatever it may be,
which regulates at once the motions of the immense
bodies that circulate through ihe celestial spaces, and
those minute particles that  are transferred  from one
combination to  another iu the operations of chemistry.
The earlier philosophers observed, for example, that
the attraction of gravitation acts  upon bodies with a
force wliich is inversely as the squares of the distances;
and from mathematical deduction they have inferred,
that the law of attraction between the particles them-
selves follows the same ratio; but when their observa-
tions were applied to bodies very near each other, oi
in contact, an adhesion took place, whicli is  found to
be much greater than could be  deduced from that law
applied  to the  centres of gravity.   Hence they con-
cluded,  that the cohesive attraction  is governed by a
much higher ratio, and  probably the cubes of the dis-
tances.   The moderns, on the  contrary, have remark-
ed, that these deductions are too general, because, for
the most part, drawn from the consideration of spheri-
cal bodies, which admit of no contact but such as is
indefinitely small, and exen,  the same powers on each
other, whichever side may be obverted. They remark,
likewise, that the consequence  depending on ihe sum
of the attractions in bodies  not spherical, and  at mi-
nute  distances  from each  other, will not follow  the
inverted ratio of the square ofthe distance taken from
any point assumed as the centre of giavity, admitting
the particles to be governed by that law ; but that it
will  greatly differ, according to the  sides of the solid
which are presented to each other,and their respective
distances; insomuch that  the  attractions of certain
particles indefinitely near  each other will  be indefi-
nitely increased, though the ratio of the powers acting
upon  the remoter particles may continue nearly the
samp
  That  the  parts ot bodies do attract each other, is
evident  from that adhesion which produces solidity,
and requires c certain force to overcome it.  For the
sake of  perspicuity, the various effects of attraction
have been considered as different  kinds of affinity or
powers.  That  power which physical writers call the
attraction of cohesion, is generally called the attraction
of aggregation by  chemists.   Aggregation is consi-
dered as the adhesion of parts of the same  kind.  Thus
a number of pieces of  brimstone, united by fusion,
form an aggregate, the parts of which may be sepa-
rated again by mechanical means   These parts have
been called  integrant parts; that is to  say, the mi-
nutest parts into which a body can  be divided, either
really or by th<! imagination, so as  not to change its
nature, are called integrant  parts   Thus, if sulphur
and an alkali be combined together,  and form liver of
sulphur, we may conceive the mass  to be divided and
subdivided to an extreme degree, until at length the
mass consists of merely a particle of brimstone and a
particle  of alkali. This then is an integrant part; and
if it be divided  further, the effect which chemists call
decomposition will take place; and tlie particles, con-
sisting no longer of liver of sulphur, but of sulphur
alone, and of alkali alone, will be what chemists call
component parts or principles.
  The union of bodies in  a gross way is called mix
ture.  Thus sand and  alkali may be mixed together.
But when the very minute parts of a body unite with
those of another so intimately as to form a body which
has properties different from those of either of them,
the union is called combination or composition.  Thus,
if sand  and an alkali  be exposed to a  strong  hr»v 
ATT
ATT
the minute  parts of the mixture combine and form j
glass.
  If two solid bodies, disposed to combine together, be
brought into contact with each other,  ihe particles
which touch will combine, and form a compound;
and if the temperature  at  which this new compound
assumes the fluid form be higher than the temperature
of the experiment, the  process will  go no farther, be-
cause this new compound, being interposed between
the two bodies,  will prevent their farther  access to
each other;  but  if, on the contrary, the freezing point
of the compound be lower than this temperature, lique-
faction  will ensue; and the  fluid  particles being at
liberty to arrange themselves according to the law of
their attractions, the process will go on, and the whole
mass  will gradually be converted  into a new  com-
pound, in the fluid state.   An instance of this may be
exhibited by mixing common salt  and  perfectly dry
pounded ice" together.  The crystals of the  salt  alone
will not liquefy unless very much heated; the crystals
of the water, that is to say, the ice, will not liquefy
unless heated as  high as thirty-two degrees of Fahren-
heit ;  and we have, of  course, supposed  the tempera-
ture of the experiment to be lower  than  this, because
mr water  is in the solid  state.  Now  it  is a well-
known  fact, that brine, or the saturated solution of
sea-salt in water, cannot be frozen  unless it be cooled
thirty-eight degrees  lower than the freezing point of
pure water.  It follows then, that if the temperature
ofthe experiment be higher than  this, the first combi-
nations of salt and ice will produce a fluid brine, and
the combination  will proceed until the temperature of
ihe mass has gradually sunk as  low as  the freezing
loint of brine; after which it would cease  if it were
lot that surrounding bodies continually tend to raise
'he temperature.  And accordingly it  is  found by ex-
periment, that if the ice and the salt be previously
cooled below the tempeiature of freezing  brine, the
combination and liquefacion will not take place.
  The instances in which  solid bodies thus combine
together not being  very  numerous, and the fluidity
which ensues immediately after the commencement of
this kind of experiment, have induced  several  che-
mists to consider fluidity in one or both of the bodies
ipplied to each other, to be a necessary circumstance,
in order that they may  produce chemical action upon
-each order.  Corpora non agunt nisi sintfiuida.
  If one of two  bodies applied to each other be fluid
at the temperature  of the  experiment, its  parts V'U
successively unite with the parts of the solid, which
will by that  means be suspended in  the fluid, and dis-
appear. Such a fluid is called a solvent or menstruum;
and the solid body is said to be dissolved.
  Some substances unite together in all proportions.
In this way the acids unite with water.  But there are
likewise many substances which cannot  be dissolved
in a fluid, at a settled temperature, in any quantity be-
yond a certain portion.  Thus, water will dissolve only
about one-third of its weight of common s&lt; and if
more salt be added, it will remain solid. A fluid w *:*ch
holds in solution as much of any substance as it can
dissolve, is said to be saturated with it.  But saturation
with one substance is  so far from  preventing a fluid
from dissolving another body, that it very frequently
happens, that the solvent power of  the compound ex-
ceeds that of the original fluid itself  Chemists like-
wise  use the word saturation in another  sense; in
which it denotes such a union of two bodies as  pro-
duces a compound th:  most remote in its  properties
from the properties of the component parts themselves.
In combinations  where one of tlie principles predomi-
nate, the one is said to be supersaturated, and tlie other
principle is said to be subsaturated.
  Heat in general increases the solvent powerof fluids,
probably by preventing  part of the dissolved substance
from congealing or a-ssuming the solid form.
  Itoften happens, that bodies which have no tendency
to unite are  made to combine together by means of a
third, which is then called the medium.   Thus water
and fat oils  are  made to unite by the medium of an
olkali, in the combination called soap.  Some writers,
who  seem  desirous of multiplying  terms, call this
tendency to unite the affinity of intermedium.  This
ense has likewise been called disposing affinity; but
Berthollet more properly styles it reciprocal affinity.
He likewise distinguishes affinity  into  elementary,
when it is  between the elementary parts of bodies;
       108
and resulting, when it is a compound only, and wo ltd
not take place with the elements of that compound.
  It very frequently happens, on the contrary, that the
tendency of two bodies to unite, or remain in com
bination together, is weakened or destroyed by the ad-
dition of a third.  Thus alkohol unites with water in
such a manner as to separate most salts  from it.  A
striking instance of this is seen in a saturated or strong
solution of nitre in water.  If to this  there be added
an equal measure of alkohol, the greater part of the
nitre instantly falls down.   Thus  magnesia is  sepa-
rated from a solution of Epsom salt, by the addition of
an alkali, which combines with the sulphuric acid, and
separates the earth.  The principle which falls  down
is said  to be precipitated, and in  many  instances is
called a precipitate.  Some modern chemists  use the
term  precipitation in  a  more extended, and  rather
forced sense;  for they apply it to all substances- thus
separated.  In this enunciation, therefore, they would
say,  that potassa precipitates soda from a solution of
common salt,  though no visible.separation or precipi-
tation takes place; for the soda, when disengaged from
its acid, is still suspended in  the water by reason oi
its solubility.
  From a great number of facts of this  nature, it is
clearly ascertained, not as a probable  hypothesis, but
as simple matter of fact,  that some  bodies  have a
stronger tendency to unite than others; and  that the
union of any substance with  another will exclude, or
separate, a third substance, wliich might have been
previously united with one of them; excepting only in
those coses wherein the new compound has a tendency
to unite with  that third substance, and form  a  triple
compound.   This preference of uniting, which a  gives
substance is  found to  exhibit with regard to  other
bodies, is by an easy metaphor called  elective attrac-
tion, and is subject to a variety of cases, according t:
the number and the powers  of the principles which
are respectively presented to  each  oilier. The  cases
which have been most frequently observed by chemist
are  those  called  simple  elective attractions, ami
double elective attractions.
  WThen a simple substance is presented or applied !"
another substance compounded, of two principles, and
writes with one of these two principles so as to sept-
rate or exclude the other, this effect is said to be pro-
duct *w simple elective attraction.
  It  may be doattcd whether any of our operations
have  insir.  earned to this  degree of  simplicity.  All
ti.e rbemica!  principles we are acquainted  with are
simple only wiu. .-c^p^ct to our power of decomposite.;,
them; and the daily discoveries of our contemporaries
tend to decompose those substances, which chemists a
few years ago  considered as simple.  Without insist-
ing, however, upon this  difficulty, we may observe,
that water is concerned in all tlie operations which are
called humid, and beyond  a  doubt modifies all tb<»
effects of such bodies as are suspended in it;  and lh6
variations of  temperature, whether arising from ar
actual igneous fluid, or from a mere  modification of
the parts of bodies,  also teeed greatly to disturb the
effects of elective attraction.  These causes tender "r:
difficult to  point  out an  example  of tiple  elective
attraction, whicli may in  strictness be reckoned w
such.
  Double elective attraction takes place when two
bodies, each  consisting of two principles,  are pre-
sented to each other, and mutually exchange a prin-
ciple of each; by wliich  means two  new bodies, or
compounds, are produced of a different  nature from
the original compounds.
  Under the same limitations as were pointed out in
speaking of simple elective attraction, we may offer
instances of double elective attraction.  Let oxyde of
mercury be dissolved to saturation in  the nitric acid,
the water will  then contain nitrate of mercury. Again,
let potassa be dissolved to saturation in the sulphuric
acid, and the  result will  be a solution of sulphate ot
potassa.  If mercury were added to the latter solution,
it would indeed tend to unite with the acid, but, would
produce no decomposition; because the elective attrac-
tion of the acid to the alkali is the strongest.  So like-
wise, if the nitric acid alone be added to it, its tend •
ency to  unite with the  alkali,  strong as "J is, will  not
effect any change,  because the alkali is already in
combination with a stronger acid.  But if the nitrate
of mercury be added to tlie solution af  sulphate of oo- 
ATT
ATT
tassa, a change of principles will take place; the sul-
phuric arid will quit the alkali, and unite with the
mercury,  while  the nitric  acid combines with the
alkali; and these two new salts,  namely, nitrate ol
potassa, and sulphate  of mercury, may  be obtained
st parately by crystallization.  The most remarkable
ejircumst.'iuce in this process, is that the joint effects of
the attractions of the sulphuric acid to mercury, and
the nitric  acid to alkali, pro,-e  to be stronger than the
sum of the attractions between the sulphuric acid and
the alkali, and between the nitrous acid and the mer-
cury ; for  if the sum of these  two  last had not been
weaker, the  original combinations would not have
been broken.
  Mr. Kirwan, who first, in the year 17,~2, considered
this subject with that attention it deserves, called the
affinities which tend to preserve the original combina-
tions, the  quiescent nffinities.   He distinguished the
affinities or attractions wliich tend to produce a change
of principles, by the name of the divellent affinities.
  Some eminent chemists are disposed to consider as
effects of  double affinities, tliose changes of principles
only which would not  have taken place without the
assistance of a fourth  principle.   Thus,  the  mutual
decomposition of sulphate of soda  and nitrate of po-
tassa, in which tlie alkalies  are changed, and sulphate
of potassa and nitrate of soda arc produced, is not
considered by them as  an instance of double decom-
position ;  because the nitre would  have been decom-
posed by simple elective attraction, upon the addition
of tlie acid only.
  There are various circumstances which  modify the
effects  of  elective attraction, and have from time to
time misled chemists in their deductions.   The chief
of these is the temperature, which, acting differently
upon the several parts of compounded bodies, seldom
fails to alter, and frequently reverses the effects of tlie
affinities.  Thus, if alkohol be added to a solution of
nitrate of potassa, it unites  with the water, and pre-
cipitates the salt at a common temperature.  But if the
temperature be raised, the alkohol rises on account of
its  volatility, and the salt is again dissolved.   Thus
again,  if  sulphuric acid be added, in a common tem-
perature,  to  a combination of phosphoric acid and
lime, it will decompose  the salt,  and disengage the
phosphoric  acid;  but  if this  same mixture of these
principles be exposed to a considerable heat, the sul-
phuric acid will have its attraction to the lime so much
diminished, that  it will rise, and give place again to
the phosphoric, which will combine with the lime.
Again, mercury kept in a degree of heat very nearly
equal to volatilizing it will absorb oxygen, and become
converted into the red oxyde formerly called precipi-
tate per se; but if the heat be augmented still more,
the oxygen will assume the elastic state, and  fly off,
leaving the mercury in  its original state.   Numberless
instances  of the like nature continually present them-
selves to the observation of chemists, Which are suffi-
cient to  establish tbe  conclusion, that the elective
attractions are not constant but at one and the same
temperature.
  Many philosophers are of opinion, that the variations
produced  by change of temperature  arise from the
elective attraction of the matter of heat itself.  But
there are  no decisive experiments  either in confirma-
tion or refutation of this hypothesis.
  If we except the operation  of heat, which really
produces a change in tbe elective attractions, we shall
find, that  most of the other difficulties attending this
subject arise from  the imperfect  state of chemical
science.   If to a compound of two principles a third
be added,  the effect of this must necessarily be different
according to its quality, and likewise according to the
state of saturation of the two principles of the com-
pounded body.  If the third principle which is added
be in excess, it may dissolve and suspend the compound
which may be newly formed, and likewise that which
might have been precipitated.  The metallic solutions,
decomposed  by the  addition  of an alkali, afford no
precipitate in various cases when  tlie alkali is in ex-
sess; because  this excess  dissolves the precipitate,
which would else have fallen down.   If", on the other
/land, one of the two principles of the compound body
be in excess, the addition  of  a third substance may
combine with that excess,  and leave a neutral sub-
stance, exhibiting very different properties from the
former. Thus, if cream of tartar,  which is a  salt of
difficult solubility, consisting of potassa united to ad
excess of the acid of tartar, be dissolved in water, and
chalk be added,  the  excess  unites with part of the
lime of the chalk, and forms a scarcely soluble salt;
and  the neutral compound, whicli remains after the
privation of this excess of acid, is a very soluble salt,
greatly differing in taste and properties from the cream
of tartar.   The metals and the acids likewise afford
various phenomena, according to their degree of oxy
datiou.  A determinate oxydafion is in geneihl neces-
sary for the solution of metals in acids; and the acids
themselves act very differently, accordingly as they are
more or less acidified.  Thus, the  nitrous acid g:vr»
place to acids which arc weaker than the nitric acid;
the sulphurous acid gives place to acids greatly inferior
in attractive power or affinity to the  sulphuric aci 1
The deception  arising  from effects of this nature is in
a great measure produced  by  the want of discrimina-
tion on the part of chemical philosophers;  it being
evident that tlie properties of any compound substance
depend as much upon  the proportion of its ingredients,
as upon their respective nature.
  The presence and quantity of water is probably of
more consequence than is yet supposed.   Thus, bis-
muth is dissolved in  nitrous acid, but falls when trie
water is much in quantity.
  The power of double elective attractions, too,  is
disturbed by this circumstance: If  muriate of lime be
added  to  a solution  of carbonate of soda, they are
both decomposed, and  the  results are muriate of soda
and  carbonate of lime.  But if lime and muriate of
soda be mixed with just water sufficient to make them
into a paste, and this  be exposed to the action of car-
bonic acid gas,  a saline efflorescence, consisting of
carbonate of soda, will be formed on the surfaco, and
the bottom of  the vessel will  he occupied  by muriate
of lime in a state of deliquescence.
  Berthollet made a great number of experiments, from
which he deduced the following law:—that iu (elective
attractions the power exerted  is not in the ratio of the
affinity simple,  but in  a ratio compounded of the
force of affinity and the quantity ofthe agent; so lhat
quantity may compensate  for weaker  affinity.  Thus
an acid which has a weaker affinity than another for
a given base, if it be employed in a certain quantity,
is capable of taking part  of that base from the acid
which has a stronger affinity for it;  so that the base
will be divided between them in the compound ratio
of their affinity  and quantity.  This division of one
substance between two others, for which it has differ-
ent affinities, always  takes place,  according to him,
when three such are  present under circumstances in
which they can  mutually  act on each  other.  And
hence it is, that the force of affinity acts  most power-
fully when two substances first come into contact, and
continues  to decrease in  power as either approaches
the point of saturation.  For the same reason it is so
difficult to separate the last portions of any substance
adhering to another.  Hence,  if ihe doctrine laid down
by M. Berthollet be true, to its utmost extent, it must
be impossible eve< to free a compound completely from
any  one of ils  constituent parts  by the agency of
elective attraction; so  that  all our  best established
analyses are more or less inaccurate.
  The solubility  or insolubility of principles, at the
temperature of any experiment, has likewise tended to
mislead chemists, who  have deduced consequences
from the first effects of their experiments.  It is evi-
dent, that many separations  may ensue without pre-
cipitation;  because this circumstance does not take
place unless the separated principle he insoluble, oi
nearly so.  The soda  cannot be precipitated  from a
solution of sulphate of soda, by the addition of potassa,
because of its great solubility; but, on the contrary,
the new compound itself, or sulphate sf potassa, whicli
is much less soluble,  may full down, if there be not
enough of  water present  to suspend  it.  No certain
knowledge can therefore be derived from  the  appear
ance or the want of precipitation, unless the products
be carefully examined.   In  some instances  all ihe
products remain  suspended; end in others, thev all fall
down, as may be instanced in the decomposition of
sulphate of iron  by lime.  Here the acid unites with
the lime, and forms sulphate of lime, which is scarcely
at all soluble;  and the still less soluble oxyde of iion,
which was disengaged, falls down along with it.
  Many instances present themselves, in which decom
                                        109 
AUR                                             AUT
oosltlon toes not take place, but a tort of equilibrium
of affinhy  is perceived.  Thus, soda, added  to  the
supertartrate of potassa, forms  a triple salt by com-
bining with its excess of acid.  So likewise ammonia
combines  with a portion of the acid of muriate of
mercury, and forms the triple compound formerly  dis-
tinguished by tlie barbarous name of" sal alembroth."
  Attraction, double elective. See Affinity, double.
  Aua'nte.  (From avaivio, to dry.)   A dry disease,
proceeding, from a fermentation  in tlie stomach,  de-
scribed by Hippocrates de Morbis.
  Aua'pse.  The same.
  Au'chkn.  (From av\cm, to be proud.)  The neck,
which in the posture of pride, i<t  made stiff and erect.
  AUDITORY.  (Auditorius; from audio,  to hear.)
Belonging to the organ of hearing; as auditory nerve,
passage, &c.
  Auditory nerve.  See Portio mollis.
  Auditory passage.  See Ear, and Meatus auditorius
tnternus.
  AUGITE.  Pyroxene of Hafiy.  A green, brown, or
black mineral, found crystallized, and in grains in  vol-
canic rocks in  bosaltes.  It consists of silica, lime,
oxyde of iron, magnesia, alumina, and manganese.
  [It occurs in crystals, amorphous, in rounded frag-
ments, or in grains.  The Augite has a foliated struc-
ture in  two  directions,  parallel to  the  sides  of  the
primitive  form.  It is  harder  than  hornblende or
olivine, scratches glass, and gives sparks with steel.
Us specific gravity varies from 3.10 to 3.47.
  It is fused  with difficulty by the blow-pipe; but in
small fragments  melts into  an enamel, which, iu the
coloured varieties, is black.   Its  greater hardness,  the
results of mechanical division, and  its difficult fusi-
bility, will  in general be sufficient to distinguish it
from hornblende, which* it often resembles.   It cannot
easily be confounded with schorl.  It has two varie-
ties. 1. Common Augite. 2. Coccolite.—CI. Min.  A.]
  Auou'stum.   An epithet  formerly given to several
compound medicines.
  Auli'scos.  (From ovXjs, a pipe.)  A catheter, or
clyster-pipe.
  AU'LOS.  (AvXos, a pipe.) A catheter, canula, or
clyster-pipe.
  AU'RA.  (Aura, a. f.; from aw, to breathe.)  .Any
subtile vapour or exhaltation.
  Aura upileptica. A sensation which Is felt by
epileptic patients, as if a blast of cold air ascended from
the lower parts towards the  heart and head.
  Aura seminis. The extremely subtile and vivify-
ing portion of the semen virile, that ascends through
the Fallopian tubes, to impregnate the ovum  in  the
ovarium.
  Aura vitalis.  So Van Hclmont calls the vital
heat.
  AURA'NTIUM.  (Auranttum, i. n.; so called, ab
aurco colore, from its golden colour, or from Arantium.
atownof Achaia.) The orange. See Citrus aurantium
  Aurantium curassaventc.   The  Curassoo,  or
Curassao apple, or orange.   The fruit so called seems
to be the immature oranges, that by some accident
have been checked in their growth.  They are a grate-
ful aromatic bitter, of a flavour very different from that
of the peel of the ripe fruit, and without any acid;
what little  tartness they have when fresh, is lost in
drying.  Infused in wine, or brandy, they afford a good
Ditter for the stomach. They are used to promote  the
discharge in issues, whence their name of issue peas,
and to give the flavour of hops to beer.
  Auranth bkccie.  See Citrus aurantium.
  Aurantii cortex.  See Citrus aurantium.
  Auriciialcum. Brass.
  AURI'CULA.  (Auricula, a.  f. dim. of auris,  the
car.)  1.  An auricle or little ear.
  2. The external ear, upon which are several emi-
nences and depressions; ns the helix, antihelix, tragus,
antitragus, concha auricula, scapha, and lobulus.  See
Ear.
  3. Applied to some parts which resemble a little car,
as the auricles of the heart.
  4. In botany, applied to parts  of plant', which  re-
Femble an ear in figure, as Auricula juda, and Auricula
rnuris, cv-c.
  Auricula juda:.  See Petiza auricula.
  Auricula muris.  See Hieracium.
  Auricui* cordis  The auricles of the heart.   See
 Heart.
      11C
  AURICULA'RIS.  (Auricularis, from  auris, ttl«
ear.)  Pertaining to the ear.
  Auricularis digituer.  The little finger; so called
because people generally put it into the ear, when the
hearing is obstructed.
  AURICULATUS.  Auricled. A leaf is said lo be so,
when furnished at its base with a pair of leaflets, pro-
perly distinct, but occasionally liable to be joined lo it,
as in Citrus aurantium.
  Auri'oa.  (Auriga, a wagoner.)  A bandage for the
sides is so called because it is made like the traces of e
wagon-horse.—Galen.
  AURI'GO.   (Ab aureo colore; from  its  yellow
colour.)  The jaundice.   See Icterus
  AURIPFUMENTUM.   (From  aurum,  gold, ana
pigmentvm,  paint; so called from its colour and its ute
lo painters.)  Yellow orpiment. See Arsenic.
  AU'RIS.  (Auris, is. f.; from aura, air, as  being tlie
medium of hearing.)  The ear, or organ of hearing
See Ear.
  ALRISCA'LPIUM.   (From auris,  the  enr, and
scalpo, to scrape.)  An instrument for cleansing the ear.
  Auru'oo   The jaundice.  SeeAurigo.
  AU'RUM. 1. Gold.
  2. This term  was  applied to many  substances by
alchemists and chemists, which  resembled gold  iu
colour or virtues.
  Aurum fulminans.  The  precipitate formed by
putting ammonia into a solution of gold.
  Aurum graphicum.  An ore of gold.
  Aurum horizontals.  Oil of cinnamon and sugar
  Aurum leprosum.  Antimony.
  Aurum musivum.  Mosaic gold.  " A combination
of tin and sulphur, which is  thus made; Melt twelve
ounces of tin, and add to it three ounces of" mercury;
triturate this amalgam with seven ounces of sulphur,
and three of muriate  of ammonia.  Put the powder
into a mattress, bedded rather deep in sand, and keep
it for several hours in a gentle heat; which is after-
ward to be  raised, and  continued for several  hours
longer.  If the heat have been moderate, and not con-
tinued too long, the golden-coloured scaly porous mass
called aurum musivum, will be found at  the bottom ol
the vessel; but if it have been too strong, the  aurum
musivum fuses to a  black mass of a striated texture
This process is thus explained: as the heat increases,
the tin, by stronger affinity, seizes  and combines with
the muriatic acid of the muriate of ammonia;  while
the alkali of that salt, combining with a portion ofthe
sulphur, flies off in the form of a sulphuret   The com-
bination  of tin  and muriatic acid sublimes;  and it
found adhering to the sides ofthe mattress.   The mcr
cury, whicli  served  to divide the tin, combines with
part of the sulphur, and forms cinnabar, whicli al-f
sublimes; and the remaining sulphur, with the re
maining  tin, forms  the aurum  musivum which occu-
pies tlie lower part of the vessel. It must be  admitted,
however, that this explanation docs not indicate the
reasons why such an indirect and complicated process
should be required to forma simple combination of tin
and sulphur.
  Aurum musivum has no taste, though some  sneci
mens exhibit a sulphureous smell.  It is  not  soluble in
water, acids, or alkaline solutions.  But in the drv
way it forms a yellow sulphuret, soluble in water  It
deflagrates with nitre.  Bergman  mentions a native
aurum musivum from  Siberia, containing tin, sulnhur.
and n small proportion of copper.                   '
  This substance is used as  a pigment for giving a
golden colour to small statue or plaster  figures.  It l<
 ikewise  said to be  mixed with melted glass  to imi-
tate tapis lazuhi.                      ~
  Aurum potabile.  Gold dissolved and mixed wi;fc
oil ot rosemary, to be drunk.

^rtV^A^S,,-  (Fr?m,<nT»S. the  same, and  r,pSpa,


-*-£23J™,IA-  """'"»"■  ^rof nature

«Ji  Ji?.^1?'-?-  T1,is mlneralsubstance Isothcr-
    ii k  . d  0aAmte-   H is always crystallized  in
small, but very regular octacdrons, which are some-
times double, like tliose of spinelle.   Its colour is ileou
green, or greenish black, and its fragments are trtun-
lucent.  It scratches quartz, nnd  lias nn uneven  or
conchoidal fracture.   Its specific gravity varies from
i.tn to 4.69.  It >s not n conductor of electricity 
AVE
AX)
  Before tin blow-pipe it is infusible, but with borax,
according t  Eckebers, it gives a green  glass, while
hot, which becomes colourless when cold.  It contains
Alumine GO., oxide of zinc 24.25, oxide of  iron 9.25,
silex, 4.75=98 25.  According to Vauquelin, Alumine
42., oxide of zinc 28., oxide of iron 5., silex 4., sulphur
17., insoluble residue 4.  It has been found  at a mine
of Fahlun, in Sweden, in a rock abounding in talc.
—CI. Min.  A.]
  ACTOTSIA. (From  aerof, himself, and onjopai,
to see.)   Ocular evidence.
  Auto'pyros.   (From  avroc,  Itself, and  zsvpos,
wheat.)  Bread made with the meal of wheat, from
whicji the bran has not been removed.— Galen.
  AUXILIARY.   Assisting.  This term is  applied to
the means whicli co-operate in curing diseases, and to
parts whicli assist  others in  performing certain func-
tions.    The   pyramidales  were   called  auxiliary
muse les.
  AVANTl'RI.N'E.  A variety of quartz  rock con-
taining mica spangles.  It is found In Spain  and Scot-
land
  AVELL A'NA.  (From Abella, or Avella, a town in
Campania, where they grow.)  The specific name of
the  hazel-nut.   See Corylus avellana.
  Avki.i.ana cathartica.  A purgative seed or nut,
from Barbadoes, the produce of the Jatropha curcas.
See Jatropha curcas.
  Avellana mexicana.  Cocoa and chocolate nut.
  Avellana puroatrix.  Garden spurge.
  AVF. N'A.  (Arena, a. f.; from  aveo, to covet: be-
cause caule are so fond of it)   The  oat.   1. The
name of a genus of plants in the Linnaean system.
Class, Tnandna;  Order, Digynia.
  2. The pharmacopoeia! name of the oat
  Avena s ativa.  The systematic name for  tlie arena
of the  pharmacopoeias.  It is the seed which is com-
monly used, and called the oat.  There are two kinds
of oats: the black  and the white.  They have similar
virtues, but the black are chiefly sown for  horses.
They are less farinaceous, and less  nourishing, than
lice, or wheat; yet afford sufficient nourishment, of
easy digestion, to such as feed constantly on  them  In
Scotland, aud some of the northern counties of Eng-
land, oats form the chief bread of the  inhabitants.
They are much used  in Germany ; but, in Norway,
oat bread is a luxury  among the common  people.
Gruels, made with the flour, or meal, called oatmeal,
digest  easily,  have a  soft mucilaginous quality, by
which they obtund acrimony, and are used for  com-
mon drink and food in  fevers, inflammatory  disorders,
couahs. hoarseness, roughness, and exulceration ofthe
fauces; and water  grueis answer all the purposes of
Hippocrates's ptisan.  Externally, poultices,  with oat-
meal, vinegar, and  a very little oil, are good for sprains
and bruise's.  Stimulant  poultices,  with the grounds
of strong beer,  mixed up with oatmeal, are  made for
tumours, &c. of a gangrenous tendency.
  Avenacu.  A Molucca tree, of a caustic quality.
  AVENS.  (Atens, entis ; from ares, to desire.)  1.
The specific name of a species of dipsosis  in  Good's
Nosology:  immoderate thirst.
  2. THe name of a plant. See Geum.
  AVEXICS.  Veinless.  Without  a  vein.  A  term
applied by botanists to a leaf which is without what
they call a vein; as in Clusia alba.
  AVEXZOAR.  A native of Seville, In  Spain, who
flourished about the beginning ofthe twelfth century:
he was made physician to the king, and  is said, but on
itnperfect evidence, to have  attained the uncommon
age of 135.  He prepared his own medicines, and prac-
tised surgery, as well as  physic.  His principal work
was a compendium of the practice of medicine, called,
'' Al-Theiser," containing some diseases not elsewhere
described, and numerous cases candidly related.  He
was called the Experimenter, from his careful investi-
gation  of the powers of medicines by actual trial.
  AVERROES.  An eminent philosopher and physi-
cian, born  about the middle of the 12lh century, at
Corduba, in Spain.   He studied medicine under Aven-
zoar, but does not  appear to have been much engaged
in the practice of it, his life exhibiting the most extra-
ordinary vicissitudes of honours  bestowed upon him
as a magistrate, and  persecutions,  which he under-
went for religion.  He appears to  have first observed,
that the small-pox occurs but once In the same person
His orincipal medical work called the " Universal," is
a compendium of physic, mostly «ollet\ed from othei
authors.   ||,, died about the year 1206.
  AVICEN'NA.   A celebrated philosopher and phy-
sician, bom In Choinsuii, In the year OHO.  He studied
at Bagdat, obtained a degree, and began to practise at
18: and be soon  attained great wealth and honour in
the court of the caliph.  But during the latler part of
his life, residing tit Ispahan, after several years spent
in travelling, he impaired his constitution by intemper
ancc, and  died of n dysentery In his 58th year.  Ilia
chief work on medicine, called "Canon Medicimr,"
though mostly borrowed from the Greek or other pre-
ceding writers, and in a very diffuse  style, acquired
great reputation, and was taught  in  Hie European
colleges till near the middle of the 17th century.
  AY1CENNIA.  (Named after the celebrated phy
sician of that  name.)   The name of a genu* of  plants
in the Liuniran system. Class, Didynamia; Order,
Angiospermia.
  Avicbnnia  tomentopa.  The systematic name for
the Avicennia—foliis cordato ovatis, subtus tomenlosis,
of Limui'iis, which affords the Malacca bean, or Ana-
cardium orientate of the pharmacopoeias.  The fruit,
or nut, so called, is of n shining black colour, hcait-
shnpecl, compressed, and about the size of the thumb-
nail.  It is now deservedly forgot in this country.
  Avioato pear.. See Laurus pcreea.
  Awl-shaped.  See Leaf.
  AWN.   See Arista.
  AXE-STONE. A species of  nephrite, nnd a suo-
species of jade, from whicli it differs in not  being of so
light a green,  and in having a somewhat slaty texture.
  [The fracture of this mineral is more or less splintery
and glimmering.  The structure of  large specimens is
a little slaty.  Its hardness is less than that of nephrite;
it is more easily broken, and  often falls into tabular
fragments.   It is usually translucent, sometimes at
the edges only.   Its colour varies from a dark or leek
green, to grass and olive green, or even greenish gray
It occurs amorphous, sometimes in  rolled  fragments.
   It is less easily fusible than nephrite or Seussurite,
and melts with efferverscence  into a black  enamel
It often appears to be nearly allied to serpentine
This mineral has been found chiefly in South America,
New Zealand, and the islands of tlie South sea.  It
receives a tolerable polish;  and is employed by the
natives of the aforesaid islands for making hatchets,
and other instruments;  and hence  its name.—Clcav
Min.  A.J
   AXILLA.  (Axilla,  a. f.   Atzil, Heb.   Scaliger
deduces ii from ago, to act; in this  manner, ago, axo
ain, axula, axilla.)   1. In anatomy, the cavity under
the upper part of the arm, called the arm-pit.
  2. In botany, the  angle formed by the branch and
stem of a plant, or by the leaf with either.
  AXILLARIS.  (From axilla, the arm-pit.) Axillary.
I. Of, or belonging to the axilla, or arm-pit.
  2.  In botany, leaves, 4c. are said to be axillary which
proceed from the angles  formed  by the  stem and
branch.
  AXILLARIS.  See Axillary.
  Axillaris  gemma.  Axillarygem.  Theeemwhich
comes out of  the axilla of a  plant.  It is this which
bears the fruit.
  AXILLARY.   (Axillaris; from axilla, the arm-
pit)  Of or belonging lo the axilla, or arm-pit.
  Axillary arteries.  Arteria axillares.  The ax
illary arteries are continuations of the siibclavians,
and give off,  each of them, in the  axilla, four  mam-
mary arteries, the subscapular, and the posterior and
anterior circumflex  arteries, which  ramify about the
joint.
  Axillary  nerves.   Nervis axillares.  Articular
nerve.  A  branch of the brachial  plexus,  and  some-
times ofthe radial nerve.  It runs outwards and back-
wards, around the neck of the humerus, and is lost in
the muscles ofthe scapula.
  Axillary  veins.   Vena axillares.  The  axillary
veins receive  the blood fiom the veins of the arm, and
evacuate it into the subclavian vein.
  AX1NITE. Thumerstone.   A massive  or crystal-
lized mineral, the crystals of which resemble an axe
in the form and  sharpness of their edges.   It is found
in beds at Thum, in Saxonv, and in Cornwall.
  [This mineral  is sometimes in tabular masses, but
most commonly  in crystals, which are easily  recog-
nised.  The  general form of these  crystals is a very 
AZO
AZY
 Gblique romb, or rather four-sided prism, so flattened,
 lhat some of its edges become thin and sharp, like the
 edge of an axe.  The primitive form is a tour-sided
 prism, whose bases are parallelograms with angles of
 101° 30' and 78° 30'. The integrant particles are oblique
 triangular prisms. M. Haiiy has described five second-
 ary forms.
  Before the blow-pipe it easily melts with ebullition,
 into a dark  gray enamel, wliich with borax becomes
 olive green.  It contains, according to Vauquelin, silex
 44,  alumine 18,  lime 19, iron 14, manganese 4,=99.
  Axinite is a  rare mineral.  It is found in primitive
 rocks, more particularly  in  fissures or veins which
 traverse them.  In Dauphiny, it  is associated with
 quartz, feldspar, epidote, and asbestus.  In the Pyre-
 nees with quartz and limestone.  In Norway, near
 Areudal, with feldspar and  epidote; and near Kons-
 bcrg it exists in limestone with mica, quartz, &c.  Il
occurs in lamellar masses  near  Thum in  Saxony,
whence the name Thumerstone.—CI. Min.  A.]
  A'XIS.   (From ago, to  act.)  The second vertebra.
See Denlatus.
  AXIJ'NGIA.   (Axungia, a. f.; from axis, an axle-
tree, and unguo, to anoint.)   Hog's lard.
  Axunuia curata.  Purified hog's lard.
  Axungia de mummia.   Marrow.
  A'zac  (Arabian.)  Gum ammoniac.
  Aza'gor.   Verdigris.
  AZALJEA.   (From afaXtoj, dry, from its growing
in a dry soil.)  The name of a genus of plants in  the
Linnaean system.  Class,  Pentandria;  Order, Mono-
gynia.
  Azalea pontica.  The Pontic azalea.
  Azamar.  Native cinnabar.  Vermilion.
  Azb.d.  A fine kind of camphire.
  AZO'l Z.  (From a, priv.  and |«o, to live; because
it is unfit foi -aspiration.)  Azot.   See Nitrogen.
   i:oiane.  The chloride of azote,
   ■t-role, chloride of.  See Nitrogen,
  /iiote, deutoxyde of.  See Nitrogen
  Azote, gaseous oxyde of.  See Nitrogen,
  Azote, iodide of.  See Nitrogen.
  Azote, protoxyde of.  See Nitrogen.
  A'zoth.  An imaginary universal remedy
  A'zub.  Alum.
  Azurestone.  See Lapis lazuli.
  Azure spar, prismatic.  See Aznrite
  AZURITE.   Prismatic azure  spar.   Lazulite ot
Werner.   A mineral of a fine blue colour, composed
of alumina, magnesia, silica, oxyde of iron, and lima
It  occurs  in Vorau,  in Stiiia, and the bishopric of
Salzburg.
  Azu'rium. Quicksilver, sulphur, and sal-ammoniac.
  A'zyges.  (From a,  priv. and ijuyoj, a yoke.)   The
os sphenoides was so called, because it has no fellow.
  A'ZYGOS.  (From a, priv. and guyoj, a yoke ; be-
cause it has no fellow.)  Several single muscles, veins,
bones, &c. are so called.
  Azygos processus.  A process ofthe os sphenoides.
  Azygos uvclje.  A muscle of the uvula.  Palato
staphilinus of Douglas.  Staphilinus, or Epistaphi
Unas of Winslow.  It arises at one  extremity of the
suture which 'joins the  palate  bones, runs down the
whole length of the velum and uvula, resembling an
earth-worm, and adhering to the tendons of the cir
cumflexi.  It is inserted into the tip of the uvula.  Its
use is to raise the uvula upwards and forwards, and
to shorten it.
  Azygos  vena.   Azygos vein.  Vena sine pari.
This vein is situated in  the right cavity of  tbe thorax,
upon  the dorsal vertebra.  It receives the blood from
the vertebral, intercostal,  bronchial,  pericardiac, and
diaphragmatic veins, and evacufttes it into the vena
cava superior.
B.
-OABUZICARIl'S.  (Bafiougiicapioc; -'oni rjaoVu,
■** to speak inarticulately.)  The iucubin, or night-
mare : so called, because, in it, the jicrson is apt to make
an inarticulate or confused noise.
  BA'CCA.  (Bacca, a. f.,  a  berry.)  A pulpy peri-
carpium, or seed-vessel, enclosing several naked seeds,
connected  by  a slender membrane, and  dispersed
through the pulp.  It is distinguished by Its figure into,
  1. Bacca rotunda, round;  as in Ribes rubrum, the
currant, and Grossularia, the  gooseberry.
  2. Bacca oblonga, oblong; as in Barbaria vulgaris,
common barberry.
  3. Bacca dicocca, double, as in Jasminum.
  4. Bacca recutita, circumcised like the prominent
glans  penis,  without tlie  prepuce;  as in  Taxus
baccata.
  From the substances it is denominated,
  1. Bacca succosa, juicy; as  in Ribes rubrum.
  2. Bacca corticosa, covered with a hard bark ; as in
Garcinia mangostana.
  3. Bacca exsicca, dry ;  as in  Hcdera helix.
  From the number of loculaments into,
  1. Bacca unilocularis, with  one; as in the Actaa
and Cactus.
  2. Bacca bilocularis, with  two; as in Lonicera.
  3. Bacca trilocularis, with three;  as in Asparagus
and Iluscus.
  4. Bacca quadrilocularis, with four; as Caris qua-
drifolia.
  5. Bacca quinquclocularis, with  five; as in Jlfc-
\astoma.
  0.   Bacca  multilocularis,  with   many;   as  in
Nymphaa.
  From the number ofthe seeds into,
  1. Bacca monosperma, with one only; asin Daphne,
Viscvm, and Viburnum.
  2. Bacca disperma, with  two seeds; as Barbarca
vulgaris, and Coffea arabica.
  3. Bacca trisperma, with tliree;  as in Sambucus,
and Junipcris.
      112
  4. Bacca quadrisperma,  with four;  as in Ltg-us
trum, and Ilex.
  5. Bacca polysperma, with many seeds; as in Ar
butus unedo, Ribes, and Gardenia.
  The Bacca  is also distinguished into  simple and
compound, when  it is composed of several berries,
which are called acini; as in Rubus fruticosus.
  Bacca bermudknsis.   The  Bermuda berry.  See
Sapindus saponaria.
  Bacca juniperi.  The juniper berry.  See Junipc-
rus communis.
  Bacca lauri.  The  laurel  berry.   See Lauras
nobilis.
  Bacca monspeliensis.  See Inula dyscnterica.
  Bacca  norlandica.   The  shrubby strawberry.
See Rubus arcticus.
  Bacca piscatoria.   So named  because fish are
caught with them.  See  Menispcrmum cocculus.
  Bacca'lia.    (From baccharum  copia,  because it
abounds in berries.)  The bay, or laurel-tree.  See
Laurus nobilis.
  BA'CCHARIS.   (From bacchus, wine;  from its
fragrance resembling lhat liquor.)  See Inula dyscn-
terica.
  BACCIFERUS.  (From bacca, a berry, and fero,
to bear.) Berry bearing.
  Baccifer* plant*.  Plants  are so called which
have a berry or pulpy pericarpium.
  BA'CCHIA.  (From bacchus, wine;  because it ge-
nerally  proceeds from hard drinking and intemper-
ance.)   A name  given  by Linnaeus to the pimpled
face, which results from free living.
  BACCILLCM.  A little berry.
  BACCHJS, Andrew, a native of Ancona, practised
medicine at Rome  towards the end of tlie 16th century,
and became physician to Pope Sixtus V.  He appears
to have had sreat industry and learning from his nu-
merous publications; of wliich the chief, " De Ther-
mis," gives  an extensive  examination of natural 
BAI
HA!
   tSx'ccun.  1  Is used, by some writers, for a parti-
Miar kind of lozenges, shaped into little short rolls.
   2. Hildanus likewise  uses  it for an instrument in
surgery.
   Bacher's  Pills.  Pilula  tonicx Bacheri.  A  cele-
brated medicine in France, employed for the cure of
dropsies.  Their principal ingredient is the extract of
melampodium, or black  hellebore.
   Bacoba.   The Banana.
   BACTISHCA. George, was a celebrated physician
of Chorasan, distinguished also for his literary attain-
ments.  He was successful  in curing the reigning ca-
liph of n complaint of the stomach, which brought him
into great honour; he translated several of the ancient
medical  authors into  the Arabian language;  and
many of  his observations are recorded by Rliazes and
other succeeding physicians.  His son, Gabriel,  was
in equal estimation with the famous Haroun Al Ras-
chid, whom  he cured of apoplexy by blood-letting, in
opposition to the opinion of the other physicians.
  Badia'oa.  A kind of sponge usually sold in Russia,
the powder  of which is said to  take away the livid
marks of blows and bruises within a few hours.   It is
only described by Bauxbaum, and its nature is not
properly understood.
  Badian semen.  The seed of a tree which g« ws in
China, and smells like  aniseed.   The Chinese,  and
Dutch, in imitation of them, sometimes use tlie bi dian
to give their tea an aromatic taste.
  Badi za aqua.  See Bath waters.
  Badrvmm siime.v Indian aniseed.
   Badu oca.  The Indian name for a species of cip-
paris.
   Ba'dzcher.  An antidote.
  B.tos.  Baio?.  In Hippocrates it means few; but
iu P. .Eginela, it is an epithet for a poultice.
   BAGLlVI, George, born at Ragusa in 1668, after
graduating at Padua,  and improving himself greatly by
travelling throughout Italy,  was  made  professor of
medicine  aud anatomy  at Rome.  In 1696,  he  pub-
lished an excellent work on the practice  of physic,
condemning the  exclusive attachment to theory, and
earnestly recommending the  Hippocratic method of
observation; which, he maintained, assisted by the
modern  improvements  in anatomy and physiology,
would tend greatly to the advancement  of medicine.
He has left also several other tracts, though he died at
the earlv age of thirtv-eight.
   BAGNIGGE WELLS.  A saline mineral spring,
near Clerkenwell, in  London, resembling tlie Epsom
water.  In most constitutions, three half-pints is con-
udered a full dose for purging.
   BAGNIO.  (From bagno,  Italian.)  A bathing or
sweating-house.
   Ba'hei  covolli.   Ray takes it  to be the Arcca, or
Fmfel.
  Ba'hel sciiclli.  An Indian  tree.   See Genista
spinosa -ndica.
  Baiiodal.  See Adansonia.
   Baikalite.  The asbestiform species of trcmolite.
  [It  is a variety of tremolite which Kirwan named
Baikalite, because it was first found near lake Baikal
hi Siberia, in foliated limestone.—In Chinese Tarlary
it occurs in dolomite.
   It is found in  groups of acicular"*prisms, sometimes
very long, and sometimes radiating from a centre.  lis
colour is  greenish, often  with a shade of yellow;  and
its lustre sonietimes silky.  According to Kirwan, its
spec, grav is only 2 20, and it melts into  a dark green
glass.  It conte.ins silex 44, lime20, magnesia 30, oxyde
of iron 0.—See CI. Min.  A.]
   BAILLIE, Matthew, horn in Scotland, in the year
/760.   His mother was sister of the two celebrated
Hunteis.Dr. William aud Mr. John; his father, a cler-
gyman.  In 'he early part of his education he enjoyed
great  ad ,'antages.  After studying at Glasgow, where
his father was Professor of Divinity, he was sent to
one ofthe exhibitions of that university at Baliol Col-
lege, Oxford, where he took his degrees in  physic, by
which he became a  Fellow of the College  of Physi-
cians  in London, and was soon after elected Fellow of
the Royal Society.   At an early period he came lo
London and was an  inmate with  his uncle, Dr. Wil-
liam Hunter, at that time lecturing to a  numerous
clrus of pupils, and who had the superintendence of his
education.   After demonstrating in  the  dissectins
room  with the celebrated  and learned  Mr. Cruick-
                                         II
sliaiiKs, he became, on  the death of his  tncle, knnl
lecturer with him, and continued to lecture until 1799
   Dr. Baillie's practice as a physician whs for several
years extremely small, and he often complained ofthe
little he had to do; indeed, at one time, he thought of
leaving the metropolis.  In  the  year 1787, he was
elected  physician  to  St. George's Hospital; and  h<!
now began to  find his practice increase.   About this
period he married.
   Dr. Dcnman, the celebrated accoucheur of the lay,
had two daughters ; Mr. Croft, afterward  Sir Richard.
married  one,  Dr. Baillie, the other.   The confidence
which the two first obtained in the higher circles of
society, was great and extensive;  and they lost no op-
portunity of requiring the opinion and attendance of
Iheir relation.  Dr. Baillie's pupils  had now gone
yearly to every part of  England, and  the Indies, and
were not merely enforcing the principles and doctrines
of their master, whose lectures they had  heard deli-
vered  with such  lucid  order,  and clearness  of ex-
pression, as to convey information in the  most simple
aud intelligible manner; but were sending their pa
tients from the most distant parts to profit by his advice
and experience.  Two other  circumstances soon oc-
curred, which at once placed Dr. Baillie iu a practice
before unheard of. His uncle's,  and  his own  great
friend, Dr. Pitcairn, who was in great practice, was.
from ill health, obliged to leave England  for a  more
temperate climate, and he previously introduced him
to all his patients; and Dr. Warren, who  had enjoyed
the greater part of the  practice of the nobility, was
suddenly cut off.   There  was no practitioner left
whose opportunities had fitted  him to take the lead,
and thus a field was  opened for aspiring  genius, abi
lity, skill, and  perseverance, which Dr.  Baillie soon
occupied, and from which he reaped an abundant liar
vest for more than twenty years.
   Before he discontinued his lectures in 1799, he pub-
lished an octavo volume, on  Morbid Anatomy, in
which is compressed  more accurate and  more useful
information than  is to be found in the elaborate works
of Bonetus, Morgagni, and  Lieutaud.   This was fol-
lowed by a large work, consisting of a series of splen-
did engravings to illustrate Morbid Anatomy.  He also
gave a description ofthe gravid uterus, and many im
portant contributions  lo  Ihe transactions and medical
collections ofthe time.
   Dr. Baillie  presented his collection of specimens of
morbid parts to the college of physicians, with a sum
of money to be expended in keeping them  in order.
   The professional and moral character of this great
physician cannot  be  too highly appreciated.   To his
brethren, among whom he might,  from his extensive
and peculiar  practice, have exercised a high und re-
se<ved deportment, he was humble, attentive, commu-
nicative, and  kind;   and he  never  permitted  the
caprice of a  patient or  friends to interfere with the
conduct of, or  injure  a  practitioner,  when unjustly
censured.
  In Ihe exercise of his practice, he displayed a discri-
minating and profound knowledge; happy in the con-
ception of the cause  of symptoms, he distinguished
diseases from those wilh wliich they might have been
confounded, and pointed out their probable progress
and termination ;  and in delivering  his  opinion,  he
expressed himself with clearness, decision, and candour
  His moral character was adorned by the strictest
virtues, and amplest charities.  He died  in the year
1823, in the sixty-third year of his age, from a gradual
decay of the powers of nature, continuing to practise
until about a year before his death, leaving a wife, a
son, a daughter, and a sister, Miss Joanna Baillie, who
has acquired a degree of eminence surpassed by none
of her sex  in any age.  A few of his private pro
fessional  friends have directed a simple  tablet and
bust from the chisel of Chantry, to be placed in West
minster Abbey, to perpetuate iiis high and  honourable
professional character, and  his  many private virtues.
  BAILLOU, Guillaume de, commonly called Bal-
lonius, was born in 1538 at Paris, where he graduated,
and attained  considerable eminence.  He was very
active in the contest ."or  precedence between the phy-
sicians and surgeons, which was at length decided in
favour of the former.  His writings are  numerous,
though not now  much esteemed; but he appears to
have been the first, who properly discriminated be
tween gout and rheumatism. 
HAL
BAL
  Bala.   The plaintain-trt-e
  BALA2 NA.  thaXaiva . frcm (SaXXw, to cast, from
Its power in casting up wau:r )  The name of a genus
of animals.  Class, Mammalia; Order, Cete.
  [Bal.ena mysticetus.  The systematic and Lin-
naean name for  the common or right whale, which is
pursued in the icy and Greenland seas, on the coast of
Brazil, and in the Pacific Ocean, supplying, when taken,
blubber  and whalebone.  The blubber is the fat cut
from the body of the whale, and being afterward
tried, produces common  whale or lamp oil.   The
whalebone is a horny substance  projecting from the
jaws, and does not partake of the nature of bone.  The
ends are split into numerous fibres, and the animal
uses them as a filtering  machine. The right-whale
lives upon the small worms  and  molluscous animals
which abound in the ocean.  When it  feeds, it opens
the mouth, and  swims forward, and when it has col-
lected a large quantity of these vermes, the  mouth is
closed, and the water is forced through the fibrous ends
of the  whalebone,  while the small animals are re-
tained within and swallowed.—See Scoresby's North.
Whale Fishery.  A.]
  Balena macrocepiiala.  The systematic name of
a species of whale.
  [This is the cacholet or large-headed whale, the true
spermaceti-whale,  principally taken  in  the  Pacific
ocean.   It is called macroccphalus, from uacpos, large,
and KCtbaXn, the head, because the head constitutes
two-thirds of the animal.   The blubber or fat is strip-
ped off this as  it is from the right-whale, and affords
abundant oil.  There is however  a cavity in the skull
of the marcrocephalus containing a large quantity of
pure oil  called head-matter, which affords the best of,
spermaceti.  In the natural state it is so liquid that il  I
can be dipped out with a bucket.   A.]
   Balais ruby.  See Spmelle.
   BALANCE.   "The beginning and end  of  every
exact chemical process consists  in weighing.  With
imperfect instruments this operation will be tedious
and inaccurate; but wilh a good balance, the result
will be satisfactory;  and much time, which is so pre-
cious in experimental researches, will be saved.
   The balance is a lever, tlie axis of motion ot which
is formed with an edge like  that of a knife; and the
two dishes at ils extremities are  hung upon edges of
the same kind.  These  edges are first made sharp,
and then rounded with a tine hene, or a piece of buff
leather.   The excellence of  the  instrument depends,
 in a great measure, on the regular form of tliis rounded
 part.  When the lever is considered as a mere  line,
 the two outer  edges are called points of suspension,
 and the  inner the fulcrum.  The points of sus[«ension
 are supposed to be at equal distances from the fulcrum,
 and to be pressed with equal weights when loaded.
    1. If the fulcrum  be placed in the centre ot gravity
 of the beam, and the three edges lie all in the same
 ri»ht line, the balance will  have no tendency to one
 position more than another, but will rest in  any posi-
 tion it may be placed in, whether the  scales be  on or
 oft; empty or loaded.
    2. If the centre of gravity of the beam,when level,
 be immediately above the fulcrum, it will overset  by
 the smallest action; that is, the  end whicli is lowest
 will descend:  and it will do this with more swiftness,
 tlie higher the centre of gravity, and the less the points
 of suspension are loaded.                    .
    3  But if the centre of gravity ot the beam be imme-
 diately below  the fulcrum,  the beam will not rest in
 any posilion but when level; and, if disturbed trointlns
  Dosition, and then left at liberty, it  will vibrale, and
  at last come to rest on  the level.  Its vibrations will
  be quicker, and its horizontal tendency stronger, tlie
  lower the centre of gravity, and the less the weights
  upon the points of suspension......
    4  If the fulcrum be below die  line  joining the
  uoints  of suspension, and these  be loaded, the  beam
  will overset, unless  prevented by the weight  of the
  beam tending to produce, a horizontal  position.  In
  "his last case, small weights will equilibrate; a certain
  exact weight  will rest In any position of the beam;
  and all g. eater weights will cause the beam to overset.
  Many scales are often made this way, and will over-
  set with any considerable load.
 •  5.  If the fulcrum he above the line joining the points
   of suspension, the  beam will come to the  Horizon a
   position, unless prevented  by its own weight.  It  the
        114
centre of gravity ofthe beam Lc nearly in the fulcrum.
all the vibrations of the  loaded beam will be made in
times nearly equal, unless the  weights be very small,
when they will be slower.  The vibrations of balances
are quicker, and the horizontal tendency stronger, the
higher  the fulcrum.
  6  If the arms of a  balance be unequal, the weights
in equipoise will be unequal in the same proportion.
It is a severe check upon a woikman to keep the arms
equal, while he is making the other adjustments  in a
strong and inflexible beam.
  7. The equality of the arms of a balance is of use,
in scientific  pursuits, chiefly in making weights by
bisection.   A balance with unequal arms will we-«h
as accurately  as  another  of the same workmanship
with equal arms, provided the standard  weight itself
be first counterpoised, then taken out of the  scale, ana
the thing to  be weighed  be put into the scale, and ad-
justed against the counterpoise;  or when proportional
quantities only are considered, as in chemical  and in
other philosophical experiments, the bodies and pie-
ducts under examination may be weighed against the
weights, taking care  always to  put the weights  into
the same scale.  For then, though the bodies may not
be  really  equal to the weights,  yet their proportions
among each other may be the same as if they had been
accurately so.                                    ,.
  8. But though the quality of the  arms may be well
dispensed with, yet it is indispensably necessary that
their relative  leneths, whatever they  may  be, should
continue invariable.  For this purpose,it is necessary,
either that the three edges be all truly  parallel,  <;r that
the points of suspension and support should he  always
in the same part of the edge.   This  last requisite is
, the most easily obtained.
|   The balances made in London  are usually construct
| ed in  such a manner, that the bearing  parts  form
 notches in the other  parts of the edges; so that the
scales being set to vibrate, all the parts naturally tall
1 into the  same bearing.  The balances made in the
 country have the  fulcrum edge straight, and confined
 to one constant bearing by two side  plates.   But the
 points of suspension  are referred to notches in llit
 edges, like the London  balances.  The balances  lie e
 mentioned, whicli come fiom the country, are enclosed
 in a small iron japanned box; and are to be met with
 at Birmingham and Sheffield ware-houses,  though less
 frequently  than some  years  ago; because a pockel
 contrivance for weighing guineas'and  half-guineas ha;
 got possession of the market.  They are,  in  general
 well made and adjusted, turn with the twentieth of
 a grain when empty, and will sensibly show the tent*
 of a grain, with an ounce in each scale  Their prior
 is  from five shillings to half a guinea ; but those which
 ate under seven shillings, have not their edges  hatd
 cried, and consequently are not durable.  This may
 be ascertained by the purchaser, by passing tlie point
 of a penknife across the small piece which goes through
 one ofthe end boxes: if it make any  mark or impres-
 sion, ihe part is soft.
    9. If a beam be adjusted so as to have no tendency
 to any one position,  and the scales be equally loaded,
 then, if a small weight be added in one of the scales,
  that balance will turn, and the points of suspension
  will move with tin accelerated  motion, similar to that
  of falling bodies, but as much  slower, in  pioportion,
  veiy nearly, as the added weight is less than the whole
  weight borne by tlie fulcrum.
  10. The stronger the tendency to a horizontal posi-
tion in any balance, or the quicker its vibiations, the
greater  additional weight will  be  required to cause
it to turn, or incline to any given angle.  No balance,
therefore, can turn so quick as the motion deduced.
Such a balance as is there desc ribed, if it were to turn
with the ten-thousandth  part of the weight, would
move at quickest ten thousand times slower than fall
ing bodies;  that is, the dish containing the  weight*
instead of falling through sixteen feet in a second of
time, would fall through only two hundred parts of an
inch, and it would require four seconds to move tluough
one-third part of an inch ; consequently all accurate
weighing must be slow.  If the indices of two balances
be of equal lengths, that index which  is connected
with  the shorter balance will move propoilionniiy
quicker than the other.  Long beams are the tno.-t  in
request, because they are thought to have less friction:
this is  doubtful, but  the quicker angular  motion, 
B/L,
BAL
  "treater strength, and less w right of a short balarw*,
  »re certainly advantages.
    11. Very delicate balances are not only useful  in
  nice experiments, but are likewise much more expe-
  ditious than others in common weighing.  If a pair of
  -cales with a certain load be barely sensible to one-
  tenth of a grain, it will require a considerable time to
  iscertain the weight to that degree of accuracy, because
  the turn must be observed several times over, and is
  very small.  But if no greater accuracy were required,
  and  scales were used; which would turn with Ihe
  hundredth of a grain, a tenth of a grain, more or less,
  would make so great a difference in tlie turn, that it
  would be seen immediately.
   12.  If a  balance  be found to turn with a certain
 addition, and is not  moved by any smaller weight, a
 greater sensibility nifty be given to that balance, by
 producing a tremulous motion in Its  parts.  Thus, if
 the edge of a blunt saw, a file, or other similar instru-
 ment, be drawn along any part of the case or support
 of a balance, it will produce  a jarring, which will
 liniinish the friction on  the moving parts  so much,
 thai the turn will be evident with one-third or one-
 fourth of the addition that would else have been re-
 quired.  In this  way, a  beam which would barely
 turn by the addition  of one-tenth of a grain, will turn
 With one-thirtieth or  fortieth or a grain.
   13. A balance, the  horizontal tendency of which
 depends only  on  its  own weight, will turn with the
 same addition, whatever  may be the  load; except so
 far as a greater load  will produce a greater friction.
   14. But a balance,  tiie horizontal tendency of which
 depends only on the elevation of the fulcrum, will be
 less sensible the  greater the load; and the addition
 requisite to produce  an equal turn will be in propor-
 tion to the load itself.
   15. In order to regulate  the horizontal tendency Ih
 some beams, the fulcrum is placed below the points
 of suspension, and a sliding weight is put  upon the
 cock or index, by means of which the centre of gravity
 may be raised or depressed.  This is a useful  con-
 trivance.
   16. Weights are mode by a subdivision of a standard
 weight.  If the weight be continually halved, it will
 produce the common pile, which is the smallest num-
 ber for weighing between its extremes, without placing
 any weight in the scale with tlie body  under examina-
 tion.   Granulated lead is a very convenient substance
 to be used in  this opert/ion of halving, which, how-
 ever, is very tedious.   The readiest way to subdivide
 small weights, consists in weighing a certain quantity
 of small wire, and afterward cutting it into such parts,
 bv measure, as are desired; or the wire may be wrap-
 ped close round two  pins, and then cut asunder with
 a knife.  By this means it will be divided into a great
 number of equal lengths, or small rings.  The wire
 ought to be so  thin,  as that one of these rings may
 barely produce a sensible  effect on the  beaui.  If any
 quantity (as, for example, a grain) of these  rings be
 weighed,  and the number then reckoned, the grain
 may be subdivided in any proportion, by dividing  that
 number, and making  the weights equal to as many of
 the rings as the quotient of the division denotes. Then,
 if 750  of the rings amounted to a grain, and it were
 required to divide the grain decimally, downwards,
 tl-lOths would be equal to 675 rings, 8-10ths would be
 equal to GOO rings, 7-10ths to 525 ring*, &c.  Small
 weights may tie made of thin leaf brass.  Jewellers'
 foil is a good material for weights below l-10th of a
 grain, as low as to 1 100th of a grain; and  all lower
 quantities may be either estimated by the position of
 the index, or shown by actually countingthe rings of
 wire, the value of which has been determined.
   17.  In philosophical experiments, it will  be  found
 very convenient to admit no more than one dimension
 of weight.  The grain is of that magnitude as to de-
 serve the preference.  With regard to the number of
 weights the chemists  ought to be provided with, wri-
 ters have differed according to their habits and views.
 Mathematicians have computed  tlie   least  possible
 number, with which  all weights within certain limits
 might be ascertained; but  their determination is of
 little use.  Because, with so small a number, it must
often happen, that the scales will be  heavily loaded
with weights on each side, put in with a view only to
determine the difference between them.  It is not the
least possible number of weights which it"« necessary
  an operator should buy to effect his purpos*', that w*
  ought to inquire after, but the most convenient numbci
  for ascertaining his inquiries with accuracy and expo
  dition.  The error of adjustment is the least possible,
  when only one weight is In the scale; that is, a single
  weight of five  grains is twice us likely to be true, as
  two  weights, one  of three, and  the other  of two
  grains, put into the dish to supply the place of the siti
  gle five;  because each of these last has its own proba
  bility of error in adjustment.   But since it is as inccn
  sistcnt with convenience to providea siu-le  'V. ight,as
  it would be to have a single character for every num-
  ber ; and as we have nine characters, wliich we use in
  rotation,  to express  higher values according to their
  position, it will be found very serviceable to make the
  set of weights correspond with our ninncricel system.
  This directs us  to the set of weights as follows :  1U00
  grains, 900 g. 800 g. 700 g. GOO g.  500 g. 400 g. :;i«). -2<)<i e.
  100 g. 90 g. 80 g. 70 g. CO g. 50 g. 40 g. 30 l'. 20 g. 10 g.
 9 g. 8 g. 7 g. 6 g. 5 g. 4 l>. 3 g. 2 g.  1 g. 0-iO g. 8-10 i.
 7-10 g. 6-10 g.  5-10 g.  -1-lOg.  3-10 g. 2-10  g.  MOg.
 9-100  g. 8-100 g.  7-100 g.  6-100 g.  5-100 l'. 4-100 g.
 3-100 g. 2-100 g. 1-100 g.   With  these the  philosopher
 will always have the same number of weights in Ids
 scales as there are  figures in the number expressing
 the wci'jhts in  grains.   Thus  742.5 grains will ba
 weighed by the weights 700,40,2, and 5-10ths."— Cre's
 Chemical 'Dictionary.
   Bai.am'num oleum.  Oil of the ben-nut.
   Balanoca'stanum.  (From  (}aXavos,  a  nut, and
 Ka$-avov, a chesnut;  so called from its tuberous root)
 The earth-nut.  See Bunium bulbocastttnum.
   BA  LANOS.   (From flaXXw, tj  cast; because it
 sheds  its  fruit upon  the ground.)  Balanus.  1. Au
 acorn.
   2. The oak-tree.   See Quercus robur.
   3. Theophrastus uses it sometimes to express any
 glandiferous tree.
   4. From the similitude of form, this word is used to
 express suppositories and pessaries, [iaXavos signify-
 ing a nut.
   5. A name of the glans penis.
   Balas ruby.   See SpinclU.
   BALAU'STIL'M.  (From PaXtos, various, and at».
 to dry; so  called from the variety of its colours, and
 its becoming soon dry; or from liXa^avto, to germi-
 nate.)   Balaustia.   A large rose-like flower, of a red
 colour, the produce of the plant from Which we obtain
 the grannte.  See Punicn eranntum.
   BALBUTIES. (Irjin ,-'a'J.igu, to .slammer; or from
 balbel, Heb. to stammer.)   A  defect of sp; ■-•i:h ; pro-
 perly, that sott of stammering where the patient sonie-
 times  hesitates,  and immediately after, rp'-aks preci
 pilately.  It is the Pscllismus b.ilbutiens of Cullen.
  Bal'dmoncy.   See ^T'.tkusa ir.cum.
  Baldwin's phosphorus.  Ignited nitrate of  lime.
  BAL1SMUS.  (BaXXiapos; from /JaXXigw, 'ripudut
pedibus plando.)  The specific name of a dvva^e  in
Gooffs genus Synclonus for shaking paby. Sec Chorea
and  Tremor.
  BALI'STA.   (From /feXXw, to cast.)  The astragu
lus, a bone of the foot, was formerly called os bal'ista,
because the ancients used lo cast it from their slings.
  BALLOO'N.  (Ballon,  or balon, French.)   1.  A
large glass receiver  in the form of a hollow globe.
For  certain chemical operations balloons are made
with two necks, placed opposite to each other; one tc
receive the neck of a retort, and the other to enter thg
neck of a second balloon: this apparatus is called  enfi-
laded balloons.  Their use is to increase  the  whole
space of the receiver, because any  number  of these
may be adjusted  to each other.  The only one of these
vessels which is generally used, is a small oblong bal-
loon with two necks, wliich is to be luted to the retort,
and  to the receiver, or great balloon; it serves to re-
move thin  receiver from the body of the furnace, and
to hinder it from being too much heated.
  2.  A spherical bag filled with a gas of a small  spe-
cific gravity, or with heated air, by the buoyancy of
which  it is raised into the atmosphere.
  BALLO'TE.  (From j3aXXw, to send forth, and ouj
uros the ear; because it sends forth flowers like ears.)
Bullota.  The name of a genus of plants.   C'-,«s,
Didynamia ; Order,  Gymnospcrmia.
  Ballote  mora.   Stinking horehound.  A cettle-
like  plant, used, when boiled, by the  country peoplt
against scurvy and cutaneous eruptions.
  3                                      in 
BAL
BAI,
  BALM. See Melissa.
  Balm of Gilead.  Sec Dracoccphalum.
  Balm of Mecca.  See Amyris gileadensis.
  Balm, Turkey.  See Dracoccphalum.
  BA'LNEUM.   (Balneum, ei. n.  (iaXavuov, a bath.)
A bath, or bathing-house.  See Bath.
  Balneum animals.  The wrapping any part of an
tiuimal just killed, round the body, or a limb.
  Balneum aren#.  A sand-bath for chemical pur-
pose.,.  See Bath.
  Balneum calidum.  A hot-bath. See Bath.
  Balneum frigidum.  A cold-bath.  See Bath.
  Balneum marue:.  Balneum maris.   A warm-wa-
ter bath.  See Bath.
  Balneum medicatdm.  A bath impregnated wilh
drugs.
  Balneum siccum.   Balneum cincreum.   A  dry
bath, either with ashes, sand, or iron filings.
  Balneum sulphur-bum.  A sulphurous tsth.
  Balneum tepidum.  A tepid bath.  See Bath.
  Balneum vaporis.   A vapour bath.
  BA'LSAM.  (Balsamum;  from baal samen,  He-
I'icw.)  The term balsam was anciently  applied to
any strong-scanted, natural vegetable resin of about the
fluidity of treacle,  inflammable, not  rniscible  with
water, without addition, and supposed to be possessed
of many medical virtues. All the turpentines, the Peru-
vian balsam, copaiba balsam, &c. are examples of
natural  balsams.   Besides, many medicines  com-
pounded of various resins, or oils, and brought to this
consistence, obtained the name of balsam.  Latterly,
however, chemists have restricted this term to vegeta-
ble  juices, either liquid, or which spontaneously be-
come concrete, consisting of a substance of a resinous
nature, combined with benzoic  acid, or which are
capable of affording benzoic  acid, by  being heated
alone, or  wilh water.  They are insoluble in water,
but readily dissolve in alkohol and aether.  The liquid
balsa ns are copaiva, opo-balsam,  Peru, styrax,To!u;
the concrete are benzoin, dragon's blood, and stcrnx.
  Balsam apple, male. The  fruit of  the clatcrium.
See Momordica elatcrium.
  Balsam, artificial.  Compound medicines are thus
termed which are made of a balsamic consistence and
fragrance. They are generally composed of expressed
or etheieal oils, resins, and other solid bodies, which
give them the consistence of butter.   The  basis, or
body of them, is expressed oil  of nutmeg, and fre-
quently wax, butter,  Sec.   They  are  usually tinged
with cinnabar and saffron.
  Balsam of Canada.  See Pinus  Balsamca.
  Balsam, Canary.  See Dracoccphalum.
  Balsam of Copaiba.  See Copaifera  officinalis.
  Balsam,  natural.   A  resin which  has  not yet
assumed the concrete form, but still continues in n
fluid state, is so called, as common turpentine, oalsa-
uiuui copaiva, peruvianum, tolutanum, &c.
  Balsam, Peruvian.   See Myroxylon Peruifcrum.
  Balsum of sulphur.  Sec Balsamum sulphuris.
  Balsam of Tola.  See Toluifera balsamum.
  Balsam, Turkey.  See Dracoccphalum.
  BALSAM.VTIO.   (From  balsamum, a  balsam.)
The embalming of dead bodies.
  Bai.sa'mea.  (From  balsamum, balsam.)  The balm
of Gilead fir; so called  from its  odour.  See Pinus,
balsamea.
  BALSAMEL.tt'oN.   (From balsamum, balsam,  and
iXuiov, oil.)  Balm of Gilead, or true balsamum Ju-
daicum.
  Ba'lsami oleum.  Balm of Gilead.
  BALSA'MIC.  (Balsamica, sc.  medicamenta; from
BaXaapov, balsam.)  A term generally applied to sub-
stances nf a smooth and oily consistence, which  pos-
sess emollient*sweet, and generally aromatic qualities.
 Hoffman calls tliose  medicines by this name, which
 are hot nnd acrid, and  also the natural balsams, stimu-
 lating gums, ic. by wliich the vital heat is increased.
 Dr Cullen speaks of them under the joint title of bal-
 nimicti el restnosu, considering that turpentine is the
basis ot nil balsams.
  B,\ LSAMI'FERA.  (From balsamum, balsam, and
fern, lo bear.)  Balsam berry.
  Balsamifera brazii.iknsis.   The  copaiba tree.
See Copaifera officinalis.
   Balsamifera.  indicana.   Peruvian  balsam tree.
See Myroxyloi. pi ruifcrum.
   Balsamita foeminea.  Pee Achillea ageratum
       110
  Balsamita lutea.  See Polygonum persicarie.
  Balsamita major.  See Tanacetum balsamita.
  Balsamita mas.  See Tanacetum balsamita.
  Balsamita minor.  Sweet maudlin.
  BA'LSAMLTM.   (From baal samen, the Hebrew to?
the prince of oils.)  A Balsam.  See Balsam.
  Balsamum /egyptiacum.  See Amyris gileadensis
  Balsamum alpinum. See Amyris gileadensis.
  Balsamum  americanum.  See Myroxylon perur-
ferum.
  Balsamum anodyncm.  A  preparation made fronr
tacamsthacca, distilled with turpentine and soap lini
ment; and  tincture of opium, but there were a great1
number of balsams sold under this name formerly.
  Balsamum  arcei.   A  preparation  composed of
gum-elemi and suet.
  Balsamum asuticum.  See Amyris gileadensis.
  Balsamum braziliense.  See Pinus balsamca.
  Balsamum canadensb.  See Pinus balsamea.
  Balsamum  cepiialicum.  A distillation from oils
nutmegs, cloves, amber, Sec.
  Balsamum  commendatoris.   A  composition of
storax, ber.zoe,  myrrh, aloes.
  Balsamum copaibje. See Copaifera officinalis.
  Balsamum emeuyonUiT. A preparation of anise'ec!,
fallen into disuse.
  Balsamum  oeiNuinum antiqcorum.  See Amyris
gileadensis.
  Balsamum  gileadesse.  See Amyris gileadensis
  Balsamum  guaiacinum.  Balsam  of Pern and
spirits of wine.
  Balsamum  gu:donis.   The some as  balsamum
anndynum.
  Balsamum hunoaricum.   A balsam prepared from
a coniferous tree on the Carpathian mountains.
  Balsamum  judaiclm.  See Amyris gileadensis.
  ^Balsamum  lucatelli.  (Luc.itelli; so called from
its inventor Lucntellus.)  A preparation made of oil,
turpentine, wax,  and red saunders; now disused;
formerly exhibited in coughs of long standing.
  Balsamum  mas.  The  herb costnidry.   See Tana
cetum balsamita.
   Balsamum e mecca.  See Amyris gileadensis.
  Balsamum mexicamum.   See .Myroxylon pcrui
ferum.
  Balsamum novum.  A new balsam from a red fruil
in the A Vest Indies.
  Balsamum odoriferum.  A  preparation of  oil,
wax, and any essential oil.
   Balsamum  PinsicitM.  A  balsam composed  of
storax, benzoe,  myrrh, and aloes.
   Balsamum peruvianum.  See Myroxylon pcrui
ferum.
   Balsamum rackasira. This balsam, which is in
odorous when cold, but of a smell approaching to thai
of Tolu balsam when heated, is brought from India in
gourd-shells.  It is slightly bitter to the taste, and ad-
heres to the teeth, on chewing.  It is supposed to be
one of the factitious balsams, and is scarcely ever pre
scribed in this country.
   Balsamum samech-   A  factitious  balsam, com
posed of tartar, and spirits of wine.
   Balsamum saponaceum.   A name given to the
 preparation very similar to the compound soap lini
ment.
   Balsamum saturni.   The remedy so  named  is
 prepared by dissolving the acetate of leRd in oil ol
 turpentine, by digesting the mixture till it acquires a
 red  colour.  This  is found to be a good  remedy  foi
cleansing foul ulcers; but it is not acknowledged  a
our  dispensatories.
   Balsamum styracis denzoini. SeeStyraxbenzjin
   Balsamum Puccini. Oil of amber.
   Balsamum sulphuris.  A solution of sulphur in oil
   Balsamum sulphuris  amsatim.  Terebinthinated
 balsam of sulphur, nnd oil of aniseed.
   Balsamum sulphuris barbadknse. Sulphui boiled
 with Barbadoes tar.
   Balsamum sulphuris  crassum.  Thick balsanmr
 sulphur.
   Balsamum sulfhuris  simplex.   Sulphur boi'oa
 with oil.
   Balsamum sulphup.is terebinthinatum.  This
 is made by digesting the sulphur with oil of turpentine,
 it is now confined to veterinary medicine.
   Balsamum syri.uum.   See Amyris gileadensis.
   Balsamum tolutanum  See Toluifera balsamum 
BAR                                             BAR
  7tAt«xMUM  traumaticum.   V.ilnerary  balsam.
 A form of medicine intended to supply the place of
 the  tincture commonly called  Friar's  balsam, so
 famous for curing old "ulcers.  The London College
 have named it Tinctura Beuzoiui composita.
   Balsamum universale.  The unguentum saturni-
 num  of old pharmacopeias.  See Ccratum plumbi
 compositum.
  Balsamum verum.  See Amyris gileadensis.
  Balsamum viridc.   Linseed-oil, turpentine,  and
 verdigris mixed together.
  Balsamum vit.-e hoffmanni.  Beitiime de vie.   An
artificial balsam,so named from its  inventor, and com-
posed of  a great variety of the wannest and most
grateful essential oils, such as nutmegs, cloves, laven-
der, Sec,  with balsam of Peru, dissolved in highly
rectified spirit of wine;  but it is now greatly abridged
in the number of ingredients, and but little used.
  Balzoi'num.   The gum-benjamin.
  BAMBA'LIO.  (From ffapifuvui, tospeak inarticu-
lately.)  A person who sta.....iers, or lisps.
  Bamboo.  (, An Indian root i  See Arundo bambos.
  Ba'mia  moschata.  See Hibiscus.
  Bamier.  The  name of  a plant common in Egypt,
the husk of which they dress with meat, and, from its
agreeable  flavour, make great use of it in their ragouts.
  Han a'rbor.  The coffee-tree.
  I! vna'na.  An Indian word.  See Musa supientum.
  Bananei'ra.  See Banana.
  ft a nci a.  The wild parsnip.
  BANDAGE.   Ddigatio.  Fascia,   An  apparatus
consisting of one or several pieces of linen, or flannel,
and intendci for covering or surrounding parts of the
body for surgical purposes.  Bandages  are either sim-
ple or compound.  The chief of the simple are tlie
circular, the spiral, the uniting, tlie  retaining, the ex-
pellent,  aud the creeping.  The compound bandages
 used in surgery, are theft' bandage, the suspensory one,
 the capistrum, the eighteen-lail bandage, and others,
to be  met  with in surgical treatises.
  Bandu'ra.  A plain which grows in Ceylon, the
 root of which is said to be astringent.
  Bango'k.  Range.  A species of opiate in great use
 throughout the East, for its intoxicating qualities.  It
 is the leaf of a  kind of wild  hemp, growing in  the
 countries  of the  Levant, and made into powder, pills,
 or conserves.
   Ba'nica.  The wild parsnip.
   Bam'las. See Epidcndrum vanilla.
  Bam'lia.  See Epidcndrum vanilla,
  Bao bab.  Sec Adansonia digitata.
  Ba'ptica coccus.  Kermes berries.
  BAPTISTE'EIC.M.   (From Bairli*, to  immerge.)
 A bath, or repository of water, to wash the body.
  Bapti'strum.   (From Barfta, to dye.)   A species
of wild mustard, so  called from its reddish colour.
  BARBA.  (From barbarus, because wild nations
areusually unshaven.)   I.  The beard of man.
  2. In botany a species of pubescence, or down, with
which the surface of some plants are covered some-
times in patches; as in the  leaves ofthe Mescmbryan-
themum barbatum.
  3. Some vegetables have  the specific name of barba,
the ramifications of which  are bushy, like a beard, as
 Rarba, joins, Sec.
  Barba  aronis.  See Arum maculatum,
  Barba  capr.e. See Spirea ulmaria.
  Barba  hirci.   See Tragopogon.
  Barqa jovts.  Jupiter's beard.  This name is given
to several plants, as the silver bush ; tlie Scmpervivum
 majus; and of a species of anthyllis.
  BARBADOES.   The name of  an  island in the
 West, from which we obtain a mineral tar, and seve-
 ral medicinal plants.
  Barbadoes chei-ry.  See Malphigia glabra.
  Barbadoes nut.  See Jatropha curcas.
  Barbadoes tar. See Petroleum barbadense, the use
of which  in medicine is limited to its external appli-
cation, at times, in paralytic cases.
  Barba'rea.   (From  St. Barbary, who is said to
have found its virtues.)  See Erysimum barbarca.
  Barearo'ss*:  pilula.  Barbarossa's pill.  An an-
cient composition of quicksilver, rhubarb, diagridium,
musk, amber, &c.   It was the first  internal mercurial
medicine which obtained any real credit.
  Ba'rbabum.  The name of a plaster in Scribomus
L argui.
  Barbatina.  A Persian vermifuge seed.
  BARBA'TUS.  (From barba, a benrd.)   Bearded;
applied to a leaf which has a hairy or beard-likn pu-
Lvscence; as Mi sembryanthemum barbatum, and Spa-
nanthe punicut.ita.
  BA'RBEL   Barbo.   An oblong fish, resembling
the pike, the eating of the roe of which often brings
on tlie cholera.
  UAltlU'RKY.  See Berbcris.
  UAKI1KYRAC, Cbari.es.  A  French physician of
the I7tn century, whog inflated and settled at Mont-
peher, where he acquired great celebrity,  lie died in
1(5911,  at line age of about 70,  having published little,
except a good account of the diseases ol' Ihe chest and
stomach in females. Mr. Locke, who became intimate
with  Iiiiii abroad, considered  him very similar in his
manners and opinions to Sydenham.  His practice is
said lo ha\e been  distinguished for simplicity and
enerev.
  Uarbo'ta. The barbut.  A small river-fish.  It is
remarkable for the size of its liver, wlych is esteemed
the most delicate part of it.
  [BARD, Dk. John. Dr. Bard was of French descent
His ancestors preferring their  laith to their coiiuti;-,
became exiles under the provisions of the revocation
of the edict of  Nantes.  Dr.  Ifard first settled iu Ins
profession iu Philadelphia, but after practising in that
citv about live or six years, he was induced lo lemove
to New-York in the year 1740.  It>  the urbanity of his
manners, his professional  talents, and Ihe charms of
his conversation, whicli was enlivened by an uncom
inon flow of cheerfulness, enriched by sound sense,
and adorned by  a large fund of anecdote, he so effec-
tually recommended himself to ihe notice and friend-
ship of the most resectable families, that he was
almost immediately introduced into a valuable scene
of business, and very soon arrived at the first rank of
professional eminence, which  he retained through a
long life of more  than fourscore years.  He died in
March, 1799, leaving a son who afterward eclipsed his
father in his professional  career.—See Thack. .Med.
Biog.  A.]
  [BARD, Samuel, M.D. LL.D.  was  the son of
Dr. John Bard, and was born in Philadelphia, April I,
1712.   He acquired  his classical  education at KitiL's,
now Columbia College, in Ihe city of New-York.  IU
spc.it  five years  abroad, and acquired his medical edu-
cation principally in Edinburgh, where he teceived his
degree of Doctor in Medicine in May, 1705.   He com-
menced practice  in New- York, but the events of the
revolution prevented his success until the close of the
war in 1783, after whicli he rose  in professional emi-
nence until he retired from practice in I79S.   After his
return from Europe, he was instrumental in establish
ing the medical faculty which was annexed to Coluin
bia College, his alma mater, and he was appointed the
first professor of  the practice of physic.  The esta-
blishment of the New-York hospital was  effected
principally  by his exertions, and  he was  for many
years  one of the physicians  to  the institution.  He
was author of several  medica!  essays, hut the princi-
pal work of his is a system of midwifery, published
after  he  retired from practice.  Princeton College ii
New jersey conferred upon him the degree of (LL.D.)
Doctor of Laws, on account of  tlie high reputation of
his  professional  skill,  learning,  and abilities.—See
Thach. Med. Biog.  A.]
  BARDA'NA.   (From bardus, foolish; because silly
people are apt to throw them on the garments of pas-
sengers, having  the  property of sticking to whatever
they touch.)  Burdock.  See Arctium lappa.
  BAREGE.  The small village of Barege, celebrated
for its thermal waters, is situated on the French side
of the Pyrenees, about halfway between the Mediter-
ranean and the Bay of Biscay.   The hot springs aro
four in number.  They have all the same component
parts,  but differ somewhat  in their temperature, and
in the quantity of sulphur, the  hottest being most
strongly penetrated with this active ingredient.  The
coolest of these  waters raises Fahrenheit's thennomp-
ter to  73 deg.; the hottest to 120 deg. Barege waters
are  remarkable for a very  smooth,  soapy  feel;  they
render the skin  very supple and pliable, and dissolve
perfectly well soap and animal  lymph; and are re-
sorted to as a bath in resolving tumours of variour
kinds, rigidities, and contractions  of the tendons, stiff
nnsR of tlie joints, left  by rheumatic and gouty com
                                        117 
BAR
BAR
plaints, and are highly serviceable in cutaneous erup-
tions.  Internally taken, thi3 Ivater gives considerable
relief in disorders of the stomach, especially attended
with acidity and heart-bum, in obstinate colics, jaun-
dice, and in gravel, and other affections of the urinary
organs.
  BaRi'glia.  See Barilla.
  BARl'LLA.  Banltor; Bariglia   The term given
In commerce to the impure soda imported from Spain
and the Levant.  It is  made by burning to ashes dif-
ferent plants that grow on the sea-shore, chiefly ofthe
genus  salsola, and  is  brought to  us in hard porous
masses, of a speckled brown colour.  Kelp, which is
made in  this country by burning sea-weeds, and is
called British barilla, is much more impure.
  [Barilla is much  used in the  arts on account of the
soda it contains.
  " Cai bonate cf soda is chiefly obtained by the com-
bustion of marine plants, the  ashes  of which afford,
by lixiviation,  the  impure alkali called soda.  Two
kinds of rough soda occur in the market; barilla and
kelp; besides which some native carbonate of soda is
also imported.   Barilla  is the semil'used ashes of the
salsola soda, which is  largely  cultivated  upon  the
Mediterranean shores of  Spain,  in the vicinity  of
Alicant.   Kelp consists of the ashes of sea-weeds
which  are collected upon the sea coast and burned in
kilns, or merely in excavations made in the ground
and surrounded by stones.  It seldom contains more
than five per cent of carbonated alkali, and  about
24 tons of sea-weed are required to produce  one ton
of kelp.  The  best produce is from  the hardest fuci,
such as the serratus, digitatus, nodosus, and vesicu-
lostts.  The rough alkali is contaminated by common
salt, and impurities, from which it may  be  separated
by solution in a small portion of water, filtrating the
solution, and evaporating it at a low heat; the com-
mon salt may be skimmed off"as its crystals form upon
the surface."—See  Webster's Man. of Chem.  A.)
  BARIUM.   (From barytes,  from  which it is ob-
tained.)  The  metallic  basis ofthe  earth barytes, so
named by Sir Humphrey Davy, who discovered it.
  " Take pure barytes, make it into a paste with water,
and put this on a plate of platinum.  Make a cavity in
the middle of the  barytes, into which  a globule of
mercury is to be placed.  Touch ihe globule with the
negative wire, and the platinum with  the  positive
wire, of a voltaic battery of about  100 pairs of plates
in good action.  In a short time an amalgam will be
formed, consisting  of  mercury and barium.  This
amalgam must be  introduced into a little bent tube,
made of glass free from lead, sealed at one end, which
being filled with the vapour of naphtha, is then to be
hermetically sealed at the other end.  Heat  must be
applied to the recurved end of the  tube, where the
amalgam lies.  The mercury will distil over, while the
banum will remain.
  This metal is of a dark gray colour, wilh  a  luslie
inferior to that of cast iron.  It is fusible at a red heat.
Its density is superior to that of sulphuric acid; for
though surrounded with globules of gas, it sinks imme-
diately in that liquid.   When exposed  to air,  it in-
stantly becomes covered with a crust of barytes; and
when gently heated in  air,  burns with a deep  red
light.   It effervesces violently in water, converting this
liquid into a solution of barytes."
  BARK.  A term  very frequently employed to sig-
nify, by way of eminence, Peruvian bark.  See Cin-
chona.
  Bark, Carribaan.  See Cinchona Carribaa.
  Bark, Jamaica.  See  Cinchona Carribaa.
  Bark, Peruvian.   See Cinchona.
  Bark, red.  See Cinchona oblongifo'ia.
  Bark, yellow.  See Cinchona cordifolia.
  BARLEY.  See  Hordcum.
  Barley, caustic.  See  Ccvadilla.
  Barley, pearl.  See Hordcum.
  BARM.  See Fermcntum cerevisia.
  BARNET.  A town near London, where there is a
mineral water; of a purging kind, of  a similar qualify
in that of Epsom, and about half its strength.
  [BAROL1TE. The  name given by Kirwan to the
carbonate of barytes.  A.]
  BAROMETER.  (From Bjtpoc, weight, and utrpov,
measure.)  An instrument to determine the weight of
rhe air; it is commonly  called a weather-glass.
  Barolvte.  A carbonate of baryte3
       113
  Baro'nes.  Small worms; called also Neponcs.
  BA'ROS.  (Bapos-)  Gravity.  1. Hippocrates uses
this word to express by it, an uneasy weight in any
part.
  2. It is also the Indian name for a species ot cr.m
phire, which is distilled from the roots of the true cin-
namon-tree.
  [BAROSELENITE.  Kirwan's name for the sul
phate of barytes. A.]
  Barras. Galipot.   The resinous  inciustation  on
the wounds made in fir-trees.
  Barren Flower.  See Flos.
  BARRENNESS.  See Sterility.
  BA'RTHOLINE, Thomas,  was  born at Copen-
hagen  in  1016.   After studying in various  parts  of
Europe, particularly Padua, and graduating at Basil,
he became professor of anatomy iii his native city; in
whicli  office he greatly distinguished  himself, as well
as in many other branches of learning.  He was the
first who described the lymphatics  with  accuracy;
though some of  these vessels, as well as the lacteals
and  thoracic duct,  had been before discovered  by
other  anatomists.   Besides   many  learned works
which  he published, several others were unfortunately
destroyed by fire in 1670; and he particularly regretted
a d issertation on  the ancient practice of midwifery, of
which  an outline was afterward  published by his son
Caspar.   Of those wliich remain, the most esteemed
are, his epistolary correspondence with the most cele-
brated of his cotemporaries: his collection  of cases
where  foetuses have been discharged  by preternatural
outlets; and the " Medical and Philosophical Transac-
tion of Copenhagen," enriched by the communications
of many correspondents. This last work was in four
volumes, published within the ten years preceding his
death,  which  happened 1680; and  a fifth was after-
ward added by his son.
  Bartholinia'n.*  glandul.e.    See  Sublingual
glands.
  [BARTLETT, Josiah, M.D. Dr. Bartlett was born
in Amesbury in  Massachusetts in 1729, and after ac-
quiring his profession commenced practice in the town
of Kingston   in New-Hampshire,  where  he hud
acquired  considerable  reputation  before the com-
mencement of the American revolution, in which  he
took an  active and  decided  part  in favour of  his
country.   " From his integrity and decision of charac-
ter, Dr Bartlett was soon designated  as a magistrate,
and sustained various offices  from the lowest to tlie
highest.  In 1775 he was chosen a delegate to the con-
tinental congress.  He attended  in that  honourable
assembly, and when the vote for American Indepen-
dence was taken, Dr. Bartlett's name was first called,
as representing the most  easterly  province, and  he
boldly  answered  in the affirmative."  After the revo-
lution  he was elected governor of  the state of New
Hampshire under the new form of government.
  " His mind was quick and penetrating, his it-.emorv
tenacious, bis  judgment sound and prospective; hfs
natural temper was open, humane, and compassionate.
In all his dealings he  was scrupulously just, and faith
ful in the performance of all his engagements. These
shining talents accompanied with distinguished pro
bity, early in life recommended him to the esteem and
confidence of his fellow-citizens.  But few persons, by
their own merit, without the influence of family or
party  connexions, have  risen from one  degrep  of
honour to another as he did ; and fewer still have been
the instances in which a succession of honourable and
important offices, have been held by any man with less
envy, or executed with more general approbation."- -
See Thach. Med. Biog.  A.]
  [BARTON,  Benjamin Smith, M. D.   Dr. Barton
was born  at Lancaster in Pennsylvania in 1760.  Iu
1780 he  went to Creat Britain, "and prosecuted his
medical studies at Edinburgh and Loudon.  He after-
ward visited Gottingen, and there obtained the degree
of doctor in medicine.  On returning to Philadelphia,
In L39, he established himself as a physician in that
city, and his superior talents and education soon pro-
cured him competent employment.  He was that yenr
appointed Professor of Natural History nnd Botanv in
the College of Philadelphia, and continued in the office
on the  incorporation ofthe college with the university,
in 1791.  He was appointed Professor of Materia Me-
dica  on Ihe resignation of Dr. Griffiths, and on the
death of  Dr. Rush, succedied  him' in tlie department 
BAR
BAR
 of the Theory and Practice of Medicine.   He died in
 December, 1315.
   He published, "Elements of Zoology and Botany,'
 '* Elements of Botany, or Outlines ofthe Natural His-
 tory of Vegetables," "Collections for an Essay towards
 a Materia Medica of the United States;"  besides nu-
 merous essays and communications contributed to the
 " Medical  and  Physical Journal."—See  Thacher's
 Med. Biog.  A.]
  BARYCOI'A.   (From Bapvs, heavy,  and aKovu, to
 hear.;  Deafness, or difficulty of hearing.
  Baryoco'ccalon.  (From Bapvs, heavy, and kokko.-
 \o$, a nut: because it gives  a deep sound.)   A name
 for the stramonium.
  BARYPHOM A.  (From Bapus, dull, and <puvn,
 the voice.)   A difficulty of speaking.
  BARYTE.  See Heavv spar.
  BARY'TES.  (From jiapvs, heavy;  so called be-
cause it is very ponderous.)   Cauk;  Calk;  Terra
pondcrosa; Baryta.  Ponderous earth;  Heavy earth.
 United with the sulphuric  acid, it forms the mineral
called sulphate  of barytes,  or baroselenite.  When
 united to carbonic acid, it is called aerated barytes, or
carbonate of barytes.  See Heavy spar.
  Barytes, is a compound of barium and oxygen. Oxy-
gen combines with two portions of barium, forming, 1.
Barytes.  2.  Deutoxyde of barium.
  1.  Barytes, or protoxyde ofbarium, " is best obtained
 by igniting, in a covered crucible, the pure crystallized
 nitrate  of  barytes.  It  is  procured in  the state  of
 hydrate, by adding caustic  potassa or soda to a solu-
 tion of the muriate of nitrate.   And barytes, slightly
 coloured with charcoal, may be obtained by strongly
 igniting the carbonate and charcoal mixed together in
 fine  powder.   Barytes  obtained from the  ignited
 nitrate is of a whitish-gray colour;  more caustic than
 strontites, or perhaps even lime.  It render* ihe syrup
 of violets green, and the infusion of tumeric red.  Its
 specific gravity  by Fourcroy is 4.  When water in
 small quantity is poured on the dry earth, it slakes like
 quicklime, but perhaps with evolution of more heat.
 When swallowed  it  acts as a violent  poison.  It is
 destitute of smell.
   When pure barytes is exposed, in a porcelain tube,
 al a heat verging on ignition, to a stream of dry oxy-
 gen  gas, it absorbs the gas rapidly, and passes to the
 state of deutoxyde of barium.  But when it is calcined
 in contact with atmospheric air, we obtain at first this
 deutoxyde and carbonate of barytes;  the  former of
 which passes very slowly into the latter, by absorption
 of carbonic acid from the atmosphere.
   2. The deutoxyde of barium  is of a  greenish-gray
 eolour, it is caustic, renders the syrup of violets green,
 ind is not decomposable by heat or light.  The voltaic
 Dile  reduces  it.   Exposed at a moderate heat to car-
 bonic acid, it absorbs it, emitting oxygen, and becoming
 carbonate of barytes.  The deutoxyde  is  probably
 decomposed  by  sulphuretted hydrogen  at ordinary
 temperatures.  Aided by heat, almost all combustible
 bodies, as well 03  many metals, decompose it.  The
 action of hydrogen is accompanied with  remarkable
 phenomena.
  Water at 50° F. dissolves one-twentieth of its weight
 of barytes, and at 212° about one half of its  weight.
 It is colourless, acrid, and caustic.  It acts powerfully
 on the vegetable purples and yellows.  Exposed to the
 air, it attracts carbonic acid, and the dissolved barytes
 is converted into carbonate, which falls down  in inso-
 luble crusts.
   Sulphur combines with barytes, when they are mixed
 together, and heated in a crucible. The same com-
 pound  is more  economically obtained  by igniting a
 mixture of sulphate of barytes and charcoal in  fine
 powder.  This sulphuret is of a reddish  yellow colour,
 and when dry without smell.  When this substance is
 put  into hot water, a powerful action is  manifested.
 The water is decomposed, and two new products arc
 formed, namely,  hydrosulphuret, and  hydroguretted
 sulphuret of barytes.  The first crystallizes as the
 liquid cools, the second remains dissolved.  The hydro-
 sulphuret is  a compound of 9.75 of barytes with 2.125
 sulphuretted hydrogen.  Its crystals should be quickly
 separated by filtration, and dried by pressure between
 the  folds of porous paper.  They are  white scaies,
 have a silky lustre, are soluble in water, and  yield a
 solution having  a greenish  tinge.  Its  taste is acrid,
 wlphureous. and when mixed with the  hydroguretted
 sulphuret, eminently  corrosive.   It  rapidly  attract*
 oxygen from the atmosphere, and is converted  into the
 sulphate of barytco.  The hydroguretted sulphuret is a
 compound of 9.75 barytes  with  4.1^5 bisulphuretted
 hydrogen: but contaminated with sulphite and hypo
 sulphite in unknown proportions.  The dry sulphuret
 consists probably of 2 sulphur + 9.75 barytes.   The
 readiest way of obtaining barytes water Is to boil the
 solution of the sulphuret  with deutoxyde of copper,
 which seizes the sulphur, while the hydrogen Hies off,
 and the barytes remains dissolved.
   Phosphuret of barytes may be easily formed by ex
 posing the constituents together to heat in a glass  tube,
 Their reciprocal action is so intense  as to cause  igni-
 tion.  Like phosphuret of lime, it decomposes wa.er,
 and causes the disengagement of phosphuretted hydro-
 gen gas,  which spontaneously inflames  with contact
 of air.  When sulphur is made tnaclonlhiideuto.\.vi.!c
 of barytes, sulphuric acid is formed, whicu unites '.•• a
 portion of the earth into a sulphate.
   The  salts of barytes are while, and  more or  less
 transparent   All the  soluble sulphates  cause in the
 soluble salts of barytes a precipitate insoluble  in nitric
 acid.  They are all poisonous except the sulphate; ami
 hence tlie proper counter-poison is  dilute sulphuric
 acid  for the  carbonate, and sulphate of soda tor the
 soluble salts of barytes."
   Pure barytes has a much stronger affinity than any
 other body for sulphuric acid; it turns  blue  tincture
 of cabbage green.  It is entirely infusible by heat alone,
 but melts when mixed with various  earths.   Its spe-
 cific  gravity  is 4.000.  It changes quickly in  the air,
 swells,  becomes soft, and  falls into a white  powder,
 with the acquisition of about one-fifth of its weight.
 This slaking is much more active and speedy than that
 of lime.  It  combines with phosphorus^ which com-
 pound decomposes water rapidly.  It  unites to sulphur
 by the dry and humid  way.  Il has a powerful attrac-
 tion  for water, which it absorbs  with a hissing noise,
 and consolidates it  strongly.   It is soluble in twenty
 limes its weight of cold, and twice its weight of boiling
 water.   Its crystals arc  long four-sided  prisms  of a
 satin-like appearance.  Il is  a deadly poison to ani
 mats.
    Other  Methods of obtaining Barytes.—1. Take na-
 tive carbonatfi ot* barytes; reduce it lo a fine  powder,
' and dissolve it in a suflicient quantity of diluted nitric
| acid; evaporate this solution till a pellicle appears, and
I then suffer it to crystallize in a  shallow  basin.   The
! salt obtained is nitrate of barytes;  expose this nitrate
| of barytes to the action of heat in a china cup. or silver
j crucible,  and keep it in a dull red heat for al least one
 hour; then suffer the vessel  to cool,  and transler the
j greenish solid contents, which are pure barytes, into a
: veil-stopped bottle.  When dissolved in a small quan-
 tity of  distilled water, and evaporated,  it may be ub-
, t lined in a beautiful crystalline form.
   In this process the  nitric  acid, added to the native
 carbonate of barytes, unites to the barytes, and expels
 the carbonic  acid, and  forms nitrate of barytes; on
 exposing this nitrate to  heat, it  parts with  its  nitric
 acid, wliich becomes decomposed into its constituents,
 leaving the barytes behind.
   2.  Pure barytes may likewise  be obtained  from its
 sulphate.  For this purpose,  boil powdered sulphate
 of barytes in  a solution of twice  or three  times its
 weight of carbonate of potassa, in a i'loience flask, for
 about  two hours;  filter  the solution,  and expose
 what remains on the  filter to the  action of a violent
 heat
   In this case, the sulphuric acid of the barytes unites
 to the  potassa, and the carbonic  acid of  the  latter
 joins to  the  barytes; hence  sulphate of potassa and
 carbonate of barytes are obtained.   The former  is in
 solution, and  passes through the  filter; the  lattei is
 insoluble, and remains  behind.  From this  artificial
 carbonate of barytes,  the  carbonic acid is driven off
 by heat.
   Baryta: murias.  Terra pondcrosa  salita.   The
 muriate cf barytes  is  a very acrid  and poisonous pre-
 paration.  In small doses  it proves sudorific, diuretic,
 deobstruent, and alterative; in an over-dose, emetic,
 and violently purgative.  The late Dr. Crawford found
 it very serviceable in all  diseases connected with scro-
 fula; and the Germans have employed  it with  great
 success in some diseases of the skin  and viscera, and
i obstinate ulcers. The dose of the saturated solution in 
BAS
BAS
distilled water, is from five to fifteen drops for children,
and from fifteen to twenty for adults.
  Basaal.   (Indian.)   The name of an Indian  tree.
A decoction of its  leaves, with  ginger, i-.i water, is
used as a gargle  in disorders of the fauces.  The ker-
nels of the fruit kill worms.—Ray's Hist.
  BASAL"! ES.   (In the ^Ethiopic tongue, this word
means iron,  which is the colour  of the stone.)  A
heavy ard hard  kind of stone, found standing up in
the form of regular  angular  columns, composed of a
number of joints, one placed upon and nicely fitted to
another as if formed by the hands of a skilful archi-
tect.  It is found in beds and veins in granite and mica
slate, the old red sandstone, limestone, and  coal for-
mations.  It is distributed  over the whole world ; but
nowhere is it met with in greater  variety  than  in
Scotland.  The German basalt is supposed to be a wa-
tery deposite; and that of France to be of volcanic or igin.
  The most  remarkable  is the columnar  basalles,
which  forms immense  masses, composed of columns
thirty, forty, or more feet in height, and of enormous
thickness.  Nay, those at Fairhead are two hundred
and fifty feet high.  These constitute some ofthe most
astonishing scenes in  nature, for  the immensity and
regularity of their parts.  The coast of Antrim in Ire-
land, for the  space of three miles in length, exhibits a
very magnificent  variety of columnar cliff's:  and the
Giant's Causeway consists of a  point of that coast
formed of similar columns, and projecting into the sea
upon a  descent  for several  hundred  feet.   These
columns are, for the most part, hexagonal, and fit very
accurately together ; but most  frequently not adherent
to each other, though water cannot penetrate between
them.   And  the basaltic appearances on the Hebrides
Islands on the coast of Scotland, as described by Sir
Joseph Banks, who  visited them in 1772, are upon a
scale very striking for their vastness and variety.
  [Basaltes belongs to a ciass of  rocks now called
superincumbent.   They are always found in a vertical
position, resting upon other strata of rocks which arc
horizontal.   Some of the most remarkable of these
are the Pallisado rocks, extending forty miles or more
along  the Hudson river, on its west  bank,  partly in
New-Jersey  and  partly in the state of New-York.
There are other ridges of the same formation  in other
parts of New-Jersey, all resting upon sandstone. On the
south  shore  of Lake Superior, the basaltic  rocks,  as
they have been described by travellers, particularly by
Mr. Schoolcraft, have a grand and  imposing  appear-
ance.  There is a ridge of this kind of rock extending
a number of miles north from New-Haven, in the state
of Connecticut.   A singular formation of  basaltic
rocks  is found in North Carolina, constituting a wall
many miles in extent, which  has given rise to much
controversy ;  but Dr. Woodhouse, of Philadelphia, set-
tled the question, as to the true nature of this for-
mation.
  " Basalt (says professor Eaton) is a hornblende rock,
not primitive, probably  of volcanic origin.   Subdivi-
sions— Amygdaloid,  when amorphous, of a  compact
texture,  but  conta..iing  cellules,  empty  or filled.
Greenstone trap, when of a columnar structure, or in
angulai blocks, often coarse-grained. Variety—Toad-
stone, when  the amygdaloid has a warty appearance,
and resembles slag."  A.l
  Basaltic hornblende.   See Hornblende.
  BASANITE.  Sec Flinty slate.
  Basam'tes. (From 6atjavt£u>, to find out.*)   A stone
said, by Pliny, to contain a bloody juice, and  useful  in
diseases of the liver: also a  stone upon which, by
some, the purity of gold was formerly said to be tried,
and of wliich medical mortars were made.
  BASE.  See Basis.
  Base, acidifiuble.  See Acid.
  Base, acidifying.  See Acid.
  Basia'tio.   (From basio, to kiss •   Venereal con-
nexion between the sexes.
  Basia'tor.  See Orbicularis oris
  BASIL.  See Ocimum busiltcum.
  BASILA'RIS.   Sec  Basilary.
  Basilaris arteria.  Basilary artery. An artery of
  s brain; so called, because it lies  upon the basilary
,irccess of the occipital bone. It is formed by the junc-
tion ofthe two vertebral arteries within the skull, and
runs forwards to  the sella turcica along the pons varo-
lii, which it supplied, as well as the adjacent parts, with
Mood
      120
   Basilaris porcessus.  See Occipital bone.
   Basilaris apophysis.  Sec Occipital bone.
   BASILA'RY.  (Basilaris ; from BaoiXevs, a king.
Several parts of the body, bones, arteries, veins, pro-
cesses, Sec. were so named by the ancients, from their
situation being connected with or leading to the liver
or brain, which they considered as the seat of tlie soul
or royalty.
   Basi'lica mediana.   See  Basilica vena.
   Basilica nux.   The walnut.
   Basilica vena.   The large vein that runs in the in-
ternal part of the arm, and evacuates its blood into the
axillary vein.  The branch which crosses, at the head
of the arm,  to join this vein, is  called the  basilic
median.  They may either of them  be  opened  in the
operation of  bloodletting.
   Basilicon.   See  Basilicum ungucntum.
   BASI'LICUM.  (From QaaiXiKos, royal; so called
from its great virtues.;   See Ocimum basilicum.
   Basilicum  unguentum.   Vnguentum  basilicum
flavum.  An  ointment  popularly  so called from its
having the ocimum basilicum  in its composition.  It
came afterward to be composed of wax,  resin, Sec.
and is now called  ceratum resina.
   BASILICUS. (From BaoiXtvs, a king.   See Basi-
lary.) Basilic.
   Basilicus  pulvis.  The royal powder.  A prepara-
tion formerly composed of calomel, rhubarb, and jalap.
Many compositions were, by the ancients, so  called
from their supposed pre-eminence.
   Ba.sili'dion.  An itchy ointment was  formerly sc
called by Galen.
   Ba'silis.  A name formerly given to collyriums of
supposed virtues, by Galen.
   BASILI'SCUS.   (From BaaiXcvs, a king.)  1.  The
basilisk, or cockatrice, a poisonous serpent; so called
from a white spot upon its  head, which resembles  a
crown.
   2. The philosopher's stone.
   3. Con osive sublimate.
   BASIO. Some  muscles  so have the first part o*
their names, because they originate from the basilary
process of the occipital bone.
   Basio-cerato-chondro-closscs. See Hyoglossus.
   Basio-glossum.  See Hyoglossus.
   Basio-pi;arykg*tjs.   See Constrictor pharyngis
medius.
   BASIS.  (From Baivio, to go: tlie support  of any
thing, upon which  it stands or goes.) Base.  1. This
word is frequently  applied anatomically to the body of
any part, or to that part from which the other parts
appear, as it were,  to proceed, or by which they are
supported.
   2. In pharmacy it signifies the principal ingredient.
   3. In chpmistry,  usually applied  to alkalies, earths,
and metallic oxydes, in their relations to the acids and
salts.  It is sometimes  also applied to the  particular
constituents of an  acid  or oxyde, on the supposition
that the substance  combined •with  the  oxygen, Sec. is
the basis of the compound to w liich it owes its parti-
cular qualities.  This notion seems  unphilosophical
as these qualities depend as much on the state of com'
bination as on the nature of the constituent.
   Basi colica.  The name  of a medicine in Scribo
nius Largns, compounded of aromatics  and  honey.
   BASSORINE.  This  substance  is extracted from
the gum resins which contain it, by treating them suc-
cessively with water, alkohol, and  rether.   Bassorine
being insoluble in these liquids, remains mixed merely
with  the woody particles, from  which it is  easy to
separate it, by repeated  washings and  decantations:
because one of its characteristic properties is to sweli
extremely in the water  and  to become  very buoyant
This substance swells up in cold as well as in boiling
water, without any of its parts dissolving.   It is solu-
ble however almost completely by the aid of hea', in
vvater sharpened with  nitric or muriatic  acid.  If
after concentrating with a gentle heat the nitric solu
tion, we add  highly rectified alkohol, there results a
white precipitate, flocculent and bulky, which, washed
with much alkohol and dried, does not form,  at the
utmost, the tenth of the quantity  of bassorine em
ployed, and wliich  presents all the properties of gum
Orabic.  Vauquelin, Bulletin de Pharmacic,  iii.  56.
  BASTARD.  A term often employed in medicine,
and botany, to designate a disease or plant which has
the appearance of, but is not in reality what it 'aseru 
BAT
BAi
 bles: The name of that which it similates is generally
 attached  to it, us bastard peripncumony, bastard pel-
 litory, Ace.
   Bastard pellitory.  See Achillaa ptarmica.
   Bastard pleurisy.  See Peripneumonia notha.
   Batatas.   (So the natives of  Peru call the root of
 a lonvolvuius falso.  The potato, which is a native
 of that country.   See Solanum tuberosum, and Con-
 'jolvulus batatas.
   [The Solanum  tuberosum  is the  common potato,
 from which all the edible varieties are derived   The
 Convolvulus batatas  is IhcCaiolina or sweet potato
 of the United Slates.  A ]
   Batatas  peregrina.  The purging potato.
   BATH.   BaXavtivv  Balneum.  A bath.
   1.  A convenient receptacle of water, for persons to
 wash or plunge in, either for health or pleasure. These
 are distinguished  into hot and cold: and  are either
 natural or artificial. The natural hot baths are formed
 if the water of hot springs, of which there are many
 in different parts of  the  world;   especially iu  those
 countries  where  there  are, or have evidently  been,
 volcanoes.  The  artificial hot baths consist either ot
 water, or of some other fluid, made hot by art   The
 cold bath  consists of water, either  fresh or salt, in its
 natural degree of heat; or it  may be made colder by
 art, as by a mixture of nitre, sal-ammoniac, Sec.   The
 chief hot baths in our country are those  of Bath and
 Bristol, and those of Buxton and Matlock; whicli lat-
 ter, however, are rather warm, or tepid, than hot.  The
 use of baths is found to be  beneficial in diseases of
 the  head, as palsies,  Sec; in cuticular  diseases, as
 leprosies, &c.; obstructions and constipations ofthe
 bowels, the scurvy, and  stone; and in many diseases
 of women and children.   The cold bath,lhoueh popu-
 larly esteemed one of  the most innocent remedies yet
 discovered, is not, however, to be adopted indiscrimi-
 nately.  On the contrary, it is liable to do considerable
 mischief in some cases of diseased viscera, and is not,
 in any case, proper to be used during the  existence ot
 costiveness.   As a preventive remedy for the young,
 and as a general bracer for persons of a relaxed fibre,
 especially of the  female sex, it often  proves highly
 advantageous; and,  in general, the popular idea is
 a correct one, that the glow which succeeds the use of
 cold or temperate bath, is a test of their utility; while,
 on the other hand, their producing chilliness, head-
 ache, Sec. is a proof of their being pernicious.
   1.  The  Cold Bath.  The diseases and morbid symp-
 toms, for which  tlie  cold  bath, under one form or
 another, may  be  applied with advantage,  are very
 numerous; and some  of them deserve particular atten-
 tion. One of the most important of its uses is in ar-
 dent fever; and, under proper management, it forms a
 highly valuable remedy in this dangerous disorder. It
 is highly important, however, to attend to the precau-
 tions which the use of this vigorous remedial process
 requires.  "Affusion with cold water," Dr. Currie ob-
 serves, " may be used  whenever the heat  of the  body
 is steadily above the natural  standard, when there is
 no sense of chilliness, and especially when there  is no
 general nor profuse perspiration.   If used during the
 cold stage of a fever, even though tlie heat  be higher
 than natural, it brings on interruption of respiration, a
 fluttering,  weak, and extremely quick pulse, aud  cer-
 tainly might be carried so far  as to extinguish anima-
 tion entirely."  The most salutary consequence which
 follows tlie proper use of this  powerful remedy, is the
 production of free and general perspiration.  It is this
 circumstance that appears to give so much advantage
 'j a general affusion of cold water in fevers, in prefer-
 ence to any partial application.  The cold bath is bet-
 ter known, especially in this country, as a general tonic
 remedy in various chronic diseases.  The general cir-
 cumstances of disorder for whicli cold bathing appears
 lo be of service, according lo  Dr. Saunders, are a lan-
 gour and weakness of circulation, accompanied with
 profuse sweating  and  fatigue, on very moderate exer-
 tion ; tremors  in  the limbs, and many of  those symp-
 toms usually called nervous;  where the moving pow-
ers are weak, and the mind listless and indolent; but,
at the same lime, where  no permanent morbid ob-
struction, or visceral disease, is present.  Such a state
of body is often the consequence of a long and debili-
tating sickness, or of  a  sedentary  life, without using
the exercise requisiie to kesp up  the activity of the
bodily powers.  In all these cases, the great object to
 be fulfilled, is to produce a considerable reaction, trow
 the shock of cold water,  at the expense  of as little
 heat as  possible ;  and when cold bathing does barm,
 it is  precisely where the powers of the body  are too
 languid  to bring on reaction, and the chilling effecta
 remain unopposed.  When the patient feels the shock
 of immersion  very  severely, and, from experience of
 its pain, has acquired an  insuperable dread  of thU
 application; when he has felt little or no friendly glow
 to succeed the first  shock, but on  coming out ot the
 bath remains cold, shivering, sick at the stomach, op-
 pressed with headache, languid, drowsy,  and listless,
 and averse to food  and exercise during the whole ol
 the day, we may be sure that the  bath has been loo
 cold, the shock too severe, and no reaction produced a<
 all adequate to the  impression on the surface of the
 body.
   There is a kind of  slow, irregular fever, or rather
 febricula, in which Dr. Saunders has often found the
 cold  bath of singular service.   This disorder princi-
 pally affects persons naturally of a sound constitution,
 but "who lead a sedentary life, and  at the same time
 are employed in some occupation which  strongly en-
 gages their attention, requires  much  exertion of
 thought, and excites a degree of anxiety. Such persons
 have constantly a pulse rather quicker than natural,
 hot hands, restless nights, and  an  impaired appetite,
 but without any considerable derangement  in  the di-
 gestive organs.  This disorder will continue for a long
 time in  an  irregular way, never entirely preventing
 their ordinary occupation, but  rendering it more than
 usually anxious and  fatiguing, and often preparing the
 way for  confirmed hypochondriasis.  Persons in this
 situation  are remarkably relieved  by the cold bath
 and,  for the most part, bear it well;  and its use should
 also, if possible, be aided by that  relaxation from busi-
 ness, and that diversion of the  mind from its ordinary
 train of thinking,  which are obtained by attending a
 watering place.  The Doctor also found cold  bathing
 hurtful in chlorosis,  and observes, that it is seldom ad-
 visable in those cases of disease in the stomach which
 are brought on by  high living, and constitute what may
 be termed the true dyspepsia.
   The topical application of cold water, or  of a  cold
I saturnine  lotion, in cases of local  inflammation, has
 become an established practice; the efficacy of which
 is daily experienced.  Burns of every description will
 bear n most  liberal use of cold water, or even of ice:
 and this  may be applied to a very extensive inflamed
 surface, without even producing the ordinary effects
 of general chilling, which would  be brought on from
 the  same  application  to a sound  and healthy skin.
 Another very distressing symptom, remarkably relieved
 by cold  water, topically applied, is  that intolerable
 itching in the vagina, whicli women sometimes expe-
 rience, entirely unconnected  with any general cause,
 and which appears to be a kind of herpes confined to
 that part.  Cold water has also been used  topically in
 the various coses of strains, bruises, and similar inju-
 ries, in tcntinous and ligamentous parts, with success,
 also in rigidity of muscles, that have been long kept at
 rest, in order to favour the union of bone, where there
 appears to have been no organic injury, but only a de
 ficiency of nervous energy, and in mobility of parts, or
 at most, only slight adhesions, whicli would  give way
 to regular  exercise of  the weakened  limb.  Another
 very striking instance of the powerful effects of topical
 cold,  in stimulating a part to action, is 6hown in the
 use of cold, or even  iced water, to  the vagina of per
 turient women, during the dangerous haemorrhages
 that take  place from the uterus, on the partial separa-
 tion of the placenta.
  2. The Shower Bath.  A species of cold  bath.  A
 modern invention, in which the water falls through
 numerous apertures on the body.  A proper apparatus
 for this purpose is  to be obtained at  the shops.  The
 use of the shower bath applies, in  every case, to the
 same purposes as the cold  bath, and is often attended
 with  particular advantages.   1. From the sudden con-
 tact of the water, which, in the common cold bath, is
 only momentary, but which, in the shower bath, may
 be  prolonged,  repeated, and modified, at  pleasure;
 and, secondly, from  the head and  breast, which are
 exposed  to some inconvenience  and danger  in  the
 common  balh, being here effectually secured, by re-
 ceiving the first shock ofthe water.
  3  The  Tepid Bath    The range  of temperature
                                         Ml 
BAT
BAT
 from the lowest degree of the hot bath to the  highest
 of the cold bath, forms what may be termed the tepid.
 In general, the heat of water which we should term
 tepid, is about 90 deg.  In a medicinal  point of view,
 it produces the greatest effect in ardent fever, where
 the temperature is little above that  of  health,  but the
 powers of the body weak, not able to bear the vigor-
 ous application of cold immersion.  In  cutaneous dis-
 eases, a tepid bath is often quite sufficient to produce
 n salutary relaxation, aud perspirability of the skin.
  4. The Hot Bath.  From 93 to 96 deg. of Fahrenheit,
 the hot  bath  has a peculiar  tendency to bring on a
 state  of repose,  to  alleviate any local  irritation, and
 thereby induce sleep.  It  is, upon the  whole,  a  safer
 remedy than the cold bath, and more peculiarly appli-
 cable to  very weak and irritable constitutions, whom
 the shock produced by cold  immersion would over-
 power, and who have not sufficient vigour of circulation
 for an adequate reaction.   Incases of topical inflam-
 mation,  connected  wilh a phlogistic  state  of body,
 preceded by rigour  and general  fever, and where the
 local formation of matter is the solution of the  general
 inflammatory symptoms, experience directs us to the
 use of the warm  relaxing  applications, rather than
 those  which, by exciting a general reaction, would in-
 crease the local complaint.  This object is particularly
 to be consulted when the  part affected is one  that is
 essential to life.  Hence it is that in fever, where there
 is a great  determination to the lungs, and the respi-
 ration  appears to be locally affected, independently of
 the oppression produced by mere febrile increase of
 circulation, practitioners  have avoided the external
 use of cold, in order to promote the solution of the
 fever;  and have trusted lo the general antiphlogistic
 treatment, along with  the topically relaxing applica-
 tion of warm vapour, inhaled by the lungs.   Warm
 bathing appears to be peculiarly well calculated to re-
 lieve those complaints that seem to depend on an irre-
 gular or diminished action of any part ofthe aliment-
 ary canal;  and the state of  tlie skin, produced by
 immersion in warm water, seems highly favourable to
 the healthy action of Ihe stomach and bowels.  Ano-
 ther very important  use of the warm bath, is  in her-
petic eruptions, by relaxing the skin, and rendering it
more pervious, and  preparing it admirably for  receiv-
ing the stimulant applications of  tar ointment,  mercu-
rials, and the like, that are intended to  restore it to a
healthy state.  The constitutions of  children seem
more extensively relieved by the warm bath than those
 of adults; and this remedy seems more generally ap-
plicable to acute  fevers in them than in persons  of a
niore advanced age.  Where the warm  bath produces
its salutary operation, it is almost always followed by
an easy and profound sleep.  Dr. Saunders strongly
recommends the use of the tepid  bath, or even one of
a higher temperature, in the true inenorrhagia of fe-
males.  In paralytic affections of particular parts, the
powerful stimulus of heated water is generally allowed;
and in these cases, the effect may be assisted by any-
thing  which will increase the stimulating properties
of the  water;  as, lot instance, by the addition of salt.
In these cases, much benefit may  be expected from the
use of  warm sea-baths.  The application of the warm
bath topically, as in pediluvia, or fomentations to the
feet, often produces the most powerful effects in  qui-
eting irritations in fever, and bringing on a sound and
refreshing repose.  The cases in which the warm bath
is likely to be attended with danger, are particularly
tliose where there exists a strong tendency to a deter-
mination of blood  to  the head; and  apoplexy has
sometimes been thus brought on.  The lowest temper-
 ature will be required for  cutaneous complaints, and
 to bring on relaxation in the skin, during febrile irrita-
tion; the warmer will be necessary in paralysis: more
 heat should be employed  on a deep-seated part than
one that is superficial.
  5. 'The Vapour Bath.  The vapour bath, called also
 Ba .neum laconicum, though not much employed in
 England, forms  a  valuable  remedy in a  variety of
cases.  In most ofthe hot natural waters on the Con-
tinent, the  vapour bath forms a  regular part of the
 bathing apparatus, and is there highly valued.  In no
country,  however,  is this application  carried  to bo
great an extent as  in Russia, where it forms the prin-
cipal and almost daily luxury of all the people, in every
 rank ;  and it is employed as a sovereign remtdy for a
 great variety of disorders.  The Hon. Mr. Basil  Coch-
      122
 rane has lately published a Treatise on the Vapour
 Bath, from which, it appears, he has brought the  ap-
 paratus to such perfection, that he can apply it to all
 degrees of  temperature,  partially  or generally, by
 shower, or by steam, with a great force or a small one;
 according to ihe particular circumstances under which
 patients are  so variously placed, who require such
 assistance.   See  Cochrane on Vapour Baths.  Con-
! nected  with this article, is the air-pump vapour bath,
i a species of vapour bath, or machine, to wliich the in-
 ventor  has given this name.  This apparatus  has been
 found efficacious in  removing paroxysms of  the gout
 and preventing their recurrence; in acute and chronic
 rheumatism,  palsy,  cutaneous diseases, ulcers, Sec
 It has also been proposed in chilblains, leprosy, yaws,
 tetanus, amenorrhea, and dropsy.
   [The vapour bath has been introduced and success-
 fully applied in many cutaneous and other diseases, in
 the city of New-York.  This bath may be eiltier aque-
 ous or  spirituous.   Its immediate effect is to produce
 relaxation of the skin and  copious perspiration.  It
 may be made a medicated bath by passing the steam
 or vapour through a quantity of herbs, before it is ap
 plied to the body ofthe person requiring it.  A.]
   II. Those applications  are called  dry baths, which
 are made of ashes, salt, sand, &c.  The ancients had
 many ways of exciting a  sweat, by means  of a dry
 heat, as by the use  of hot sand, stove rooms, or arti-
 ficial bagnios;  and even from certain natural hot
 steams  of the earth, received under a proper arch, or
 hot-house, as we learn from Celsus.  They  had also
 another kind of  bath by insolation, where the body
 was exposed to the sun for some lime, in order to draw
 forth tlie superfluous moisture from the inward parts;
 and to  this day it is  a practice, in some  nations, to
 cover the  body over  with horse-dung, especially iu
 painful  chronic diseases.  In New-England, they make
 a kind  of stove of turf, wherein the sick are shut up
 to bathe, or sweat.  It was probably from a knowledge
 of this  practice, and of the exploded doctrines of Cel-
 sus, that the  noted empiric  Dr. Graham drew his
 notions of the salutary effects of what he called earth
 bathing; a practice which, in the way he  used  it,
 consigned some of his patients to a perpetual  mansion
 under the  ground.   The  like  name of dry  bath, is
 sometimes also given to another kind of bath, made
 of kindled  coals,  or burning spirit of wine.  The
 patient  being placed in a convenient close chair, for
 the reception of the  fume, which rises and provokes
 sweat in a plentiful manner ;  care being taken to, keep
 the head out, and to secure respiration.   This bath
has been said to be very effectual in  removing old ob-
stinate pains in the limbs.
   III. Medicated  baths are such as are saturated with
various  mineral, vegetable, or sometimes animal sub-
stances. Thus we have sulphur and iron  baths, aro-
matic and milk baths.  There can  be no doubt that
such ingredients, if duly mixed, and a proper tempera
ture given to  the water, may, in certain complaints
be productive of effects highly beneficial.  Water, im
pregnated with sulphate of iron, will abound wilh the
bracing  particles of that metal, and may be useful for
strengthening the part to which it is applied, re-invi-
gorating debilitated limbs, stopping various kinds  of
bleeding, restoring the  menstrual and hemorrhoidal
discharges when obstructed, and, in short, as a substi-
tute lor the natural iron  bath.   There are  var'ous
other medicated baths,  such as those prepared  with
alum, and quick-lime, sal-ammoniac, &c. by boilin«
them together, or separately, in pure rain w ater. These
have  long been reputed as eminently serviceable  in
paralytic, and all other discuses arising from  nervous
and muscular debility.
  1\. A term  in chemistry, when the vessels in which
bodies are exposed to  the action of heat, are not placed
in immediate  contact  with the fire, but receive the
required degree of heat by another intermediate body,
suth apparatus is termed  a bath.  These have  been
% ariously named, as dry, vapour, Sec.  Modern chemists
distinguish tliree kinds:
  1.  Balneum arena, or the sand bath. This  consists
merely ol an open iron, or baked clay sand-pot, whose
Doiioin is mostly convex, and exposed  to the furnace.
finely silted sea sand is put into this, and the vessel
containing ihe substance to be heated, See. in the sand
bath, immersed in the middle.
  2- Balneum viaria, or the water bath.  This is ver" 
BAT                                            BAT
 simple, and  requires no particular apparatus.  Ihe
 object is to place the vessel containing the substance
 10  be  heated, in another, containing water;  which
 nst must  be of such a nature as to be fitted  for the
 application of fire, as a common still, or kettle.
  3. The vapour bath.   When any substance is heated
 by  the steam, or vapour, of boiling  water, chemists
 say it is done by means of a vapour bath.
  Bath waters.  Bathoniaaqua; Soils aqua; Badi-
 gua aqua.   Bath is the name of a city in Gloucester-
 shire,  that has  been  celebrated, for a long series of
 years,  for  ils numerous hot springs, which arc of a
 higher  temperature than  any in  this  kingdom, (from
 1120 to 110°,) and, indeed, are the only natural waters
 which we possess that are at all hot to tlie touch;  all
 the other thermal waters  being of a  heat below the
 animal temperature, and only deserving that appella-
 tion from being  invariably warmer than  the general
 average of the heat of common springs.   By tlie erec-
 tion of elegant  baths, these waters are particularly
 adapted to the  benefit of invalids, who  find  here a
 variety of establishments, contributing  equally  to
 health,  convenience,  and  amusement.    There  are
 three principal springs in  the city of Bath, namely,
 those called the King's Bath, the Cross Bath, and the
 Hot Bath; all within a short distance of each other,
 and emptying themselves into  the river Avon,  after
 having passed through the several baths.  Their sup-
 Ely is so copious, that all the large reservoirs used for
 athing are filled every evening with fresh  water from
 their respective fountains.   In their sensible and medi-
 cinal properties, there is but a  slight difference.  Ac-
 cording to  Dr. Falconer, tlie former are—1. That the
 water, when  newly  drawn, appears clear and colour-
 less, remains perfectly inactive, without bubbles,  or
 any sign of briskness, or effervescence.  2. After being
 exposed to the open air for some hours,  it becomes
 rather turbid, by the separation of a pale yellow, ochery
 precipitate, which gradually subsides.  3. Xo odour
 is perceptible from a glass of  the fresh water, but a
 slight pungency to the taste from a large  mass of it,
 when fresh drawn: which, however, is neither foetid
 nor sulphureous.  4.  When hot from the  pump,  it
 affects ihe  mouth with a strong chalybeate  impression,
 without being of a saline or pungent taste.  And,
 fifthly, on growing coid, the chalybeate taste is entiiely
 lost, leaving only a very slight sensation on the tongue,
 Dy  which  it  can scarcely be distinguished from com-
 mon  hard spring-water.  The  temperature  of the
 King's Bath water, which is  usually preferred for
 drinking, is, when fresh  drawn  in the  glass, above
 116°; that of the Cross  Batb, 112°. But, after flow-
 ing into the  spacious bathing  vessels, it is generally
 from 100° to  106° in the hotter baths, and from 92° to
 Dl° in  the Cross  Bath; a temperature which remains
 nearly stationary, and is greater than that of any other
 natural spring in Britain.  A small quantity of gas is
 also disengaged from these waters, which Dr. Priestley
first discovered to contain no more than one-twentieth
part of its  bulk of fixed  air, or carbonic acid.   The
chemical properties of the Bath waters,  according  tn
the  most accurate analyzers, Doctors Lucas, Falconer,
and l.ibbs,  contain so small a  proportion  of iron, as
to amount  only to one-twenlielh or one-thirty-eighth
of a grain  in the pint;  and, according to  Dr. Gibbj,
fifteen  grains and a quarter of siliceous earth iu the
 gallon.  Dr. Saunders estimates a gallon of the King's
 Bath water to contain about eight cubic inches of car-
 bonic acid, and a similar quantity of air, nearly azotic,
 about  eighty grains of solid ingredients, one-half of
 which probably  consists of sulphate and muriate of
 soda, fifteen grains and a half of siliceous earth, and
 the remainder is selenile, carbonate of lime, and so
 small a portion of oxyde of iron as to be scarcely cal-
culable. Hence  he concludes,  that tbe  King's Bath
water is the  strongest chalybeate; next  in order, the
Hot Bath water; and, lastly, lhat of the Cross Bath,
which contains the smallest proportions of chalybeate,
gaseous  and saline, but  considerably more  of the
earthy particles; while its water, in the pump, is also
two degrees lower than that of the others.   It is like-
wise now ascertained, that these springs do  not exhibit
the  slightest traces of sulphur, though it was formerly
believed, and erroneously supported, on the authority
of Dr.  Charfeton. that the subtile aromatic vapour in
the  Bath waters, was. a sulphureous principle entirely
similar to common brimstone.
   With regard to the effect of the  Bath waters oi' the
 human system, independent of their specific properties,
 as a medicinal remedy not to be imitated completely
 by any  chemical  process,  Dr. Saunders attribute*
 much  of their salubrious influence to the  natural
 degree of warmth peculiar to these springs, which, for
 ages, have preserved an admirable degree of uniformity
 of temperature.  He thinks too, that one of their most
 important uses is thai of an  external application, yet
 supposes  that, in this respect, they differ little from
 common water, when heated to the same temperature,
 and applied under similar circumstances.
   According lo Dr. Falconer, the  Bath water, when
 drunk fresh from the spring, generally raises, or rathei
 accelerates tlie pulse, increases the hieal, and promotes
 the different  secretions.   These  symptoms  in most
 cases, become perceptible soon after drinking it, and
 will sometimes continue for a considerable time.  It
 is, however, remarkable, that they are only produced
 in invalids.    Hence we may  conclude, that  these
 waters nut only possess heating properties, but their
 internal use is likewise attended with a peculiar stimu-
 lus, acting more immediately on the nerves.
   One of the most salutary effects of the Bath water,
 consists in its action on the urinary organs, even when
 taken in moderate doses.  Its operation on the bowels
 varies in different  individuals, like that of nil other
 waters, which do not contain any cathartic sail; but,
 in general, it  is productive of costiveness:  an cll'ecl
 resulting from the want of an active  stimulus to the
 intestines, and probably also from the determination
 this water occasions to the skin, more than from any
 aslringency which it may po^se.-s;  for, if perspiration
 be suddenly checked during the  use of it, a diarrhoea
 is sometimes the consequence.  Hence it appears that
 its stimulant powers arc primarily, and more particu
 larly exerted  in the stomach, where  it produces a
 variety of symptoms, sometimes slight and transient,
 but, occasionally, so considerable  and permanent, as
 to require it lo be discontinued.  In those  individuals
 with whom it is likely to agree, and prove beneficial,
 the Bath waters excite, at first, an agreeable  glowing
 sensation in the stomach, which is speedily followed
 by an increase both of appetite and spirits, as well as
 a quick  secretion of urine.   In  others, when  the use
 of them is attended  with headache, thirst, and constant
 dryness of the tongue, heaviness, loathing ol* the sto-
 mach, and  sickness;  or  if they  are nut evacuated
 either  by urine or an  increased perspiration, it may
 be justly inferred that their further continuance is im-
 proper.
   The diseases for which these celebrated waters are
 resorted to, are very numerous, and are some of the
 most important and difficult  to cure of all that come
 under medical treatment.  In most of them, the bath
 is used along with the wateis, as an internal medicine.
 The general indications, of the propriety of using this
 medicinal water, are iu those cases where a gentle,
 gradual, and permanent stimulus,  is required.   Bath
 water may certainly he considered as a chalybeate, in
 which the iron is very small in quantity, but in a highly
active form; and the degree of temperature is in itself
a stimulus, often of considerable powers.  These cir-
cumstances again point out  the necessity of certain
cautions, which, from a view of the mere quantity ol
 foreign contents, might be  thought superfluous. Al
 though, in estimating the powers  of this medicine,
allowance must be made  fur local prejudice  in its
favour, there can be no doubt but that its employment
 is hazardous, and mightoften do considerable mischief,
 in various cases of active inflammation, especially in
 irritable habits, where there exists  a strong tendency
to hectic fever; and even in the less inflammatory
state of diseased  and  suppurating viscera;  and,  in
general, wherever a quick pulse and dry tongue  indi-
cate a degree of general fever.  The cases, therefore
 to wliich this water are peculiarly suited, are  mostlj
of the chronic kind ; and by a steady perseverance in
this remedy, very obstinate disorders have given way
The following, Dr. Saunders,  in his Treatise on Mine
 ral Waters,considers as the principal, viz. 1. Chlorosis
 a  disease which, at all  times,  is  much relieved bj
steel, and will  bear it, even where  there is a consider
 able degree of feverish irritation,  receives particular
 benefit from ihe bath water; and  its  use, as  a worm
 bath, excellently contributes to remove that languor of
 circulation, and obstruction of thenatural evacuations,
                                        123 
BAT
BAY
 Wlilcn constitute the leading features of this common
 and troublesome  disorder.  2. The complicated  dis-
 eases which are often brought on by a long residence
*m  hot climates,  affecting the secretion of bile, the
 functions of the stomach, and alimentary canal, and
 which generally produce organic derangement in some
 part of the hepatic system, often receive much benefit
 from the bath water, if used  at a time when suppu-
 rative inflammation is  not actually present.  3.  An-
 other and less active disease of the biliary organs, the
 'aundice, which arises from a simple obstruction of
 the gall-ducts, is still oftener removed by both the in-
 ternal and  external use of these waters.  4. In rheu-
 matic complaints, the  power  of  this  water, as Dr.
 Charletnn well observes, is  chiefly confined to  that
 species of rheumatism which  is unattended with in-
 flammation, or  in wliich the  patient's pains are not
 increased by the warmth of his bed   A great number
 of the patients that resort to Bath, especially those that
 are admitted into  the hospital, are affected with rheu-
 matism in all its stages ; and it appears, from the most
 respectable testimony, that a large proportion of them
 receive a permanent cure.  (See Falconer on Bath
 Water in Rheumatic Casts.)   5. In gout, the greatest
 benefit is derived from this water, in those cases where
 it produces anomalous affections of the head, stomach,
 and bowels; and  it is here a principal advantage to be
 abie to bring, by warmth, that active  local inflamma-
 tion in any limb,  which relieves all the other trouble-
 some and dangerous symptoms.  Hence il is thai Bath
 water is commonly said lo  produce  the gout;  by
 which is oniy meant that, where persons have a gouty
  flection, shifting  from place  to  place, and thereby
 much disordering  the system, the internal and external
 use of the bath water will soon bring on a general in-
 crease of action,  indicated by a flushing in the face,
 fulness in  the circulating vessels, and relief of the
 dyspeptic symptoms; end the whole disorder will ter-
 minate in a regular fit of the gout in the extremities,
 wliich is the crisis always to be wished for.  6.  The
 colica pictonum,  and the paralysis or  ioss of nervous
 power in particular limbs, wliich is one of its most se-
 rious consequences, is found to be peculiarly relieved
 by the use  of the Bath waters, more  especially when
 applied externally, either generally, or upon the  part
 affected.
  The quantity of water taken daily, during a fuH
 course, and by adults, is recommended by Dr. Falconer,
 not to exceed a pint and a half, or two pints;  and in
 chlorosis, with irritable habits, not more than one  pint
 is employed ; and  when tlie bath is made use of,  it is
 generally two or  tliree times a week,  in the morning.
 The Bath waters require a considerable time to be  per-
 severed in, before a full and fair  trial  can  be  made.
 Chronic rheumatism, habitual gout, dyspepsia, from a
 Ion" course of high and intemperate living, and the
 like, are disorders not to be removed by a short course
 of any mineral water, and many  of those who have
 once received benefit at the fountains, find it necessary
 to make an annual visit to them, to repair the waste
 in health during the preceding year.
  Bath,  cauteres.  A sulphureous bath near Barege,
 which raises tlie mercury in Fahrenheit's thermometer
 to 131°.
  Bath,  St. Saviour's.  A sulphureous and alkaline
 bath, in  the valley adjoining  Barege, the  latter of
 which raises Fahrenheit's  thermometer as high as
 131°.  It is much resorted to from the South of France,
 and used chiefly externally, as a simple thermal water.
  Bath, cold.  See Bath.
  Bath, hot.  See  Bath.
  Bath, tepid.   See Bath.
  Bath, vapour.  See Bath.
  Ba'thmis.   (Fromi  Baivtc,  to  enter.)   Bathmus.
 The seat, or base; the cavity of a bone, with the  pro-
 tuberance of another, particularly those at the articu-
 lation of the humerus and ulna, according to  Hippo-
 crates and Galen.
  Batiio'ni.* AQUJE.  See Bath waters.
  Ba'thron.   (From  Batvto,  to  enter.)   Bathrum.
 The same as bathmis; also an instrument used in the
 extension of fractured  limbs, called scamnum.—Hip-
 pocrates.  It is described by Oribasius and Scultetus.
   Ba'tia.   A retort.  Obsolete.
  Bati'non-moron.   (From Baros, a  bramble,  and
 unpov, a raspberry.)  The raspberry.
  Batra'chium.   (From Barpaxos, a frog; so  called
      124
from its likeness to a frog.)  The herb crow's foot, oi
ranunculus.
   BA'TRACHUS.   (From Barpaxos-, a frog; so colled
because they who  are infected  with it croak like a
frog.)   An inflammatory tumour  under the tongue
See Ranula.
   [Batrachian.  Batrachian animals. A term used in
natural history, intended to include all animals«of the
frog, toad, or lizard kind.  A.]
   Battari'smus.   (From Barroy, a Cyrenrcan prince
who stammered.)   Stammering ; a defect  iu pronun-
ciation.  See Psellismus.
   Batta'ta  virginiana.  See Batatas, and Convol-
vulus batatas.
   Batta'ta  peregrina.  The cathartic potato; per-
haps a species of ipomaa.  If about two  ounces of
them are eaten  at bed time,  they greatly move the
belly the next morning.
   BATTIE,  William, was  born in Devonshire, in
1704.   He graduated at Cambridge, and  after prac
tising some years successfully at Oxbridge, settled in
London, and became a fellow of the  College of  Phy-
sicians, as well as of the Royal  Society.  The insuf-
ficiency of Bethlehem hospital to receive all the  indi-
gent objects labouring under insanity in this metropolis,
naturally  led to the establishment of another similar
institution ; and Dr. Batlie having been very active in
promoting the  subscription for that  purpose, he was
appointed physician to the new institution, which was
called St. Luke's Hospital, then situated on the north
side of  Moorfields.   In 1757 he published a treatise on
madness; and a few years after, having exposed be-
fore the House of  Commons  the  abuses  often com
mitted in private mad-houses, they became the subject
of legislative interference, and were at length  placed
under  the control of the College of Physicians, and
the  magistrates in  the  country.   He  died at  tho
age of 72.
   BAUHIN, John, was born at Lyons, in 1541. Being
greatly  attached to botany, he accompanied the cele-
brated Gesner in his travels through several countries
of Europe, and  collected abundant materials for his
principal work, the " Historia Plantarum," wliich con-
tributed greally to  the improvement of his favourite
science.  He was,  at the age of 32, appointed  phy-
sician  to  the duke of Wirtemherg, and died in 1613
A Treatise on Mineral Waters, and some  other  pub-
lications by him also remain.
   BAUHIN, Gaspard, was brother to the preceding,
but younger by 20 years.  He graduated at  Basle, after
studying at several universities, and was chosen Greek
professor  at the early age of 22: afterward professor
of anatomy and botany ;  then of medicine, wilh other
distinguished honours, which he retained till his death
in 1024.  Besides the plants collected by himself, he
received  material  assistance  from  his pupils  and
friends, and was enabled to add considerably lo tlie
knowledge of botany; on which subject,  as well as
anatomy,  he has left numerous publications.  Among
other anatomical improvements, he claims the disco-
very ofthe valve of ihe colon.   His " Pinax" contains
the names of six thousand plants  mentioned by the
ancients, tolerably well arranged; and being continu-
ally referred to by Linnaeus, must long retain its value.
   BAULMONEY.   See ^thusa meum.
   BAI'ME, Anthony, an apothecary, born at Senlis,
in 1723.  He distinguished himself at an early age by
his skill in chemistry and pharmacy :  and  was after-
ward admitted a member of the Royal  Academy of
Sciences of Paris.  He also gave lectures on chemistry
for several years with great  credit.  Among other
works, he published " Elements  of Pharmacy," and
a  " Manual of Chemistry," which met with consider-
able approbation; also a"  detailed account  of tne dif-
ferent kinds of soil, and the method of improving Uiem
for the purposes of agriculture.
   Baxa'na.   (Indian)  Rabuxit.  A  poisonous  tret
growing near Ormuz.
   BAY.  A name of several articles; as bay-cherry
bay-leaf, bay-salt, Sec.
   Bay-cherry.  See Prunus Lauro-ttrasus.
   Bay-leaves.  See  Laurus.
   Bay-leaved Passion-flower.   See Passifiora  lauri
folia.
   Bay-salt.   A very pure  salt,  prepared  from  sea
water by spontaneous evaporation.
   [BAYLEY, Dr. Richard, a  celebrated surgeon und 
BLC
BEE
 practitioner in the city of New-York.  Dr. Bay ley was
 born al Fairfield, Connecticut, in the year 1745.  His
 father was of English, and his mother of French, de-
 scent.  Alter returning from Loudon, where he studied
 anatomy under Dr. John Hunter, he commenced prac-
 tice in connexion with Dr. Charleton of New-York,
 with whom he hud previously studied.  Atthatlimethe
 croup (cynanche trachealis) was -onf— inded with the
 angina maligna, or putrid sore throat, and both treated
 with stimulants.  Dr. Bayley was the first to point out
 the difference, and demonstrate that the croup was an
 inflammatory disease, and required a different treat-
 ment.
  " In the year 1762, he successfully removed  the arm
 from its glenoid cavity by the operation at the shoulder
joint;  an operation at which Dr. Wright Post, then a
student, assisted; and whicli, as far as it  has been in
our power 10 examine, is the first instance of its being
 practised in the United Slates."  His surgical skill was
often displayed in operations upon the  eye.   With Dr.
Bard and others, he was one of the earliest promoters
of the New  York City Dispensary.   In 1797, he pub-
 lished his work on yellow fever, in which he advocates
 the opinion of its local origin  and noncontagiousness.
 He atterward, while health officer of the port ol" New-
 York, published  a series of letters on thesame subject,
 addressed to  the Now-York common  council, or cor-
 poration of the city,  lledied in August, IfcOl, " leaving
 behind  him a high character as a clinically insti ucted
 physician, an excellent and bold operator, a prompt
 practitioner, of  rapid diagnosis, and  unhesitating de-
 cision."—See Thach.  Mid. Biog.  A.l
  Bde'lla.   (From BiaXXu,  lo suck.)   Bdcllerum.
 A horse-leech.
  BDELLIUM. (From bedallah, Arab.)  Adrabolon;
 Madcieon;  Bolckon; Balchus.  Called by the  Ara-
 bians, Mokel.  A gum resin,  like very impure myrrh.
 The best  bdellium is of a yellowish-brown, or dark-
 brown colour, according to its  age; unctuous to the
 touch, brittle, but soon softening, and growing tough
 between the fingers;  in some degree  transparent, not
 unlike myrrh; of a bitterish taste, and a moderately
 strong smell.  It does not easily take flame, and, when
 set  on fire, soon goes  out.  In burning, it  sputters a
 little, owing to its aqueous humidity.  Its sp. grav. is
 1.371. Alkohol dissolves about three-fifths of bdellium,
 leaving a mixture of gum and cerasin.  Its  constitu-
 ents, according to Pelletier, are 59 resin, 9.2 gum, 30.6
 cerasin, 1.2 volatile oil and loss.   It is one of me weak-
 est of the deobstruent gums.  It was sonietimes used
 as a pectoral and an eimnenogogue.  Applied exter-
 nally, it is stimulant, and promotes suppuration.   It is
 never met with in the shops of this country.
  BEAK.  See Rostrum.
  BEAN.  See Vicia faba.
  Bean, French.  See Phaseolus vulgaris.
  Bean, Kidney.  See Phaseolus vulgaris.
  Bean, Malacca. See Avicennia tomentosa.
  Bean of Cartkagena.  See Bejuio.
  Bean, St. Ignatius.  See Ignatia amara.
  BEAR.  Ursa.  The  name of a well-known ani-
 mal.  Several things  are designated after it, or a part
 of it.
  Bear's berry.  See Arbutus uva ursi.
  Bear's bilberry.  See Arbutus uva ur3i.
  Bear's breech.  See Acanthus.
  Bear's foot.  See Hclleborus fatidus.
  Bear's wlwrtleberry.   See Arbutus uva ursi.
  Bear's whorls. See Arbutus uva ursi.
  BEARD.   1. The hair growing on the chin and ad-
 acent parts ofthe face, in adults ofthe male sex.
  2. In botany.  See Barba ;  Arista.
  Becca. A fine kind of resin from the turpentine
 and mastich trees of Greece and Syria, formerly held
 in great repute.
  B I'X'CAB UNO A.   (From bach bungen, water-herb.
 German, because it grows in rivulets.)  See Veronica
beccabunga.
  Be'cha.  See Bechica.               ,
  BE'CHICA.   (Beckicus; from Brfc, a cough.)   Be-
chita.   Medicines to relieve  a cough.  An obsolete
term.  The trochisci bechici albi consist of starch and
liquorice, with a small proportion of Florentine orris
root made into lozenges, with mucilage of gum traga-
canth.  They are  a  soft  pleasant demulcent  The
trochisci bechici nigri consist chiefly of the juice of
liquorice, with sugar and gum tragatatrh.
  Be'chion.   (From Brp\, a cough; so called Irom Ut
supposed virtues in relieving coughs.)  S.-o Tusilago
farfara.
  Bbcui'ra nux.   A large nut growing in Brazil, from
which a balsam is drawn that is held in esliit.aiion in
rheumatisms.
  Bkdk'ouar.   (Arabian.)    Bedeguar.  The Car-
duus  lacteus  syriacus is so called, and also the Rttsa
canina.
  Bkdengian.  The name of the love-apples iu Avi
cenna.
  BEDSTRAW.   See Galium aparine.
  BEE.  See Apis mcllifica.
  BEECH.  See Fagus.
  BEER.   The wine ol" grain  made from malt «nu
hops  in tlie following manner.  The grain is steeped
for two or three daj.- in \yitcr, until ii swells, becomes
somewhat tender, and tinges the water of a bnielit red-
dish brown colour.  The water  being then  drained
away, the barley is spread about  two feet thick upon
a floor, where  it heals spontaneously, and begins ti
grow, by first shooting out the  radical.  In this stau
the germination is slopped by spreading it thinner, une
turning it over for two days; after which it  is again
made into a heap, and suffered lo become sensibly hoi,
which usually  happens in little  more  than  a day
Lastly, it is conveyed to the kiln, where, by a  gradual
and low heat, it is rendered  dry  and crisp.   This it
malt; end its qualities differ according as it is nioreoi
less soaked, drained, germinated, dried, and bakci
In this, as in other manufactories, the intelligent opera
tors often make a mystery  of their processes from
views of profit: and others protend to peculiar secret)
who really possess none.
  Indian corn,  and probably  all large grain, require'
to be suffered lo grow into tile blade, as well as root.
before it is fit to be made into malt.  For this  purpose-
it is buried about two or  llircc  inches  deep in thfr
ground, and covered with loose earth; and in ten oi
twelve days it springs up.  In this stale it is taken up
and washed, or fanned, to clear it from its dirt; ant
llien dried iu the kiln for use.
  Barley, by being converted into malt, becomes one
fifth lighter, or 20  per cent ;  12 of whicli are owing U
kiln-drying, 1.5 are carried  off* hy the steep-water, 3
dissipated on the floor, 3 loss in cleaning the roots, an*
0.5 waste or loss.
  The degree of heat to which the malt is exposed ii
this  process, gradually changes its colour from vorj
pale to actual  blackness, as it simply dries it, or con
verts it to charcoal.
  The colour of Ihe malt not only affects the colour or"
the liquor  brewed from it; but, in consequence of the
chemical operation, of the heat applied, on the princi-
ples that are developed in thv, grain during the procest
of malting, materially alters  the quality of the beer,
especially with regard to the properties of becoming fit
for drinking and growing fine.
  Beer is made from  malt previously ground, or cut to
pieces by a mill.  This is placed in a tun, or tub with
a false bottom; hot water is poured upon  it, and tht
whole stirred about with a proper instrument.  The
temperature of the  water  in this operation, called
mashing, must  not be equal  to boiling;  for,  iu thai
case, the malt  would be converted into a  paste, from
wliich the  impregnated water could not be separated
This is called setting.  After Ihe infusion has remained
for some lime upon the malt, it is drawn off', and  ia
then distinguished  by the name of Sweet Wort   By
one ormoresnbsequ  nt infusions of water, a quantitj
of weaker wort is  made, which is cither added to the
foregoing, or kept apart, according to the intention oi
the operator.  The wort is  then boiled  with hop^e.
which gives it  an aromatic bitter taste, and is supposed
to render it less liable to be spoiled in keeping; after
wliich it is cooled in  shallow vessels, and sulfeied to
ferment, with  the  addition of a  proper quantity of
yest.   Tlie fermented  liquor  is beer;  and  differs
greatly in  its quality, according to the nature of the
grain, the malting, the mashing, the quantity and kind
of the hops and the yest, the purity or admixtures of
the water  made use of, the  temperature and vicissi-
tudes of the weather, tec.
  Beside the various qualities of malt  liquors of a
similar  kind, there are certain leading  features  by
wliich they are distinguished, and classed under differ
ent names, and to produce which, different modes  >■
                                        125 
BEE
BEL
 irdrtagemreni must be pursued.  The principal distinc-
 tions are into beer, properly so called ; ale; table, or
 small beer; and porter, which  is commonly termed
 beer in London.   Beer is  a strong, fine, and  thin
 hquor; the greater part of the mucilage having been
 ceparated by boiling the wort longer than for ale, and
 carrying the fermentation farther, so as to convert the
 saccharine matter into alkohol.  Ale is of a more sy-
 rupy consistence, and sweeter taste; more ofthe  mu-
 cilage being retained in it, and the fermentation not
 having been carried so far  as to decompose all the
 sugar.  Small beer, as its name implies, is a weaker
 liruor; and is made, either by adding a large portion
 of water to the malt, or by mashing with a fresh quan-
 t ty of water what is left after the beer or ale wort is
 irawn  off.   Porter was probably made originally
 from very high dried malt; but it is said, that its pecu-
 liar flavour cannot be imparted by malt and hops alone.
  Mr  Brande  obtained the following quantities of
 Alkohol from 100 parts of different  species of beers.
 Burton  ale, 8.86;  Edinburgh  ale,  6.2; Dorchester  ale,
 5.53; the average being = 6.87.   Brown stout,  6.8;
 London porter (average) 4.2; London small beer (ave-
 rage) 1.28.
  As long ago as the reign of Queen Anne,  brewers
 Were forbid to mix sugar, honey, Guinea pepper, essen-
 tia  bina, cocculus indicus, or any other unwholesome
 ingredient, in  beer, under  a certain  penalty; from
 which we may infer, that such at least was the prac-
 tice of some; and writers, who profess to discuss  the
 secrets of the trade,  mention most of these, and some
 other articles, as essentially necessary.  The essentia
 bina is sugar boiled down to a dark  colour, and empy-
 reumatic flavour.  Broom tops, wormwood, and other
 bitter plants, were formerly used to render beer fit for
 keeping, before hops were introduced into this  coun-
 try; but are now prohibited to be used in beer made
 lor  sale.
  By the present law of this country, nothing is allow-
 ed  to enter into the  composition of beer, except malt
 and hops.  Quassia and wormwood are often fraudu-
 lently introduced ; both of which are easily discovera-
 ble  by their nauseous bitter taste.  They form a beer
 whicli does not preserve so well as hop beer. Sulphate
 of iron, alum, and salt,  are often added by the publi-
 cans, under the  name  of beer heading, to impart a I
 frothing property to  beer, when it is poured out of one
 vessel into another.   Molasses and extracr of gentian
 root are added with the same view.  Capsicum, grains
 of paradise, ginger  root,  coriander seed, and orange
 peel, are also employed  to give pungency and flavour
 to weak or bad beer.  The following is a list of some
 of the unlawful  substances seized at different brew
 eries, and brewers' druggists' laboratories, in London,
 as copied from  the  minutes of the  committee of  the
 house of commons.   Cocculus indicus  multum, (an
 extract  of the  cocculus)  colouring, honey, hartshorn
 shavings, Spanish juice, orange powder, ginger, grains
 of paradise, quassia, liquorice, caraway seeds^ cop-
 peras, capsicum,  mixed  drugs.  Sulphuric acid is very
 frequently added to bring beer forward, or make it hard,
 giving  new  beer  instantly the taste of what  is  18
 nontlis  old. According to  Mr. Accum,  the  present
 ilire beerof the London brewer  is composed of all
 me  waste and spoiled beer of the publicans, the bot-
 toms of buts, the leavings ofthe pots, the drippings of
 tlw  machines for drawing the  beer, the remnants of
 bier that lay in the leaden pipes of the brewery, with
 a portion of brown stout, bottling beer, and mild beer.
 He says that opium,  tobacco, mix vomica, and extract
 nl poppies, have been likewise used to adulterate beer.
 By evaporating a portion of beer to dryness, and ignit-
 ing  the residuum with chlorate of potassa, ihe iron of
 the  copperas will be procured in an  insoluble oxyde.
 Muriate of barytes will throw down an abundant pre-
cipitate  from beer contaminated with sulphuric acid
oi copperas;  whicli precipitate  may be collected,
 dried, and ignited.  It will be insoluble in nitric acid.
  Beer appears to have been of ancient use, as Tacitus
[petitions It  among the Germans, and has been usually
supposed to have been peculiar to the northern na-
tions ; hut the ancient Egyptians, whose country was
 not  adapted to the culture of the grape, had also con-
 trived this  substitute for wine;  nnd Mr. Park has
found the art of  making malt, and brewing from it
verv good beer, among the negroes in the interior parts
of Africa.  See IVheat.
      126
    Bees' max.  Sec Cera,
    BEET.  See Beta.
    Beet, red.  See Beta.
    Beet, white.  A variety of red beet.  The juice ani
 powder of the root are said to be good to excite sneez-
 ing, and will bring  away a considerable quantity of
 mucus.
    Be'oma.  (From Bxio-ato, to cough.)  A cough; also
 expectorated mucus, according to Hippocrates.
    BE'HEN.  The Arabian for finger.
    Behen album.   (From behen, a finger, Arv.ian
 Sec Centaurea behen.
    Behen officinarum.  See Cucubalus be/ten.
    Behen rubrum.  See Statice Limonium.
    Bbide'lsar.   Beidellopar.   A species of Asclepias,
 used in Africa as a remedy for fevers and the bites of
 serpents.  The  caustic juice which issues  from the
 roots when wounded, is used by the negroes to destroy
 venereal and similar swellings.
    Bejtj'io.  Habilla de Carthagend.  Bean of Car-
 thagena.   A kind of bean in South America, famed
 for being an effectual  antidote against the poison of
 all serpents, if a small quantity is  eaten immediately.
 This bean is the peculiar product  of the jurisdiction
 of Carthagena.
   Bela-aye.  (An  Indian word.)  See Nerium anti-
 dysett tcrieum.
   BELEMNOI'DES.  (From  BeXtpvov,  a dart, and
 c«5of, form; so  named  from  their dart-like shape.'
 Belonoides; Beloidos.  The styloid process  of the
 temporal bone, and  the lower end of the ulna, were
 formerly so called.
   Bele'son.  (An Indian word.)   Beliiia.  See Mus
 senda frondosa.             ,
   BELL METAL.   A mixture of tin and copper.
   BELLADO'NNA.  (From  bella donna, Italian, «
 handsome lady; so called because the ladies of Ital/
 use it, to take away the too florid colour of their faces
 See Atropa belladonna.
   Be'lleqc.  See Mtjrobalanns bellirica.
   Bellere oi.  See Myrobalanus bellirica.
   Belle'rice.  See Myrobalanus bellirica.
   Bellidioi'des.   (From  belles, a daisy, and  nrloj,
 form.)  See Chrysanthemum.
   BELLI'NT, Laurence, an ingenious physician, bom
 at Florence in 1643.  He was greatly attached  to the
 mathematics, of wliich he was made professor at Pisa,
 when only twenty years of age.   He was soon after
 appointed professor of anatomy, which office he filled
 with credit for nearly thirty years.  He  was onp of
 the chief supporters of  the mathematical theory of
 medicine, which attempted to explain the  functions of
 the body,  the causes of diseases, and the operations of
 medicines on mechanical principles: and having im-
 prudently regulated  his practice accordingly, he was
 generally  unsuccessful, and lost  the confidence  of the
 public, as well as of Cosmo III. of Florence, who had
 appointed him his physician.   In his anatomical re-
 s"arches he was  more  successful, having first accu
 ratcly described the nervous papillae of the tongue, and
 discovered them to  be  the organ of taste; and  also
 having made better known the structure of  the kid-
 ney.  He  was author of several other publications.
 and died in 1704.
  BE'LLIS.  (A" bello colore, from  its fair  colour.)
 The name of a genus of plants in the Linnzean system.
 Class, Syngcncsia; Order, Polygamia superfiua.  The
 daisy.
  Ballis major.  See  CArysantnemiim.
  Beli.is  minor.  See  Bellis perennis.
  Bellis  perenms.  The systematic  name  of tbe
common daisy.  Bellis;  Bellis  minor; Bellis pt-en
 nis—scapo nudo, of Linnaeus,  or bruisewort, was for-
 merly directed in the pharmacopoeias by this name
 Although the leaves and flowers are rather acrid, and
are said to cure several species of wounds, thev are
never employed by modern surgeons.
  Bello'culus.   (From  bcllus, fair, and oculus, the
eye.")  A precious stone, resembling the eye, and  foi
 merly supposed to be useful in  its disorders.
  Be'llon.   The Colica pictonum.
  BELLONA'RIA.   (From Bellona, the  goddess of
war.) Au herb wliich, if eaten, makes people mad, and
act outrageously, like the votaries of Bellona.
  BELLOSTE, Auoustin, a  surgeon, born at Paris
m  1654.   After practising several years there, and as
an army surgeon, he was invited to attend the mother 
BEN
BE.N
extracting
                            rope, th*. Americans  ivay prepare the oil of scsamua
                            from their own fields.  The  grains are  of a tender
                            structure, and may be crushed under Ihe screw wiliiout
                            previous grinding.  In addilion to all which circum-
                            stances  it may be added, that the oil sepaiates Ireely
                            by cold  e.\pies-ion; and it may hence be hoped  thot
                            our tables will, in pmcess of tune, be  furnished with
                            plentiful supplies of this  sweet and  nutritious  sub-
                            stance.—See Med. Repos. Vol. ii, p. Bis.
                              The scsamum orientate is cultivated in Asia, Africa,
                            a::d the West Indies, principally on account of its oil.
                            Its seeds were used by the ancient Egyptians for food,
                            and are still employed by the negroes and Asiatics for
                            this  purpose.  The  plant  is  now cultivated  in the
                            southern parts of the  United States.  The setds atlbrd
                            a copious quantity  of oil, amounting,  according to
                            SL-iiie authors, to nearly one half of their weight.   This
                            oil  is bland, sweet,  and is said to  keep some ycam
                            without turning rancid. It is applicable to the same
                            puiposes as olive oil, and in sufficient doses proves
                            piir'ativc on the same principle us other animal  and
                            vegetable fixed oils."—See Big. Mat. Med.  A.]
                              BF.N/.O'AS.  A benzoate.   A salt  formed by the
                            union vl beiiAoic ftcid Willi salifiable  bases ; as benzo-
                            ate of alumine, Sec.
                              BENZO'E.  See Styrax benzoin.
                              Benzok amvgdaloides. See Styrax benzoin.
                              I'hn/.oks h.ouks.   See Benzoic acid.
                              I'.l'AZiHC ACID.   See Acidum licnzoicum.  "This
                            tn-id was iii»t described in 1608, by Blaise de Yigenere,
                            in his Treatise  on Fire and Salt, and  has been gene-
                            rally known since by the name of flowers of benjamin
                            or benzoin, because  il was obtained  by sublimation
                            from the  resin of this name.   As il  is  still most  com-
                            monly procured from this substance, it has preserved
                            the epithet of  benzoic, though known to  be a peculiar
                            acid, obtainable not from benzoin alone, but liom dif-
In Schroeder, it is the name ferent vegetable balsams, venello, cinnamon, amber-
                            gris, the urine of children, frequently thai ot adults,
                             and alwavs, according to Fourcroy and  Vauquelin
                             though Gi'ese denies this, from that of quadrupeds liv
                             ing on grass and hay, particularly the camel, the horse,
                             and the cow.   There is reason to conjecture that many
                             vegetables, and among them some of the grasses, con
                             lain  it, and that it parses from them  into the urine.
                             Fourcroy and Vauquelin found it combined with po
                             tassa and lime in the liquor of dunghills, as well  as in
                             the urine of the quadrupeds above-mentioned ; and
                             they strongly susptecl it to exist in ihe Anthoxauthum
                             udoratum, or sweet-scented vernal-grass, fiom which
                             hay  principally derives its fragrant  smell.   Giese,
                             however, could find  none either in this giass or in oats.
                               The usual method of obtaining it  allbids a very ele
                             gant ami pleasing example of the chemical process  of
                             sublimation.  For this purpose a thin  stratum of pow-
                             dered benzoin is spread  over the bottom of a glazed
                             earthen pot, to which a tall conical paper covering is
                             tilted : gentle heat is then lo be applied  to the bottom
                             of the pot, w hich fuses the benzoin, and  fills Ihe apart-
                             ment with a fragiant smell, arising from  u portion of
                             essential oil and acid of benzoin, which  are dissipated
                             into the air, at ihe same time the acid itself rises very
                             suddenly in the  paper head, which may be occasion-
                             ally  inspected  at  the top,  though with some little
                             care,  because ihe fumes will excite coughing.   This
                             saline  sublimate is  condensed in  the  form  of long
                             needles, or straight filaments of a while  colour, cross-
                             ing each other in all directions.  When ihe acid  ceases
                             to rise, the cover may be changed, a new one applieo,
                             and the heat raised : more flowers of  a  yellowish  co-
                             lour will then rise, which will require  a second sub-
                             limation to deprive them of tlie empyreumaiic r I they
                             contain.
                               The sublimation of the acid of benzoin may be con
                             veniently performed by substituting an inverted earth-
                             en pan instead of  Ihe paper cone.  In lius- oase  llic
                             two pans should be made to fit, by gi  hiding "« a sl<»ne
                             with sand, and thev must be luted together with paper
                             dipped in paste.  This method seems preferable to  ihe
                             other, where the presence of the operator is required
                             elsewhere; but the  paper head can be more easily in
                             speeted  and changed.   The  heal applied must be
                             gentle, and the vessels ought not to  be separated till
                             they have become cool.            .
                                The quantity of  acid obtained in  these  methods
                              differs according to  the management,  and probably
                              also from difference of purity, and ir. other respects, oj
                                                                     127
5t the Qiteei jf Sardinia, and continued at Turin til
hi* death in 1730.   He was  inventor ot  a metcuriai
pill, called by his name, by which lie is  said to nave
acquired a great fortune.  The work by which lie is
principally known, is called the "Hospital surgeon,
which  passed  through numerous editions,  and was
translated into most  of the European  languages —
Among  other  useful  observations,  he reconiiiieiidcU
piercing carious bones, to promote exfoliation, which
indeed Celsus had advised before; and he blamed ihe
custom of frequently changing the dressings of wounds,
as retarding the cure.
  Belmuschus.  A name of the Abehnoschus.  See
Hibisehus abehnoschus.
  Be'lmleq.  See Myrobalanus Bellirica.
  Bkloi  ere.   (Indian.)  An evergreen plant of Ame-
rica, the seeds of Which purge  moderately, but the
leaves roughly.
  Belonoi'des.  Sec Bclemnoidcs.
  Belu'lcum.    (From BtXas, a dan, and re-
draw out.)  A surgeon's instrument for
thorns, or darts.
  Belzo e.  See Styrax benzoin.
  Belzoi'num. See Styrax Benzoin.
  Bem-ta'mara.  The laba /Egyptiaca.
  BEN.  An Arabian word formerly very much used.
See Guilandma moringa.
  Ben magnum.  Monardus calls a species of esula, or
garden spuige, by this name, which purges and vomits
violently.
  Ben tamara.  The Egyptian bean.
  BENEDICT.  Bcnedictus.  A specific name  pre-
fixed to  many compositions and herbs on account ol
their supposed g<od qualities;  as  Bcnedicta  herba,
 Benedict a aqua, Sic.
   Benedict a  aqua.   Many compound  waters have
 been so calad, especially lime-water, and a water di
 tilled from  Serpyllum
 fcr an emetic.
   BesedicTa  herba.  See Gcum urbanum.
   Beneduta laxativa.   A  compound of turbeth,
 Bcainuiony, and spurges, with some  warm aromatics.
   Benedictum laxativum.  Rhubaib, and sometimes
  the lenitive electuary.
   Beneihctvm uosim.  Guaiacum.
   Bknedictum visum.  Antimonial wine.
   BEAEDI'CTL'S.  (From benedico, to bless.)   See
  Benedict.
   Besedictus caRDUUS. See Centaurea bcnedicta.
   Eknldictus lapis.  A name for the philosopher's
  stone.
   BLNEOLENTIA.  (From bene, well, and  oico, to
  smell.)  Sweet-scented medicines.
   Bum).  A  tame given by Ihe Mahomedans to the
  leaves  of he nip, formed into pills, or conserve.  They
  possess exhilarating and intoxicating powers.
   Bengal quince.   See Eraleca  marmclos.
   Benga L.t radix.  (From Bengal, its native place.)
  See Cassumumar.
   Benga'lle Indorum.  cFrom Bengal, its native
  place.)  See Cassumumar.
   Be'nci eiri.  A species  of evergreen.  Indian ri-
  ctnus,  which  crows in Malabar.
   BENIT. S"ee  Geum urbanum.
   Beni'vi arbor.  See Styrax benzoin.
   BENJAMIN.  See Styrax benzoin.
    Benjam.n flowers.   See Benzoic acid.
    [Benne seed.  Among the negroes,  in  Georgia, a
  plant  is cultivated which  appears to be a species of
  t'samum.  They call it benne, wliich is probably its
  African name.  The  seeds are  ol  a brownish-white,
  and about the size of flaxseed, abounding in oil.
    Several ban-els of benne seeds-wete shipped by John
  Milledge, from Savannah to New-York, in 1807, con-
  signed to Col. Few.  By direction of this latter gentle-
  sna.n,  thev were pressed, and  have  been lound to yield
   Slenty of oil; three gallons, at least, to a bushel.   The
   enne  plant  is an annual, and  may hereafter become
  of some importance to this country.  One difficulty in
  its cultivation, since ascertained, arises from  the-laci-
  lily with  which the plant  sheds its  seeds before the
  whole are mature.—See Med. Repos. vol. ii.   A.]
    [Benneoil.  This vegetable oil is clear, mild, and
  wetl-flavoii'-ed, and excellent for salads.  Its qualities
  are so good  aurt wholesome  that it may be employed
  i*: Meu A the oil of olives, both in medicine and diet.
  •ns'e'ad of importing this article from the south of Fu- 
BEN
BEN
  tie resin  itself.  It usually amounts to no more than
 about one-eighth part of the whole weight.  Indeed
 Scheele says, not more than a tenth or tweifth.  The
 whole acid of benzoin  is obtained with greater cer-
 tainty in the humid process of Scheele: this consists in
 boiling the powdered balsam with  lime water, and
 afterward  separating the  lime by the addition of mu-
 riatic acid.  Twelve ounces of water are to be poured
 upon four ounces of slaked lime; and, after the ebulli-
 tion is over, eight  pounds, or ninety-six ounces, more
 of water are to be added;  a pound of finely-powdered
 benzoin being then put into a tin vessel, six ounces of
 the lime water are to be added, and mixed well with
 ths powder; and afterward tlie rest of the lime water
 in the same gradual manner, because the  benzoin
 would coagulate into a mass,  if the whole were added
 at once.  This mixture must be gently boiled tor half
 an hour with constant agitation, and  afterward suf-
 fered to cool and subside during an hour.  The super-
 natant liquor must be  decanted,  and the residuum
 boiled  with eight pounds  more of lime water; after
 which the sam- process is to  be once more repeated:
 the remaining powder  must  be  edulcorated  on  the
 filter by affusions of hot water.  Lastly,  all the de-
 coctions, being mixed together, must  be evaporated
 to two pounds, and strained into a  glass vessel.  This
 fluid consists of the acid  of  benzoin combined with
"June.   After it is become cold, a quantity of muriatic
acid must be added, with constant stirring, until the
 fluid tastes a little sourish.  Duirng this time the last-
 mentioned  acid unites with the lime, and forms a so-
 luble salt, which remains suspended,  while  the less
 soluble acid of benzoin being disengaged, falls to the
 xittom in  powder.   By repeated affusions  of  cold
 vaier upon the filter, it may be deprived of the muriate
 if lime and muriatic acid with which it may happen
 to be  mixed. If it be  required  to have a shining
appearance, it may be dissolved in a small quantity of
boiling water, from which it will separate in silky
filaments by cooling.  By this  process the benzoic acid
may be procured from other  substances, in  which it
exists.
  Mr. Hatclu II has shown, that, by digesting benzoin
 in hot  sulphuric  acid, very  beautiful crystals  are
 sublimed.   This is  perhaps the best process for ex-
 tracting the  acid.   If we concentrate the  urine of
 horses or cows, and pour muriatic acid into it, a copi-
 ous precipitate of benzoic acid takes place.  This is
 the cheapest source of it."— Ure's Chem. Diet.
  As mi economical mode of obtaining this acid, Four-
croy recommends the extraction of it from the water
 that drains from dunghills, cowhouses, and stables, by
 means of the muriatic  acid,  which decomposes the
 benzoate of lime contained in  them, and separates the
 benzoic acid, as in  Scheele's process.  He confesses
 the smell of the acid thus obtained differs a little from
 that of the acid extracted from benzoin; but this, he
 says, may be remedied, by dissolving the acid iu boiling
 water, filtering the solution, letting it  cool, and  thus
 suffering the acid to crystallize, and repeating this ope-
 ration a second time.
  The acid of benzoin is so inflammable, that it burns
 with a clear yellow flame without the assistance of a
 wick.  The sublimed flowers in their purest state, as
 white  as  ordinary  writing paper,  were fused into a
 clear transparent yellowish fluid, at the two hundred-
 and-thirtieth degree of Fahrenheit's thermometer, and
 at the same time began to rise in  sublimation.  It is
 probable that a heat somewhat greater than  this may
 be required to separate it from the resin.  It is strongly
 disposed to take the crystalline form  in cooling.  The
 concentrated sulphuric and nitric  acids dissolve this
 concrete acid, and it is again keparated without altera-
 tion, by adding water. Othei acids dissolve  it by the
 assistance of heat, from whicl, it separates by cooling,
 unchanged.  It is  plentifully  soluble in ardent spirit,
 from wliich it may likew ise be separated  by diluting
 the spirit with water.  It readily dissolves in oils, and
 in melted  tallow.  If it be added in a small proportion
 to this last fluid, part of the tallow  congeals before the
 rest, in the form of white opaque clouds.  If the quan-
 tity of acid be more considerable, it separates in part
 by cooling, in the form of needles or leathers.  It did
 not communicate any considerable degree of hardness
 to the tallow, which was the object of this experiment.
 When the tallow  was heated nearly to ebullition, it
 emitted fumes which affected the respiration, like those
       138
 of the acid of benzoin, but did not possess the pecuih*
 and agreeable smell of that  substance, being probably
 the sebacic acid.  A stratum of this tallow, about one-
 twentieth of an inch thick, was fused upon a plate of
 brass, together with other fat substances, with a view
 to determine its relative disposition to acquire 8nd
 retain the solid state.  After it had cooled, it was left
 upon the plate, and, in the course of some weeks, il
 gradually became tinged throughout of a bluish-green
 colour.  If this circumstance be not supposed to have
 arisen from a solution of the copper during the fusion,
 it seems a remarkable instance of the mutual action of
 two bodies in tne solid slate, contrary to that axiom of
 chemistry which affirms, that bodies do not aci on each
 other, unless one or more of them be in the fluid state.
 Tallow itself, however, has the same effect.  •
  Pure benzoic acid is in the form of a light powder,
 evidently crystallized  in fine weedle.,  tbe  figure of
 wliich is dilhcult to be determined from llieir  small-
 ness.   It has a white and  shining appearance;  but
 when contaminated by a portion  of volatile  oil, is
 yellow or brownish.   It is not brittle, as might  be ex-
 pected from its appearance, but has rather a kind of
 ductility and elasticity,  and, on rubbing in  a mortar,
 becomes a sort of paste.  Its taste is acrid,  hot,  acidu-
 lous,  and bitter.   It reddens the infusion of litmus, but
 not syrup of violets.  It has a peculiar aromatic smell,
 but not strong unless heated.   This, however, appears
 not to belong to the acid; for Air. Giese informs us, that
 on dissolving the benzoic acid in as little  alkohol as
 possible, filtering the  solution, and precipitating by
 water, the acid will be obtained  pure, and void of
 smell, the odorous oil remaining dissolved in the spirit
 Its specific gravity is 0.667.  It is not perceptibly altered
 by the air, and has been kept in an open vessel twenty
 years without losing any of its weizht.  None of the
 combustible substances have any effect on it; but it
 may he refined by mixing it with charcoal powder and
 subliming, being thus  rendered much whiter  and
 better crystallized.   It is not  very  soluble  in water.
 Wenzel  and Lichtenstein say four hundred parts of
 cold water dissolve but one, though the same quantity
 of boiling water dissolves twenty parts, nineteen of
 which separate on cooling.
  The benzoic acid unites without  much difficulty
 with  the earthy and  alkaline bases.   These  com-
 pounds are called benzoates.
  The benzoate of barytes is soluble, crystallizes  tole-
 rably well, is not affected by exposure to the air, but is
 decomposable by fire, and by ihe stronger acids.   That
 of lime is very soluble in water, though much less in
 cold than in hot, arid crystallizes on cooling.  It  is in
 like manner decomposable by the acids and by barytes.
 The benzoate of magnesia is soluble, crystallizable, a
 little  deliquescent, and  more decomposable than  the
 former.  That of alumina is very soluble, crystallizes
 in dendrites,  is deliquescent, has an  acerb  and bitter
 taste, and is decomposable by fire, and even  by most of
 the vegetable acids.  The benzoate of potassa crystal-
 lizes on cooing in little compacted needles.  All ti.e acida
decompose it, and the solution of barytes and lime form
 with  it a precipitate.   The benzoate  of soda is very
crystallizable, very soluble, and not deliquescent like
that of potassa, but  it is decomposable by the same
means.   It is sonietimes found native in the urine of
graminivorous quadrupeds, but by no means so abun
dautly as that of lime.  The benzoate of ammonia Is
 volatile, and decomposable by all the acids and all the
 bases.  The solutions of all the benzoates,  when  dry-
 ing on the sides of a vessel  wetted with them, forin
dendritical crystallizations.
  Trommsdorf found in his experiments, that benzoic
acid united readily with metallic oxydes.
  The benzoates are all decomposable by heat, which'.
when it is slowly applied, first separates a portion of
the acid in a vapour, that condenses in crystals.   Ths
soluble benzoates arc  decomposed  by  the powerfu.
acids, whicli separate their acid in a crystalline form.
  Ihe benzoic  acid  is occasionally used in medicine,
 but not so much as formerly; and enters into the com-
 position of the camphorated tincture of opium of the
 London college, heretofore called paregoric elixir.
  BLNZOITERA.  See Styrax benzoin.
  BLNZOrNUM.  (From the Arabic term benzoah.)
See Styrax benzoin.
  Bsnzoini  magisterium.  Magistery, or precipitate
of gum-benjamin. 
BER
BET
    Bknzoim oleum.  Oil of benjamin.
    BERBERIA.   (Origin uncertain.)  Bcrberi.  The
  name of a species of disease in the genus Synclonus of
  Good's Nosology  See Beriberia.
    BE'RBERIS.   (Berbcn, wild  Arab, used by Aver-
  rhoes,  and officinal writers.)
    1. The name of a genus of plants in the Linnaean
  system.  Class, Hexandria; Order, Monogynia.  The
  barbery, or pepperidge bush.
   2. The pharniacopceial name for tlie barberry.   See
  Berberts vulgaris.
   Berbekis gelatina.  Barberry jelly.   Barberries
  toiled in sugar.
   Berbkris vulgaris.  The systematic name for the
 barberry of tbe pharmacopoeias.  Oxycantha Galeni;
 Spina acida; Crespmus.  This tree,  Berberis ; pedun-
 culis racemosis,  spinus triplicibus, of Linnaeus,  is  a
 native  of England.  The fruit, or berries, which are
 gratefully acid, and moderately astringent, are said to
 be of great use in biliary fluxes, and in all cases where
 heat, acrimony, and putridity ol" the humours prevail.
 The filaments of this shrub possess a remarkable de-
 gree of irritability; for on being touched near the base
 with the point oi a pin, a sudden contraction is  pro-
 duced, which may be repeated several tunes.
   BERENGA R1US, James, bom about tlie end of tne
 15th century at Carpi, in Modena, whence he is often
 called Carpus.  He was one of the  restorers of ana-
 tomy, of whicli he was professor, first at Padua, after-
 ward  at  Bologna, wliich he was  in a few years
 obliged  to quit, being accused of having opened the
 bodies of two Spaniards alive.  By his numerous dis-
 sections, he corrected many previous errors concerning
 the structure of the human body, and paved the way
 for his successor Vesalius. He was among the first lo
 use mercurial frictions in syphilis, whereby he acquired
 a large  fortune, which he lull to ihe Duke of Ferrara,
 into whose  territory he retired, at his death in 1537.
 His principal works are an enlarged Commentary on
 Mundinus, and a Treatise on Fracture of tlie Cranium.
   Birem secum. See Artemisia vulgaris.
   Berem ce.  (The city from whence it was formerly
 brought)   Amber.
   Berem'cium.  (From qnpto, to bring, and hat; vic-
 tory.)  A term applied  by  the old Greek writers to
 ni.re, from its supposed power in healing wounds.
   BERGA.MOTE.  A  species of citron. See Citrus
 mtdica.
   BERGMANITE.  A massive mineral of a greenish,
 grayish -white, or reddish colour,  which fuses into a
 transparent glass, or a  semitransparcnt enamel.  It is
 found in Frederickswam, in Norway, in quartz and in
 felspar.
   [Tliis mineral has not yet beer, satisfactorily ana-
 lyzed.  Its masses are  composed of fibres, or little
 needles, confusedly grouped,  and often so closely ap-
 plied to each other, that the texture  becomes nearly
 compact.  Some of the needles have a foliated shining
 fracture. Its colour is  a deep gray.   Its sharp frag-
 ments scratch glass, and even quartz in a slight degree.
 Its spec. grav. is 2.30.  When moistened by the breath,
 it yields an argillaceous odour.  A fragment exposed
 to the flame of a  candle, or placed on a hot coal, be-
 come!, white  and  friable.  It  melts by the  blow-pipe
 into <i while translucent glass.—See Cleav. Mm.  A.]
   BERIBERI.  <An Hindustan  word signifying a
 sheep.)  Beriberia.  A  species of palsy, common in
 some parts of the East  Indies, according to Bontius.
 In this disease, the patients lift up their legs very much
 in the same manner as  is usual with  sheep.   Bontius
 adds, that ibis palsy is  a kind of trembling, in which
 there is deprivation ofthe motion and sensation ofthe
 hands and feel, and sometimes of the body.
   BERKENHOUT, John, born at Leeds, about  the
 year 1730.   His medical studies were commenced late
 in life, having graduated at Leyden only in 17C5;  nor
 did he  long continue the  practice of medicine.  His
 "Pharmacopoeia  Medica," however, was very much
 approved, and  has since  passed through many edi-
 tions; his other medical  publications are of  little im-
 portance.  He died in 1791.
  Bm-mudas berry.  See Sapindus saponaria.
  BERRY.   See  Bacca.
  Bers.   Formerly  the  name  of  an exhilarating
electuary.
  Be'rula.   An old name for brooklime.
  Be'rula gai.i.ica.  Upright water parsnip.
                                          I
    BERYL.  Aquamarine.  A  precious mineral,
  harder than the emerald, of a green, orgreenish-yeliow
  colour,  found in  Siberia,  France, Saxony,  Binsil.
  Scotland, and Ireland.
    Bessa ni:n.  (An Arabian word.) A redness of the
  external parts, resembling that  which precedes tlie
  leprosy; it  occupies the  face and  extremities.—lvi
  cenna.
    Be'sto.  A  name in Oribnsius for a species of
  saxifrage.
    BETA   (So called from the river Balis, in Spain,
  where it grows naturally;  or, according to Blanchard,
  from the Greek letter //ijra, which it is said to rcsem
  ble when turgid with seed.)  The beet
    1. The name of a genus of plants in the Liiunfun
  system.   Class, Pcntandria; Order, Digynia.  The
  beet
   2. The pliarmacopoeial name of the common beet.
  See Beta vulgaris.
    Beta iivbhida.  The plant which affords the root
  of scarcity.  Mangel wurzel of the Germans; a  large
  root.  It contains much of the saccharine principle,
  and is very nourishing.  Applied externally it is useful
  in cleaning foul ulcers; and is u  belter  application
  than the carrot.
   Beta   vulgaris.  The systematic  name for the
  beet of the pharmacopoeias.  Beta:—fioribus conges-
  lis of Liunaeua.  The root of this plant is frequently
 eaten  by the French; it may be considered  as nutri-
 tious and antiscorbutic, and forms a very elegant pickle
 with vinegar.  The  root and leaves,  although for-
 merly employed as  laxatives and emollients, are  now
 forgotten.  A considerable quantity of sugar may be
 obtained from the root of the beet,  (t is likewise said,
 that if beet roots be dried in the some manner as malt,
 after the greater part of their juice is pressed out  very
 good beer may be made  from them.  It  is occasionally
 used to improve the colour of claret.
   Betelk.   Bethle;  Belle;  Betelle.   An oriental
  plant, like the tail of a lizard.  It is chewed by the In-
  dians, and makes the teeth black ; is cordial and exhi-
  larating, and in very general use throughout the east.
  It is supposetl to be the long pepper.
   BETO'NICA.  (Corrupted from  Vcttoniea,  which
  is derived from the Vectom t, an ancient people of
 Spain.)  Betony.
   1. The name of a genus of  plants in  the  Lin
 n&an system.  Class, Didynamia; Order, Gymnos
 permia,
   2. The pharmacopaeial  name of the  wood betony
 See Betontca officinalis.
   Betomca  aquatica.   See Scrophularia aquatica.
   Betomca  officinalis.  The systematic name of
 the betony of the pharmacopoeias. Betonica purpurea;
 Betomca vulgaris ;  Cestrum;  Vetonica cordi;  Beto-
 nica—spica interrupta, corollarum labii lac in in inter-
 media emarginata of  Linnaeus.  The leaves  and lops
 of this plant have an agreeable, but weak smell; and
 to the  taste they discorer a slight warmth, accompa-
 nied with some degree of adstringeucy and bitterness.
 Tht powder  of the leaves  of betony, snuffed up the
 nose, provokes sneezing;  and hence it is somuimes
 made an ingredient  in  sternutatory powders.   Its
 leaves are sometimes smoked like tobacco.  The roots
 differ greatly, in their quality, from the other  parts;
 their taste is very bitter and nauseous; taken iu a
 small dose, they vomit and purge violently, and are
 supposetl to have somewhat in common  with the roots
 of hellebore.  Like  many other plants, formerly in
 high medical estimation, betony is now almost entirely
 neglected.  Autonius Musa, physician to the emperor
 Augustus, filled a whole volume with enumerating its
 virtues, stating it  as a remedy for no less thin forty
 seven disorders; and  hence  in Italy the  proverbial
 compliment,  You have more virtues than betony.
   Betomca pauli.   A species of veronica.
   Betonica vulgaris.  See Betonica officinalis
   BETONY.  See Betonica.
   Betony, water.  See Scrophularia aquatica
   BETULA.   1. The name of a genus of plants in the
 Linnaean system. Class, Monacia; Order, Telrandria
 Alder and birch.
  2. The pharmacopoeial  name of the white  birch
 See Betula alba.
  Betula alba.  The systematic name ofthe betula
nf the pharmacopoeias.  Betula:—foliis ovatis, ucu-
minatis, serratis, of Linnaeus. The juice, leaves, and
                                        123 
BEZ
B1C
 nark have been employed medicinally.  Ifthetrcebe
 bored early in the spring, there issues, by degrees, a
 large quantity of limpid, watery, sweetish juice; it  is
 said that one tree will afford from one to two gallons a
 day.  This juice is esteemed as an antiscorbutic, de-
 obstruent, and diuretic.  When  well fermented, and
 having a proper addition of raisins  in its composition,
 it is frequently a rich and strong liquor; it keeps better
 than many ofthe other made-wines, often for a num-
 ber of years, and was formerly supposed  to possess
 many medical virtues; but these experience does not
 seem to sanction; and the virtues of the alder, Ijke
 those of many other simples  formerly prized, have
 sunk into oblivion.  The leaves and bark were used
 externally as  resolvents, detergents, and antiseptics.
   Betula alnus. The systematic name for the alnus
 of the pharmacopoeias.  The common alder.
   BEX.  (From Btqaato,  to cough.)  A cough.  Dr.
 Good, in his Nosology, has applied this term to a genus
 of diseases, which embraces three species, bez humida,
 ticca, convulsiva.
   Bexagui'llo.  A name given to the white ipecacu-
 anha, which  the Spaniards bring from Peru, as the
 Portuguese do the brown from  Brazil.
   Bexu'go.   The root of the JEmatitis peruviana of
 Caspar Bauhin; one drachm of which is sufficient for
 a purge.
   Be'zahan.   The fossile bezoar.
   Beze'tta cizrulea.  See Croton tinctorium
   BE'ZOAR.   (From pa-zahar, Persian, a destroyer
 of poison.)   Lapis bezoardicus.  Bezoard.  A pre-
 ternatural or morbid concretion formed in the bodies
 of land-animals. Several of these kinds of substances
 were formerly celebrated for their medicinal virtues,
 and distinguished by the names of the countries from
 whence they came, or the animal in which they were
 found.  There are eight kinds, according to Fourcroy,
 Vauquelin, and Berthollet.
  1. Superphosphate offline, which forms concretions
 in the intestines of many mammalia.
  2. Phosphate of magnesia, semitransparent nnd yel-
 lowish, and of sp. grav. 2.160.
  3. Phosphate of ammonia and magnesia.  A con-
 cretion of a gray or brown colour, composed of radia-
 tions from a centre.  It is found in the intestines of
 herbivorous animals, the elephant, horse, &c.
  4. Biliary, colour reddish-biown, found frequently in
 the intestines and gall-bladder of oxen, and used by
 painters  for an orange-yellow pigment.   It is inspis-
 sated bile.
  5. Resinous.  The oriental bezoars, procured from
 unknown animals, belong to this class of concretions.
 They consist of concentric layers, are fusible, combus-
 tible, smooth, soft, and finely polished.  They are
 composed of bile and resin.
  0. Fungous, consisting of pieces ofthe Boletus igni-
 arius, swallowed by the animal.
  7. Hairy.
  8. Ligniform.  Three bezoars sent to Bonaparte by
 the king of Persia, were found  by Bertliollot to be no-
 thing but woody fibre agglomerated.
  Bezoars were formerly considered as very powerful
 alexiphannics, so much so, indeed, that other medi-
 cines, possessed, or supposed to  be |>ossessed, of alexi-
 pharmic  powers, were called bczoardics;  and  so effi-
 cacious were they once thought, that they were bought
 for ten times  their weight iu  gold.  These virtues,
 however, ere in the present day justly denied them, as
 they produce  no other effects than those common to
 the saline particles which they contain, and which may
 be given to greater advantage from other sources.  A
 composition nf bezoar with absorbent powders, has
 been much in repute, as a popular  remedy for disor-
 ders in children, by the name of Gascoigne's powder
 nnd Gascoigne's ball; but the real bezoar was  rarely,
 if ever, i>*ed for these, its price offering such a tempta-
 lion to counterfeit it.  Some have employed for this
 purpose, a resinous composition, capable of melting in
 the fire, and soluble in  alkohol: but Newmann sup-
 posed that those nearest resembling it, were made of
gypsum,  chalk, or  some other  earth, to which the
proper colour was Imparted  by some vegetable juice.
 We  understand, however,  that  tobacco-pipe clay,
tinged wilh ox-gail,  is commonly employed, at  least
for the Gascoigne's powder; this giving a yellow tint
to paper, rubbed with chalk, and a green to paper rub-
 bed over with quick-lime;  which are considered as
      130
  proofs of genuine bezoar, and which a vegetable jiuet
  would not effect.
    Bezoar  bovinum.  Bezoarof the os.
    Bezoar  germamcum.  The bezoar from the alpine
  goat.
    Bezoar  hystricis.   Lapis porcinus; Lapis iia
  lacensis; Petro del porco.  The bezoar of the Indian
  porcupine; said to  be found in the gall-blndder of an
  Indian porcupine, particularly iu the province of Ma-
  lacca.  This concrete differs from others: ii has an
  intensely bitter taste; and on  being steejied in water,
  for a very little time, impregnates the fluid with its
  bitterness, and with aperient, stomachic, and, as it is
  supposed, with alexipharmic virtues.   How far it dif
  fers  in virtue from the  similar concretions found in
  the gall-bladder of the ox, and other animals, does noi
  appear.
    Bezoar  microcosmicum.  The calculus found ip
  the human bladder.
    Bezoar  occidentals.  Occidental bezoar.   Thi«
  concretion is said to be found in the stomach of an ani
  mat of the stag or goat kind, a native of Peru, &c.  It
  is of a larger size than the oriental bezoar, nnd some
  times as large as a hen's egg;  its surface is rough, and
  the colour green, grayish, or brown.
    Bezoar  orientals.   Lapis  bezoar orientalis
  Oriental bezoar stone.  This concretion  is said to be
  found in the pylorus, or fourth stomach of an animal
 of the  goat kind, which  inhabits tlie mountains of
 Persia.  It  is  generally  about the size of a kidney
 bean, of a roundish or oblong figure, smooth, and of a
 shining olive or dark greenish colour.
   Bezoar pormnum.  See Bezoar hystricis.
   Bezoar simle.  The bezoar fiom the monkey.
   Bezoardica radix.  See Dorstenia.
   Bezoardiccm joviale.  Bezoar wilh  tin.  It  dif-
 fered very little from the Antihecticum Poterii.
   Bezoardicum lunale. A preparation of antimony
 and silver.
   Bezoardicum martiale.  A preparation  of iron
 and antimony.
   Bezoardicum minerale.  A preparation of ami
 mony, made by adding nitrous acid to butter  of ami
 mony.
   Bezoardicum saturni.  A  preparation  of anti
 mony and lead.
   Bezo'ardicus lapis.   See Bezoar.
   Bezoardicus pulvis.  The powder of the  crientn.
 bezoar.
   Bkzoarticum minerai e.  A calx of antimony.
   BI.   (From bis, twice.)   In composition signifies
 twice or  double, and is frequently attached to" other
 words in anatomy,chemistry, and  botany; as biceps,
 having  two heads; bicuspides, two points, or fanes;
 bilocular, with two cells; bivalve, with two valves, Sec.
   Bia-o.n.   Wine made from  sun-raisins, fermented
 in sea water.
   Bibine'lla.  See Pimpinella.
   BIBITO'RIUS.   (Bibitorius,  from bibo, to drink
 because by drawing the eye inwards towards the nose!
 it causes those who drink to look into the cup.)  See
 Rectus internus oculi.
  BIBULUS.   Bibulous; attracting moisture; churta
 bibula, blotting paper.
  BICAPSULAR1S. Having two capsules. Pericar
pium bicapsulare.  See Capsula.
  BI'CEPS.   (From  bis,  twice,  and caput, a head)
Two  heads.  Applied to muscles from their  bavins
two distinct origins or heads.
  Biceps brachh.  See Biceps flexor cubili.
  Biceps cruris.  See Biceps flexor cruris.
  Biceps cubiti.  See Biceps flexor cubiti.
  Biceps  extkrnus. See Triceps extensor cubitt.
  Biceps flexor cruris.  Biceps  cruns of Albinua.
Biceps of Winslow, Douglas, and Cowper ; and licliiv
femoropcromen of Dumas.  A muscle of the lew, situ
ated on the hind part of the thigh.  It arises by tw-i
distinct heads;  the first, called  longus, aiises incom-
mon with the  semitendinosus, from  the upper  anil
posterior part of the tuberosity of the os ischium.
  v fCC£. '  callea brev'*y Briscs from the linea aspera,
a little below the termination ofthe glutaeus maximus,
by a fleshy acute beginning, which soon -.'rows broader
as it descends to join with the first head, a little alwve
the external condyle of the os femoris.   It is inseriwi
 i acftronS tendon, into the upper pnrt of the head of
the fibula   Its  use is to bend the  leg.  This muscl* 
BIF
BIL
 torms What is called the outer hamstring, and, between
 it and the inner, the nervous popliteus, arteria and
 vena poplitea, are situated.
   B.-ceps flexor cubitt.   Biceps brachii of Albinus.
 Coraco-radiaiis, scu  biceps of Winslow.  Biceps in-
 ternus of Douglas.   Biceps intcrnus humeri of Cow-
 per.  Scaputo coracoradial  of Dumas.  A muscle of
 the forearm, situated on the forepart of the os humeri.
 It arises by  two heads.   The first  and outermost,
 callec*!  longus, begins tendinous from  the upper edge
 of thn glenoid cavity of the scapula, passes over tlie
 head of the  os  humeri  within the joint, and  in its
 descent without the joint, is enclosed in k groove near
 the head of the os humeri, by a membraneous liga-
 ment that proceeds from the capsular ligament and
 adjacent  tendons.  The second, or innermost head,
 called brevis, arises, tendinous and fleshy,  from the
 coracoid process of tlie  scapula, in common with tlie
 coracobrachialis muscle.  A little below the middle of
 the forepart of the os humeri, these heads unite.  It is
 inserted by a strong roundish  tendon into tlie tubercle
 on the  upper end of the radius internally.   Its use is
 to tum the hand supine, and to bend the forearm.  At
 the bending of the elbow, where it begins to grow ten-
 dinous, it sends  off an aponeurosis, wliich covers all
 the muscles on  the inside of the forearm, and joins
 with another tendinous membrane, which is sent off
 from the triceps extensor cubiti, and  covers all the
 muscles on the outside of the forearm,  and a number
 of tbe fibres, from opposite sides, decussate each other.
 It serves to  strengthen the muscles, by keeping them
 from swelling too much outwardly when in action,
 and a  number of their fleshy fibres take  their origin
 from it.
   Biceps internus.   See Biceps flexor cubiti.
   Bichi'chij:.   An  eptthet ot  certain pectorals, or
 rather troches, described by Rhazes, which were made
 of liquorice, &c.
   Bi'chos.  A  Portuguese name for the worms that
 get under the toe of the people in the Indies,  which
 are destroyed by the oil of cashew nut.
   Btct.  The Indian name of an  intoxicating liquor,
 made  from  Turkey  wheat in South  America.  See
 wheat, Turkey.
    BI'CORNIS.  (From bis, twice, and cornu, a horn.)
 1. An epithet sometimes applied  to  the  os hyoides,
 which has two processes, or horns.
   2. In former times, to muscles that had two termi-
 nations.
   3. A name given to those  plants, tbe anthers  of
 which have the appearance of two horns.
   Bicorkss  plants.  The name of an  order  of
 plants in tlie natural method of Linnaeus and Gerard.
   BICUSPIDATUS.   Having two points.  See Bi-
 cuspis.
   BICU'SPIS* (From bis, twice, and cuspis, a spear.)
 1. The name of those teeth which have double points,
 or fangs.   See Teeth.
   2.  Applied to leaves which terminate by two points;
 folia bievspida, or bicuspidata.
   BI'DEN'S.  (From bis, twice, and aVrtj, a  tooth; so
 called  from its  being deeply serrated, or indented.)
 The name of a genus of plants in tlie Linnaean system.
 Class,  Syngenesia ; Order, Polygamia  aqualis.
   Bidens tripartita.  The  systematic name of the
 hemp agrimony, formerly used as a bitter and aperient,
 but not in the practice of the present day.
    BIDLOO, Godfrey, a celebrated anatomist, born at
 Amsterdam, in 1649.   After practising several years as
 a surgeon, he was appointed physician to William HI.,
 and in 1694, made professor of anatomy  and surgery
 at Leyden.  He published  105  very splendid, though
 rather inaccurate anatomical tables,  wilh explana-
 tions ; and several minor works. His nephew, Nicho-
 las, was physician to the Czar Peter I.
   BIENNIS.  Biennial. A biennial plant  Is  one, as
 Ihe term imports, of two year's duration.  Of this
 tribe there are  numerous  plants, which being  raised
 one year from the seed, generally attain perfection the
 same year, or within about twelve months, shooting
. up stalks, producing flowers, and perfecting seeds in
 the rollowing spring or  summer, and soon after c<tm-
 tnonlv perish.
   Bifariam.  In two parts.
   B1FER.  (From bis, twice, and fero, to  bear.)  A
 fiant is  so called, which  bears twice in the year, in
 spring and autumn, as is common between the tropics.
  BIF1DUS.   Forked.   Divided  into two; as a bifid
seed-vessel in Adoxa moschtteltina, petala bifida in the
Stlcne nocturna and Alyssum incanum.
  BIFLORUS.  B.-aring two flowers; aspcdur.culus
biflorus.
  BIFORIUM.  Applied to a leaf which points two
ways.
  BIFORUS.  (From bis, twice, and forus, a door.)
Two-doored, or bivaived.  A cluss of plants  is so de-
nominated in some natural arrangements, constituted
by tliose which  have a pericarp, or icid \t-scl, fur-
nished with two valves.
  BIFURCATE.  (B\furcus;  from bts, twice, and
furca, a fork.)  A vessel, or nerve,  stem, root, Sec. is
said to bifurcate when it divides into two branches;
thus tlie  bifurcation of the aorta, &.c.
  BIFURCATIO.  Bifurcation.
  BIFURCATUS.  (From bis, twice,  and /^ooj a
fork.)  Forked.  See Bifurcate and  liichotoiu.is.
  BIGA'STER.    (Bigastcr:  from bis, twice, and
eyaeTUPin belly.)  A name given to muscles which have
two bellies.
  BIGEMINATUS.   (From bis, and gemini, twins ,
Twice paired.   Biconjugatus.   A  li af is so called
when neaf the apex of  the common  pete le there is a
single pair of secondary petioles, each  of which sup-
port a  pair of opposite leaflets;  as in Mimosa un-
guis caiti.
  BIH'ERNICS.   (From bis,  double, and hernia, a
disease so called.)  Having a double hernia or one' on
each side.
  Btkydrogurct of carbon.  See Carburetted hydrogen.
  BIJUGUS.  A winged leaf is  termed folium biju-
gum, which bears two pairs of leaflets.
  BILABIATUS.  Two-lipped.   Often used  in bo-
tany ; aspericarpium bilabiatum; corolla bilabeata,Sec
  BIL ACINI ATUS.  Applied to a leaf  Folium bits
ciniatum; when cut into two segments.
  Bila'den.   A name of iron.
  BILAMELLATUS.  Composed of two lamina.
  Bilberry bean.  See Arbutus uva  ursi.
  BILDSTEIN.  See Ftgurcslone.
  BILE.  (Bilis.  Neevius derives it from bis, twice
 and lis, contention; as being supposed to be the cause
 of anger and dispute.)  The gall.   A  bitter  fluid, se-
 creted in the glandular substance of the liver;  in pert
 flowing into the intestines, and  in part regurgitating
 into the gall-bladder.  The secielory  organs of this
 fluid are the pemcilli of the liver, wliich terminate i-i
 very minute canals, called biliary ducts.  The biliaiy
ducts pour their bile into the ductus hepettuas, which
conveys it into the ductus communis  choledochus, from
 whence it is in part carried into  the duodenum. The
oilier part of the bile  regurgitates through the cystic
duel into the gall-bladder: for hepatic bile, e:> <.<:,<i du-
ring digestion, cannot flow into the duodenum, w!i..li
contracts when  empty; hence it necessarily regui^i-
tates into the gall-bladder.  The branches of the vena
porta contribute most to the secretion of bile;  its  pe-
culiar blood, returning from the abdominal viscera, is;
supposed  to be, in some respects, different from o!.':e.-
vcnal blood, and to  answer exactly to the nature of
bile.  It  is not yet ascertained  clearly whether  lie
florid blood in the hepatic artery,merely nourishes I'm:
liver, or  whether, at the same time, it contribute- a
certain principle, necessary for the formation of l>r*e
 It has  been supposed, by physiologists, that cystic l,*!e
was secreted by the arterial vessels of the gall-blade! t;
but the fallacy of this opinion  is proved by mailing n
 ligature on  the cystic duct of a living  animal.  From
what has been  said,  it appears that there ure, as it
 were, two kinds of bile in the human body:—
  1. Hepatic bile, which flows from the liver into  the
duodenum:  this is thin, of a  faint  yellow colour, hi
odorous, and very slightly  bitter, otherwise  s.e livr
 of animals would not be citable.
  2. Cystic  bile, which  regurgitates from the hepatic
 duct into the gall-bladder, and there, from  stagnating
 becomes thicker, the aqueous part being absoibed by
 lymphatic vessels, and more acrid from concentration
 Healthy bile is of a yellow, green colour; of a plastic
 consistence, like thin oil, and when very much agitated,
 it froths like soap and water:  its smell  is fituous,
 somewhat like musk, especially the putrefying or eva-
 porating bile of animals : its taste is bitter.
  The primary uses of this fluid, so import rt to the
 animal economy, are:
                                         13! 
tJlL
KIT
  I. To separate the chyle from, the chyme: thus chyle
is never observed in the duodenum before the chyme
has been mixed with the  bile:  and thus it is that oil
is extricated from linen by the bile of animals.
  2. By its acridity it excites the peristaltic motion of
the intestine's;  hence  the bowels are so inactive in
people with jaundice.
  3. It  imparts a  yellow  colour to the excrements:
thus we observe the white colour ofthe faeces in jaun-
dice, in which disease the flow of bile into the duode-
num is entirely  prevented.
  4. It prevents the abundance of mucus and acidity
in the primae viae; hence  acid, pituitous, and vermin-
ous saburra are  common from deficient or inert  bile.
  The chemical analysis of bile has been principally
illustrated by Mons. Thenard.  " Ox  bile is usually
of a greenish-yellow colour, rarely of a deep  green.
By its colour it changes the blue of turnsole and violet
to a reddish-yellow.  At once very bitter, and slightly
sweet, its taste is  scarcely supportable.  Its  smell,
though feeble,  is easy  to  recognise, and approaches
eomewhat to the nauseous odour of certain tally mat-
ters, when they  are heated. Its specific gravity varies
very little.  It  is about 1.026 at 43° F.  It is  some-
times limpid, and at others disturbed with a yellow
matter,  from whicli it may be easily separated  by
water; its consistence varies from that of a thin muci-
lage, to viscidity."  Cadet regarded  it as a kind of
soap.  This opinion was  first refuted by Thenard.
According  to this  able chemist, 800 parts of ox bile
are composed of 700  water, 15 resinous matters, 6J
picromei, about 4  of  a yellow matter,  4 of soda, 2
phosphate of soda, 3.5 muriates of soda and  potassa,
0.8  sulphate of soda,  1.2  phosphate  of lime,  and a
trace of oxide of iron.  When  distilled to dryness, it
leaves from l-8th to l-9th of solid matter, which, urged
with a higher heat, is resolved  into the usual igneous
products of animal analysis; only with more oil and
less carbonate of ammonia.
  Exposed for some time  in an open vessel, the bile
gradually corrupts, and lets fall a small quantity of a
yellowish  matter;  then   its  mucilage  decomposes.
Thus the putrefactive  process is very inactive, and the
odour it exhales  is not  insupportable,  but  in some
cases has been thought  to  resemble  lhat of  musk.
Waier and alkohol combine in all proportions with
bile.  When a  very little acid is  poured into  bile, it
becomes slightly  turbid,  and  reddens  litmus: when
more is added,  the  precipitate  augments, particularly
if sulphuric acid be employed.  It is formed of a yel-
low  animal matter, with  very little resin.   Potassa
and soda increase the thinness and transparency of
bile.  Acetate of" lead precipitates ihe yellow matter,
and the sulphuric and phosphoric acids of the bile.
The solution of the subacetate precipitates  not only
these bodies, but also  the  picromei and the muriatic
acid, all combined with the oxide of lead. The acetic
acid remains in the liquid united to the soda.  The
greater  number of fatty substances are capable of
being dissolved  by bile.  This property, which made it
be considered a soap, is owing to the soda, and to the
triple compound of soda, resin, and picromei. Scourers
sometimes  prefer  it to soap,  for cleansing woollen.
The bile of the calf, the dog, and the sheep, are similar
to that of the ox.   The bile of the sow contains no
picromei.   It is  merely a soda-resinous soap.  Human
bile is peculiar.  It varies in colour, sometimes being
green, generally yellowish-browu occasionally almost
colourless.  Its  taste is not very bitter.  In the gall-
bladder  it is seldom limpid, containing often, like that
of the ox, a certain quantity of yellow matter in sus-
pension.  At times this is in such quantity, as to ren-
der the bile somewhat grumous.  Filtered and boiled,
it becomes  vury turbid, and diffuses the odour of white
ol egg.  When  evaporated to dryness, there results a
brown extract, equal in weight to 1-llth of the bile.
By calcination we obtain the same salts as from ox bile.
  All ihe acids  decompose human bile, and occasion
an abundant precipitate of" albumen and resin,  which
are easily  separable by alkohol.  One part of nitric
acid, sp. grav. 1.210, saturates 100 of bile.  On pouring
into it a solution of sugar of lead, it is changed  into a
liquid of a light-yellow colour, in which no picromei
can be  found,  and wh'r.h contains only acetate of
soda and some traces of animal mailer. Human bile
appears  hence  to be formed,  by Thenard, in  1100
parts; of 1000  water; from 2 to  10 yellow insoluble
      132
matter;  42 albumen; 41 resin; 5.0 soru;  and  4?
phosphates of soda of lime, sulphate of soda, muriate
of =oda, and oxide of  ii on.  But by Berzelius, its con-
stituents are iu 1000 parts: 908.4 water; 80 picromei;
3 albumen;  4.1 soda; 6.1  phosphate  of lime; 3.4
common salt; and  1  phosphate of soda,  with  some
phosphate of lime.
  BILGUER, John Ulrtck, was born at Coire,  in
Swisserland.   He practised surgery at Berlin with
such reputation, that  he  was appointed, by the gret
Frederick,  Surgeon-General  to  the  Prussian  army
It was then the general practice to amputate in bad
compound fractures; and being struck with the  small
proportion of tliose who recovered after the . peration,
he was led to try more lenient  methods; from which
meeting with much  better success, he published as a
thesis, on graduating at Halle, in 1761, a pretty general*
condemnation of amputation.  This work attracted
much notice throughout Europe, and-materially check-
ed tlie  unnecessary use of the knife.  In  his " Instruc-
tions for Hospital Surgeons,"  which appeared soon
after, he insisted  farther  on  the  same  subject; and
where amputation was unavoidable, be advised  leav-
ing a portion of the  integuments, whicli  is now  gene-
rally adopted.
  BILIARY.  (Biliaris; from bilis, the bile.)  Of
or belonging to the bile.
  Biliary  duct.  Ductus biliosus.  The very vas-
cular glandules,  which  compose  almost  the whole
substance of  the liver, terminate in very small canals,
called biliary ducts, which at length  form  one trunk,
the ductus hepaticus.  Their use is to convey the bile,
secreted by the liver, intothe hepatic duet;  this uniting
with a duct from the gall-bladder, forms  one eoimnon
canal, called the ductus communis cholcdochus, which
conveys the bile into the intestinal canal.
  Bili'mbl   (Indian.)  See Malus Indica.
  Bl'LIOUS.  (Biliosus,  from  bilis, bile.)  A term
very generally made use of, to express diseases which
arise from too copious a secretion of bile: thus bilious
colic, bilious  diarrhoea, bilious fever, &c.
  BI LIS.  See Bile.
  Bilis  atf.a.    Black bile.   The  supposed cause
among the ancients of melancholy.
  Bins cystica.  Bilis fellea.  Cystic bile. The bile
when in the gall-bladder is so called to distinguish it
from that whicli is found  in the  liver.  See Bile.
  Bins hepatica.  Hepatic bile.  Bile  that has no!
entered tlie ^all-bladder.  See Bile.
  BILOBUS.  (From bis, double, and lobus, the end
of the ear.)   Having two lobes,  resembling the tips of
ears; applied to a leaf, folium bilobum,  when  it  is
deeply divided into rounded segments, as tbe petals of
the Geranium pyrenaicum and striatum  which are
bilobed.
  BILOCULARIS   (From bis, twice, and local us, a
little cell.)  Two-celled;  applied to a ftipsule which
has two cells.
  Biloculares.  Is the name of a natural order of
plants.
  BIME'STRIS.   (From  bis, twice, and mensis
month.)  Two months old.
  BINATUS.  Emus.  Binate.  A  term  applied  tc
compound leaves, when consisting of a pair of leaflet*
only, on one footstalk as in the  great everlasting pea
and other species of lattn/rus.
  BINDWEED.  Sec Convolvulus sepium.
  BINERVIUS.  Two-nerved.   Having two ribs oi
nerves very apparent.   Hence, folium binenum.
  BtNGA lle.  See Casumuniar.
  Biso\ ulus.  (From sinus, double, and  oculus, the
eye.) A bumLigeforsecuriiigthedressingsonbotheyes.
  Bi'nsica.   A disordered mind.—Helmont.
  Binsu-a mors.  The binsical, or that  death which
lollows a disordered mind.
  BINTS.   (From  bis,  twice.)  Two  by two; by
couplets; applied  to leaves when there  are only two
uponaplant,/oti'a6ina; as in Convallariamajatis,Sec
  Bioly'chnium.   (From Bios, life, and  Auxwoy, a
lamp.)   Vital heat:  also the  name of an olhcina
nostrum.
  Bi'ote.  (From /3ios, life.)  Life.  Also light food.
  DlOTHA'NATl.   (From Bia, violence,or /iios, life,
and Savojos, death.)   Those who die a violent death,
or suddenly, as if there were no space  between life
and death.
  BIPARTITL'S.  Bipartite.  Deeply divided almost 
BTS
BIS
to The "basis; as calyx bipartitus ; folium bipartitum;
perianlhiuiu bipartitum; and petala bipartita.
  Bipemu'lla.  See Pimpinella.
  Bipene lla.  See Pimpinella.
  BIP1NATIFIDUS.   Doubly piiinatifid;  as In Ihe
long rougli-headed poppy, Papaver ariemone.  See
Pmnatitidus.
  ISIPINNATIFIDUS.   Doubly pirtnalifid;  applied
to a leaf.  See Leaf.
  BIPINNATUS.    Doubly pinnate.   A compound
leaf is  so termed  when the  secondary petioles are
arranged in pairs  on the common  petiole, aud each
secondary petiole is pinnate.
  B:'ra.  Malt liquor or beer.
  B:ra o.  Stone Parsley.
  BIRCH.   See Betula.
  BIRDLIME.  The best birdlime is  made  of the
initios bark of the holly, boiled  seven or eight hours
in water, till it is soft and tender; then laid in heaps
in pits in the ground and  covered with stones, the
water being previously drained from it; and  in this
slate left for two or three  weeks lo ferment, till it is
reduced to a kind of mucilage.  This being taken from
the  pit is pounded  in a  mortar to a paste, washed in
river water, and kneaded, till it is frei-d from extrane-
ous matters.   In this state it i>  left four oi five days in
earthen vessels, to  ferment and purify itself, when it is
fit for use.
  It may likewise  be obtained from tlie misleloe, the
Viburnum lantana, young shoots of elder, and oilier
vegetable substances.
  It is si uueiiuies adulterated with turpentine, oil, vine-
gar, and other matters.
  Good birdlime is of a  greenish colour, and sour fla-
vour; gluey, stringy, and tenacious ; and in smell re-
sembling linseed oil.  By exposure to the air it becomes
dry aud brittle, so  that  it may be  powdered; but its
viscidity is restored by wetting it   It reddens tincture
of litmus. Exposed to a gentle  heat il liquefies slightly,
swells in bubbles,  becomes grumous, emits a smell re-
sembling that of animal oils, grows brown, but reco-
vers its properties on cooling,  if not heated too much.
With a greater heat il burns, giving out a brisk flame
and much smoke.  The residuum contains sulphate
and muriate  of potassa, carbonate of lime and alu-
mina, with a small portion of iron.
   BIRDSTONGUE.  A name given to tlie seeds of
tlie Flaxinus excelsior of Linna'us.
   Bi'rsen. • (Hebrew for an aperture.)  A deep ulcer,
or imposthume in  the breast.
  BIRTHWORT.  See Aristolochia
  Birthwort, climbing.   See Aristolochia clematitis.
  Birthwort, long-rooted.  See Aristolochia longa.
  Birthwort,  snake-killing.   See  Aristolochia  an-
guicido,
  Birthworl, three-lobcd  See Aristolochia trilobata.
  B1SCO CTUS.   (From bis, twice, and  coquo,  to
boil.)  Twice dressed.   L is chiefly applied to bread
much baked, as biscuit.
  Blscute'lla  Mustard.
  Bise'rmas.  A  name formerly given to clary, or
garden clary.
  BISHOP'S  WEED.   See Ammi.
  BISILl'NGUA.   (From bis, twice, and lingua, a
tongue: so called from its appearance of being double-
tongued ; that is, of having upon each leaf a less leaf.)
The Alexandrian laurel.
  Bisma'lva.  From vismalva, quasi viscum malva,
from its superior  viscidity.   The water, or  marsh-
mallow.
  BISMUTH.  (Bismuthum, from Bismut,  Germ.)
A metal which is  found in *.t:«e earth in very few dif-
ferent states, more generally native or in tlie metallic
state.   Native bismuth is met with in  solid  masses
and a!so in small particles dispersed in and frequently
deposited on different stones, at Schreeberg, in Saxony
Sweden, &c.  Sometimes  it  is crystallized in four'
sided  tables, or indistinct cubes.  It e*ists combined
with oxygen in the oxide of bismuth (bismuth hochre )
found in small particles, dispersed, of a bluish or yel-
lowish-gray colour, needle-shaped and capillary; some-
time s laminated, forming small cells. It is also, though
more seldom, united to sjlphur and iron in the form of
a sulphuret  in the martial sulphuretted bismuth ore.
This ore has a yellowish-gray appearance, resembling
somewhat the martial pyrites.  And it is sometimes
  oinbined with arsenic.
  Bismuth is a metal of a yellowish or reddish-wfnui
colour, little subject lo change in the air.  It is some-
what harrier than lead, and is scarcely, if at all malle-
uble; being  e-isily broken, and even'reduced to pow-
der, by the hammer.  The internal face, or place of
fracture, exhibits  large shining  plates, disposed  in a
variety of positions; thin piect saie considerably sono-
rous.  At a  teuiperatuieof 480° Fahrenheit, it melts,
and its surface becomes covered with a  greenish-gray
or brown oxide.  A stronger heat ignitos  il, arid canst-d
it to  bum with a small blue flame; at the same  time
that  a yellowish oxide, known  by the name of flowers
of bismuth, isdiivcn up.  The oxide appears to lise in
consequence of the combustion  ; lor it  is very fixed,
and  runs into a greenish glass when exposed to hCit
alone.
  Bismuth urged by  a  strong heat in a close vessel,
sublimes entire, and  crystallizes wry distinctly wile I
gradually cooled.                    ,
  The sulphuric acid has a slight action upon bismuth,
when it is concentrated and boiling.   Sulphurous ac I
gas is exhaled, and part of the bismuth  is  cm\ .-;!<■ I
into  a white oxide.  A small  portion combines  with
the sulphuric acid, and affords a deliquescent salt in
Die form of small needles.
  The nitric acid  dissolves bismuth with the greatest
rapidity  and violence; at the same  time that much
heat is extricated, and a larse quantity of nitric oxitke
escapes.  The solution, w luen saturated, affords crys
tals us it cools; the salt detonates weakly, and Icavti
a yellow oxide behind, which effloresces in the air
Upon dissolving this salt in water, it renders that fluid
of a milky white, and lets fall an oxide of the sane
colour.
  The nitric solution of bismuth exhibits the same \n-,
perty when diluted  with  water, most  of the meta
tailing down in the form of a while oxide, called m»-
gistery  of bismuth.  This  piecipiiation of the nitric
solution, by the addition of water, is the criterion  bj
which bismuth is distinguished from most other metaU.
The magistery or oxide is a very white and  subtile
powder; when prepared by the addition of a large
quantity of water, it is used as a paint for the com-
plexion, and is thought gradually to impair the skin.
The  liberal use of any paint for the skin seems indeed
likely to do this;  but  there is reason to suspect, tio;n
the resemblance between th general pi operties of lead
and  bismuth,  that the oxide of this metal  may  be
attended with effects similar to those which the oxides
of lead  are known to produce.  If a small  portion of
muriatic acid be mixed with the nitric, and the preci-
pitated oxide be washed with hut a small quantity c.f
cold water, it will appear in minute scales of a pearly
lustte,  consisting  the pearl  powder  of perfumers.
These paints  are liable to be turned black by sulphu-
retted hydrogen gas.
  The muriatic acid does not readily act upon bismuth.
  When bismuth is exposed  to  chlorine gas it takes
fire,  and is converted into a chloride, whicli, formerly
prepared by heating the metal with corrosive sub i
mate, was called butter of bismuth.   The chloride n
of a grayish-white colour, a  granular  texture, and is
opaque.  It  is  fixed at a red heat.  When iodine ani
bismuth are heated together, they readily form  r.,i
iodide of an orange yellow colour, insoluble in water,
but easily dissolved in potassa ley.
  Alkalis likewise precipitate its oxide ; but not of so
beautiful a white colour  as that afforded  by the  aflu
sion  of  pure water.
  The gallic acid precipitates bismuth of a greenmfi
yellow, as ferroprussiate of potassa does of a yellow
isli colour.
  There appears to be two sulphurets, the first a com-
pound of 100 bismuth to 22.34 sulphur;  the second of
100 lo 46.5:  the second is a bisulphuret.
  The metal unites with most metallic substances, anj
renders them in general more fusible.   When calcined
with the imperfect metals, ils glass dissolves them, and
produces the  same effect as" lead in cupillation; ir
whicli process it is even said to be preferable to lead.
   Bismuth is used in the composition of pewter, in tU
fabrication of printers' types, and in various other me
tallic mixtures.  With an equal  weight of lead, is
forms a brilliant white alloy, much harder than  lead
and  more malleable than bismuth, though not ductile
and if the proportion of lead  be increased, i' is rea
dercd still more  malleable.  Eight parts  of bismuth 
BIS
BIT
 hve of leau, ani three of tin, constitute the fusible
 metal, sometimes called Newton's, from its discoverer,
 wnich  melts at tlie heat of boiling water, and may be
 fused over  a candle in a piece of stiff paper without
 burning the paper.   One part of bismuth, with five of
 lead, and tliree of tin, forms plumbers' solder.  It forms
 th<e  basis  of a sympathetic ink.  The oxide of bis
 ninth precipitated  by  potassa from  nitric acid, has
 been recommended  in spasmodic disorders of the
 stomach, and given in doses of four grains, four times
 a day.  A  writer in the Jena Journal says he has
 known the dose carried gradually to one supple with-
 out injury.
  Bismuth is easily separable, in the dry way, from its
 ores, on account of its great fusibility.  It is  usual, in
 the processes at large, to throw the bismuth ore into a
 fire of wood; beneath  wliich a hole  is made in the
 ground  to receive the  metal, and  defend it from oxi-
 dation.  The same  process may be  imitated in the
 small way, in the  examination of the ores of this metal;
 nothing more being necessary, than to expose it to a
 moderate  heat in a  crucible, with a quantity  of re-
 ducing flux; taking care, at the same time, lo perform
 Die operation as speedily as possible, that the  bismuth
may lie neither oxidized nor volatilized.
  [" In  the  United States,  native bismuth has been
 found in Connecticut.  The officinal  preparation  of
 this  metal is the subnitrate.  As  a small portion of
 nitric acid remains combined with the oxide of bis-
 muth in its preparation, it is properly called  a subni-
 trate.  The precipitation which takes place from the
 nitric solution, by adding mere water, is a criterion by
 which bismuth is distinguished from  most other me-
 tals. Subnitrate of bismuth is a fine, soft powder, of a
 pearly white colour, and nearly destitute of taste and
 smell.  It changes to a dark colour on the contact of
 Bulphurctted or carburetted hydrogen.
  Under the name of magistery of bismuth, this sub-
stance was formerly regarded as noxious to the human
 system. But during the  last forty years it has been
 brought into the practice of medicine,  and found to be
a salutary tonic to the stomach and organs of diges-
tion.  Its use commenced in Geneva, aud it has  since
had the testimony of some of  the most distinguished
physicians in France and England in  its favour.  It
has also in this country generally satisfied the  expecta-
tions formed of it. In dyspeptic complaints, especially
 in patients of a  nervous temperament, it is  found a
 very useful palliative, and sonietimes  does much to-
ward promoting a cure.  It is an  important medicine
in the case of persons habitually subject to cramp of
the stomach, and does more to fortify that organ against
the  returns of the disease than perhaps any of the to-
nics iu common use.  In habitual vomiting or nausea,
 both from a primary affection of the stomach, and from
sympathy  with  other  parts, it frequently gives great
relief.  Its tonic  effect appears not to  be confined to
the  stomach, since it is found to do good in different
 spasmodic affections, such as palpitations and chorea.
 Recently, it has been announced to cure inlermittents.
  A drachm of the bismuth, with an equal quantity of
liquorice powder, divided into twelve papers,  tliree of
 which are to be taken during the day, will commonly
 be sufficient  to display the  activity of the medicine.
Large quantities taken at  once are  unsafe."—Big.

                   (From  b'smut,  German.)   See
Mat. Med/ A.]
  BISMU'THUM.
bismuth.
  BISSET, Charles, was born about the year 1716.
After studying at  Edinburgh, and  practising  some
years as an  hospital-surgeon  in Jamaica, he entered
tlie army; but soon after  settled in Yorkshire, and in
1735,  published  a Treatise on the Scurvy.   But his
most  celebrated work is an " Essay on the Medical
Constitution of Great Britain," in 1762.  He obtained
three years after a diploma from  St. Andrew's, and
n-ached his 75ih year.
  BIS TORT.  Sec Bistorta.
  BISTO'RTA.  (From bis, twice,  and torque.o, to
bend; so  called from the contortions of its roots.)
Listort.  See  Polygonum bistorta.
  BISTOURY.   (Bistoire, French.) Any small knife
for surgical purposes.
  BISTRE.   A brown pigment, consisting of the finer
parts of wood soot, separated from the  grosser by
washing.  The soot of the beech is said to make  the
test.
      134
   BISULPHATE.   A sulphate  with an  additional
 quantity of sulphuric acid.
   BIT  NOBEN.  Salt of bitumen.  A white saline
 substance has lately  been imported from India by this
 name, which is not a natural production, but a Hindoo
 preparation of great antiquity.  It is  called iu the
 country, bit noben,  padanoon, and soucherloon, and
 popularly khala mimuc,or black salt.  Mr. Henderson
 of Bengal, conjectures it to be the sal asphaltites and
 sal sodomenus of Pliny and Galen.  This salt is far
 more extensively used in Hindostan than any other
 medicine whatever.  The Hindoos use  it to improve
 their  appetite and digestion.  They consiier it  as a
 specific for obstructions of the liver and spleen ; and it
 is in high estimation  with them in paralytic disorders,
 particularly those that affect  the organs of speech,
 cutaneous  affections, worms,  old rheumatisms, and
 indeed all chronic disorders of man and beast.
   BITERNATUS.   Twice-ternate.  Applied to com-
 pound leaves, when the common footstalk  supports
 three secondary petioles on its apex, and each of these
 support three leaflets; as in JEgopodium.
   Bitui'nici emplastrum.  A plaster for the spleen.
   Bi'thinos.  A Galenical plaster.
   BITTER. Amarus.
   BITTER APPLE.  See Cueumis Coloeynthis.
   BITTERN.   The mother  water which remains
 after the crystallization of common salt in sea-water,
 or the water of salt springs.  It abounds with sulphate
 and muriate of magnesia, to  wliich its bitterness is
 owing.
   BITTERSPAR.   Rhombspar.  A  mineral of a
 grayish or  yellowish  colour,  and somewhat  pearly
 lustre, usually found  embedded in serpentine, chlorite,
 or steatite, and found in the  Tyrol, Salsbuig, Dau-
 phiny, Scotland, and the Isle of Man.
   Bri'U'MEN.   (IIi7e>ia, *i7vj, pine; because  if
 flows from the pine-tree; or, quid vi tumeat i terra,
 from its bursting forth from the earth.)  This term in-
 cludes a considerable range of inflammable mineral
 substances, burning with flame in the open air. They
 are of different consistency, from a thin fluid to a
 solid; but the solids are for the mast part liquefiable
 at a moderate heat.   The fluid are,
   1. Naphtha; a fine, white, thin, fragrant, colourless,
 oil, which  issues out of white, yellow, or black clays
 in Persia aud Media.  This is highly inflammable,
 and is decomposed by distillation.  It dissolves resins,
 and the essential oils of thyme and lavender; but is
 not itself soluble either in alkohol or aetlfer.  It is the
 lightest of all the dense fluids, its specific gravity being
 0.708.  See Naphtha.
   2. Petroleum, wliich is a yellow, reddish, brown,
 greenish, or blackish oil, found dropping from rocks,
 or issuing from the earth, in the dutchv of Modena, and
 in various other parts of Europe and Asia.  This like-
 wise is  insoluble in alkohol, and seems  to consist of
 naphtha, thickened by exposure to the atmosphere.  It
 contains a  portion  of the  succinic acid.   Seo Pe
 trolcum.
  3. Barbadoes tar, which is a viscid, brown, or black
 inflammable substance, insoluble in aUtohol, and con
 laming the succinic acid.   This appears to be trie mi-
 neral oil in ils third state of alteration.
   The solid are, 1.  Asphaltum, mineral  pitch, of
 which there are  three varieties: the  cohesive • tilt
 semi-compact, maltha; the  compact, or asphaltum.
 1 hese are smooth, more or less hard or brittle, inflam-
 mable substances, which melt  easily, and burn wilh
 out leaving any or but little ashes, if they be pure.
 They  are slightly and  partially acted on by alkohol
 and tether.  See Asphaltum.
  2. Mineral tallow,  which is  a white substance of
 the consistence of tallow, and as greasy,  although
 more brut e.  It was  found in theseam, die coa fcof

 ™L  V" the  *VS 1736'  a,,d i9 also "•>« with in
 E™ tSi*y pa.rts °f Persia-  II » near olle-nl^ lighte.
 S??«   ow-: nnu, wi,h a blue flm*. al'° *  »«'«« of
 mnij •£aV."!g u black visciu maUer bemud,  which is
 more difficultly consumed.
  3. Elastic bitumen, or mineral caoutchouc, of wliich
 here are two varieties. Besides these, the re are other
 bituminous substances, as jet  and amber, whicli ap-
proach the  harder bitumens  in  their nature; and aid
tne varieties of pit coal, and  the bituminous sehistus.
or shale, which  contain more or less of bitumen i*
their composition. 
BLA
BLA
   Bitumen barbadense.  See Petroleum barbadcnsc.
   Bitumen judaicijm.  Asphaltus.  Jews' pitch.  A
 solid, light, bituminous substance; of a dusky colour on
 the outsiue, and a deep shining black within; of very
 little taste, and  scarcely any  smell, unless heated;
 When  it emits a strong pitchy one.  It is  said to be
 found  plentifully in  ihe  earth in several  parts  of
 Egypt, and  floating on the surface of the Dead sea.
 It is now wholly expunged from the catalogue of otfi-
 rinals of this country; but was formerly esteemed as
 a discutient, sudorific, and emmenagogue.
   Bitumen  lkiuioum.  See Petroleum.
   BITUMINOUS.  Ofthe nature of bitumen.
   [Bituminous coal.  In the United States, coal has
 been explored in several districts, and undoubtedly ex-
 ists in great abundance.  In Virginia, near Richmond,
is a deposite of coal about 20 miles in length, and ten
miles in breadth;  it is accompanied by a whitish sand-
stone and shale, with vegetable impressions, as is usual
in the independent coal formation, which here liesover,
and is surrounded by, primitive rocks. In Pennsylvania,
coal is found on the west branch of the Susquehannah ;
in various places west of that branch; also on the Ju-
niata, and on the waters ofthe Alleghany and Monon-
gahela.  Indeed, according to .Mr.  Machine,  the inde-
pendent coal formation extends from  the head waters
of fie Ohio,  with some interruptions, to the waters of
the Tombigbiee river, in Alabama.—See CI. Mm.  A.l
  Bituminous limestone. Found near Bristol, ana
in Galway, in Ireland.  The Dalmatian is so charged
with bitumen, that it may be cut like soap, and is used
 for building  hoiiM«.   When the walls are reared, fire
 is aoplied to them, and they burn white.
  B1VALVI3.  Two-valved.  Applied to the valves
 of the absorbents  in anatomy, and  in botany to cap-
 sules.—Capsula bivalvis.
   BIVASCULARIS.  (From bis,  twice, and vascu-
 lum, a little vessel.)   Having two cells.
   BIVENTER.  (From  bis,  twice, and center, a
 belly.)   A muscle is so termed, which bos two bellies.
   Biventer cervicis.  A muscle of the lower jaw.
   Biventer maxillj: inferioris.  See Dtgaslricus.
   BI'XA.  The name of  a genus  of plants.  Class,
 Polyandria,  Order, Monogynia.
   Bixa  orellana.  The systematic name for the
 plant affording the terra  orellana  or annotto of the
 shops and pharmacopoeias. The substance  so called
 is a ceraceous mass obtained from the pellicles of the
 seeds,   hi Jamaica and other warm climates, it is con-
 sidered as a useful remedy in  dysentery, possessing
 adstringent  and stomachic qualities;  but here  it is
 only used to colour cheese, and some other articles.
   Bla'cci*. The measles.—Rhazes.
   BLACKBERRY. The fruit ofthe common bram-
 bles.—See Rubus fruticosus.
   [In the United States, there are two (species of the
 blackberry, the fruit of which  is eaten, and  the roots
 used as astringents.  They are the Rubus trivialis, or
 Dewberry, or running  blackberry, and the Rubus vil-
 losus. or standing blackberry.
  " The bark of the  root of the  dewberry, or low
 blackberry, a common native briar, is highly astrin-
 gent, possessing both tannin and gallic  acid in large
 quantity.  It is a popular remedy in cholera infantum,
 to which disease it  appears well suited after liberal
 evacuations have been made.  In the secondary stages
 of dysentery, and in diarrhoea,  after  the removal of
 offending  causes  from the alimentary canal, it has
 been resorted to with  success in controlling the dis-
 charges, and giving tone to the bowels.  It is usually
 exhibited in strong decoction.
   The Rubus villosus is commonly distinguished from
 ihe preceding by the name of high, or tall blackberry.
 The properties of the two are  the same."—See Big.
 Mat. Med.
   A jelly made of  the fruit is  an excellent  domestic
 lemedy for  young children iu cholera infantum, after
 proper evacuations.  A.i
   BLACK  CHALK.   A  mineral of a  bluish black
 colour,  and  slaty texture, which soils the fingers.  It
 is found in primitive mountains, and occurs in Caer-
 narvonshire, and  the island of Isla.
   [Black drop.  " The formula for  this preparation
 in the Pharmacopoeia, is essentially tbe same with the
 on> made public by Dr. Armstrong, and which, under
 Ov name of Black  Drop, has been known and prized
 fr"   ' figland for a century and upwards.  As  the recipe
wants the usual precision of pharmaceutical formula,
it may be proper  lo secure a tolerable  uniformity of
strength, by boiling the first ingredients no longer than
is necessary lo blend them together, and by afterward
exposing them in a warm place, until about one-fourth
of their original volume is evaporated.   The compound
directed in the Pharmacopoeia should afford about two
pints of strained liquor. As the filtration of so viscid
a liquor is difficult, it may be strained without pressure
through a double linen bag.
  The black drop is a fermented  aromatic vinegar of
opium.  Its taste, when properly prepared, is bitter and
acid,  ihe saccharine principle being  changed by the
fermentation.  Its consistence is moderately vis: id
  Acetous solutions of opium have been in use since
the days of Van Helmont, and even earlier.   Our me-
dical  chemists of the present  day consider  lhat ihe
peculiarities which attend the operation of these pre-
parations depend upon  the formation of an acetate of
morphia.  The black drop has sustained its popularity
for a great length of time on account of its favourable
operation.  According to Dr. Armstrong, il often slays
in the stomach when other  preparations will  not. and
it also affects the head less than laudanum. Dr. Paris
and other medical writers give their testimony lo  its
usefulness.
  About ten or twelve minims form a dose. Notwith-
standing the advantages ascribed to this preparation, it
is not always uniform iu its strength, or in the amount
of sediment  it depositcs.  It is  probable that  a beltei
vinegar of opium  might  be prepared."—Big. Mat.
Med.   A.l
  BLACK JACK.  Blende, or  mock lead:  nn ore
of zinc.
  BLACK LEAD.  See Plumbago.
  BLACKMORE,  Sir  Richard,  was born in Wilt
shire about the year 1650.   After studying at Oxford,
he took his degree in medicine at Padua,  then settled
in London, and met with considerable  success,  inso-
much that he was appointed physician to William HI.
and retained the same office under Queen Anne.  lie
then published several long and dull epic poems, which
appear to have materially lessened his reputation ;  so
that his opposition to the inoculation for smallpox had
very  little  weight  He wrote also several  medical
tracts, whicli are little known at present.
   BLACK WADD.  One of the ores of manganese.
   [Black vomit.   This is one of the fatal symptoms
of yellow fever, it being a very rare case for  a patient
to recover after its occurrence.
  " A memoir on the analysis of black vomit, by Dr.
Cathral, was read before tlie American Philosophical
Society at Philadelphia, on the 20th June, lftOO.  The
experienced and intrepid author has given a description
of the black vomit, has analyzed the fluids ejected a
few hours before the commencement of black vomiting
itself,  to which he has added experiments to ascertain
the effects of black vomit on the living system of man
and other animals, and a synopsis of the opinions  of
authors concerning its formation nnd qualities.  The
experiments show that this singular morbid excretion
contains  an acid, which is neither carbonic, phospho-
ric, not sulphuric; and, what our readers will hardly
expect, that the black  vomit may be smcllcd, tasted,
and swallowed, without inducing  yellow fever, or even
any sickness at all—so little infection or contagion does
it seem to contain,  lie concludes it  to  be an altered
secretion from the  liver."—New-York Med. Repos
vol. iv. p. 75.
  " Dr. May, of Philadelphia, dropped the matter  oi
black  vomit into his eyes, and never experienced  in
convenience or sickness."—Med.  Rep. vol. v.  p. 131.
  " Dr. Ffirth of Salem, in New-Jersey, has published
a Dissertation on Malignant Fever, with an attempt to
prove that  it is not contagious.  In this he relates a
number of experiments which he has made upon the
matter of black vomit, as discharged by persons labour-
ing under that disease.   He inoculated  himself in tlit
left fore-arm with black vomit just discharged from a
moribund  patient; a   slight  inflammation  ensued
which subsided in three days, and the wound readily
healed, and without the formation of pus. To avoid
cavil  and deception, he repeated these experiments
above twenty times on  various parts of his body, with
the black matter collected in Philadelphia during the
seasons of 180-2 and 1803.  He put it into his eye, wilh
out experiencing more inconvenience  than coid watei
                                        ?33 
BLE
BL1
produces  He exposed  himself to the exhalations of
It while acted upon by heat in an iron skillet, and ex-
perienced  no unpleasant sensation.   He swallowed
the thick extractive matter which remained after eva-
poration in  the  form of pills, without incommoding
his stomach.  He even went so far as to  mix half an
ounce of fresh black vomit with an ounce and a half
of water and to  drink  it.  It produced no more effect
upon his stomach than so much water.  He increased
the dose to  two ounces, and finally swallowed  the
black  vomit in like quantity without any dilution at
all, and without  sustaining the  least injury.  He ino-
culated himself with  saliva and serum, with as little
inconvenience! '."—Med. Rep. vol. viii. p.  70.  A.]
  BLADDER.   See  Urinary  bladder,  and  Gall-
bladder.
  Bladder, inflamed.  See Cystitis.
  BLADE-BONE. See Scapula.
  BL^E'SITAS.   (From blasus.)  A defect in speech,
called stammering.
  Bl.e'siis.   (From  /3Xair7oi,  to injure.)   A  stain-
merer.
  Bla'nca.  (Blanc,  French.)   A purging  mixture;
so called  because it was supposed to evacuate the
white phlegmatic humours. Also white lead.
   BLANCARD, Stephen, was born at  Leyden, and
graduated at Franeker, in 1678.   He settled at Amster-
dam,  and  published  many anatomical  and medical
works: especially one  on morbid anatomy, contain-
ing 200 cases, and a "Lexicon  Medicum,"  which
passed throuah numerous editions.
   Bla'sa.  (Indian.)   A tree, the fruit of which the
Indians powder,  and use to destroy worms.
   BLASIUS, Gerard, son of u physician at Amster-
dam,  from whom he  derived a great predilection for
comparative anatomy.   After graduating at Leyden
about the year 1646, he  returned to his native city, and
acquired so  much reputation, that he was made pro-
fessor of medicine in  1660, and soon after physician to
the hospital.  Besides publishing new editions of seve-
ral useful works, with  notes comprehending subse-
quent improvements, he was author of various original
ones,  especially  relating to comparative  and  morbid
anatomy.   He claimed  the discovery of the ductus
salivaris, asserting he had pointed it out to Steno; to
whom it has been commonly ascribed.
   Blaste'ma.   (From  BXa$-avu>, to germinate.)  A
Dud or shoot.  Hippocrates uses it to signify a cutane-
ous pimple like a bud.
   Bla'stoi mosvlitum. Cassia bark kept with tlie
wood.
   Bla'tta.   (From  BXarrio, -to  hurt.)   A sort  of
beetle, or  bookworm  ; so called from its injuring books
or clothes; the kermes insect.
   [Blatta  is the generic name given by Linnaeus to the
cock-roach, which infests houses, and preys upon pro-
 visions, and not upon clothes.  A.]
   Blatta'ria lutea.   (From  blatta; so called, be-
 cause, according to Pliny, it  engenders the  blatta.)
 The   Verbascum  blattaria, or herb  yellow  moth-
 mullein.                            .....
   BLEACHING.  The  chemical art  by whicli the
 various articles  used for clothing are deprived of their
 natural daik colour,  and rendered white.
   Bleaching powder.  The chloride of lime.
   Ble'chon.  (From BXnxaopai, to bleat; so called
 according to Pliny, because if sheep taste  it they bleat.)
 The herb, wild penny-royal.  See Mentha pulegium.
   BLEEDING.  See Blood-letting and Hamorrhage.
   BLE'MA.  (From 6aXXto, to inflict.)   A wound.
   BLE'NDE.   A species of zinc ore, formed  of zinc
 in combination  with sulphur, forming a sulphuret of
 zinc.                          .,        ,.  ,
   BLE'NNA.  BXevva.  Blena.  Mucus, a thick ex-
 cromentitious humour.
   BLENNORRHA'CIA. (From BXevva, mucus, and
 !,tu>,   to flow ",   The  discharge  of mucus from the
 urethra.                        „.               ,
   BLENNORRHCE'A.  (From BXevva) mucus, and
 iW,  to flow.)  1. A  gleet; Gonorrhaa mucosa.  A
 discharge of mucus from the  urethra, arising  from
  weakness.                         .  _   „  .,
   2 The name  of a  genus of diseases in Good s Noso-
  logy, embracing three species,  Blennorrhea simplex,
  luodcs, and chronica.                        .
   BLE'PHARA. (Quasi (iXtnovs C"-apoc, as being the
  cover and defence of the sight.)   The eyelids.
        136
  Blephv'rides.  (From BXeepapov.)  The nair upor
the eyelids; also the part of the eyelids where the hail

BrBLEPH AROPHTH A'LMIA.  (From BXtcbapov, the
eyelid, and ocpBaXpia, a disease of the eye..   An in-
flammation of the eyelid.
  BLEPHAROPTO SIS.  (From BXi<f>apov, the eye-
lid, and  rslioais, from rznf)io, to fall.)  A prolapse, or
falling down of the  upper eyelid, so as to cover the
cornea.   See  Ptosis.
  BLEPHARO'TIS.  (From  BXtipapov,  the  eyelid.)
An inflammation ofthe eyelids.
  Blepharo'xysis.   (From BXetbapov, the eyelid,  and
Itio, to scrape off.)  1. The cleansing ofthe eyelids.
  2.  Inflammation of the eyelids.
  Blepharoxv'ston.  (From BXttbapov, the eyelid,
and leu, to scrape off.)  A brush for the eyes.   An in-
strument for cleansing or scraping off foul substances
from the eyelids.
  BLESSED.  Bcnedictus.  Applied to remedies  and
plants from their supposed virtues.  See Bcnedictus.
  Blessed Thistle.  See Centaurea benedicta.
  Blestri'smus.   (From BaXXio, to. throw  about.)
Phrenitic restlessness.
  Ble'ta.   A  word used by Paracelsus to signify
white, and  applied to urine when it is milky,  and  pro-
ceeds from a disease  of the kidneys.
  Ble'ti.  (Bletus,  from  BaXXoi, to strike.)  Thost
seized with dyspnoea or suffocation.
  BLISTER.   Vesicatorium; Epispaslicum.  I. The
name of a topical application, Emplastrum vesicato-
rium, wliich when put on tlie skin raises the cuticle it
the form of a vesicle, filled with a serous fluid.  Vari-
ous substances produce this effect on the skin; but the
powder of the cantharis, or blistering fly, is what ope-
rates with most certainty and expedition, and is now
invariably made use of for the purpose.
  It is a principle sufficiently established with regard
to the living system, that where a morbid action exists,
it may often be removed by inducing an action of a
different kind in the same or neighbouring part.  On
this principle is explained the utility of blisters in local
inflammation and spasmodic action, and  it regulates
their  application in  pneumonia, gastritis, hepatitis,
phrenilis, angina, rheumatism, colic, and spasmodic
affections of the stomach; diseases in which they arc
employed with the most marked advantage.   A simi-
lar principle exists with respect to pain; exciting one
pain often relieves another.  Hence blisters often  give
relief in toothache, and some other painful affections
Lastly,  blisters, by  their operation, communicate a
stimulus to the whole system, and raise the vigour of
the circulation.  Hence,' in part, their utility  in fevers
ofthe typhoid kind, though in such cases they are  used
with  still more advantage to obviate or remove locai
inflammation.
   When it is not wished to maintain a discharge from
the blistered part, it is sufficient to make a puncture in
the cuticle to let out  the fluid; but when the case re-
quires keeping up a secretion of pus, the surgeon must
remove the whole of the detached cuticle with a  paii
of scissors, and dress the excoriated  surface in a  par-
ticular  manner.  Practitioners  used  formerly to mix
powder of cantharides with an ointment, and dress the
part with this composition.  But FTch a dressing not
iinfrequently occasioned very painfiii affections of the
bladder, a scalding sensation in making of water, and
very  afflicting  stranguries.  The treatment of  such
complaints consists  in removing every  particle of the
fly from the  blistered part, making the  patient drink
abundantly of mucilaginous drinks, giving emulsions
and some doses of camphor.
   These objections to the employment of salves con
taining the lytta,  for dressing blistered surfaces, led to
the use of mezereon, euphorbium, and other irritating
substances, which, when incorporated with ointment,
 form very proper compositions for keeping blisters open,
 which they do without the inconvenience of irritating
 the  bladder,  like the blistering fly.   The favourite np-
 plication, however,  for keeping open  blisters, is the
 savine cerate, which wa3 brought into notice by Mr
 Crowther  in his book on white swellings.   (See cc-
 ratum  Sabina.)  On the use of the savine cerate, im-
 mediately after the  cuticle raised by the blister is  re
 moved, says Mr. Crowther, it should be observed that
 experience has proved the advantage of using the np
  plication  lowered   by  a half or two-thirds of ilia 
B1.0
BLO
unguentum cerae.  An attention to this direction will
produce less irritation and more discharge, than if the
savine  cerate were   used  in  its full strength*  Mr.
Crowther says also,  that he has found fomenting the
part with flannel, wrung out of warm water, a  more
easy and  preferable way of keeping the  blistered sur-
face clean, and fit for the impression of the  ointment,
than scraping the part, as has been directed  by others.
An occasional dressing  of  unguentum resinae flavte,
he has  found a very  useful application for  rendering
the sore free from an appearance of slough, or rather
dense lymph, which  has sometimes been so firm  in its
texture as to be separated by the probe, with as much
readiness  as the cuticle  is detached after blistering.
As the discharge diminishes, the strength of tlie savine
dressing should be proportionably increased.  The cc-
ratum sabinae  must be used in a stronger, or weaker
degree, in  proportion to the excitement  produced on
the patient's skin.
  2.  The  name of  a vesicle  on the  skin, whether
formed by a blistering application, or arising from any
other cause.
  BLISTER-FLY.   See Cantharis.
  Bli'tum fcetidum. See  Chcnopodium vulvaria.
  BLONDEL, James Augustus, was bom  in  Eng-
land of a French family, and admitted licentiate of the
College of Physicians about 1720.  He chiefly distin-
guished himself by controverting, in a very able man-
ner, the opinion  then generally received, lhat marks
could be imprinted on the foetus by the imagination of
the mother, and be has the merit of contributing very
largely to  the  removal of this prejudice, whicli had
prevailed for ages, and often produced much mischief.
  BLOOD.  Sanguis.  A red  homogeneous fluid, of
a saltish taste, and somewhat  urinous  smell, and glu-
tinous consistence, wliich circulates in the cavities of
the heart, arteries, and  veins.  The quantity is esti-
mated lo be about twenty-eight pounds in an adult; of
this, four  parts arc contained in the veins, and a fifth
in the arteries.   The colour of  the blood is red; in the
arteries it is of a florid hue, in the veins darker; ex-
cept only the pulmonary vessels in which the colour is
reversed.   The blood is the most important fluid of our
body.   Some physicians and anatomists have  con-
sidered it as alive, and  have formed many  ingeni us
hypotheses in support of its vitality.  The temperature
of this fluid is of considerable importance, and appears
to depend upon  the circulation and  respiration.   The
blood of man, quadrupeds, and birds is hotter than the
medium they inhabit; hence they are termed animals
of warm blood;  while in fishes and reptiles, animals
with cold  blood, it is  nearly of  the temperature of the
medium they inhabit.  The blood possesses remarkable
physical properties.  Its colour is of a dark red, it is
less deep  in certain  cases, and perhaps even scarlet
Its odour is insipid, and sui generis ; its taste is also
peculiar; however, it is known to contain salts, and
principally the muriate of soda. Its specific gravity is
a little  more than that  of  water.   Haller found its
medium as 1.0527: 1.0000.  Its capacity for caloric may
be expressed by  934,  that of arterial blood being 921.
Its mean temperature is  31 degrees of Reaumur, =
102 F.
  Venous blood, being extracted from its proper vessels,
and left to itself, in a short time forms  a soft moss;
tliis mass  separates spontaneously into two  parts, the
one liquid, yellowish, transparent, called serum: the
other soft, almost solid, of a deep brown red, entirely
opaque: this is the cruor, or clot.  This occupies the
bottom  of the vessel; tlie  serum is  placed above.
Sometimes a thin layer forms at the top of the serum,
which is soft and reddish, and to which has been very
improperly given the name of rind, buff, or crust of
the blood.
  This  spontaneous separation of the elements of the
Dlood does not take place quickly, except when it is in
repose.  If it is agitated it remains liquid, and pre-
serves its homogeneity much longer.
  If the venous blood is placed in contact with the
atmosphere, or with  oxygen gas, it takes a vermilion
red colour; with  ammonia it becomes cherry  red;
with azote a deeper brown  red,  &c.  In changing
colour it absorbs a considerable quantity of these dif-
ferent gases; it exhales a considerable quantity of car-
bonic acid, when kept some time  under a  bell  upon
mercury.
  The  scrum sometimes presents a whitish tint, as if
milky, wliich has made it be supposed that ii contained
chyle: it appears to be u fatty matter which gives il
this appearance.
  The cruor, or clot of the blood is essentially formed
of fibrin, and colouring matter.
  The fibrin, separated from the colouring matter, is
whitish, insipid, and inodorous;  heavier than water,
without action upon vegetable colours, elastic when
humid, it becomes brittle by being dried.
  In distillation  it gives out a great deal of carbonate
of ammonia, and a vast quantity  of carbon, the ashes
of which contain much phosphate of lime, a  little
phosphate of magnesia, carbonate  of lime, uud  car-
bonate of soda.  A  hundred pans  of tibi in are  com-
posed of,
      Carbon.........................  53.360
      Oxygen.........................  19.685
      Hydrogen......................   7 021
      Azote..........................  19.034

                       Total........100.000
  The colouring matter is soluble in water and in the
serum of the blood.  Examined wilh the microscope
in solution  wilh these  liquids, it appears like  most
fluids of the animal economy, formed of small glo-
bules; dried and calcined in contact with the air, it
melts and swells up, bums wilh flame, aud yields a
coal that is difficultly reduced lo ashes.
  It is of importance to remark, that iu  none of the
parts  of the blood are any gelatine or phosphate of
iron found, as was at first supposed.
  The respective relations in quantity of the serum to
the coagulum, and those ofthe colouring matter to tlie
fibrin, have not yet  been carefully examined.  It is to
be presumed, as  we  shall see afterward, that tliey are
variable according to an infinity of  circumstances.
  The coagulation  of the blood  has been, by turns,
attributed to refrigeration, to the contact of the air, to
the state of repose, &c; but J. Hunter and Hewson
have  demonstrated by experiments, that this phenome-
non  cannot  be attributed to  any  of these causes.
Hewson  took fresh  blood, and  froze it, by exposing it
to a low temperature.  He afterward  thawed it: the
blood appeared fluid at first, and shortly afterward it
coagulated as usual.  An experiment of the same  kind
was made by J.  Hunter, with a similar result.  Thus,
blood does not coagulate because  it is cooled.  It even
appears that a temperature a little elevated is favour-
able to its coagulation.   We also know by experience
that the blood thickens when it is deprived of the  con
tact of the air, and  agitated; its coagulation is, how
ever, generally favoured by repose and the contact of
tbe air.
  The elements of  venous blood,  such  as we  have
noticed, are known by its analysis;  but as all the mat-
ters absorbed from  the intestinal  canal,  the serous
membranes,  the cellular tissue, &c, are immediately
mixed with the venous blood, tlie composition of this
liquid must vary iu proportion to  the matter absorbed
There will be found iu it, in different circmstances,
alkohol, aether, camphor, and salts, which  it does nol
usually contain, Sec, when these substances have been
submitted to absorption in any part of the body
  When, by tlie  aid of a strong lens, or a microscope,
we observe the transparent parts of cold-blooded ani
reals,  we see in the  blood-vessels an immense niulti
tude of small, rounded molecules, which swim in the
serum, and  roll  upon each other, while they  flow
through the arteries and the veins
  Similar observations have never been made  upon
the hot-blooded animals; the membranes and sides of
the vessels  being opaque.   But as, in separating  a
drop  of blood in water, rounded particles are  often
seen  with the microscope, the existence of globules
has been admitted for the blood of animals, and  con
sequently for that of man.
  Authors have related marvellous things  of  these
globules.  According to Leuwcnhoeck, a thousand mil-
lions  of those globules are not larger than a grain of
sand.  Haller, in speamng of cold-blooded  animals,
for he never could see those of hot-blooded animals,
says,  that they are to an inch as one inch is to five
thousand.  Some will have them  of the  same  form
and diameter in  all  animals: others, on the contrary,
assert, that they have a particular form and size for
each  animal; some declare that thry are spherical
and solid, others that they are flattened, and pierced
                                         ir 
BLO
ELO
 with a small hole in the centre; lastly, many believe
 that a globule is aspecies of small bladder, which con-
 tains a certain number of smaller globules.
   Probably  many errors of imagination and optical
 illusions, have slid into these different opinions.  Dr.
 Magendie made a great number of microscopic expe-
 riments, in order to satisfy himself  in this respect.
   He has never seen, in the blood  of man diluted in
 water, any  thing bnt particles of  colouring matter,
 generally rounded, of different sizes, which, according
 as they are placed exactly or not in the focus of the
 microscope, appear sometimes  spherical, sonietimes
 flat, and, at other times, of the figure of a disc, pierced
 in the centre.  All these appearances, he says, can
 be produced  at pleasure, by varying the position  of
 the  particles  relatively to  the instrument, and  he
 believes that bubbles of air  have often been described
 and drawn for globules of blood; at least, nothing has
 more resemblance to certain figures of Hewson, than
 very small bubbles of air that are produced by slightly
 agitating the liquid submitted to the microscope.
  The lates;  and most accurate chemical analysis of
 blood is as follows:
  The specific gravity of the serum is  about  1.029,
 while that of blood itself is  1.058.   It changes syrup
 of violets to  a green, from  its containing free soda.
 At 156° serum coagulates, and resembles boiled white
 of egg.  When this coagulated albumen is squeezed,
 a muddy fluid exudes, which has been called the sero-
sity.  According to Berzelius, 1000  parts of the serum
of bullock's blood consist of 905 water, 79.99 albumen,
6.175 lactate of soda and extractive  matter, 2.565 mu-
riates of soda and potassa, 1.52 soda and animal mat-
ter, and 4.75 loss.  1000 parts  of  serum of human
blood consist, by the  same  chemist, of 905 water, 80
albumen, 6 muriates of potassa and soda, 4 lactate of
soda with animal matter, and 4.1 of soda, and phos-
phate of soda with animal matter.   There is no gelatin
ia serum.
  The cruor has a specific gravity of about 1.24.5.  By
making a stream of water  flow upon it till the water
runs off colourless, it is separated into insoluble fibrin,
and the soluble colouring matter.  A  little albumen
 has also been found in cruor.  The  proportions of the
 former two are, 64  colouring matter, and 36 fibrin in
 100.   To obtain the colouring matter pure,  we mix
 the cruor with 4 parts of oil of vitriol previously diluted
 With 8 parts of  water, and expose the mixture to a
 neat of about 160° for 5 or 6 hours. Filter the liquid
 while hot, and wash the residue with a few ounces
 of hot water.  Evaporate the liquid to one-half, and
 add ammonia, till the acid be almost, but not entirely
 saturated.  The colouring  matter  falls.  Decant the
 supernatant liquid, filter aud wash the residuum from
 the whole of the sulphate of ammonia.  When it is
 well drained, remove it with a platina  blade, and dry
 it in a capsule.
  When solid, it appears of a black colour, but becomes
 wine-red by diffusion  through water, in which, how-
 ever, it is not soluble.   It has neither taste nor smell.
 Alkohol and aether convert it into an unpleasant smell-
 ing kind of adipocire.   It is soluble both in alkalies
 and acids.  It approaches lo fibrin in its  constitution,
 and contains iron m a peculiar state, i of a  per  cent.
 ofthe oxide of wliich may be extracted from it by cal-
 cination. The incineialed  colouring  matter weighs
 l-80th of the whole;  and  these ashes consist of 50
 oxide of iron, 7.5 subphosphate of  iron, 6 phosphate
 of lime, with traces of magnesia, 20 pure lime, 16.5
 carbonic acid and loss; or the two latter ingredients
 may be reckoned  32  carbonate of lime.  Berzelius
 imagines that none of these bodies existed in the colour-
 ing matter,  but  only their  bases,  iron, phosphorus,
 calcium, carbon, Sec.; and that they were formed
 during the incineiation. From the  albumen of blood,
 the same proportion of ashes may be obtained, but no
 iron.
  The importance of the blood is  very considerable;
 it distends the cavities of the heart and blood -vessels,
 and  prevents them from collapsing; it stimulates to
 contraction the cavities of the  heart and vessels, by
 which means the circulation of the blood is performed;
 it generates within itself animal heat, which it propa-
 gates throughout the  body;  it nourishes the whole
 body; and, lastly, it is that  source  from which every
 secretion ofthe body is separated.
  [In the winter of 1821-5, Dr. Mitchill then Professor
      138
of Materia Medica in the College of Physicians  and
Surgeons of New-York, read the following letter to hi;
class* while speaking on the operation of remedies, and
their effects upon the blood.

Dr. Akerly to Dr. Samuel L. MitcMU, Professor, &<c

  Dear 5«>.—While speaking on the operation of re
medies, it reminds me of an occurrence which took
place in 1819, connected with this subject.  A  man
called on me in the summer of that year, stating that
lie had fallen in the street in a fit, from which  having
recovered he requested to be bled to relieve his head, as
from the distress there he was apprehensive ol" another.
Mr. Knapp having just commenced the study of medi-
cine with me, I desired him to take a stick and stir the
blood to collect the fibrin, and to show him that the
blood would not coagulate after being deprived of it,
His attention as soon as he began to stir the blood was
attracted by the strong smell  of spirituous  liquor
a using from it.  We both satisfied ourselves that the
alkoholic odour actually arose  from  the  blood, and
that it was more perceptible when agitated, than when
undisturbed.  I immediately went out and made in-
quiries  at a neighbouring store of the character and
habits ofthe man, and ascertained that he was  a great
lover of ardent spirits, and daily drank a quart or more
by small glasses.  This appeared  to me a case in which
the fluid taken into the stomach  reached the blood
vessels without change, and as it may throw some light
on the operation of remedies upon the human  consti-
tution, I communicate the fact  for your considera
tion.  A.]
  Blood, dragon's.  See Calamus rotang.
  Blood, spitting of.  See Hamoptysis.
  Blood, vomiting of.  See Hamatemesis.
  BLOOD-LETTING. Under  this term is compre
hended  every artificial  discharge of blood  made with
a view to cure or prevent a disease.  Blood-letting is
divided  into general and topical.   As examples of the
former,  venasection  and arteriotomy may  be men
tioned;  and of the latter, the  application of leeclies,
cupping-glasses, and scarification.
  [Blood-root.  " This is an indigenous article, derived
from the Sanguinaria  Canadensis, one of our earliest
flowering plants, common in woods iu various parts of
the United States.
  The root is brownish externally; but, when broken,
emits a bright vermilion or  orange-coloured juice.
This root has a bitter taste, leaving a sense of acrimony
in the throat when swallowed.  Besides fibrous matter,
it contains resin, fxcula, bitter extractive, and an acrid
principle.
  The medicinal properties of blood-root are those of
an  acrid narcotic.  When taken in* a large dose, it
irritates the fauces, leaving a disagreeable sensation in
the throat for some  time after  it is swallowed.  It
occasions heartburn, nausea, fainting, and frequently
vertigo,  and diminished vision.   It also vomits; but in
this operation il is less certain than many other emetics
in common use.   When given in smaller doses, such
as produce nausea without vomiting, and repeated at
frequent intervals, it lessens the frequency of the pulse
in a manner somewhat analagous  to the operation of
digitals.  This, however, is a secondary effect, since, iu
iu primary operation, It seems to accelerate the circu-
lation.   In still smaller doses,  such as do  not  disturb
the stomach, it has required some reputation as a tonic
It has been given in phthisis, both as  a preventive in
the early symptoms  and as a palliative in the  con-
firmed disease; also in catarrh, typhoid pneumonia,
dyspepsia and various other  complaints;  in  wheh
however, its use should not exclude the employment of?
more active means.  It should be dried a short time
before it is to be used, as the virtues are much impaired
by age.                                      r
■  Fro"J ten t0 twenly grains ordinarily produce vomit-
ing. Many  country physicians  prefer  an infusion
made with a drachm of the powder to a gill of water,
°JpW,n,c-h a ^ble-spoonful may be repealed  till the
effect of tne medicine is  obtained.  As a tonic, the
tincture is more frequently used."—See Bi<r. Mat
Med.  A.]                                 °
  Blood-stone.  See Hamatitcs, and Calcedony.
  Bloody flux.  See Dyscnteria.

TiH,    • i!PE.*"  A Vcry sil"')le and useful instrument.
lhat used by the anatomist is made of silver or brass, 
BOD
BOD
ol the size of a common probe, or larger, to inflate
vessels and other parts.
  The chemical blowpipe is made of brass, is of about
one-eighth of an  inch diameter at  one end, and the
other tapering to a much less size, with a very small
perforation for the wind to escape.  The smaller end
is beveled on one side.
  [BLUE IRON EARTH.  This  is the earthy phos-
phate of iron of some mineralogists.  " The original
colour of this variety is generally grayish, yellowish, or
greenish white, or with a very slight tinge of blue; but by
exposure to the air it absorbs oxygen, becomes indigo
blue of different shades, sometimes pale.  It is some-
times in small masses, considerably compact and solid,
but more frequently  it is friable, or even loose,  nnd
soils the fingers.  It is often a  mere coat.
  Before the blowpipe it becomes reddish-brown, and
then melts into a magnetic, blackish  globule.  In oil it
usually acquires a shade of brown.  A specimen yielded
klaproth  iron slightly oxidated 47.5, phosphoric acid
32.0, water 20.0; = 99.5.  But the proportion  of acid
appears to be extremely variable indifferent specimens.
  This mineral is sometimes employed with advantage
as a pigment.  It has been found in Maine and Massa-
chusetts, but  principally in New-Jersey.  It generally
accompanies bog ore, or certain argillaceous deposites.
It is sometimes in masses weighing 301bs. or more,
with a texture more or less compact and solid.  When
first obtained it is yellowish white; but by exposure to
the air, it assumes a fine blue  colour.  In some in-
stances it appears to contain very  little phosphoric
acid.—See Ct. Min.   A.]
  BLUE, PRUSSIAN.  A combination of oxide of
iron with the ferro-prussio acid.
  BLUE, SAXON.   Made by digesting sulphuric acid
and water, on powdered indigo.
  BO'A.  (From Bovs, an ox.)  1. A pustulous erup-
tion like the small-pox, so called because it was cured,
according to  Pliny, by anointing il with hot ox-dung.
  3. The name of a genus of  serpents.
  Boche'tum.  Decoctum secundarium.  A decoction
of the woods prepared by a second boiling with fresh
water.
  Bo'chia.  A subliming vessel.
  Bo'chium.   A swelling of the bronchial glands.
  BODY.  Whatever is capable of acting on our senses
may be so denominated.
  Bodies in Naiural Philosophy are divided into Fon-
derable and Imponderable.
  The first are those which may act upon several of
our senses, and of which the  existence is sufficiently
established ; of this  kind are  solids, fluids, and gases.
The second are those wliich, in general, only act on
one of our senses, the existence  of which is by no
                    Vegetables,
Are fixed to the ground.
Have carbon for the principal base of their composition.
Composed of four or five elements.
Find and assume in their vicinity their nourishment in
  a state of preparation.
Are nourished by tubes opening externally.
means demonstrated,  and which, perhaps, are only
forces, or a modification of other bodies;  such are
caloric, light, the electric and magnetic fluids.
  Poudetablc bodies are (endowed with common oi
general projierties, and likewise  with particular ot
secondary properties.
  The general properties of bodies are,—extent, divi-
sibility, impenetrability, mobility.  A ponderable body,
of whatever kind, always presents  these  four pro-
perties combined.  Secondary properties are vai iously
distributed among different bodies; as hardniss, poro-
sity, elasticity, fluidity, &c.  They constitute, by their
combination with the general properties, the condition
or state of bodies.  It is by gaining or losing some of
these  secondary properties  that bodies change then
state: for instance, water may appear under the form
of icef of a  fluid,  or of vapour, although it is always
the same body.  To present itself successively under
these  three forms, nothing more is necessary than the
addition or abstraction of some of its secondary qua-
lities.
  Bodies ore simple, or compound.
  Simple bodies arc rarely met  with  in nature; they
are almost always ihe product of art, and we even
uame lliein simple, only because art  has not arrived
at iheir decomposition.  At present, the bodies regarded
as simple are the following:—Oxygen, chlorine, iodine,
fluorine,  sulphur,  hydrogen, boracium, carbon, phos-
phorus, azote, silicium, zirconium, aluminum, yttrium.
gluciteum, magnesium, calcium, strontium, barium,
sodium, potassium, manganese, zinc, iron, tin, arsenic,
molybdenum, chromium, tungsten, columbium, anti-
mony, uranium, cerium, cobalt,  titanium, bismuth,
copper, tellurium, nickel, lead, mercury, osmium, sil ver,
rhodium, palladium, gold,platinum, iridium, selenium,
lithium, thorenum, wood, anium, cadmium.
  Compound bodies occur  every  where;  they form
the mass ofthe globe, and that  nf nil the beings  which
are seen on  its  surface.  Certain  bodies have a con-
stant  composition; that is to say,  a composition  that
never is changed, at  least from  accidental circum-
stances :  there are, on the contrary, bodies, ihe compo
sition of which  is  changed at every instant.
  This diversity of bodies is extremely important, it
divides them naturally into two classes; bodies, the
composition of which  is constant, are named  brufc,
or gross, inert,  inorganic; but  those,  the elements of
which continually vary, are called living, orgaiuxid
bodies.
  Brute and organized bodies differ  from  each other
in respect, 1st, of form; 2d, of composition; 3d, of the
laws  which  regulate  their changes of  stale.   The
following table presents the differences whicli are ""est
marked.
                    Animals,
Move on the surface of the ground.
Have azot for the base of their composition.
Often composed of eight or ten elements.
Must act on their aliments, in order to render thtm Gl
  for nourishment.
Are nourished by an internal canal
Inorganic
 Bodies.
Inorganic
 Bodies.
                                TABLE I.

           differences between inorganic AND LIVINO CODIES.

                                 I.  Form.
j Angular form.                       I    Living
j Indeterminate Volume.
    |    Bodies.

Composition
Rounded form.
Determinate Volume.
' Sometimes simple.
 Seldom of more than 3 elements.
 Constant.
 Each  part capable of existing, inde-
   pendent of the others.
 Capable of being decomposed and re
   comi
Living
Bodies.
  Never simple.
  At least 4 elements, often 8 or 10.
  Variable.
<  Each  part more or less depending  on
    the whole.
  Capable of decomposition, but totally
    incapable of recomposition.
3. Regulating Laics
Inorganic j Entirely subject to attraction, and che-
 Bodies.   |   mical affinitv
Living
Bodies.
                                                           . In part subject to attraction and che-
                                                              mical affinity.
                                                           ' In  part subject to a power unknown
Living bodies are divided into two classes, one of which comiirehends  Vegetables, the other Animals.

                                         TABLE II.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN  VEGETABLES AND  ANIMALS. 
BOE
BOE
   tn Anatomy.  The human body is divided by ana-
 tomists into the trunk and extremities: i. e. the head,
 and inferior and superior extremities, each  of which
 have certain  regions before any part is  removed, by
 which the physician is enabled to direct the applica-
 tion of blisters and the like, and the situation of dis-
 eases is better described.
  The head is distinguished into the hairy part and the
 face.  The former has five regions, viz. the crown of
 tlie head or vertex, the fore-part of the head or  sinci-
 put, the hind-part or occiput, and the sides, partes la-
 teralcs capitis.   In  the  latter are distinguished, tlie
 region of the forehead, frons ;  temples,  or tempora;
 the nose, or nasus;  the eyes, or oculi; the mouth, or
 os ;  the cheeks, bucca; the chin, or mentum; and the
 ears, or aures.                             i
  The trunk is distinguished into three principal parts,
 the neck, thorax, and abdomen.  The neck is divided
 into the  anterior region  or  pars antica, in which, in
 men, is an eminence called pomum Adami; the poste-
 rior region  is called nucha colli; and  the lateral re-
 gions, partes lateralis colli.
  The thorax is distinguished into the anterior region,
 in whicli  are the sternum  and mamma, and at the
 inferior part of which is a pit or hollow called scrobi-
 culus cordis; a posterior region, called dorsum;  and
 the sides, or latera thoracis.
  The abdomen is distinguished into an anterior re-
gion, properly the abdomen; a posterior region, called
 the loins, or lumbi; and lateral regions or flanks, called
latera  abdominis.  The  anterior region  of the abdo-
men being very extensive, is subdivided into the  epi-
gastric, hypochondriac,  umbilical, and  hypogastric
regions, which  are  described under their respective
 names.  Immediately below the abdomen is the mens
veneris, and at  ils sides the groins or inguina.  The
space between the organs of generation and the anus,
or fundament, is called the perinaum.
  The superior extremity is  distinguished  into the
shoulder, summitas humeri, under wliich is the arm-pit,
called axilla or fovea axillaris ;  the brachium,or arm;
the antibrachium, or forearm, in which  anteriorly  is
the bend of  the arm, where  the veins are generally
opened, called flexura antibrachii; and posteriorly the
elbow, called  angulus cubiti;  and the hand, in which
 are the carpus or wrist, the back or dorsum manus,
 and the palm  or vola.
  The inferior extremity is divided into, 1. the region
of the femur, in which is distinguished  the coxa or
 regio-ischiadica, forming the outer and superior part;
 2.°the leg, in which are the knee or genu, the bend or
 cavum poplitis, and the calf or sura • 3. the foot, in
 which are the outer and inner ankle, or malleolus ex-
 ternus and internus, the  back or dorsum, and the sole
or planta.
  Body,  combustible.  This term  is given by che-
 mists to all substances which, on account of their affi-
 nity  for oxygen, are capable of" burning.
  Body, gaseous.  See Gas.
  Body, inflammable.  Chemists give this name to
 such bodies as bum with facility, and Hame in an in-
 creased temperature, although,  strictly speaking, all
 combustible bodies are inflammable  bodies; such are
 the diamond,  sulphur, bitumens, &c.
  Body,  phosphorescent.   Bodies which produce
 light, though their temperature be not increased.
  Bo'e.   (From  Boaio,  to  exclaim.)   Clamour, or
 moaning made by a sick person.
  BOERHAAVE, Herman, was born  at Voorhout,
 In Holland, December 31, 1668.   His  father, the pastor
 of the village, having nine children, educated them
 himself, and  intending Herman for  the  church,  was
 careful to ground him well in the learned languages;
 in which he  made such rapid  progress, that he  was
 sent at 14 to  Leyden.  His father dying soon after in
 slender circumstances, he  was  fortunately supported
 by the burgomaster, Daniel Van Alphin ;  which Boer-
 haave ever remembered with gratitude.  Among other
 Btudies, he was very partial to the mathematics, and
 improved so  much, as to be able to give private in-
 structions in them,  whereby he  partly  maintained
 himself.  In 1690, he took his degree in  philosophy,
 and  in an inaugural thesis  refuted  tlie errors of the
 materialists.   But  he soon after turned his  mind
 to the study of medicine, and attended dissections
 under Nuck; he greatly preferred Hippocrates among
 Jie ancient, and Sydenham among the modern physi-
      140
I cians. He was made doctor of medicine at Harderwyca*.
 in 1693; and  in his dissertatioi on that occasion, in
 risted on the utility of observing the excretions  in
 disease, especially the urine.  He was then engaged in
 forming a new theory of medicine, by a  judicious se-
 lection from all that had been before advanced ;  which
 was so well arranged, and so ably supported by him,
 that  it  became  generally adopted,  and  prevailed
 throughout  Europe for more than half a century.  He
 also gave lectures on chemistry, with considerable re
 putation,  about the same period.  The university of
 Leyden therefore appointed him, in 1701. professor ot
 the theory of medicine; when he  read an oration re
 commending the study of Hippocrates; and, as he de-
 clined some very advantageous offers from ether parts,
 they  afterward  augmented his salary.   About  this
 time, he  published another Latin oration, " On the
 Use of mechanical  Reasoning in Medicine," which
 contributed  to extend  his fame.  In  1709, he was ap-
 pointed professor  of botany, to which study he was
 ever  after eminently attached.   On  that occasion, he
 produced  another  oration, maintaining that medicine
 would be  best improved  by observation, and by sim-
 plicity in  prescriptions.  His " Aphorisms," had ap
 peared the year before, giving a brief account of the
 history and  cure of" diseases, a work universally ad-
 mired ; to which his pupil Van Swieten afterward at-
 tached a  very ample commentary.  About the same
 lime he published  his "Institutes," treating of physi-
 ology.  These two works, with successive improve-
 ments, passed through numerous  editions, and were
 translated into every  European, nay, even into the
 Arabic language.   In the year after, he  printed  a
 catalogue of the plants in the university garden.  In
 1714, he was  made rector of the  university, and at
 the end of the year for which he  held the office, de-
 livered a  discourse " On  attaining Certainty in Phy
 sics." About this period he was  made professor  of
 the  practice of  medicine, and in  1718,  of chemistry
 also.   His lectures on these subjects, and  on botany,
 were delivered with such clearness and precision, that
 students thronged from every part to hear him ;  inso-
 much that Leyden could scarcely afford  accommoda-
 tions for them.  He was also often consulted in diffi-
 cult cases by physicians even in distant parts of the
 world.  When appointed to the chemical chair, he had
 published a short  work on lhat subject, but some e-f
 his pupils having printed his lectures without authority,
 and very incorrectly, he was led to prepare them for
 the press in  1732.  In his conversation, Boerhaave was
 generally  familiar, in his demeanour grave, but  dis-
 posed to occasional pleasantry: he was distinguished
 for piety, and  on his moral character, his disciple
 Haller has passed  a very high eulogium.  Having ac-
 quired considerable wealth hy his exertions, and being
 plain in  his dress, as well as abstemious in his diet,
 he was by some accused of parsimony :  but he spared
 no reasonable expense in procuring rare books, and
 foreign plants.  Being of a vigorous  constitution, and
 accustomed to much exercise abroad, he met with little
 interruption from  illuess; hut in 17e29, having become
 corpulent, and incapable of riding, his health began to
 suffer, and he  was induced lo resign his botanical and
 chemical appointments.  In an oretion then delivered,
 he recounted the chief events of  his life, expressing
 himself grateful for the patronage which he hod re-
 ceived from individuals; as well as  to his own pro-
 fession, for the little opposition shown to his opinions.
 It perhaps never happened, that so great a revolution
 in science was so readily brought about.  The great
 reputation acquired by his extensive abilities, and the
 moderation of his character, particularly averse from
 contention,  no doubt  contributed materially  to this
 result.  In the year following, he was again made rec
 tor of the university of  Leyden;  and also elected a
 fellow of  the  Royal Society in London, having been
 previously admitted to  the Royal Academy of Sciences
 in Paris.  The remainder of his life was chiefly occu
 pied  in revising his own numerous productions, in
 publishing more correct editions of several esteemed
 authors, and in  domestic  recreations at his seat near
 Leyden, with his wife and daughter.  Toward the end
 of 1737, he was  attacked with symptoms of disease in
 the chest,  wliich terminated his existence in the Sep-
 tember following   His fellow-citizens erected  an elre-
 gant monument to his memory.
   Boethe'ma.  (From BonOeui, to assist.)   A remedy 
                      BOL

  Boethrma'tica.  (From  BonQeui,  to assist.)  Fa-
vourable symptoms.
  BOG-BEAN.  See Menyanthes trifoliata.
  Bo'oia oiimhi.  Gamboge.
  BOHEA.   See Thea.
  BOHN, John, was born at  Leipsic, in  1610; and
after  studying in  many parts of Europe,  graduated
there, and was made successively professor of anato-
my, and of therapeutics, public physician to the city,
Sec.   Among numerous publications, he chiefly distin-
guished himself by his " Circulus anatomico physio-
logir.us," and a treatise " De officio inedici clinico et
forensi,"  whicli latter particularly has great merit.
He also well explained the judgment to be formed con-
cerning wounds;  and  recommended  purging with
calomel in the beginning of small-pox.  He died in 1718.
  Bois de coissi.   See Quassia.
  Bolar earths.  See Bole.
  BOLE, (j3uiAoc, a mass,) in chemistry, is a massive
mineral,  having a perfectly conchoidal fracture,  a
glimmering internal lustre, and a shining streak.  Its
colours are  yellow-red, and  brownish-black, when  it
is called mountain soap.   It is translucent or opaque.
Soft, so as to be easily cut, and to yield to the nail.  It
adheres to the tongue, has a greasy feel, and falls to
pieces in  water*   Sp. grav. 1.4 to 2.  It may  be  po-
lished.  If it be immersed in water after it is dried,  it
falls asunder with a crackling  noise.  It occurs in
wacke and basalt, in Silesia, Hessia, and  Sienna in
Italy, and also in the cliffs of the Giant's Causeway,
Ireland.  The black variety is found in the trap rocks
of tlie isle of Sky.  Several compounds were formerly
used  in  medicine, particularly the  Armenian  and
French;  and in old pharmacopoeias mention is made
of red boles from Armenia, Lemnos, Strigonium, Por-
tugal, Tuscany, and Livonia; yellow boles from  Ar-
menia, Tockay, Silesia, Bohemia, and Blois; white
boles from Armenia, Lemnos,  Nocera, Eretria, La-
aios,  Chio,  Malta, Tuscany, and Goltberg. Several
of these earths have been commonly made into little
■eakes or  flat masses, and  stamped with certain  im-
pressions ; from whicli circumstance they received the
name of terra sagillata, or scaled earths.
  Bole,  Armenian.  Bolus Armenia.  Bole  arme-
nic  A pale but  bright red-coloured earth, which  is
Bccosionally mixed with honey, and applied to child-
ren's mouths when afflicted with aphthae.  It forms,
like all argillaceous earths, a good tooth-powder, when
mixed with some aromatic.
  BOLETIC ACID.  Acidum  boleticum.   An acid
extracted from the expressed  juice  of the Bolitus
oseudo-igniarius, by M. Braconnot.  The  juice con-
ixentrated to a syrup by a very gentle heat, was acted
Dn by strong alkohol.  What remained  was dissolved
in water.  When nitrate of lead was dropped into this
solution,  a while precipitate fell, which, after being
well washed with water, was decomposed  by a cur-
rent of  sulphuretted  hydrogen gas.   Two different
acids were found in the liquid after filtration and eva-
poration.  One in permanent crystals  was  boletic
texid; the other was a small  proportion of phosphoric
acid.  The former was purified by a solution in alko-
hol, and subsequent evajioration.
  It consists of irregular four-sided prisms, of a white
colour, and permanent in the air.  Its taste resembles
cream of tartar; at the temperature of 68° it dissolves
in 180 times its weight of water, and in 45 of alkohol.
Vegetable blues are reddened by it. Red oxide of iron,
and the oxides of silver and mercury, are precipitated
by it  from their solutions in nitric acid; but lime and
barytes waters  are  not affected.  It sublimes when
heated, in white vapours, and is condensed  in a white
powder.—Ann.de Chimic, lxxx.
  BOLE'TUS.  (From  BoiXos, a mass, or BtoXirns,
from its globular form.)  The name of a  genus of
plants in the Linnean system.  Class, Cryptogamia;
Order, Fungi.  Boletus;   Spunk.
  Boletus  cervi. The mushroom.
  Boletus  igniarius.  The systematic name for the
agaricus of the pharmacopoeias.   Agaricus chirurgo-
rum; Agaricus quercus;  Fungus igniarius.  Agaric
af the oak;  Touchwood boletus;  Female  agaric.
This fungus Boletus:—acaulis pulvinatus levis, poris
tcnuissimis of Linnaeus, has been much used by eur-
geons as an external styptic.  Though still employed
on the continent, the surgeons in this country have not
much confidence in it.
                     BON

  Boletus laricis.  The  systematic name for the
officinal agaricus albus, which is met with on old
larch trees, in different parts of Europe.  Several pre-
parations, as troches, un extract, and pills, are ordered
to be made with it in  foreign pharmacopoeias, which
are administered against phthisical complaints.
  Boletus pini laricts.   A species of agaric which
grows on ihe larch.
  Boletus suaveolens.  The systematic name for
the fungus salicis of the pharmacopoeias.  This spe-
cies of fungus, Boletus—acaulis supernc lavis, salici-
bits, of Linnaeus, and  the Boletus albus of Hudson,
when fresh, has a suburinous smell, and ai first an
acid taste, followed by a bitter.  It is seldom used at
present, but was  formerly given in phthisical com-
plaints.
  Boli'smus.   A voracious  appetite,  according  to
Avicenna ; but most probably meant for bulimus.
  BOLOGNIAN STONE.   A mixture of  mucilage
and powdered sulphate of barytes.
  [Boloonian phosphorus.  When native sulphate
of baryta is heated it decrepitates, and at a high tern
peratuie, fuses into an opaque white enamel: it was
employed  in the manufacture of Jasper  ware by the
late Mr. Wedgewood.  When heated  to redness, it
acquires the property of phosphorescence.   This was
first ascertained  by Vincenzo Cascarioli,  of Bologna,
whence  the term Bologna phosphorus is applied to it.
This kind of phosphorus, after being exposed lor a few
minutes to the sun's rays, shinesiu the da'k sufficiently
to render visible the dial of a watch.   This prosperty is
lost by repeated  uses, in consequence of the oxygena-
tion ofthe sulphur: but it may be restored by a second
calcination.—See  Webster's Man. of Chem.  A }
  BO'LUS.  (BuAof,  a  bole, or bolus.)   Any "medi-
cine, rolled round, that is larger than an ordinary sized
pea, and yet not too large to be swallowed.
  Bolus ap.mena.  See Bole, Armenian.
  Bolus armena alba.  The white Armenian bole
  Bolus aRmoniac.   See Bole, Armenian.
  Bolus blessensis.  Bole of Blois.  See Bole.
  Bolus gallica.  French bole.  A pale red-coloured
bolar earth, variegated with irregular specks and veins
of while and yellow.  It is  occasionally administered
as an absorbent and antacid.
  BOMBAX.  See Gossypium.
  BOMBIATE.   Bombias.   A salt formed  by the
union of the bombic acid with salifiable  bases ; thus,
bombiate of alumine, Sec.
  BO'MBIC ACID.   Acidum bombicum.   Acid of the
silkworm.  Silkworms  contain, especially  when  in
the stale of chrysalis, an acid liquor iu  a reservoir
placed  near the anus.  It  is obtained by expressing
their juice in a  cloth,  and precipitating the mucilage
by spirit of wine, and likewise by infusing ihe chrysa-
lides in  that liquor.  This acid is very penetrating, of
a yellow amber colour, but its nature and combinations
are not yet well known.
  BO'MBUS.   BopBos-   L   A resounding  noise,  or
ringing of the ears.
  2. A sonorous expulsion of flatus from the intestines
  3. Dr. Good gives this name to that variety of ima
ginary sound, parapsis illusoria, wliich  is character
ized by a dull, heavy, intermitting sound.
  Bon arbor.  A name given to the coffee-tree.
  Bo'na.  Boona.  The phaseolus, or kidney-beans.
  [BOND, Thomas, M.D.   This celebrated  physician
arid surgeon was a native of Maryland, and studied his
profession there  under Dr.  Hamilton, a very learned
practitioner.  Afterward he travelled in Europe and
spent a considerable time in Paris, where he attended
the practice of the Hdtel Dieu.  He began the piaclice
of medicine in Philadelphia about the year 1734, and
soon attracted  the  public  attention.  He  was the
founder of the College and  Academy, and one of the
most active managers ofthe Pennsylvania Hospital, al
its commencement.  He w.-s a contributor to some  of
the  Medical  Journals of Great Britain  before  the
establishment of one in  this country.  In CW he de-
livered the annual address before the American Philo
sophical Society.  The subject was, "The  rank and
dignity of man  in the scale of being, and the con-
veniences and advantages he derives from  the Arts and
Sciences, and the prognostic of the unceasing grandeur
and glory of America, founded on the nature of its cli
mate."  He was for half a century in the first practice
in Philadelphia,  and remarkable for attenticji to the 
BON
BON
, under  his care,  and his  sound judgment.  He  toge^£1^^^^
 in  the  year 1784,  ngea 72.-See  Thach. Med.  natural  ^<Xnd in the ^^ ^
cases
died

  Bonduch indortjm.  See Guilandina.
  BONE.  Os.  Bones are hard, dry, and insensible
parts of" the body, of a whitish colour, and composed
t»f a spongy, compact, or recticular substance.  They
vary mucli in their appearances, some being long and
hollow, others flat and compact, &c.  The greater
number of bones have several processes and cavities,
which are distinguished from their figure, situation,
use, &c.   Thus, processes extended from the end of a
bone, if smooth and round, are called heads; and con-
dyles, when flattened either above or laterally.  That
part which is  beneath the  head,  and  whicli exceeds
the rest of the bone in smallness  and levity, is called
the neck.   Rough, unequal  processes are called tube-
rosities, or tubercles: but the longer and more acute,
spinous, or styloid processes, from  their resemblance
to a thorn. Thin broad processes, with sharp extre-
mities, are known  by the  name of crista, or sharp
edges   Other processes are  distinguished  by their
form  and called alar, or  ptergoid;  mamillary,  or
mastM;  dentiform, or odontoicl, Sec.  Others, from
their situation, are called superior, inferior, exterior,
and interior.  Some  have their  name from  their di-
rection;  as oblique, straight, transverse, Sec; and
some from their use, as  trochanters, rotators, Sec.
Furrows, depressions, and cavities, are destined either
for the reception of contiguous bones, to form an arti-
culation  with them, when  they  are  called  articular
cavities,  which are sometimes deeper, sometimes shal-
lower ; or they receive hard parts, but do not consti-
tute a joint with them. Cavities serve also for  the
transmission and attachment  of  soft parts.  Various
names are given  to them, according to the magnitude
and figure of bones.  If they be broad and large at  the
beginning, and not deep, but contracted at their ends,
they  are  called  fovea, or pits.   Furrows  are open
canals, extending longitudinally in  the surface  of
bones.  A hollow, circular tube,  for the most  part of
the same diameter from beginning to end, and more or
less crooked or straight, loug or short, is named a canal.
 Foramina are tlie apertures of canals, or they  are
formed of the  excavated margins of two bones, placed
 *gainst each other.   If such be the form of the margin
of  a bone, as  if a portion  were taken out of it, it is
 called a  notch.
   With  respect  lo the formation of bone, there have
 been various  opinions. Physiologists of the present
 day assert, that  it  is from a specific action of small
 arteries, by which ossific matter  is separated from the
 blood, and deposited where it is required.  The first
 tiling observable in the embryo, where bone  is to be
 formed,  is a  transparent jelly, which becomes gradu-
 ally firmer, and  is formed into cartilage.  The carti-
 lage gradually increases to a certain size,  and when
 the process of ossification commences, vanishes as  it
 advances.  Cartilages, previous 10 the ossific action,
 are solid, and without any cavity  ; but when the ossific
 action of the arteries is about to commence, the ab-
 sorbents become very active, and form a small cavity
 in which the  bony matter is deposited; bone continues
 to be separated, and the absorbents model the mass
 Into its required shape. The process of ossification  is
 extremely rapid in utero: it advances  slowly after
 birth, and is not completed in the human body till about
 Ihe twentieth year.  Ossification in the flat bones, as
 those of the  skull, always begin from central  points,
 and the radiated fibres meet the  radii of other ossifying
 points, or the edges of the adjoining bone.   In long
 bones, as those ofthe arm and leg, the clavical, meta-
 carpal, and metatarsal bones, a central ring is formed
 iu the body ofthe bone, the head and extremities being
 cartilage, In the centre of which ossification afterward
 begins.   The central ring of the body shoots its bony
 fibres towards the head and extremities, which extend
 towards the  body of the bone.  The head and extre-
  mities it length come so  close to the body as to  be
  merely  separated by a cartilage, wilich becomes  gra-
  duilly thinner  until the twentieth year.  Thick  and
  round bones, as those of the tarsus, carpus, sternum,
  and patella, are, at first, all cartilage: ossification be-
  gh.a in  the centre of each.  When the bones are de-
  prived of their  soft parts, and  are hung together  in
  their natural situation, by means of wire, the whole is
  termed un artificial skeleton; but when they are  kept
        142
                                     It is caffed  a
                                   nes are various,
amfare to be found in the account of each bone;  it is,
Xerefore, only necessary to observe, in this place that
  ey give shape to the body, contain and delend he
vital viscera,  and afford  an attachment to all the
muscles.
A Table of the Bones.

         fi
No
                      Frontal.
                      Parietal.
Bones of the cranium^ Occipital
or skull.........
                      Temporal.............  2
                      Ethmoid..............  J
                      Sphenoid...........••  I
                      Superior inaxil........  2
                      Jugal.................  2
                      Nasal................  2
                      Lachrymal...........  2
                      Palatine..............  ~
                      Inferior spongy.......  2
                      Vomer...............  1
                    „ Inferior maxil.........  1
                    [ Incisores.............  3
                    [Cuspidnti.............  4
                    J Molares..............20
Boneof the tongue....Hyoidesos............  1
                    ( Malleus..............  2
Bones  of  the  <•<"*, V ,ncU:i................  2
  within the temporal ^ gtnpes...............  2
                    f Orbiculare os.........  2

                                  ( Cervical
Bones of the face-
Dentesot teeth-
bones.
f Lumbar
§ i Vertebra.....................^ Dorsal

a j Sacrum..........
;= ( Coccygis os.......

The tkorax...........
                 7
                12
                 5
                 1
................  1
Sternum.......  1
Ribs............ 24
The pelvis...................Innominata ossa  3

                     j Clavicle...............  2
                     | Scapula..............   2
The shoulder.
The arm..............Humeri os.
rr„_ ,               •> Ulna.
The fore- arm.-
                     Radius...............  2
                     Naviculareos.........  2
                     Lunare os............  2
                     Cuneiforme os........  2
  f _            ..  ) OTbiculare os.........  2
.   Carpus or wrist  •{ Trapezmrn og.........  a
                     Trapezoides os........  2
                     Magnum os...........  2
                     Uuciformeos.........  2
                    .......................  10
                    .......................  -J,i
    Metacarpus
   . Phalanges..

The thigh......
                    ......Femur...............  2
                        (Patella...............  2
    The leg.............< Tibia................  2
                        (Fibula...............  2
                        f Calcaneus............  2
                        j Astragalus............  2
    .: f Tarsus or instep { Cuboides os...........  2
    §1                 [Naviculareos.........  2
    "£<                 I Cuneiformia ossa.....  (i
    a 1 Metatarsus.............................  10
    =-* [Phalanges...............................  23

Sesamoid  bones of  the  thumb and great toe,)  „
  occasionally found..........................I
  Calcined human bones, Recording to Berzelius, are
composed, in 100 parts, of 81.9 phosphate of lime, 3
fluate of lime, 10 lime, 1.1 phosphate of magnesia, 2
soda, and 2 carbonic acid. 100 parts of bones by cal-
cination are reduced  to 63.   Fourcroy and Vauquelin
found the following to be the composition of 100 parw
of ox bones: 51 solid gelatin, 37.7 phosphate of lime, 10
carbonate of lime, and 1.3 phosphate of magnesia; but
Berzelius  gives  the following as their  constituents:
33.3 cartilage, 55.35 phosphate of lime, 3 fluate of lime,
3.85 carbonate of lime, 2.05 phosphate jf magnesia, and
2.45 soda, with a little common salt.
  About 1-30th of phosphate of magnesia was obtained
from the calcined bones of fowls, by Fourcroy  and 
BOxN
BOR
 Vauquelin.  When the enamel of teeth, rasped down,
 is dissolvid in muriatic acid, it le»ves no albumen, like
 the other  bones.   Fourcroy and Vauquelin  state its
 components to be.. 27.1 gelatin and water, 72.9 phos-
 phate of lime.  Messrs. Hatchetl and Fepys rate ils
 composition at 78  phosphate  of lime, 6 carbonate of
 lime, and  16 water and  loss.  Berzelius, on the other
 hand, found only 2 per cent of combHstible matter in
 teeth.  The teeth  of adults, by Mr. Pepys, consist of |
 64 phosphate of lime, 6 carbonate of lime, 20 cartilage,
 and 10 water or loss.  The fossil bones of Gibraltar
 are composed of phosphate of lime and carbonate, like
 burnt bones. Much difference of opinion exists with
 regard to the existence of fluoric acid in the teeth of
 animals; some of  the most eminent chemists taking
 opposite sides of the question.  It appears that bones
 buried  for many centuries still retain their albumen,
 with very little diminution of its quantity.
   Fourcroy  aud  Vauquelin discovered  phosphate of
 magnesia  in all  the bones  they  examined, except
 human bones.   The bones of the horse and sheep I
 afford about l-36tb of phosphate of magnesia;  those of
 fish nearly the same quantity as those of the ox.  They
 account for this by observing, that phosphate of mag-
 nesia is found in the urine of man, but not in lhat of
 animals, though both equally take in a portion of mag-
 nesia with their food.
   The experiments of Mr. Hatchett show, that  the
 membranous or cartilaginous substance, which retains
 the earthy salts within its  interstices, and appears to
 determine  the shape of the bone,  is albumen.   Mr.
 Hatchett observes, that the enamel of tooth is analo-
 gous to the porcellaneous shells, while mother of pearl
 approaches in its nature to true bone.
   A curious phenomenon with respect to bones is the
 circumstance of their acquiring a red tinge, when mad-
 der is given to animals with their food.  The bones of
 young pigeons will  thus  be  tinged of a rose colour in
 twenty-four hours,  aud of a deep scarlet in three days;
 but the bones of adult animals will  be a fortnight in
 acquiring a rose colour.  The bones most remote from
 the heart are the  longest in  acquiring this tinge.   Mr.
 Gibson informs us,  that extract of logwood too, incon-
 siderable  quantity, will tinge  the  bones of young
 pigeons purple.  On desisting from the use of this food,
 however, the colouring matter is again taken up  into
 the circulation, and carried off", the bones regaining
 their natural hue in a short time.  It was said by Du
 Hamel, that the  bones would become coloured  and
 colourless  ia concentric layers, if an animal were fed
 alternately  one week with madder, and  one week
 without; nnd hence he interred, that the  bones were
 formed in the  same  manner  as the woody parts of
 trees.   But he was  mistaken in  the fact; and indeed
 had it been true, with thn inference he naturally draws
 from it, the bones of animals must have been out of all
 proportion  larger than Ihcy  are at present.
  Bones are of exiensive use in the arts.  In their
 natural state, or  dyed of various colours, they  are
 made into handles of knives and forks, and  numerous
 articles of  turnery.  We have  already  noticed  tlpe
 manufacture of volatile alkali from bones, the coal ol"
 which forms bone-black; or, if they be afterward cal-
 eined to whiteness in the open air, they comtitule the
 bone ashes of which cupels are made,  and  whicli,
 finely levigated, are used forcleaning articles of paste,
 and some other trinkets,  by the name of burnt harts-
 horn.  The shavings of hartsliorii, wliich is a  species
 of  bone, afford  an elegant jelly;  and the shavings of
 other bones, of which those of the calf are the best,  are
 often employed in their stead.
  On this  principle, Mr. Proust has recommended an
 economical use of bones, particularly with a view lo
 improve the subsistence of ihe soldier.  He first chops
 them into small pieces, throws them Into  a kettle of
 boiling water. and lets them boil about a quarter of an
 hour.  When this has stood till it is cold, aquantity of
 fat, excellent for culinary purposes when fresh, and at
 any time fit for making candles, may be taken off the
 liquor.  This,  in  some  instances,  amounted to  an
 eighth, and in others even to a fourth, of the weight of
 the bones.   After this the bones may be ground, and.
 boiled  <n eight or ten times their weight of water, of
 which  that  already used may form  a part, till about
 half is wasted, when a very nutritious jelly  will  be
obtained.  The boiler should not be of copper, as this
metal is easily dissolved  by the jelly; and  the cover
 should fit very tight, so that  the heat may be greatcj
 than that of boiling water,  but not equal to that of
 Papin's digester, which would give it an empyreumn
 The bones of meat that have been boiled are nearly n«
 productive as fresh bones; but Dr. Young found those
 of meat that had been roasted affoided no jelly, at leasM
 by simmering, or gentle boiling.
   Bones, growth of.  See Osteogeny.
   BONEBINDER.  See Osteocolla.
   [Bonbskt. Thoroughwort.  Eupatorium pcrfolia
 turn.  This is nn indigenous vegetable, growing in wel
 meadows throughout the United States.  The whole
 plant is medicinal, but the leaves and flowers are 1110:4
 active.  See Eupatorium perfoliatuni.  A.]
   BONET, Theophilus, was born  at Geneva in  16201
 and graduated at Bologna. He had considerable pro*-.
 lice, and was extremely zealous in the pursuit of mor
 bid  anatomy, as well as in extracting valuable obser-
 vations from authors.  His hearing becoming impaired,
 lie devoted the latter part of his life to the arrangement
 of the materials which he had  prepared.   His prmci
 pal  work, entitled " Sepulchretiini," published  167!),
 was highly approved: and laid the foundation of Mor-
 gagni's excellent treatise, " De Scdibus ct Cuusis  Mor-
 borum."  Another publication of Ills," M-i curius com
 pilatitius," is an index of medical literature to Ihe time
 of its  appearance, KWJ.  His death  occurred seven
 years after.
   Bononie'nsis  lapis.  The Bononian stone.  Called
 also phosphorus  bononiensis, phosphorus kirchcri,l\\e
 light carrier, or Bononian phosphorus.  As a medicine.
 Ihe stone is caustic and emetic.
   BONTIUS, James, was born at Leyden, where he
 studied medicine,  and then went to practice in India.
 After his return, he wrote several valuable works on
 the  diseases and practice of that country, as well as on
 Its natural  productions, animal and vegetable.  The
 most esteemed  is entitled " De Medicina Indoi inn,"
 and appeared in 1642.
   BONUS.  Good.  A term applied to plants, and
 remedies from their supposed efficacy.
   Boms iienricus.  (Henricus; so  called,  biecause
 its virtues were detected by some one  whose name
 was Henry.)  See Chenopodium bonus Henricus.
   BONY.  Osscus.  Of, or belonging to, or resembling
 bone.
   BORACIC ACID. Acidum  boracicum.   Sedative
 salt of Homberg.  Acid of  Borax.  Boracinc acid.
 "The salt composed of this  acid and soda had long
 been used both  in medicine and the arts under the
 name of borax, when Homberg first obtained the  acid
 separate in  1702, by distilling a mixture of borax  and
 sulphate of iron.   He supposed, however,  tnat it was
 a product of  the latter; and gave it the name of vola-
 tile narcotic salt of vitriol, or sedative salt.  Lemery
 the younger,  soon after discovered that it could be ob-
 tained from  borax equally by means of the nitric or
 muriatic  acid ; Geoffroy detected soda in borax :  and
 at length  Baron  proved, by a  number of  experiments,
 that borax is acompoundof soda and a peculiar acid.
 Cadet  has disputed  this; but he  has merely shown,
 that the borax of the shops is  frequently contaminated
 with copper ; and  Struveand Exchaquet have endea-
 voured to prove  that tlie boracic and phosphoric acids
 are the same ; yet their experiments only show, thai
 they resemble each other iu certain respects, not in all.
  To procure the acid, dissolve borax in  hot water,
 and  filter the solution, then add sulphuric acid by little
 and  little, till the liquid has a  sensibly acid taste.  Lay
 it  aside to cool, and a great number of small shining
 laminated crystals  willform.  These n>e the  boracic
 acid. They are  to be  washed with cold water, and
 drained upon brown paper.
  Boracic acid thus procured is in the  form of thin
 irregular hexagonal  scales, of  a silvery  whiteness.
 having some  resemblance to spermaceti, and the fftme
 kind of greasy feel.  It has a sourish  taste at first, then
 makes a bitterish cooling impression, and at lastltavcs
 an agreeable  sweetness.  Pressed between the teeth,
 it  is not brittle  but  ductile.  It has  no smell;  but
 when sulphuric acid  is poured on it, a transient odoui
of musk is produced.  Its specific gravity in the form
of scales is 1.479;  after it has been fused, 1.803.  ft is
 not altered by litrht.  Exposed lo the fire it swells up,
from losing  its water of crystallization, and  in  this
state is called calcined boracic acid.  It  melts a little
before  it is red hot,  without  perceptibly losing  an; 
BOR
BOR
 water, but it does not flow freelj till it is red, and then
 less than the  borate of soda.  After this fusion it is
 a hard transparent glass, becoming a little opaque on
 exposure to the air, without abstracting moisture from
 it,  and  unaltered  in its properties,  for  on being  dis-
 solved in boiling water it crystallizes as before.  This
 glass is used, in the composition of false gems.
  Boiling water  scarcely  dissolves one-fiftieth part,
 and cold water much less.   When this solution is dis-
 tilled in close vessels, part of the acid rises with  the
 water, and crystallizes in the receiver. It is more solu-
 ble in alkohol, and alkohol containing it bums with a
 green flame, as does paper dipped in  a solution of
 boracic acid.
  Neither, oxygen gas, nor the simple combustibles,
 nor the common  metals, produce  any  change upon
 boracic  acid, as  far  as   is at present  known.  If
 mixed with finely powdered charcoal, it is neverthe-
 less capable of vitrification; and with soot it mells into
 a black bitumen-like moss, which however is soluble
 in water, and cannot easily be burned to ashes, but sub-
 limes iu part.  With the assistance of a distilling heat
 it dissolves in  oils, especially mineral oils; and with
 these it yields fluid and solid products, which impart
 a green colour to spirit of  wine.  When rubbed with
 phosphorus it  does not prevent its inflammation, but
 an earthy yellow  matter is left behind.   It is hardly
 capable of oxiding or dissolving any of the metals ex-
 cept iron  and zinc, and perhaps copper; but iI com-
 bines with most of the metallic oxides, as it does with
 the alkalies, and probably  with all the earths, though
 the greater part  of  its combinations have hitherto
 been little examined.  It  is of great use in analyzing
 stones that contain a fixed  alkali
  Crystallized boracic acid is a compound of 57 parts
 of acid  and 43 of water.  The honour of discovering
 the radical of boracic acid, is divided between Sir H.
 Davy and Gay Lussac  and Thenard.  The first, on
 applying his powerful voltaic battery to it, obtained a
 chocolate-coloured body in small quantity; but the two
 latter chemists, by  acting on  it with  potassium in
 equal quantities, at a low  red-heat, formed boron and
 sub-boi ate of potass.  For a small experiment, a glass
 tube will serve, but on a greater scale a copper tube is
 to be preferred.   The potassium and boracic acid, per-
 fectly dry, should be intimately mixed before exposing
 them to  heat.  On withdrawing the tube from the fire,
 allowing it to  cool, and  removing  the cork  wliich
 loosely closed its mouth, we then pour successive por-
 tions of water into it, till  we detach or dissolve  the
 whole matter.  The water ought to be  heated each
 time. The whole collected liquids  are allowed to set-
 tle; when, after washing the precipitate till the liquid
 ceases toaftect syrup of violets, w'edry the boron in a
 sapsule, and then put it into a phial out of contact of
 air.  Boron is  solid, tasteless,  inodorous, and of a
 greenish-brown colour.  Its specific gravity  is some-
 what greater than water.  The prime equivalent of
 boracic acid has been inferred fiom  the borate of am-
 monia, to  be about 2.7 or 28; oxygen being  1.0; and
 it probably  consists of 2.0 of oxygen -f- 0.8 of boron.
 But by  Gay Lussac and  Thenard, the proportions
 would be 2 of boron to 1 of oxygen.
  The boracic acid has a more |iowerful attraction for
 ■iine than  for any other of the bases, though it docs not
 •eadily form borate of lime by adding a solution of it
 .o lime water, or decomposing by lime water the solu-
 ble  alkaline boratRB.  In either  case an insipid white
 powder, nearly insoluble, which is the borate of lime,
 is, however, precipitated.   The borate  of barytes is
likewise an insoluble, tasteless, white powder.
  Bergman has observed,  that magnesia, thrown by
little and little into a solution of boracic acid, dissolved
slowly, and the  liquor on evaporation afforded granu-
lated crystals, without any regular form: that these
crystals were fusible  in tlie fire without being decom-
 posed ; but that alkohol was suflicient to separate tlie
 boracic  acid from the magnesia.  If, however, some
ofthe soluble magnesian salts be decomposed by alka-
 line borates in a stale of solution, an insipid and inso-
 luble borate of magnesia is thrown  down.  It is pro-
 bable, therefore, that Bergman's salt vi as a borate of
 magnesia  dissolved  in  an excess of boracic acid;
 which acid  being  taken up by the  alkohol, the true
 borate of magnesia was precipitated iu  a white pow-
 der, and mistaken by him for magnesia.
  One of the best known combinations of this acid is
      144
 the native  magncsio-calcareovs  borate of Kalkbcrg,
 near Lunenburg;  the wurfelstein of the Germans,
 cubic quartz of various mineralogists, and boracite of
 Kirwan.
   The borate of potassa is but little known, though it
 is said to be capable of supplying the place of that of
 soda in the arts;  but more direct experiments  arf
 required to  establish this effect.   Like that, it is capa-
 ble of existing  in two states, neutral and with excess
 of base, but it is not so crystallizable, and assumes the
 form of parallelobipeds.
   With soda the boracic acid formslwo different -aitrs.
 One, in which the alkali  is more  than triple the quan-
 tity necessary to saturate the acid, is of considerable
 use in the arts, and has long been known by the name
 of borax; under wliich  its history and an account of
 its properties will  be given.  The other is a  neutral
 salt, not changing the syrup of violets green  like  the
 borate with excess  of base; differing from it in taste
 and solubility;  crystallizing neither so readily, nor in
 the same manner;  not efflorescent like it; but, like it
 fusible  into  a glass, and capable of" being employed
 for the  same purposes.  This salt may be formed by
 samrating the superabundant soda in borax with some
 other acid, and then separating the two salts;  but it is
 obviously more eligible to saturate  the excess of soda
 with an additional portion of the  Doracic acid itself.
   Borate of ammonia forms in small rhoniboidal crys-
 tals, easily decomposed by fire ;  or in scales, of a pun-
 gent urinous taste, which lose  the crystalline form,
 and grow brown on exposure to the  air.
   It is very  difficult to combine the boracic acid with
 alumina, at  least in  the direct way.
   The boracic  acid unites with silex by fusion, and
 forms with   it  a  solid and permanent vitreous com-
 pound.  This borate of silex, however, is neither sa-
 pid, nor soluble, nor perceptibly alterable  in the  air;
 and cannot  be formed without the assistance of a  vio-
 lent heat.  In the same manner, triple compounds may
 be formed with silex and borates  already saturated
 with other bases.
   The boracic  acid has been found in a disengaged
 state in  several lakes of hot mineral  waters near Monte
 Rotondo,  Berchiaio, and  Casiellonuovo, in Tuscany,
 in the proportion of nearly nine grains in a hundred of
 water, by Hoeffer.   Mascagni  also  found  it adhering
 to  schistus,  on the borders of lakes,  of an  obscure
 white, yellow, or greenish colour, and  crystallized in
 the  form  of needles.  He has likewise found it in
 combination with ammonia.
   BORACITE.  Boiate of magnesia.  A crystallized
 mineral found  in  gypsum in the Kalberg, in Bruns-
 wick, and at Segeberg, in Holland.   It is translucent.
 and of a  shining greasy lusue. yellowish, grayish, or
 of  a greenish-white colour.   Vauquelin's Analysis
 gives 33.4 boracic acid, and 16.6 magnesia.
   BORAGE.  See  Borago.
  BORA'GO.  (Formerly written Corago ; from  cor,
 the heart,  and ago, to affect; because it was supposed
 to comfort the  heart nnd spirits.)  Borage.  1. The
 name of a genus of plants in  the  Linuaeau  system.
 Class, Pentandria;  Order, Monogynia.
  2. The pharmacopoeial name of the officinal borage.
 See  Borago  officinalis.
  Borago officinalis.   The systematic name for tlie
 borage of the shops.   Corrago;  Buglossum  verum;
 Butrlossum latifolium ; Borago  hortensis.  The leaves,
 and  flowers of this  plant, Borage—foliis omnibus
 alternis, calycibus patentibus of Linnaeus, are esteemed
 in some  countries as refrigerant and  cordial.  A svrup
 is prepared  from the leaves in France, and used in
 pleurisies  and inflammatory fevers. Their principal
 use in this island is  in that grateful summer beverae"
known by the name of cool tankard.
  BORAS.   See Borate.
  Boras sod.e.  Borate of soda  See Borax.
  BORATE. Boras. A «alt formed of boracic acid
with an  earth'-, alkaline, or metallic base; as  boiate
nf soda, &c.
  BORAX.   (Borak, Arabian.)  Boras  soda; Sub-
boras soda.   The obsolete synonyms are, Chrysocolla;
 Captstrum  aun;  Ancmar; Borax-trion ;  Acestig
 anticar;  Antincer; Tincal;  Amphitane;  Banrach;
Jftt'-wn factitium;  Santcma, and  Nitrum nativum.
  It  does  not appear that  borax  was  known to  the
ancients; their chrysocolla being  a very different sub-
stance, composed ot the rust of copper, triturated w ith 
BOT
BOl
 urine.  The word borax occurs for the first time In
 li.e works of Geber
   Borax is found in the East, and likewise in South
 America.
   The purification of borax by the Venetians and the
 Hollanders, was, for a long time, kept secret. Chaptal
 finds, after trying all the processes in the large way,
 that the simplest method consists in boiling the borax
 strongly, and tor a long  time, wilh water.  This solu-
 tion being  filtered, affords by evaporation crystals,
 which are somewhat foul, but may be purified by re-
 peating the operation.
   Purified borax is white,  transparent, rather  greasy
 In its fracture, affecting the form of  six-sided prisms,
 terminating in three-sided or six-sided pyramids.  Its
 taste is styptic;  it converts syrup of violets to a green;
 and when exposed to heal, it swells up, boils, loses its
 water  of crystallization, and becomes converted into
 a  porous, white, opaque mass, commonly called Cal-
 cined Borax.  A stronger  heat brings it into n state
 of quiet fusion ;  but the  glassy substance thus afforded,
 which is transparent, and of a greenish yellow colour,
 is voluble in water, and effloresces in tlie air.  It requires
 about eighteen times its  weight of water to  dissolve it
 at the temperature of sixty degrees of Fahrenheit; but
 water  at  tlie boiling heat  dissolves three  times this
 quantity.   Its component parts, according to Kirwan,
 are, boracic acid 34, soda 17, water 47.
  Borax is rarely used internally in  modern  practice ;
 and, according to Murray, it does not appeal to possess
 any activity, although it is supposed by some to be, in
 doses of half a drachm  or  two scruples, diuretic and
 emmenagogue.   It is occasionally given  in  cardialgia
 as an  antacid.   Its solution  is in common use as a
 cooling gargle,  and to  detach mucus.  Sec.  from  the
 mouth iu putrid fever; and  mixed with an equal quan-
 tity of sugar, it is* used in the form of powder to remove
 the aphthous crust from the tongue iu children.  The
 salts formed  by the union of the acid of borax with
 different bases are called borates.
   BORBORY'GMUS.   (From BopBopvfr, to make a
 noise.)  The rumbling  noise occasioned by flatus in
 the intestines.  It frequently precedes hysterical affec-
 tions.   Dr. Good gives this  name to that variety of his
 Limotis flatus, which is known by frequent rumbling
 ofthe bowels.
   BORDEU, Theopuilus de, a French  physician,
 born in 1722.  He graduated at Montpelier, and was
 moon after appointed inspector of the mineral waters
 at Bareges, and professor of anatomy. Subsequently,
 he went to Paris, and  was admitted lo the faculty
 there in 1751. He died  of  apoplexy in his 55th year.
 His most esteemed work is  on the cellular membrane ;
 his distinctions of ihe pulse appear too nice for prac-
 tical utility.
  BORELLI, John Alphonsus, was born  at Castel-
 nuovo,  in 1608.  He first taught the mathematics in
 Sicily,  then as professor  at Pisa ; and being soon after
 admitted to the celebrated academy del Cimeuto, he
 formed the design of explaining the functions of ani-
 mal bodies, on mathematical principles.   For this pur-
 pose he applied  himself diligently to dissection.  His
 grand work, " De Motu Aniinalium," was  published
 after his death, which happened in 1679, at the expense
 of Christina, queen of Sweden.  The imposing appear-
 ance of his opinions gained  them many converts at
 first, but they have been found very defective on ma-
 turer examination.   He was author of many otlier
 publications on different subjects.
  BORON.   The combustible basis of  boracic acid.
 See Boracic add.
  Boro'zail. An Ethiopian word  for  an  epidemic
 disease, in appearance similar to the lues venerea.
  Borra'go.  See Borago.
  Bo'rri.   (Indian.)   Borri-borri.  Boberri.  The
 Indian  name for turmeric;  also an ointment used
 [here, in which the roots of turmeric are a  chief  in-
 gredient.
  Bota'le foramen.   A  name formerly applied to
 the foramen ovale ofthe heart.
  BOTALLUS, Leonard, an eminent physician of
 Piedmont, 'lourished about  the middle ofthe 16th cen-
tury.   He  graduated  at Padua;  and attained con-
siderable reputation, as well in surgery as in medicine;
having  the  honour of attending  two of the French
kings, and the Prince of Orange;  the latter of whom
he cured of a wound, in which the carotid artery had
 been Injured.  He published  a treatise on gun-snot
 wounds, which long remained in high estimation.  Bui
 that which chiefly gained him celebrity, was a work
 on bleeding, general and local, which he recommended
 to be freely practised in a great variety of diseases,
 both acute and chronic.  His opinions were adopted
 by many, and carried to an extravagant length, par
 ticularly in France ;  but more enlarged experience has
 tended greatly to lessen their prevalence.
  Botanicon.  (From {\oravn, an  herb.)  A  plastei
 made of herbs, and described by Paulus yEginela.
  BOTANIST.   Botanicus.   One  who understand:
 the nature,  history, and distinction  of vegetables, on
 settled and certain principles, and can call every plant
 by a distinct, proper, and intelligible Lame.
  BOTANY.  (Botanica.  Bo7aviA-o; from Bo'Javn,
 an herb or grass, which is derived from Bota, or Bookio,
 to feed, because grass is the chief food of ihe animals
 wliich are  most  useful to man.)  That  branch of
 natural history which relates to the vegetable kingdom,
 the second of Ihe three grand assemblages into which
 all terrestrial objects are div ided.  It is a science not
 confined to the description and classification of plants,
 as has  often  been represented,  but it comprehends
 many otlier important particulars.  Its various objects
 may be  conveniently arranged  under the following
 general heads:—
  1. The tcrminology,or description and nomenclature
 of the several parts  of a plant, which are  externally
 visible.
  If all natural objects  were simple in their form, il
 would not be easy to distinguish one  from another,
 nor would il be possible to describe them so as to givo
 a clear and precise idea of them. Hence a boundless
 variety, connected with general resemblances, is wisely
 and benevolently  made their universal  character
 Every plant is composed of several parts, which differ
 from each other  in  their outward  appearance,  and
 wliich cannot fail to strike the most careless spectator.
 Many of them also are themselves compound, and are
 obviously capable  of being divided into subordinate
 parts.
  2. The classification or ariangement.  A knowledge
 of the different parts of a  plant  must necessarily be
 gained before it is described.  But amidst the  nume-
 rous vegetable productions of even  a single country,
 this of itself would avail but little. To give a peculiar
 name to every individual would be a labour which no
 inven'ion or diligence can perform; and, if performed,
 would produce a burden which no memory can sustain.
 It is necessary, therefore, to pursue resemblances and
 differences through a number of gradations, and to
 found  on them  primary and  subordinate  divisions,
 either ascending from particulars to generals, or de-
 scending from generals to particulars.  The former is
 the method in which science of every kind is slowly
 formed and extended;  the latter  that in which it is
 most easily taught.  The number of stages through
 which  these subdivisions should  be carried is  either
 not  pointed out by nature, or enough of nature  is not
 known to fix them  with precision. They differ, there-
 fore, in  different systems ; and, unfortunately, corres-
 ponding ones have  not always bee.i called by the same
 names.
  3.  The synonymes of'plants, or  the names by which
 they are distinguished in the writings of professed
 botanists and others, from the earliest times  to the
 present.
  4.  The sensible qualities of plants, or the different
 manner in which they severally affect  the organs of
sight, smell, taste, and touch.
  5.  The anatomy of plants, or description of the
different visible parts of which their substance is
composed.
  6.  The physiology of plants.   A plant, like an ani-
 mal, is a very compound, organized, living being, in
 which various operations, both  chemical and mecha-
 nical, are continually carrying on, from its first pro
duction to its final dissolution.   It springs from a seed
 fertilized by the pollen of its parent plant.  It takes in
foreign substances by its inhaling and ibsorbent vessels.
 It elaborates aud  assimilates  to  its own  substance
those parts of them that are nutritious, and throws off
the rest.  It secretes a variety of fluids by the mean!
of glands, and other  unknown organs.  It gives that
motion to its sap on which a continuance of its life
depends. 
BOT
BOU
  1. Tnepurposes t > which different plants are applied,
 either as articles of food, ingredients in ihe composi-
 tion of medicine, or materials and instruments in the
 useful and elegant arts ;  the soil and situation in which
 they are generally found, and which are most favour-
 able to their growth, ihe lime of year  in  which they
 open their  flowers, and  ripen their fruit, with many
 othei incidental particulars, are properly within the
 province of the botanist.  But as a botanist he is con-
 cerned with nothing more than the simple  facts.  The
 fust methods of cultivating such as are raised in con-
 siderable quantities for the special use or amusement of
 man; the theory of their nutritious or  medicinal pro-
 perties ; and the manner in which they are to be pre-
 pared, so as to effect the intended purposes; are the
 province either of the  gardener, farmer, physician,
 chemist, or the artist.
  8. The history of botany.
  BOTANY BAY.   An English settlement in New
 Holland, so called because it afforded the botanist
 numerous plants.  A yellow resin goes by the name
 of Botany Bay gum, which exudes spontaneously from
 the trunk of the tree called Acarois resinifera, and
 also from the  wounded bark.   All  tlie information
 that has been hitherto collected respecting the  history
 of the  yellow gum is the following:—The plant that
produces it is low and small, with long grassy leaves;
 but the fructification of it shoots out in a singular
manner from the centre of the leaves, on a single
straight stem, to the height of twelve or fourteen feet.
 Of this stem, which is strong and light, like some of
the reed class, the natives usually make their spears.
The resin is generally dug up out of the soil under the
tree, not collected from  it, and may, perhaps, be that
 which Tasman calls " gum lac of the ground."  Mr.
Boles, surgeou of the Lady Penrhyn, givesasomewhai
different account; and as this gentleman appears to
have paid considerable  attention to the subject, his
account may certainly be relied upon.  After describ-
ing the tree in precisely  the same manner as  above,
he observes, that at the top of the trunk of the tree,
long grassy  leaves grow in great abundance.  The
gum is  found under these leaves in considerable quan-
tities : it commonly exudes in round tears, or drops,
from the size of a large  pea to that of a marble, and
sometimes  much  larger.  These are, by the heat of
 the sun, frequently so much softened, that  they fall on
 the ground, and in this soft state adhere to whatever
 they fall upon:  hence the gum  is frequently found
 mixed with dirt, wood, the bark of the  tree, and vari-
 ous other substances; so thai one lump has been seen
 composed of many small pure pieces  of various sizes,
 united together,  which weighed nearly half a hundred-
 weight.  It is  produced  in such abundance, that one
 man may collect thirty or forty pounds in the space of
 a few hours. The convicts have another method of
 collecting it; they dig round the tree, and break off
 pieces of the roots, which always have some, and fre-
 quently considerable quantities of the gum  in them.
This gum appears nearly, but not entirely, the same
as that which exudes from the trunk of the tree; the
former  is often mixed with a strong-smelling resinous
substance of a black nature, and is so interwoven in
the wood itself, that it  is with difficulty separated.
The latter appears a pure, unmixed, resinous substance.
  Several experiments have been lmtde,  principally
with the view of determining what menstruum would
dissolve the gum the most readi'y, and in the greatest
quantity, from which it  appears alkohol  and aether
dissolve the most.
  The a'seases in which  this resin is administered are
 those V the primae viae, and  principally such as arise
 from spasm, a debility, a  loss of tone, or a diminished
 action in the muscular fibres of the stomach and bow-
els, such as loss of appetite, sickness, vomiting, flatu-
lency,  heart-burn, pains in the  stomach, &c. when
 they were really idiopathic complaints, and not de-
pendent upon any disease in the stomach, or affections
 of other parts of the  body communicated to the sto-
 mach.   In  debilities  and  relaxations of the bowels,
 and the symptoms from thence arising, such as purg-
 ing and flatulency, it has  been found of good effect.  In
 certain cases of diarrhoea,  however, (and it seemed
 those in wliich an unusual degree of irritability pre-
 vailed) it did not answer so well, unless given in small
 doses, and combined with opiates, when  the patient
 Beemed  to gain greater advantage than when opiate*
      146
only Were hat! recourse to.  In cases of amenorrhoSa,
depending on  (what most of those cases do depend
upon) a sluggishness, a debility, and flaccidity of the
system, this medicine, when assisted by proper exer-
cise and diet, has, by removing the sjniptoms of dys-
pepsia, and by restoring the tone and  action of thr
muscular fibres, been found  very servicetble.  Thi:-
medicine does not, in the dose of about half a drachm
appear to possess any remarkably sensible operation
It neither vomits, purges, nor binds the belly, nor Joei
it materially increase the secretion of urine or perspira-
tion.   It has, indeed,  sometimes  been said to purge
and at others lo occasion sweating; but they are  not
constant effects, and, when they do occur, it generall5
depends on some accidental circumstance.   It should
seem  to possess, in  a very extensive degree, the  pro-
perty  of allaying morbid irritability, and of" restoring
tone,  strength, and action, to the debilitated and relax-
ed  fibre.   When  the gum itself is given, it should
always be the pure unmixed part,  if given in the form
of a draught, it should be mixed in water with mtici
lage of gum-arabic; if made into pills; a small portion
of Castile soap  maybe employed; it'was  found  th*
lixiv.  sapon. dissolved  it entirely.  It is commonly,
however, made into a tincture by mixing equal  parts
of the gum  and rectified spirit; one drachm of this
tincture,  (containing half a drachm of the pure gum)
made  into  a draught with water and  syrup, by the
assistance of fifteen grains of gum-arabic in mucilage
forms an elegant medicine, and at the same time very
palatable.  It soon solidifies by the sun, into pieces of
a yellow colour of various sizes.   It pulverizes easily
without caking; nor does it adhere to the teeth when
chewed.  It has a slightly sweet  astringent taste.   It
melts  at  a  moderate heat.  When kindled, it emits a
white  fragrant smoke.   It is  insoluble  in water, but
imparts to it the flavour of storax.   Out of  nine parts,
six  are soluble  in water, and  astringent to the taste,
and two parts are woody fibre.
  Bo'thrion.   (From jioQfiov, a little pit.)   Botnum
I. 1'he socket for the tooth.
  2. An ulceration ofthe cornea.
  Botri'tis. (From Borpvs, a bunch of grapes.)  Bo-
tryites.  A sort of burnt cadmia, collected  in  the  top
ofthe furnace, and resembling a bunch of grapes
  BOTRYOLITE.   A brittle and moderately  hard
mineral, which occurs in mamillary concretions of a
pearly or grayish-white colour, composed of silica, bo-
racic  acid,  lime, oxide of iron and  water.  It comes
from Norway.
  BO'TRYS.  (Bo7p«;T, a cluster of crapes: so called
because its  seeds haiig down like a bunch of grapes,
The oak of Jerusalem.
  Botrys  mexicana.   See  Chenopodium  ambro
sioides.
  Botrys vulgaris. • See  Chenopodium botrys.
  Bouba'lios.  See Momordica  Elatcrtum, and  Pa
dendum muliebre.
  Bou'bon.  See Bubo.
  BOUGI'E.   (French  for wax  candle.)    Candct
cerca ; Candela medicata;  Cathcteres of Swedlaur
Cerci  medicati of Le  Dran;  Cereolus Chiruvgorum
A term applied by surgeons to a long, slenuer liistru
ment,  that is introduced through the urethra into tin
bladder.  Bougies made of the elastic gum are prefei a
ble  to  those made of wax.  The caustic bougie diften
from the ordinary one in having a thin roll of causth
in its  middle, wliich destroys the stricture, or any par"
it conies in contact with.  Those made  of  catgut arc
very seldom used, but are deserving of  the attention
ofthe surgeon.  Bougies are chiefly used to overcome
strictures in the urethra  and the introduction . f them
requires a good deal of address and caution.  They
should not be kept in the urethra so long at one lime
as to excite much pain or irritation.  Betore their use
is discontinued, they should, if practicable, be carried
the  length of the bladder, in order  to ascertain the ex-
tent of thestrictures, taking care that this be performed
not at once, but in a gradual manner, and after repeat
ed trials, for much injury might uriie from tiny hastj
or violent efforts  to remove the resistance that ma*
present itself.  There are bougies also for the aesoplm-
gus ana rectum.

«.?.°wIMU« • %(From /3o°' Rreally' and AiM«h hun-
ger , or from BovXopat, to desiie.)  A canine or vora
cious  appetite.
  **<M"RNONITE. An antimr.P.lal sulphuret of lead 
BOY
BOY
  Bot-ey coal.  Of a brownish-black Colour and lamel-
•tar texture, formed of wood, penetrated  with petro-
leum or bitumen, and found in  England,  France,
Italy, &c.
  BovtLL.E.  (From bos, an ox, because cattle  were
supposed subject to it.)  The measles.
  Bovi'na  fames.  The same as bulimia.
  Bovi'sta.  See Lycoperdon.
  [BOVVEN, Pardon, M.D.  This  accomplished phy-
lician  and excellent man was born in  Providence,
Rhode Island, 2.M of March,  in the year 1757.
  The incidents of Dr. Bowen's early life, we have been
unable to collect with sufficient accuracy to warrant us
in committing thein to the pagesof an authentic memoir.
  During the prevalence of the yellow fever in Provi-
dence, when dejection and dismay  sat  upon many a
brow, and  the sense of personal danger threatened to
absorb the sympathies of our common nature,  and
death mocked at the expedients of human science to
avert his blow. Dr. Bowen shrunk not from the perils
in his way.  More than once was his life endangered
by an attack of that fearful malady, but  God preserved
him from thus becoming a victim to his noble intre-
pidity in the service of humanity.
  Dr. Bowen confined his attention to no particular
department of  his profession, but aimed at excellence
in all.  For his skill in operative surgery he was highly
respected, and  daring many years most of the surgical
operations, in and around Providence, were performed
by him. In medical surgery  he was thought extremely
judicious; and  his uncommon science, experience, and
success in obstetrics, left him  without a superior in that
difficult branch of his profession.
  Dr. Bowen contributed occasionally to the medical
Journals of the day;  and in the  fourth volume of
Hosack and Francis's Medical and Philosophical Re-
gister may  be found an elaborate account from his pen
ofthe yellow fever, as it prevailed in Providence in the
year 1805.   He died in October 1826, aged 69 years.
His life, in all  its stages, was a beautiful exhibition of
the virtues, and at its close,  an example of Christian
holiness.—SeeThach. Met. Biog.  A.]
  BOX-TREE.   See Buxus.
  BOYLE'S FUMING L1Q.UOR.  The hydroguret-
ted sulphuret of ammonia.
  [BO YLSTON, Dr. Zabdiel, was born in Massachu-
setts in 1680, and was the eldest son of an English phy-
sician erf the same name, one of the  early settlers of
that province under  the British  government.   Dr.
Boylston Is represented as  a skilful  physician,  bold,
persevering, courageous and benevolent.  " In the year
1721 the small-pox appeared in Boston, and pursued its
usual desolating career, earning with  it the utmost
terror and confusion.  On this alarming occasion Dr.
Cotton Mather, the  learned  and distinguished divine,
communicated to Dr. Boylston a publication in the
Transactions of the Royal  Society,  announcing the
discovery of a new method of mitigating the virulence
of this fatal disease.  Dr. Boylston was forcibly im-
pressed with the benefit of the discovery, and accord-
ingly after deliberating on the  most safe and expeditious
mode of thus artificially introducing  the disease  into
the system, he communicated to the medical gentlemen
in  Boston  the plan he proposed to  adopt, and the
source whence he derived the first hints  of the ope-
ration, desiring their concurrence in the undertaking."
In this measure he was opposed by the physicians and
clergy, some of whom denounced him from the pulpit;
and the inhabitants became enraged,  and were ex-
cited to commit atrocious acts of outrage on the  per-
son of Dr. Boylston, extending their  rancour even to
his family.
  " Undismayed,  however, by all  this  violence,  and
unsupported by the  friendship of any but Dr. Mather,
he commenced, on the 27th June 1721, while the small-
pox was in its most destructive progress through the
town, this untried experiment of inoculation on his
own son, a child of thirteen years of age, and two
blacks in his family, one of thirty-six, and the other of
two years  of age, and  on all with  complete success.
This rekindled the fury of the populace, and induced
the authorities of the town to  summon  hirr before
them to answer for his practice.   He underwent re-
peated examinations;  and although he invited all the
practitioners in Boston to visit his patients and judge
for  themselves, he received only insults  and threats in
reply   The facts we have thought worthy of notice,
as remarkable in themselves, and as in some degree
characteristic of the excitable spirit of the times.  In
thus encountering obloquy and reproach, however, I.'r.
Boylston but experienced the fortune of most of those
who have attempted to innovate on long establish'
usages, or to take the lead in the career of public ir
proveinent.  The small-pox ceased its ravages in M:.
1722; and during its  prevalence Dr.  Boylston  w,
tinned the practice of inoculation to all who could i.■■■
induced to submit to it.  He inoculated with his ov.i
hand two hundred and  forty -even of both sexes fro..i
aine months to sixty-seven years of age In Boston aie.l
in the neighbouring towns'; thirty-nine were iiioco
lated by other physicians, after the tumult had in sou
measure subsided, making in the whole two hundrt
and eighty-six, of whom only six died; and of thc-n,
tliree were supposed to  have taken the disease the na-
tural way, some days previous  to their being inocu-
lated ; three of those who died were his oldest patient -.
It appears, by the account published by the select me i.
that during the same period five thousand seven bur
dred and fifty-nine had  taken the natural small-po.;,
eight hundred and forty-four of whom fell victims to
the disease, being more than one  in six.  In the vicinity
of Boston it had been still more malignant  and fat;:!.
The utility of the praclk.-' was now established with-
out dispute;  and its success encouraged its more gei.
ral practice in England, in which country It had be; -i
tried upon but few persons, most of whom were con
deinned convicts and charity children.   The daught.r
of Lady Mary W. Montague was inoculated iu  Lon-
don, in April  1721, being the first instance in Euiop'-,
and the convicts were made the  subjects of the experi-
ment in August ofthe same year.  Dr. Boylston there-
fore is justly entitled to the honour of being the fir-t
inoculator in America ;  and this, even before the singla
instance of ihe experiment in Europe had come to his
knowledge.
  Dr. Boylston, during  his unjust persecution, held a
corretqiondence with Sir Hans Sloane, of London, the
court physician; who, being apprised of his  very emi-
nent  services in first  introducing inoculation  int.)
America, honoured him with an invitation to vis:;
London.  He accordingly embarked for that city, and
on his arrival was greeted with the most cordial affec-
tion and respect.  He was elected a member of th-;
Royal Society,  the first American, we believe, eve,
admitted to that honour.  He vt  i. moreover  honoured
by being introduced to the rcyal family, and received
the most flattering  attentions and friendship of so.vu
of the most distinguished characters  of  the natior.
After his return to his  native ciuntry, Dr. Boylstoi
continued at the head of his profession, and engaged i:i
literary pursuits, making many  ingenious and useful
communications to the Royal Society, and correspond
ing with his numerous friends, among whom he nscil
to mention with great respect and affection  the  Rev.
Dr. Watts, who appears by his  letters to have been a
warm advocate for inoculation.
  Dr. Boylston possessed a strong and reflecting mind
and acute discernment.  His character through Ii'-:
was one of unimpeached integrity.  He was charitable
in his opinions  of" others,  patient under the severe-.!
persecution,  and  forgiving  of his bitterest  enemie-.
These qualities, added to the natural ease and suavity
of his manners, which  had  been improved  by inter-
course with the world,  caused his society to be much
sought, and to his family and his friends rendered him
a most  interesting and  instructive companion.   IL'i
health was often interrupted  by severe attacks r(
asthma,  to  whicli he was subject for the  last forty
years of his life.  He  met death with calmness and
perfect resignation in the eighty-seventh year of h*i
age, saying to his friends,' my work in this world is
done, and my hopes of futurity  are brightening.'  Hte
was buried in the family tomb at  Brooklyn, on which is
inscribed the following appropriate and just languatrr
1 Sacred to the memory of Dr. Zabdiel Boylston, Es.i,
physician and F.R.S., who first  introduced  the pre;
tice of inoculation into America. Through a life c'
extensive benevolence,  he  was always  faithful  t-i
his word, just  in  his  dealings, affable in  his ms*
ners; and after a long sickness, in which he was ex-
emplary for his patience and resignation to his Make'
he quitted this mortal life in a  just expectation of a
happy immortality, March  1st, 1766'  His wife died
few years before him."'—See Thach. Med. Biog.  A, 
BRA
BRA
   Bkaohk'rium.   (From  brai'iiale, a  bracelet.)  A
 truss or bandage for hernia;  a term used by the bar-
 barous Latin writers.
   BRACHLE'US.  Brachial;  belonging to  the  arm.
   Braciii tus  LXTEttNUS.   See  Triceps  extensor
 cubiti.
   BrachI/kus internus.  See Brachialus  internus.
   Brachiius musculus.  See Braehialis  internus.
   i;RA(/'H1AL.  Braehialis.  Of or belonging to the
 inn.
   Brachial  artery.  Arteria braehialis.   The bra-
 chial artery is the continuat'on of the axillary artery,
 which, as it passes behind the tendon of the pectoralis
 major, receives the name of brachial.   It runs down
 • iu the inside of the arm, over the  musculus coraco-
 brachialis,  "and aneon&rns  internus, and along  the
 inner edge  of the  biceps,  behind the vena  basilica,
 giving out small branches as it goes along.  Below the
 bend ofthe arm it divides into the cubitalis and radia-
 lis.  Sometimes, though rarely, the  brachial artery is
 divided from its origin into two large branches, which
 run down on  the arm, and  afterward on the fore-arm.
 where they are called cubitalis and radialis.
   Brachia'lb. The word means a bracelet; but the
 ancient anatomical writers apply this term to the car-
 pus, the part on which t.,e bracelet was worn.
   BRACIHA'LIS.   See Brachial.
   Brachialis  extkrnus.   See  Triceps  extensor
 cubiti.
   Brachialis internus.   Brackiaus  of Winslow.
 Braehtaus internus of  Cowper; and Humero-cubital
 of Dumas.  A muscle of the  fore-arm, situated on the
 fore-part of tlie os humeri.  It arises fleshy  from the
 middle of the os humeri, at each side of the  insertion
of the  deltoid muscle,  covering  all the inferior and
 fore-part of this bone, runs over the joint, and adheres
 firmly to the  ligament;   is  inserted, by a strong  short
 tendon, into the coronoid process of  the ulna. Its use
is  to bend the fore-arm, and to prevent the capsular
ligament of the joint from  being pinched.
   BRACHIATUS.  Brachiate.  Applied to branches,
 panicles, &c.  spread in  four directions,  crossing each
othei alternately in pairs ; a common mode of growth
in  the branches of shrubs that have opposite leaves, as
the lilac,  syriuga, &c.
   Bra'chii os. See Humeri os.
   Brachio-cubital ligament. Ligamentum brackio-
cubitale.  The expansion of  the  lateral  ligament,
 wliich is fixed in the inner condyle of the os humeri,
runs over the capsular, to which it closely adheres,
 and is inserted like radii on the side of  the great sig-
moid cavity of the ulna  ; it is covered on the  inside by
several tendons, which adhere closely to it, and  seem
to  strengthen it very considerably.
   Brachio-Radial lihament.  Ligamentumbrachio-
radiale.   The expansion of the lateral ligament, which
runs over the external condyle of the os humeri, is in-
serted round  the coronary ligament from thence all
tlie way down to the neck of the  radius, and also in
the neighbouring parts of the ulna.  Through all this
passage it covers the capsular ligament,and iscovered
by several tendons adhering closely to both.
   BRA'CHIUM.   (Bp:i\iov, the arm.)   The  arm,
from the  shoulder lo llie wrist.
  Brachtum  movens  quartus.   See Latissimus
 dorsi.
  Brachu'na.  According to Avicenna, a species of
furor uterinus.
  Brachvchro'nius.   (From  Baaxvs-, short,  and
xpovos, time.)  A disease which continues but a short
time.
  Brachypnce'a.   (Fiom Bpa\vs, short, and tzvtto, to
breathe.) Shortness and difficulty of breathing.
  Bra'chys.   (From i3o-t\vs, short.)  A muscle of
 the scapula.
   BRACTEA.  (Drue',a,  a  thin leaf or plate of me-
tal.)  A floral  leaf.  One of the seven fulcra or props
 af plants, according to Linnaeus.  A bractea  is a  little
 leaf-like  appendage to  some flowers, lying  under or
 Interspersed  in the flower, but generally different in
 colour from the true leaves of the plant.
   1.  It is green in some; as In Ocyiiitim basilicum
 majus.
   2.  Coloured  in others  ; as in Salvia horminum, Sec.
   3.  In some it is caducous,  falling off before the
 flowers.
   4.  In others in remains;  as in Ti'Ji'a europaa.
   Cor.ia bracteata is, when the flower-stem is term!
nated  with  a number of very large bracteae, resein
bling  a bush of" hair.
   BRACTEATjE.  (From bractea, here meaning a
corolla.)  The name of a class of Boerhaave's method
of plants, consisting of herbaceous vegetables, which
have petals, and the seed> ->f which are furnished with
a single lobe or cot\ 'edor..
  BRACTEATLS    (From bractea,  a floral leaf.;
Having a floral leal; as pcdunculus bracteata.-:.
  BRACTEIFORMIS   Resembling  a  bractea  ci
floral  leaf.
  Bradype'psia.  (Ficm Bpaiss, slow, and tztir]io, to
concoct.)  Weak digestion.'
  Bra'ogat.  A name formerly applied to a ptisan of
honey and water.
  BRAIN.   See Cerebrum
  Brain, little. See Cerebellum.
  BRAN.  Furfur.  The husks or shells of wheat,
wliich remain in  the  bolting machine.   It contains a
portion of the farinaceous matter, and is said to have
a  laxative quality.  Decoctions of  bran, sweetened
wilh sugar, are used by the common people, and some-
times with success, against coughs, hoarseness, &c.
  BRA'NCA.  (Branca,  the Spanish  for a foot,  or
branch.)  A term applied to some herbs, which  are
supposed to  resemble  a  particular foot; as bra.net
leonis, lion's foot; branca ursina, bear's foot.
  Branca leonina.  See Alchemilla.
  Branca leonis.   See Alchemilla.
  Branca ursina.   See Acanthus and Heracleum
  Bra'ncii e. (From/jptxso, to make .noist.)  Branehu
Swelled tonsils, or glandulous tumours, of the fauces,
which secrete saliva.
  Bra'nchus. (From Bptxto, to moisten.*" A  de-fluxion
of humours from the fauces.
  BRA N D Y.   Spiritus Gallicus.   A  colourless,
slightly  opaque, and milky fluid, of a hot and pene-
trating taste, and a strong and agreeable smell, ob-
tained by distilling from  wine.   It consists of watr,
ardent spirit, and a small portion of oil, which renders
it  milky at first, and, after a certain  time, colours  it
yellow.   It is the fluid from wliich rectified or ardent
spirit  is obtained.  Its peculiar flavour depends on the
nature of the volatile principles, or essential oil, which
come  over along with it in the  distillation,  and  like-
wise,  in some measure, upon  the management of the
fire, the wood of the cask in which it is kept, &c.   It
is said, that our rectifiers imitate the flavour of brandy,
by adding a small proportion of nitrous  aether to the
spirit  of" malt, or molasses.  The utility of brandy is
very considerable, but, from its pleasant taste and exhi-
larating properly, it  is two often taken to excess.   It
gives energy to the  animal functions; it is a powerful
tonic, cordial, and  antispasmodic: and its utility with
camphire, in gangrenous affections, is very great
  BRANKS.  The name in Scotland for the mumps
See Cynanche  parotidaa.
  BRANKURS1NE.  See Acanthus
  Brasi'lia.  Brazil wood.
  Brasil;ense lignum.  See Hamatoxylum campe
chianum.
  Brasiliensis radix.  The  ipecacuanha  root  is
sometimes so called.
  Bra'sium.   (From Bpaoerto, to boil.)   Malt, or ger-
minated barley.
   Bra sma.   (From Bpaamo,  to boil.)   The unripe
black  pepper.  Fermentation.
  Bra'smos.  The same.
  BRASS.   ."Es.  A combination of copper and zinc,
  Brassade'lla.   Brassatella.  The Ophioglossum,
or herb, adders tongue.
   BRA'SSICA.  (Varro says,  quasi prasica; from
prasreo, to cut off; because it is cut from the stalk for
use; or from zvpacria, a bed in a garden where they are
cultivated, or  Ironi Bpaaota, to  devour,  because it is
eagerly eaten by cattle.)  The  name of  a  genus of
plants iu the Ltnnrcati system.  Class, Tetradynamia;
Order, Siliquosa.  Crambe.  Cabbage.   Colevvort.
   Brassica alba.   The white cabbage.
   Brassica apiana.   Jagged or crimpled colewort
   Brassica canina.   Mircurialis  sylvestris.   See
Mercurialis annua.
   Brassica capitata.  Cabbage.  There are several
varieties of cabbage,  all  of wliich are generally hard
of digestion, producing flatulencies, and afford very lit-
tle nourishment.  These  inconveniences are not exoe 
BR.E
BRE
 nf.Nceflby those whose stomachs are strong and accus-
 tomed to them.  Few vegetables run into a state of"
 imtiefaciion so quickly as cabbages; they ought, there-
 *nie, always to be used immediately after cutting.  In
 Holland  and Germany there is a method of preserving
 them, by cutting them  into pieces, and  sprinkling salt
 and some aromatic  herbs among them;  this mass is
 put lnlo  a tub, where it is pressed close,  and left to fer-
 fnent, when it is called  sour crout, or saver kraut.
 These, and all pickles of cabbage, are  considered as
 tvholesouie and antiscorbutic, from the vinegar and
 spices they contain.
   Brassica conbylodes.  Turnip cabbage.
   Brassica cumana.  Red colewort.
   Brassica eruca.   Brassica erucastrum.   F.ruca
 tylrestus. The systematic name for the plant wliich
 ifi'oids the semen erucae.   Garden rocket.   Roman
 rocket.    Rocket  gentle.   Brassica—foliis  lyartis,
 taule kirsuto siliquis glabris, of Linnaeus. The SPeds
 t>f this plant, and of the wild  rocket, have  an acrid
 taste, and are eaten by the Italians in their pickles, &c.
 They are said to be good  aperients and antiscorbutics,
 but  are esteemed by the above-mentioned people for
 rlieir supposed aphrodisiac qualities.
   Hrassica erucastrum.   See Brassica eruca.
   Brassica Florida.  The cauliflower.
   Brassica gonylicodes.   The turnip cabbage.
   Brassha laccturria.  Brassica lacuturris. The
 Savoy plant
   Brassica marina.  See Convolvulus soldanctla.
   Brassica napus.   The  systematic  name  for the
 plant from which the semen  napi is obtained.  N.ipns
 eylvestris.  Bunias.  Wild  navew, or  rape.  The
 seeds yield, upon expression, a large quantity of oil
 called rape oil, which is  sometimes ordered iu stimu-
 lating liniments.
  Brassica oleracea.   The systematic  name  for
 the  brassica capitata of tile shops.   See Brassica
 capitata.
   Brassica rapa. The systematic name for the plant
 whose root is called turnip.  R-ipttm.  Rapus.  Napus.
 Napus dulcis.  The turnip.   Turnips are accounted a
 salubrious food, demulcent, detergent, somewhat laxa-
 tive and  diuretic, but liable, in weak stomachs, to pro-
 duce flatulencies, and prove difficult of digestion. The
 liquor  pressed  out of them, after boiling, is sometimes
 taken  medicinally in  coughs  and disorders  of the
 breast.  The seeds are occasionally  taken as diuretics ;
 t/iey have no smell, but a  mild acrid taste.
   Brassica rubra.   Red cabbage.  A very excellent
 test both for acids and alkalies in which it is superior
 to  litmus, being  naturally  blue, turning  green with
 alkalies,  and red with acids.
   Brassica sabauda.  The Savoy plant.
   Brassica sativa.   The common garden cabbage.
   Brasside'llica ars.  A way of curing wounds,
mentioned by Paracelsus, by applying the herb Brassi-
della to them.
  Bra'thu   ftoa8v.   An old name for savine.
  BRAZIL WOOD.   See Casalpina crista.
  ["Brazil wood is  the  produce of the  Casalpina
crista,  growing in  Brazil,  in  the Isle  of  France,
Japan, and other countries.   The wood is hard and
 heavy; and though  pale when  recent, it acquires a
 deep red  colour by exposure.   Digested  in water, it
 affords a fine red  infusion, of a sweetish flavour; the
 residue, which appears nearly black, imparts much of
 its colour to alkaline  liquors.  With alkohol it gives a
 deep red  tincture: alkalies  and soap convert its red
 colour  to a fine  purple; hence, paper tinged with
 Brazil wood is sometimes used as a test for alkalies;
 acids render it  yellow: alum produces a fine crimson
 lake, with infusion of Brazil wood: muriate  of tin
 forms with it a crimson precipitate, bordering on pur-
 ple: the salts of iron  give a dingy purple colour.  Sul-
phuretted hydrogen destroys the colour of infusion of
Brazil wood, but it reappears on expelling the gas."—
See Webster's Man. of Chem.  A.]
  BREAD.   Panis.   "Farinaceous vegetables  are
converted into  meal  by trituration, or grinding in  a
mill; and when the  husk or bran has been separated
by sifting or bolting, the powder is called flour.   This
is  co nposed of a small quantity of mucilaginous sac-
charine matter, soluble in cold water;  much starch,
tvhich is  scarcely soluble  in cold water, but combines
with that fluid by heat;  and an adhesive gray snb-
itance insoluble in water,  alkohol, oil, or aether,and
resembling an animal seibstancc in many of its  pro-
perties.
  When flour is kneaded together with water, it forms
a tough  paste, containing these principles very little
altered, and not easily digested by the s-tomach.   The
action of heat piodmes a considerable change in the
gluten, and probably in the starch, rendering ihe com-
pound more  easy to masr.jCate, as well as to digest.
Hence the fiist approaches towards  the making of
bread consisted in parching the corn, either for inline
diate use a-  food, or previous to its  trituration  into
meal;  oi else in baking  the  flour into unleavened
bread, or boiling it into masses more or less consult n  :
of all which we have sufficient indications in the l.isto
lies of the earlier nations, as well as in the various prac-
tices of  tlie  moderns.   It appears likewuvr  from the
Scriptures, that the piactice of making leavened bn■■:•%
is of very considerable antiquity ; but the additions ■>;
ye-t, or the  vinous lermeut,  now so generally  usej,
seems to be of modern date.
  Unleavened bread in the form of small cakes, or bis-
cuit, is mode for  the use of chipping in large quant;
tie-; but most of the bread used on  shore is made t--
undergo, previous to baking, a kind of ferine illation,
which appears lo be  ofthe same nature as the ie,-
mentation  of saccharine substances:  but is checked
and modified by so many circumstance.-, as to ir-ml  i
it not a little  difficult to speak with certainty and pro
ci.-mii respecting it.
  When dough or  paste is left to undergo a sponta-
neous decomposition in an open vessel, the varioe-
parts of the mass are differently affected, according to
the  humidity, the thickness or thinness of the part.
the  vicinity or remoteness  of fire, and other circun:
stances less easily investigated.  The saccharine part
is disposed to become  converted into alkohol, the mu-
cilage  has a  tendency to become  sour  and mouldy,
while  the gluten  in all probability verges towards the
putrid state.  An  entire change in the chemical attrac-
tions of the several component parts must then  tak*
place in a progressive manner,  not altogether the saein
in the  internal  and mote humid part* as in the extet
nal parts, which not only becomedry by simple evapo
ration, but are acted  upon by the surrounding air
The outside  may therefore become mouldy or putriit
while the inner part may be only advanced to an  n<-id
state.  Occasional admixture ofthe mass  wouI",'f
course not onlf produce some change in the rapidity of
this alteration, but  likewise render it more uniform
throughout the whole.  The effect of this commencing
fermentation  is found  to be, that the mass is rendered
more digestible and light; by which last expression it
is understood, that it is rendered much more peious by
the disengagement  of elastic fluid, that separates its
parts from each other, and  greatly increases  its bulk.
The operation of  baking puts  a stop to this process,
by evaporating great part of the moisture which is
requisite to favour  the chemical attraction, and  pro
bably also by still farther changing the nature of th"
component parts.   It is then bread.
  Bread  made according to the preceding method will
not possess the uniformity which is requisite, because
some parts may be mouldy, while others are not yet
siifficieiitly changed  from  the  state of dough.   The
same means are used in this case as have been found
effectual  in promoting the uniform fermentation of
large masses.   This consists in the use of a leaven or
ferment, which  is a small  portion of some matter of
the same kind, but in a more advanced stage of the
fermentation.  After the leaven has been well incor
porated by kneading into fresh dough, it not only brings
on the fermentation with greater speed, but causes il
to take place  in the whole  of the mass at  the sam<-
time; and as  soon as the dough has by this means ac-
quired a due increase of bulk from the carbonic acid,
which endeavours to escape, it  is judged to  be suffi
ciently fermented, and ready for the oven.
  The fermentation by means of leaven or sour dotu'1,
is thought to be of the acetous  kind, because it is g,
nerally so managed, that the bread  has a sour flavour
and taste.  But it  has been ascertained that this acidi'.y
proceeds  from true vinegar.  Bread raised by leaven
is usually made of a mixture of wheat and rye, no!
very accurately cleared  ofthe bran.  It is distinnuisheel
by the name of rye-bread; and the mixture  of thesi
two kinds of  grain is called bread-corn, or mesHn, in
many parts of the kingdom, where it is raised on  oik> 
it RE
BRE
   -4 i.ic same piece of ground, and passes through all
 the processes of reaping, threshii.g, grinding, Sec. in
 this mixed state.
   Vest or barm is used as the ferment for the finer
 ^inds of bread.  This is the mucilaginous froth wliich
 rises to the surface of beer in its first stage of ferment-
 ation.   When it is mixed with dough, it produces a
 much  more speedy and effectual fermentation than
 that obtained by leaven, and the bread  is accordingly
 I'uich lighter, and scarcely ever sour.  The fermenta-
 Mm by yest seems to be almost certainly ofthe vinous
 :r spirituous kind.
  Bread is much more uniformly iniscible with water
 Uian dough; and on this circumstance its good quali-
 ties most probably do in a great measure depend.
  A very great number of processes are used by cooks,
 .onfectioners, and others,  to make  cakes, puddings,
 ,ind other kinds of bread,  in which different qualities
 ;\re required.   Some cakes are rendered brittle, or as
 it is called short,by an admixture of sugar or of starch.
 Another kind of brittleness is given by the addition of
 butter  or fat.  While  of egg, gum-water, isinglass,
 and otlier adhesive substances, are  used, when it  is
 intended that the effect of fermentation shall  expand
 the dough into an exceedingly porous mass. Dr. Per-
 rival has recommended the addition  of salep, or the
 '.utritious powder of the orchis root.  He says, that
 .in ounce of salep, dissolved in a quart  of water, and
 mixed with two pounds of flour, two  ounces of yest,
 -uid eighty grains of salt, produced a remarkably good
 !r»af, weighing tliree pounds two ounces; while a loaf
 made of an equal quantity of the other ingredients,
 without the salep, weighed but two pounds and twelve
 : inces. If the salep be in too large quantity,  how-
• 'er, its peculiar taste will be  distinguishable in the
 t;read.   The farina of potatoes, likewise, mixed with
 wheaten flour, makes very good bread.  The reflecting
 c'lemist will receive considerable information  on this
vjbjcct from an attentive inspection of the receipts to
 S-e met with in treatises of cooking and confectionary.
  Mr. Accum, in his late Treatise on Culinary Poisons,
states, that the inferior kind of flour which the Lon-
don bakers generally use for making  loaves, requires
the addition of alum to give them the white  appear-
 ance of bread made from fine flour.   ' The  baker's
 dour is very often made ofthe worst kinds of damaged
 foreign  wheat,  and other cereal grains mixed  with
 ihem in grinding the wheat iuto flour.  In this  capital,
 no fewer than six distinct kinds of wheaten flour are
 brought into the market.  They are  called fine  flour,
 seconds, middlings, fine middlings, coarse middlings,
 and twenty-penny flour.  Common garden beans and
 Please are also frequently ground  up among the  Lon-
 iion bread flour.
  1 The smallest quantity of alum that enn be employed
 with effect to  produce a white, light, and porous  bread
 from an inferior kind of flour, I have my own  baker's
 authority to state, is from three  to four ounces to a
 sack of flour weighing 240 pounds.'
  ' The following  account of  making  a sack of five
 bushels of flour into bread, is taken from Dr. P. Mark-
 ham's Considerations on  the Ingredients  used in the
 Adulteration of" Flour and  Bread, p. 21.
        Five bushels flour,
        Cight ounces of alum,
        Four lbs.  salt,
        Haifa gallon of yest, mixed with about
        Three gallons of water.
  ' Another substance employed by fraudulent bakeis
 Is  subcarbonate of ammonia.   With this salt they
 realize the important consideration of producing light
 .md porous bread from spoiled, or what is technically
 rolled sour flour.  Tnis salt, which becomes  wholly
 ennverted into a gaseous substance  during the ope-
 ration  of baking, causes the dough  to  swell  up into
 Ti-bubbles, which carry before them  the stiff dough,
 and thus it renders the dough  porous;  the salt  itself
 is al the same time totally volatilized during the ope-
 ration of  baking.'—' Potatoes are  likewise  largely,
 and, perhaps, constantly used  by fraudulent  bakers,
 :is a cheap ingredient to enhance their profit.'—' There
 *re instances of convictions on  record, of bakers hav-
 ing used gypsum, chalk, and pipe-clay, in the manu-
 facture of bread.'
   Mr. E. Davy, Prof, of Chemistry at the Cork  Insti-
 tution,  has made experiments,  showing that from
 ■w^nty to forty grains of common carbonate  of mag-
 nesia well mixed with a  pound of the worst new re-
 co'nds flour, materially improved the quality of the
 bread baked with it.
   The habitual and daily  introduction Oi a portion ot
 alum into the human stomach, however small, must
 be prejudicial to the exercise of its functions, and  par-
 ticularly in persons  of a bilious and costive  habit.
 And, besides, as the  best  sweet flour never stands in
 need'of alum, the presence of this salt indicates  an in-
 ferior and  highly acescent food; which cannot fail to
 aggravate dyspepsia, and  which may generate  a cal
 cuious diathesis in the urinary otgans.  Eveiy precau-
 tion of science and law  ought, therefore, to be  em
 ployed to detect aud slop such deleterious adulterations
 Bread may be analyzed  for  alum  by crumbling il
 down when somewhat stale in distilled water, squeez
 ing the pasty mass through a  piece of cloth, and then
 passing the liquid  through a  paper  filter.  A  limpid
 infusion will thus be obtained. It is difficult to  pro-
 cu-e it clear if we use new bread or hot water.  A di-
 lute solution of muriate of barvtes dropped into the fil-
 terea infusion, will indicate by a white cloud, more or
 less heavy, the presence and quantity of alum.   I  find
 that genuine bread gives no precipitate by tins treat-
 ment. The earthy adulterations ate  easily discovered
 by incinerating the bread  at a red heat in a shallow
 earthen vessel, and treating the residuary ashes  with
 a little nitrate of ammonia.  The earths themselves
 will then remain, characterized by their whiteness and
 insolubility.
  The latest chemical treatise on the art of making
 bread, except the account  siiven by Mr. Accum in  hi*
 work  on  the  Adulterations  of Food, is the  article
 Baking, in the Supplement to  the  Encyclopaedia  Bri-
 tunnica.
   Under Process of  Baking, we have tlie following
 statement: ' An ounce of alum is then dissolved over
 the fire in a tin  pot, and  the  solution poured  into a
 large tub, called by the bakersthe seasoning-tub. Four
 pounds and a half of salt are likewise  put into the
 tub, and a pailful of  hot water.'   Note on this  pas-
 sage.—' In London, where the goodness of bread is
 estimated entirely by its whiteness,  it is usual with
 those bakers who employ  flour of an inferior quality
 to add as  much alum as.common salt to the  dough
 Or, in other words, the quantity of salt added is dimi-
 nished one-half, and the  deficiency supplied  by at
 equal weight of alum. This improves the look of the
 bread very much, rendering  it  much  whiter  and
 firmer."'—Ure's Chem. Diet.
   BREAD FRUIT.   The tree whicli  affords  this,
 grows in all the Ladrone islands in the South sea, in
 Otaheite, and  now in  the  West Indites.   The br-ad-
 fruit grows upon a tree the  size  ot a middling oak.  The
 fruit is about the size of a child's head, and the sur
 face is reticulated, not much unlike  tlie surface of a
 truffle. It is covered  with a thin skin, and has a core
 about the size of a small knife.  The eatable  part is
 between th • skin and the core: it is  as white as
 snow, and somewhat ofthe consistence of new bread.
 It must be toasted before it is eaten, being first divided
 into three  or four parts.  Its  taste is insipid, with a
 slight sweetness, nearly like  that of wheaten bread
 and artichoke  together.    This fruit is  the constant
 food of the inhabitants all the year, it being in  season
 eight months.
   Bread-nut.  See Brosimvm alicastrum.
   BREAST.   Mamma.    The  two globular  projec-
 tions, composed of common integuments, adipose sub-
 stance, and lacteal glands and vessels, and adhering
 to the anterior and lateral regions of the thorax of
 females.  On the middle of each breast is a projecting
 portion, termed the papilla, or  nipple, in which  the
 excretory ducts of the glands  terminate, and around
 which is a coloured orb, or disc, called  the  areola
 The use of the breasts is to suckle, new-born infants.
   BREAST-BONE.  See Sternum.
   BRECCIA.  An Italian term,  frequently used by
 our mineralogical writers to  denote such compound
 stones as are composed of agglutinated fragments of
 considerable size.  When the agglutinated parts are
 rounded, the stone is called pudding-stone. Breccias
 are denominated according to the nature of their com
 ponent parts.  Thus we have calcareous breccias, ot
 marbles; and siliceous breccias, which are still men
 minutely classed, according to their varieties.
I  BRE'GMA.  (From6p£x-»i to moisten;  formerlywt 
BRI
BRO
 mlled, because, in infants, and sometimes even in
 adults, they are tender and moist.)  An old name for
 the parietal bones.
   BREVIS.  Short.  Applied to distinguish parts dif-
 fering only iu length, aud to some parts, the termina-
 tion of which is not far from their origin;  as brevia
 vasa, the branches of  the splenic vein.
   Brky'ma. (An American plant named in honour of
 Dr. Brennius.)  A species of capparis.
   BRIAR.  See Rosa.
   Bri'cumum.   A name which the Gauls gave to the
 herb artemisia.
   BRIMSTONE.  See Sulphur.
   BRISTLE.  Sect:, la.
   BRISTOL HOT-WI'LL.  BristoUensis  aqua.  A
 pure, thermal or warm,  slightly acidulated, mineral
 wring, situated about a mile below Bristol.  The fresh
 water is inodorous, perfectly limpid and sparkling, and
 sends forth numerous  air-bubbles when  poured into a
 glass.  It  is very agreeable to tlie palate, but without
 having any very decided taste, at least none that can
 be distinguished by a common observer.  Its specific
 gravity is  only 1.00077, which approaches so near to
 that of distilled water, that this circumstance alone
 would show that it contained but a very small admix-
 ture of foreign ingredients.  The temperature of these
 waters, taking the average  of the most  accurate ob-
 servations, may be reckoned at 74 deg.;  and this does
 not  very  sensibly vary during winter  or  summer.
 Bristol water contains both solid and  gaseous matter,
 and the distinction between the two requires to be
 attended to, as it is owing to the very small quantity
 of solid matter that it deserves the character of a very
 fine natural spring; and to  an excess in gaseous con-
 tents that  it seems to be principally indebted for its
 medical properties, whatever they may be, independent
 nf those of mere water, wilh an increase of tempera-
 ture.  From the different investigations of chemists, it
 appears that the principal component parts of the Hot-
 Well water are, a large proportion  of carbonic acid
 gas, or fixed air, and a certain portion of magnesia and
 lime, in various combinations,  with the  muriatic,
 vitriolic, and carbonic acids.  The general  inference
 is, that it  is considerably pure for a natural fountain,
 as it contains no other solid matter  than is found in
 almost all  common spring water, and in less  quantity.
   On account of these  ingredients, especially the car-
 bonic acid gas, the Hot-Well water is efficacious in
 promoting salutary discharges, in green-sickness, as
 well as  in the blind haemorrhoids.  It may be taken
 with advantage  in obstructions, and weakness of the
 bowels, arising  from habitual costivencss;  and, from
 the  purity of its aqueous part, it has justly been con-
 sidered as a specific in diabetes, rendering the urinary
 organs more fitted to receive benefit from tliose medi-
 cines which are generally prescribed, and sometimes
 successful.
   But the  high  reputation which  this spring has  ac-
 quired, is chiefly in the cure of pulmonary consumption.
 From the number of unsuccessful cases among  those
 who frequent this  place, many have denied any pecu-
 liar efficacy in this spring, superior to that of  common
 water.  It is not easy to determine how much may be
 owing to the favourable situation and mild, temperate
 climate whicli Bristol enjoys; but it cannot be doubted
 that the Hoi-Well water, though by no means a cure
 for consumption, alleviates some of the most harassing
 symptoms  of this formidable disease.  It is particu-
 larly efficacious in moderating the thirst, the dry, burn-
 ing heat of the hands and feel, the partial night sweats,
 and  the  symptoms that are peculiarly hectical; and
 thus, in the earlier stages of phthisis, it may materially
 contribute  to a  complete  re-establishment of health ;
 and  even in the latter periods, "mitigate the disease
 when the cure is doubtful, if not hopeless.
   The sensible  effects of  this water, when drunk
 warm and  fresh  from the spring, arc a gentle glow of
 the stomach, succeeded sometimes by a slight and tran-
 licnt degree  of  headach and  giddiness.  By a con-
 tinued use, in most cases it is diuretic, keeps the skin
 moist and perspirable, and improves the  appetite and
 'lealth.  Its effects on the bowels are variable.  On the
 whole, a tendency to costiveness seems to be the more
 general consequence of a long course of this medicinal I
 spring, and therefore the use of a mild aperient is  re-
rpjisite.  These effects, however, are applicable only
to  invalids: for healthy persons who taste the water at  J
 the fountain, seldom discover any thing  in it but  a
 degree of warmth, which  distinguishes it from the
 common element.
   The season for the Hot-Well isgcneially from the
 middle of May to October:  but as the medicinal pro-
 perties of the water continue the same throughout the
 year,  the  summer months  are preferred merely on
 account of the concomitant benefits of lirand exercise.
   It should be mentioned, that another spring, nearly
 resembling the  Hoi Well,  has  been discovered  at
 Clifton, whicli is situated on the summit of th  same
 hill, from the bottom of which the  Hot-Well >?s'.ii.s.
 The water of Sion-Spring, as it is called, is one or two
 degrees colder than the lloi-Well; but in other H-pi-cM
 it sufficiently resembles it to  be employed for all similar
 pur|K)ses.
   Britannica herba.   See  Rumcx hydrolapatlium.
 and Arctium hippo.
   BRITANMIX'S. British.  Applied to plants which
 grow in this country, aud to some remedies.
   BRITISH lil'M.  When  starch is exposed lo a tem-
 perature between 600° and 700° it swells, and exhales
 a peculiar smell; it becomes  of a brown colour, and
 in that state is employed  by calico-| rVutcrs.  It is so-
 luble in cold water, and does not form a blue compound
 w ith iodine.  Vauquelin found it to differ from gum in
 affording oxalic instead of mucous acid, when treated
 with nilric acid.—Brande's Manuel, iii. 34.
   British  Oil.   A variety of the  black species of pe-
 troleum, to which this name has been given as an
 empirical remedy.
   BROCATELLO.  A  calcareous stone or  marble,
 composed of fragments of four colours, white, gray,
 yellow, and red.
   BROCCOLI.   Brassica  Italica.  As an article of
 diet, this  may  be considered as more delicious  than
 cauliflower and  cabbage.   Sound  stomachs digest
 broccoli without any inconvenience ; but in dyspeptic
 stomachs, even when  combined  with pepper. &.c. it
 always produces flatulency,  and nauseous eructations.
   Bkociios.  (Bpovoj, a snare.)  A bandage.
   Bro'chthus.  (From (jjpt^w, to pour.)  The throat;
 also a small kind of drinking-vessel.
   Bro'ciius.  Bpoxos.  One with a prominent upper
 lip, or one with a full mouth and prominent teeth.
   BROCKLESBY, Richard, was born in Somerset-
 shire, though of" an Irish family, in Vr22.  Alter study-
 ing at Edinburgh, he graduated at Leyden ; then set-
 tled in London, but did  not advance very rapidly in
 practice.   About 1757, he was appointed physician In
 the army  in Germany, and on his  return after six
 years,  published the result of his experience, in a work
 entitled "Economical  and  Medical  Observations."
 His success now became more decided, and being pru-
 dent in his affairs, and without a family, he realized
 a  considerable  fortune.   He proved hiinself however
 sufficiently liberal by presenting 1000f. to Mr. Edmund
 Burke, who had been his school-fellow ;  and by offer-
 ing an  annuity of  1001. to Dr. Johnson, lo enable him
 to travel, which was not however accepted.  He was
 author of several oilier works, and died iu 1797.
  Bro'dium-  A term in pharmacy, signifying the
 same wilhjusculum, broth, or the liquor in which any
 thing is boiled.  Thus, we sometimes read of brodrum
 salts, or a decoclion of salt.
  BRO'MA.  (From BpwoKio,  to eat.)  Food  of any
 kind that is masticated, and not drank.
  Broma-theon. (From(ipu)CKti>,toeal.) Mushrooms.
  BROMATO LOGY.   (Bromatologia; from Bpwpa.
 food, and Xoyos> a discourse.)  A discourse or tieaiise
 on food.
  BROME'LIA.   (So  named  in honour of  Olaus
 Bromel, a Swede, author of Lupologia, Sec. in 1687.)
 The name of a  genus of plants.   Class, Hexandria.
 Order,  Monogynia.
  Bromelia ananas.   The  systematic name of the
 plant which affords the pine-apple, Bromelia .-—foliis
ciliato spinosis, mucronatis, spica comosa of Linna-us
It is used principally as a delicacy for the table, and is
also given with advantage as a refrigerant in fevers.
  Bromelia karatas.  The systematic name of the
plant from which we obtain the fruit called penguin,
which is given in the Spanish West Indies to cool  and
quench thirst in fevers, dysenteries, &c. It grows in a
cluster, there being several ofthe size of one's finger to-
gether.   Each portion is clothed with husk containing a
white pulpy substance, which  is the eatable part; and il* 
BRO
It be not perfectly ripe, its flavour resembles that of the
a ne-apple   The juice of the ripe fruit is very austere,
and is made use of to acidulate punch.   The inhabit-
ants of the West Indies make a wine of the penguin,
whicli is very intoxicating, and has a good flavour.
  BROMFIELD,  William, was  born  in  London,
1712 • and attained considerable reputation as a sur-
geon!   At the age of twenty-nine he  began to give
anatomical lectures, which were very  well attended.
About three years after, in conjunction with the Rev.
Mr. Madan, he formed the plan of the Lock Hospital;
and so ably enforced the advantages of such an insti-
tution,  that a suflicient fund was raised for erecting the
present building; and it has been since  maintained by
voluntary contributions.  He was appointed surgeon,
aud held that office for  many years:  lie was also sur-
geon to St. George's  Hospital, and to Her Majesty s
household.  He wrote many  works;  the  most con-
siderable was entitled  "Chirurgical Cases and Ob-
servations," in 1773, but reckoned not to answer the
expectations entertained of him.  He  attained his
eightieth year.                                 ..
  [BROMINE.   In 1826, M. Balard of Montpelier dis-
covered in sea-water a new substance, to which  he
"ave the name muride;  but it has since been changed
to bromine, a word  derived from the Greek Bcuuot
(graveolentia) signifying a strong or rank odour.
  Bromine exists in  sea-water in the  form of hydro-
bromit acid.  It  is present, however, in very suial
quantity and even the uncryslallizable residue called
bittrm, left after the muriate of soda  has been scpa-
ra'ed from sea-water by evaporation, contains but little
of it.   On adding chlorine to this liquid, an orange
yellow tint appears; and on heating the solution to the
boffin" point, the red vapours of bromine are expelled,
whicli may be condensed  by  a fieezing  mixture.   A
better process is to transmit a current of chlorine gas
through the bittern, and then to agitate a portion of
aether with the liquid.  The aether dissolves the whole
of  the bromine, from  which  it receives a beautiful
hyacinth red tint, and on standing, rises to the surface.
When the ethereal solution is agitated with caustic
potassa, its colour entirely disappears, and on  evapo-
ration, cubic crystals of the hydro-bromate of potassa
are deposited.  On  mixing these  crystals, reduced to
 powder, with pure peroxide of manganese, and  adding
 sulphuric acid  diluted with its volume of water, the
 bromine is disengaged  in a gaseous  state.  A small
 receiver, nearly filled with water, is  attached to the
 retort,  tnc beak of whicli and the receiver are kept
 cool by a frigorific mixture.   The bromine condenses
 in  the" beak,"runs into  the receiver, and  falls to the
 Bottom on account of its great specific gravity.  It is
 slightly soluble, but the water in its immediate vicinity
 soon becomes saturated.  The water is decanted, and
 the remainder distilled with chloride of calcium, by
 wliich the bromine is obtained in a liquid state.
   M.  Balard  has also detected  bromine  in  marine
 plants wliich grow on the shores of the Mediterranean,
 and has procured it from the ashes of the seaweeds
 that furnish iodine. He has likewise found it in the
 ashes of some animals, especially in those of the jan-
 tliina violacea, one of the testaceous mollusca.
   Bromine at common temperature  is a  liquid, the
 colour of which is blackish red, when viewed in mass
 and by reflected light, but appears hyacinth red when
  a thin" stratum is interposed between the light  and the
  ohsei ver.  Its odour, which somewhat resembles that
  of chlorine, is very disagreeable; and its taste power-
  ful.   It acts wilh energy on  organic matters, such as
  wood or cork, ai 1 corrodes  the animal texture; but
  if applied to the skin for a short time only, it commu-
  nicates  a yellow stain less  intense than that from
  iodine, and whicli soon  disappears.  It is highly de-
  -tt uctive to animals: one drop of it placed on the beak
  or tu bird proves fatal.— Webster's Man. of Chem.  A.]
    I Bromic acid.  Bromine unites with  oxygen and
  forms Bromic acid, which may be obtained in a sepa-
  rate state by decomposing a dilute solution of  the bro-
  mate of baryta with sulphuric acid.  From the analy-
  sis of the bromate of potassa, it appears to consist of
  1 atom of bromine +5 atoms oxygen.
    The bromates are  analogous  to the chlorates and
  iodates.  Thus the bromate of potassa is converted
  by heat into the bronmrct of potassium, with disen-
  gagement of pure  oxygen, deflagrates when thrown
  on burning coais, and forms with sulphur a  mixture |
        152
                     BRO

  . • i, .intonates bv percussion.  The acid of the ohk
ma«s ffdecomPo^  by hydro-bron.ic and muriatic
^lu-Webst.Man.ofChem.  A.]
  BromTon.  (From Bpupos, the oat.)  The aarneof
a plater, made with oaten flour, mentioned by Paulus

^BRO'MUS.  (From Bpvpa, food.)  The name of a
.renus of plants in the Linnaean system.  Class,  In
Indria; Older, Digynia  Brome-grass
  IIromus  stkrilis.   (From BpuvKw, to eat.)   in«

  BRO'NCHIA.  (Bronchia, orum. neut. plur.; froir
Booyyos, the threat.)   See Trachea.
  BIsOVCHIAL.   (Uronchialis;  from  bronchia
Appertaining to the windpipe, or bronchia; as  bron
chial gland, artery, &c.
  BRONCHIA'LIS.   See Bronchial.
  Bronchiales  arterus.   Bronchial  arteries -
Branches of the aorta given off m the chest,
  Bronchiales  glandul.e.   Bronchial  glands -
Large  blackish  glands,  situated about the bronchi.
and trachea.                  ^            .   . .
  BKONCIIOCE LE.   (From Bpoyxos, the windpipe,
and  KtiXri,  a  tumour.)   Botium;  Hernia gulturis;
Guttur tumidum; Trachclophyma; Gossan;   Exe-
chebronchos; Gongrona; Hernia bronchialis;   JYa-
cheoccle.  Derbyshire neck. This disease is marked
by a tumour on ihe fore-part of  the neck, and seated
between the trachea  and skin.   In general, it has been
supposed principally  to occupy the thyroid gland. \V o
are given to understand that it is a very common dis-
oider in Derbyshire;  but its occurrence is by no means
frequent in other parts of Great Britain, or in lre'and.
Anion" the inhabitants of the Alps, and other moun-
tainous countries bordering thereon, it is a disease very
often  met  with, and  is there known  by the name of
"oitre  The cause wliich eives rise to it, is  by no
means certain, and the observations of different writers
 are of very little practical utility.   Dr. Saunders con
 troverts the general idea of the bronchocele being pro-
 duced by the use of snow water.   The twelling is at
 first without pain, or any evident fluctuation ;  when
 the disease is of long standing, and the swelling con-
 siderable, we find it  in  general a ve.-y difficult matter
 lo effect a  cure  by medicine, or  any external  apphca-
 lion;  and  it might  be unsafe to attempt its  removal
 with a knife, on account of the enlarged sttta cf Us
 arteries, and its vicinity to the carotids;  but "n an
 early stage of the disease, by the  aid ot medi.lne, a
 cure may be effected.
   Althoughsome relief has been obtained at times, and
 the disease probably somewhat retarded by  external
 applications, such as blisters, discutient eirbrocations,
 and saponaceous and mercurial plasters, still  a com-
 plete cuie has seldom been effected without au in'er-
 nal use ol" medicine; and that wliich has always  proved
 the most efficacious, is burnt sponge.  The form andei
 which this is most usually exhibited, is  that of a lo-
 zenge.  R. spongiae ustae 3 ss. mucilag. Arab idm. q.
 s. fiat trochisens.  When  the tumour appears about
 the age of puberty, and before  its  structure has been
 loo morbidly deranged, a pill consisting  of a grain or
 two of calomel, must  be given for  three successive
,,,,. «» "«>"i»w, ........  «~ &..~..  .~. ---— ^-~.-------
nights; and, on the fourth  morning, a saline purge.
Every night afterward, for three weeks, one of the
troches should, when the patient is in bed, be put un-
der the tongue, suffered to dissolve gradually, and the
solution swallowed.  The disgust at first arising from
this leinedy soon wears off.   The pills and the purge
are to be repeated at tbe end of three weeks, and the
troches had  recourse to as before ; and this plan is  to
be pui sued till the tumour is entirely dispersed.  Some
recommend  the  burnt  sponge to be administered  in
larger doses.  Sulphuretted potassa dissolved in water,
in the proportion  of 30 grains to a quart  daily, is a
remedy wliich has been employed by Dr Richter with
success, in some cases, where calcined sponge failed.
The sodae subcarbonas being the basis of burnt sponge,
is now frequently employed instead of it, and, indeed,
it is a more active medicine.
  [Bronchocele is said to have been cured by iodine
for which sec that article.  A.]
  BRONCHOS.  (Bpoyxoc, the windpipe.)  A ca-
tarrh ; a suppression of the voice from a catarrh.
  BRONCHO'TOMY.  (Bronchotomia; from  Bpoy
yoc, the windpipe, and repvio, to cut)  Tracheotomy;
Laryngotoiny.   This  is on  operation in  which  au 
BRO                                            BRO
 opening is made into the larynx, or trachea, either for
 the purpose of making a passage for the air into and
 out  of the lungs, when any disease prevents the pa-
 tient from breathing through the mouth and  nostrils,
 or of extracting  foreign bodies, which have accident-
 ally fallen into the trachea ;  or, lastly, in  order  to be
 able to inflate the lungs, in cases of sudden  suffoca-
 tion, drowning, &c.  Its  practicableness, and  little
 danger, are founded on the facility with  which certain
 wounds of the windpipe, even ofthe most complicated
 kind, have been healed, without leaving any ill effects
 whatever, and on the nature  ofthe parts cut, which
 are not furnished with any vessel of consequence.
   BRO'NCHUS.  (From Bpcxut, to pour.)  The an-
 cients believed that the solids were conveyed  into the
 stomach by the oesophagus, and the fluids by the bron-
 chia; whence its name.  1. The windpipe.
   2.  A deffuxion from the fauces.  See Catarrhus.
   BRONZE.   A mixed metal  consisting chiefly of
 copper, with  a  small portion of tin,  and sometimes
 other metals.
   BRONZITE.   A  massive metal-like  mineral, fre-
 quently resembling bronze, found in large mosses in
 beds of serpentine in Upper Stiria, and  in Perthshire.
   BROOlvLlME. See Veronica beccabunga.
   [BROOKS, John, M.D.  LL.D.  The  honourable
 John Brooks was born in Medford, Massachusetts, in
 the  year  175-2.   His father, Captain Caleb  Brooks,
 was a  respectable independent  farmer, and  the son
 spent his earliest  years in the usual occupations  of a
 farm.  He received no education preparatory to his
 professional studies,  but  that of the town school; at
 which, however, he was able lo acquire sufficient of
 the learned languages to qualify him for the profession
 of medicine.  At the age of fourteen, he was placed
 under the tuition of Dr.'Simon Tufts, of Medford, by
 a written indenture as an apprentice for  seven years ;
 this  being tlie usual custom of that day.
   Having finished his studies, he chose the neighbour-
 ing town of Reading as his residence, and commenced
 his practice there. But by this time, the storm of the
 revolutionaiy war was gathering;  and,  as its distant
 thunders rolled towards our shores, the  hearts of the
 gallant youth of our country responded to the sound,
 and prepaiations for tlie field superceded the minor
 concerns of life.
   Dr.  Brooks accordingly  entered into the military
 Bervice of his country.  As a Captain, he first exhi-
 bited his  bravery in his attack upon the British at
 Lexington, in the neighbourhood of Boston. He shortly
 after received the commission  of Major  in the Conti-
 nental avmy, as it was then called.   In  1777, he was
 promoted to tlie rank of Colonel, and  was a very effi-
 cient officer in the battles of Saratoga, which resulted
 in the capture of Burgoyne.  In the battle of Mon-
 mouth, in New-Jersey, he was acting Adjutant-Gene-
 ral, and on this, as on all occasions, conducted with
 great coolness and bravery, through the whole of the
 revolutionary war.
   After the  war, he recommenced the practice of
 physic, and continued for many years in  high  estima-
 tion  as a practitioner. It is said of him, that, "As a
  fhysician,  he ranked in the first class of  practitioners.
  le possessed in an eminent degree  those qualities
 whicli were calculated to render him the most useful
 in his professional labours, and the delight  of those to
 whom he administered relief.  His manners were dig-
 nified, courteous, and benign,  lie was  kind,  patient,
 and  attentive.  His  kind offices were peculiarly ac-
 ceptable from the felicitous manner in which he  per-
 formed them.   His  mind  was  well  furnished  with
 scientific and practical knowledge.   He  was accurate
 in his investigations, and  clear in  his  discernment.
 He therefore rarely failed in forming a true diagnosis.
 If he were not so bold and daring as  some, in the
 administration of remedies, it was because his judg-
 ment and good sense led  him to  prefer erring on the
 si.le of prudence, rather than on that of rashness.   He
 watched the operations of nature,  and never inter-
 fered unless it was obvious he could aid and support
 her.   He was truly the ' Hierophant of Nature,' study-
 ing her mysteries, and obeying her oracles."
  Dr. Brooks became so great a favourite of his coun-
trymen, that  he  was finally elected  Governor of the
state of Massachusetts.  Dr. Thacher  says of him :—
  " Having faithfully and ably discharged the duties
of chief magistrate  for seven successive years, he
expressed his determination to retire fron   l»e cares
and anxieties of public life.   How grea*  tvere the
public regrets, and how gladly would a huge majority
of his fellow-citizens have retained hi3 valuable ser-
vices;  but they forbore  urging him to ar<y farther
sacrifices for the good of  his country.   He  retired to
private life with dignity, and with the love and bless-
ings of a grateful people."  He died in March, 1825, in
the 73d year of his age.—See Thach. Med. Biog.  A.]
  BROOM.  See Spartium scoparium.
  BROSIMUM.   (From  Bptoapos,  eatable.)  The
name of a genus of plants in the Linnuean  system.
Class,  Diacia; Order,  Monavdria.
  Brosimim alicastrum  The specific name ofthe
tree, which affords the luead-nut.
  BROWN, John, born in tlie county of Berwick, In
1735.  He made very rapid progress in his youth in the
lenrned languages, and  at tlie age of twenty went to
Edinburgh to study theology; but before he could be
ordained, became  attached to free  living  and  free
thinking.   About 17j;>, having translated the  inaugu-
ral thesis of a  medical candidate into Latin, and the
performance being highly applauded, he was led to the
study of medicine.  The prolessors at Edinburgh
allowed him to attend their lectures gratuitously; and
he maintained himself by instructing  the students in
Latin, and composing or translating their dissertations.
Dr. Cullen particularly encouraged him, notwithstand-
ing his irregularities, employing him as tutor to his
sons, and allowing him to  repeat and enlarge upon his
lectures in the evening, to those pupils who  chose to
attend.  In 171*5 he married, and his house was soon
filled with boarders: but his imprudence brought on
bankruptcy within four years after. About this period
he was an unsuccessful  candidate for one of the me-
dical chairs; and attributing his failure to Dr. Cullen,
became his declared enemy.   This  probably deter-
mined him to form his new system of medicine, after
ward published under the title of " Elementa Medi
cinae:" in which certainly much genius is displayed^
but  little  acquaintance with practice, or with vvhni
had been written before on the subject.   His chief ob-
ject Eeems to have been to reduce the medical art to
the  utmost simplicity:  whence he arranged  all dis-
eases under the two divisions of sthenic and asthenic,
and maintained that all agents operate on the body as
stimuli; so that we had only to increase or diminish
the force of these according to circumstances.  At the
head of his stimulant  remedies, he places wine, brandy,
and  opium, in the recommendation  of which he is
very liberal;  and especially betrays his partiality to
them by asserting, contrary to universal experience,
that he found them  in  his own person  the best pre-
servatives against the gout.   He is said  to have pre-
pared himself for his lectures by a large dose of lau-
danum in whiskey; and thus roused himself to a de-
gree of enthusiasm bordering on frenzy. After com-
pleting his work, he procured a degree  from  St. An-
drew's, and commenced public teacher.  The novelty
and imposing simplicity of his doctrines procured him
at first a pretty numerous class: but being irregular in
his  attendance, and  his habits of intemperance in-
creasing, they fell off by degrees: and he was at lengtn
po embarrassed, as to be obliged to quit Edinburgh in
1786.  He then settled in London, but met with little
success, and in about two years after died.   His opi-
nions at first found many supporters, as well in this as
In other countries ; but they appear now nearly fallen
into deserved oblivion.
  BROWN SPAR.  Pearl spar.  Sideroculcite.  A
white,  red, or brown, or black spar; harder than the
calcareous, but yields to the knife.
  BROWNE, Sir  Thomas,  was born in Cheapside,
1605.   After studying and  practising for a short time
at Oxford, he spent about three years in travelling, gra-
duating at length at  Leyden.  He then came to Lon-
don, and published his "Religio Medici;" which ex-
cited great  attention as a work of genius, though ble-
mished by a few ofthe popular superstitions then pre-
vailing.  He soon after  settled at Norwich,  and got
into very good practice; and was admitted an honor-
ary member ofthe London College of physicians.  In
1646 appeared his  most popular work  "On  Vulgar
Errors," whicli added greatly to his fume; though he
injudiciously ranked the Copernican system among
them;  he  was knighted by Charles II.; and died at
the termination of his  77th year.  His  son Edward 
BRU                                             BUB
was also a physician, and attained considerable emi-
nence, having had the honour of attending Charles II.
Rnd William III.,  and being for three years president
uf the college.
  [BRUCE,  Archibald,  M.D.  A  native  of New-
York, born  in 1777,  during the revolutionary war.
He studied physic under Dr. Hosack, visited Europe,
and graduated at Edinburgh in the year 1800.  During
a tour of two years in France, Switzerland, and Italy,
Dr. Bruce collected a mineralogical cabinet of great
value and extent.  Upon his return to  England, he
married in  London, and came out  to New-York in
the summer of ldU't, to enter upon the duties of a
practitioner of medicine.   In 11307, he was appointed
professor of Materia Medica and Mineralogy, in the
College of  Physicians und Surgeons of New-York.
In leUO, he commenced the editorship of a Journal of
American Mineralogy, after the manner of the well
known work issued by the School of Mines, at Paris.
It met with becoming success, and had many valuable
contributors to its pages; but owing to various causes,
was never carried beyond the completion of the  first
volume.  Tile Mineralogical Journal contributed ma-
terially to extend the fame of Dr. Bruce, as well as his
discovery of the hydrate of magnesia,  at  Hobokeu.
He died in February, 1818, iu the 41st year of  his age.
--See Thach. Med. Biog.   A.)
  BRU CEA.  (So named by Sir Joseph  Banks, in
honour of Mr. Bruce, the traveller in Abyssinia, who
first  brought the  seeds thence into  England.)  The
name of a genus of plants in the  Liuiiaean  system.
Class, Diascia: Order, Tctrandria.
   Brucea antidysenterica.  The systematic name
of the plant  from  which it was erroneously supposed
we obtained the Angustura bark.  See Cusparia.
   Brucea fkrruginea.   This  plant was  also  sup-
posed to afford ihe Angustura bark.
   BRUCIA.  Bruciue.  Anew vegetable alkali, lately
extracted from the  bark  of the false Angustura, or
Brucia  antidysenterica, by Pelleteer and Caventou.
After being treated with sulphuric aether, to get rid of
a fatty matter, it was subjected to the action  of alko-
hol.   The dry residuum,  from the  evaporated alko-
holic solution, was treated with Goulard's extract, or
solution of acetate of lead, to throw down the colour-
ing matter, and the excess of lead was separated by a
current of sulphuretted hydrogen. The nearly colour-
less alkaline liquid was saturated with oxalic acid, and
evaporated to dryness.  The saline  mass being freed
from  its remaining colouring  particles  by  absolute
alkohol, was then decomposed by lime or  magnesia,
when the brucia was disengaged.  It was dissolved in
boiling alkohol, and obtained  in crystals, by the slow
evaporation of the liquid.  These crystals, when ob-
tained by very slow evaporation, are oblique  prisms,
the bases of which are parallelograms.  When depo-
sited from  a saturated solution in boiling water, by
cooling, it is in bulky plates, somewhat similar to bo-
racic acid in appearance.   It is soluble in 500 times its
weight of boiling water, and in 850  of cold.   Its  solu-
bility is much increased by tlie colouring matter of the
bark.
   Its taste is exceedingly bitter, acrid, and  durable in
the inouth.   When administered in doses of a few
grains, it is poisonous, acting on animals like strych-
nia, but much less violently.  It is not  affected by the
air.   The dry crystals  fuse at a temperature a  little
above that of boiling water, and assume the appear-
ance of wax.  At a strong heat it is resolved  into car-
bon,  hydrogen, and oxygen;  without any  trace  of
azote.  It combines with tlie acids, and forms both
neutral and super-salts.
   Brucine.  See Brucia.
   BRUISEWORT.  See Saponaria,
   BRUM A LIS.   (From Bruma, winter.)   Hy emails.
 Belonging to w inter.
   Brumalles plants.  Plants which flower in our
 winter, common about the cape.
   Brune'lla.  See Prunella.
   BRUNNER, John Conrad, was born in Switzerland
 iu 1653.  He obtained his degree in medicine at Stras-
 Durg when only nineteen.  He afterward spent several
 years in improving himself at different universities,
  particularly at Paris;  where he made many experi-
  ments on the  pancreas, and found that it might  be re-
  moved from a dog wilh impunity.   On his return he
  was made  professol of medicine at Heidelburg: and
       154
gained great reputation, so as  to be consulted by mom
ofthe princes of Germany.   He discovered the mucoua
glands in the duodenum; and was author of  several
inconsiderable works.  He died in 1727.
  Brunner's glands.  Brunneri glandula.   Peyer'g
glands.  The muciparous glands, situated between the
villous and  cellular coat of the  intestinal canal;  so
named after Brunner, who discovered them.
  BRUNSWICK GREEN.  An  ummoniaco-muriate
of copper.
  URUNTKUP  FERZ.   Purple copper ore.
  Bru'nus.  An erysipelatous eruption.
  Bru'scus.  See Ruscus.
  Brut'a.   An Arabian word wliich means instinct,
and is also applied to Savine.
  Bru'tia.  An epithet for the most resinous  kind of
pitch, and therefore used to make the Oleum Picinum
The Pix Brucia was so called from Brutia, a country
in the extreme parts of Italy, where it was produced.
  Broti'ko.  Turpentine.
  Buu'tobon.  The name of an ointment used by the
Greeks.
  Brutua.  See Cissampelos  Pareira.
  Bruxane'li.  (Indian.)   A tall tree in "Malabar,the
bark of which is diuretic.
  Bry'omus.  (From  Bpvx<*> to make a  noise.)  A
peculiar kind of noise, sucii as is made by gnashing or
grating the teeth; or, according to some, a certain kind
of convulsion affecting the lower jaw, and striking the
teeth together, most frequently observed in such chil
drcn us have worms.
  BRYONIA.  (Fiom  Bpvto, to abound, from  its
abundance.)   Bryony.  1. The  name of a genus of
plants in the Linnaean system. Class, Diacia; Order.
Syngenesia.
  2. The pharmacoporial name of the white  bryony.
See Bryonia alba.
  Bryonia alba.  The systematic name of the white
bryony plant.   Vitis alba sylvestris ; Agrostis ; An-
pelo sagria; Archcostris; Echelrosis of Hippocrates
Bryonia aspera; Cedrostis; Chelidonium ; La.brusca,
Melothrum; Ophrostaphylon; Psilothrum.  Bryonia
—foliis palmatis utrinquc calloso-scabris of Linnaeus.
This plant is very common in woods and hedges.  The
root has a very nauseous biting taste, and disagreeable
smell.  Bergius states the virtues of this root to be pur-
gative, hydrugogue, enimenagogue, and diuretic;  the
fresh  root  emetic.   This  powerful  and  irritating
cathartic, though now seldom prescribed by physicians,
is said to  be of great efficacy in evacuating serous
 humours, and has been chiefly employed in hydropical
cases.  Instances of its good effects in other chronic
 diseases are also mentioned; as asthma, mania,  and
 epilepsy.   In small doses, it is reported to opeiate as a
 diuretic, and to be  resolvent  and deobstruent.   In
 powder, from 3j. to a drachm, it proves strongly pur-
 gative, and the juice, which  issues spontaneously, in
 doses of a spoonful or more,  has similar effects, but is
 more gentle in its operation.  An extract prepared by
 water, acts more mildly, and with greater safety, than
 the root in substance, given  from half a drachm  to a
 drachm.  It is said to piove a gentle purgative,  and
 likewise to operate powerfully by urine.  Of the ex-
 pressed juice, a spoonful acts violently both  upwards
 and downwards; but cream of tartar is said to takeoff
 its virulence.   Externally, the fresh root has been
 employed in cataplasms, as are solvent and discutieul:
 also in ischiadic and  other rheumatic affections.
   Bryonia mechoachana nigricans. A name given
 to the jalap root.
   Bryonia mora.  See Tamus communis
   Bryonia peruviana. Jalap.
   BRYONY.  See Bryonia nigra.
   Bryony, black.   See  Tamus.
   Bryony, white.  See  Bryonia alba.
   Bry'thion.  BpvOiov.  A malagnia; so called and
  described by Paulus .rEgineta.
    Bry'ton.  (From Bpvu, to pour out.)   A kind of ale,
  or wine, made of barley.
    Bubasteco'rdium.  (From bubastus and c»r, the
  heart.) A name formerly given to artemisia, or mug
  wort.
    BU'BO.  (From Bov6uv,  the groin;  because they
  most frequently happen in  that part.)  Modern sur-
  geons mean, by this term, a  swelling of the lymphatic
  glands, particularly of those of the groin and axilla.
  The disease may arise from the mere irritation of som» 
BUG
BUG
 local disorder, when it is called sympathetic bubo; from
 •he absorption of some irritating matter, such as the
 venereal poison ;  or from constitutional causes, as in
 the pestilential bubo, and set ophulous swellings, ofthe
 inguinal and axillary gland.
   BU'BON.  (From tf'ouoW, the groin, or a tumour to
 which that part is liable, and which it was supposed to
 cure.)   The name of a genus of plants in the Linmcan
 system.  Class, Pentandria; Order, Digynic.
   Bubon galbanum.  The systematic name of the
 plant which affords the officinal galbanum.  Albctad;
 Chalbane;  Gesor.  The plant is also  named Ferula
 Africana; Oreoselinum Africanum ; Anisum frutico-
 sum galbaniferum; Anisum Africanum fruticcscens ;
 Ayborzat. The lovage-leaved bubon.  Bubon;—foliis
 rhombeis dentatis striatis glabris, umbellis paucis, of
 Liimsreus.   Galbanum  is the  gummi-resinous juice,
 obtained partly by its spontaneous exudation  from the
 joints of the stem, but more generally,  and in greater
 abundance, by making an incision in the stalk, a few
 inches  above the  root, from  whicli it immediately
 issues,  and soon becomes sufficiently concrete to be
 gathered.  It is imported into England from  Turkey,
 and the East Indies, in large, sottish, ductile,  pale-
 coloured mas-es, which, by age, acquire a brownish-
 yellow appearance; these are intermixed with distinct
 whitish tears, that are the most pure part of the mass.
 Galbanum has a strong unpleasant smell, and  a warm,
 bitterish, acrid taste.  Like the other gummy  resins,  it
 unites  with water, by trituration  into a milky liquor,
 but does not perfectly dissolve, as some have reported,
 in water, vinegar, or wine.  Rectified spirit takes up
 much more than either of these menstrua,  but not tlie
 whole; the tincture is of a bright golden colour.  A
 mixture of two parts of rectified spirit, and one of
 water, dissolves all but the impurities, which are com-
 monly  in considerable quantity.  In distillation with
 water, the oil separates and  rises to the  surface, in
 colour yellowish, in quantity one-twentieth of iho
 weight of the galbanum.  Galbanum, medicinally con-
 sidered, may be said to hold  a middle rank  between
 as.-al'uelida and ammoniacum ; but its foetidness is very
 inconsiderable,  especially when  compared  with the
 former: it is therefore accounted less  antispasmodic,
 nor are its expectorant qua'ities equal  to those of the
 latter: it however is esteemed more efficacious than
 either  in hysterical disorders.  Externally, it is often
 applied, by  surgeons, to expedite the suppuration of
 inflammatory and indolent tumourr, and, by physicians,
 as a warm stimulating plaster.  It is an ingredient in
 the pilula galbani composita, the emplastrum gatbani
 compositum of the London Pharmacopoeia, and in the
 emplastrum gummosum ofthe Edinburgh.
   Bubon macedonicum.  The systematic name ofthe
 plant which affords the semen pctroselini  Maeedonici
 of the shops.  Apium petraum;  Pctrapium.  Mace-
 donian parsley.  This plant is similar in quality to the
 common parsley, but weaker and less  grateful.  The
 seeds enter the celebrated compounds mithridate and
 theriaca.
   Bubo'mum. (From BovStov, the groin.)  A name of
 the golden starwort; so called because it was supposed
 to be efficacious in diseases ofthe groin.
   BUBONOCELE.  (From  BovStov, the  groin, and
 tnXri, a tumour.)   Hernia inguinalis.   Inguinal her-
 nia, or rupture of the groin.  A species of hernia, in
 which the  bowels protrude,  at the abdominal ring.
 See Hernia inguinalis.
   BU CCA.  (Hebrew.)  The cheek.  The hollow
 inner part of the cheek, that is inflated by the act of
 blowing
   Buccacra'ton.  (From bucca, or buccella, and icpaw,
 to mix.)  A morsel of bread  sopped in wine,  which
• served in old times for a breakfast.
   BU'CCAL.  (From bucca, the  cheek.)   Belonging
 to the cheek
   Buccinales glandule.  The small glands of the
 mouth, under the chei Ic  which assist in secreting
 saliva  into that cavity.
   Bu'ccka.   (From bucca, ihe cheek; as much as can
 be contained atone time within  tlie checks.)  ]. A
 mouthful; a morsel.
   2. A polypus ofthe nose.
   Buccela'ton.  (From buccella, a morsel.)  A purg-
 ing medicine, made up in the form of a loaf; consisting
 of scammony, Sec  put into fermented  flour, and then
 baked  in an oven.
   Bucce'lla.  Paracelsus calls the polypus in tne now
 by this name, because he supposes it to be a portion of
 flesh parting from the bucca, and insinuating itself iitia
 the no.-e.
   IHccella'tio.  (From bucellatus, cut into  smal.
 pieceB.)  Baccellalio.    A  method  of stopping  an
 haemorrhage, by applying small piecesof lint to the vein,
 or artery.
I   BUCCINATOR.  (From Bavxavov,  a trumpet; so
 named from its use in forcing the breath to sound the
 trumpet.)   Retractor anguli oris of  Albinus,  and
 alvcolo-maxillaire of Dumas.  The trumpeter's aius-
 cle.  The buccinator was long thought to be a muscle
 of tlie  lower jaw, arising from the upper alveoli,  and
 inserted into  the  lower alveoli, to pull the jaw  up-
 wards ; but its origin and insertion, and the direction of
 its fibres, are quite the reverse of this.   For this large
 flat muscle, which forms in a manner the walls of the
 orieek,  arises chiefly fiom the coronoid process of the
 lower jaw-bone, and partly also from  the end of ihe
 alveoli, or socket process of the upper-jaw, close by the
 pterygoid process of the sphenoid bone: it goes forward,
 with direct fibres, to be implanted into the comer of the
 mouth; it is  thin and flat, covers in tlie mouth,  and
 forms the walls of the cheek, and is perforated  iu th«
 middle of the cheek by the duct of the parotid gland.
 Thene are its principal uses:—it flattens the cheek,  and
 so assists in swallowing liquids; it turns, or helps to
 turn, the morsel in the mouth wh.ie chewing, and pre-
 vents it from  getting without tlie line of the teeth  ; in
 blowing wind instruments, it both receives and expo's
 the wind; it dilates like a  bag, so as  to receive  the
 wind in the checks;  and it contracts upon the wind, so
 as to expel the wind, and to swell the note.  In blow-
 ing the strong wind-instruments, we cannot blow from
 the lungs, for il distresses the breathing, we reserve the
 air i:i the mouth, which we  keep continually full;  and
 from this circumstance,  as mentioned  above, it is
 named buccinator, from blowing the.trumpct.
   Bu'ccula.  (Diminutive of Aucca, the cheek.)  The
 fleshy part under the chin.
   Buccphalon, red-fruited.  See Trophis Americana.
   Bu'ceras.  (From Boos, an ox, and Kipas, a  horn;
 so called from the horn-like appearance of its  seed.1
 Buceros.  See Trigonclla Fanumgracum.
   BUCHAN, William,  was  born at Ancram, i/
 1729.  Aller studying at Edinburgh, he settled in Shef-
 field, and was soon appointed physician to the Found-
 ling Hospital at Ackworth:  but  that  establishment
 being afterward given up, he went to practise at Edin-
 burgh,  where he remained several years.  During that
 period  he composed his celebrated work, called  "  Do-
 mestic Medicine," on the plan of Tissot's " Avis  aux
 Peoples:" which has been very extensively circulated,
 translated into other languages, and  obtained the au-
 thor a gold medal, with a commendatory letter, from
 the Empress  of  Russia.  It has been  objected, that
 such publications tend to degrade  and injure the  me-
 dical profession;  but it does not appear, that those
 who are properly qualified can suiter  permanently
 thereby. There seems more foundation for the opinior,
 that imaginary diseases will be multiplied, and patients
 sometimes  fall  victims to  their complaints,  being
 treated  by  those  who  do  not  properly understand
 them.   Dr. Buchan afterward  practised in  London,
 and published some  other works; and died in 1805
   BUCK-BEAN.  See Menyanthes trifoliata.
   BUCK-THORN.  See Rhamnus catharticus.
   BUCK-WHEAT.  See Polygonum fagopyrum.
   Buck-wheat, eastern.   See Polygonum divaricatum
   BUCNEMIA.   (Bucnemia; from 6ov, a Greek aug
 ment, and xvnpn, the leg.)  A name  in  Good's Noso
 logy for a genus of disease characterized by a  tense,
 diffuse, inflammatory swelling of the lower extremity
 usually commencing at the inguinal glands,  and  ex-
 tending in the course of the lymphatics, it embraces
 two species; 1. Bucnemia sparganosis, the puerperal
 tumid leg.
   2.  Bucnemia tropica,  the tumid leg of hot climates.
   Bucra'nios.  (From  Bovs, an ox, and kcwviov, the
 head;  so called from its supposed resemblance to  a
 calf's snout.)  The Snap-dragon  plant. See Antir
 rhinum.
   Bu'cton.  The hymen, according to Piraeus.
   Buga'ntia.  Chilblains.
   BUGLE.  See Prunella.
   rPuoi-E weed.  This plant is  the  Lycopus Vi\
                                         155 
BUL
BUN
 mica.  It has of late been popular as a remedy in
Deeding from the lungs, taken freely in the form of
decoction.  It is not, however, introduced as a medi-
cinal plant into the American Pharmacopoeia, nor in
Bigelow's Materia Medica.   Physicians in  general
place little confidence in  its efficacy.  A.]
  BUGLOSS.  See Anchusa officinalis.
  Buglo'ssa.  See Anchusa oj/ictnalis.
  BUGLO SSUM.  (Buglossum, i. n.; from Bovs, an
ox, and yXmirca, a tongue: so called from the shape
and roughness of its leaf.)  See Anchusa officinalis.
  Buglossum angustifolium.  See Anchusa offici-
nalis.
  Buglossum majus.  See Anchusa officinalis.
  Buglossum sativum.   See Anchusa officinalis.
  Buglossum sylvkstre.  The stone bugloss.
  Bu gula.  (A diminutive of buglossa.) See Ajuga
pyramidalis.
  [BUHRSTONE. Millstone.   " The exterior aspect
of this mineral  is somewhat peculiar.  It  occurs in
amorphous masses, partly compact, but always con-
taining a greater or less number  of irregular cavities.
Sometimes the mass  is comparatively compact,  and
the cavities small and less frequent, but they always
exist even in specimens  of a moderate  size. These
cavities are sometimes crossed by siliceous threads or
membranes, much resembling the interior structure of
certain bones;  and are sometimes lined by siliceous
Incrustations, or crystals of quartz.
  Its fracture is nearly even, sometimes  dull,  and
Eometiines smooth, like  that of flint.   Its  colour is
gray or whitish, sometimes with a  tinge oi" blue, and
sometimes  yellowish or  reddish.    Near  Paris, tbe
Buhrstoue occurs in  beds, unusually horizontal, and
seldom more than 9 or 10 feet thick.  It contains no
organic remains.  Its cavities are often crossed by
threads, and filled with  argillaceous marl  or sand;
but are very seldom lined by crystals of quartz.
  In Georgia, (United Slates,) the Buhrstoue is found
near the boundary of South Carolina, about 40 miles
from the  sea.   It is  said to  cover  shell  limestone.
Some of its cavities are those of shells in a siliceous
state, and  lined  by siliceous incrustations, or crystals
jf quartz.  Others are traversed by minute threads,
9r contain a friable substance somewhat argillaceous.
Its hardness and  cavities, when not too  numerous,
render it  peculiarly  useful for making  millstones.
Hence  also ii is sometimes known  by  the name of
Millstone."—See Cleav. Min.  A.]
  BULBIFERL'S.  (From bulbus,ai\d fcro, to bear.)
Bulb-bearing.  Having one or more bulbs; applied to
Items Caulis bulbiferus.
  BULBOCA'STANUM.  (From BoX6os, a bulb, and
ta^avav,  a chesnut:  so called  from its bulbous ap-
pearance.) See Bunium bulbocastanam.
  BULBOCAVERNOUS.   (So called from its ori-
gin and insertion.)  See Accelerator urina.
  Bu'i.bonach.  See Lunaria rediviva.
  BULBOSUS.   (From bulba, a bulb.)   Bulbous:
applied in anatomy to soft parts which  are naturally
enlarged, as the bulbous part of the urethra.  In bota-
ny, usroots which have a bulb; as tulip, onion, lily, Sec
  BuLBOs.e.  (INe-m bulbus.)  Tlie name  of a class
of Casalpmus's  systematic  method,  consisting of
heioactous vegetables, which have a bulbous root, and
a pericarpium, divided into three cells; also, the name
of one of the natural orders of plants.
   BULBULUS.  A hue bulb.
   BUL'BUS.  (BoAfiof, a bulb, or somewhat  rounded
root.)  A globular, or pyriform  coated body, solid, or
formed of fleshy scales or  layers,  constituting  the
lower part of some plants, and giving oft" radicals from
Ihe circumference of  the flattened  basis. A  bulb dif-
fers from a tuber, which is a  farinaceous root, and
sends off radicles in every direction.
   Bulbs are divided into,
   1. The solid, which consists of a solid fleshy nutri-
 tious substance; as in Crocus sativus, Colchicum au-
 tumnale,  Tulipa gesneriana.
   2. The scaly, which consists  of fleshy concentrical
 scaies attached to a radical plate;  as in Allium cepa.
   3. The squamose, consisting of concave, overlapping
 scales; as in Lilium candidum, and Lilium bulbiferum
   4. The  compounded,  consisting  of several  lesser
 bulbs, lying close to each other:  as in Allium sativum.
   The bulbs of tlie orchis tribe differ  from the common
 sulbs in ,iot sending  off radicles from the lower part,
       156
but from between the stem and basis.  These are du>
tinguished into,
  5. The testiculate, having two bulbs of a round-ob-
long form ; as in Orchis morio, and  Orchis mascula,
  (iT Palmate, a  compressed bulb,  hand-like, divided
below into finger-like lobes; as in Orchis maculata.
  Bulbus esculentus.   Such bulbous roots  as ars
commonly eaten are so called.
  Bulbus vomitorius.  See Hyacinthus muscari.
  BULGE-WATER-TREE.  Tlie  Geuffroya  jamai-
censis.                „         . ,    ,          j
  BULI'MIA.  (From Bov, a particle of excess, and
Xtpost hunger.)   Bulimiasis;  Boulnnos;  Bulimus;
Bolismos of Avicenna.   Fames canina;  Appttitus
caninus; Phagedana; Adephagia; Bupeina;  Cyno-
rexia.  Insatiable hunger, or canine appetite.
  Dr. Cullen places this genus of disease in the cla&a
Locales,  and order  Dysorexia; and distinguishes
three species.  1. Bulimia hclluonum; in which there
is no other disorder of tlie stomach,  than an  excessive
craving of food.  2. Bulimia syncopalis;  in which
there  is a frequent desire of food, and the sense of
hunger is preceded by swooning.  3. Bulimia emetica,
also cynorexia; in  which an extraordinary appetite
for food is followed by vomiting.  The real causes of
this disease are, perhaps, not properly  understood.  In
some cases, it has been supposed lo  proceed from an
acid in tlie stomach, and in others, from a superabun-
dance of acid in the gastric juice, and from indigested
sordes, or worms.   Some  consider it as  depending
more frequently on monstrosity than disease.  An ex
traordinary and well attested case of  this disease, is
related in tlie third  volume  of the Medical  and Phy
sical Journal, of a French prisoner, who, in one day
consumed of raw cow's udder 4 lbs., raw beef 10 lbs.
candles 2 lbs.; total, 16 lbs.; besides 5 bottles of portei
  Bulimia adephagia.  A voracious appetite.
  Bulimia canina.  A  voracious appetite, with sub-
sequent vomiting.
  Bulimia cardialgica.  A voracious appetite, with
heartburn.
  Bulimia  convulsorum.  A  voracious appetite,
which attends some convulsive diseases.
  Bulimia emetica.  A voracious appetite, with vo-
miting.
  Bulimia esurigio.  Gluttony.
  Bvlimia helluonum.  Gluttony.
  Bulimia syncopalis.  A voracious  appetite, wlUi
fainting from hunger.
  Bulimia verminosa.  A voracious appetite from
worms.
  BULIMI'ASLS.  See Bulimia.
   BU'LIMUS.   See Bulimia.
  BULI'THUM.  (From Bovs, an ox, and XiOos, a
stone.)  A bezoar, or stone found  in the kidneys, or
gall, or urinary bladder,  of an ox, or cow.
  BULLA.  A bubble.   A clear vesicle, which arises
from burns, or scalds; or other causes.
   [This word is also applied  by Linnaeus to a  genus
of"univalve shells.  A.l
   BU'LLACE.  The English name of the fruit ofthe
Primus insitia of Linnaeus, which grows wild  in our
hedges.  There  are two varieties of hullace, the red
and the white, which are used w ith  the same inten-
tion as the common damsons.
   BULLATUS.  (From bulla, a bubble,  or  blister.)
Blistery.  Applied  to a leaf which has its veins so
tight, that the  intermediate space  appears blistered.
This  appearance is frequent in the garden cabbage.
   Bullo'sa febris.  An epithet applied to the vesi-
cular fever,  because the skin is covered with little ve-
sicles, or blisters. See Pemphigus.
   Buni'tes vinum.   (From  bunium,  wild parsley.)
Wine made of bunium and  must.
   BU'NIUM.  (From Bovvos, a little  hill; so  called
from the tuberosity of its root.)  1.  The  name of a
genus of plants  in the Linnaean  system.   Class, Pen-
tamlria; Order, Digynia.
   2. The name ofthe wild  parsley.
   Bunium bulbocastanum.   The systematic  name
of a plant, the root of  which  is called  the  pig-nut.
Agnocastanum; Nuculatcrrcstris : Bulbocastaneum;
 Bulbocastanum majus et minus.  Earth-nut;  Hawk-
 nut ; Kipper-nut;  and Pig-nut.   The  root  is  as large
 as a nutmeg; hard, tuberous, and whitish; which "is
 eaten raw, or  roasted.   It is  sweetish to the taste,
 nourishing, and supposed to be of use against strangury 
BUR
BUR
and bloody urine.  The roots, which are frequently I
ploughed up by the peasants ot Burgundy, and called
by them  arnotta; and those found in Scotland, and
called arnots, are most probably the roots of Ibis spe-
cies of bunium.  They ure roasted, and thus acquire
the flavour of chesnuts.
  Bu'nius.  A species of turnip.
  BL" PE1NA.  (From Boo, a particle of magnitude,
and xztiva, hunger.)   A voracious appetite.
  BU'PHAGOS.  (From Boo, a particle of excess, and
S>ayta, to eat)  The name of an antidote which created
a voracious appetite in Marcellus Empericus.
  BUPHTHA LMUM.  (From Bovs, an ox, an o<*.0aX-
ftos, an eye; so called from its flowers, which are sup-
posed to resemble an eye.)   The herb, ox-eye daisy
See Chrysanthemum leueanthemum.
  Bo'hthalmum creticum.  Pellitoryof Spain.  See
.S n themis pyrethrum.
  Bui'hthalmum oermanicum.  The common ox-eye
ddis>.
  Bipiithalmum majus.   Great, or  ox-eye daisy.
See Chrysanthemum leucanthem-um.
  BUPHTHALMUS.  (From  Bovs,  an  ox, and
o<bOa\uos, an eye;  so  named  from its  large appear-
ance like an ox's eye.)
  1.  Houseleek.
  2.  Diseased enlargement tif the eye.
  BUBLEU'RUM.   iFrum/fov, large, and aXcvpov, a
rib;  so named from its having large rib-like filaments
upon its leaves.)  1. The name of a genus of plants
in the Linnaean system.  Class, Syngenesia; Order,
Polygamia superfiua.
  •2.  The pharmacopoeia! name ofthe herb hare's ear.
See Bupleurum rotundtfolium.
  Bupleurum rotundifolium. The systematic name
ofthe plan', called pirfoliata, in  some pharmacopoeias.
Bupleuron; Buplcuroidcs. Round-leaved hare's ear,
or thorow wax. This plant was  formerly celebrated
for curing ruptures, mixed into a poultice with wine
and oatmeal.
   BURDOCK.  See Arctium lappa.
   BURGUNDY PITCH.   See Pinus abies.
   Bu'ais.  According to Aviceuna, a scirrhous hernia,
 or hard abscess.
   BURN. Ambustio. A  burn, or scald, is a lesion of
 the animal body, occasioned by the application of heat,
 but the latter term is applicable only where this is con-
 veyed through the  medium of some  fluid.  The con-
sequences are more or less serious  according to tlie
extent of the  injury, or llue particular  part affected :
sometimes even proving fatal, particularly in irritable
constitutions.  The life of the part may be at once
destroyed by these accidents, or mortification speedily
follow the violent inflammation  excited;  bur when
slighter, it usually produces an effusion of serum un-
der the cuticle, like a blister.  When the injury is ex-
tensive, considerable fever is apt to supervene, some-
times a comatose slate; and a remarkable difficulty of
breathing often  precedes death.  In the treatment of
these accidents, two very different methods have been
pursued.  The more ancient plan consists in antiphlo-
gistic means, giving cooling purgatives, Sec and even
taking blood, where the irritation is great; employing
at the same time cold applications, and where the skin
is destroyed,  emollient dressings; opium  was also
 recommended  to relieve  the pain,  notwithstanding
 stupor might attend.
   Mr. Cleghorn, a brewer at Edinburgh, was very suc-
 cessful in these cases by a treatment materially differ-
 ent; first bathing the part with vinegar, usually a little
 warmed, till the pain abated; then, if there were any
 destruction of the parts, applying poultices, and finely
 powdered chalk immediately on the sore, to absorb the
 discbarge: in the meantime allowing the patient to live
 pretty well, and abstaining from active purgatives, Sec.
 More recently, a surgeon  at Newcastle, of the name
of Kentish, has deviated  still more from the ancient
 practice ; applying first oil of turpentine, alkohol, &c.
heated as much as the  sound parts could bear, and
gradually lessening the stimulus; in the mean time
supporting the  patient by a cordial diet, aether, &c.
and giving opium largely to lessen the irritation. Now,
the  cases chiefly  under  his care were of persons
 icorched very extensively by  the explosion of car-
buretted hydrogen in mines;  and probably where  the
injury is over a large part of the surface, or where tlie
constitution is weakly, it may be hazardous to pursue
the antiphlogistic plan,  or  to use cold application*,
which, while intended to keep down action, are wear-
ing out the power of the part.  If any extraneous sub-
stance be forced into the burnt part, it should be ol
course removed: and sometimes where a limb is irre-
coverably injured, amputation may be necessary.
  Bu'rnea.   Pitch.
  Burnet saxifrage. See Pimpinella.
  Burning.   Braining.  An ancient medical term,
denoting an infectious disease, got in the stews by con
versing  with lewd  women,  and supposed to Dc Ihe
same with what we now call the venereal disease.
  Burnt hartshorn.  See Cornu ustum.
  Burnt sponge.  Sec Spongia usta.
  Bu'rhiu spiritus matiucalis.  Burrhus's spirit,
for disorders  of the womb.  A  compound of myrrh,
olibanum, amber, and spirit of wine.
   BURSA.   From Bvpaa,  a bag.)   A bag.  1. The
scrotum.
  P-Anherb railed Thlaspi bursa pastoris, from the re-
semblance of its seminal follicles to a triangular purse.
   Bursa mucosa.  A mucous bag, composed of pro-
per  membranes,  containing a  kind of mucous fat,
formed  by the exhaling arteries of the internal coat.
The bursue mucosae are of different 6izes and firmness,
and  are connected by the cellular membrane with arti
cular cavities, tendons, ligaments, or the  periosteum.
Their use is to secrete and  contain a substance to lu-
bricate tendons, muscles, and bones, iu order to render
their motions easy.

         A Table of all the Bursa Mucosa.

                   In the Plead.
   1. A  bursa of the superior oblique  muscle of the
eye, situated behind its trochlea in the orbit.
   2.  The bursa of the digastricus, situated in the in-
ternal surface of its tendon.
   3. A  bursa of  the circumflexus, or tensor  palati,
situated between the hook-like process of Ihe sphenoid
 bone and the tendon of that muscle.
   4. A bursa of the sterno-hyoideus muscle, situated
 between the os hyoides and larynx.

              About the Shoulder-joint.
   1.  The external acromial, situated under the  acro-
 mion, between tue coracoid process, deltoid muscle,
 and capsular ligament.
   2.  The internal acromial,situated above the tendon
 of the infra-spinatus and teres major: it  often com-
 municates with the former.
   3.  The coracoid bursa, situated  near the root of the
coracoid process; it is sometimes double  and some-
times triple.
   4.  The clavieula bursa,  found  where  the clavicle
touches the coracoid process.
   5.  The subclavian bursa, between the tendon of the
subclavius muscle mid the first rib.
   6.  The coraco-brachial, placed between the common
origin of this muscle and the biceps, and the capsular
ligament.
   7.  The bursa of the pectoralis major, situated under
the head of  the humerus, between the internal surface
of the tendon of that muscle, and another bursa placed
on the long head of the biceps.
   8. An external bursa of the teres major, under the
head ol"  the os humeri, between it and the tendon of
the teres major.
   9.  An  internal  bursa of the  teres major, found
within  the ^nuscle where  the  fibre* of  its  tendoiu
diverge.
   10.  A bursa of  the latissimus dorsi, between th*
tendon of this muscle and the os humeri.
   11. The humero-bicipital  bursa, in tlie vagina of th»
 tendon of the biceps.
   There are other bursie mucosae about the humerus
but  their situation is uncertain.

               Near the Elbow-joint
   1.  Tlie radio-bicipital is situated between the tendot
of the biceps, braehialis, and anterior tubercle of the
radius.
   2.  The cubito-radiul between the  tendon of the bi-
ceps, supinator  brevis, and  the ligament common  t»
 the radius and ulna.
   3.  The ancnneal  bursa-, between the olecranon and
 tendon of the anconous muscle.
                                         157 
                      BUR

  4  The capituio-iadial bursa, between the tendon
tomiriori to the extensor carpi rad alis brevis, and ex-
tensor communis digitorum, and round  head of the
radius.  There are occasionally other bursie ; but as
their situation varies, they are omitted.

 About the inferior part of the Fore-arm and Hand.

        On the inside of Vie Wrist and Hand.
  1.  A very large bursa, for the tendon ofthe flexor
pollicis longus.
  2.  Four short bursa  on the forepart of the tendons
of the flexor sublimis.
  3.  A large bursa behind the tendon of the flexor
pollicis longus, between it  and the forepart of the ra-
dius, capsular ligament of the Wrist and os trapezium.
  4.  A larire bursa behind  the tendons  of the flexor
digitorum profundus, and on the forepart of the end ol
the radius, and forepart of the capsular ligament ot
the wrist.  In some subjects it communicates With the

  5.  An oblong bursa between the tendon of the flexor
carpi radialis and os trapezium.
  G.  A very small butsa between the tendon ot the
flexor carpi ulnaris and os pisiforme.

      On the back part of the Wrist and Hand.
  7.  A bursa between  the tendon of the abductor pol-
Ucis longus and the radius.
 \.  A large bursa between the two extensores carpi
radiales.
  i).  Another below it, common to the extensores carpi
radiales.                         ,      ,     , ,
  10. A bursa, at the Insertion of the tendon of the
extensor carpi radialis.
  11. An oblong  bursa, for the tendon of the extensor
pollicis longus, and which communicates with 9.
  12. A bursa, for the tendon of the extensor pollicis
longus, between  it and the metacarpal bone ot the
thumb.                            ,  ,            .
  13. A bursa between the tendons of the extensor ot
the fore, middle,  and ring fingers.
  14. A bursa for the extensors of the little finger.
   15. A  bursa between the  tendon ot  the  extensor
carpi ulnaris and ligament  of  the wrist.
  There are also bursie mucosae  between themusculi
lumbricales and  interossei.

                Ncafthc Hip-joint.

            On  the forepart  of the joint.
   1. The ileo-puberal) situated between the iliacus in-
 terims,  psoas magnus, and the capsular ligament of the
 head of the femur.
   2.  The pectineal, between  the tendon of the  pecti-
 neus and the thigh-bone.
   3 A small bursa of the gluteus nindm muscle, situ-
 ated between it and  the  great trochanter, before the
 insertion of the  pyriformis.
   4. A bursa of the gluteus minimus muscle between
 its tendon and the great trochanter.
   5.  The gluteo-fascial, between the gluten maximus
 ind vastus cxternus.

        On tlie posterior part of the Hip-joint.
   G. The tubero-ischiatic  bursa, situated between the
 obturator interims muscle, the posterior spine  of the
 ischium, and its tuberosity.    ,,.,_,
   7  The obturalory bursa, wliich is oblong and found
 between the  obturntor interim and gemini muscles,
 and the capsular ligament.
   8. A bursa of the semi-membranosu under its origin
 and the long head of  the biceps femoris.
   <J. The gleutco trochanteral bursa, situated between
 the tendon of tlie psoas  muscle and  the  root of the
 great trochanter.
   10. Two glutco-fcmoral bursa, situated between the
 tendon ofthe gluteus maximus and os femoris.
   11. A bursa  of the quadratus femoris, situated be-
 tween  it and the little trochanter.
   12. The iliac bursa, situated between the tendon of
 the iliacus internus and the little trochanter.

                 ."Year tlie Knee-joint.
    1. T\« supra-genual, which adheres to the t endons
  ot  the varus  and cruralis  and the  forepart of the
  tnlcli-bone
        15i
                     BUT

  2  The infra-genual bursa, situated under the HiJ»
ment of the patella, and often communicating with the

ab3°V The anterior genual, placed between the tendon
of the sartorius, gracilis, and semitendinous, and the
internal and lateral ligament of the knee.
  4The posterior genual, which is sometimes double
ind is situated between the tendons ofthe scmi-mem
branosus, the internal head of the gastrocnemius, the
cansular  ligament, and internal condyle.
  5  The popliteal, conspicuous between the tendon
of that muscle, the external condyle ot the femur, the
semilunar cartilage, and external condyle of the tibia.
  6.  The bursa of the biceps  cruris, between the e*
tcrnal  part of the tendon, the biceps cruris, and tne
external lateral ligament of tbe knee.

                   In Ike Foot

     On the back, side, and hind part of the Foot.
  1.  A bursa of the tibialis amicus, between its  ten
don, the  lower part of the tibia, and capsular ligament

0{othAZbM3a between the tendon of the extensor pol-
licis pedis  longus, the tibia, and capsular  ligament of

^Vffursa of the extensor  digitorum communis,
between  its tendons, the tibia, and  ligament of the

ai4d!i large bursa, common to the tendons of the pe-

r°5.C Tfarfi'i of the pcroneus brevis, proper to its

let°The calcaneal bursa, between the tendo Achilla
and os calcis.
              In the Sole of the Foot.
   1  A bursa for the tendon of the pcroneus longus
   2 A bursa common to tlie  tendon of the flexor pol
 licis pedis  longus, and the tendon of tlie flexor digito-
 rum pedis communis longus profundus.
   3. A bursa of the tibialis posticus, between its ten-
 don, the tibia, and astragalus.
   4 Five bursa for the flexor tendons, whicn begin a
 little above the first joint of each  toe, and extend to
 the root of the third  phalanx, or  insertion of the
 tendons.                      ,          .
   BURSA'LIS.  From its resemblance to a bursa, or
 purse.  See Obturator externus et internus.
   BURS VLOGY.  (Bursalogia;  from Bvpoa, a bag,
 and Xoyos, a discourse.) The  doctrine  of tiie  bursie
 mucosae.
   BUSELI'NUM.   (From  Bov, great, and creXivov,
 parsleys  A large species of parsley.
   Bu'ss'ti  spiritus  bezoardicus.  The  bezoardic
 spirit of Bussius, an eminent physician at  Dresden
 A distillation of ivorv. sal-ammoniac, amber, Sec.
   BUTCHERSBROOM.  See Ruscus.
   Bu'tiga.  Small  red pimples on the face. Called
 also gutta rosacea.
   Butiso.  Turpentine.
   Bu'tomon.   See Iris pseudaeorns.
    BUTTER.   (Butyrum; from Bovs, a  cow, and tv-
 no?, coagulum, or cream.)   "The oily, inflammable
 part of milk, which is  prepared in many countries as
  an article of food.  The common mode ot  preserving
  it is by the addition of salt, which will keep it good a
  considerable time, if in suflicient quantity.   Mr.  Eaton
  informs us, in his Survey of the Turkish Empire, that
  most of the butter used at  Constantinople is brought
  from the Crimea and Kirban, and that It is kept sweet
  by melting it while fresh over a very slow fire, and
  removing the scum as it rises.  He adds, that by melt-
  ing butter in the Tartarian  manner, and then salting
  it in  ours, he kept it good and fine-tasted for two  years;
  and that this melting, if carefully done, injures neither
  the taste  nor colour.  Thenard, too, recommends the
  Tartarian method.  He directs the melting to be done
  on a water-bath, or at a  heat not exceeding 180° F.;
  and Ito be continued until all the caseous matter has
  subsided  to the bottom, and the butter is transparent.
  It is then to be decanted, or strained through a cloth,
   and cooled in a mixture of pounded ice  and salt, or at
   least in  cold spring water, otherwise it will become
   lumpy by crystallizing, and likewise not resist  the ac-
   tion of the air so well. Kept in a close vessel,  and in
   a cool place, it will thus remain, six months or more 
BUX
BY2
nearly as good as at first, particularly after the top is
taken off'.   If beaten up with one-sixth  of its weight
of the cheesy matter when used, it will in some de-
gree resemble fresh butter in appearance.  The taste
of rancid  butter, he adds, may be much corrected  by
melting and cooling in this manner.
  Dr. Anderson has recommended another mode  of
curing butter, which  is as follows: Take one part of
sugar, one of nitre, and two of the best Spanish great
»alt, and rub them together  into a fine powder. This
composition is to be mixed thoroughly with the butter,
rises and forms bubbles, wliich pass through the water,
and break as soon as they reach the surface   The ait
of these bubblies was ascertained, by Dr. Pearson, tc
consist, of azotic gas, mixed with a small proportion of
atmospheric air.   Buxton water is frequently employ
ed both internally and externally: one of which me-
thods often proves beneficial when Hie other would lie
injurious: but, as a bath alone, its virtues may not be
superior  to  those of tepid  common water. As the
temperature of 82° is several  degrees below that ol*
the human body, a  slight shock of cold  is felt on the
as soon as it is completely freed from the milk, in the  first immersion  into the  bath ;  but this is almost im-
proporlion of one ounce to sixteen; and Ihe  butter  mediately succeeded by a plcasinggloW over the whole
thus prepared is to be pressed tight into the vessel pre
pared for it, so  as to leave no vacuities.  This butter
does not taste well till it has stood at least a fortnight;
it then has a rich nrarrow flavour, that no other but-
ter ever acquires; and with  proper care may be kept
for years iu this climate, or carried to the East Indies,
if packed so as  not to melt.
  In the interior parts of Africa, Mr. Pa:«lt informs us,
there is a tree  much resembling the American oak,
producing a  nut iu appearance somewhat like  an
olive.  The kernel of this nut,  by boiling iu water,
affords a kind of butter, which is whiter, firmer, and
of a  richer flavour, than any he ever tasted made from
cow's milk, and will keep without salt the whole year.
The natives call it shea  toulou, or tree butter.  Large
quantities of it are made every season."
  Fresh butter  is nourishing and relaxing, but it rea-
dily  becomes sour,  and, in general, agrees with few
stomachs.  Rancid butler is one ofthe niiiit unwhole-
some and indigestible of all foods.
  Butter of antimony.   See  Murias antimonii.
  Butter of cacao.  An oily concrete while matter,
of a firmer consistence  than suet, obtained  from the
cacao nut, of which chocolate is made.   The method
of separating it  consists in bruising the cacao  and boil-
ing it  in water. The greater part of the superabun-
dant and uiicombined oil  contained in the nut  is by th's
mea::s liquefied, and rises to the surface,  where it
swims, and is left to congeal, that it may be  the more
easily taken off.   It is generally mixed with  small
pieces ol the nut, from which  it may be purified, by
keeping  it  in fusion without water  in  a pretty deep
vessel, until the several  matters have arranger*  them-
selves according to their specific gravities.  By this
treatment it becomes very pure and while.
  Butter of cacao is without smell, and 'jas  a very
system.  It is therefore  proper for very  delicate and
irritable habits.   The cases which derive most benefit
from the external use of Buxton  waters, are those in
Which  a loss of action,  and  sometimes of sensation,
affects  particular limbs, in consequence of long-conti-
nued or violent  inflammation,  or  external  injury.
Hence  the chronic rheumatism succeeding the acute,
and where the Inflammation  has been seated in parti-
cular limbs, is often wonderfully relieved by this bath.
The internal use ofthe water has been found to be of
considerable service iu symptoms of defective diges-
tion a;id derangement of  the alimentary organs.  A
judicious use ol this simple remedy will often relieve
tlie heartburn,  flatulency, and sickness; it  will  in
crease  the appetite,  animate the  spirits, and improve
the her.lth.  At first, however, it  sometimes occasions
a diarrhoea, which is rather salutary than detrimental,
but costiveness is a more usual effect,  especially in
sluggish habits.  It also affords great relief when taken
internally, in painful disorders of the bladders and kid
neys; and has likewise  been recommended in cases
of gout;  but when taken for these complaints, the ad-
dition of some aromatic  tincture is recommended.  In
all cases of active inflammation, the use of these wa-
ters should he carefully  avoided, on account of their
supposed heating properties.   A full course consists of
two glasses, each containing one-third of a pint, before
breakfast; which quantity should be repeated between
breakfast and dinner.   In Chronic cases, a  long resi-
dence on the spot is requisite to insure the desired effect.
   BUXUS.  (From tzvKa&o, to  become hard.)  The
box-tree.  I. The name of  a genus of plants in  th«
Linmeansystem.  Class,Monacia; Order, Triandria
   2. The pharmacopoeia! name of the box. See Buxus
sempcrvirens.
   Buxus sempervIkens.   The  systematic name of
mild taste, when fresh;  and in all its general proper-'  the buxus of the pharmacopoeias.  The leaves possess
   ■ and habitudes it resembles fat oils, -imong which
it must therefore be classed.  It is used as an ingredi-
ent in pomatums.
  BUTTER-BUR.  Sec Tussilago petasites.
  BUTTER-FLOWER.  See Ranunculus.
  Butter-milk.   The  thin  and  sour milk which is '
separated  from  the cream by churning It into butter.
  BUTTER WORT.   See Pinguicula.
  [Button  snake-root.   See   Eryngium  aquati-
cum.  A.] •
  Bctua.  See  Cissampelos pariera.
  BUTYRIC ACID.  We owe the discovery of this
acid  to M. Chevreul.   Butter, he says, is composed of
two fat bodies, analogous to those of hog's lard, of a
colouring principle, and a remarkably odorous one, to
which it owes the properties lhat distinguish it from
the fats, properly so called.  This principle, which he
has called butyric acid, forms well characterized salts
with  barytes, strontian, lime,  the oxides of copper,
lead, &c - 100 parts of it neutralize a quantity of base
which contains  about  10 of oxygen.  M. Chevreul has
not explained his method of separating this acid from
the other constituents of butter.   See Journ. de Phar-
macia, iii  80.
  BUTY'RUM.  See Butter.
  Bctyuoi antimonii.  See Murias antimonii.
  BUXTON.  A village in Derbyshire in which there
are  warm  mineral  springs.    Buztonienscs  aqua.
They have been  long celebrated  for their medicinal
properties.  With respect to sensible properties, the
Buxton water cannot  be distinguished from common
spring water, when heated  to the same  temperature.
Its temperature, iu the gentleman's bath, is invariably
S2°.   Tbe principal peculiarity in the appearance of
tliia spring, is a large quantity of elastic vapour, that  discharge
a very strong, nauseous, bitter taste, and aperient vir-
tues.  They are occasionally exhibited, in foun of de-
coction, among the lower orders of people, in coses of
dropsy, and asthma, and worms.   As much as will lie
upon a shilling, of the common dwarf box, dried and
powdered, may be given  at bed-time, every night, tc
an infant.
  By'arus.  A plexus of blood vessels in the brain.
  Byng.  A Chinese name for green tea.
  Byre'turum   (Beretta, Ital. or barcttc, Fr. a cap.)
Byretltrus.   An  odoriferous  cap, filled with cephalic
drugs, for the head.
  By'rsa.   (Bvpoa, leather.)   A  leather   skin, to
spread plasters upon.
  Bysau'chen.  (From /Juu, to hide, and avxnv, the
neck.)   Morbid stiffness of the neck.
  B YSSOLITE.  A massive mineral of an olive  green
colour, found at  the foot of  Mount  Blanc  and neai
Oisans in gneiss.
  By'ssus.   (Hebrew.)  1. A woolly kind of moss
  2. The Pudendum muliebre.
  3. A kind of fine linen.
  [4. The fine silky threads  by which  the  Mytilu
and Pinna, both  bivalve shells, fasten themselves, au_»
thereby  remain attached to logs or stones in the water.
  The Pinna affords the most and finest quaulity of
this byssus; and, in the  Mediterranean, it  has been
collected and spun into silk, of which various  orna-
mental articles have been made.   A.]
  By'thos.   (Bufloj, deep.)   An epithet used by Hip-
pocrates for the bottom of the stomach.
  By'zen.  (From Bvw, to rush together.) In a heap;
fhrongingly.  Hippocrates uses  this word to  express
the hurry in which the menses  flow  in  an excessive 
CAC
c
CAD
 CtABALI'STICA ARS.   (It  is derived ftjm  the
 "-^ Hebrew word  signifying to receive by tradition.)
 Cabala;  Cabala; Kabala.  The cabalistic  art.   A
 icrm that hath  been anciently used, in a very myste-
 rious sense, among divines ; and since, some enthusi-
 istic philosophers  and chemists transplanted it into
 inedicine, importing by it somewhat, magical; but such
 snmeaning terms are now justly rejected.
  Cabal'S'/ic art.  See Cabalistica ars.
  CABALLINE.   (Caballinus;  from  Ka6aXXos, a
horse.)  Of, or  belonging to, a horse; applied to  the
eoarsest aloes, because it is so drastic as to be fit only
for horses.
  Caballinc aloes.  See Aloe".
  CABBAGE.  See Brassica.
  Cabbage tree.   See Geoffraya jamaicensis.
  Cacago'oa.   (From kukkh, excrement, and ayoi, to
 »xpeL)  1. Cathartics.
  2. Ointments  whicli, being  rubbed on the funda-
ment, procure stools.—Paulus JEgintta.
  Caca'lia. (Fromxaxov, bad, and Xiav, exceedingly;
Because  it is mischievous to the  soil on whicli it
grows.)   Cacumum.  The herb wild chervil, or wild
carraways.
  Ca'camum.  See Cacalia.
  CA'CAO.  See Theobroma cacao.
  Cacapiio'nia.   (From kokos,  bad, and cjtiavrj,  the
voice.)  Defective articulation.
  Cacato ria.  (From caco, to go to stool.)   An epi-
thet given by Sylvius to a kind of intermittent fever,
attended with copious stools.
  Cacoio'.nde.   A   pill  recommended  by  Baglivi
against dysenteries; its basis is catechu.
  CACHE'XIA. (From xaxos, bad, and&'ij, a habit)
A bad habit of body, known by a depraved or vitiated
state of the solids and fluids.
  CACHE'XLE.  (The plural of cachexia.)   A class
of diseases  in  Cullen's Nosology, embracing  three
orders; viz. Marcorcs, Intumescentia,and Impctigines.
  CACIHNNA'TIO.   (From  cachinno, to  laugh
aloud.)  A tendency to immoderate laughter,  as iff
fiome hysteric and maniacal affections.
  Ca'chlex.  A little stone, or  pebble.   Galen says,
that the cachleces, heated in the tire and quenched in
whey, become astringents, and useful in dysenteries.
  CACHOLONG.   A variety of quartz.
  Cacho're.  A name of catechu.
  CA'CHRYS.   (Kaxpvs'-  which is used in  various
senses.)   1. Galen  says, it sometimes means parched
barley.
  2. The name  of  a genus of  plants in  the LinnGcan
system.   Class,  Pentandria; Order, Digynia.
  Cachrys odontalgica.  A plant, the root of which
may be substituted for that of the pyrethrum against
toothache.
  Caciiu.  See  Acacia catechu.
  CACHU'NDE.   A medicine  highly celebrated
among the Chinese and Indians, made of several aro-
matic ingredients,  perfumes,  medicinal  earths, and
precious  stones. They make the  whole into a stiff
paste, and form out of it several figures, according to
their fancy, which  ure dried for use.  These are prin-
cipally used in the East Indies, but are sometimes
biought over to Portugal.  In China, the principal
persons  usually carry a small piece  in their mouths,
which is a continued cordial, and gives their breath a
very sweet smell.  Il i3 highly esteemed as a medicine
in nervous compluints; and it is reckoned a prolonger
of life and a provocative to venery;  the two great
intentions of most of the medicines used in the East.
  Caciiy'mia.   Kaxvpta.  Art imperfect metal, or an
 Immature metalline ore, according to Paracelsus.
  Cacoalexite'rium.  (From xaxos, bad, and aAc";i-
 Jnpeto, to preserve.)   An antidote to poison or against
 infectious diseases.
  CACOCHO'LIA.   (From kokos,  and xoXn, bile.)
 A vitiated or unhealthy condition of the bile.
  CACOCH Y'LIA.  (From kokos, bad, and xvXn, the
 chyle.)   Indigestion, or depraved chylification.
  CACOCHY'MIA. (From icaicoy,  bad, and xupos,
 juice, or  humour.)   A diseased  or depraved state of
 tlie humoirs.
      100
  CACOCNE'MUS.  (From xaxos, bad, and Kvt)un
the leg.)   Having a natural defect in the tibia.
  CACOCORE'MA.  (From kokos, baui a'id koocio, to
purge, or cleanse.)   A medicine wliicn purges off the
vitiated humouK.
  CACOD/E'.MON.  (From Kaxos, bad, and datptov, a
spirit.)   An evil spirit, or genius, which was supposed
to preside over the bodies of men,  and afflict Ihem
with certain disorders.  The nightmare.
  CACO'DIA.  (From Kaxos, bad, and w?to, to smell.)
A defect in the sense of smelling.
  CACOE'THES.   (From xaxos, ill, and i/Ooj, a word
which, when applied to diseases, signifies a quality, or
a disposition.)  Hippocrates applied this word to ma-
lignant  and difficult distempers.   Galen,  and some
others,  express by it an incurable ulcer, that is ren-
dered so through the acrimony ofthe humours flowing
to it.  Linnaeus and Vogel use this term much  in the
same sense with Galen, and describe the ulcer as su
perficial, spreading, weeping, and with callous edges.
  CACOPA'THIA.  (From kokos,  bad, and rsados,
affection.)  An ill affection of the  body, or part.
  CACOPHO'NIA. (From xaxos, bad, and tbiovri, the
voice.)   1.  A  defect in the organs of speech.
  2. A bad pronunciation.
  Cacopra'gia.  (From xaxos,  bad, and tsparfw, to
perform.)   Diseased viscera.
  Cacorry tiimus. (From xaxos, bad, and pvdpos
order.)   A disordered pulse.
  CACO'SIS.  (From xaxos, bad.)  A bad disposition
of body.
  CACOSI'TIA.   (From  xaxos,  and otfioi, food.)
An aversion to food, or nausea.
  CACOSPHY'XIA.  (From xaxos, oad, and aptiys,
puise.)   A disorder of the pulse.
  CACOSTO'MACHUS.   (From icaicof,   bad, and
$-opax°S,tne stomach.)  A bad or disordered stomach;
applied also to food which the stomach rejects.
  CACO'STOMUS.   (From xaxos, bad, and $-opa, ft
mouth.)  Having a bad formed,  or disordered mouth.
  CACOTHY'MIA.   (From kokos, ill, aud Qvpos, the
mind.)   Any  vicious  disposition  of the mind; or a
diseased mind.
  CACOTRO'PHIA.   (From xaxos,  i", and rpo£ij,
nutriment.)  1. A vitiated  nourishment.
  2. A wasting of tlie body, from want of nutrition.
  CA'CTUS.   (From  xnxros, the Greek name of  a
plant described by Theophrasta.)   The name  of a
genus of plants in the Linnaean system.  Class, Ico-
sandria; Order,  Monogynia.   The melon-thistle, or
prickly-pear.
  Cactus opontia.   The  systematic  name  of the
opuntia of the pharmacopoeias.  The  prickly leaves
of  this  plant abound with a  mucilaginous matter,
whicli is esteemed in its native countries an emollient,
in the form of poultice.
  CACU'BALUS.  (From kokos, evil, and BaXXm,
to cast  out; so named because  it was thought to be
efficacious in expelling poisons.)   See Cucubalus bac-
ciforum.
  Ca'cule.  The Arabian for cardamoms.
  CACU'MEN.  (Cacumcn, minis, neat.)  The top or
point.
  CADA'VER.  (Cadaver, veris. neut., from cado, to
fall: because the body, when deprived of life, falls to
the ground.)  A carcass, or body deprived of life.
  CA'DMIA.    (Hebrew.)    The  lapis  calaminaris.
See Zinc.
  Cadmia metallica.  A  name  given, by the Ger
mans, to cobalt.
  CADMIUM.  " A new metal, first discovered by M.
Stromeyer, in the autumn of 1817, in some carbonate
of zinc which he was examining in Hanover.  It has
been since found in the Derbyshire silicates of zinc.
  The  following is Dr.  Wollastoii's process for pro-
curing  cadmium.   From the solution of the salt of
zinc supposed to contain cadmium, precipitate all the
other metallic impurities by iron; filter and  immerse a
cylinder of zinc into the clear solution.  If cadmium
be present, it will be thrown down in the metallic state,
and when redissolved in muriatic acid, will exhibit its
peculiar character on the application of the proper te»l*. 
C2EC
CAF
  M. Stromeyer's  process consists  in  dissolving the
substance wliich contains cadmium in sulphuric acid,
and passing through the acidulous solution a current
of sulphuretted hydrogen gas.  He washes this pre-
cipitate, dissolves it in concentrated muriatic acid, and
expels the excess of acid by evaporation.  The residue
is then  dissolved in water,  and precipitated  by car-
bonate of ammonia, of which an excess is added, to
redissolve the zinc and the copper that may have been
precipitated by the sulphuretted hydrogen gas.  The
carbonate of cadmium being well washed, is heated,
to drive off the carbonic acid, and the remaining oxide
is reduced by mixing it with  lamp-black, and exposing
it to a moderate red heat in a glass or earthen retort.
  The colour of cadmium is  a tine white, with a slight
shade of bluish-gray, approaching  much to  that of
tin;  whirh metal it  resembles in lustre and suscepti-
bility of polish.  Its texture is  compact, and its frac-
ture hackly.  It crystallizes easily in oclohedrons, and
presents on its surface, when cooling, the appearance
of leaves of fern.  It is  flexible, and yields readily to
the knil't.  It is harder and more tenacious than tin ;
and, like it, stains paper, or the fingers.   It is ductile
and malleable, but when long hammered, it scales off
in different plates.   Its sp.  grav. before  hammering,
is 8.6040; and when hammered, it is 8.6944. It melts,
and is volatilized under a red heat  Its vapour, which
has no smell, may be condensed in drops like mercury,
which, on congealing, present distinct traces  of crys-
tallization.
  Cadmium is as little altered by exposure to the air
as tin.  When  heated in tlie open air, it burns like
that metal,  passing  into a  smoke, which falls and
forms a very fixed oxide, of a brownish-yellow colour.
Nitric acid readily dissolves  it cold; dilute sulphuric,
muriatic, and even  acetic acids, act feebly on it with
the disengagement of hydrogen.   The solutions are
colourless, and are not precipitated by water.
  Cadmium forms a single oxide, in which 100 parts
of the metal are combined  with  14.352 of oxygen.
The prime equivalent of cadmium deduced from this
compound seems to be  very nearly 7, and that of the
oxide 8.  This oxide varies in its  appearance  accord-
ing  to circumstances, from a  brownish-yellow to a
dark brown, and even a blackish colour.  With char-
coal it is reduced with rapidity below  a  red heat.  It
gives a transparent colourless glass  bead with borax.
It is i nsoluble in water, but in some circumstances forms
a white hydrate, which  speedily attracts carbonic acid
from the air, and gives out its water when exposed to
heat."—lire's Chem. Diet.
  CADOGAN, William, graduated at  Oxford in
1755.  Five years before, he had published  a  small
treatise on the management of children, which was
very much approved.  Iu 1764, his  " Dissertation on
ihe Gout and all Chronic Diseases" appeared, which
attracted considerable attention, being  written in a
popular 6tyle.   He referred  the  gout  principally to
indolence, vexation, and intemperance; and his plan
of treatment is  generally judicious.  He was a fellow
ofthe London College of Physicians, and died in 1797,
at au advanced  age.
  Cadtciiu.  See Acacia catechu.
  CADU'CA.   (From cado, to fall down.)  See De-
cidua.
  Caduci.  The name of a class in Linnaeus's Metho-
dus calycina.
  CADU'CUS.   (From cado, to fall.)   1. In  Botany,
The  falling off before  the  unfolding  of the flower
or leaf; as the perianthium  of Papaver, the stipula
of  Prunus avium.   This term is  expressive of the
shortest period of duration, and has different accepta-
tions, according to the different parts of the  plant to
which it is applied.   A calyx is said to be caducous,
which droi>s at  the first opening of the petals, or even
before, as in the poppy.   Petals are caducous, which
ire scarcely unfolded before they fall off, as in  Thalic-
irum; and such leaves  as fall off before the  end  of
lummer, have obtained this denomination. See De-
tiduus and Parasiticus.
  2.  The epilepsy or falling sickness is  called morbus
caducus.
  C^E'CTTAS.   (From  cacus, blind.)   Blindness.
Bee Caligo and Amaurosis.
  CjE'CUM.   (From cacus, blind: so called from  its
being perforated al one end only.)  The ex'cum, or
blind gut.  The firs! portion of the  large intestines,
placed in Ihe right iliac  region,  about four fingers'
breadth in length   It is in this intestine that the ileum
terminates by a valve, called the valve of the caecum.
The appendicula caci vermiformis is also attached t/i
it.  See Intestines.
  CrE'LIUS, Aurelianus, is supposed to have been
born at Sicca, in Africa, and is referred by Le Clero
to the fifteenth century,  from  the  harshness of  his
style.  He has left a Latin translation  of the writings
of Soranus, w ith additional observations, partly col-
lected  from  others, partly from his own experience.
The work is in eight books, three on  acute, the rest
on  chronic disorders.  He treats  of several diseases
not  mentioned  by any earlier writers, and has some
observations in surgery peculiar to himself; he appears,
too, generally correct in  his remarks on the opinions
of others.
  Cje'ros.  Karoo?.  Hippocrates, by this word, means
the opportunity or inonient in which  whatever is to
be effected should be done.
  C/ESALPI' N A.   t.Named in honour of Cirsalpinus,
chief physician lo  Pope Clement V 111.1  The name
of a genus of plants in the Linnaean system.  Class
Decandria; Order, .Monogynia.
  Casalpina crista.   The systematic name of  the
tree that affords the Brazil wood.  It is of the growth
of the Brazils in South America, and also of the Isle
of France, Japan, and elsewhere.  It  is chiefly used
as a red dye.  See Brazil  wood.
  CiESALPI'NUS, Andrew, was born in Tuscany,
in 1519.  He graduated at Pisa,  and  became professor
in anatomy and medicine there;  and  was afterward
made  physician to  Pope Clement VIII.  He died in
1603.  His  works  are  numerous, and evince much
genius and  learning. In  1571,  he published a work,
defending the philosophy of Aristotle against the doc-
trines  of  Galen,  from some passages  in which he
appears to have appioached very near  to a knowledge
of the circulation of the blood ; having explained tlie
use of the valves of the heart, and pointed out  the
course which these compelled  the  blood to take on
both sides during the contraction and dilatation of that
organ.  In a treatise " De Plantis," he justly compared
the  seeds to the eggs  of animals; and  formed an
arrangement of them according to the parts of fruclifi
cation. On medical subjects also  he offered many
judicious  remarks.
  C/ESARES.   Casoncs. Children who are brought
into the world as Julius  Ciesar is  said  to have been
See Casarian operation.
  CrESA'RIAN OPERATION.  (So  called because
Julius Ciesar is said to have been  extracted in  this
manner.)   Hysterotomia.  Hystaotomatocia.  The
operation for extracting the foetus from  the uterus, by
dividing the integuments of the abdomen and  the
uterus.
  'There are three cases  in which this  operation may
be necessary.—1.  When the foetus is perceived to be
alive, and the mother dies, either  in labour or in  the
last  two  months.   2. When the foetus is  dead,  but
cannot be delivered in  the usual way, from the de-
formity of the mother, or  the disproportionate size of
the child.   3. When both the mother  and the child
are living, but delivery cannot take place, from  the
same causes as in  the  second instance.   Both  the
mother and the child, if accounts can be credited, have
often lived  after  the Caesarian  operation, and the
mother even borne children afterward.   Heister gives
a relation of such success, in his Institutes of Surgery;
and there are some others.  In England, the Casarian
operation  has almost always failed.  Mr. James Bar-
low, of Chorley, Lancashire, succeeded, however, in
taking a foetus out of the uterus by this bold proceed-
ing, and the mother was perfectly restored to health
  Cj;'tchu.  See Acacia catechu.
  Caf ; Cafa; Caffa. Names given by the Arabians
to cam phi re.
  CAFFEIN.  The  name  of a bitter  principle pro-
cured from coffee  by Chenevix,  by adding muriate ot
tin to an infusion of  unroasted coffee.   From this he
obtained a precipitate, which he washed and decom-
posed  by  sulphuretted hydrogen.  The supernatant
liquid  contained this principle, which occasioned £
green  precipitate  in concentrated solutions of iron.
When the liquid  was evaporated to dryness, it was
yellow and transparent, like horn.  It did not attract
moisture from  the air, but was  soluble in water and
                                        161 
LAI
CAIi
tlkohol  The solution had a pleasant bitter taste, and
assumed with alkalies a garnet-red colour.   It  is
almost as delicate a lest of iron as infusion of galls is ;
yet gelantine occasions no precipitate with it.
  [" Caflein is a new principle, which was discovered
in coffee by Robiquet.   It is white, volatile, and crys-
tallizable ;  and is particularly distinguished by the
large  quantity of nitrogen which it contains, being
greater than that in  almost any other vegetable.  Ac-
cording to  Dumas and Pelletier, ii consists  of 27 14
oxygen, 4.81 hydrogen, 46.51 carbon, and  21.54 nitro-
gen.— Webster's Man. of Chem.   A.]
  Caga'strum.  A barbarous term used by Paracelsus,
to express the morbific matter which generates diseases.
  Caitchu.  See Acacia catechu.
  CAIUS, John, was born at Norwich, in 1510.  After
studying at Cambridge, and in different parts of Italy,
and distinguishing himself by his interpretations of
Hippocrates, Galen, and  other .ancient  authors, he
graduated  at Bologna.  In 1544, he  returned to this
country, and for some time read lectures  in anatomy
to the corporation of surgeons in London. He after-
ward  practised at Shrewsbury, having been admitted
a fellow of the College of Physicians ; and published
a popular account of the memorable sweating sickness,
which prevailed in 1551,subsequently reprinted, much
improved, in Latin.  He was made physician to Ed-
ward  VI., to Mary, and to Elizabeth. On the death
of Linacte, he was chosen President ofthe College of
Physicians, and during the seven years for which he
held that office, performed many important  services.
He was also a signal benefactor to Gonvil  Hull, where
he studied at Cambridge, having obtained permission
to erect it  into a college, considerably enlarging the
building, and assigning provision for three fellows and
twenty scholars.  He, was chosen nias.er on the com-
pletion of  the improvements, and retained that office
till near the period  of his death, which happened in
1573.  He published  a dissertation " De Canibus Bri-
tannicis,"  which  Mr. Pennant has entirely followed
in his British Zoology and some other learned  works
besides those already mentioned.
  Ca'jan.   See Phaseolus crcticus.
  Ca'jeput oil.  See  Melaleuca.
  Cala'ba.  See Catophyllum inophyllum.
  Calagua'lje radix.  Calagvela  radix. The root
so called is knotty,  and somewhat  like  that of the
polypody tribe.   It has been  exhibited internally at
Rome, with success, iu dropsy; and it is said to be
efficacious  in pleuiisy, contusions, abscesses, &c.  It
was first used in America, where it is obtained ; and
Italian  physicians have since written concerning it,
in terms of approbation.
  Calama'corus.  Indian reed.
  CALAMAGRO'STIS.  (From xaXapos, a reed, and
aypuig-ij, a sort of grass.)  Reed grass.  GramenArun-
dinacum.  The Arundo calamagrostis of Linnaeus;
the root of  which is said to be diuretic and eminena-
gogue.
  CALAMARI^E.  (From  calamus, a reed.)   The
name of an »rder of Linnaeus's fragments of a natural
method, which embraces the recd-planls.
  Cala'mbac An Indian name for agallochmn.  Sec
Lignum Aloes.
  Calame'don.  (From xaXapos, a  reed.) A sort of
fracture which runs along the bone, in a straight line,
like a reed, but is lunated in the extremity.
  CA'LAMINA.  See Calamine.
  Calamina pr«parata.  Prepared calamine.   Burn
the calamine, and reduce it to  powdei; then  let it be
brought into the stats of a very fine powder, in the
name  manner that chalk  is directed to be prepared.
See Calamine.
  CA'LAMINE.  (Calamina; from calamus, a reed :
so called from its reed-like appearance.)  Cadmia;
Cathmia;  Cadmia lapidosa arosa ;  Cadmia fossilis;
Calamina; Lapis calaminaris.  A native carbonate
of zinc.  A  mineral, containing oxide of zinc and
carbonic acid, united with a portion ofiron, and some-
times otlier substances. It is very heavy, moderately
bard  and britUe, of  a gray, yellowish, red, or blackish
brown- found in quarries of considerable extent, in
several parts of Europe, and particularly in this coun-
try in Derbyshire, Gloucestershire,  Nottinghamshire,
and Somersetshire;  as also in Wales.  The calamine
of England is by the best judges, allowed to  be su-
perior in quality to that of most other countries  It sel
      162
 dom  lies very deep,  being chiefly found In clayey
 grounds near the surface.  In some places it is mixed
 with lead ores.  This mineral is an article in the ma-
 teria  medica ;  but, before it comes to the shops, it is
 usually roasted, or calcined, to separate some aisenf
 cal or  sulphureous particles which, in its crude  state,
 it is supposed to contain, and in  order to render it
 more easily reducible into a fine  powdei.   In this
 state,  it  is employed  in  collyria, for weak  eyes, for
 promoting the cicatrization of ulcers, and healing ex-
 coriations of the skin.  It is the basis of an olficinol
 cerate, called Ceratum calaminae by the London Col-
 lege, formerly called ceratum lapidis calimiimris, cera-
 tum epuloticum;  and ceratum carbonatis zinci iinpuri
 by the Edinburgh College.  These compositions form
 the cerate which Turner  strongly recommends ft*
 healing ulcerations and excoriations, and which  ha\«
 been popularly distinguished by his name.  The col
 lyria  in which the prepared calamine has been  ein
 ployed, have consisted simply of that substance addei
 to rose-water, or elder-flower water.
   CALAM1NT.  See Melissa culamintha.
   Calaminl. mountain.  See Melissagrandiflura
   CALAMI NTHA.   (From xaXoc, beautiful, or ku
 Xapos, a  reed, and pivOij, mint.)  Common calamint
 See Melissa.
   Calamintha anglica.  Sec Melissa ncpeta.
   Calamintha  humilior.   The  ground-ivy.   Set
 Glecoma hederacea.
   Calamintha magna flore.  See Melissa grandi-
flora.
   Calamintha Montana.  See Melissa Calamintha.
   CA'LAMUS.   (From  Kalam, an  Arabian word.)
 1. A general name denoting the stalk of any plant.
   2. The name of a genus of plants in the Linnaean
 system.  Class, Hexandria; Order, Monogynia.
   Calamus aromaticus.  See Acorus calamus.
   [Calamus.  Sweet flag-root.  Acorus calamus, oi
 calamus  aromaticus. " Tbe Acorus calamus is found
 in Europe,  Asia, and  North America.   With  us ii
 grows in wet meadows, commonly in beds or bunches.
 The root has a  strong aromatic odour, and a  bittei
 spicy taste.  lis properties depend  upon a volatile oil,
 and a bitter matter soluble in water.  Medicinally con
 sidered, it is stimulant, heating and  ionic ; and is  given
 in flatulent colic, cramp of the stomach. Sec, in  the
 dose of a scruple and upwards."—Big. .Mat. Med.  A.]
   Calamus aromaticus asiaticus.  Se;. Acorus ca-
 lamus.
   Calamus odoratus.   The  sweet-scented  rush.
 See Acorus calamus.
   Calamus rotanq.  The  systematic  name of the
 plant from wliich we obtain the Dragon's blood.   Cin-
 nabaris gracorum; Draconthama; A si gen; Ascgon.
 Dragon's blood.   The red resinous  juice which is ob-
 tained by wounding the bark ofthe Calamus rolang;—
 caudice densissime  aculeata, aculcis ercctis, spadice
 crccto.  The Pctrocarpus draco and  Dracana draco
 also afford this  resin.   It is chiefly obtained from the
 Molucca islands,  Java, and other  parts of the East
 Indies. It is generally much adulterated, and varied
 in goodness and purity.  The best  kind is of a dark
 red colour, which, when powdered, changes  to  crim-
 son :  it is insoluble in water, but  soluble  in a  great
 measure  in alkohol;  it  readily melts and catches
 flame, has no smell, but to the taste discovers soniede
 gree of warmth and pungency.   The ancient Greeks
 were  well acquainted with the adstringent power of
 this drug; iu which character it has since oeen  much
 employed in haemorrhages, and in alvine fluxes.  At
 present, however, it is not used internally, being super-
 seded by more certain and effectual remedies of this
 numerous class
   Calamus scriptorium.  A furrow or kind of  canal
 at the bottom  of  the fourth ventricle  of the  brain, so
 called from its resemblance to a writing pen.
   Calamus vulgaris.  See Acorus calamus.
   CALATHIANA.  (From xaXaBos, a twig basket-
 so called  from the shape of its flowers.)  The herb
 marsh-gentian.   See Gentianapneumonanthc.
   Calm anum.  The name of a plaster in Myrcntus.
   Calcadinum.  Vitriol.
  it'1LrA DIS*  An Arabiau «ame for white vitriol a..d

   CALCA'NEUM.   (From calx,  the heel.)  (ulrar
 pterna;  Os calcis.   The largest bone of the tarsus
 which forms the heel.  It is situated posteriorly  undw 
■vAL
CAL
the astragalus, is very regular, and divided into a body
mid processes.  It has a large tuberosity or knob, pro-
jecting behind to form the heel.  A sinuous cavity,
as its  fore-part, which, in the fresh  subject, is filled
with fat. and gives origin to several ligaments.  Two
prominences, at the inner and fore-part of the bone,
with a pit between them, for the articulation of the
under and fore-part of the astragalus. A depression,
in the external surface  of the bone near its fore-part,
where the tendon of the peronaeus longus runs.  A
large cavity, at the inner side of the bone, for lodging
the long flexors of the toes, together with tlie vessels
and nerves of the sole.  There are two prominences, at
the under and back  part of  this bone, that give origin
to the aponeurosis, and several muscles ol the  sole.
The anterior surface ofthe os calcis is concave, for its
articulation With the os cuboides. and it is articulated
to the astragalus by ligaments.
  Calcan'thum.   (From x<iXkos, brass, and avOos, a
flower; i. e. flowers of brass.)   Calcanthos.   Cop-
peras; Vitriol.
  CALCAR.  (Calcar, aris. «.  From caix, the heel;
also from caeTco, to heat.)  1.  The heel-bone.
  2. The furnace of a laboratory.
  3.  A spur.  In botany, applied to a part of the ringent
and personate corolla of plants.  It is a tube forming
an obtuse or acuie sac, at the side of the receptacle.
It is of rare occurrence.
  CALCARATUS.  Spurred; applied to the corote
and nectaries of plants; as Calcarala corolla, Necta-
rium  calcaratum; as in Aqmlegia and Antirrhinum
linarie,
   CALCAREOUS.   (Cedcerius;  from  calx, lime.)
That which partakes somewhat  of the  nature ami
qualities of calx.
   Calcareous earth.  See Calx and Lime.
   Calcareous spar.  Crystallized carbonate of lime,
which occurs in more than  600 different forms.  It is
found in veins in all rocks from granite to alluvial
strata.  The rarest and most beautiful  crystals are
found in Derbyshire, but it exists in every part of the
world.
   Calca'ris flos.  The larkspur.
   CALCA'RIUS.  See Calcareous.
   Calcarius lapis.  Limestone.
   Ca'lcatar.  A name of vitriol.
   Calcatri'ppa.  See Ajuga pyramidalis.
   CALCEDONY.  A  mineral, so called from Calce-
fion, in Asia Minor, where it was found in ancient
times.  There are several sub-species, common calce-
dony, heliotrope,  crysoprase, plasma, onyx, sand, and
sardonyx.
   Common calcedony occurs of various colours; it is
regarded as  pure silica  with  a little water.  Very fine
stalactical specimens have been found in  Cornwall
and Scotland.
   Ca'lceum equinum.  (From catccus, a shoe,  and
equus, a horse; so  called from the figure of its leaf.)
The herb colt's-foot See Tussilagofarfara.
   Calchantrum.   Pliny's name for copperas.
   Calcht'thbos.   (From xaXxiov,purple.) Verdigris.
   CALCI'FRAGA.  (From calx, a stone,  andfrango,
to break;  so named from  ils supposed  property of
breaking the human calculus.) Breakstone.  In Scri-
bonius Largus, it means, the herb spleenwort, or sco-
lopendrium; others mean by it the Pimpinella saxi-
fraga of Linnaeus.
   CALCINATION.   Oxidation.   The fixed  resi-
dues of such matters as have undergone combustion
are called cinders, in common language, and calces,
but  now more commonly  oxides, by chemists; and
the operation, when considered with regard to these
residues, is termed  calcination.   In this general way,
it has I i kevvise been applied to bodies not really combus-
title, but only deprived of some of their principles by
heat.  Thus we hear of the calcination  of chalk, to
convert it into lime by driving off its carbonic acid and
water; of gypsum,  or plaster-stone, of alum, of borax,
■nd  other saline bodies, by which they are deprived
of their water of crystallization ; of bones which lose
their volatile parts by this treatment, and of various
otlier bodies.
   CALCINA'TUS.  Calcined.
   Calcinatum majus. Whatever is dulcified by the
ehemical art, which was not so  by nature ; such as
aulcified mercury, lead, and the like substances, which
ure very speedily consolidated.
                                        L 8
  Calcinatum majus poterh.  Mercury dissolved tn
aqua fortis, and precipitated with salt water.  Poterius
used it in the cure of ulcers.
  Calcinatum minus.  Any tiling which is sweet by
nature, and  speedily cures, as sugar,  manna, tamo
rinds, &c.
  Calcino'nia.  See C.tlcena.
  Ca'lcis aqua.  See diets liquor.
  Ca'lcts liquor.  Solution el lime,  formerly called
aqua  calcis.   Lime-water.   Take of  lime, half  a
pound; boiling distilled  wster, twelve pints.   Pour
the water upon the lime, and stir them togetlier; next
cover the vessel immediately, and let it staud (Tor three
hours;  then keep the solution upon  the remaining
lime in slopped  glass bottles, and  pour  off the  clear
liquor when it is wanted for use.
  Lime is soluble  in about  450 times iti weight of
water, or little more than one grain iu one fluid ounce
It is given internally, in doses of two ounces and up
wards, in cardialgia,  spasms, diarrhoea, Sec. and in
proportionate doses in convulsions of children, arisiiig
from  acidity, or ulcerated intestines,  intermittent fe-
vers,  &c.   Externally it  is applied  to burns and
ulcers.
  Calcis murias.  Calx solila;  Sal  ammaniacus
fixus.  Muriate of lime.  Take of the  salt remaining
after the sublimation of subcarbonate of ammonia two
pounds, water a pint; mix and filter  through paper.
Evaporate the salt to dryness; and preserve it in  a
closely-stopped vessel.  This preparation is exhibited
with  the  same views as the muriate  of barytes.   It
possesses deobstruent, diuretic, and cathartic virtues,
and is much used  by the celebrated Fourcroy agair.-t
scrophula,and other analogous diseases.   Six, twelve,
?.nd twenty  grains, are given to children, three limes a
day, and a drachm to adults.
  Calms muriatis  liquor.  Take  of muriate of
lime two ounces, distilled water three fluid ounces;
dissolve the salt iu the water, and filter it through
paper*
   Ca'lcis os. See Calcuncan.
   Calcis vivi flores.  Tlie pellicle  on the surface
of lime water.
   CALCITRA'PA. (An old botanical term of simi
 lar meaning to tribulus, compounded of calco, to tread
or  kick, and rpter&i, to turn, because the caltrops are
continually kicked over, if they lail of their intended
 mischief.  Sec Trapu.)  See Centaurea catcitrapn.
   Calcitrafa officinalis.   See Centaurea solsti-
tiales.
  CALCIUM.  The metallic basis of lime.  Sir 11.
Davy, the discoverer of this metal, procured it by tbe
process which he used for obtaining barium.  It ws,s
in such small quantities, that little could be said con-
cerning its  nature.  It appeared brighter and whiter
than  either  barium or utrontium;  and burned whea
gently heated, producing dry lime.
  There is  only one known combination of calcium
and oxygen, wliich is the important substance called
lime.  The  nature of  this substance is proved by the
phenomena of the combustion of calcium; the metal
changing into the earth with the absorption of oxygen
gas.  When the amalgam of calcium is thrown into
water, hydrogen gas is disengaged, and the water lie-
comes a solution of lime.  From the quantity of hy-
drogen evolved, compared with the quantity of lime
formed in experiments of this kind, M. Berzelius en-
deavoured to  ascertain the proportion of oxygen  u\
lime.  The  nature of lime may also be proved by ana-
lysis.  When potassium in vapour is sent through tin.
earth ignited to whiteness, the potassium was foui.rl
by Sir H. Davy to become potassa, while a dark gray
substance of metallic  splendour, wliich is calcium,
either wholly or partially deprived of oxygen, is fom-.I
imbedded in the potassa; for it effervesces violently
and forms n solution of lime by the action of water.
  CALCSINTER.   Stalactitical carbonate of  lime,
which is continually forming by the infiltration of car-
bonated lime water through the crevices of the  root?
of caverns.  The irregular masses on the bottoms of
caves have  been called stalagmites.
  CALCTUFF.  An alluvial formation of carbonate
of lime, probably deposited from calcareous springs at
a yellowish dull gray colour, containing impressions
of vegetable matter.
  CALCULI'FRAGUS.   (From  calculus,  a  stone,
and frango, to break.)   Stone-breaker, having the
                                         16"» 
CAL
CAL
power to break stone in the human body.  1. A syno-
nym of lithontriptic.  See Litkonlriptic.
  2.  The scolopendrium, and pimpernel.  See Calci-

  CA'LOULUS.  (Diminutive of calx, a lime-stone.
Calculus humanus ;  Bezoar microcosmicum.   Gravel;
Gtone.  In  English  we  understand by gravel, small
tand-like concretions, or stones, which pass from the
Sidneys  through the ureters in a few days; and by
ttonc, a  calculous concretion in the kidneys, or blad-
der,  of too large a  size to pass, without great diffi-
culty.  Similar concretions are found occasionally in
otlier cavities  or passages.  When a disposition to
form  minute calculi or  gravel  exists, we often  find
nephritic paroxysms, as  they are called, (see Nephri-
tis) whicli consist of pain in the buck, shooting down
through  the pelvis to the thighs; sometimes a numb-
ness  in  one leg, and a retraction of either testicle in
men, symptoms arising from the irritation of a stone
passing through the  ureters, as these cross the sperma-
tic cord, on the nerves passing to the lower extremities.
These pains, often violent, are term'nated by the pain-
ful discharge of small stones through the urethra, and
the patient is  for a time easy.  What, however,  is
meant by the stone is a  more serious and violent dis-
ease.  It is singular  that these discharges of small  gra-
vel do not usually terminate in stone   Many have ex-
perienced them during a long life, without  any more
serious inconvenience:  while  the latter is  a disease
chiefly of the young, and depending on circumstances
not easily explained.   If the stone attacks persons
more advanced in age, it  is often tbe consequence of
paroxysms of gout,  long protracted, and terminating
imperfectly.
  When once a stone has acquired a moderate  size,
it  usually occasions the following symptoms:—fre-
quent inclination to make walor, excessive pain in
voiding  it drop by drop, and sometimes a sudden stop-
page of it, if discharged in a stream; after making wa-
ter, great torture in the  glans  penis, wliich lasts one,
two, or three minutes; and, in most'eonstitutious, the
violent straining makes the rectum contract  and expel
its excrements; or, if it  be empty, occasions a tenes-
mus, which is sometimes accompanied with a prolap-
sus ani.   The urine  is often tinctured with blood, from
a rupture of the vessels, and  sometimes pure blood
itself is discharged.  Sometimes the urine is very clear,
but frequently there are great quantities of slimy sedi-
ment deposited at the  bottom of it, which  is only a
preternatural separation ofthe mucilage of tlie bladder,
out has often been mistaken for pus.  The  stone is a
disease  to whicli  both  sexes  and all ages  are liable;
and calculi have even been found in the bladders of
very young children, nay, ol'infants only six months old.
  Women  seem less subject to  this complaint  than
men, either owing  to constitutional causes,  or to the
capaciousness, shortness, and straightness of their  ure-
ihne, allowing the calculi to be discharged while small,
together with the urine.
 The Scat and Physical Properties of Urinary Calculi.
  Calculi are  found in different  parts  of the urinary
system, in the  pelvis of  the kidney, in the ureters,  in
the  bladder and urethra; but as they, for the most
part, originate m the kidney, the calculi renales make
the nucleus of the greatest number »f  urinary stones.
The calculi renales differ greatly with respect to their
external qualities;  for  the most part, however,  they
consist  of  small,  concrete, roundish, smooth, glossy,
and  crystalline bodies, of a red-yellow colour, like that
of wood, and so hard as to  admit of polishing.  On
account of their minuteness, they easily pass through
the  urinary passages in  form  of gravel, wliich being
sometimes of a rough  surface, cause several  com-
plaints on their passage.   But  in some instances  they
are of too great a size to be able to pass aiong the ure-
ters ; iu which case  they increase in the kidneys, some-
times to a great size.  Calculi renales of this kind are
generally of a  brown, dark red, or black colour, and
surrounded with several strata of coagulated blood and
pus  ; they have also been observed of a yellow, red-
dish', and  lighter colour; and some consisting of  a
 homogeneous  stony mass, but white  or.gray calculi
 renales  are very rarely to be  met with.  Among the
 great number that  were examined, one or two  only
 were found of a gray or blackish colour, and of a com-
 position similar to tliose  which generally bear the name
 si' mulberry-like stones.
      164
   The stones m the ureters, whicli, on posring mtotfcj
ureters, are prevented by their size  fiom descending
into the bladder, frequently increase very much: they
however,  rarely  occur;  tlueir colour is  white, and
thev consist of phosphate of lime.
   The stones in  the bladder are the most frequent
urinary concrements that  have been  principally exa-
mined; they draw their first origin from the kidneys,
whence they descend into the bladder, where they in-
crease; or they immediately originate and increase in
the bladder ; or they arise from a foreign body that by
chance has got into the  bladder, which not unfre-
quently happens, particularly in the female sex.  Con-
cretions of this kind differ greatly in their respective
physical qualities and external form, which, however,
is generally spherical,  oval,  or compressed on  both
sides; and sometimes, when  there are several stones
in the bladder, they have a  polyhedrous or cubical
form;  their extremities  are frequently  pointed  or
roundish, but they are very seldom found  cylindrical,
and more larely with cylindrical ends.
   There is a greal variety in the size of the calculi,
and likewise  in their colour, which is materially dif
ferent, according  to  their  respective  nature and com-
position.   They occur,  1.  of a yellowish colour, ap
proaching nearly  to red, or brown; such stones consist
of lithic acid.  2. Gray, or more or les3 white; these
stones always contain phosphates of earths.  3. Dark
gray, or blackish; stones of this colour  have oxalates
of earths.  Many stones show brown or  gray spots, on
a yellow or while ground, generally raised on the sur-
face,  and consisting of oxalate of lime, which is en-
closed in lithic acid, when the ground  colour of the
stone is of a wood colour, or in phosphate of lime,
when  it is white.  These spots are, tn  general,  only
to be observed in the middle of the stone, or at one of
its extremities.
   All that is here stated, is the result of observations
on more than 000 calculi; and different  other colours,
that are said to have been observed, either arise  from
heterogeneous substances, or are merely variations of
the above colours.  Their surface is smooth  and po-
lished in  some; in others, only smooth; and in other.!
uneven, and covered with  rough or smooth corpuscles,
which are always of a yellow colour; in some, the
surface is partly smooth and partly rough.   The white
ones are frequently even and smooth, half transparent,
and covered wilh shining  crystals, that geneially indi-
cate phosphate of ammonia, with magnesia;  or they
are faieit, and consist of minute grains: or rough, in
which case they  consist of phosphate of lime.  The
brown and dark gray  stones  are, from  their  simi-
larity to mulberries, called mulberry-stones, and being
frequently very rugged, they cause the  most  pain
of all.
   On examining the specific weight of urinary calculi
in more than 500specimens, it was found to be, in ihe
lightest, as 1213.1000, in  the  heaviest, as 1976.1000.
Their smell is partly strong, like nrine or ammonia,
partly insipid, and  terreous;  especially the  while
ones, which are like sawed ivory, or rasped bone.
   The internal texture of calculi is but seldom guessed
from  their external  appearance, particularly when
they exceed the size of a  pigeon's egg.  On breaking
them, they generally separate into two or three strata,
more or less thick aud even, which  prove that they
are  formed by different precipitations,  at  different
times.  In the middle, a nucleus is generally seen, of
the same mass as the rest.  When the  place they are
broken at is finely streaked, anil of a yellow or reddish
colour, the lilliic acid predominates; but when they
are  half  transparent, luminous like  spar, they  have
amnioniacal phosphate of  magnesia  in them,  and
phosphate of lime, and then  they are brittle and fria-
ble; but when they are so hard as to  resist the instru-
ment, ol" a smooth  surface,  and a smell  like ivory,
they contain oxalate of lime.   It frequently happens,
that the exterior  stratum  consists of  white phosphate
of earth, while the nucleus is  yellow  lithic  acid, or
oxalate  of lime, covered sometimes with a yellow
stratum ol lithic acid, in  wliich  case the nucleus ap-
 pears radiant; but when it consists of lithic acid, and
 is covered with white phosphate of earth, it is round
 ish, oval, and somewhat crooked. These concretions
 have very seldom three strata; namely, on the outside
 a phosphate, towards the inside  lithic acid, and quite
I withinside an oxalate of lime;  but still rarer  th 
CAL
CAL
instances occur in more strata, or in another order, as'
tt^nbre-enentioncd.
  Itones of the urethra are seldom generated  in the
urethra itself; however, there are instances of their
having been formed in the fossa navicularis, by means
of foreign bodies that have got into the urethra.  We
also very frequently observe stony concrements depo-
sited between ihe glans and prepuce.   All the concre-
tions produced  in the inside  and outside the urethia
consist of phosphate of earths, whicli are easily pre-
cipitated from the urine.  There are likewise stones
;n the urethra which have come out of the bladder,
having been produced  there,  or  in the kidneys; and
they generally possess tlie properties  of stones of the
kidneys.
    The different constituents of Urinary Calculi.
  " If we except Scheele's original observation con-
cerning the uric or lithic acid, all the discoveries  re-
lating to urinary concretions are due to Dr. Wollaston;
discoveries so curious and important, us alone arc suf-
ficient to entitle him  to the admiration and gratitude
of mankind.   They have been  fully verified  by the
.subsequent researches of Fourcroy,  Vauquelin, and
Biande, Drs. Henry, Marcet, and Prout.   Dr. Marcel,
in his late valuable essay on the chemical history and
medical treatment of calculous disorders, arranges the
concretions into nine species.
  1. The lithic acid calculus.
  2. The ammonia magnesian phosphate calculus.
  3. The bone earth calculus,  or phosphate of lime.
  4. The fusible calculus, a mixture of the 2d  and 3d
species.
  5. The mulberry calculus, or oxalate of lime.
  6. The cystic calculus;  cystic oxide of  Dr. Wol-
laston.
  7. The alternating calculus, composed of alternate
layers of different species.
  8. The compound calculus, whose ingredients are so
intimately mixed, as to be separable only by chemical
analysis.
  9. Calculus from the prostate gland, which, by Dr.
Wollaston's  researches, is proved to be phosphate of
lime, not distinctly stratified, and tinged by the secre-
tion of the prostate gland.
   To the above Dr. Marcet has added two new sub-
 species. The first seems to have some resemblance to
 the cystic oxide, but it possesses also some marks of
 distinction.  It forms a bright lemon yellow residuum
 on evaporating its nitric acid  solution, and is com-
 posed oflaminae. But the cystic oxide is nor laminated,
 and It leaves a white residuum from  the  nitric acid
solution.  Though  they are both soluble  in acids as
 well as alkalies, yet the oxide  is more so in acids than
the new calculus, which has been called by Dr. Marcet,
from its yellow residuum, xanthic oxide.  Dr. Marcet's
other new calculus was found  to possess the properties
of  the fibrin of the  blood, of which it seems to be a
deposite.  He terms il fibrinous calculus.
  Species 1.  Uric acid calculi.  Dr. Henry says, in his
instructive paper on  urinary  and other  morbid con-
cretions, read before the Medical Society of London,
March 2, 1819, that it has never yet occurred to him to
examine calculi composed of this acid in a state of abso-
lute purity.  They  contain about 9-10ths of the  pure
a-id, along with urea, and an  animal  matter which is
not gelatin, but of an  albuminous nature.  This must
not, however, be regarded as a cement.  The calculus
is aggregated by the cohesive attraction  of the lithic
acid itself.   The colour of lithic acid calculi is yellow-
ish or reddish-brown, resembling the  appearance  of
wood.  They have commonly a smooth, polished sur-
face, a lamellar or radiated structure, and consist of
fine particles well compacted.   Their  specific gravity
varies from  1.3 to  1.8.   They dissolve  in alkaline
lixivia, without  evolving au  ammoniacal odour, and
exhale  the smell of horn before the  blowpipe.  The
relative frequency of lithic acid  calculi will be seen
from the following statement.  Of 150 examined  by
Mr. Brande, 16  were composed  wholly  of this  acid,
and almost all contained more or less of it.   Fourcroy
and Vauquelin found it in the greater number of 500
wliich they analyzed.   All those examined by Scheele
consisted of it alone; and 300 analyzed by Dr. Pearson,
contained it in greater or smaller proportion. Accord-
ing to Dr. Henry's experience, it constitutes 10 urinary
concretions out of 26, exclusive of the alternating cal-
culi.  And Mr.  Brande lately states, that out  of  S3
cases of kidney calculi, 51 were lithic acid, 6 oxalic
and 1 cystic.
  Species 2.  Ammonia-magnesian phosphate.  This
calculus  is white like chalk, is triable between  tin
fingers, is often covered  with dog-tooth crystals, and
contains  semi-crystalline  layers.   It  is insoluble in
alkalies,  but  soluble  in  nitric, muriatic,  and acetic
acids.  According to Dr. Henry, the earthy phosphates,
comprehending the 2d  and 3d species, were to  the
whole number of concretions, in the ratio of 10 to 85.
Mr. Brande justly observes, in the 16th number of hi
Journal,  that the urine has at nil times a tendency tc
deposite  the  triple  phosphate upon any  body over
which it  passes.  Hence drains by which urine is car-
ried  off", are often iucrusted with its regular i-ly^tals;
and incases where extraneous bodies have got ini.i the
bladder, they  have often  in a very short time become
considerably enlarged  by  deposition of the  same sub-
stance.   When this calculus, or those incrusted with
its semi-crystalline particles, are strongly healed before
the blowpipe, ammonia  is evolved, and an  imperfect
fusion takes  place.   When a little of the calcareous
phosphate is  present,  however, the concretion  readily
fuses.  Calculi  composed  entirely of  Ihe  ainmonia-
magncsian phosphate are very rare;   Mr. Brande L. -=
seen only two.  They were crystallized upon the sur
face, and their  fracture  was somewhat foliated.   In
its pure state, it is even rare as au  incrustation.  The
p.nvder of the ammonia-phosphate  calculus has  a
brilliant  white colour, a  fainl sweetish taste, and  is
somewhat soluble in water. Fourcroy and Vauquelin
suppose  the above deposites  to result  from incipient
putrefaction of urine in the bladder. It is certain lhat
the triple phosphate  is  copiously  precipitated from
urine in  such circumstances out of the body.
  Species 3. The bone car'h calculus.  Its surface, ac
cording  to Dr. Wollaston, is  generally pale brown,
smooth, and when sawed through it appears of a lami-
nated texture, easily separable into concentric crusts
Sometimes, also, each lamina is striated in a direction
perpendicular to the surface, as from an assemblage of
crystalline needles.  It is difficult to fuse this calculus
by the blowpipe, but it dissolves readily in dilute u;u
riatic acid, from which it is precipitable by ammonia.
This species, as described by Fourcroy and Vauquelin,
was white, without lustre, friable, staining the hands,
paper, and cloth.  It  had  much of a chaiky appear
ance, and broke under the forceps, and was intimately
mixed with a  gelatinous matter, which  is  left in  a
membraneous form, when the earthy salt is withdrawn
by dilute muriatic acid.   Dr. Henry says, that he  lias
never been able lo recognise a calculus of pure phos
phate of lime in  any of the collections which he  has
examined; nor did ho ever find the preceding species in
a pure state, though a calculus in Mr. White's collec-
tion  contained  more than 90 per cent, of ammonia-
tnagnesian phosphate.
  Species4. The fusible calculus. This is a very friable
concretion, of a white colour, resembling chalk in ap-
pearance and texture;  it  often breaks into  layers, ami
exhibits a glittering appearance internally, from inter-
mixture of the crystals of triple phosphate.   Sp. grav.
from 1.14 to 1.47.  Soluble in dilute muriatic and nitric
acids, but not in alkaline lixivia.  The nucleus is ge-
nerally lithic acid.  In 4 instances only out of 187, did
Dr. Henry find  the calculus composed  throughout cf
the earthy phosphates. The analysis of fusible calcu-
lus is easily performed by distilled vinegar, which at a
gentle heat dissolves  the ammonia-inagncsian phos-
phate, but not the phosphate of lime: the latter m;v
be taken up by  dilute muriatic acid.  The  lithic aci,:
present will remain, and  may be recognised by its so-
lubility in the waver of pure potassa or soda.  Or the
lithic acid may, in  the first instance, be removed by
the alkali, whicli expels the ammonia, and leaves tin.
phosphate of  magnesia and lime.
  Species 5.  The mulberry calculus.   Its surface fci
rough and tuberculated ; colour deep  reddish-brown.
Sometimes it is pale  brown, of a crystalline texture,
and covered with flat octohedral crystals.   This cal-
culus has commonly tne density and hardness of ivory,
a sp. grav. from 1.4 to 1.98, and  exhales the odour of
semen when sawed.   A moderate red  heat converts il
into carbonate of lime.   It does not dissolve in alka-
line  lixivia, but slowly and with  difficulty in acids.
When the oxalate of lime is  voided directly aftei
leaving  the kidney, it is of a grayish-brown colour 
CAL
CAL
composed of  small  cohering spherules,  sometimes
with a polished surface resembling hempsced.  They
are easily recognised by their insolubility in muriatic
ncid and their swelling up and passing into pure lime
before the blowpipe.  Mulberry calculi contain always
a:i admixture of other substances besides  oxalate of
liinc.   These  are, uric acid,  phosphate  of lime,  and
animal matter in dark flocculi. The colouring matter
nf these calculi is probably effused blood.  Dr. Henry
-ates the frequency of this species  at 1 in 17 of the
whole which he has compared; and out of 187 calculi,
he found  that 17 were formed round nuclei of oxalate
of lime.
  Species 6.   The cystic-oxide calculus.  It resem-
bles a little the triple phosphate, or more  exactly mag-
-*'sian limestone.  It is somewhat tough when cut, and
  is a peculiar greasy lustre.  Its  usual colour is pale
brown, bordering on straw yellow; and  its texture is
irregularly crystalline.   It unites in solution with
acids and alkalies, crystallizing with both.  Alkohol
precipitates  it with nitric acid.  It does not become
i cd with  nitric acid; and it has no effect upon vegetable
blues.  Neither water, alkohol, nor ether dissolves it.
It is decomposed by heat into carbonate  of ammonia
tiud oil, leaving a minute residuum of phosphate of
lime.  This  concretion is of very  rare occurrence.
Dr. Henry states its frequency to the whole as 10 to
JtSo.  In two which he examined, the nucleus was the
same substance with the rest of the concretion;  and
in a third, the nucleus of a  uric acid calculus was a
small spherule of cystic oxide. Hence, as Dr. Marcet
has remarked, this oxide appears to be in  reality the
production of the kidneys, and not, as ils name would
import, to be generated in the bladder.  It might be
i ailed with propriety renal oxide, if its  eminent  dis-
i  iverer should think fit.
  :3pecies 7.  The  alternating calculus.  The surface
ni' this calculus is usually white  like chalk, and  fria-
bleor semicrystalline, according as tbe exterior coat is
*h;e calcareous  or  ammonia-magnesian  phosphate.
They are frequently of a large size, and contain a nu-
cleus of lithic  acid.  Sometimes the  two phosphates
fjrm alternate layers round  the nucleus.  The above
are the most common alternating calculi; next are
those of  oxalate of lime with phosphates; then  oxa-
late of lime with lithic acid; and lastly, those  in which
the three  substances alternate.  The alternating, taken
all together, occur in 10 out of 25, in Dr. Henry's  list;
lithiaacid with phosphates, as 10 to 48; the oxalate of
lime with  phosphates, as 10 to 116; the oxalate of
lime with lithic acid, as 10 to 170; the oxalate of  lime
with lithic acid and phosphates, as 10 to 265.
  Species 8. The compound  calculus. This consists
of a mixture of lithic  acid  with the phosphates  in
variable  proportions, and  is consequently  variable in
its appearance.  Sometimes the alternating layers are
mi tli-.n as to  be  undistinguishable  by the eye, when
1'ieir  nature can be determined only  by chemical
analysis.  This species, in Dr. Henry's  list, forms 10
in 235.  About  l-40th of the calculi  examined by
Fourcroy and Vuuqueiin were compound.
  Species 9  has been already described.
   In almost all calculi, a  central nucleus may be dis-
covered,  sufficiently small to have descended through
ihe ureters into the bladder.   The disease  of stone is
to be considered, therefore, essentially and originally
m belonging to the kidneys.   Its  increase in the blad-
der may be occasioned, either by exposure  to urine
thai contains an excess of the same ingredient as that
composing the nucleus, in which case it will be  uni-
I irmly constituted throughout; or if the morbid nu-
cleus  deposite should cease, the concretion will  then
ticquire a coatingof the earthy phosphates.  It becomes,
therefore, highly important to ascertain the nature  of
Ihe most predominate nucleus.  Out of  187  calculi
examined by Dr. Henry, 17 were formed round nuclei
. I* oxalate of lime; 3 round nuclei of cystic oxide; 4
i.e-und nuclei ofthe earthy phosphates ; 2 round extra-
neous substances; and in 3 the nucleus  was replaced
' y a small cavity, occasioned, probably, by the shrink-
 ing of some animal mutter, round which the ingre-
 dients of the calculi (fusible) had been deposited.  Rau
 '■'** shown  by experiment, that pus may  form the
 ■ jeleus of a urinary concretion. The  remaining 158
 calculi of Dr. Henry's list, had central nuclei composed
 chiefly of lithic acid.  It  appears also, that in a very
 great majoritv of the cases referred toby him, the dis-
       ltiu
oositionto secrete an excess of lithic acid has been  ha
e^mtial cause of the origin of stone.  Hence it be
comes a  matter of great importance to inquire, whal
arethe circumstances wliich contribute to Us excessive
production, and to ascertain by what plan ol diet and
medicine this morbid action of the kidney may best
be obviated or removed.  A calculus  in Mr. White's
collection had for i's nucleus a fragment of * bougie,
lhat had slipped into the bladder.  It belonged to lh«
fusible species, consisting of,
    20 phosphate of lime,
    60 ammonia-magnesian phosphate,
    10 lithic acid,
    10 animal matter.

   100
In some instances,  though  these are compaiativety
very few, a morbid secretion of the earthy phosphates
in excess, is the cause of the formation of stone.  Dr.
Henry relates the case  of a gentleman, who, during
paroxysms of gravel, preceded by severe sickness nnd
vomiting, voided urine as opaque as milk, which depo-
sited a great quantity of an  impalpable powder, con-
sisting of the calcareous and triple phosphate in nearly
equal proportions. The weight ofthe body was rapidly
reduced from 188 to  100 pounds, apparently by the ab-
straction of the earth of his  bones;  for there was  no
emaciation of the muscles corresponding to the above
diminution.
  The first rational views on the treatment of calcu
lous disorders, were given by Dr. Wollaston.  These
have  been followed up lately by some very judicious
observations of Mr. Brande, in the 12th, 15th, and 16th
numbers of his Journal; and also by Dr. Marcet, in
his excellent treatise already referred to. Of the many
substances contained in human urine, there are rarely
more than  three whicli  constitute  gravel;  viz. calca-
reous phosphate, amnioiiia-raagnesian phosphate, and
lithic acid.  The former two form  a white sediment;
the latter, a red or brown.  The urine is always  an
acidulous secretion.  Since by this excess of acid, the
earthv salts, or while   matter, are held in solution,
whatever disorder  of  the system, or  impropriety  of
food  and medicine, diminishes that acid  excess, fa-
vours the formation of the white deposite.  The  in
ternal use of acids was shown by Dr. Woliaston to be
the appropriate remedy  in this caie.
   White gravel  is fiequently symptomatic of disor-
dered digestion, arising from excess in eating or drink-
ing ; and it is often produced by too farinaceous a diet.
It is also occasioned by the indiscreet use of magnesia,
soda water, or alkaline medicines in general.  Medical
practitioners, as well as their patients,  ignorant of
chemistry, have often  committed  fatal mistakes,  by
considering the white gravel, passed on the admini-
stration of alkaline medicines, as  the dissolution of
the calculus itself; and have hence pushed a practice,
which has rapidly increased the size of the  stone
Magnesia, in  many cases, acts more injuriously than
alkali, in precipitating insoluble phosphate from tlie
urine.  The acids of urine, which, by their  excess,
hold the earths in solution, are the phosphoric, lithic
and carbonic.   Mr.  Brande has uniformly obtained I In
latter acid, by placing urine  under  an exhausted  re
ceivcr;  and he has formed carbonate of barytes, bj
dropping barytes  water  into urine recently voided.
   The appearance of white  sand  does not seein  de
serving of much  attention, where it is merely  occa
sional, following  indigestion brought on  by an acci
dental excess.  But if it invariably follows meals, and
if it be observed in the  urine, not as a mere deposite,
but at the time the last drops are voided, it becomes a
matter of importance, as the forerunner of other and
serious forms of tlie disorder.  It has been sometimes
viewed as the effect of  irritable bladder, where it was
in reality  the cause.  Acids nre the  proper remedy,
 and unless some peculiar tonic effect be sought for in
sulphuric acid, the vegetable acids ought to be prefer
 red.  Tartar, or  its acid, may be prescribed with ad-
 vantage, but the best medicine is citric acid, in daily
 doses from 5 to 30 grains.  Persons returning from
 warm climates, with dyspeptic and hepatic disorders,
 often void this white gravel, for which they have re-
 course to einpyrical solvents, for the most part alka
 line, and are deeply injured.  They ought to adopl n\
 acidulous  diet, abstaining from soda water, alkalies,
 malt liquor, madeira, and port; to eat salads,»»•*«• t«j£ 
CAL                                             CAL
fruits; and if habit requires it, a glass of cider, cham-
pagne, or claret, but Ihe less of these fermented liquors
the better.  An effervescing draught is often very bene-
ficial, made by dissolving 30 grains of bicarbonate of
poiassa, and 20 of citric acid, in  separate teacups of
water, mixing the  solution in a  la.ge tumbler, and
drinking the whole during the effervescence. This dose
may be repeated 3  or 4 times  a-day.  The carbonic
acid of the above medicine enters the circulation, and
passing off" by the bladder, is useful in retaining, par-
ticularly,  the triple phosphate in  solution, as was first
pointed out by Dr. Wollaston.  The bowels should be
kept regular by medicine and moderate exercise.  'The
febrile affections of children are frequently attended
by an apparently formidable deposite of white sand in
the urine.  A dose of caiomel will generally carry off
both the fever and the  sand.  Air, exercise,  bark, bit-
ters, mineral  tonics, are in  like manner often success-
ful  in removing  the urinary complaints of grown-up
persons.
  In considering the red gravel, it is necessary to dis-
tinguish  between  those cases  in which  the sand is
actually voided,  and those in which  it is deposited,
after  some  hours,  from originally limpid mine.   In
the first, the sabulous appearance is an alarming indi-
cation of a tendency to form calculi; in the second, it
is often  merely a  fleeting symptom  of  indigestion.
Should it frequently recur, however, it is not to be dis-
regarded.
  Bicarbonate of potassa or soda is tlie proper remedy
for tlie red sand, or lithic acid deposite.  The alkali
may often he beneficially combined with opium. Am-
monia, or its crystallized carbonate, may be resorted
lo with advantage, where symptoms of indigestion are
brought on by the  other alkalies; and particularly in
red gravel connected with gout, in which the joints and
kidneys are  affected  by turns.  Where  potassa and
soda have been so  long employed as  to disagree with
the stomach, to  create nausea, flatulency, a sense of
weight, pain, and other symptoms of indigestion, mag-
nesia  may  be prescribed with the best effects.  The
tendency which it  has to accumulate in dangerous
quantities in the intestines, and to form a white sedi-
ment in urine,  calls on the  practitioner  to look  mi-
nutely after its administration.  It should be occasion-
ally alternated with otlier laxative medicines.  Mag-
nesia dissolved in carbonic acid, as Mr. Scheweppe
used to prepare it many years ago, by the direction of
Mr. Brande, is an elegant form of  exhibiting  this
remedy.
   Care must be had not to push the alkaline medicines
too far, lest  they give rise to the deposition of earthy
phosphates in the urine.
  Cases occur in which tbe sabulous deposite consists
of a mixture of" lithic acid with the phosphates.  The
sediment of urine in inflammatory disorders is some-
times of this nature; and of those persons who habitu-
ally indulge in excess of wine; as also of those who,
labouring under  hepatic affections, secrete much albu-
men in their urine.  Purges, tonics,  and  nitric acid,
which is the solvent of both the above sabulous mat-
ters, are the appropriate remedies.  The  best diet for
patients labouring under the lithic deposite, is a vege-
table.  Dr. Wolloston's fine observation, that the ex-
crement of birds fed solely upon animal matter, is in a
great measure lithic acid,  and the curious fact since
ascertained, that the excrement ofthe boa constrictor,
fed also entirely on animals, is pure lithic acid, concur
in giving force to the above dietetic  prescription.  A
week's abstinence from animal food has  been knowii
to relieve a tit of lithic acid gravel, where the alkalies
were of little avail.  But we must not carry  the vege-
table system so  far as to produce flatulency and indi-
gestion.
  Such are  the principal  circumstances connected
with the disease of gravel in its incipient or  sabulous
state.  The  calculi formed in the  kidneys are, as we
have  said above, either lithic, oxalic, or cystic; and
✓cry  rarely  indeed of the phosphate species.   An
aqueous  regimen,  moderate exercise  on horseback,
when  not accompanied with much  irritation, cold
bathing, and mild aperients, along with the appropriate
ch mical  medicines, must  be  prescribed in kidney
cases.  These are particularly requisite immediately
after acute pain in the region of the ureter, and in-
flammatory  symptoms have led  to the belief that a
8 ucleus has descended  into the  bladder.  Burges, )diu-
retics,  and diluents, ou^ht  to be  liberally enjoined
A large quantity of mucus streaked with blood, or of
a  purulent aspect,  and  ha-inorrhagy,  are frequent
symptoms of the passage of the stone into the bladder.
  When a stone has once lodged in  the bladder, and
increased there to such a size as  no longer to be capa-
ble  of passing through the  urethra, it is generally
allowed by all who have candidly considered the sub-
ject, and who  arc qualified by experience to be judges,
that the stone can  never again  be  dissolved;  and
although it is possible that it may become so loosened
in its texture as to he voided piecemeal, or gradually
to crumble away, the event  is so rare as to be barely
probable.
  By examining collections  of calculi we learn, that
in by far the greater number of cases, a  nucleus of
lithic acid is enveloped in  a  crust of the phosphates.
Our endeavours must  therefore be directed towards
reducing the excess of lithic acid  in  the urine lo its
natural standard ; or, on the other hand, to lessen the
tendency to the deposition  of the phosphates.  The
urine must be submitted to chemical examination, and
a suitable  course of diet and medicines  prescribed.
But the chemical remedies must be regulated nicely,
so as to hit the happy equilibrium, in which no deposite
will be formed.  Here is a powerful call on the physi-
cians and  surgeons  to  make themselves thoroughly
versant in chemical  science; for they will otherwise
commit the most  dangerous  blunders  in calculous
complaints.
  'The idea of dissolving a calculus of uric acid in
the bladder, by tlie internal use of the caustic alkalies,'
says Mr. Brande, ' appears too absurd to merit serious
refutation.'  In respect to the  phosphates, it seems
possible, by keeping up  an unusual acidity in  the
urine,  so far to soften  a crust of the calculus, as lo
make it crumble down, or admit of being  abraded by
tlie sound; but this is the utmost that can be looked
for ; and the lithic nucleus will still  remain.  ' These
considerations,' adds Mr. Brande,  ' independent of
more urgent reasons, show  the  futility of attempting
the solution of a stone of the bladder by the injection
of acid and alkaline solutions. In respect to the alka
lies, if sufficiently strong to act upon the uric crust of
the calculus, they would certainly injure the coats of
the  bladder; they would  otherwise  become inactive
by combination with the acids of the urine, and they
would form a dangerous precipitate from the same
cause.'—' It therefore appears to me, that Fourcroy
and others, who have  advised the plan of injection,
have thought  little of all these  obstacles to success,
and have regarded the bladder as a lifeless receptacle,
into which, as into an India rubber bottle, almost any
solvent might  be injected with  impunity.'—Journal
of Science, vol. viii. p. 216.
  It does not appear lhat Ihe peculiarities of water in
different districts, have  any influence upon the pro
duction of calculous disorders.  Dr. Wollaston's dis-
covery ofthe analogy between urinary and gouty con-
cretions has led to the trial in gravel of the vinum col-
chici, the specific for gout.   By a note to Mr. Brande's
dissertation we learn, that benefit has  been derived
from it in a case of red gravel.
  Dr. Henry confirms the above precepts in the follow-
ing decided language.   ' Thcs«  cases, and others of
the  same kind, which I think it  unnecessary to men-
tion, tend to discourage all attempts lo dissolve a stone
supposed to consist of uric  acid, after it has attained
considerable size in the bladder; all that can be effected
under  such circumstances by alkaline medicines ap-
pears, as Mr. Brande has  remarked,  to be the preci-
pitating upon  it a coating of the earthy  phosphates
from the urine, a sort  of concretion whicli, as has
been observed by various  practical writers, increases
much more rapidly than that consisting of uric  acid
only.  The same unfavourable  inference  may be
drawn also from the dissections of those persons in
whom  a stone was supposed to be dissolved by alka-
line  medicines; for in these instances  it has been
found either encysted, or placed  out  of the reach of
the  sound by an enlargement ofthe prostate gland.'
  The  urinary calculus of  a dog, examined by Dr.
Pearson, was found to consist principally of the phos-
phates of lime and  ammonia, with  animal matter.
Several taken  from horses, were  of a similar composi
tion.   One of a rabbit consisted chiefly of carbonate
offline and animal matter, with  perhaps a little phos 
CAL                                             CAL
phone acid.  A quantity of sabulous matter, neither
crystallized  nor concrete, is sonietimes found in the
bladderof the horse:  in one instance there were nearly
45 pounds.  These appear to consist of carbonate of
lime and  animal matter.  A calculus of a cat  gave
Fourcroy  three parts of carbonate, and one of the
phosphate of lime.  That of a pig, according to  Ber-
thollet, was phosphate of lime.
  The renal calculus  in man appears to be of the same
nature as the urinary.  In that of the horse, Fourcroy
found 3 parts of carbonate, and one of phosphate of
lime.  Dr. Pearson, in one instance, carbonate of lime,
and animal matter; in two others, phosphates of li:ne
and ammonia, with animal matter.
  Arthritic calculi, or those  formed in  the  joints of
gouty persons, were once supposed to be carbonate of
lime, whence they weie called chalkstones; afterward
it was supposed that they were phosphate of lime  ; but
Dr. Wollaston has shown that they are lithale of soda.
The  calculi found sometimes in the pineal, prostate,
salivary, and bronchial glands, in the pancreas, in the
corpora  cavernosa penis, and between the muscles, as
well  as  the  tartar, as it is  called, that incrusts the
tetth, appear to be phosphate of lime.   Dr. Crompton,
however, examined a calculus taken  from the lungs
of a deceased soldier, which consisted of lime 45, car-
bonic acid 37, albumen and water 18.   It was  very
hard, irregularly spheroidal, a.id measured about 6^
inches in circumference.
  It  has been  observed, that the lithic  acid, which
constitutes the chief part of most human urinary cal-
culi,  and abounds in  the arthritic, has  been found in
no phytivorous animal;  and hence has been  deduced
a practical inference,  that abstinence from animal food
would prevent their formation.  But we are  inclined
to think this  conclusion too  hasty.  The cat is carni-
vorous; but  it appeared above, that the calculus of
that animal is equally  destitute of lithic acid.  If, there-
fore, we would form any deduction with  respect to
regimen, we  must look  for  something  used by man,
exclusively of all other animals ; and this is obviously
found in fermented liquors, but apparently in nothing
else: and this practical inference is sanctioned by the
most respectable medical authorities.
  The following valuable  criteria of  the different
kinds of urinary calculi, have been given by M. Ber-
zelius in his  treatise on the use ofthe blowpipe:
  '1. We  may  recognise calculi formed of uric  acid,
from their being carbonized  and smoking with an ani-
mal odour, when heated by  themselves on charcoal or
platinuin-foil.  They  dwindle away at the blowpipe
flame.  Towards the  end, they burn with an increase
of light; and leave  a  small quantity  of very white
alkaline ashes.
  ' To distinguish these concretions from other sub-
stances, which cemport themselves in the above man-
ner, we must try a portion of the calculus by the humid
way.  Thus a tenth of a grain of this calculus being
put on a thin plate of glass  or platinum, along with a
drop of nitric acid, we must heal it at the flame of the
lamp.  The  uric acid  dissolves  with effervescence.
The matter, when dried with precaution to prevent it
from charring, is obtained in a line red colour. If the
calculus contains but  little  uric acid, the substance
sonietimes blackens  by this  process.  We must then
take a new portion of the concretion, and after having
dissolved  it  in  nitric acid, remove it from the heat:
the solution, when nearly dry, is to be allowed to cool
and  become dry. We then expose it, sticking to its
support, to  the  warm vapour of  caustic ammonia.
(From water of ammonia heated in a tea-spoon.)  This
ammoniacal vapour developes a beautiful red colour in
it.  We may also moisten the dried matter with a little
weak water of  ammonia.
  'If the  concretions are a mixture of uric acid  and
earthy  phosphate, they carbonize and  consume like
the above, but their residuum is more bulky; it is not
alkaline,  nor soluble in water.   They  exhibit  with
nitric acid and ammonia, the fine  red colour of uric
acid.  Their ashes contain  phosphate of lime, or of
lime and magnesia.
   ' 2. The calculi of urate of soda are hardly met with
except in  the concretions round the articulations of
gouty patients.  When heated alone upon charcoal,
they blacken, exhaling an empyreumatic animal odour;
they are with difficulty reduced into ashes, which are
strongly alkaline, and are capable of vitrifying silica.
      168
When there are earthy salts (phosphates) ji thef*
concretions, they afford a whitish or opaque gray glass.
  ' 3.  The calculi of urate of ammonia comport them-
selves at the blowpipe like tliose of uric acid.  A drop
of caustic  potassa makes them exhale, at a moderate
heat,  much ammonia.  We must not confound this
odour with the slight ammoiiiaco-lixivial smell, which
potassa disengages  from the greater part of animal
substances.  Uiate of soda is likewise found in thess
calculi.
  14.  Calculi of phosphate of lime.  They blacker,
with the exhalation  of an empyreumatic animal odour
without melting of themselves at the blowpipe, but
whiten into an  evident calcareous phosphate.   With
soda they swell up  without vitrifying.  Dissolved  iu
boracic acid, and fused along wilh a little iron, they
yield a bead of  phosphuret of iron.
  ' 5.   Calculi of ammoniaco-magnesian  phosphate,
heated alone on a plate of platinum, exhale the empy
reumatic animal odour, at  the same time blackening.
swelling up, and becoming finally grayish white.   A
kind of grayish-white enamel is in this  manner ob-
tained.  With borax they melt into a glass, which is
transparent, or which becomes of a milky-white on
cooling  Soda  in small quantity causes thein to fuse
into a frothy white slag;  a larger quantity of soda
makes them infusible.  They yield, with iron and bo-
racic acid, a bead of phosphuret of iron ;  with nitrate
of cobalt, a glass of a deep  red or brown.  If salts of
lime exist in these  concretions,  the mixture of them
is less fusible.
  ' 6.  Calculi of oxalate of lime, exposed  to the blow-
pipe, exhale at first the urinous  smell; they become
first of a dull colour at the flame, and afterward their
colour brishuns.   What  remains after  a moderate
ignition,  effervesces with nitric acid.  After a smart
jet of the flame, there remains quicklime  on the char-
coal, which reacts like an alkali on the colour of lit-
mus, wild mallow flower, or cabbage, and slakes with
water.  But this does not happen when the residuum
consists of calcareous phosphate.
  17.  The siliceous calculus, heated alone, leaves sub-
coriaceous  or infusible  ashes.  Treated with a little
soda,  these dissolve with effervescence,  but slowly,
leaving a bead  ot glass of a gray colour, or of little
transparency.
,  ' 8.  Lastly, the cystic oxyde calculi afford nearly the
same results as  uric acid at the blowpipe.  T'hev rea-
dily take lire, burning with  a bluish green  flame, with-
out melting, with the disengagement of a lively and
very peculiar acid odour, which has some affinity to
that of cyanogen.  Their ashes,  whicli are not alka
line, redissolve  by a jet of  the flame, into a grayish-
white mass.  They  do not yield  a red colour in then
treatment with  nitric acid, like the uric acid concre-
tions.' "
 The Causes of the Generation of Urinary Calculi.
  To  inquire into the causes by which urinaiycon
cretions are produced, is both interesting and useful,
however attended with the greatest difficulties.  The
writings of medical authors are full of conjectures uno
hypotheses  with regard to this  subject, on which no-
thing could be ascertained before we had  acquired an
accurate knowledge of the nature of urinary concre-
tions.   It is owing to this circumstance that the mosl
enlightened physicians acquiesced in ascribing the im-
mediate cause of them to a superabundance of  terrc-
ous matter in the urine; and Boerhaave, as w ell as,
particularly, Van Swieten, imagined  that the  urine
of all men  contained calculous matter in the naturai
state,  and that, for the generation of stones, a nucleus
was only required, to attract it.   That this may be the
case, in some instances, is proved by frequent experi-
ence ;  but stones produced by foreign bodies, that have
accidentally got  into  the  urethra or  bladder, are
always white, and composed of phosphates of earths,
and seldom or  never covered with lithic acid, a sub-
stance which is observed to form the stones that most
frequently occur; but even in these the nucleus con-
sis s of a substance formed  in the body itself, as a par

rt.£&nded from  the  kid"pys'&c' "nicn  n'»st>
 Prnti I',lave  "eces*5mily originated in a peculiar irJ
 e™1cailse' ,A superabundance of uric acid in stonv
patients, and its  more copious generation than in  a
sound state, though  it seems to be one of the princiDal
and most certain causes, is by no means  satisfactory.
as it only explains  the precipitation of stony  m-ittex 
CAL
CAL
from  the urine, but  not why it  unites in strata.  A
coagulating substance  is required for separating,
attracting, and, as it were, agglutinating the condensi-
ble particles that are precipitated.  This substance is
undoubtedly the  animal matter  which we have con-
stantly found in all calculous masses, and which seems
to constitute the basis of stones, like the membraneous
gelatina that of bones.   It is known that the urine of
calculous patients is generally  muddy, ductile, in
threads, slimy, and as if mixed with albumen, which
quality it obtains at the moment when the ammonia
is disengaged, or on the addition of potassa that sepa-
rates it from the acid in which it was dissolved;  and
in all cases of superabundance of lithic acid the urine
contains a great quantity of that animal matter, which
promotes  the precipitation of it,  and attracts,  and
unites the particles thus separated.   Hence it appears,
that every thing capable of increasing the quantity of
that pituitous gluten in the  urine, may be considered
as the remote cause of the formation of calculi.  And
the old ideas on pituitous temperaments, or  supera-
bundant  piluita, &c. which were thought to dispose
|ieople to a calculus, seem to be connected with the
late discoveries  on  the nature of urinary stones.
Though the animal matter appears to be different in
different calculi, yet it is certain, that every calculous
substance contains an animal  gluten, from which its
concrete and solid state arises; whence we may fairly
state the superabundance of that substance as the chief
and principal cause ofthe formation of calculi.
  There are, however,  other causes which seem to
have a particular influence on the  nature of urinary
stones, and the strata in which they are formed; but
it is extremely difficult to penetrate and to  explain
them.  We are, for instance, entirely ignorant of the
manner in w hich urinary stones are formed from the
oxalate of lime; though, from their occurring more
frequently in children than in adults, we might be en-
titled to ascribe them to a disposition to acor, a cause
considered by Boerhaave  as the general source of a
great  number of diseases incident to the infantile age.
Thi3 opinion seems to be proved  by the ideas of Bon-
homine,physician at Avignon, on the oxalic or saccha-
ric acid, as the cause of mollifies ossium in the rickets;
by this acid being discovered in  a species of saliva by
Brugnatelli; and, lastly, by an observation of Turgais,
who found this acid in the urine of a child diseased
with worms.  We but rarely observe saccharic  acid
in  the human body, which  appears to be mostly ad-
ventitious, and by which the animal matter is rendered
coagulable, and deposited, or precipitated, with the
oxalate of lime; or the oxalic acid decomposes the
phosphate of lime, and forms an insoluble  combina-
tion, incapableof being any longer keot dissolved in the
urine.  It is, however, extremely  difficult to determine
how far the constitution  ofthe body is connected with
that particular disposition in  the  urine, of precipi-
tating sometimes phosphate of lime mixed with oxalate
of lime, sometimes phosphate of  ammoniacal  magne-
sia, either by itself or mixed with lithic acid, &c.  &c.
Who can explain the reason why, of 600 stones, there
were only two in which siliceous earth could be traced ?
Still more difficult is it to explain the causes why the
above substances precipitate either at once or in differ-
ent strata; but it may suffice to have shown how
many observations and experiments are required,  and
what  accurate attention and perseverance are neces-
sary, in order to throw light on so difficult a subject.
  The means to be employed in calculous complaints
must  vary according  to circumstances.  Permanent
relief can be obtained only by the removal of the mor-
bid concretion:  and where this is of too large a size to
be passed by the natural outlet, the  operation of litho-
tomy  becomes necessary.   Various remedies indeed
have  been proposed as capable of dissolving urinary
calculi; and some of them are certainly useful in  pal-
liating the symptoms,  and  perhaps preventing  the
formation of fresh calculous matter:  but experience
has not sanctioned their efficacy as actual lithontrip-
tics; and by delaying the operation, we not only incur
ihe risk of organic disease being produced, but the con-
cretion may also become friable externally, so as to be
with more difficulty removed.  Sometimes,  however,
the advanced age ofthe patient, the complication with
organic disease, or the exhausted state of the system,
may render an operation inexpedient; or he may not
be willing to submit to it; we shall then find some ad-
vantage from the use of chemical lemedies, according
to the morbid quality of the urine; that is generally
from alkaline or earthy preparations, where a red de-
posite appears, and from acids where there is a white
sediment.  Tonic medicines may also be useful, and
some of the mild astringents, especially uva ursi, and
occasional  narcotics, where violent pain attends:
sometimes  an  inflammatory tendency may  require
fomentations, the local abstraction of blood, and other
antiphlogistic measures. The most likely plan of effect-
ing a solution of the calculus must certainly be that
proposed  by Fourcroy, namely,  injecting  suitable
liquids into the bladder.  The most common  calculi,
containing  uric acid, are leadily soluble in a solutioa
of potassa, or soda,  weak enough to be  held in the
mouth, or  even swallowed  without inconvenience,
those which consist of phosphoric acid neutralized by
lime, or other base, the next in frequency, dissolve in
nitric or muriatic acid of no greater strength ; the most
rare variety, made up mostly of oxalate of lime, may
be dissolved, but very slowly, in nitric acid, or solu-
tions of the fixed alkaline carbonates, weak  enough
not to irritaie the bladder.  However, it Is not easy to
ascertain whicli  of these solvents is proper in  a parti-
cular case,  for most calculi are not uniform through-
out, owing probably to the urine having varied during
their formation, so that the examination of this secre-
tion will  not certainly indicate the injection required.
The plan recommended, therefore,  is,  the  bladder
having been evacuated, and washed out with tepid
water, to inject  first the alkaline solution, heated to
the temperature of the body, and direct it to be retain
ed for half an hour, or longer, if the person can bear
it; then,  to the liquor voided and filtered,  add  a little
muriatic  acid, which will cause a white precipitate, if
there be any uric acid dissolved; and so long as this
happens, the same injection should be used, otherwise
diluted muriatic  acid is to be thrown in, and ammonia
added to it when discharged ; whereby phosphate of
lime, if there be any, is precipitated : and when nei-
ther of these succeeds, diluted nitric acid is to be tried;
in each case varying the injection from time to time,
as that previously used loses its efficacy.  However,
there appears one source  of error in this method;
namely, that the urine  secreted, while the liquid is
retained, may give rise  to a  precipitate, though none
of the calculus  may have been dissolved; it would
therefore be proper to examine the urine previously, as
well as occasionally during the use of injections, and,
if necessary, correct its quality by the exhibition of
proper  internal  medicines.  See  Lithontriptics and
Lithotomy.
  Calculus biliaris.  See Gall-stone.
  CALDA'RIUM.  (From caleo, to make hot.)  A
vessel in the baths of the ancients, to hold hot water.
  CALEFA'CIENT.   (Calefaciens;  from calidus,
warm, and facio, to make.)  A  medicine, or  otlier
substance, whicli excites a degree of warmth  in the
parts to which it is  applied: as piper, spiritus vini,
Sec.  They belont, to the class of stimulants.
  CALE'NDULA.   (Quad  singulis calendis, i. e.
mensibus,florcscat; so called because it flowers every
month.)  1. The name of a genus of plants in the Lin-
naean system.  Class, Syngenesia;  Order, Polygamia
necessaria.
  2. The pharmacopoeial name of the single marigold.
See Calendula officinalis.
  Calendula  alpina.  The  mountain arnica. See
Arnica montana.
  Calendula arvensis.  The wild mangold. Sec
Caltha palustris.
  Calendula  officinalis.   The garden marigold
Calendula sativa;  Chrysanthemum;  Sponsa  solis;
Caltha vulgaris.  The flowers  and leaves  of this
plant, Calendula:—scminibus cymbiformibus, mun
catis, incurvatis omnibus, of Linnaeus, have been ex
hibited medicinally:  the former, as aperients in ute
rine obstructions and icteric disorders, and as diapho-
retics in  exanthematous fevers; the latter, as gentle
aperients, and to promote the secretions in general.
  Calendula  palustris.   Common single  marsh-
marigold.  See  Caltha palustris.
  CALENTURE.   A febrile delirium, said to be pe-
culiar to sailors, wherein they imagine the sea to be
green fields, and will throw themselves into it if no
restrained.   Bonetus, Dr. Oliver, and Dr. Stubbs, give
an account of it.
                                        I'M 
CAL
CAL
   Calesii.m   The Indian name of a tree  which
 grows in Malabar, the bark of which made into an
 ointment with butter, cures convulsions from wounds,
 and heals  ulcers.  The  juice of  the bark cures the
 aphthae, and, taken inwardly, the dysentery.—Ray.
   Calf's snout.  See Antirrhinum.
   Call (Arabian.)  The same as kali
   Calicha'pa.  The white-thorn.
   CA'LIDUS.  In medical language, it is commonly
 used for animal heat, or the vis vitae - thus, culidum
 animate innatum.
  CALip.t  plant*.  (From color, heat.)   Plants
 tint are natives of warm climates.
  Calie'ta.  (From koXitjs,  a nest, wliich  it somc-
 ivhat resembles.)   Calliette.  A fungus growing on
 the juniper-tree.
  CALI'GO.  (Caligo, ginis. fcein.)  A disease of the
 eye, known by diminished or destroyed sight;  and by
 the interposition of a dark  body between the object
and the retina.  It is arranged by  Cullen in  the class
Locales, and order dysasthcsiii.  The species of ca-
ligo are distinguished according to the  situation of
the interposed body:  thus caligo lcntis,catigo  coma,
caligo papilla,  caligo humor urn,  and caligo  palpe-
brarum.
  Caliha'cha.   Tlie cassia-lignea, or cassia-tree of
Malabar.
  Cali mia.   The lapis calaminaris.
   CA'LIX.  (Calix, ids. in.; from KaXvirlto, to cover.)
See Calyx.
  Call-e'um.  (From KaXXvvu, to adorn.)   Oallaon.
The gills of a cock, which Galen says, is food not to
be praised or condemned.
  Calle'na.  A kind of saltpetre.
  Ca'lli.  Nodes in the gout.—Galen.
  Ca'llia.   (From xaXos, beautiful.)  A name of the
chamomile.
  Calliblf.'phara.  (From koXos, good,  and BXcqia-
oov, the  eyelid.)  Medicines, or  compositions,  appro-
priated to the eyelids.
  CALLICOCCA.  The name of a genus of plants
in the Linnaean system.  Class, Pentandria,  Order,
Menogynia.
  Callicocca ipecacuanha.  The plant from which
ipecacuan root is obtained was long unknown; it was
said by some writers lo  be the Psychotria  emetica:
Class, Pentandria; Order, Monogynia; by others, the
 Viola ipecacuanha, a syngenesious plant of the order
 Monogynia.  It is  now ascertained to  be neither, but
a small  plant called Callicocca  ipecacuanha.  There
 are three sorts of ipecacuan to be met with  in  our
sho; s, viz. the ash-coloured or gray, the brown, and
 the white.
  The ash-coloured is.brought from Peru, and is a small
 wrinkled root, bent and contorted into a great variety
 of figures, brought over in short pieces, full of wrinkles,
 and deep circular fissures, down to a small white
 woody fibre that runs in the  middle of each  piece :
 the cortical part is compact, brittle, looks smooth and
 resinous upon breaking: it has very little smell; the
 .aste is bitterish and subacrid, covering the tongue, as
 it were, with a kind of mucilage.
   The brown is small, somewhat more wrinkled than
 the foregoing; of a brown or blackish colour without,
 and white within; this is brought from Brazil.
   The white  sort  is woody, and has no wrinkles, nor
 any perceptible bitterners in taste.  Tlie first, the ash-
 coloured or gray ipecacuan, is that  usually preferred
 for medicinal use.  The brown has been sometimes
 observed,  even in a small dose,  to produce  violent
 effects.  The white, though taken  in a large one, has
 scarcely any effect at all.  Experience has proved that
 this medicine is the safest emetic  with which we are
 acquainted, having this peculiar advantage, that, if it
 docs not operate by vomit, it  readily passes off by the
 other emunctories.  Ipecacuan was first introduced as
 nn infallible remedy against dysenteries, and oilier in-
 veterate fluxes, as diarrhoea, monorrhagia, leucorrhoea,
 Sec and also in disorders proceeding from obstructions
 of long standing; nor has it lost much of its reputation
 by time: its  utility in th se cases is thought to de-
 pend upon its restoring perspiration.  It has also been
 successfully employed in spasmodic asthma, catarrhal
 and consumptive cases.  Nevertheless, its chief use is
 as a vomit, and in small doses, joined with opium, as a
 diaphoretic.  The officinal preparations are the pulvis
 ipicur.uanlia compositus, and the viimm ipecacuanha.
  Calli'creas.  (From koXos, good, and natas, meat,
so namedvfrom  its delicacy as food.)  Sweet bread
See Pancreas.
  Calli'gonum.  (From koXos, beautiful, and -vow,
a knot, or joint;  so  named from its being handsomely
jointed, like a cane.) The polygonum, or knot-grass
  Callioma'rchus. The Gaullic name, in Marcellus
Empiricus, of colt's-foot.
  Ca'llion.   A kind of night-shade
  Calliphy'llum.  From xaXXos, beauty, and ^uA
Xov, a leaf.)   See Adianthum.
  Callistru'thia.  (From xaXos. good, and s-oi>0oc, a
sparrow; because it was said to lattcu sparrows.)  A
fig mentioned by I'liny, of a good taste.
  CALLITRl'CHE.   (From KaXXos, beauty,  End
&ptl, hair; so named because it has the appearance of
long,  beautiful hair; or, according to Littleton, lie
cau.-e it nourishes the hair, and makes it  beautiful.)
1. The name of a genus of plants in the Linnaean sys-
tem.  Class,  Monandria; Order, Digynia.   Water
starwort.  Water chickweed.
  2.  The herb maidenhair.   See Adianthum.
  CALLO'NE.   (From  koXos, fair.)   Hippocrates
used this word,  to  signify that decency and  gravity
of character and deportment which it is necessary that
all medical men should be possessed of.
  CALLO S1TAS.   Callosity, or preternatural hard-
ness.
  CALLOSITY.   Callositas.  Hardness.
  CALLOSUS.  Hard.   Applied in  surgery to part*
which are  morbidly hard;  and, in botany, to seeds
which are hard ; as those of the Citrus medica.
  CA'LLOUS.  Callosus.   Hardened or indurated.
as the callous edges of ulcers.
  CALLUS.  (Callus, i.m.;  and Galium, i.  n.) 1.
The  bony matter deposited between ihe divided ends
of broken bones, about  the fourteenth day after the
fracture.  It  is in reality nothing more than the new
ossific substance formed  by a process of nature, very
similar lo the growth of any other part of the body.
  2.  A preternatural hardness, or induration, of any
fleshy part.
  3.  This  term is applied in Good's Nosology to  that
species of ecphyina, which is characterized by callous
extuberaiit thickening of the cuticle;  insensible to the
touch.
  Caloca'tanus.  (From koXos, beautiful, and ica7a
vov, a cup; so called from the beauty  of its flower and
shape.)  The wild poppy.  See Papavcr rhatas.
  CALO'MELAS.   (From xaXos, good, and  ptXas
black; from  its virtues  and colour.)  1. The prepa-
ration called iEthiops mineral, or hydrariryrus  cum
sulphure, was formerly so named.
  2.  The chloride of mercury.  See Hydrarguri  sub-
murias.
_ CALO'RIC.    (Caloricum; from color,  heat)
tieat; Igneous fluid.                               '
  Heat and cold are perceptions of which we acquire
the ideas from the senses; tbey indicate only a certain
state in which we find ourselves, independent  of am
exterior object.   But as these sensations  are  for the
most part  produced by bodies around us, we consider
them as causes, and judging by appearances, we apply
the terms hot, or cold, to the substances themselves •
calling those bodies hot, which produce in us the  sen-
sation of heat, and those cold, which communicate the
contrary sensation.
  This ambiguity, though of little consequence in the
common affairs of human life, has led unavoidably to
confusion and perplexity in  philosophical discussions
It was to  prevent this,  that  the framers  of the  new
nomenclature adopted the word caloric, which denotes
that which produces the sensation of heat.
                 Theories of Heat.
  Two opinions have long divided the philosophical
world concerning the nature of heat.
  1.  The one is ; that  the  cause which produces the
sensation ot  neat, is a real,  or distinct substance, uni-
versally pervading nature, penetrating the particles or
pores of all  bodies, with more or less facility, and in
different quantities.                        '
  This substance, if applied to our system in a greater
proportion than it  already  contains,  warms it, as we
call it, or produces the sensation of heat; and hence  il
has been called caloric or calorific,
  2. The  other  theory concernhis heat is; that  the
cause whicli produces that seir-ation is not a separate 
CAL                                              CAL
ji st It-existing substance;  hut that it  is merely like
gravity, a property of matter;  and that it consists in a
specific or peculiar motion, ot vibration ofthe particles
of bodies.
  The arguments  in  favour of the first theory have
been  principally deduced  from  the  evolution  and
absorption of heat during  chemical  combinations;
those of the latter are chiefly founded on the produc-
tion of heat bv friction  For it has been observed, that
whatever is capable of producing motion in the par-
ticles of any mass of matter, excites  heat.  Count
Rumford and Professor Davy have paid uncommon
attention to this fact, and proved, that heal continues
to be evolved from a body subjected to friction, so long
os it is applied, and the texture or form of the body
not altered.
  All the effects of heat, according to this theory, de-
pend therefore entirely upon the  vibratory motion of
the particles of bodies.  According as this is more or
less inten-je, a higher or lower temperature is produced;
and as it predominates over, is nearly equal or inferior
to the attraction of cohesion, bodies exist in the gase-
ous, fluid, or solid state.
  Different bodies are susceptible of it in different de-
grees, and receive and communicate  it with different
celerity.  From the generation, communication, and
attraction of this repulsive motion, under these laws,
all the phenomena ascribed to heal are explicable.
  Each of these theories has  been supported  by the
most able philosophers, and given occasion lo the most
important disputes in wliich chemists  have been en-
gaged:  wliich has  contributed in a very particular
manner to the advancement of the science.  The ob-
scurity of  the subject, however, is  such,  that  both
parties have been able to advance most plausible
arguments.
  Setting aside all inquiries concerning the merits of
these different doctrines, we shall confine ourselves to
■.he general effects which  heat produces on different
bodies.   For the phenomena which heat presents, and
their relation to each other, may be investigated with
sufficient precision, though the materiality, or  imma-
teriality of it, may remain unknown to us.
                 Nature of Heat.
  Those who consider heat as matter, assert that caloric
exists in two states, namely, in combination,or at liberty.
   In the first state it is not sensible to our organs, nor
'ndicated by the thermometer; it forms a constituent
part of tbe body; but it may be brought back to the
state of sensible heat. In this state it affects animals
with the sensation of  heat.   It therefore has  been
called sensible or free heat, or fire; and is synonymous
with uucombined caloric, thermometrical caloric, ca-
loric of temperature, interposed caloric, Sec expressions
now pretty generally superseded.
  From  the diversity of opinions among chemists re-
specting the nature of caloric, several  other expres-
sions have been introduced,  which it is  proper to
notice.   For instance, by  specific heat  is understood,
the relatitive quantities of caloric contained in equal
weights of different  bodies at the same temperature.
Latent heat is the expression used to denote that quan-
tity of caloric which  a body absorbs when changing
its form.  It is, however, more properly called  caloric
of fluidity.  The disposition, or property, by  which
different bodies contain  certain quantities of caloric,
at any temperature, is termed  their capacity for heat.
By the expression of absolute heat, is understood the
whole quantity of caloric which any body contains.
      Methods of exciting and collecting Heat.
  Of the different methods of exciting heat, tlie fol-
lowing are the most usual:
  I.  Percussion or Collision.   This method of  pro-
ducing heat is the simplest, and therefore il is gene-
rally made use of in tlie common purposes  of  life for
obtaining fire.
  When a piece of hardened steel is struck with a
flint, some particles of  the metal are  scraped away
from  the mass,  and so violent is the heat which fol-
lows the stroke, that it  melis and vitrifies them.  If
the fragments of steel ore caught upon paper, and
viewed with a microscope, most of thenvwill be found
perfect spherules,  and very highly polished.  Their
sphericity demonstrates that they have been in  a fluid
state, and the polish upon their surface, shows them
to be vitrified.
  No heat; however  has been observed to follow the
percussion of liquids, nor of the softer kind of bodies
which yield to a slight impulse.
  2. Friction.  Heat may likewise be excited by mere
friction.   This practice is still  retained in some parts
of the world. The natives of New Holland are said
to produce fire in this manner, with great facility, and
spread it in a wonderful  manner.  For that purpose,
they take  two pieces of dry  wood; one is a  Btick,
about eight or nine inches long, and the other piece is
flat; the stick they bring  to an obtuse point at one end,
and pressing it upon the other  piece,  they turn it very
nimbly, by holding it between  both hands, as we do a
chocolate-mill, often shilling their hands up, and then
moving down upon it, in order lo increase the pressure
as much as possible.  By this method they get lire in
a  few minutes,  and from the  smallest spark  they
increase il with great speed and dexterity.
  If the  irons at the axis of a coach-wheel arc applied
to each other, without the interposition of some unc-
tuous matter to  keep them from immediate contact,
they will become so hot when the carriage runs swiftly
along, as to set the wood  on fire; and the fore-wheels,
being smallest, and making  most revolutions in a given
lime, will be most in danger.
  The same will happen  to mill-work, or to any othei
machinery.
  It is  no uncommon  practice in this  country, for
blacksmiths to use a plate of iron as  an extemporane-
ous substitute for a tinder-box; for  it may be ham
mered on an anvil till it becomes red-hot,  and will fire
a brimstone match.  A strong man who strikes quick,
and keeps turning the iron so that both sides may be
equally exposed  to the force of the hammer, will per
• form this in less time than would be expected.
  It", in the coldest season, one dense iron plate be laid
on another, and pressed together by a weight, and then
rubbed upon each other by reciprocal motions, they
will gradually grow so hot  as, in a short time, lo emit
sparks, and at last become ignited.
  It is not necessary that the substances should be very
 hard;  a cord rubbed backwards and forwards swiftly
 against a post or a tree will take fire.
   Count Rumford and  Professor Pictet have  made
 some very ingenious and valuable experiments con
 cerning the heat evolved by friction.
   3. CJiemical Action.  To this belongs the heat pro-
 duced by combustion. There are, besides this, many
 chemical processes wherein  rapid  chemical action
 takes place, accompanied with a de velopemenl of heat,
 or fire, and flame.
  4. Solar heat.   It is well  known that the solar rays,
 when collected by a mirror, or lens,  into a focus, pro
duce the most astonishing effects.
  Dr. Herschel  has discovered that there are rays
emitted from the sun, which have not the power ol
illuminating or  producing  vision:  and that these are
the rays which produce the heat of the solar light.
  Consequently,  heat is emitted from the  sun in rays,
but these rays are not the same with  the rays ol light.
  5. The Electric Spark, and Galvanism.  The effects
of electricity are two well known in this point of
view to need any description.
  Galvanism hasof late become a powerful instrument
for the purpose of exciting heat.  Not only easily in-
flammable substances, such  as phosphorus, sulphur,
&c. have been fired, but likewise, gold, silver, copper,
tin, and the rest  of the metals, have been burnt by
means of galvanism.
              General Effects of Heat.
  The first and  most obvious effect  which heat pro-
duces on bodies, is its expansive property.   Experience
has taught us that, at all times, when bodies become
hot, they increase in bulk.   The bodies experience a
dilatation whicli is greater  in proportion to the accu-
mulation of coloric, or .-n otner words, to  the intensity
of the heat.  This is a general law. which holds good
us long as the bodies have suffered no change either in
their combination or in the  quantity of their chemical
principles.
  This power, which heat possesses, consists, there
fore, in a constant tendency to  separate the particle*
of bodies.  Hence philosophers consider  heat as the
repulsive power whicli acts upon  all  bodies whatever.
and which is in  constant opposition to the power or
attraction.
  The phenomena which result from these mutual ac-
tions, seem,  as  it were, the secret springs of nature
                                         171 
CAL
CAL
 Heat however  does  not expand all bod«e3 equally,
 ind we are still ignorant of the laws which it follows.
  1.  Expansion of Fluid Bodies.  Take a glass glob,',
 with a long slender neck (called a bold heat); fill it up
 to the neck with water, ardent spirit, or any other fluid
 ivhich may be coloured with red or black ink, in or-
 ier to be more visible, and then immerse the globe of
 the instrument in a vessel of hot water;  the included
 fluid will instantly begin to mount into the neck.  If
 :t be taken out of the water and brought near the fire,
 H will ascend more and  more, in  proportion as it he-
 roines heated ; but, upon removing it from the source
 sfheat. it will sink  again: a clear proof that caloric
dilates it,  so as to make it occupy more  space when
Hot than when cold.  These experiments  may, there-
fore, serve as a demonstration that heat expands fluid
bodies.
  2. Expansion of Atriform Bodies.  Take a bladder
 partly filled with air, the neck of which is closely tied,
so as to prevent the enclosed air  from escaping, and
let it be  held near a fire.  The air will soon begin to
occupy more space, and the bladder will become gra-
dually distended; on continuing the expansion of the
air, by increasing the heat, the bladder will burst with
a loud report.
  3. Expansion of Solid Bodies.  If we take a bar of
iron, six inches long, and put it into a fire till it becomes
rod-hot; and then measure it  in this state accurately,
it will be found l-20th of an inch longer than it was
before;  that is, about 120th  part of the whole.  That
the metal is proportionally expanded in breadth, will
be seen  by trying to pass it through an aperture wliich
is fitted  exactly when cold, but which will not admit it
 when red-hot.   The  bar is,  therefore, increased in
length and diameter.
  'To discover the  minutest changes of expansion by
heat, and the relative proportions thereof, instruments
have  been contrived, called  Pyrometers, the  sensi-
bility of which is so delicate as  to show an expansion
of MOO.OOOth of an inch.
  It is owing to this expansion of metals, that the mo-
tion  of time-pieces is rendered erroneous;  but  the
ingenuity of artists has discovered methods of ob-
 viating  this inaccuracy, by employing  the  greater
 expansion of one metal, to counteract the expansion
of another;  this is effected in what is railed the grid-
 iron pendulum.  Upon the same principle, a particular
 construction of watches has been contrived.
  The expansion of metals is likewise one of the prin-
 cipal reasons that clocks and  watches vary  in winter
 and summer, when  worn in tlie pocket, or exposed to
 the open air, or when carried  into a hotter or a colder
 climate.  For the  number  of the vibrations of the
 pendulum is always in  the sub-duplicate ratio of its
 length,  and as the length is changed by heat and cold,
 the times of  vibration will  be also changed.  The
 quantity of alteration, when considered  in  a single
 vibration, is exceedingly small, but when  they are
 often repeated, it will  be very sensible.  An alteration
 of one-thousandth part in the time of a  single vibra-
 tion of  a pendulum which beats seconds, will make a
 change of eighty-six whole vibrations in twenty-four
 hours.
  As different metals expand differently with the same
 degree  of heat; those musical instruments, whose
 parts are to maintain  a constant true proportion,
 should never be strung with different  metals.  Il is on
 this account that harpsichords, &c. are out of tune by
 a change of temperature.
  Bodies wliich are brittle, or which want flexibility,
 crack or break, if suddenly heated.  This likewise de-
 pends upon the expansive force of heal, stretching the
 surface to which it is applied, while the other parts,
 not being equally heated, do not expand in the  same
 rulio, and are therefore torn asunder or break. Hence
 thin vessels stand  heat better than thick ones.   The
 name holds, when they are suddenly cooled.
               Measurement of Heat.
  Upon the expansive  property  of heat, which we
 have considered before, is founded its artificial mea-
 surement.  Various means have been employed to as-
 sist the imperfection of our sensations in judging of the
 different  degrees of heat;  for  our feelings,  unaided,
 afford but very inaccurate information concerning this
 matter; they indicate the presence of heat, only when
 the bodies presented to them are hotter than the actual
 temperature of our organs of  feeling.   When these
       172
bodies are precisely of the same temperature with our
body  which we make the standard of comparison, we
then 'are not sensible of the presence of heat in them.
When their temperature is less than  that of our bo-
dies, their contact gives us what is called the sensa-
tion of cold.                   ......        ,
  The effects of heat upon material bodies m general,
whicli are easily visible  to us, afford more precise and
determinate indications of the intensity, than ran  be
derived from our feelings alone.   The ingenuity of the
philosopher and artist has therefore furnished us with
instruments of measuring the relative heat or tempera-
ture of bodies.  These instruments are called Thermo-
meters and Pyrometers.  By the-e, all degiees are
measurable, from the slightest to that of the most in
tense heat.  See Thermometer and Pyrometer.
       Exceptions to the Expansion by Heat.
  Philosophers have noticed  a  few exceptions to the
law of heat expanding bodies.  For instance;  water,
when cooled down within about 7° of the freezing
point, instead of contracting on the farther deprivation
of heat, actually expands.
  Another seeming exception is manifested in alumine,
or clay; others occur in the case of cast-iron, aud a
few other metals.   Alumine contractson being heated,
and cast-iron, bismuth, &c. when fully fused, are more
dense than when solid;  for,  as  soon as they become
so, they decrease in density, they expand in the act of
cooling, and hence the sharpness of figures upon iron
which has  been cast in moulds, compared to  that of
many other metals.
  Some philosophers have persuaded themselves that
these  exceptions are only apparent, but not really true.
They say, when water freezes, it assumes a crystalline
form, the crystals cross  each  other and cause  nume-
rous vacuities, and thus the ice occupies more space
The same  is the case with fused iron, bismuth, and
antimony.   The  contraction of  clay  is  considered
owing to the loss of water, of whicli it loses a part at
every increased degree of temperature hitherto tried ;
there is, therefore, a loss of matter; and  a reduction
of volume must follow: but others assert,  that this
only happens to a certain extent                  .
  Mr. Tilloch has published  a  brief examination  of
the received doctrines respecting heal and caloric, in
wliich these truths are more fully considered, together
with  many other interesting facts relative to  the re-
ceived notions of heat.
            Equal Distribution of Hi at.
  If a number of bodies of different temperatures are
placed in contact wilh each other, they will all  at a
certain time acquire a temperature, whicli is interme-
diate ; the caloric ofthe hottest body will diffuse itself
among those which  are heated  in a less degree, till
they have  all acquired  a certain mean temperature.
Thus, if a  bar of iron, which has been made red-hot,
be kept in  tlie open air, it does not retain  the  heat
which it had received, but becomes gradually colder
and colder, till it arrives at the temperature of  the bo
dies in its neighbourhood.  On the other hand, if we
cool down the iron bar by keeping it for some time co-
vered with snow, and then carry it into a warm room,
it does  not retain it3 low temperature, but becomes
gradually hotter, till it acquires the temperature ofthe
room, it is therefore obvious, that in the one instance
the temperature is lowered, and in the other it is
raised.
  These changes of temperature occupy a longer or a
shorter time, according to the nature of the body, but
they always take place at last.  This law itself is, in
deed, familiar to every  one: when we  wish to heat a
body, we carry it towards the fire: when we wish to
cool it, we surround it by cold bodies.
               Propagation  of Heat.
  We have seen, that when bodies of higher tempera-
ture than others are brought into contact wilh  each
other, the heat is propagated from the first to the  se-
cond, or the colder body deprives the warmer of its
excess of heat.  We shall now see that some bodies
do so much more quickly than others.  Through  some
bodies  caloric passes  with  undiminished  velocity,
through others its passage is prodigiously retarded.
   This disposition of bodies, of admitl'ng, under equal
circumstances, the refrigeration of a  heated  body
 within a shorter or a longer time, is called the power
 of conducting  heat; and a body is said to be a better
 or worse conductor of heat, as it  allows tlie refrigcra- 
CAL
CAL
 tion to go on quicker ot slower.  Those bodies, there-
 fore, which possess the property of letting heat pass
 with facility, are called good conductors, tliose through
 which it passes with difficulty arc called bad conduct-
 ors, and those through which it is supposed not to pass
 at all, are called non-conductors; thus we say, in com-
 mon language, some bodies are warm, or capable of
 preserving warmth, and from this arises the great dif-
 ference iu the sensation excited by different bodies,
 when applied at the same temperature to our organs
 of feeling.  Hence, if we immerse our hand in nier-
 sury, we feel a greater sensation of cold than w hen we
 immerse it in w ater, and a piece of metal appears to
 be  much  colder than a piece of wood, though their
 tempei atures, when examined by means of the thermo-
 meter, are precisely the same.
 ■  It is probable that all solids conduct heat in  some
 degree, though they differ very much in their conduct-
 ing power.  Metals are the best conductors of heat;
 but the conducting |>owers of Ihese substances are by
 no means equal.  Stones seem to be the next best con-
 ductors.   Glass conducts heat very slowly; wood and
 charcoal still slower;  and feathers, silk, wool,  and
 hair, are still worse conductors than any of the sub-
 Btances yet mentioned.
   The best conductors of electricity and galvanism are
 also the best conductors of heat.
   Experiment.—Take a number of straight wires, of
 equal diameters and  lengths, but of different metals ;
 for instance, gold, silver,  copper,  iron, Sec.;  cover
 each of them with a thin coat of wax, or tallow, and
 plunge their extremities into water, kept boiling, or
 into melted lead.  The melting of the coat of wax will
 show that caloric is more quickly transmitted through
 some metals than others.
   It is on this account also,  that the end of a glass rod
 may be kept red-hot for a long time, or even melted,
 without any inconvenience  to the hand wliich holds
 tbe otlier extremity; though a similar metallic  rod,
 heated in the same manner, would very soon become
 too hot to be held.
 Liquid and Aeriform Bodies convey Heat by an actual
      Change in the Situation of their Particles.
   Counl Rumford was the first who  proved that fluids
 in general, and a<!riform bodies, convey heat on a dif-
 ferent principle from that observed in the solids.  This
 opinion is pretty generally admitted, though various
 ingenious experiments  have been made,  by diffeient
 philosophers, to prove the contrary.  In water, for in-
 stance, the count has proved that caloric is propagated
 principally in consequence of the motion which is oc-
 casioned in the particles of that fluid.
   All fluids are considered  by him,  strictly speaking,
 in a similar  respect as  non-conductors  of caloric.
 They can receive it, indeed,  from other substances,
 and can give it to other substances, but no particle can
 either receive it from or give it to another particle of
 the same kind.  Before a fluid, therefore, can be heat-
 ed or cooled, every particle must go individually to the
 substance  from which it receives or  to which it gives
 out caloric.  Heat being,  therefoie,  only  propagated
 in fluids, in consequence of the  internal motion  of
 their particles, which transport  the heat; the more
 rapid these motions are, the  more rapid is the commu-
 nication of heat.  The cause of those motions is the
 change in  the specific gravity of the  fluid, occasioned
 by the change of temperature, and the rapidity is in
 proportion to the change of the specific gravity of ihe
 liquid by any given change  of temperature.  The fol-
 lowing experiment may serve to illustrate this theory:
   Take a thin glass tube, eight or ten inches long, and
 about an inch in diameter.  Pour  into the bottom
 part, for about the depth of one inch, a little water co-
 loured with Brazil-wood, or litmus, and then fill up
 the  tube with common water, extremely gently, so as
 to keep the two strata quite distinct from each other.
 Having done this, heat the bottom  part of the tube over
 a lamp;  the coloured Infusion will then ascend, and
 gradually tinge the whole fluid;  on the contrary, if tlie
 heat be applied above, the water in the upper part of
 the tube may be made to boil, but the colouring matter
 will remain at the bottom undisturbed.  The heat can
 jot act downwards to make it ascend.
  By thus being able to make the  upper part of a fluid
ioil without  heating the bottom  part, water may be
kept boiling for a considerable time in a glass tube
over ice, without melting it
   Other experiments,  illustrating the same prltupie,
 may be found in count Rumford's excellent essays,
 especially in Essay the 7th ; 1797.
   To this indefatigable philosopher we aro wholly in-
 debted for the above facts: lie was the first who taughi
 us that air  and water were nearly noii-coiidtictorv
 The results of his experiments, which are contained ir
 the above essay, are  highly interesting;   they  a bo
 show that the conducting power of fluids is impaired
 by the admixture of fibrous and glutinous matter.
   Count  Rumford  proved that ice molted  more than
 80 times  slower, when boiling hot water stood on its
 surface, than when the ice was placed to swim on  Ihe
 surface of the hot water. Other experiments showed
 that water, only  eight degrees of Fahrenheit above the
 freezing point, or at the temperature of forty degrees,
 melts as much ice, in any given time, as an equal  vo-
 lume of that lluid at any higher temperature, piovided
 the water stands on the surface ol"  the ice.   Water, at
 Ihe temperature of  41°, is  found to  melt more ice,
 when standing on its surface, than boiling water.  Il
 appears, however, lhat liquids are not, as he supposes,
 complete non-conductors of caloric; because, il' heat
 be applied at  top,  it  is capable of making its way
 downwards, through water, for example, though very
 imperfectly and slowly.
   It becomes farther evident,  from the Count's inge-
 nious experiments,  that of the different  substances
 used  in clothing, hares' fur and eider-down are  the
 warmest; next to these, beavers' fur, raw silk, sheep's
 wool, cotton wool, and lastly!  lint, or the scrapings of
 fine linen.  In fur, the air interposed among i.s parti-
 cles is so engaged, as  not to  be driven away by  the
 heat communicated thereto by the animal  body: not
 being easily displaced, it becomes  a barrier to defend
 the animal body  from the external cold.  Hence it is
 obvious that those skins are warmest which have the
 finest, longest, and thickest fur; and that the  furs of
 the beaver, otter, and  other like  quadrupeds, which
 live much in the water, and the feathers of water-fowl,
 are capable of confining the heat of those animals in
 winter, notwithstanding the  coldness of  the  water
 which  they frequent.   Bears, and various  other ani-
 mals, inhabitants of cold climates,  which do not often
 take the water, have their fur much thicker on their
 backs than on their bellies.
   The snow which covers the surface of the earth hi
 winter, in high  latitudes, is doubtless designed as a
 garment to defend it against the piercing winds from
 the polar regions, which prevail during the cold season
   Without dwelling farther upon  the philosophy of
 this truth, we must briefly remark that Ihe happy
 application of this law, satisfactorily elucidates some
 ofthe most interesting facts ofthe economy of nature.
    Theory of Caloric of Fluidity, or Latent Heat.
   There are some bodies which, when submitted to
 the action  of caloric, dilate to  such a degree, and the
 power of  aggregation subsisting among their particles
 is so much destroyed and removed to such  a distance
 by the  interposition  of caloric, that  they  slide over
 each other in every direction, and therefore appear in
 a  fluid state.  This phenomenon  is  called fusion.
 Uodies  thus rendered fluid by means  of caloric, are
 said to be fused, or melted; and tliose that are subject
 to it, are called fusible.
  The greater  number  of solid  bodies may,  by  the
 application of heat,  be converted  into fluids.   Thus
 metals may be fused  ; sulphur, resin, phosphorus, may
 be melted; ice may be converted into water, Sec.
  Those bodies which cannot be rendered fluid by any
 degree of heat hitherto known, are called infusible.
  If the effects of heat, under certain circumstances,
 be  carried still farther than is necessary  to  render
 bodies fluid, vaporization  begins;  the bodies then
 become converted into the vaporous or  gaseous state.
 Vaporization,  however, does  nol  always  require a
 previous fusion.  Some bodies are capable of being
 converted into the vaporous state, without previously
 becoming  fluid, and  others cannot be volatilized  at
 any temperature hitherto known: the latter are termed
 fixed.
  Fluidity is, therefore, by no means essential to any
species of matter, but always depends on the presence
of a quantity of caloric. Solidity is the natural state
of all bodies, and there can be no doubt that evory
fluid is capable of being rendered solid by a due reduc-
tion of temperature;  and every solid may be fused bv
                                         173 
CAL                                              CAL
trie agency of caloric, if the latter does not decompose
them'at a temperature inferior to that which would
be necessary for their fusion.
                Caloric of Fluidity.
  Dr. Black was the first who proved that, whenever
caloric combines wilh a solid body, the body becomes
heated only, until it is rendered fluid : and that, while
it is acquiring the fluid  state, its temperature remains
stationary, though caloric is  continued to be added to
it   The  same is the  case when fluids are  converted
into the aeriform or vaporous slate.
  From these facts, the laws of latent heat have been
inferred.   The theory may be illustrated by means of
the fol'owing experiments:
  If a lump of ice, at  a low temperature, suppose at
22°, be brought into a warm room, it will become gra-
dually less cold,  as may be discovered by  means of
the thermometer.  After  a very  short time,  it will
reach the temperature  of  32°  (the freezing point);
but there it stops.  The ice then  begins to melt; but
the process goes on very slowly.  During  the whole
of that time its temperature continues at 32° ;  and as
it is constantly surrounded  by warm air, we have
reason to believe that  caloric  is  constantly entering
into it; yet it does not become hotter till it is changed
nto water.  Ice, therefore, is converted into water by
a quantity of caloric uniting with it.
  It has been found by calculation, that ice in melting
lbsoibs 140° of caloric, the temperature of the  watei
produced still remaining at 32°.
  'This fact may  be proved in a direct manner.
  Take one  pound of ice, at 32°, reduced to a coarse
powder;  put it into a wooden bowl, and pour over  it
one pound of water, heated to 172°; all the ice will
become melted,  and the temperature of the whole
fluid, if examined by a thermometer, will be 32°; 140°
of caloric are  therefore lost, and it is this quantity
which was requisite to convert  the  ice into  water.
This  experiment succeeds better, if,  instead  of ice,
fresh-fallen snow be employed.
  This caloric  has been called latent caloric, because
its presence  is not measurable by the thermometer:
also more properly caloric of fluidity.
  Dr. Black  has also ascertained  by experiment, that
the fluidity of melted  wax, tallow, spermaceti, metals,
&c. is owing to the same cause; and Landriani proved,
that  this is the case with sulphur, alum,  nitrate of
potassa, &c.
  We consider it therefore as a general law, that
Whenever a solid is converted into a fluid, it combines
with caloric, and lhat is the cause of fluidity.
Conversion of Solids and Fluids  into the Aeriform or
                  Gaseous State.
  We have reen before, that, in order to render solids
fluid, a certain quantity of caloric  is necessary, which
combines with the body, and therefore cannot be mea-
sured by the thermometer; we shall  now endeavour
to prove that the same holds good in respect to the
conversion of solids or fluids into the vaporous or
traseous state.
  Take a small  quantity of carbonate of ammonia,
introduce it into a retort,'the neck of wliich is directed
under a cylinder filled wilh mercury, and inverted in
a basin of the same  fluid.  On applying heat to the
body of the  retort, th-e  carbonate of ammonia will be
volatilized, it will expel the mercury out of the cylinder,
and become an invisible gas, and  would remain so, if
Its temperature was not lowered.
  The same is the case with benzoic  acid, caniphire,
and various other substances.
  All fluids  may, by the application of heat, be con-
verted into an aeriform elastic state.
  When  wo consider water in a boiling state, we find
that this  fluid, when examined by the thermometer, is
not hotter after  boiling several hours, than when  it
be"an to  boil, though to maintain  i: boiling a brisk fire
must necessarily be  kept up.   What then, we may
ask, becomes of the wasted caloric 1  It is not percep-
tible in ihe water, nor Is it manifested by the steam;
for the steam, if not connresscd, upon examination, is
found not K be hotter than boiling water.  The caloric
a therefore absorbed by the steam, and although what
 s so absorbed, is absolutely necessary  for the conver-
sion of water into the form of stettm; it does not
.nerease  its temperature, and is therefore not appre-
cmble by the thermometer.
  The conclusion is farther strengthened by the heat
      J74
given out by stenm on  its being condensed l-y ctild.
This is particularly manifested in the condensation of
this  fluid in the process of distilling,  where, upon
examining the refrigeratory,  it will  be  found that a
much greater quantity of caloric is communicated to
it, than  could possibly have been transmitted by the
caloric which was sensibly acting before the conden-
sation.  This may be easily ascertained  by nl.serving
the quantity of caloric communicated to t>"  -uter in
the refrigeratory of a still, by any given .. ,-ntity of
liquid that passes over.
  1.  The  boiling point, or the temperature at which
the conversion of fluids  into gases takes place, is dif
ferent in different fluids, but constant in each, provided
the pressure ofthe atmosphere be the same.
  Put any quantity of sulphuric aether into a Florence
flask, suspend a thermometer in it, and hold the flask
over nn  Argand's lamp, the aether will  immediately
begin to boil, and the thermometer will  indicate  96°
if the aether has been highly rectified.
  If highly rectified ardent spirit is heated in a similar
manner, the thermometer will rise  to 176°, mid there
remain stationer)'.
  If water is substituted, it will rise to 212°.
  If strong nitrous acid of commerce be made use of,
it will be found  to boil  at 248°; sulphuric acid and
linseed-oil at 600° ; mercury at 6o6°, Sec.
  2.  The boiling point of fluids is raised  by pressure.
  Mr. Watt heated water under a strong pressure to
400°.  Yet still, when the pressure was removed, only
part of the water was converted  into vapour, and the
temperature of ihis vapour, as well as that of the re-
maining fluid, was no more than 212°.  There was,
therefore, 188° of" caloric suddenly lost.  This caloric
was carried  off by the  steam.  Now as only about
one-fifth of the water was converted into steam, that
steam must contain not only its own 188°, but also the
188° lost  by each of  the  other four parts; that is to
say, it must contain  Id8°x5, or about 940°.   Steam,
therefore, is  water combined with at least  940° of
caloric, the presence of which is not indicated by the
thermometer.
  3. When pressure is  removed from the surface of
bodies, their conversion into the gaseous state is greatly
facilitated, or their boiling point is lowered.
  In proof of this the following experiments may serve:
  Let a small bottle be filled with highly rectified sul-
phuric aether, and a  piece of wetted bladder be tied
over its orifice around its neck.  Transfer it under the
receiver  of an air-pump, and lake away the super-
incumbent pressure of the air in the receiver.   When
the exhaustion  is complete,  pierce the bladder by
means of a pointed  sliding wire, passing through a
collar of leather  which  covers the  upper opening of
the receiver. Having done this, the aether will in
stantly begin to  boil, and become converted into an
invisible gaseous fluid.
  Take a small retort or Florence flask, fill it one half
or less with  water, and  make it boil over a lamp;
when kept briskly boiling for about five minutes, cork
the mouth of the retort  as expeditiously as possible,
and remove it from the lamp.
  The w ater, on  being removed from the source of
heat, will keep boiling for a  few minutes, and when
the ebullition begins to slacken, it may be renewed by
dipping the retort into  cold  water, or  pouring  cold
water upon it.
  The water, during boiling,  becomes converted into
vapour; this vapour  expels the air of the vessel, and
occupies its place; on diminishing tlie heat, it  con-
denses ; when the retort  is stopped, a partial vacuum
is formed; the  pressure  becomes diminished, and a
less degree of heat is sufficient to cause  an ebullition.
  For the snme reason,  water may be  made to boil
under the exhausted receiver at 94° Fahr., or even at
a lower degree; alkohol  at 56©; and aether at —90°.
  On the conversion of fluids  into gases Is founded the
following experiment, by whicli water  is frozen by
means of sulphuric aether.
  Take a thin glass tube  four or five inches long and
nbout two or three-eighths of an inch in diameter, and
a two-ounce bottle  furnished with  a capillary  tube
fitted to its neck.  In order to make  ice, pour a  littln
water into the  tube, taking care not to wet tlie out-
side, nor to leave it moist.  Having done tills, let  n
stream of sulphuric aether fall through  the capillary
tube upon that part of It containing the water, which 
CAL
CAL
by this moans will be converted into ice In a few mi-
nutes, and till* it will do even near a fire, or in the
midst of summer.
  If the glass tube, containing the water, be exposed
to the  brisk thorough air, or free draught of an  open
window, a large quantity of water may be frozen in a
shorter time; and if a thin spire of wire be introduced
previous to the congelation of the water, the ice will
adhere to  it, aud may  thus be drawn  out  conve-
niently.
  A person  might  be  easily frozen to death during
v--ry warm weather, by merely pouring upon his  body
for some time  sulphuric aether, and  keeping him ex-
posed to a thorough draught of air.
              Artificial Refrigeration.
  The cooling or refrigeration of rooms in the summer
season by spruiKling them with water, is  on  the  prin-
ciple of evaporation.
  The method  of making ice artificially in tlie  East
Indies depends on the same principle.  The ice-makers
at Benares dig pits in large open plains, the bottom  of
which they strew with sugar-canes or dried stems  of
maize  or Indian-corn.   Upon this  bed they place a
number of  unglazed pans, made of soporous an earth
Ihal the water penetrates through their whole  sub-
stance. These pans are  tilled toward evening in the
winter season with water that has boiled, and left  in
that situation  till morning, when more or less ice is
found in them,  according to the temperature and other
qualities of the air; there being more formed in dry
and  warm weather, than in  that  wliich is cloudy,
though it may be colder to the human body.
  Every tiling in this process is calculated to produce
cold by evaporation: the beds on which the pans are
placed, sutler the air to  have a free passage to  their
bottoms ; and the pans constantly oozing out water to
their external surface, a.e cooled by the evaporation
of it.
  In Spain, they use a  kind of earthen jars, called
buxaros, which are only half-baked, the earth of which
is so  porous, thai  the outside is  kept inoisl by the
water whicli filters through  it, and  though placed in
the sun, th" water in the jar becomes as cold as ice.
   It is a common practice in China to  cool wine or
other  liquors by wrapping the bottle in a wet cloth,
and hanging it up in the sun.  The water in the cloth
becomes converted  into  vapour, aud thus cold is pro-
duced.
  The blacks in Senegambia  have a similar method
of cooling  water by filling tanned leather bags with it,
which they hang up in the sun ; the water oozes, mine
or less through the leather so  as to keep Ihe outer sur-
face wet, wliich by its quick and  continued  evapo-
ration  cools the water remarkably.
  The winds on the borders of the  Persian gulf are
often so scotching, that  travellers are suddenly suffo-
cated unless they cover their heads with a wet cloth;
if this be too wet, they immediately feel an intolerable
cold, which would prove  fatal if the moisture was not
upeedily dissipated by the heat.
             Condensation of Vapour.
  If a cold vessel is brought into a warm room, parti-
rularly where many people are assembled, the outside
of it will soon become covered with a sort of dew.
  Before some changes of weather, the stone pave-
ments, the  walls of a house, the balustrades of stair-
coses,  and  other solid objects, feel clammy and damp.
  In frosty nights, when the  air abroad is colder  than
the air wilhin, the dampness of this  air, for  the same
reason, settles on the glass panes of the windows, and
■s there frozen into curious and beautiful figures.
  Thus fogs and dews take place, and in the higher
regions clouds are formed from the condensed vapour.
The still greater condensation produces mists and rain-
       Capacity of Bodies for containing Heat.
  The property which different bodies possess, of con-
Urining at the same temperature, and  in equal quan-
tities, either of mass or  bulk, unequal quantities of
Cleat, is called their capacity for heat.  The capacities
jf bodies for heat are therefore considered as great  or
small in proportion as their  temperatures are either
raised by the addition, or diminished by the depriva-
tion, of equal quantities  of heat, in  a less or greater
degree.
  In homogeneous  bodies, the quantities of caloric
which they contain are in the ratio of  'heir tempera-
ture and mass: when, therefore, equal quantities of
 water, of oil, or of mercury, of unequnl tempeialurm,
 are mingled together, the temperature of  the whole
 will be the arithmetical mean between the tempera-
 tures of the two quantities  that hod  been  mixed to-
 gether.   It  is a seliVevident truth  that  this  should be
 the ease, for the particles of different  portions of the
 same substance being alike, their effects must be equal
 For instance-
   Mix a pound of water at 172° with a pound nt 32°
 half the excess of  heat in hot water will quit it to gn
 ovet into the colder portion ; thus the hoi water will
 be cooled 70°, and the cold will receive 70° of tem-
 perature ;  therefore 172—70, or 32 -j- 70 = 102.  will
 give the hent of the mixture. To attain the arithme-
 tical mean very exactly, several pr°cnutions, however,
 are necessary.
   When  heterogeneous bodies of different tempera
 Hires are mixed together, the temperature produced  ii
 never the arithmetical mean of the two original tem-
 peratures.
   In order  to ascertain the comparative quantities of
 heat of different  bodies,  equal weights of them are
 mingled together; the experiments for this purpose-
 being in general more  easily executed than those by
 which they are compared from equal bulks.
   Thus, if one pound of mercury heated to4IO°Fa!ir.,
 be added to one pound ol" water of 44°, the tempera-
 ture of the  Wended fluids will not be changed lo 77°,
 ts it would be if the  surplus of heat were divided
 .unongtliose fluids in the proportion of their quantities.
 It will be found, on examination, to be only 472.
   On the contrary, if the pound of mercury be heated
 to 44°, aud  the water to  110°, then, on stirring them
 together, the common temperature will be 107°.
   Hence, if the  quicksilver loses by this distribution
 63° of caloric, an  equal weight of water gains only 3C
 from this loss of 63° of heat. And, on the contrary, if
j the water loses 3°, the mercury gains 03°.
   When, instead of comparing the quantities of caloric
 which  equal weights of different bodies contain, we
 compare the quantities contained in equal volumes, we
 still find that an obvious difference takes place.  Thus
 it is found by experiment, that the quantity of caloric
 necessary lo raise the  temperature  of a given volume
 of water any number of degrees, is, to that necessary
 to raise an  equal volume of mercury, the same number
 of degrees as 2 to  1.  This is, therefore, the proportion
 between the comparative quantities of caloric  which
 these two bodies contain, estimated by their volumes .
 and similar differences exist with respect to every otlier
 kind of matter.
   From the nature  of the experiments by which the
 quantities of caloric whicli bodies contain are ascer-
 tained, it is evident that we discover merely the com-
 parative, not the  absolute  quantities.  Hence water
 has been chosen as a standard, to which other  bodies
 may be referred;  its capacity is stated as the arbitrary
 term of 1000,  and with  this  the capacities of other
 bodies are compared.
   It need not be told that pains  have been taken to
 estimate on there experiments that portion of heat
 whicli  diffuses itself into the nir, or into  the  vessel
 where the  mercury and water are blended together.
 As however such valuations cannot  be made  with
 complete accuracy, the numbers stated above are only
 an approximation  to truth.
               Radiation of Calurie.
   Caloric is thrown off or radiates from heated bodies
 in right lines, and moves through space with incon
 ceivable velocity.   Il is retarded in its passage  by at
 mospheric  air, by colourless fluids  glass,  and other
 transparent bodies.
   If a glass mirror be  placed before a fire, the mirror
 transmits the rays  of light, but not the rays of heat.
   If a plate of glass, talc, or a glass vessel  filled with
 water, be suddenly interposed between the fire and the
 eye, the rays of light pass through it, but the  rays of
 caloric are considerably retarded in its passage, for no
 heat is perceived until the interposed substance is sa-
 turated with  heat, or has reached its maximum.   Il
 then ceases to intercept the rays of caloric, and allows
 them to pass as freely as the rays of light.
   It has been lately shown by Dr. Herschel, that the
 rays of caloric are refrangible, but less so than the rays
 of light; and the same philosopher has also proved by
 experiment, that it is not only the rays of caloric emit-
 ted by  the  sun, which are refrangible, but likewise
                                         J75 
CAL
CAL
 a-* rays emitted by common fires, by candles, by heat-
 ed iron, and even by hot water.
   Whether the rays of caloric arc differently refracted,
 in diffe:-nt mediums,  has not yet  been ascertained.
 We jre certain, however, that they are refracted by
 all transparent bodies which have been employed as
 burning glasses.
  The lays of caloric are also  reflected by polished
 surfaces in the same manner as the rays of light.
  This was long ago noticed  by Lambert,  Sausstiie,
 Scheele, Pictet, and lately by Dr. Herschel.
  Professor Pictet placed two concave metallic mirrors
 opposite to each other, at the distance of about twelve
 feet.  When a hot body,  an iron  bullet, for instance,
 was placed in  the focus of the one, and a  mercurial
 thermometer in that of the other, a substance radiated
 from the bullet;  it  passed with  incalculable velocity
 •.hrough tlie air, it was reflected from the mirrors, it be-
 came concentrated, and  influenced the thermometer
 placed in the focus, according to  the degree of ils con-
 centration.
  An iron ball two inches in diameter, heated so that
 it was not luminous in the dark, raised the thermome-
 ter not less than ten and a half degrees of Reaumur's
 scale, in six minutes.
  A lighted candle occasioned a rise in the thermome-
 ter nearly the same.
  A Florence  flask containing two ounces and three
 drachms of boiling water, raised Fahrenheit's ther-
 mometer three degrees.  He blackened ihe bulb of his
 thermometer, and found that it was more speedily in-
 fluenced by tlie radiation  than before, and that it rose
 to a greater height.
  M.  Pictet discovered  another very  singular fact;
 namely, the apparent radiation  of cold.  When, in-
stead of a heated body, a Florence flask full of ice or
nnow is  placed  iu the focus of one of the mirrors, the
thermometer  placed in the focus of the other imme-
diately descends, and ascends again whenever the
cold body is removed.
  This phenomenon may be explained on the suppo-
sition, that from every body  at every temperature
caloric radiates, but in  less quantity as the tempera-
ture is low; so that in the above experiment, the ther-
mometer gives out more  caloric  by radiation, than it
receives from  the body  in the  opposite focus, and
 therefore its temperature is lowered.  Or, as Pictet has
 supposed, when a number of bodies near to each other
 have the same  temperature, there is no radiation of
caloric, because  in all of them it exists in a state of
equal tension ; but as soon as a body at an inferior
 tompcrature is introduced, the balance of tension is
 broken, and caloric begins to radiate from all of them,
 till the temperature of that body is raised to an equality
 with theirs.  In the  above experiment, therefore, the
 placing  the snow or ice  in  the  focus of the  mirror
 causes the radiation of caloric from the thermometer,
 and hence the diminution of temperature  which it
 suffers.
  These experiments have been since repeated by Dr. ■
 Young and Professor Davy, al the theatre of the Royal
 Institution.  These gentlemen inflamed phosphorus
 by reflected  caloric; and proved that the heat thus
 r\ciled,  was very sensible to the organs of feeling.
  It is therefore evident, that  caloric is thrown off
 from bodies in rays, which are invisible, or incapable
 ■jf exciting vision, but which are capable of exciting

      176
   These  invisible  rays of caloric are propagated ir
 right lines, with extreme velocity; and are capable of
 the laws of reflection and refraction.
   The heating agency however is different in the ail
 ferent coloured rays ofthe prismatic spectrum.  Ac-
 cording to Dr. Herschel's experiments, it follows in-
 versely the order of the refrangibility of the  ray? of
 light.   The least  refrangible, possessing it in the
 greatest degre«.
   Sir Henry Englcfield has lately made a series of ex-
 periments on the same subject, from  which we learn,
 that  a thermometer  having its  ball blackened, rose
 when placed in the blue ray of the prismatic spectrum
 in 3' from 55° to 56°; in the green, iu 3' from 54° to 58°;
 in the yellow, in 3' from 56° to 02° ; in the full red, in
 2 1-2' from o6° to  72°; in the confines of the red, in
 2 1-2' from 5*° to 73 1-2° ; and quite out of the visible
 light, in 2 1-2' from 61° to 79°.
   Between each of the observalions,-.the thermome.ei
 was placed in the shade so long as to sink it below the
 heat  to which it had risen in the preceding observa-
 tion ; of course, its  rise above that point could only be
 the effect of the ray to which it was exposed.  It was
 continued in the focus long after it bad ceased to rise ;
 therefore the heats given are the greatest effects of the
 several rays on the thermometer in each observation.
 A thermometer placed  constantly in the shade near
 the apparatus,  was found scarcely To vary during  the
 experiments.
  Sir Henry made other experiments with thermome-
 ters with naked balls,  and  with others whose balls
 were painted white, for wliich we refer the reader to
 the interesting paper of the  Baronet, from which the
 above experiments are transcribed.

 Production of  Artificial Cold, by means  of Frigorific
                     Mixtures.
  A number of experiments have been lately made by
 different  philosophers, especially by Pepys, Walker,
 and Lowitz, in order to produce artificial cold. And
 as tliose  methods are  often  employed in chemistry
 with a view  to expose bodies to the influence of very
 low  temperatures, we  shall enumerate in  a  tabular
 form the different substances which may be made usa
 of for that  purpose, and  the degrees of  cold which
 they are capable of producing.
  To produce the effects stated  in the table, the salts
 must be reduced to powder, and contain their full
 quantity  of water of crystallization.  The vessel  in
 which the freezing mixture is made, should  be very
 thin, and just large  enough to hold it, and the mate-
 rials should be mixed together as expeditiously as pos-
sible, taking care to stir the mixture at the same time
 with a rod of glass or wood.
  In order to obtain the full effect, the materials ought
 to be first cooled to the temperature marked  in  the
 table, by  introducing them into some of tlie other fri
 gorific mixtures, and then mingling them together in a
 similar mixture.  If, for instance,  we wish to produce
 — 4(i°, the snow and diluted nitric acid  ought to be
 cooled down to 0°, by putting the vessel which con-
 tains each of them  into the fifth  freezing mixture in
 the above table, before they are  mingled together.  If
 a more intense cold be required, the materials to pro-
duce it are to be brought to tlie proper temperature by
being previously placed in tlie second freezing mixture
  This process is lo be continued till the required d*
gree of cold has been procured. 
CAL
CAL
A TABLE OF FREEZING MIXTURES.
Mixtures,	Thermometer sinks
	From 50° to lO^.
	
	
	From 50° to 4°.
	
	
	
	From 50° to —3^
	
	
	From 50° to 0°.
	
	
	From 32° to 0°.
	
	From 0° to —5°.
	
	From —5° to —lfeP.
	
Muriate of ammonia and nitrate of po-	
	From —18° to —25°.
	
	
	
	From 0° to —46°.
	
	
	From 32° —50°.
	
	
	From 32° to—51°.
	
	
	From —10° to —56°
	
	
	From 20° to—60°.
	
	From 0° to —66°.
	
	From—40° to—73°.
	
	From —68° to —91°.
	
	From 50° to 4°.
—i^;-----«• iin 1 nart	From 50° to— 7°.
	
	
—■=---r---" • "-^j- fi nirts	From 50° to —10°.
	
	
	
	From 50° to —14°.
	
	
	From 50° to—12°.
	
	
	From 50° to —21°.
	
	
	From 50° to 3°.
	
	'
  CALORL METER.  An instrument by which the
wuole quantity of absolute heat existing in a body in
cnemical union can be ascertained.
  CALP.   An argillo-fcrruginous limestone.
  CALTHA   (KaXQa, corrupted from x^X") yel"
low from whence, says Vossius, come calthula, cal-
dula,  ealedula, calendula.)   The  marigold.  1. The
name of a genus of plants in the Linnaean system.
Class, Polyandria; Order, Polygynia.
  Q. The pharmacopceial name of the herb wild mari-
gold, so called from its colour.
  Caltha arvensis.   Calendula arvensis;  Caltha
vuliraris.  The wild marigold is sometimes preferred
to the garden  marigold.  Its juice is given, from one
to four ounces, in jaundice and  cachexia; and the
leaves are commended as a salad for children afflicted
with scrofulous humours.
  Caltha palustris.   Populago.  Common single
marsh marigold.  It is said to be caustic and deleteri-
ous •  but this may be questioned.  The young buds of
this plant make, when properly pickled, very good sub-
stitutes for capers.
                                       177 
CAL
CAM
   Caltha vulgaris.  See Caltha arvensis.
   Ca'lthuxa.  The caitha is so called.
   CALTROPS. See Trapa natans.
   CALUMBA. The name now adopted by the Lon-
 don college of physicians for the root of the Cocculus
 palmatus of De Candolles, in his Systema natura.
 It was formerly called Colombo;  Calomba; and  Co-
 lamba.  This root is  imported from Colomba, in Cey-
 lon, in circular, brow* knobs, wrinkled on their outer
 surface, yellowish within, and consisting of cortical,
 woody, and medullary laminae. Its smell is aromatic;
 its taste pungent, and very bitter.  From Dr. Percival's
 experiments on the root, it appears that rectified spirit
 of wine extracts its virtues in the greatest perfection.
 The watery infusion is more perishable than that of
 otlier  bitters.   An ounce of the powdered root, half an
 ounce of orange-peel, two ounces of brandy, and four
 teen ounces of water, macerated twelve h urs without
 heat,  and  then  filtered through paper, aJord a suffi-
 ciently strong  and tolerably pleasant infusion.   The
 extract made first by spirit and then with water, and
 reduced by evaporation to a pillular consistence, is
 found to be equal, if not superior in efficacy, to  the
 powder.   As an antiseptic, Calumba root is inferiorto
 the bark;  but, as a corrector of putrid bile, it is much
 superior to the bark; whence also  it  is probable, that
 it would be of service in the West-India yellow fever.
 It  also restrains alimentary fermentation, w itliout im-
 pairing digestion ; in whicli property it resembles mus-
 tard.  It  does  not  appear  to have the least heating
 quality, and therefore may be used in phthisis pul-
 monalis, and in hectic cases, to strengthen digestion.
 It occasions no disturbance, and agrees very well with
 a  mill( diet, as  it abates flatulence, and is indisposed
 to  acidity.  The London, Edinburgh, and  Dublin col-
 leges,  direct a tincture of Calumba  root  The dose of
 the powdered root  is as far as half a drachm, which,
 in  urgent cases, may be repeated every third or fourth
 hour.
  [Calumbo.  See American Columbo. A.]
  CA'LVA.  (From calvus, bald.)   The scalp or up-
 per part ofthe cranium or top of the head; so called
 because it often grows bald first.
  CALVA'RIA.   (From calvus, bald.)   The upper
 part or the cranium whicli becomes soon  bald.  It
 comprehends  all above the orbits, temples, ears, and
 occipital eminence.
  CALVI'TIES.   (From calvus,  bald.)   Calvitium.
 Baldness;  want or loss of" hair, particularly upon the
 sinciput.
  This name is applied by Dr. Good to a species of his
 trichosis atlirix, or baldness.
  CALX.  (Calx, cis. feern; from kalah, lo burn.  Ara-
 bian.)  1.  Chalk.  Limestone.
  2. Lime.  Calx viva.  The  London College directs
it to be prepared thus:—Take of limestone one pound:
break it into small pieces, and  heat il in a crucible, in
 a strong fire, for an hour, or until the carbonic acid is
 entirely driven  off, so that on  the  addition of acetic
 acid, no bubbles of gas shall be  extricated.  Lime may
 be made by ihe same process fiom  oyster-shells previ-
ously  washed in boiling water, and cleared from ex-
traneous matters.   See Lime
  Calx antimonii.  See Antimonii oxydum.
  Calx cum kali puro.   See Potassa cum calce.
  Calx hydraroyri alba. See Hydrargyrum pra-
cipitatum album.
  Calx metallic  A metal  which  has  undergone
the process of calcination, or combustion, or any other
equivalent operation.
  Calx viva.  See Calx.
  CALYCAvniKM.K.  (From calyx, the flower-cup, and
av&os, the flower.)  The  name of an order in  Lin-
meus's fragments of a natural method,  consisting of
plants, which, among other characteristics, have the
corolla and stamina inserted into the calyx.
  CALYCIFLORjE. (From cal«x,audflos, a flower.)
 The name of an order in Linuaeim's  fragments of a
 natural method, consisting of plants which have tha
stamina inserted into the Calyx.
  CALYC1NUS.  (From calyx, the flower-cup.)  Co-
lycinalts.  Belonging to the calyx of a flower; applied
totheneclary  nectariitm calycinum, it being a pro-
duction of tlne'calyx; as in  Tropaolum majus, llie ear-
den nasturtium.
  CALYCULATUS.  (Fronicah/ciri«*,a«nallcalyx.")
 Calyculate.  Applied to a pcrianthium when there are
      178
 less ones, like scales, about its base; as in Di ant hut
 caryophyllas.  Semina calyculata are those which are
 enclosed in a bard bone-like calyx, as those of tbe
 Coix lachryma, or Job's tears.
  CALYCULU9.   (Diminutive  of calyx.)  A little
 calyx.   A botanical term for
  I. The membranaceous margin surrounding the apex
 of a seed.
  The varieties are,
  1. Calyculus integer, the margin perfect not incised;
 as in Tanacetum vulgare, and Dipsarus lacinialus.
  2. Calyculus palyaceus, with chaffy scales; as In
 Helianthas annuus.
  3. Calyculus aristalus, having two or three awns si
 the top; as in Tagctes pat ala, and Bidens tripartita.
  4. Calyculus rostratus, the style of the germ remain
 ing; as in Sinapis, and Scandix cerefolium.
  5. Calyculus cornutas, horned,  the rostrum bent; aa
 in Nigella damasccna.
  6. Calyculus crislatus, a dentate, or  incised mem-
 brane on the top of the seed;  as in Hedysarum crista
 galU.
  II. A little calyx exterior to another proper one.
  Caly pter.  (From KaXinrrto, to hide.)  A carncoua
 excrescence covering the haemorrhoidal  vein.
  CALYPTRA.  (From xaXvirrto,  to cover.)  I. Tne
 veil, or covering of  mosses.  A kind of membraneous
 hood placed, on their capsule  or fructification, like an
 extinguisher on a candle, well seen  in Bryum caspito-
 sum.   Linnaeus considered it as a calyx, but other
 botanists, especially Schreber  and Smith, reckon it to
 be a sort of corolla.  Il is either,
  1. Acuminate, pointed; as in Minium aud Bryum.
  2. Caducous, falling off yearly; as in Bauxbauntia.
  3. Conical; as in most  mosses.
  4. Smooth; as in  Hypnum.
  5. Laois, without any inequalities; 33 in Splanch
 num.
  6. Oblong; as in Minium.
  7. Villous; as in Polytrichum.
  8. Complete, surrounding the whole ofthe top ofthe
 capsule.
  0. Dimidiate, covering only half  the capsule; as in
 Bryum androgynum.
  10.  Dentate, toothed in the margin; as in Eucalypta
 ciliata.
  In many genera it is wanting.
  11. The name in Tournefort, and writings of former
 botanists, for the proper exterior covering or coal of
 the s ted, which falls off spontaneously.
  CALVPTRATUS.   (From calyptra, the veil, or
 covering of mosses.)  Calyptrate: having a covering
 like the calyptra of mosses.
  CALYX.  (Calyx, icis. f.; xaXvl; from iraAtirrcD,
 to cover.)  Cain.  I. The flower-cup,  or, more  cor
 rectly,  tlie  external covering  of  the  flower, for the
 most part green, and surrounding the corolla, or gaudy
 part.
  There are five genera of calyces, or flow er-cups.
    1.  Pcrianthium.          ii. lnvolucrum,
    3.  Amentum             4.  Spatha.
    5.  Gluma.               6. Perichatium
    7.  Volva.
  II. The membrane which covers  the  papilke in the
pelvis ofthe human kidney.
  CA'MARA.  i,From xapapa, a  vault.)  Camarium,
1. The fornix of the bruin.
  2. The vaulted part of the auricle of the heart.
  Cama'riu.m.  (From xapapa,  a  vault)   A  vault.
See Camara.
  CAM ARC MA.  (From xapapa,  a vault.)  Cama
rosis;  Camai alio.   A fracture of  the  skull, in the
shape of au arch or vault.
  Cambuika.  Bo Paracelsus calls the venereal bubo
  CAMBIUM  The gelatinous substance, or mattei
of organization whicli Du Hamel and Mirbel suppos
produces the young baik, and  new wood of plants
  Cambium.  (From cambio, to exchange.)  The nv-
iritious humour which is  changed  into tlie matei ala
of which the body is composed.
  Cambodia.  See Stalagmittt.
  CAMBO GIA.  (From  the province of Cambaya, is
the East Indies;)  Cambedjm and  Cambogia; Comb*
dia; Cambogtum; Gambogia; Gambogium. See Sim
lagmitis.
  Cambooia gotta.  See Stalagmitis.
  CAMBO G1UM.   See Cambogia mid Stalagmittt. 
CAM
CAM
     ■Cahbro-britannica.  Sec Rubus Chamamorus.
     Cambu'ca.   Cautbiila mcmbrata.   So Paracelsus
   tails the venereal cancer.  By some it is described as a
   bubo, an ulcer, an abscess on the pudenda; also a boil
   in the groin.
     Ca mbui.  The wild American myrtk" of Piso and
   Margrave, which is said to be astringent.
     Camel's hay.  See Andropogon Schananthus.
    CAMELEON  MINERAL.   Wlien  pure potassa
   and black oxide of manganese are fused together in a
   crucible, a compound is formed, whose solution in wa-
   ter, at first green, posses spontaneously through the
   whole series of coloured  rays to the red.  From tills
   latter tint, the  solution may  be made to retrograde in
  colour to the original green, by the addition of potassa;
  or it  may be rendered altogether colourless, by adding
  either sulphureous acid or chlorine to the solution, in
  which case there may or may not be a precipitate, uc-
  cording to circumstances.
    CA M URA.  A chamber or cavity. The chambers
  ofthe eye are termed camera.
    Camera'tio.  See Cumaroms,
    Ca'mks.  Camet.  Silver.
    Cami'nga.  See Canella alba.
    Ca minus.  A furnace and its chimney.  In Rulan-
  dus it signifies a bell.
    Cami'sia foetus.  (From the Arabic term kamisah,
  an under garment.) The shirt of the foetus. SeeCks-rion.
    Camomile.  See Chamomile.
    Camomi'lla.  Corrupted from chamamelum.
    CA'MMORUM.   (Kappopov, quia homines, xaxio
  nof>f, perimat; because if eaten, it brings men to  a
  miserable end.)  A species of monkshood.  See Aco-
  nitum napetlus.
    OAMPA'NA.  A bell.  In chemistry, a receptacle
  like a bell, for making sulphuric acid; tfius the oleum
  •ulphuris per campanum.
    CAMPANACE/E.  Bell-shaped flowers.  The name
  of an order of Liunteus's natural method.
    CAMPANTFORMIS.  Campanaccus; Campanula-
  tus.  Bell shaped; applied to the corolla and nectaries
  of plants.
    CAMPANULA.  (From  campana, a bell; named
  from its shape.)  The name of a genus of plants in the
  Linnaean system.  Class, Pentandria; Order, Mono-
  gynia.  The Bell-flower.
    Campanula traciieleum. Cerviearia.  The Great
  •Throat-wort: by  some recommended against inflam-
  matory affections ofthe throat and mouth.
    CAMPAN'Ul.ATUS.  (From Campanula, a little
  bell.)   Bell-shaped: applied to the corolla and nectary
  of plants, as in Campanula.   See Corolla and Necta-
  rium.
   Ca'mpe. (From xapirrm, to bend.) A flexure or
  bending.   It is also used for the ham, and a joint, or
  articulation.
   Campeachy wood. See Hamatoxylon Campechianum.
   Campecuense,  lignum.  See Hamatoxylon Cam-
 pechianum, or Logwood.
   CAMPER,  Peter, was bom at Leyden in 1722,
 where he studied under Bocrhaave, and took his de-
 gree in medicine.  He  then travelled for some years,
 and was afterward appointed a professor successively
 at Franeker,  Amsterdam, and Groningen.  He was
 subsequently occupied in prosecuting his favourite stu-
 dies, in visiting various parts of Europe, by the differ-
 ent societies of which he was honourably distinguish-
 ed, and in performing many public duties in his own
 country, being at length chosen one of the council of
 state.  He died  in lt89 of a  pleurisy. He published
 some improvement? in midwifery and surgery,  but
 anatomy appears to  have been  his favourite pursuit.
 He finished two  parts of a work of considerable mag-
 nitude and importance, in which the healthy and
 morbid structure of the arm, and  of the pelvis, are
 exhibited in very accurate plates, from drawings made
 by himself: which he  appears to have purposed ex-
 tending to  the other parts of the body.  There are also
 wall posthumous works of Camper  possessing great
 merit,  partly on subjects of natural history, partly
 evincing the connexion  between anatomy and paint-
 ing ; in which lather judicious rules are laid down for
 exhibiting the diversity of features in  persons of vari-
 ous countries and ages, and representing the different
 emotions of the mind in the countenance; also for de-
 lineating the general forms of other animals, which he
•hows to be modified according to their economy.
    "CAMPES'TRIS.  Of or belonging to the field ; aj>
  plied as a trivial name to many plants, whicli are com
  mon in the fields.
    CAMPHIRE.  See Laurus camphora.
    Camphor.  Sine Laurus camphora.
    CAMPHORA.   (Camphura.  Arabian.  The an
  cients meant by camphor what now is called asphal-
  tum, or Jews' pitch; xatjiovpa.) See Laurus camphora.
    Camphor.*: piorls.   The subtle substance wliich
  first ascends in subliming camphor. It is nothing more
  than the camphor.
    Camphor* 1 lores compositi.   Camphor sublux ej
  with benzoin.
    CA'MPHORAS.  A camphorate.  A salt formed by
  the union ofthe camphoric acid with a salifiable base,
  thus, camphorate of alumine, camphorate of aminsnia,
  tec.
    CAMPHORA'SMA.   (From camphora;  so called
  from its camphor-like smell.)  Turkey balsam.   See
  Dracocepknlum.
    CAMPHORA TA.  See Camphor osma.
    Camphora'tum oleum. SeeLinimcnium camphcrj.
    CAMPHORIC ACID.  Acidum camphoricum.  An
  acid with peculiar properties is obtained, by distilling
  nitric acid  eight times following from camphor; ana
  tlie following is the  account Bouillon Lagrange givoa
  of its preparation and properties.
    One part of camphor being introduced into a glciis
  retort, four parts of nitric acid of ihe strength of 36 de-
  grees are to be poured on it, a  receiver adapted to the
  retort, and all the joints well luted.  The retort is tbui
  to be  placed on a  sand-heat,  and gradually heated.
  During the process a considerable quantity of nitrois
  gas,  and of carbonic acid gas, is evolved; and pari of
  the camphor is volatilized, while another  part sei.-es
  the oxygen ofthe nitric acid.   When no more vapours
  are extricated, the vessels ure to be  separated, and the
  sublimed camphor added to the acid that  remains i.i
  the retort.  A like quantity of nitric acid is agair  to
  be poured on this, and the distillation repeated. Thii
  operation must be reiterated till the camphor is i-ctn-
  pletely acidified. Twenty parts of nitric acid at 36 are
  suflicient to acidify one of camphor.
    When the whole ofthe camphor is acidified, it • rya-
  tallizes in the remaining liquor.  The whole is tl!»ui to
  be poured out upon a filter, and washed with dis  illol
  water, to carry off'the nitric acid il may have reti' mo,!.
 The  most certain indication of the  acidification i f the
 camphor is its crystallizing on the cooling of the l-quor
 remaining in the retort.   To purify this acid it must be
 dissolved in hot distilled  water, and the solution, aftet
 being filtered, evaporated nearly to half, or till a >!:ge.t
 pellicle forms; when the camphoric acid  w ill I < ob-
 tained in crystals on cooling.
   The camphoric acid has a slightly acid, bitter faite,
 and reddens infusion of litmus.
   It crystallizes; and the crystals upon the whnle re-
 semble those of muriate of ammonia. It efflores. i.: on
 exposure to the atmosphere; is not very soluble in cold
 water; when placed on  burning coals, it gives out a
 thick aromatic smoke, and is entirely dissipated;  ?.ad
 with  a gentle heat melts, and is sublimed.  The mine-
 ral acids dissolve it  entirely.  It decomposes the t J-
 phate and muriate of iron.  The fixed and volatile oils
 dissolve it.  It is likewise soluble in alkohol, and lb nil
 precipitated from it by water ; a property that distin-
 guishes it from the benzoic acid. It unites easily with
 the earths and alkalies, and forms camphoratis.
  To prepare the camphorates of lime, magnesia, and
 alumina, these earths must be diffused  in water, ami
 crystallized camphoric acid added.   The mixture mis"
 then be boiled, filtered while hot, and the solution co-«
 centrated by evaporation.
  The camphorate of barytes is prepared by dissolving
 the pure earth in water, and then adding crystal'; :-.cc"
 camphoric acid.
  Those of potassa, soda,  and ammonia, should bo pre
 pared with their carbonates dissolved in water; these
solutions are to be saturated with crystallized campho
ric acid, heated, filtered, evaporated, aud cooled; by
which means the camphorates will be obtained.
  If the camphoric acid  be very pure, they have nc.
smell; if it be not, they have always a slight smell of
camphor.
  The camphorates of alumina and barytes leave a !t|
lie acidity on the tongue:  the rest have ash,ii;ly brt
terish taste.                           n 
CAJS
CAR
   They are all decomposed by heat;  the acid being
 separated and sublimed, and the base remaining pure ;
 that  of  ammonia excepted,  which is entirely vola-
 tilized.
   if they  be exposed to the blowpipe, the acid burns
 with a blue flame: that of ammonia gives first a blue
 flame; but toward the end it becomes red.
   The camphorates of lime and magnesia are little so-
 luble, the others dissolve more easily.
   The mineral acids  decompose them  all.  The alka-
 lies and earths act in the order of their affinity for the
 camphoric acid ; which is, lime, potassa,soda, barytes,
 ammonia, alumina, magnesia.
   Several metallic solutions, and several neutral salts,
 decompose the camphorates;  such  as the nitrate of
 barytes, most ofthe calcareous salts, Sec
   The camphorates of lime,  magnesia, and barytes,
 part with their acid to alkohol.—Lagrange's Manuel
 d'un Cours de Chimie.
   CAMPHORO SMA.   (From camphora, and oct)tn,
 smell; so called from its smelling of camphire.)  The
 camphor-smelling plant.
   1. The name of a genu* r ' plants in tbe Linnaean
 system.   Class, Tetrandrta , Order, Monogynia.
  2. The  pharmacopoeia!  name of tbe  camphorata.
 See Camphorosma Monspeliensis.
   Camphorosma Monspeliensis.  The  systematic
 lame of'the plant called camphorata in the pharma-
 copoeias.   Chamapeuce—Camphorata hirsuta—Cam-
l'iorosma Monspeliaca.  Stinking ground-pine. This
 1 hint, Camphorosma—foliis hirsutis lineartbus, of Lin-
raeus, took its name  from  it- smell  resembling so
 strongly that of camphor:  it has been  exhibited inter-
 nally, in form of decoction, in  dropsical and asthmatic rhus or a watery excrescence  hath proceeded to a
complaints, and by some is esteemed iu fomentations ■ period of ulceration, attended with a constant sense of
 against pain.  It  is rarely, if ever, used in modern  ardent  and occasionally shooting pains, is irregular in
 practice.                                            its figure, and  presents an unequal surface; if il dis-
  Ca'mpter.   (From Kapifjta, to bend.)  An inflexion ! charges sordid, sanious, or foetid matter; if the edges
disappearing  after birth, that  conveys the matern»
blood from ihe porta of the liver to the ascending vena
cava.
  Canary balm.  See Dracoccphalum.
  Ca ncamum Gr/ecorum..   See Hymenaa tcjirbaril
  CANCELLATUS.  Having the reticulatei appear-
ance ofthe cancellt of bones.
  CANCE'LLL  Lattice-work; applied  to the reti-
cular substance in bones.
  CANCE'LLUS.  (Fromcancer, a crab.)  A specica
of cray-fish, called Bernard the hermit and the wrong
heir; the  Cancer cancellus of Linnaeus; supposed to
cure rheumatism, if rubbed on the part.
  CA'NCER.  1. The common name of the crab-fish.
See Cancer Astacus.
  2.  The name of a disease,  from xapxivos, a crab; so
called by the ancients, because it exhibited large blue
veins like crab's claws: likewise called  Carcinoma,
Carcinos, by the Greeks, Lupus by the Romans, be-
cause it eats away the  flesh like a wolf.  Dr. Cullen
places this genus of disease in the class Locales, and
order Tumores.  He defines  il a painful scirrhous
tumour, terminating in a fatal  ulcer.   Any part of the
body may be the seat of cancer, though the glands are
most subject to it.  It is distinguished according to ils
stages, into occult aud open; by the former is meant
ils scirrhous  slate, which is a hard tumour that some-
times remains in a quiet state for many years.  When
Ihe cancerous action commences  in  it, it is attended
with frequent shooting  pains:  the skin that covers it
becomes  discoloured, and ulceration  sooner or later
takes place:  when  the  disease is  denominated open
cancer.  Mr. Pearson says, "When a malignant scir-
or Kicurvalion
  Ca'mpull'.m.  (From Kaurrru),  to twist about.)  A
distortion ofthe eyelids or other parts.
  CAMPYLO'TIS.   (From xapirvXos, bent.)  A pre-
ternatural incurvation, or recurvation of apart; also
a distortion of the eyelids.
  C.VMPYLUM.  See Campylotis.
  Ca'nabil.  A sort of medicinal earth.
  Canabi'na aqoatica.  See Bidens.
  Ca'nabis Indiua.  See  Bangue aied Cannabis.
  Canabis peregrina.  See Caunabis.
  Ca'nada balsam.  See Pinus balsamea.
  Canada maidenhair.  See Adianthum pedatum.
  CANADE NSIS.  (Brought from Canada.)  Cana-
dian.   A name of a  balsam.  See Pinus balsamea.
  CANALICULATUS.  Channelled; having a long
furrow; applied  to  leaves, pods,  ice.  Sec Leaf and
Legu men.
  CANALICULUS.  (Diminutive of canalis, a chan-
nel.)  A little canal. See Canalis arteriosus.
  C/
from canna, a reed.)  A canal,
  1. Specifically applied to many parts of the body;  as
canalis nasalis, Sec.
  2. The hollow of th* spine.
  3. A hollow round instrument  like a reed, for em-
oracmg and holding a broken limb.
  Canalis artbriosus. Canaliculus arteriosus; Ca-
nalis botalii. A  blood-vessel peculiar to the foetus,
disappearing after birth; through wliich the blood  pass-
es from the pulmonary artery into the aorta.
  Canalis nasalis.  A canal going from the internal
ranthus of the  eye downwards into the nose ; it is
situated in the superior maxillary bone,  and  is  lined
with  the pituitary membrane continued from the
nose.
  Canalis pbtitianus.  A triangular  cavity, natu-
rally containing a moisture between the two lamina;
vf the  hyaloid membrane of the  eye, in the anterior
i::nt, formed by the sepaiation of the anterior lamina
 of the sore be thick, indurated, and often exquisitely
 painful, sometimes inverted, at other times  retorted,
 and exhibit a serrated  appearance; and should  the
 ulcer in  its procrcs-s be frequently attended with hae-
 morrhage, in consequence of the erosion of blood-ves-
 sels ;  there will be little hazard of mistake in calling it
 a cancerous ulcer."  In men, a cancer most frequently
 seizes the  tongue, mouth, or penis; in women,  the
 breasts or the uterus, particularly about the cessation
 of their  periodical discharges; and in children,  the
 eyes.  The following description of Scirrhus  and Can
 cer, from the above writer, will serve to elucidate the
 subject.  A hard unequal tumour that is indolent, and
 without any discoloration in ihe skin, is called a scir-
 rhus; but when an itching is perceived in it, which is
 followed  by a pricking, sliooting. or lancinating pain,
 and a change of colour in the skin, it is usually deuo
 minated a cancer.  It generally is small in the begin-
 ning,  and increases gradually; but though  the skin
I changes to a red or livid appearance, and the state of
CANALIS.  (From  x<"<>>> au aperture, or rather the tumour from an indolent to a painful  one, ii is
                                                sometimes very difficult to say when the scirrhus really
                                                becomes a cancer, the progress being quick or slow ac-
                                                cording to concurring causes.  When  the tumour is
                                                attended  with a peculiar kind of burning,  shooting
                                                pains, nnd the skin hath acquired the dusky  purple or
                                                livid  hue, it may then be deemed the malignant scii
                                                rhus or confirmed cancer.  When thus far advanced in
                                                women's breasts, the  tumour  sometimes  incieases
                                                speedily  to a great size, having a knotty unequal sur
                                                face,  more  glands  becoming obstructed, the nipple
                                                sinks  in, turgid  veins  are  conspicuous, ramifying
                                                around,  and resembling a crab's  claws.  These' are
                                                the characteristics of an occult cancer on the external
                                                parts; and we may suspect the existence of one inter
                                                nally, when such pain and heat as has been described,
                                                succeed  in parts where the patient hath before been
                                                sensible  of a weight nnd pressure, attended  witn ob-
                                                tuse pain.  A cancerous  tumour never melts down in
                                                suppuration like an  inflammatory one;  but when ii
                                                is ready  to break open, especially in the breast, ii ge
                                                nerally becomes prominent in some minute  point, at
                                                tended with an increase of the peculiar kind of burn
It is
fiom the posterior
M. Petit.
  Canalis  semicircui.aris
There are th
rained after its discoverer,

      Semicircular  canal.
          three in each ear placed  in the posterior i ing, shooting pain, felt before at intervals in a less He
part of the labyrinth.  They open by five orifices into | gree and deeper in the birfffl  In the nro-
tlie vestibulitis  See Ear.                          ; mlnent  part of the  tumour, in this state, a corrodinn
  Canalis sk-mispetros. The half bony canal of the  ichor  sometimes transudes through  the  skin, soon
e8r                        ,     ,.   ,   ..   e  .     forming an ulcer: at other times a considerable ouan-
  Canalis vknosus.   A canal peculiar to the foetus, I tity of a thin lymphatic fluid tinged with  blood from 
CAN
CAN
wrtcd vessels is found on It.  Ulcers of the canee-wts
nature discharge a thin, foetid, acrid sanies,  which
corrodes the pans, having thick, dark-coloured  re-
torted lips; and fungous excrescences frequently rise
from these ulcers, notwithstanding the corrosiveness
of the discharge.  In this stale they are often attended
with excruciating, pungeiv'., lancinating, burning pains,
and  sometimes with bleeding.
  Though  a scirrhus  may truly be deemed a cancer,
as soon as pain is perceived iu it, yet every painful
tumour is  not  a cancer ; nor is it always easy  lo say
whether acancer is the disorder or not. Irregular hard
lumps may be perceived in the  breast; but on ex-
amining  the other breast, where no uneasiness is per-
ceived, the  same kind of tumours are sometimes found,
which renders the diagnostic uncertain.  Yet in every
case after  the  cessation  of the catainenia, hard, un-
equal turnouts in the breast are suspicious; nor, though
without pain, aie they to be supposed indolent or  in-
noxious.
  In ihe treatment of this disease, our chief reliance
must be  on extirpating the part affected.  Some have
attempted to dispel the  scirrhous tumour by leeches
and  various discuiient applications,  to destroy il  by
caustics, or to check  its progress by narcotics; but
without material success. Certainly before Ihe disease
•s confirmed, should any inflammatory tendency ap-
pear, anliphlo'jisiic means may be employed with pro-
priety; but afterward  the operation should not be de-
layed : nay, where the nature of the tumour  is doubt-
ful, ii will be better to remove it, than incur the risk of
this  dreadful dts-ease.   Some surgeons, indeed, have
contested the  utility of the operation ; and no doubt
the disease will sometimes appear agnin ; from consti-
tutional tendency, or from the whole not having been
removed : but tlie balance of evidence is in favour of
the operation being successful, if performed early, and
to an  adequate extent.  The plan  of destroyine. the
part by caustic is much more tedious, painful, and un-
certain.  When the disease Iras arisen from some acci-
dent, not spontaneously, when the patient is otherwise
healthy, when  no symptoms of malignancy in the can-
cer have appeared, and the adjacent glands and  absor-
bents seem unaffected, we have stronger expectation of
success: but unless all the morbid parts can be removed
without the risk of dividing important nerves or arte-
ries, it should scarcely be attempted.  In operating it
is advisable, 1. To make tire external wound suffici-
ently large, and nearly in  the direction ofthe subjacent
muscular fibres.  2. To save skin enough to  cover it,
unless diseased.  3. To tie every vessel which  might
endanger subsequent  haemorrhage.   4. To keep the
iips of the wound in contact, not interposing any dress-
ing, Sec  5. To preserve the parts in an easy and steady
position  for  some days, before they are inspected.
6. To use only mild and cooling applications during the
cure.  Supposing, however, the patient will  not con-
sent  to an operation, or circumstances render it inad-
missible, the uterus, for  example, being affected, in-
ternal remedies may somewhat retard its progress, or
alleviate the sufferings of the patient; those, which
have appeared most beneficial,are,  I. Arsenic, in very
small doses long continued.   2. Conium, in doses pro-
gressively increased tn a considerable extent. 3. Opium.
4. Belladonna.   5. Solanum.  6.  Ferrum  amnionia-
tum.  7.  Hydrargyri oxymurias. 8. The juice of the
galium aparine.  When the part  is  external, topical
applications may be useful to alleviate pain, cleanse
the sore, or correct  the  feetor; especially, 1 Fresh-
bruised hemlock leaves.  2. Scraped young  carrots.
3. The fermenting poultice.   4. Finely levigated chalk.
5. Powdered  charcoal.  6. Carbonic acid  gas,  intro-
troduced into a bladder confined round the part.  7. A
watery solution of opium.   8. Liquid  tar, or tar-
water.  But none of these means can be relied upon
for effecting a cure.
  3.  See Carcinus.
  Cancer  astacus.   The  systematic  name of the
crab-fish, from which the claws are selected for medi-
cal use.  Crab's clnws and  crab's  eyes,  as  they arc
called, which are concretions found  in the stomach,
are of a calcareous quality, and possess antacid virtues.
They are exhibited with  their compounds in  pyrosis,
diarrhoea, and infantile convulsions from acidity.
  Cancer canczllus.  See Cancellus.
  Cm.BR -jammarus.  The systematic name of the
lobster
   l ancer munditorium.  A peculiar ulceration V
 the scrotum of chimiiev-sweepers.
   Ca nchrys.  Parched barley.— Galen.
   Cam re na.  Paracelsus  uses this word instead ol
 gangruena.
   Cancro'rum chicle. Crab's claws.  See Carbonas
 calcis, und Cancer astacus.
   Cancrorum oculi.  See Carbonas calcis, and Can,
 cer astacus.
   CA NCRl M.    (From cancer, a  spreading ulcer.;
 The canker.                                     '
   Cancrum oris.  ( .inker ofthe mouth; a fretted
 ulceration ofthe cuius.
   CANDELA.  "(From candeo, to shine.)  A candle.
   Candela fumalis.   A candle made of odoriferous
 powders and resinous matters, to purify the air and ex
 cite the spirits.
   Candela regia.  See Verbascum.
   Candkla'ria.    (From candela, a candle; so callc.l
 from  the resemblance of its stalks to a candle.)  Mul-
 lein.  See Verbascum.
   Candy carrot.   See Athamanta crctensis.
   Cane la.  Sometimes used by the ancients for cm
 namon, or rather cassia.
   CANELLA.   (CaneXla, diminutive  of canna, a
 reed ; so named because the  pieces of bark arc rollcu
 up in the form of a reed.)  The name of a genus ol
 plants f,i  the  Linna-an system.  Class, Dodccandria-
 Order. .Monogynia.  The canella-tree.
   Canella alba.  The pharmacopoeia!  name of the
 laurel-leaved canella.  See  Wint.cna aromatua.
   Canella cubana.  See Canella alba.
   Canella malabario.e cortex.  See Laurus cos
 sia.
   CanelliVeia malabarica.  See Laurus cassia.
   Caneon.  <   nm Kavvtn, because it was made of splti
 cane.)  A sort of tube or instrument, mentioned by
 Hippocrates, for conveying the fumes  of antihysteric
 drugs into the  womb.
   Ca'nice.  (From cam's, a dog, so called by the in
 cients, because it was food for dogs.)  Coarse  me.'J
 Hence panis caniceus means very coarse bread.
   CANICI'DA.   (From canis, a dog, and cado, to kill.
 so called because dogs are destroyed by  eating U.*
 Dog's bane. See Aconitum.
   CANICI'DIUM.  (From  canis,  a dog, and cado, to
 kill.)   The  anatomical dissection of living dogs; fci
 the purpose of illustrating the physiology of parts.
   Canina lingua.  See Cynoglossum.
   Canina malus.  The mandragora.
   Canina rabies.  See Hydrophobia.
   CANINE.   Whatever partakes of, or has any re'.t
 tion to, the nature of a dog.
   Canine appetite.  See Bulimia.
   Canine madness.  See Hydrophobia.
   Canine teeth.  Dentes canini; Cynodontes ; Can
pidati of Mr. John Hunter;  because they have the two
sides of their edge  sloped off to a point, and this point
is very sharp or cuspidated; columellares of Varo ar,-l
 Pliny.  The four eye teeth are so called from their r"
semblance to those ofthe dog.  See Teeth.
   CANI'NUS. (From canis,  a dog.)   1. a tooth is f..j
called, because it resembles that of a dog.  See Teeth.
  2. The name of a muscle, because it U near the c;i
nine tooth.  Sec Levator anguli oris. .
  3. A disease to which dogs are subject is cailed P.n
fries canina.  See Hydrophobia.
  Caninus sentis.  See Rosa canina.
  Caniru'bus. (From canis,  and rubus, a bramble.)
See Rosa canina.
  CA'NIS.  1. A dog.  The white dung of this ani-
mal, called albumgracum, was formerly in esteem, bat
now disused.
  2. The fraenum ofthe penis.
  Canus. interfector.  Indian barley.  See Vera-
trum sabadilla.
  Canis ponticus.  Sec Castor.
  CANNA.  (Hebrew.)  1. A reed or hollow cane.
  2. The fibula, from Rs resemblance to a reed.
  Canna fistula.  See Cas3ia fistula.
  Canna indica.  See Sagiltaria alexipharmiea.
  Canna major.  The tibia.
  Canna minor cruris.  The fibula
  Cannabi'na. (From canna, a reed, named from tin
reed-like stalk.)  So Toumefort named his datisca.
  CANNABIS.   (From Kavva, a reed.  KavvaSot are
foul springs, wherein hemp, Sec. grow naturally.   Oj
     1                                 181 
CAN
CAO
from kanaba, from kanah, to mow. Arabian.) Hemp
1. The name of a genus of plants in the Linnaean sys-
tem.  Class, Diacia;  Order, Pentandria.
 ~2. The pharmacopoeial name ofthe hemp-plant. See
Cannabis sativa.
  Cannabis sativa.   The systematic name of the
hemp-plant.  It has a rank  smell of a narcotic Kind.
The effluvia from the fresh herb are said to affect the
eyes and head, and that the water in which it has been
long steeped is a sudden  poison.  Hemp-seeds, when
fresh, afford a considerable quantity of oil.   Decoc-
ticis and emulsions of them have been recommended
against coughs, ardor urinae, &c.   Their use, in gene-
ral, defends on their emollient and  demulcent quali-
ties  'I he  leaves of an oriental hemp, called bang or
langur, and by the Egyptians assis,  are said to be
tiseil in eastern countries,  as a narcotic and aphrodi-
siac.  See Bangue.
  CA'NNTJLA.   (Diminutive of canna, a reed.) The
name of a surgical instrument.  See  Canula.
  CA'NON.  Kavuiv.   A rule or canon,  by  which
medicines are compounded.
  Cano'nial.  Kavoviai.   Hippocrates in his book De
ASre, &c. calls those persons thus, who have straight,
and not  prominent bellies.   He would intimate that
they are disposed, as it were, by a straight rule.
  Cano picon.   (From Kavti>irov, the flower of the
elder.)   I.  A sort of spurge, so named from its resem-
blance
  2. A collyrium, of which the chief ingredient was
elder flowers.
  Canopi'te.  The name of a collyrium mentioned by
Celsus.
  Cano'pum.  KavaKov.  The flower  or bark of the
elder-tree, in Paulus ^Egineta.
  Canta'brica.   See Convolvulus.
  Canta'buum.   (From kanta, Hebrew.)  In Coelius
Aurelianus it signifies bran.
  Cv'ntacon. Garden saffron.
  Ca'ntara.  The plantwhich bears the St. Ignatius's
bean.  See Ignaria amara.
  CANTERBURY.   The name in history of a much
celebrated town in Kent, in wliich there is a mineral
water,  Cantuariensis aqua, strongly impregnated with
iron, sulphur, and carbonic acid gas;  it is recommend-
ed  in disorders of the stomach, in gouty complaints,
jaundice, diseases of the skin, and chlorosis.
  Ca'nthari figulixi.  Earthen cucurbits.
  CA'NTHARIS.   (Cantharis, pi. cantharides : from
xavO.ipos, a beetle, to which tribe it belongs.)   Musca
Hisptinicii; Lytta  vesicatoria;  The blistering fly;
Spanish fly.  These flies  have a  green shining gold
tody, and are common in  Spain, Italy, France, and
Germany.   The  largest  come from  Italy,  but the
F-panish  cantharides  are generally  preferred.  The
importance of these flies, by their stimulant, corrosive,
and epispastic qualities, in "the practice of physic and
surgery, is very considerable;  indeed, so  much so, as
to induce many to consider them as the most powerful
medicine in the materia medica.  When applied on
tbe skin, in the form of a plaster, it soon raises a blis-
ter full of serous  matter, and thus relieves inflamma-
tory diseases, as phrcnitis, pleuritis, hepatitis,  phleg-
ir-cm, bubo, myositis,  arthritis, &c.  The tincture of
these flies is also of great utility in several cutaneous
diseases, rheumatic affections, sciatic pains, &c. but
might to be used with much caution.  See Blister, and
Tinctura cantharidis.  This insect is two-thirds of an
inch iii length, one-fourth  in breadth, oblong, and of a
•nild shining colour, with soft clytera or wing sheaths,
r'arked with three longitudinal  raised  stripes, and
covering brown membraneous wings.  An insect of a
equate form, with black feet, but possessed of no vesi-
.- iting property, is sometimes mixed  with tlie cantha-
idesf  They have a heavy disagreeable odour, and
acrid taste                      .    ,  ,
   If the inspissated watery decoction of these insects
b  treated with pure alkohol, u solution of a resinous
n.r.t.T is obtained, which being separated by gentle
  .aporation to dryness, and submitted for some time
to the action of sulphuric aether, forms a yellow solu-
ti m.  By spontaneous evaporation, crystalline plates
n e deposited, whicli may be freed from some adhering
colouring matter by alkohol.  Their appearance is like
spermaceti. They are soluble in boiling alkohol, but
c.ecipitate  as it cools.   They do not dissolve in water.
      182
According  to Robiquet, who first discovered  them,
these plates form the true blistering principle.  They
mi«ht be called Vesicatoria.  Besides the above pecu-
liar body, cantharides contain, according to Robiquet,
a green bland oil, insoluble in water, soluble in alko-
I10T a black matter, soluble in water, insoluble in al-
kohol, without blistering properties; a  yellow viscid
matter, mild, soluble in  water and alkohol; tte crys-
talline plates;  a fatty  bland matter; phosphates of
lime  aud  magnesia; a  little acetic acid, and  much
lithic or  uric acid.  The blistering fly taken into the
stomach in doses of a few grains, acts as a poison, oc-
casioning horrible satyriasis,  delirium,  convulsions,
and death.  Some frightful cases are related by Orfila,
vol. i. part second.  Oils, milk, syrups, frictions on tbe
spine, with  volatile  liniment  and  laudanum, and
draughts containing musk, opium, and  camphorated
emulsion, are the best antidotes.
  ["Cantharides Vittat*.  Potato flies. The Can-
tharis vittata of Olivier, called Lytta vittata by Fabri
cius,  inhabits the United States  and South America.
It is also given by Pallas among his insects of Siberia.
It feeds  on different plants, but chiefly on the potato
vine, and is easily caught in the morning and towards
night. It agrees with the Spanish fly in its generic
character, but is a smaller insect, having its elytra or
wing cases  black with a yellow stripe and margin, its
head  reddish yellow, aad its abdomen and legs black.
This  fly is found by abundant experience to possess
all  the vesicating powers of the European cantharis,
and to exert the same  effect, when internally  admi-
nistered, upon the bladder  and urethra.  The potato
fly might well supersede the Spanish, were it not that
its visits in different years vary greatly as to certainty
and numbers.  It is probable that many insects of the
coleopterous class possess vesicating powers.  Re-
cently a  fly possessing this quality was sent from the
country to a physician in Boston.  It proved to be the
meloe proscarabeus  of  Linnaeus.  Tlie discovery of
the epispastic property in any native insect, is an ob-
ject of interest.  But that such  insects may become
extensively useful, they must be abundant aud easy of
collection."—Big. Mat. Med.  A.]
  Ca'nthum. Sugar-candy.
  CA'NTHUS.  (KavOoc, the tire or iron binding of a
cart-wheel.   Dr. Turton, in his glossary, supposes from
its etymology, that  it originally signified the circular
extremity of the eyelid.)  The angle or corner of the
eye, where the upper and  under  eyelids meet.  That
next tlie nose is termed the internal or greater can thus;
and the other, the external or less canthus.
  Cantion.  Sugar.
  CA'NULA.  (Diminutive of canna, a leed.)  Can
nula,  A small tube.  The  term is generally applied
to a tube adapted to a sharp instrument, with which
it is thrust into a cavity or tumour, containing a fluid;
the perforation being made, the sharp instrument is
withdrawn, and the canula left, in order that the fluid
may pass" through it.
  Canusa.  Crystal.
  CAOUTCHOU'C.  The substance so called is ob-
tained from  the vegetable kingdom, aud exists also in
the mineral.
  1. The first, known by the names Indian rubber,
Elastic gum, Cayenne resin, Cautchuc,  and Caout
chouc, is prepared principally from  the juice of the
Siphonia elastica ;—foliis ternatis ellipticis intcerri-
mis sublis canis longe petiolatis, (Suppl. Plant!) and
also from tlie Jatropha elastica and Unccola elastica
The manner of obtaining this juice is by making in-
cisions through the bark of tlie lower part ofthe trunk
of the tree, from which  the  fluid resin issues in great
abundance, appearing of a milky whiteness as it flows
into the vessel placed lo receive it, and  into which it
|s conducted  by means of a tube or leaf fixed 'n the
incision, and supported  wilh clay.   On exposure to
the  air, this milky juice eraduallv inspissates into  a
sort, reddish, elastic, resin.  It is  formed by the In-
dians in South America into various figures, hut is
commonly brought to Europe in that of pear-shaped
bottles, which are said to be formed by spreading the
juice of the  Siphonia ovtr a proper mould of clay; as
soon as one layer is dry, another  is added, until the
bottle be of the thickness desired.  It is then exposed
to a thick dense smoke, or to a fire, until it becomes so
drv as not to slick to the fingfi's, when,  by means off 
CAO
CAP
 certain instruments of iron, or wood, it is ornamented
 on the outside with various figures.  This being done,
 It remains only to pick out the mould, which is easily
 effected by softening it with water.
   " The elasticity of this substance is its most remark-
 able property: when warmed, as by immersion in hot
 water, slips of it may be drawn out to seven or eight
 times their original length, and will return to their for-
 mer dimensions nearly.   Cold renders it stiff* and rigid,
 but warni.ii restores  its  original elasticity.  Exposed
 to the lire it softens, swells up, and burns with a bright
 flame.  In Cayenne it is used to give light as a candle.
 Its solvents are aether, volatile oils, and petroleum.
 The auher, however, requires to be washed v^lh wa-
 ter repeatedly, and in this state it dissolves it com-
 pletely.  Pelletier  recommends to boil the caoutchouc
 in  water for  an  hour;  then to  cut it into slender
 threads; to boil it again about an hour;  and then to
 put it into rectified sulphuric aether in a vessel close
 stopped.  In this  way he says  it  will be totally dis-
 solved in a few  days, without heat, except the impuri-
 ties, which will fall to the bottom if aether enough be
 employed.. Berniard says, the nitrous aether dissolves
 it better than the sulphuric.   If this solution be spread
 on  any substance,  the aether evaporates very quickly,
 and leaves a coating of caoutchouc unaltered in its pro-
 perties.  Naphtha, or petroleum, rectified into  a co-
 lourless liquid, dissolves  it, and  likewise leaves it un-
 changed by evaporation.   Oil of turpentine softens it,
 and forms  a pasty mass, that may be spread as a var-
 nish, but ls very long in drying.  A solution of caout-
 :houc in five times its weight of oil of turpentine, and
 this solution dissolved iu eight times its weight of dry
 ing linseed oil by boiling, is said to form tlie varnish of
 air-balloons.   Alkalies act upon it so as in time to de-
 stroy its elasticity.  Sulphuric acid is decomposed by
 it;  sulphurous acid being evolved, and the caoutchouc
 converted into charcoal.   Nitric acid a-.ts upon it with
 beat;  nitrous  gas being given  out, and oxalic acid
 crystallizing  from the residuum.   On  distillation  it
 gives out ammonia, and carburettcd hydrogen.
  Caoutchouc may be formed  into  various articles
 without undergoing the  process of solution.  If it be
 cut into a uniform slip of a proper thickness, and wound
 spirally round a glass or  metal rod, so that Ihe edges
 snail  be in close contact, and in this state  be  boiled
 for some time, the edges will adhere so as to form  a
 tube.  Pieces of it may be readily joined by touching
 the edges with tbe solution  in aether; but this  is not
 absolutely necessary, for, if they  be merely softened
 by heat, and then pressed  together, they will unite
 very firmly.
  If linseed oil be rendered very drying by digesting  it
 upon an oxide of  lead, and afterward applied with  a
 small  brush on any surface, and dried by the sun or
 in the smoke, it will afford a pellicle of considerable
 firmness, transparent, burning like caoutchouc, and
 wonderfully elastic.   A pound of this oil, spread upon
 a stone, and exposed to the air for six or seven months,
 acquired almost ail the properties of caoutchouc; it
 was used to make catheters  and bougies, to varnish
 balloons, and for other purposes.
  Of the mineral  caoutchouc there are several varie-
 ties:—1. Of a  blackish-brown, inclining to olive, soft,
 exceedingly compressible, unctuous, with a slightly
 aromatic smell.  It burns with a bright flame, leaving
 a black  oily  residuum, which does not  become dry.
 2. Black, dry,  and  cracked on the  surface, but,  when
 cut into, of a yellowish-white.  A  fluid resembling
 pyrolignic acid exudes from it when  recently cut.  It
 is pellucid on the edges, and  nearly of a hyacinthine
 red colour.  3. Similar to the preceding, but of a some-
 what  firmer  texture,  and ligneous appearance, from
 having acquired consistency in repeated layers.  4.
 Resembling the first  variety, bat of  a darker colour,
 and adhering to gray calcareous spar, with some grains
 of galiena.  5. Of a liver-brown colour,  having the
 aspect of the  vegetable  caoutchouc,  but  passing by
 gradual transitioa  into a brittle bitumen, of vitreous
 lustre, and a yellowish colour.  6. Dull reddish-brown,
 of a spongy or cork-like texture, containing blackish-
 gray nuclei of impure caoutchouc. Many more varieties
 are  enumerated.
  One  specimen of this caoutchouc has been found in
a petrified marine shell enclosed in a rock, and another
enclosed in a crystallized fluor spar.
  The  mineral caoutchouc resists the action of sol vents
 still more than the vegetable   The rectified on  of
 petroleum affects it most, particularly when by partia
 burning it is resolved into a pitchy viscous substance.
 A hundred  grains of a specimen analyzed in the dry
 way by Klaproth, afforded carburetted  hydrogen gas
 38 cubic inches, carbonic acid gas 4, bituminous oil 73
 grains, acidulous  phlegm 1.5, charcoal 6.25, lime 2,
 silex  1.5, oxide of iron  .75,  sulphate of lime .5, alu-
 mina .-j.
   CAPA1BA.  See Copaifera officinalis.
   CAPAIVA.   See Copaifera officinalis.
   Capeli'na.   (Fiom capclinc, French, a  woman s
 hat, or bandage.)  A double-headed  roller, put round
 the head.
   Cape lla.  A cupel or test. Also a name for a  goat.
   CAPER.  Sec Capparis.
   Caper-bush.   See Capparis.
   Ca'petus.  (Ka*t]os, per apharesin,  pro oxairt]is '•
 from  «r*ajr7ii)i  to  dig.)  Hippocrates means by this
 word a foramen, which is impervious, and needs the
 use of a chirurgicul instrument to make an  opening;
 as the anus of some new-born infants.
   Ca'phora.   (Arabian.)  Camphire.
   Ca'puura baros indorum.  A name for camphire.
   I'apiiur.c oleum.   An aromatic oil  distilled  from
 the root of the cinnamon-tree
   CAPILLACEUS.  Capillary.
   CAP1LLARIS.   See Capillary.
   Capillares  plants.   Capillary, or hair-shaped
 plants.
   Capillaris vermiculus.  See Crinones and Dra-
 cunculus.
   CAPTLLARY.   (Capillaris; from capillus, a little
 hair: so called from the resemblance to hair or fine
 thread.)  1. Capillary vessels.  The  very small rami-
 fications of the arteries, which terminate upon the
 external surface ofthe body, or on the surface of inter-
 nal cavities, arc called capillary.
   2. Capillary attraction.  See Attraction.
   3. Applied to parts of plants, which are, or resemble,
 hairs: thus, a capillary root is one which consists ol
 many very  fine fibres, as that of Fesluca ovina, and
 most  grasses.
   Capilla'tio. (From capillus, a hair.) A capillary
 fracture ofthe cranium.
   CAPI'LLUS.   (Quasi capitis pilus, the hair of
 the head.)  The hair.  Small, cylindrical, transparent,
 insensible, and elastic filaments, wliich arise  from the
 skin,  and are fastened in it by means of small roots.
 The human hair  is composed  of a  spongy, cellular
 texture, containing n  coloured liquid, and  a proper
 covering.  Hair is divided into two kinds; long, which
 arises  on the  scalp, cheek, chin,  breasts of men, the
 anterior parts ofthe arms and legs, the arm-pits, groins,
 and pelvis: and short, which is softer than the  long,
 and is  present over the whole body, except only the
 palm ofthe hand and sole of the foot.  The hair origi
 nates in the adipose membrane from an oblong mem
 braneous bulb, which has vessels peculiar to it.   The
 hair is distinguished by different names in certain
 parts; as, capillus, on the top of the  head: crinis, on
 the back  of the head;  circrinnus,  on the temples;
 cilium, on the eyelids; supercilium, on the eyebrows;
 vibrissa, in the nostrils; barba, on the chin; pappus,
 on the middle  of the chin; mystax, on the upper lip;
pilus, on tbe body.
   From numerous experiments Vauquelin infers, thai
 black hair  is  formed of nine different substances,
 namely:—
   1. An animal matter, which constitutes the greater
 part.  2. A while  concrete oil, in small quantity  3.
 Another oil of a grayish-green colour, more abundant
 than the former.  4.  lion, the 6tate of  which in the
 hair is uncei <ain.  5.  A few particles of oxide of man
ganese   6.  Phosphate of lime.  7. Carbonate of lime,
in very small  quantity.  8. Silex, in n conspicuous
q-.iantity.  9. Lastly,  a considerable  quautity of sul
phur.
  The same experiments show, that red hair differs
from black only in containing a red  oil instead  of a
blackish-green oil, and that  white hair differs from
both these only in the oil being  nearly colourless, and
in containing  phosphate of magnesia,  which is nol
found in them.
  Capillus veneris.  See Adianthum.
  Capillus veneris canadensis.   See Adianthunt
canadense- 
                       CAP
                                       «
   Capiple'k-vm.   (From caput, the head, and plenus,
 full; a barbarous word: but Baglivi uses it to signify
 that continual heaviness or disorder in the head, which
 the Greeks call xapnjSapta.)  A catarrh.
   Capistra'tio.  (From capislrum, a bridle: socallcd
 because the praepuce is restrained as it were with a
 Bridle.)   Sec Phimosis.
   GAPI'STRUM.  (From caput, the head.)
   I. A bandage for the head is so cal'cd.
   2. Iu Vogel's Nosology it is the same  as Trismus.
   CAPITAL.  Capitatis.  1. Belonging to the caput,
 or head.
  2. The head or upper part of an alembic.
  Capita'lia. (From caput, the head.)  Medicines
 whii h relieve pains of the head.
  CAPITATUS.  (From caput, the head.)  Headed.
 See Capitulam.
  CAPITE LLUM.  The head  or seed  vessels, fre-
 quently applied to mosses, Sec.
  CAPTTILU VIUM.  (From caput,  the head, and
 lavo, to wash.)  A lotion  for the head.
   Ca'pitis obliquus inferior et major.  See Obli-
 quus inferior capitis.
  Capitis  par  t*:rtium pallopii.    See  Traclielo-
 mastoideus.
  Capitis  posticus.   See Rectus capitis  posticus
 major.
  Capitis rectus. See Rectus capitis posticus minor.
  CAPI'TULUM.  (Diminutive of caput, tlie head.)
  1. A small head.
  2. A protuberance of a  bone, received into the con-
 cavity of another bone.
  3. An alembic.
  In botany, the term for a species of inflorescence,
 called a head or  tuft, formed of many flowers, in a
 globular form, upon a common peduncle.
  From the insertion ofthe flowers, it is called,
  1 Pedunculated;  as in Astragalus  syriacus, aud
 Eryngium maritimum.
  2. Sessile; as in  Trifolium tomentosum.
  3.  Terminal; as in Monarda fistulosa.
  4. Axillary ; as in Gomphrena sessilis.
  From the figure, it is said to be,
  1. Globose; as in Gomphrenaglobosa.
  2. Subrotund; as in Trifolium pratense.
  3.  Conic; as in  Trifolium montanum.
  4.  Dimidiate, flat on one side, round on the other;
 as in Ti'ifolium lupinaster.
  From its covering,
  1. Naked; as in lllccebrum polygonoides.
  2. Foliose ; as in Plantago indico.
  A capitulum that is very small, and is mostly in the
 axilla, is called Glomerulus.
  CAPI'VI.  See Copaifera officinalis.
  CAPNELjE'UM.  (From xairvos, smoke, and eXatov,
 oil; so named from its smoky exhalations when ex-
 posed to heat.)  In Galen's works it means a resin.
  Ca'pnias.  (From xavvos, a smoke.)  1. A jasper
 of a smoky colour.
  2. A vine which bears white and part black grapes.
  Capni'ston.  (From xairvos, smoke.)  A prepara-
 tion of spice and oil, made by kindling the spices, and
 fumigating the oil.
  Capni'tis.  (From *airroc, smoke; so  called from
 its smoky colour.)   Tutty.
  CAPNOI'DES.   (From Kairvos, fumitory, andtirJoc,
 likeness.)   Resembling fumitory.
  CA'PNOS. (Kairvoc, smoke; so called, says Blanch-
 ard, because its juice, if applied to the  eyes, produces
 the same  effect and sensations as smoke.)  Capnus.
 The herb fumitory.  See Fumaria.
  CAPNUS. NSce Capnos.
  Ca'ppa.  (A capite, from the head:  so  called  from
 its  supposed resmiblance.)   The herb monkshood.
 See Aconitum.
  CA'PPARIS.    (From  cabar,  Arab, or  zsapa  to
 Kaniravuv apav, from its curing madness  and melan-
 choly.)  The caper plant.
  T. The name of a genus of plants in the Linnaean
 system.   Class, Polyandria; Order, Monogynia.
  2. The  pharmacopceial name of the caper plant.
 See Capparis spinosa.
  Capparis spinosa.  The systematic name of the
 caper plant.  Capparis :—pendunculis  solitariis uni-
Jloris, stipulis spinosis, foliis annuis,capsutis ovalibus
 of Linnaeus.  The buds, or unexpanded  flowers of this
 plant are in common use as a pickle, which is said to
      184
                     UA

        antiscorbutic virtues.  The bark of the  rod
 was formerly in high esteem as a deobstruent.
  CAPREOLA'RIS.   (From capreolus,  a tendril.)
 Capreolatus.  Resembling in its contortions, or other
 appearance, the tendrils of a vine;  applied to the
 spermatic vessels.
  CAPREOLATUS.  See Capreolari.i.
  CAPRE'OLUS.  (Dim. of caprea,  a tendril.  Dr.
 Turton suggests its derivation from caper, a goat, the
 horn of which its  contortions somewhat resemble.)
 1. The helix or circle  of the eai  fiom its tendril-like
 contortion.
  2. A Tendril. See  Cirrus.
  Ca»»ico'rnus.  Lead.
  CAPRIFICATION. (Caprificatio; from caprificus
 a wild fig.)  The very singular husbandry„or manage-
 ment of fig-trees.
  CAPRIFTCUS.  (From caper, a goat, and ficus, a
 fig;  because they are a chief food of goats.)   The wild
 fig-tree.  See Ficus.
  Caprimulous.  A species of bird, the goat-sucker,
 to  which  belong  the night-hawk and the whip-
 poor-will.
  Capri'zans.  Galen and others  used this word to
 express an inequality in the pulse, when it  leaps, and,
 as it were, dances iu  uncertain strokes and periods.
  Capse'lla.   (Diminutive  of capsa, a chest, from
 its resemblance.)   A name iu Marcellus Empiricus foi
 viper's bugloss; the Echium Ilalicum, of Linnaeus.
  CA'PSICUM.  (From xairfia,  to bite; on account
 of its effect on the mouth.)
  I. The name of a genus of plants in the Linnaean
 system.  Class, Pentandria; Order, Monogynia.
  •2. The pharmacopceial name of the capsicum.   See
 Capsicum annuum.
  Capsicum annuum.  The  systematic name of the
 plant  from  wliich we obtain Cayenne pepper. Gui-
 nea pepper.  Piper indicum; Lada chilli;  Capo Mo-
 lago; Solanum urens; Siliquastrum Plinii; Piper
 Braiilianum ; Piper Guincense ; Piper Calecuticum;
 Piper Hispanicum; Piper Lusilanicum.   Cayenne
 pepper.  This species of* pepper  is obtained from the
 Capsicum; caule herbaceo, pedunculus solitariis of
 Linnaeus. What is generally used  under the name of
 Cayenne pepper, however, is an  indiscriminate mix-
 ture of the powder of the dried pods of many species
 of capsicum, but especially of Lhecapsicum minimum,
 or bird pepper, which is the hottest of all.  These pep-
 pers have been chiefly  used as condiments.  They pre-
 vent flatulence from vegetable food, and give warmth
 to the stomach, possessing all the virtues of the oriental
 spices, without producing those complaints ofthe head
 which the latter are apt to  occasion.  An abuse of
 them,  however, gives rise to visceral obstructions,
 especially of the liver. In the practice of medicine,
 there can be little doubt that  they furnish us with one
 of the purest and strongest stimulants which can be
 introduced into the  stomach, and may be very useful
 in some  paralytic and gouty cases.  Dr. Adair, who
 first introduced  them into practice,  found them useful
 in the cachexia Africana, which he  considers as a
 most  frequent  and fatal  predisposition  to disease
 among the slaves.  Dr. Wright says, that in dropsical
 and other complaints where chalyboates are indicated,
 a minute portion of powdered capsicum forms an ex-
 cellent addition, and recommends its use in lethargic
 affections.  This pepper has  also  been successfully
 employed in a species of cynanchc maligna, wliich
 proved very  fatal in the West Indies, resisting the use
 of Peruvian bark,  wine, and other remedies com-
 monly employed.  In  tropical fevers, coma and deli-
 rium  are common attendants; and, in  such cases, ca-
 taplasms of capsicum have a speedy and happy effect
 They redden the parts, but seldom blister unless when
 kept on too long.  In.ophthalmia from relaxation, the
 diluted juice of capsicum  is found to be a valuable
 remedy.  Dr. Adair gave six or eight grains for a dose,
 made into pills; or else he prepared a tincture by di-
gesting half an ounce of the pepper in  a pound of al-
 kohol, the dose of which was one or two drachms
diluted with a sufficient quantity of water.  A tinctu-a
capsici is now  for the first time introduced into the
 London pharmacopoeia.
  [" This article is well known for its excessively pun-
gent and biting acrimony, exceeding that of any other
article used  with food.  The principle on which iu
pungency depends is soluble  in both water and alk» 
CAP
CAR
  hoi, and is not dissipated by boiling.  Its solutions arc
  distumed by various reagents, which, however, arc of
  no corsequence in practical use.  It is found to con-
  tain cinchonin, resin, mucilage, and an acrid principle
  said to be alkaline.  It is sometimes adulterated with
  red-lead to increase its weight.
    Capsicum is a warm, powerful stimulant, promoting
  digestion, and obviating  flatulence.  Its abuse, how-
  ever, produces visceral  obstructions, and an inflamma-
  tory disposition  in the  system.  It is never of service
  to the healthy.   In disease it is administered to stimu-
  late the stomach when in a  torpid state, and to excite
  the  nerves of the paralytic and lethargic.  In the
  West Indies it has been employed both externally and
  internally in ulcerated sore throat.  It is applied as a
  gargle in this disease, and in paralysis of the  tongue.
  Its chief use, however, is as  a rubefacient to the skin,
  upon whicli it acts with great power. The dose inter-
  nally is from five to ten grains.   The  rubefacient
  cataplasm is made of meal and vinegar heated, aud its
 surface  covered with  pulverized  capsicum."—Bio-.
  Mat. Med.  A.]
   CA'PSULA.   (Diminutive of  capsa,  a chest or
 ease.)   A  capsule.  1. A membraneous production
 enclosing a part of the  body  like a bag; as the capsu-
 lar ligaments, the capsule of the crystalline lens, Sec.
   2.  In botany,  a dry, woody, coriaceous, or membra-
 neous pericarpium, or  seed-vessel,  generally splitting
 into several valves.
   The parts of a capsule, are,
   1.  The valves, or external shell, into which the cap-
 sule splits.
   2. The sutures, or the external surface in which the
  valves are joined.
   3.  The dissepimenta, or partitions  by wliich the cap-
 sule is divided  into several cells.
   4.  The loculamenta, or cells, the spaces between the
 partitions and valves.
   5.  The columella, or central  column, or  filament,
  which unites the partitions,  and to which the seeds
  are usually attached.
   From the number ofthe valves, a capsule is said to be,
   1. Bivalvzd;  as in Magnolia, and Capraria.
   2. Thrce-valved; as in  Canna indica.
   3. Four-valved;  as  in Datura  stramonium and
  Oenothera biennis.
   4. Five-valved; as in Illecebrum, and  Coris.
   5. Manyvalved;  as  in  Hura crepitans.
   6. Operculate, or circumcised, the operculum split-
  ting horizontally;  as in Hyosciamus niger, and Le-
 cylhis ollaria.
   From the number of cells,
   1.  Unilocular, when  there is no partition; as in
 Parnassia palustris, and  Agrostema.
   2.  Bilocular, two-celled; as Hyosciamus niger, and
 Datura stramonium.
   3.  Trilocular, three-celled;  as in JEsculus hypocas-
 tanum, and Iris germanica.
   4. Quinquelocular, five-celled; as in Hibiscus syri-
 acus, and Azalea procumbens.
   5. Novemlocular, nine-celled; as in Pitnica gra-
 natum.
   6. Submultilocular, when there are many cells, and
 the partitions do not reach the middle cf the capsule ;
 as in Papaver somniferum.
   From the acpearir.os ofthe external surface, a cap-
 sule is ra.ied,
   1. Glabrous;  as in  Papaver somniferum.
   2.  'lculeate;  as in Datura  stramonium.
   3 Muricate; as in  Canna indica.
   From  the number  of tubercles  on  the  external
 surface,
   1. Capsula dicocca, or didyma; as in Spigelia.
   2. C. tricocca; as in Euphorbia lalhyrus, and Cne-
 frum tricoccum.
  3. C tetracocca ;  as in Paururus cernuus, ind Eco-
 nymus europeus.
  From the number of contiguous capsules,
  1. C simplex, if solitary.
  2. C. duplex, two aggregated; a3 in  Paonia  offi-
cinalis.
  3. C. triplex; as in Veratrum album.
  A. C. quintuple!; as  in Aquilegia vulgaris, and
Nigella.
  5.  C. multiplex; as in Sempcrvivum tectorum.
  From the substance, a capsule is called,
  1  Membranaceous; as in Datura stramonium.
   2. Corticatea, die external fungous membrane  re-
  ceding from the capsule; as in Ricinus communis.
   3. Woody, very hard, yet splitting; as in Hura ere
 pitans,
   4. Baccated, when the seed is surrounded by a pulp.
  as Eronymus europeus, and Samyda.
   5. Spurious,  if the calyx, capsule-like, surrounding
  Die seed, splits; as in Fagus sylvatica.
   The number of seeds contained iu the capsule, gives
  rise to the following distinctions.
   1. Capsula monosperma, one-seeded; as in Gom
 phrenia, Herniaria, and Salsola.
   2. C.  disperma,  two-seeded;  as in  Hebinstratia,
  and Buffonia.
   3. C Trispcrma, three-seeded;  as in Glaux, and
  Hudsonia.
   4. C.polyspcrma, many-seeded; as in Papaver som-
  niferum.
   Capsula atRabilaris.   See Renal Glands.
   Capsula renalis.  See Renal Glands.
   CA'PSULAR.  (Capsularis; from capsa, a bag.,
 Surrounding a part, like a bag: applied  lo a ligament
 whicli surrounds every moveable articulation, and
 contains the synovia like a bug.
   CAPSULE.  See Capsula.
   Capsule of glisson.  Capsula  Glissonii.  Vagi
 na porta ;  Vagina Glissonii.  A strong tunic, formed
 of cellular texture, which accompanies the vena portae,
 and  its most  minute ramifications,  throughout  the
 whole liver.
   Ca'pulum.   (From Kapnru, to bend.)  A  contor-
 tion of the eyelids, or other parts.
   Ca'pur.  (Arabian.) Camphire.
   CA'PUT.  (Caput, Ms.  neut.;  from capio, to take;
 because from it, according to Varro, the senses  take
 their origin.)   1. The head, cranium, or skull.  It is
 situated above  or  upon the trunk, and  united to the
 cervical vertebrae.   It  is distinguished into skull  and
 face.  On the skull  are observed vertex, or crown;
 sinciput, or foreparts; occiput, or  hinder part; and
 the temples.  The parts distinguished on the face are
 well known; as the forehead, nose,  eyes, &c.  The
 arteries of the head are branches of the carotids; and
 the veins empty themselves into the jugulars.  See
 Skull nnd Face.
   2. The upper extremity of a bone;  as the head of the
 humerus or femur.
   3. The origin of a muscle; as the long head of the
 biceps.
   4. A protuberance like the head of any thing;  as
 caput gallinaginis.
   5. The beginning of a part; as caput coeci.
   6. The remains of any thing after  its destruction by
 fire, or other means:  hence caput mortuum, or ashes.
   Caput oallinaoinis.   Verumontanum.   A cuta-
 neous eminence in the urethra of men, before the neck
 ofthe bladder, somewhat like the head of a woodcock
 in miniature, around which the seminal ducts, and the
 ducts ofthe prostate gland, open.
   Caput mortuum.  A fanciful term, much used by
 the old chemists, but  now entirely rejected.   It de-
 noted the fixed residue of operations. As the  earlier
 chemists did not examine these, they did not  find  any
 inconvenience  in one general term to denote them:
 but the most slender  acquaintance with  modern che-
 mistry must show, that it  is utterly impracticable  to
 denote,  by one general term, all  the various matters
 that remain fixed in certain degrees of heat. The term
 is obsolete, but spoken of fancifully.
  Caput obstipim.   The wry neck.  Mostly a spas
 modic complaint.
  Caput purcia.  (A barbar »us word, from caput, the
 head, and purgo, to  purge.)   Medicines which, by
 causing a defluxion from the  nose, purge, as  it were,
 the head, as some errhincs do.
  Capyri'dion.  (From xairvpos, burnt.)   Capynon.
 A medicated cake, much baked.
  Capy'rion.  See Capyridion.
  CA'RABUS   A genus of insects of the beetle kind.
Two  species,  the  chrysocephalus  and ferrugineus,
have  been  recommended for the toothache.   They
must be pressed between the fingers, and  then rubbed
on the gum and tooth affected.          ___
  Caroco'smos.  A  name of the sour mare's milk,
so much admired by the Tai tars.
  Caragua'ta.  The aloe of Brazil.
  CARVNNA.   (Spanish.)   Caragna.  Carannx 
CAR
CAR
guviiiti.   Bresilis.   A concrete lesinous juice, that
exudes from a large tree, of wliich we have  no parti-
cular  account.   It is brought from New Spain and
America, in little masses, rolled up in leaves of flags;
externally and internally it is of a brownish colour,
variegated wi Ji irregular white streaks.  When fresh,
it is soft and tenacious;  but becomes dry and friable
by keeping.  Pure caranna has an agreeable  aromatic
smell,  especially when heated, and a bitterish slightly
pungent taste.   It was formerly employed as an in-
gredient in vulnerary balsams, strengthening, discu-
tient, and  suppurating plasters; but its scarcity has
caused it to be forgotten.
  CARAWAY.  See Carum.
  Ca'rbasus.   KapSaaos-   Scribonius  Largus uses
this word for lint.
  [" Carbazotic acid.  By the  action of nitric acid
upon indigo, a substance is obtained in yellow brilliant
crystalline plates, which  exhibits acid properties, and
has been called by Dr. Liebig, carbazotic acid, a name
derived from its composition, which is as follows:
      Carbon, ............13.043 or 15 atoms.
      Azote.............16.107 or  3 ----
      Oxygen,............48.790 or 15----
To obtain  carbazotic acid, the following process ha3
been given by Dr. Liebig:
  A portion of the best indigo is to be broken into
small fragments, and moderately heated  with eight or
ten   times its  weight of  nitric acid,  of  moderate
strength.  It will dissolve, evolving nitrous  vapours
and swelling up in the vessel; after the scum has fall-
en, the liquid is to be boiled, and nitric acid is added
as long as  any red vapours are disengaged.  When the
liquid has become cold, a large quantity of semi-trans-
parent  yellow crystals will be formed, and if the ope-
ration  has been well conducted, no artificial tannin
or resin will be obtained.   The crystals  are  to  be
washed with cold  water, and then  boiled  in water
sufficient to dissolve them. If any oily drops of tannin
form on the surface of the solution, they must be care-
fully removed by touching  them with filtering paper.
Then filtering the fluid, and allowing it to cool, yellow
brilliant crystalline plates will be obtained, which will
not  lose their lustre by washing.  To obtain  the sub-
stance  perfectly pure, the crystals must be redissolved
in boiling water, and neutralized by carbonate of po-
tassa.  Upon cooling, a salt of potassa will crystallize,
which  should be purified by repeated crystallizations.
  When the substance is heated, it fuses, and is volati-
lized without  decomposition;  when subjected to  a
strong  heat, it inflames without explosion, its vapours
burning with a yellow flame, and a carbonaceous resi-
due remaining.   It is but little soluble in cold water,
but much  more so in boiling water; the solution has a
bright yellow colour, reddens litmus, has au extremely
bitter taste, and acts like a strong  acid on  metallic
oxides, dissolving them, and forming  peculiar crystal-
lizable sttlts.  Ether and alkohol dissolve it readily.
  Carbazotic acid combines with  bases, and forms
salts called carbazotates."  (Of which the following
have been determined:)
  Carbazotate of Potassa, crystallizes in long, yellow,
semi-transparent, and very brilliant needles; it dis-
solves in 2G0 parts of water at 59° Fob.  Strong acids
decompose it.   When a little is gradually heated in a
glass tube, it first fuses, and then suddenly explodes,
breaking the tube  to  atoms;  traces of charcoal are
observed on the fragments. The slight solubility of this
salt supplies au easy method of testing and separating
potassa in a fluid.   Even the potassa in tincture of
litmus  may be discovered by it; on the  addition of a
few drops of carbazotic acid dissolved in  alkohol, to
infusion of litmus, crystals of tlie salt gradually sepa-
rate.   The salt contains no water of crystallization.
Its composition is potassa 16.21, acid 83.79.
  Carbazotate of Soda crystallizes iu fine silky yellow
needles, having the general properties of the salt  of
potassa, but soluble in from 20 to 24 parts of water at
W0 F.
  t  arbazotate of Ammonia forms very long, flattened,
brilliant,  yellow  crjstal*, very soluble  in  water.
Heated carefully in a glass tube, it  fuses, and is vola-
tilized  without  decomposition;  heated  suddeidy,  it
inflames without explosion, and leaves  much carbo-
■laceou.- residue.
  Carbazotate of Baryta, obtained  by heating carbo-
nate of ban ta, and carbazolic acid with water, crys-
       186
 tallizcs in quadrangular prisms of a deep colour, and
 dissolves easily in water.   When heated it fuses, and
 is decomposed with very powerful  explosion,  pro-
 ducing a vivid yellow flame: 100 parts lose at 2T2° F.
 125 parts of water; 100 parts of  the anhyd>ous sail
 contain 75.72 acid, and 24.28 baryta.
  Carbazotate of Lime obtained like the salt of baryta,
 forms  flattened, quadrangular prism.*, very soluble in
 water, and detonating like the salt of potassa.
  Carbazotate of Magnesia forms  very long indistinct
 needles, of a clear yellow colour, is very .soluble and
 detones violently.
  Carbazotate of  Copper,  prepared by decomposing
 sulphate of copper by carbazotate of baryta:  it crys-
 tallizes with difficulty, the  crystals being of a fine
 green  colour: it  is deliquescent;  when  heated it is
 decomposed without explosion.
  Carbazotate of Silver.  Carbazotic acid readily dis-
 solves  oxide of silver, when heated w ith it and water;
 and  the solution^ gradually evaporated, yields starry
 groups of'fine acicular crystals of the colour and lus-
 tre of gold; tlie salt dissolves readily in water; when
 heated to a certain degree ; it does not detonate, but
 fuses like gunpowder.
  Proto-carbazotate of Mercury,  obtained  in small
 yellow triangular crystals, by mixing boiling solutions
 of the  carbazotate of  potassa or  soda, and  proto-
 nUrate of mercury.  It requires more than 1200 parts
 of water for its solution; it consists of 53.711 acid, and
 46.21 protoxide of mercury per cent.
  Carbazotate of  Lead may  be formed  by  decom-
 posing a salt of lead by carbazotate of potassa or soda-
 it is  a yellow powder, but slightly soluble, and deto-
 nating by heat.
  All these salts detonate much more powerfully when
 heated in close vessels, than when heated in  the air,
 and what is remarkable, those bases yielding  oxygen
 most readily are those which  explode  with  least
 force."—From Webster, as taken from Ann. de Chim
 xxv. 72, and Quart. Jour. N. S. iii.  A.]
  CA'RBO.  (Charbah, Hebrew, burnt or dried.) Coal.
  1.  In medicine and chemistry, it is commonly un-
 derstood to mean charcoal, and receives its name from
 its mede of preparation, which  is  by burning pieces
 of light wood into a dry, black coal.
  2.  A carbuncle.   See Anthrax.
  Carbo  ligna.  Charcoal.  As  an extenial apph
 cation, powdered charcoal has been recommended in
 the cure of gangrene, from  external causes,  and  all
 descriptions of foetid ulcers.  Meat which has acquired
 a mawkish or even putrid smell, is found to  be ren-
 dered  perfectly sweet,  by rubbing  it with powdered
 charcoal.  It is also used as tooth-powder.
  CARBON.  (From  carbo, coal.)  Chemists apply
 this term to the diamond, and what  is commonly called
 charcoal.  The diamond is the purest form of it
  1. When vegetable  matter, particularly uie more
solid, as wood, is exposed to heat in close vessels the
volatde parts fly off, and leave bejiind a black porous
substance, which is charcoal.  If  this  be suffered to
undergo combustion in contact with oxygen, or with
atmospheric air, much the greater part of it will com
bine with the oxygen, and escape in the  form of gas •
leaving about a two-hundredth  part, which  consists
chiefly  of different saline and metallic  substances
This pure inflammable part of the charcoal is what is
commonly called carbon;  and if the gas be received
into proper vessels,  the carbon will be found to have
been converted by the oxygen into an acid, called the
carbonic.  See Carbonic acid.
  From tlie  circumstance,  lhat   inflammable sub-
stances refract light in a ratio greater than that  cf their
densities, Newton inferred, that the diamond was  in
 flammable.  The quantity of the inflammable  part of
charcoal, requisite to form a hundred parts of carbonic
acid, was  calculated by Lavoisier to be twenty-eight
parts.  From a careful experiment of Mr. Tennant,
s.i.6 parts ot diamond, and 72.4 of oxygen, formed 100
 of carbonic acid;  and  hence he inferred tbe identity
of diamond and the inflammable part of charcoal
  Well-burned charcoal  is a conductor of electricity,
 though wood simply deprived of its moisture by baking
 is a non-conductor; but it is a very bad conductor of
 caloric, a  property of considerable use on many occa-
 sions; as in lining crucibles.
  It is insoluble  in water, and hence the utility of
 charring the surface of wood exposed to that liquid, is 
CAR                                            CAR
oi.ler to preserve it, a  circumstance not unknown to
the  ancients.  Tins preparation of timber has been
proposed as an effectual preventive of what  is com-
monly called the dry rot.  It has an  attraction, how-
ever, for a certain portion of water, which it retains
very forcibly.  Heated red-hot, or nearly so, it de-
composes water;  forming with its oxygen carbonic
acid, or carbonic oxide, according to the quantity pre-
sent; and with the hydrogen a gaseous carburet, call-
ed carburetted hydrogen, or heavy inflammable air.
  Charcoal is infusible by any heat.  If exposed  to a
very high temperature  in close vessels, it loses little or
nothing of its weight, but shrinks, becomes more com-
pact, and acquires a deeper black colour.
  Recently prepared charcoal  has  a remarkable pro-
perty of absorbing different  gases,  and  condeusiug
them in its pores, without  any alteration of their pro-
perties or its own.
  Very light charcoal, such as that of cork,  absorbs
scarcely any air;  while the  pit-coal of Rastiberg, sp.
gr. 1.328, absorbs ten times and a half its volume.  The
absorption  was always completed in  21  hoins.  This
curious faculty, which  is common to all porous bodies,
resembles  the action of" capillary tubes  on  liquids.
When a piece of charcoal, charged wilh  one gas, is
transferred into another,  it absorbs  some of it, and
parts with a portion of that first condensed.   In the
experiments of Messrs.  Allen and Pepys, charcoal was
found to imbibe from the atmosphere in a day about
one-eighth of its weight in water.  For a general view
of absorption, see Gas.
  When oxygen is  condensed by charcoal, carbonic
acid is observed to form at the end of several months.
But the most  remarkable property displayed by char-
coals impregnated wilh gas, is  that with sulphuretted
hydrogen when exposed to the air or oxygen gas.  The
sulphuretted hydrogen is speedily destroyed, and water
and sulphur result, with the disengagement of consider-
able heat.  Hydrogen alone has no such effects.  When
charcoal was exposed by Sir Humphrey Davy to intense
ignition in vacuo, and  in condensed azot, by means of
Mr.  Children's magnificent  voltaic battery, it slowly
volatilized, and gave out a little hydrogen.  The re-
maining part was  always much harder than before;
and  in one case so hard as lo scratch glass, while its
lustre was increased.   This fine experiment may be re-
garded as a near approach to  tlie  production of dia-
mond.
  Charcoal has a powerful affinity for oxygen; whence
Its use iu disoxygcnaling metallic oxides, and restoring
their base to  its original metallic state, or reviving the
;he  metal.   Thus too it decomposes several of the
acids, as the phosphoric and sulphuric, from whicli it
abstracts  their oxygen, and leaves  the  phosphorus
and  sulphur free.
  Carbon  is capable of combining w ith sulphur, and
with hydrogen.  With iron it forms steel;  and it
unites with copper into a carburet, as observed by Dr.
Priestley.
  A  singular and important property of  charcoal is
that of destroying the smell, colour, and taste of vari-
ous substances: for the first accurate experiments on
which we are chiefly indebted to Mr. Lowitz, of Pe-
tersburg!], though it had been long before recommend-
ed to correct  the foetor of foul  ulcers, and as an anti-
septic.  On this account it is certainly the best denti-
frice.  Water that has becoiu" putrid by long keep-
ing  in wooden  casks,  is rendered  sweet  by filtering
through charcoal powder, or by agitation with it;
particularly if a few drops of sulphuric acid be added.
Common vinegar  boiled with  charcoal powder  be-
comes  perfectly limpid.  Saline  solutions, that are
tinged yellow or brown, are rendered colourless in the
same way, so  as to afford perfectly while crystals.
The impure  carbonate of ammonia  obtained  from
bones, is deprived both  of its colour and fcetid smell
by sublimation with an  equal weight of charcoal
powder.  Malt spirit is freed from its disagreeable fla-
vour by distillation from charcoal; but if too much be
used, part of  the spirit is decomposed.  Simple mace-
ration, for eight or ten days, in the proportion of about
l-150th  of  the weight of the spirit, improves the fla-
Tour much.   It  is necessary that the  charcoal be
well  burned, brought to a  red  heat before it is used,
•nd  used  as soon as may be, or at least be carefully
excluded from the  air.  "'he proper  proportion too
should be ascertained by experiment en a small scale.
 The charcoal may be used repeatedly, by exposing il
 for some time to a red heat before it is again employed.
  Charcoal in used on particular occasions as fuel, on
 account of its giving a strong and sttady heal w ilhoul
 smoke.  It is employed  lo convert iron  into steel ty
 cementation.  Ii enters into the composition oLgun-
 powder.  in  its finer states, as in  ivory-black, lamp-
 black, &c. it  tonus the  basis of black paints, Indian
 ink, and printers' ink.
  The purest carbon for chemical purposes is obtained
 by strongly igniting lamp-black in a covered  crucible.
 This yields, like the diamond, unmixed carbonic acid
 by combustion in oxygen.
  Carbon unites with all the common simple combus-
 tibles, and wilh azot, forming a series of most impor-
 tant compounds.    With  sulphur it forms a citious
 limpid liquid, called carburet of sulphur, or sulphuret
 of carbon.  With  phosphorus it forms  a species of
 compound, whose  properties  are  imperfectly ascer-
 tained.  Il unites with hydrogen in "two definite pro-
 portions, constituting subcurburetted and carburetted
 hydrogen gases.   With azot it forms prussic gas, the
 cyanogen of  Gay  Lussac.  Steel  and plumbago ure
 two different  compounds of carbon  with  iron.  In
 black chalk we find this combustible  intimately asso-
 ciated with silica and alumina.  The primitive com-
 bining  proportion, or prime equivalent  of carbon, is
 0.75 on the oxygen scale.
  2. Carbon mineral.  This is of a  gray blackish co-
 lour.  It is charcoal with various proportions of earth
 and iron, without bitumen.  It has  a silky lustre, and
 the  fibrous texture of wood.   It  is  found  in  small
 quantities, stratified with brown coal, slate  coal, and
 pitch coal.
  Careon, gaseous oxide of.  Gaseous oxide of car-
 bon was first described by Dr.  Priestley, who mistook
 it for a hydro-carbonate.   With the true nature of it,
 we  have  been only lately acquainted.   It  was first
 proved to be a peculiar gas, by Mr. Cruikshank, of
 Woolwich, who made it known lo us as such, in April,
 1801, through  the medium of Nicholson's Journal for
 that month.  Several additional properties of this gas
 were soon afterward noticed by Desormes,  Clement,
 and others. Gaseous oxide of carbon forms an interme-
 diate substance between the pure hydrocarbonates and
 carbonic acid gas ; but not being possessed of acid pro-
 perties, Mr. Cruikshank  called it, conformably lo the
 rules of the chemical nomenclature, gaseous oxide of
 carbon, for it consists of oxygen  and carbon  rendered
 gaseous by caloric.   See Carbonic oxide.
   Carbonaceous acid.  See Carbonic acid.
  CARBO'NAS.  (Carbonas, atis. m.; from carbonic
 acid being one of its constituents.)  A carbonate. A
 salt formed by the union of carbonic acid with a sali-
 fiable basis.   The  carbonates employed  In  medicine
 are:
  I. The potassae carbonas.
  2. The sodae carbonas.
  3. The creta praeparata, and the testae praeparatae,
 which are varieties  of carbonate of lime.
  When the base is imperfectly neutralized by the car-
 bonic acid, the salt is termed a subcarbonate;  of which
 kind are employed medicinally,
  1. The potassae subcarbonas.
  2. The soda: subcarbonas, and the sothe subcarbonas
 exsiccata.
  3. The ammoniae subcarbonas, and the liquor am
 moniae subcarbonatis.
  4. The plumbi subcarbonas.
  5. The ferri subcarbonas.
  6. The magncsiae subcarbonas.
  Carbonas  ammo.ni*:.  See Ammonia subcarbonas
  Carbonas  calcis.  Carbonate ol" lime.   Several
 varieties of this are used in medicine: the purest anil
 best are the creta  prsteparaia, testae  preparatae, chelae
 cancrorum, testae ovorum, and oculi cancrorum.
  Carbonas ferri. See Ferri subcarbonas.
  Carbonas magnesije.  See Magnesia subcarbonas
  Carbonas plumbi.  See Plumbi subcarbonas.
  Carbonas potass*.  See Potassa carbonas
  Carbonas sodje.  See Soda carbonas.
  CARBONATE.   See Carbonas.
  Carbonate of banytes.   See Heavy spar.
  Carbonated hydrogen gas. See Carburetted hydro-
gen gas.                          ,   .      _,
  CA'RBONIC ACID.   Acidum earbonicum. Fixed
 air; Carbonaceous  acid; Calcareous acid; Aflrial 
CAR                                            CAR
acid.  " This acid, being a compound of carbon and
oxygen, may be formed by burning charcoal; but as it
exists in great abundance ready formed, it Is not neces-
sary to have  recourse lo this expedient.  All  lhat  is
necessary is to pour sulphuric acid, diluted with five
or six limes ils weight of water, on  common chalk,
which is a compound of carbonic acid and  lime.  An
effervescence ensues;  carbonic acid  is evolved in the
state of gas, and may be received in the usual manner.
  Carbonic acid abounds in great quantities in  nature,
and ap,n.ars to be produced in a variety of circum-
stances.  It composes  44-10Uth of the weight of lime-
stone, marble, calcareous spar, and other natural spe-
cimens of calcareous earth, from which it may be ex-
tricated, either by  the simple application of heat, or by
the superior affinity of some  other acid; most acids
having a stronger action on  bodies  than this. This
last process dons not require heat,  because  fixed air is
strongly disposed to assume the elastic state.   Water,
under the common pressure of the atmosphere, and  al
a low temperature, absorbs somewhat more than  its
bulk of fixed air, and then constitutes a weak acid,   if
the pressure be greater, the absorption is augmented.
It is lo be observed, likewise, that more gas than water
will absorb should be present.  Heated water  absorbs
less; aud if water impregnated  with this acid  be
exposed on a brisk fire, the rapid escape of the atrial
hubbies affords an appearance as if the water  were  at
the point of boiling, when  the heat is not greater than
the hand can bear. Congelation separates it readily
mid completely from water; but no  degree of cold  or
pressure has yet exhibited  this acid in a dense or con-
centrated state of fluidity.
  Carbonic acid gas is much denser than common air,
and for this reason occupies the lower parts  of such
mines or caverns  as contain materials wliich afford it
by decomposition.  The  miners call  it  choke damp.
The Grotto del Cano, in the  kingdom of Naples, has
been famous for  ages on  account of the effects of a
stratum of fixed air which covers its bottom.  It is a
cave or hole in the side of a mountain, near the lake
Aguano, measuring not more than eighteen feet from
its entrance to the inner extremity ; whore if a dog or
other animal that holds down its head be thrust, it is
immediately killed by inhaling this noxious fluid.
  Carbonic acid gas is emitted in large quantities  by
bodies in the slate of the vinous fermentation, and  on
account of its great weight, it occupies the apparently
empty space or upper part of  the vessels in which the
fermenting process is going on. A variety of striking
experiments may be made in this stratum of elastic
fluid.  Lighted paper, or  a candle dipped into it, is
immediately extinguished; and the smoke remaining
in the carbonic acid  gas renders its surface visible,
which may be thrown  into waves by agitation like
water.  If a dish of water bo immersed in this  gas, and
briskly agitated, it soon becomes impregnated, and ob-
tains the pungent taste of Pyrmnnt water.  In conse-
quence of the weight of the carbonic acid gas, it may
be lifted out in  a pitcher, or bottle, which, if well
corked, may be used to convey it to great distances, or
it may be drawn out of a vessel by a cock like  a liquid.
The effects produced  by  pouring  this invisible fluid
from one vessel  to another,  have a very singular ap-
pearance:  if a candle or small animal be placed in a
deep vessel, the former becomes extinct, and the latter
expires in a few seconds, after the carbonic acid gas is
poured upon them, though the eye is incapable of dis-
tinguishing any thing that is poured.  If,  however, it be
poured into a  vessel full of air, in the sunshine,  ils
density  being so  much greater than that of" the air,
renders it slightly visible by the undulations and streaks
 it forms in this fluid, as it doscends through it.
   Carbonic acid  reddens  Infusion of litmus; but the
 redness  vanishes by exposure to the air, as  the acid
 flies off.  It has a peculiar sharp taste, which may be
 perceived  over vats In which wine or beer is  ferment-
 ing, as also in  sparkling Champaign, and the brisker
 kind* of cider.   Light passing through  il is refracted
 by it, but does not effect any sensible alteration in it,
 though it appears, from experiment, that it favours  the
 separation of its  principles by other'substances. It will
 not unite with an overdose  of oxyuen,  of  which it
 contains 72  parts in  100, the other 28 being pure car-
 •uni. It not only destroys life, but the heart and muscle
 of animals killed by It lose all their irritability, so as to
 be insensible to the stimulus of galvanism.
       188
  Carbonic acid is dilated by heat, but not otherwise
altered by it.  It is  not acted upon by oxygen, or any
of the simple combustibles.  Charcoal absorbs it, but
gives it out again unchanged,  at  ordinary tempera
tures; but when this gaseous acid is made to traverse
charcoal ignited in a tube, it is converted into carbonic
oxide.  Phosphorus is insoluble in carbonic acid gas;
but,  as already observed, is capable of decomposing it
by compound affinity, when assisted by sufficient heat;
and  Priestley and Cruikshank have shown lhat iron,
zinc, and several other metals, are capable of" producing
ihe same effect.  If carbonic acid be mixed with  sul-
phuretted, phosphuretled, or carburetted gas, it renders
them less combustible, or destroys their combustibility
entirely, but produces no other sensible change.  Such
mixtures occur in various analyses, and particularly in
Ihe products of the decomposition of vegetable  and
animal substances.  The inflammable air  of marshes
is frequently carburetted hydrogen intimately mixed
with carbonic acid gas, and the sulphuretted hydrogen
gas obtained fiom mineral waters is very often mixed
with it.
  Carbonic acid appears from various experiments of
Ingenhuosz lo be of considerable utility in promoting
vegetation.  It is probably decomposed  by the organs
of plants, ils base furnishing part at least of the carbon
lhat is so abundant  in the vegetable kingdom, and its
oxygen contributing to replenish the atmosphere wilh
that necessary support of life, which is  continually
diminished  by the respiration  of  animals and other
causes.
  The most exact experiments on the neutral carbon-
ates concur to prove,  that the prime equivalent of
carbonic acid is 2.75; and that it consists of one prime
of carbon=0.75-|-2.0 oxygen.
   Water absorbs about ils volume of this acid gas, and
thereby acquires a  specific gravity  of 1 0015.  On
freezing it, the gas is  as completely expelled  as by
boiling.  By artificial  pressure wilh  forcing pumps,
water may be made to absorb two or three times its
bulk of carbonic acid.  When there  is also  added a
litlle potassa or soda, it becomes the aerated or carbo-
nated alkaline water, a pleasant beverage, and a not
inactive remedy in several complaints,  particularly
dyspepsia, hiccup, and disorders of the kidneys.  Al-
kohol condenses twice  its  volume of  carbonic acid.
The most beautiful analytical experiment with car-
bonic acid, is the combustion of potassium in it, the
formation of potassa, and the deposition of charcoal.
   In point of affinity for the earths and alkalies, car-
 bonic acid stands apparently low in the scale.   Before
 its true nature was known, its compounds with them
 were not considered  as salts,  but as the earths and
 alkalies themselves, only distinguished by the  names
of mild, or effervescent, from their qualities of effer-
 vescing with acids, and wanting causticity.
   The  carbonates  are characterized by  effervescing
 with almost all the acids, even the acetic, when  they
 evolve their  gaseous  acid,  which, passed  into  lime
 water by a tube, deprives it of its tasie, and  converts
 it into chalk and pure waler.
   The carbonate of barytes, found native  in Cumber-
land, by  Dr. Withering.  From this  circumstance it
 has been  termed Witherile.   It  has  been  likewise
 called airated heavy spar, alrated barosclenite, at rated
heavy earth or barytes, barolite, Sec.
   Carbonate  of strontian, found native  in Scotland,
 at Strontian in Argyllshire, and at Leadhills.
   Carbonate of lime exists in great abundance In na-
 ture, variously mixed  with other bodies, under the
 names of marble, chalk, limestone, stalactites, Sec in
 which it is of more important and extensive use  than
 any otlier of the salts, except perhaps the muriate of
 soda.
   The carbonate, or rather  sub-carbonate of potassa,
 was long known by the name of vegetable alkali.  It
 was also called fixed nitre, salt of tartar, salt  of
 wormwood, Sec. according  to  the different modes in
 which  it was procured; and wn? supposcu to retain
 something of the virtues of the substance from which
 It was extracted.  This error has been sometime ex-
 ploded, but the knowledge of its true nature is of more
 recent date.
   As water at the usual temperature  of the air dis-
 solves rather more than its weight of this salt, we have
 thus a ready mode of detecting  its  adulterations in
 general; and as it is often of consequence to know how 
CAR
CAR
 much alkali a particular specimen contains, this may-
 be ascertained by the quantity of sulphuric ocid it will
 saturate.  This salt is deliquescent.   It consists of G
 potassa+2.75 caibonic acid=8.?5.
   The bi-carbonate of potassa crystallizes in square
 prisms,  the apices of wliich are  quadrangulnr  pyra-
 mids.  It has a urinous but not caustic taste; changes
 the  syrup of violets green: boiling  water dissolves
 five-sixths of its weight, and cold water one-fourth;
 alkohol, even when  hot, will  not dissolve more than
 l-1200th.   Its specific  gravity is  2.012.   When il is
 very pure and well crystallized it effloresces on  expo-
 sure to a dry atmosphere, though it was formerly con-
 sider :c! as deliquescent.  It was thought that the com-
 jionsalt of tan or of the shops  was a compound of this
 rarbonate and pure potassa; the latter of which, being
 very deliquescent, attracts the moisture of the air till
 .he whole is dissolved.   From  its smooth feel, and the
 nanner in which  it was prepared, the old  chemists
 :alled this solution oil of tartar per deliquium.
   The bi-carbonate of  potassa melts with a gentle
 heat, loses  its water of crystallization, amounting to
 "M00th, and gives  out  a portion of its carbonic acid;
 though  no  degree of heat  will  expel the whole of the
 acid. Thus,  as  the  carbonate of potassa is always
 prepared by incineration of vegetable substances, and
 lixiviation, it must be  in the  intermediate state; or
 that of a carbonate with excess of alkali: and to ob-
 tain the true carbonate we must saturate this salt with
 carbonic acid, which is best done  by passing the acid
 In the state of gas through a  solution of  the salt in
 twice its weight  of water; or,  if we want  the potassa
 pure, we must have  recourse to lime,  to separate that
 portion  of acid which fire  will  not expel.
   The bi-carbonate, usually called super-carbonate by
 the apothecaries, consists of 2  primes of carbonic acid
 =5.500, 1 of potassa=0, ami 1 of water=1.125, in all
 12.625.
   The carbonate of  soda has  likewise  been  long
 Known, and distinguished from the preceding by the
 name of mineral alkali.  In  commerce it is usually
 called barilla, or soda;  in which state, however, it al-
 ways contains a mixture of earthy bodies, and usually
 common salt.  It may be purified by dissolving it in a
 email portion of water, filtering  the solution, evapo-
 rating at a low heat, and skimming off tlie crystals of
 muriate of soda as they form on its surface.  When
 these cease to form, the solution may be suffered to
 cool, and the carbonate of soda will crystallize.
   It is found abundantly in nature. In Egypt, where
 it is collected from the surface of the earth, particu-
 larly after  the desiccation of  temporary lakes, it  has
 been known from time immemorial  by the name of
 nitrum, natron,  or natrum.  A great deal is  prepared
 in Spain by incinerating the maritime plant of salsola;
 and it is manufactured in this country, as well as in
 France, from different  species of sea-weeds.   It is
 likewise found in mineral water, and also in some
 animal fluids.
   It crystallizes in irregular or rhomboidal decafidrons,
 formed by tm> quadrangular pyramids, truncated very
 near their bases.   Frequently it exhibits only rhomboi-
 dal laminae.  Its specific gravity is 1.3591.  Its taste is
 urinous, and  slightly acrid, without being caustic.  It
 changes blue vegetable colours to  a green.  It is solu-
' ble in less than its weight of boiling water, and twice
 its weight of cold.   It is one of the most  efflorescent
 salts known,  falling completely to powder in  no long
 time.  On  the application of heat it is soon rendered
 fluid from  the great  quantity of its water cf crystal-
 lization; but is  dried  by  a continuance of the heat,
 and then melts.  It is somewhat more fusible than the
 carbonate of potassa, promotes the fusion of earths in
 a greater degree, and  forms a  glass of better quality.
 Like lhat, it  is very tenacious of  a certain portion of
 its carbonic acid.  It consists in its dry state of 4 soda,
 +2.75 acid, =6.75.
   But  the  crystals contain 10 prime proportions of
 water.  They are composed of 22 soda,  +15.3 car-
 bonic t.cid, +C2.7 water in 100 parts, or of 1 prime of
 sjda=4.1  of carbonic  acid =2.75, and 10 of water
 = 11.25, in  whole 18.
   The bi-carbonate of soda may be  prepared by sa-
 turating the solution of the  preceding salt with car-
 bonic acid gas, and then evaporating with a very gen-
 tle heat to dryness, when a  white  irregular saline
 mass is obtained.  The salt is not crystallizable.  Its
constituents  are  4 soda, +5.50 carb. acid, +1.123
water, =10.025 ; or in 100 parts 37.4 soda, +52 acid,
+10.6 water.
  The carbonate of magnesia, in a state of imperfect
saturation with  the acid, has been used  in medicine
lor some time under  the simple name of magnesia.
It is prepared by precipitation from the  sulphate of
magnesia hv means of carbonate of potassa.  Equal
parts of sulphate of magnesia  and  carbonate of po-
tassa, each  dissolved in  its own  weight of boiling
water, are filtered and mixed together hot; thesulphate
of potassa Is separated  by copious washing with wa-
ter;  and the carbonate  of magnesia  is  then left  to
drain, and afterward  spread thin on  paper, and car
ried  to the drying stove.   When once dried it will be
in friable white cakes, or a fine powder.
  To obtain carbonate of magnesia  saturated with
acid, a solution  of sulphate of magnesia may be
mixed cold with  a solution of carbonate  of potassa-
and  at the expiration of a few hours, as the supeiflu-
ous carbonic acid that  held it in solution  flies off, the
carbonate of magnesia will crystallize in very regular
transparent  prisms of  six equal sides.   It may  lie
equally obtained by dissolving magnesia in water im-
pregnated with carbonic  acid, and exposing the solu-
tion  to the open air.
  These crystals soon lose their transparency, and be
come covered with a white powder.  Exposed to the
fire  in a crucible, Ihey decrepitate slightly, lose their
water and acid, fall to powder, and arc reduced to one-
fourth of the original  weight.  When  the common
carbonate is calcined in  the grate, it appears as if
boiling, from the extrication of carbonic acid; a small
portion ascends like a vapour, and  is deposited  in  a
white powder on the cold bodies with which it comes
into contact; and  in a dark place, toward the end of
the operation, it shines with a bluish phosphoric light.
It thus loses half its  weight, and the  magnesia is left
quite pure.
  As the magnesia of the shops is sonietimes adulte-
rated with chalk, this may be detected by the addition
of a little sulphuric  acid diluted  with eight or ion
times its weight of water, as this will form with the
magnesia a  very soluble  salt, while the  sulphate  of
lime will remain undissolved.  Calcined magnesia
should dissolve  in this dilute acid without any effer-
vescence.
  The crystallized carbonate dissolves in forty-eight
times its weight of cold water;  the common carbonate
requires at least ten times as much, and  fitst forms a
paste with a small quantity of the fluid.
   The carbonate of ammonia, once vulgarly known  by
the name of volatile sal ammoniac, and abroad by that
of English volatile salt, because it was first prepared
in this country, was commonly called mild volatile
alkali, before its true nature was known.
  When very pure it is  in a crystalline form, but sel-
dom very regulai   Its crystals  are so small, that it is
difficult to determine their figure.  The taste and smell
of this sail are the same with those  of pure ammonia,
but much weaker.  It turns the colourof violets green,
and  that of tumeric brown.   Il is soluble  in rather
more than twice its weight of cold water, and in its
own weight of hot water; but a boiling heat volati-
lizes it.  When pure, and thoroughly saturated, it  is
not perceptibly alterable in  the air; but  when it has
an excess of  ammonia, it softens and grows moist.   It
cannot be doubted, however, that jt is soluble in air;
for if left in  an open vessel, it gradually diminishes in
weight, and  its peculiar smell  is diffused  to a certain
distance.  Heat readily sublimes, but does not decom
pose it-
  It has been prepared by the destructive distillation
of animal substances, and some others, in laige iron
pots, with a  fire increased by degrees to a strong red-
heat, the aqueous liquor  that  first  comes over being
removed, that  the  salt  might  not be dissolved in it
Thus we had the salt of hartshorn, salt of soot, essen-
tial  salt of vipers, Sec.   If the salt  were  dissolved in
the water, it was called  spirit of the substance from
which it was obtained.   Thus, however, it was  much
contaminated by a foetid animal oil, from  which it re-
quired to be subsequently purified, and is  much better
fabricated by mixing one part of muriate  of  ammonia
and  two of carbonate of lime, both as dry as possible,
and  subliming in an earthen retort.
  Sir H. Davy has shown that its component  parts
                                         iey 
CAR
CAR
  Mry, according to the manner of preparing It.  The
  lower the temperature  at  which it  is formed, the
  greatri  the  proportion of acid and water.  Thut, if
  formed  at the temperature of 300°, it contains more
  than fifty per cent, of alkali; if atG0° not more than
  twenty per cent.
   There are three or four definite comnoundsof carbo-
  nic acid and ammonia.
   The first is the solid sub-carbonate of the shops.  It
  consists of oo caibonic acid, 30 ammonia, and 15 wa-
  ter ; or  probably of 3 primes carDonic acid, 5 ammo-
  nia, and 2 water; in all 14.7 for its equivalent.
   2d, Gay Lussac  has  shown  that when 100 volumes
  of ammoniacal gas  are mixed with  50 of carbonic
  acid, the two gases precipitate in  a solid salt, which
  must consist by weight of 56 1-3 acid +43 2-3 alkali,
  being in the ratio of a prime equivalent of each.
   3d, When the pungent subcarbonate is exposed in
  Kowder lo the air, it becomes scentless by the evapo-
  ration of a definite portion of this ammonia.  It is then
  a compound of about 55 or 56 carbonic acid, 2t.5 am-
  monia, and 22.5 water.  It may be represented by 2
  primes of acid, 1 of ammonia, and 2 of water, =9.875.
   Another compound, it has been  supposed, may be
 prepared  by passing carbonic acid through a solution
 of the sub-carbonate till it be saturated.   This, how-
 ever, may be supposed to yield the same product as
 the last salt.   Lussac infers  the neutral carbonate to
 consist of equal volumes ofthe two  gases, though they
 will not directly combine in  these proportions.  This
 would give 18.1 to 46.5; the veiy proportions in the
 scentless salt.  For 46.5: 18.1:  :55: 21.42.
   It is well known as a stimulant usually put info
 smelling-bottles, frequently with the addition of some
 odoriferous oil.
   Fourcroy has found, that an  ammoniaco-magnesian
 carbonate is formed on some occasions.  Thus, if car-
 bonate of ammonia be  decomposed by magnesia in
 the  moist way, leaving these two substances in con-
 tact with each otlier in a bottle closely stopped,  a com-
 plete decomposition will not take place, but a portion
 nf this trisalt will be formed. The same will  take
 place if a solution of carbonate of magnesia in watei,
 impregnated with carbonic  acid, be  precipitated by
 pure ammonia; or if atiimoniaco-magnesian sulphate,
 nitrate, or muriate, be precipitated by carbonate of
 potassa or of soda.
  The properties of this  triple salt are  not  much
 known, but it crystallizes differently from the  carbo-
 nate of either of its  bases, and has its own laws of so-
 lubility and decomposition.
   The carbonate of glucine is in a  white, dull, clotty
 powder, never dry, but greasy, and soft to the feel, it
 is not sweet, like the other salts of glucine, but insipid.
 It is very  light, insoluble in water, perfectly unaltera-
 ble by the air, but very readily decomposed by fire.  A
 saturated solution of carbonate of ammonia takes up
 a certain  portion of this carbonate, and forms wilh it a
 triple salt.
  Caibonic acid does not appear to  be mu;h disposed
 to unite with  argillaceous earth.   Most clays, how-
 ever, afford a small quantity of this acid  by heat.  The
 snowy white substance, resembling chalk, and known
 by the uame of lac luna, is  found  to consist almost
 wholly of alumina, saturated with carbonic acid.  A
 f-'alino substance, consisting of two six sided pyramids,
 Joined at one common base, weighing five or six grains,
 and of a  taste somewhat resembling alum, was pro-
 duced by leaving an ounce phial of water impregnated
 with carbonic acid, and a redundancy of alumina, ex-
 posed to spontaneous evaporation for some months.
  Vauquelin has found, that carbonate of zircone may
 be formed by evaporating  muriate of zircone,  redis-
 solving it  iu water, and precipitating by the alkaline
 carbonate.  He also adds, that it very readily com-
 bines, so as to form a triple salt, with cither of the
 three alkaline carbonates."—Ure's Chem. Did.
  This gas is much esteemed in the cure of typhus
 fevers, and of Irritability and weakness of stomach,
 producing vomiting.  Against the former diseases it is
given by  administering yest, bottled porter, and the
like;  and  for the latter  it is disengaged from the car-
tionatrd alkali by lemon juice, iu a draught  given
 .virile etfervesc ing.
  CARBONIC OXIDE.   Gaseoun  oxide of  curium.
1 A guseous compound of one prime equivalent of car-
bon, and one of oxygen, consisting by weight of 0.75
      100
  of tlie former, and 1.00 ofthe latter.  Hence the prim*
  of the compound  is 1.75, the same  as that of azote.
  This gas cannot lie formed by the chemist by the direct
  combination of its constituents; for at the tempera-
  ture requisite for effecting a union, the carbon attracts
  its full dose of oxygen, und thus generates carbonic
  acid.  It may  be procured by exposing  charcoal to a
  long continued heat.  The last products consist chiefly
  of carbonic oxide.
    To obtain it  pure, however, our only  plan istoab
  stract  one proportion of oxygen from carbonic acid,
  either in  ils gaseous state, or as condensed in the car
  bonates.
    If we subject to a strong heat, in a  gun barrel or re
  tort, a mixture of any dry earthy carbonate, such as
  chalk,  or carbonate of strontites, with metallic filings
  or charcoal, tbe combined  acid  is resolved into the
  caseous oxide of carbon.  The most  convenient mix-
  ture  is equal parts of dried chalk and  iron,  or zinc
  filings.
   The  specific gravity of this gas is stated by Gay
  Lussac and Thenard, from theoretical considerations,
  to be 0.96782, though Mr. Cruikshanks's  experimental
  estimate was 0.9569.
   This gas burns with a dark  blue flame.  Sir H.
  Davy has shown, that though carbonic oxide, in its.
 combustion, produces less heat than other inflamma-
 ble gases, it may be kindled at a much lower tempera
 furc.   It  inflames in the atmosphere, when brought
 into contact with an iron wire heated to dull redness,
 whereas carburetted hydrogen is not inflammable by a
 similar wire, unless it is heated to whiteness, so as'to
 burn with sparks.  It requires, for its combustion, half
 its volume of oxygen gas, producing one volume of
 carbonic acid.  It is not decomposable by any of tlie
 simple  combustibles, except potassium and sodium.
 When  potassium is heated  in a portion of the gas,
 potassa is formed with the precipitation of charcoal,
 and  the disengagement of heat  and light.  Perhaps
 iron, at a high  temperature,  would condense the oxy-
 gen and carbon by ita  strong affinity for these sub-
 stances.  Water condenses l-50th of its bulk of the gas.
 The  above processes are those usually prescribed in
 our systematic works, for procuring the oxide  of car-
 bon.  In  some  of them, a portion of  carbonic acid is
 evolved, wliich  may be withdrawn  by  washing the
 gaseous product with weak solution of potassa, or
 milk  of lime.   We avoid the chance of this impurity
 by extricating the gas from a mixture of dry carbon
 ate of barytes and iron filings, or of oxide of zinc, and
 previously calcined charcoal.  The gaseous produrt
 from  the first mixture, is pure oxide of carbon.  Oxide
 of iron, and pure barytes, remain in the retort.  Car-
 bonic oxide, when respired, is  fatal to animal life.
 Sir H. Davy took three inspirations of it, mixed witli
 about one-fourth of common air: the effect was a tem-
 porary loss of sensation,  which was succeeded by gid-
 diness, sickness, acute pains  in different  parts of the
 body, and extreme debility.  Some days elapsed be-
 fore he entirely recovered.  Since then, Mr* Witter of
 Dublin was struck down in an apoplectic condition
 by breathing this gas; but he  was speedily restored br
 the inhalation of oxygen.  See an interesting account
 of  tins  experiment, by Mr. Witter, in the Phil. Mag.

   When a mixture of It and chlorine is exposed to
 sunshine,  a curious compound,  discovered bv Dr
 John  Davy, is formed, to which he gave the name of
 phosgene gas.  It has been called chlorocarbonic acid.

 ss-iwrsr'ia1 secma a more approp™'
  CARBUNCLE.   1. The  name of a  rem  hWhlt
 P!e-Tof ynohf a"Cien^'probab,jr thc ^««*«va;S
 ricy ot  noble garnet.                        '
  2. The name of a disease.  Sec Anthrax
 lngCc'o„.T'ATCULKUS-,  (DtainutlveSfSX, a bun.
  hAitnAP™ilrbl"lcle'   ^Anthrax.


a^.^55,£dta«carbon '■ *^°"-
  Carburet  of  sulphur.   Sulphuret  of carbon
                   " This interesting liquid was orl
 Alkohol of sulphur.
 ginolly obtained by LnmpadVus iirdi'stillhig a mixture
 of pulverized pyrites and charcoal in an earthen r?
 tort, and was considered by him as a p"c,Xr lm
I pound  of  sulphur and  hydrogen-  ButcS   ^ 
CAR
CAR
 Dcsormos  first ascertained its true constitution to be
 carburetted sulphur;  and they invented a process of
 great simplicity, for at once preparing it, and proving
 its nature.   Thoroughly calcined charcoal is to be put
 into a  porcelain tube, that traverses a furnace at a
 Blight angle of inclination.  To the higher end of the
 tube, a retort of gloss, containing  sulphur, is luted;
 and to  the lower end  is  attached  nn  adopter tube,
 which enters into a bottle with two tuhulures, half full
 of water, and surrounded with very cold water or ice.
 From the oilier aperture ol* the botlle, a bent tu*ie pro-
 ceeds into the pneumatic  trough.  When the porcelain
 tube is brought into a state of ignition, heat is applied
 to the sulphur, which  subliming into the tube, com-
 bines with  the charcoal, forming the liquid  carburet.
  The  carburet of  sulphur  dissolves camphor.   It
 does not unite wilh water; but very readily with alko-
 hol and aether.  With chloride of azot it forms a non-
 detonnting  compound.  The waters of potassa, bary-
 tes, and lime, slowly decompose  it, with the evolution
 of carbonic acid gas.  It combines with ammonia and
 lime, forming carbo-sulphurets.  The carburet, satu-
 rated with ammoniacal gas, forms a yellow pulveru-
 lent substance, which sublimes unaltered inclose ves-
 sels, but is so deliquescent that it cannot be passed
 from one vessel to another without absorbing moisture.
 When heated in that stale, crystals of hydrosulphuret
 of ammonia form.   The conqiouhd with lime is made
 by heating  some quicklime in a tube, and causing the
 vapour  of carburet to  pass through it.   The lime be-
 comes incandescent at the instant of combination.
   When the carburet is left lor some weeks in contact
 with  nitro-niurialic  acid,  it  is converted into a sub-
 stance having very much the appearance and physical
 properties of camphor; being soluble in alkohol and
 oil, and insoluble  in water.   This substance is, ac-
 cording to Berzelius, a triple acid, composed of two
 atoms of muriatic acid, one atom of sulphurous acid,
 and one atom of carbonic acid.  He calls it, inuriatico-
 Bulphurous-earbonic acid.
   When potassium is heated in the vapour of the car-
 buret, it burns with a reddish flame, and a black film
 appears on the surface. On admitting water, a green-
 ish solution of sulphuret of potassa is obtained, con-
 taining a mixture of charcoal.   From its vapour pass-
 ing through ignited muriate of silver, without occa-
 sioning any reduction of  the metal, it is demonstrated
 that this carburel is de-stitnteof hydrogen.
   When the compound of potassa, water, and carbu-
 ret of sulphur, is added to metallic solutions, precipi-
 tates of a  peculiar kind, called  carbo-sulphurets, are
 obtained.
   Carburet of sulphur  was found by Dr. Brewster to
 exceed all fluid bodies  in  refractive power, and even
 the solids, flint-glass, lopaz, and  tourmaline.  In dis-
 persive power it 'exceeds every fluid substance except
 oil of ca.«sia, holj'ng an  intermediate place between
 phosphorus and balsam of Tolu."—Ure.
  CarbURettbd hydrogen oas.  Carbonated hydro-
gen gas; Heavy inflammable air; Hydro-carbonate.
 Olrfiant gas.  Hydroguret of carbon.  " Of this com-
 pound gas we  have two species, differing in  the pro-
 portions of the constituents.  The first,  consisting of
 1 prime equivalent of each, is carburetted hydrogen ;
 Ihe second,  of 1 prime of carbon, and 2 of hydrogen, is
 subcarburetted hydrogen.
  1. Carburetted hydrogen, the percarburettcd of the
 French chemists, is, according to Mr. Brande, the only
 definite compound of these Iwo elements.   To prepare
 il, we mix, in a glass retort, 1 part of alkohol and 4 of
 su'phuric acid, and expose tlie  retort to a moderate
 heiit.  The gas is usually received over water; though
 De ISaustmre states, that this  liquid absorbs more than
 l-7th of its volume ofthe gas.  It is destructive of ani-
 mal life.  Ils  specific  gravity is 0.978,  according to
 Sanssiire.  100 cubic inches weigh 28.80 gr.  It pos-
 sesses all the mechanical  properties of air. It is invi-
 sible, and void of tasle and smell, when it has been
 washed from a little aethereous vapour.   The effect of
 heat on this gas is curious.  When  passed through a
 porcelain tube, healed lo a  cherry-red, it lets fall a
portion of charcoal, and nearly doubles its volume.  At
a higher temperature it deposites more charcoal, and
augments in bulk; till  finally, at the greatest heat to
which we can expose it, it lets fall almost the whole of
its carbon, and assumes a volume 31 times greater than I
't had at first   These remarkable results, observed I
With great care, have induced the Musti-lou* Bcrthol
let to conclude, with much plausibility, that hydrogen
and carbon combine in many successive proportions.
The transmission of a series of electric sparks through
this gas, produces a similar effect with that of simole
heat.
   Carburetted hydrogen burns with a splendid whits
flame.  VV hen mixed with three times its bulk  of oxy
gen, and kindled by a taper or the electric spark, it ex
plodes with great violence.
   When this gas is mixed with its own bulk of chlo-
rine, the gaseous mixture is condensed over water into
a peculiar oily looking compound.   Hence this carbu
netted hydrogen  was called by its discoverers,  the as
socialed Dutch chemists, olefiant gas.  Robiquet and
Colin formed this liquid in  considerable quantities, by
making two currents of its nftistiitieni gases meet in  a
glass giobe.  The olefiant gas should be in rather larf>ei
quantity lhan the chlorine, otherwise  the liquid be-
comes of a green colour, and acquires acid properties.
When  it  is washed wilh water, and distilled  off dry
muriate of lime,  it may be regarded as pure.  It is then
a limpid colourless essence of a pleasant flavour, and
a sharp, sweet, and not disagreeable taste.   At 45° its
specific gravity  is 2.2-J01.   Dr.  Thompson calls this
fluid chloric ather, and it may with propriety, Mr.
Brande thinks, be termed hydro chloride of carbon.
  Olefiant gas is elegantly analyzed by heating sulphur
in it over mercury.  One cubic inch of it, with 2 grains
of sulphur, yields 2 cubic inches of sulphuretted hy-
drogen, and charcoal is deposited. Now we know that
the latter gas contains just itsown volume of hydrogen
  2.  Subcarburetted hydrogen.  This gas is supposed
to be procured in a state of definite composition, from
the mud or stagnant pools or ditches.  Wc have only
to fill a wide-mouthed goblet with water, and  invert-
ing it in the ditch-water, stir the bottom with  a stick.
Gas rises into the goblet.
  The fire-damp of mines is  a similar gas to  that of
ditches. There is in bolh  cases an  admixture  of car-
bonic acid, wliich lime or potassa-water will remove.
A proportion of air is also present, the  quantity of
wliich can  be ascertained  by analysis.   By igniting
acetate of potassa in a gun-barrel, an analogous  species
of gas is obtained.
  Subcarburetted hydrogen is destitute of colour, taste,
and  smell.   It burns with a yellow flame, like that of
a candle.                                     i
  As the gas of  difhes and the choke-damp of mines
is evidently derived from the action of water  on de-
caying vegetable or carbonaceous matter, we can un-
derstand that a similar product will be obtained by-
passing water over ignited charcoal, or by heating
moistenedcharcoalorvegetablematter in retorts. The
gases are here, however, a somewhat complex mix-
ture, as well as  what we  obtain' by igniting pit coal
and  wood in iron retorts.  The combustion of subcar-
buretted hydrogen with common air takes place only
when they are mixed in certain proportions.  If from
6 to  12 parts of air be  mixeel  with one of carburetted
hydrogen, we have  explosive mixtures.   Proportions
beyond these limits will not explode.  In like manner.
from 1 to 24 of oxygen  must be mixed with one ofthe
combustible gas, otherwise  we have  no%xplosion. Sii
H. Davy says, that this gas has  a disagreeable  empy-
reumatic smell,  and that water  absorbs l-30ih  of its
volume of it.'"—  Ure.
  CA'RCARUS. (From xapxaipw, to resound.)  Car-
caros.   A fever  in which the patient has a continual
horror and trembling, with  an unceasing sounding in
his ears.
  Ca'rcax.   (From xapa, a head.)   A speciesof pop-
py, with a very large head.
  CvRf-KR.   A  remedy, according to Paracelsus, for
restraining the motions of body,  the extravagant and
libidinous conversation in siuncdisorders; as iu Chorea
Sancti Vili, Sec.
  Carche'sius.   (Kapxvoios.  The openings  at the
topofaship's most through which the rope passes./ A
name of some bandages noticed by Galen,  and de-
scribed by Oribasius.
  CARCINOMA.   (Carcinoma, atis.n.   From xap
kivos, a cancer.)  See Cancer.
  CARCINUS.  (KapKtvos,  a cancer.) Carcinos  See
Cancer.
  Cardama'ntica.  (F'om xapoapov, the nasturtium
A speciesof sciatica cresses
   '                                    191 
CAR                                          CAR
  Cardamkle'cm.  A medicine of no note, mentioned
by Galen.     .,„.,,..      ,  ..
  CARDAMI NE.   ,Cardamme es. f.; from xapoia,
the heart; because t acts as a cordial and strengthened
or from its having the taste of cardamum,that is, nas-
turtium, or cress.)  Cuckoo-flower.  1. The name of
a genus of plants in the Linnaean system.  Class, Te-
tradynamia; Older, Siliquosa.
  2. The pharniacopoeial name of the cuckoo-flower.
See Cardamine pratensis
  Cardamink  pratensis.  The systematic name of
the common ladies' smock, or cuckoo-flower, called
cardamine  in the pharmacopoeias.   Cardamantica;
Nasturtium; aquaticum;  Culiflos; Iberis sophia;
Cardamine:—foliis pinnatis, foliolis, radicalibus sub-
rotundis,caulinis lanceolatis of Linnaeus.  The flower
has a place in the materia medica, upon the authority
of Sir George Baker, who has published five coses, two
of Chorea Sancti Viti, one of spasmodic asthma, one of
hemiplegia, and a case of spasmodic affections of the
lower limbs, wherein  the flores cardamines were sup-
posed to have been successfully used.  A variety of
virtues have been given to this plant, but it does not
deserve the attention of practitioners.
  CARDAMO'MUM.  (From xap&apov and apiopov:
because  it partakes of the nature, and is like both the
cardamum  and amomum.)   The cardamom.   See
Amomum, Elcttaria, and Illicium.
  Cardamomum majus.  See Amomumgranum para-
disi.                                          .
  Cardamomum medium.   The seeds correspond, in
every  respect, with the less, except in being twice as
long, but no thicker than the Cardamomum minus.
  Cardamomum minus.   See  Elettaria cardamo-
mum.
  Cardamomum pipkratum.  See Amomum granum
paradisi.
  Cardamomum siberiense.   See  Illicium  stclla-
tum.                       ...
  CA'RDAMUM.  (From icaooia, the heart; because
it comforts and strengthens the heart.)   The carda-
mum.  See Amomum, Elettaria, and Illicium.
  CA'RDIA.   (From xtnp, the heart.)  1. This term
was applied by the Greeks to the heart.
  2. The superior opening ofthe stomach.
  CARDTAC.  (Cardiacus; from Kapha, the heart.)
A cordial.  See Cordial.
  Carjuaca confectio.  See Confectio aromalica.
  Cardiaca herba.  So named from the supposed re-
lief it gives in faintings and disorders of the stomach.
The pharniacopoeial name of the plant called Mother-
wort. See Leonurus cardiaca.
  Cardiaca passio.  The cardiac passion.  Ancient
writers frequently mention a disorder under this name,
which consists of that oppression and distress w hich
often  accompanies fainting.
  Cardiacus morbus.   A name  by which tlie an-
cients called the typus fever.
  ( ARDIA'LGIA.   (From (capita,  the  cardia,  and
aXyos, pain.)   Pain at tlie stomach.  The heartburn.
Dr. Cullen  ranks it as a symptom of dyspepsia.  Heart-
burn  is  an uneasy sensation in the stomach,  with
anxiety, a heat more or less violent, and sometimes at-
tended with oppression, faintness, an inclination to
vomit, or a plentiful discharge of clear  lymph, like
saliva.  This pain may arise from various and differ-
ent causes; such as flatus; from sharp/tumours, either
acid bilious, or rancid; from worms gnawing and vel-
licating the coats of the stomach; from acrid and pun-
gent food, such as spices, aromatics, &c.: as also from
rheumatic  and gouty humours, or surjuis; irom too
free a use of tea, or watery fluids relaxing the stomach,
fee •  from the natural mucus being abraded, particu-
larly in the upper orifice of the stomach.
   CaP.dialoia SPUTATORIA.  See Pyrosis.
   Cap.dime'lkch.  (From Kapaui, the heart, and me-
leck  Feb a governor.)   A lit mums term in Dolaeus's
 Encyclopedia, by which  he would express a particular
 active prmriple in the heart, appointed  to what we
call the  vital functions.
   Carpimo'na.  Pain nt the stomach.
   (ordinal flowers.  See Lobelia.
   Cardimame'ntum.  (From cardo, a hinge.)  An ar-
 ticulation like a hinge.
   CARDIO'GMUS  (From Kapiiuxrao), to have a pain
 in the stomach.)  1.  A disfessing pain at the pro-cor-
 dia or stomach.
      192
  2. An aneurism in  or near the heart, which occa-
sions pain in the I raecordia.                  -„„.,..
  3. A variety of the Exangia aneurisma of Good a
nosological arrangement.
  CARDIO'NCHUS.   (From xapdia, the heart,  and
oyKos, a tumour.)   An aneurism in the heart, or in the
aorta near the heart.
  Cardiotro'tus.   (From Kapota,  the heart,  and
TirptooKO), to wound.)   One who hath a wound in his

  CARDITIS.   (From »capr5ia, the heart.)  Empres
ma carditis of Good.  Inflammation of the  heart. II
is a genus of disease arranged by Cullen in the class
Pyrexia, and order Phlegmasia.  It is known by py-
rexia, pain in the region of the heart, great anxiety, diffi-
culty of breathing, cough, irregular pulse, palpitation,
and fainting, and the other symptoms of inflammation.
  The treatment of carditis is, in a great measure,
similar to that of pneumonia.  It is necessary to  take
blood freely, as w ell generally as locally, and apply a
blister near  the part.  Purging may be carried  to a
greater extent than in pneumonia; and the use of di-
gitalis is more important, to lessen the irritability of
the heart.  It is equally desirable to  promote  diapho-
resis,  but expectoration is not so much to  be looked
for, unless indeed, as very often happens, the inflam-
mation should have extended, in some degree, to the
lungs.
   Cardite.  See organic relics.
   CA'RDO.   A hinge.   1. The  articulation called
Ginglymus.
   2. The second vertebra of the neck.
   Cardo'kium.  Wine medicated with herbs.—Para-
celsus.                      ,.    , . ,
   Cardopa'tium. The low carhne thistle.  Most pro-
bably the Ca» Una acaulis of Linnaeus, said to be dia-
phoretic.
   CA'RDUUS.  (A carere, quasi aptus carenda lana,
being fit to tease wool; or  from kuow, to abrade; so
named  from its roughness, whicli abrades  and tears
whatever it meets with.)  The thistle or teasel.  The
name of a genus of plants in tlie Linnaean  system.
Class, Syngenesia; Order, Polygamia aqualis.
   Carduus acanthus.  The bear's breech.
   Carduus altilis.  The artichoke.
'   Carduus arvensis.  The way-thistle.  See Scrra-
tula arvensis.
   Carduus benkdictus.  See Centaurea.
   Carduus hemorrhoidals.  Tlie common creep-
ing way-thistle.  Serratula arvensis of Linno-us.
   Carduus lacteus.  See Carduus mananus
   Carduus mari.e.   See Carduus marianus.
   Cardui s marianus.  The systematic name of the
officinal Carduus maria.   Common milk-thistle, or
Lady's thistle.  Carduus: foliis amplexicaulibus,has■
talo-pinnatifidis, spinosis; calycibus aphyllis ; spinis
caliculatis, duplicato-spinosis, of Linnaeus.  The seeds
of this plant, and the herb, have been employed medi-
cinally.  The former contain a bitter oil, and are re-
commended as relaxants.  The juice of tlie  lattei is
said to be  salutary in dropsies, in the dose of four
ounces;  and, according to  Miller,  to be efficacious
against pungent pains.  The leaves when young sur
pass,  when boiled, tlie finest cabbage, and iu that state
are diuretic.
   Carduus sativus.  The  artichoke.
   Carduus solstitialis.  The Calcitrapa officinalis
of Linnaeus.
   Carduus tomentosus.  The woolly thistle.  See
 Onopordium acantliium.
   CAREBA'RIA.  (From xapv, the head, and /3apoj,
weight.) A painful and uneasy heaviness of the head
   CARE'NL'M.  (From xapij, the head.)  Galen uses
this word for the head.
   Carinum vinum.   Strong wine.
   Carrum.   '.From Caria,  tlie country whence  they
wen-  brought.)  The caraway.
   CA REX.  (Cui-rz, icis, fcem. from careo, not  outa
viribus careat, but because, from its roughness, ii is fit
ad carendum, to card, tease, or pull.)  Sedge   The
name  of a genus of plants in the Linnaean -ystein
 Class, Monacia; Order, Triandria.
   Carex arenaria.  The systematic name of the offi
cinal  sarsaparilla germanica, which grows plentifully
on the sea coast.  The root has been found serviceable
in some mucal affections of the trachea, in  rheumatic
pains, and gouty affections.   These roots, nnd those of 
CAR
CAR
 the carex kit la, are mixed with the true sarsaparilln,
 Which they much resemble.
   CARICA.   (From Caria, the place where they
 were cultivated.)  The fig.  See Ficus carica.
   Carica pataya.  Papaw-tree.  This is a native of
 both Indies, and  the Guinea  coast of Africa.  When
 the roundish fruit are nearly ripe, the  inhabitants of
 India boil and eat them with their meat, as we do tur-
 nips.  They have somewhat the flavour of a pompion.
 Previous to boiling, they soak them for some time in
 salt and water, to extract the corrosive juice, unless
 the meat they are to be boiled with should be very salt
 and old, and then this juice being  in them, will make
 them as tender as a chicken. But they mostly pickle the
 long fruit, and thus they make no bad succedaneuni for
 maugo.  The  buds of the female flowers are gathered,
 and made into a sweetmeat;  and the  inhabitants are
 such good husbands of the produce of this  tree,  that
 they boil the shells of the ripe fruit into a repast, and
 the insides are eaten with sugar in the manner of* me-
 lons.  Every part of the papaw-tree,  except the  ripe
 fruit, affords a milky juice, which  is used, in tlie Isle
 of France, as an effectual remedy for the tape-worm.
 In Europe, however, whither it has been sent in  the
 concrete state, it has not answered, perhaps from some
 change it had  undergone, or not having been  given in
 a sufficient dose.
  A very remarkable circumstance regarding tlie pa-
 paw-tree, is tlie extraction from its juice of a matter
 exactly resembling the flesh or fibre of animals,  and
 lence called vegetable fibrin.
  Caricum.  (From Caricus,  its inventor.)  Carycum.
 An ointment for cleansing ulcers,  composed of helle-
 bore, lead, and cantharides.
  CARIES.   (From carah, Chald.)  Gangrena  Ca-
 ries of Good.  Rottenness, mortification of the bones
  [Cooper derives caries  from xetpiii, to abrade.  "It
 is a disease of the bones, supposed to be very analo-
 gous to  ulceration of the  soft parts; and this compa-
 rison is one of great antiquity, having  been made by
 Galen.   However, by the generality of the ancients,
 caries was not discriminated from necrosis.
  " It was from tlie surgeons of ihe eighteenth century
 that more correct opinions  were derived respecting
 caries.   Until this period, writers had done little more
 than mentioning  the  complaint, and tlie methods of
 treating  it.  Some new  light was thrown  upon the
 subject  by J. L. Petit, iu his  remarks  upon exostosis
 and caries.  But, as he only  spoke of the disorder as
 one of the terminations of exostosis, he has not entered
 far into the consideration of it. The best observations
 on  caries were first made by Dr.  A. Monro,  primus.
 This memoir contains tbe earliest correct ideas of dry
 caries, or necrosis, which is rightly compared to mor-
 tification of the soft  parts, and named gangrenous I
 aries.                                           !
  " The bones, like other parts of  the body, are com- !
 posed of arteries, veins, absorbent vessels, nerves, and |
 a cellular texture; they are endued with vitality ; they j
 are nourished, they grow, waste, are  repaired, and
 undergo various mutations, according to tbe age of the
 individual; and they are subject to diseases analogous
 to those of the soft parts.   To the  phosphate of lime,
 Which is more or less distributed in their texture, they
 owe all their solidity ; and, perhaps, it  is to the same
 earthy substance lhat  the difference in  their vital pro-
 perties, and in their diseases, from those ofthe rest of
 the body, is to be referred. In fact, this particular or-
 ganization, and inferior vitality ofthe bones, are gene-
 rally supposed to account for the small number, pecu-
 liar character, and general slow progress of their dis-
 eases."—Cooper's Surg. Diet. A.]
  Cari'ma.  The cassada bread.
  CARINA.  The keel  of a  ship.  1. A name for-
 merly applied  to the nack bone.
  2. In  botany, the keel, or  that part of the petals
 which compose a papilionaceous flower, consisting of
 two, united  or separate, which embrace the  internal
or genital organs.   See Corolla.
  CARINATUS. Keel-shaped ; applied to leaves and
petals when the back is longitudinally prominent like
the keel of a boat; as in the  leaf of the Allium cari-
nutum, and t*»e petals of the Allium  ampellprasum
 Carum carw'
  CARLNTHINE. A subspecies  of mineral augite
found in  Carinlhia.
  CARIOUS.  When a part of a bone is deprived of
                                          N
 its vitality, it is said to be carious, dead, or rotten,
 hence (aiious tooth, &c.
   Ca'rium terra.  Lime.
   CaRivilla'ndi.  Sarsaparilla root.
   CARLI'NA.  (From Carolus, Charles the Great, 01
 Charlemagne; because it was believed that au angel
 showed u to him, and thai, by the use of it, his army
 was preserved from the plague.)  Carline thistle  The
 name  of a genus of plants in  the Linnaean sjitem.
 Class, Syngenesia ; Order, Polygamia aqualis.  The
 officinal name of two kinds of plants.
   Carlina acaulis.   The  systematic  name of the
 chamaleon album.  Carlina; Cardopatium.  Carline
 thistle. Star thistle.  Carlina—caule unifloro, fiore
 breviore, of Linnaeus.  The root of this plant is bitter,
 and said to  post-ess diaphoretic  and  anthelmintic
 virtues.  Il is also extolled by foreign physicians in
 the cure of acute, malignant, and chronic disorders,
 particularly gravel and jaundice.
   Carlina oimmiikra. Carduus pinea; Ixine.  Pine
 thistle. This plant is the Atractylis gummifcra  of
 Linnaeus.  The root, when wounded, yields a milky,
 viscous juice, which concretes into tenaceous masses,
 at first whitish, resembling wax, when much handled
 growing black ; it is said to be chewed with the same
 views as mastich.
   Carline thistle.   See Carlina acaulis.
   Carlo sancto radix.  St. Charles's root, so called
 by the Spaniards, on account of its great virtues.  It is
 found  in  Mechoachan, a province in America.  Its
 bark  hath an aromatic flavour, with a bitter acrid
 laste.  The root itself consists of slender fibres.  The
 bark is sudorific, and strengthens the gums and sto-
 mach.
   CA'RMEN.  (Carmen, inis.  neut.  A verse;  be-
 cause charms usually consisted of a verse.)  A charm,
 an amulet.
   Carmes.   (The Carmelite  friars, Fr.)  Carmelite
 water; so named  from its inventors; composed  of
 baum, lemon-peel, &c.
   Carmina'ntia.   See Carminative.
   CARMI'NATIVE.  (Carminativus; from carmen,
 a  verse, or charm ; because practitioners,  in ancient
 limes, ascribed their operation to a charm or enchant-
 ment.)  That which  allays pain and dispels flatu-
 lencies ofthe primae viae.  The principal carminatives
 are the semina cardamomi, anisi ct carui; olea esscn
 tialia carui, anisi  et  juniperi;  confectio aromatica;
 pulvis aromaticus; tinctura cardamomi; tinctura cin-
 namomi  composita;  zingiber;  stimulants; tonics;
 bitters; and astringents.
  CARMINE.  A red pigment prepared from cochi-
 neal.
  CARMINIUM.   The  name given  by the French
chemists  to the colouring matter of cochineal.  Sec
Coccus cacti.
  Carnaba'dium.  Caraway-seed.
  CA RNEA COLUMNA.  A fleshypillaror column.
The name of some fleshy fasciculi in the ventricles of
the heart.   See Heart.
  CARNELIAN.   A subspecies of calcedony.
  CARNICL'LA.   (Diminutive of caro, earn is, flesh.)
A  small  fleshy substance;  applied to the substance
which  surrounds the gums.
  CARNIFO'RMIS.   (From caro, flesh, and forma,
likeness.)  Having the appearance of flesh.  It is com-
monly  applied to an abscess, where the flesh surround-
ing the orifice is hardened, and of a firm consistence
  CARNOSUS.  Fleshy; applied to loaves, pods,Ace
of a thick pulpy  substance; as in the leaves of all
those plants called succulent, especially  ccdum eras-
sula, Sec.
  CARO.  (Caro, carnis. fcem.)  1.  Flesh.  The red
earl or belly of a muscle.
  2. The pulp of fruit.
  Carolina.  See Carlina.
  CAROM EL.  The smell exhaled from sugar at tlie
calcining heat.
  Caro'pi.  The Amomum verum.
  Caro'ra.   A  chemical  vessel that  resembles n
urinal.
  Caro'sis.  See Carus.
  C'ARO'TA.  See Daucus.
  CAROTID.  (From xapota, to cause to sleep; be
cause,  if tied wilh a ligature,  the  animal becomes
comatose, and has the appearance  of bei ig  asleep.)
 An artery of the neck.  See Carotid arter\
                                        193 
CAR
CAR
  Carotid artery.  Arteria carotidea.   The caro-
jds are two considerable arteries that proceed, one on
each side ofthe cervical vertebrae, to the head, to sup-
ply it with  blood.  The right carotid does not arise
Immediately from the arch of the aorta, but is given
off from the arteria innominata.  The left arises from
the arch of the  aorta.  Each carotid is divided  into
external and internal, or that portion without and that
within the cranium.   The external gives off eight
branches, to the neck and face, viz. anteriorly, the su-
perior  thyroideal, the sublingual, the inferior maxil-
lary, the external  maxillary; posteriorly, the  internal
maxillary, the occipital, the external auditory, and the
temporal.   The internal  carotid or cerebral artery,
gives off four branches within the cavity ofthe crani-
um ;  the  anterior cerebral, the  posterior, the cential
artery ofthe optic nerve, and the internal orbital.
  Caro'um. The caraway-seed.
  CA'RPASUS.  (So named rzapeiro xaoov voiriaai:
because it makes the person who eats it appear as if
he was asleep.)  An herb, the juice of whicli was for-
merly called opocarpason, opocarpathon, or opocalpa-
son; according  to Galen, it resembles myrrh; but is
esteemed highly poisonous.
  Carpa'thicum balsamum. See  Pinus Cembra.
  Carpentaria.   (From carpentarius, a carpenter ;
and so named  from its virtues in healing cuts and
wounds made by a tool.)  A vulnerary herb;  not pro-
perly known what it is, but believed to be the common
milfoil or yarrow, the Achillaa mil.lifolium of Linnaeus.
  CARPHA'LEUS.   (From  xaptpto,  to exsiccate.)
Hippocrates uses this word  to mean dry, opposed to
moist.
  CARPHOLO'GIA.   (From  xapebos,  the  nap of
clothes, and Xcyio, to pluck.)  Carpologia.  A deliri-
ous picking of  the bed-clothes,  a symptom  of great
danger in diseases.  See Floccilatio.
  CARPI! US.   (From xap(pn, a straw.)   1. In  Hip-
pocrates it signifies a mote, or any small substance.
  2.  A pustule ofthe smallest kind.
  3. 'The herb fenugreek.
  CA'RPIA.  (From carpo, to pluck, as lint is made
from linen  cloth.)  Lint.
  Carpi'smus.  The wrist.
  CARPOBA'LSAMUM.  (From  xapnos, fruit, and
BaXaapov, balsam.)   See  Amyris gileadensis.
  CARPOLOGIA.  See Carphologia.
  CARPOTICA.   (Carpolicus ; from Kaprrioms, frui-
tio, from xapirios, fructus.)  The name of an order of
diseases  in the class  Genetica  of  Good's  Nosology;
diseases afflicting the impregnation.  It embraces four
genera.  1. Paracyesis, morbid  pregnancy.  2.  Paro
dynin, morbid labour.  3. Eccyesis, extra uterine foe-
.ation.  4.  Pseudocyesis, spurious pregnancy.
   CA'RPUS.   (Kapiroc,  the  wrist.)  The wrist, or
carpus.  It is situated between the forearm and hand.
See Bone.
   CARROT.  See Daucus carola.
   Carrot, candy.  See Athamanta Cretcnsis.
   Carrot poultice.   See Cataplasma dauci.
   CA'RTHAMUS. (From xadaipu), to purge.) 1. The
 name  of a genus of plants  in  the Linncaii system.
 Class, Syngenesia; Order, Polygamia aqualis.
   2. The pharmacopceial name  of the saffron flower.
 See Carthamus tinctorius.
   Carthamus  tinctorius.  The  systematic name
of the saffron  flower, or bastard saffron,  called  also
 Cnicus; Crocus saraccnicus ; Cartliamumofficinarum;
 Carduus sativus.  Carthamus—foliis ovatis,  integris,
 scrrulo-aculcatis of Linnaeus.   The seeds, freed from
 their shells, have been celebrated as a gentle cathartic,
 in the dose of one or two drachms.  They are  also
 supposed to be diuretic and expectorant; particularly
 useful in  humoral asthma,  and similar complaints.
 The carthamus lunatus is considered in France ns a
 febrifuge and sudorific.  The dried flowers are fre-
 quently  mixed with saffron, to adulterate it.   The
 plant is cultivated in many  places on account of its
 flowers, which are used as a dye.
   " In some of the  deep reddish, yellow,  or orange-
 coloured flowers, the yellow matter seems to be ol" the
 same kind with that of the pure yellow flowers; but
 the  red to be of a different kind from the pure red
 ones.   Watery menstrua take up only the yellow, and
 leave the  red, whicli may afterward be  extracted by
 alkohol, or by a weak solution  of alkali.  Such  par-
 ticularly are the saffron-coloured flowers of carthamus.
       164
These, after the yellow matter has  been eexti acted 0?
water, are said to give a tincture to ley; from which,
on standing at  rest for some time, a  deep red fecula
subsides called  saftlower, and  from  the  countria/
whence it is commonly brought to us, Spanish red an|
China lake.  This pigment impregnates nlkohol with
a beautiful red tincture ; but communicates no colour
to water.
  Rouge is prepared from carthamus.  For this pur-
pose the red colour is extracted by a solution of the
subcarbonate of soda, and  precipitated  by lemon juice
previously depurated by standing.  This precipitate Is
dried on earthen plates, mixed with  talc, or French
chalk, reduced to a powder by means of the leaves of
shave-grass, triturated with  it till they are both very
fine, and then sifted.  The fineness of the powder and
proportion of the precipitate constitute the difference
between the finer and cheaper rouge.   It is  likewise
spread very thin on saucers, and sold  in this state for
dying.
  Carthamus is used for dying silk of a i>oppy, cherry
rose, or bright orange-red.  After  the yellow matte:
is extracted as above, and  the cakes opened, it is put
into a deal trough, and sprinkled at  different times
with pearl ashesT or rather soda, well powdered and
sifted, in the proportion of six pounds to a hundred,
mixing the alkali well as it is put in. The alkali
should be saturated with carbonic acid.  The cartha-
mus is then put on a cloth in a trough wilh  a grated
bottom, placed on a larger trough, and cold water poured
on, till the large trough is filled.  And this is repented,
with the addition of a little more alkali toward the
end, till the carthamus is exhausted and  become yellow
Lemon juice is then poured into  the bath, till it  ia
turned  of a fine cherry colour,  and after  it is  well
stirred, the silk is immersed in it   The silk is wrung,
drained, and passed through fresh baths, washing and
drying after every operation, till it  is of a proper
colour ; when it is brightened in not water, and lemon
 juice.  For a poppy or fire colour a slight annutto
grouiid is first given;  but the silk should not be alumed.
For a  pale carnation a little soap should be put into
the  bath.  All  these baths must be used  as soon  as
Ihey are made; and cold, because heal destroys tbi
colour of the red feculs."              •
  CARTHEUSER, John  Frederick, a professor of
medicine at Francfort, on  the Oder, acquired consider-
able reputation about the  middle of tbe last century
by several luminous works on botany and pharmacy;
especially his " Rudimcnta  Materiae Medicae Rationa-
lis," and " De Gencricis quibusdam Plantarum Prin-
cipiis."  He had two  sons, Frederick Augustus and
 William, also of the medical profession, and authors
of some less important works.
  Carthusia'nus.  (From the monks of that  order,
 who first invented it.)  A  name  of  the precipitate-id
sulphur of antimony.
  CARTILAGE. See Cartilago.
  CARTILAGINEUS.   Cartilaginous.  1.  Applied,
 in anatomy, to parts which naturally,  or from disease,
 have a cartilaginous consistence.
  2. In botany, to leaves which have  a hard or homy
 leaf-edge, as in several speciesof saxifrage.   See Leaf.
  CARTILAGO.   (Cartilago, inis. foem.   Quasi
carnilago; from caro,carnis, flesh.)   A white elastic,
glistening substance, growing to bones, and commonly
called gristle.  Cartilages are divided, by  anatomists,
 into obducent, which cover the moveable articulations
of bones; j'nter-artieular,  whicli are situated between
 the  articulations, and uniting cartilages, which unite
one bone with another.  Their use is to facilitate the
 motions of bones, or to connect them together.
  The chemical analysis of cartilage affords one-third
 the weight of the bones, when the calcareous salts are
 removed by digestion in  dilute muriatic acid.   It  re-
sembles coagulated albumen.  Nitric acid converts It
into gelatin. With alkalies it forms an animal soap.
 Cartilage is the primitive paste, into which the calca-
 reous salts are deposited in the young  animal.  In the
disease rickets, the  earthy  ma'ter is withdrawn  by
 morbid absorption, nnd the bones return into the st.tta
 nearly of flexible cartilage.  Hence arise the disww
 lions characteristic of this disease.
  Cartilago annularis.  See Cartilage cricoids*
  CaRTILaoo ARtT.tNOiDEA.  See Larynx.
  Cartilago i ricoidka.  The cricoid cartilage be
 longs to the larynx, and is  situated between the thyroid 
CAR
CAS
 and arytenoid cartilages and the trachea; it  consti-
 tutes, as it were, the basis of the many annular carti-
 lages of the trachea.
   Cartilaoo rnsipormis.  Cartilagoxiphoidea. En-
 sifonn  cartilage.  A cartilage shaped somewhat like
 a sword or dagger, attached to the lowermost  part of
 tlie Bternum, just at the pit of the stomach.
   Cartilago scutipormis.  See 'Thyroid cartilage.
   Cartilaoo tiiyroidea.  See  Thyroid cartilage.
   Cartilaoo xiphoidea.  See Cartilago ensiformis.
   CARUI.  (Caruia. Arabian.)   The caraway. See
 Cktrum.
   CA'Rl'M.  (Kaposi so named from Caria, a pro-
 vince of Asia.)  The Caraway.  1. The name of a
 genus of plants in the Linn.-ean system.   Class, Pen-
 tandria ; Order, Mono<rynia.
  2. The pharmacopceial name of tlie caraway plant.
 See Canon carui.
  Carum carui.  The systematic name for the plant,
 the seeds of  which are'called caraways.  It  is also
 called  Carvi; Cuminum pratense; Carus; Caruon.
 The seeds  are well known to  have a pleasant spicy
 smell, and a warm  aromatic taste; and, on this ac-
 count, are used for various economical purposes.  They
 are esteemed to be carminative, cordial, and stomachic,
 and recommended in dyspepsia, flatulencies, and other
 symptoms attending hysterical  and hypochondriacal
 disorders.   An  essential  oil  and distilled water  are
 directed to be prepared from  them by the London
 College.
  CARUNCLE.   (Caruneula;  diminutive of caro,
 flesh.)   Ecphyma caruneula of  Good.  A  little fleshy
 excrescence;  as the carunculae  myrtiformes,  carun-
 culie lachrymales, Sec.
  CARUNCULA.   See Caruncle,
  Caroincula lachrtmalis.  A long conoidal gland,
 red externally, situated  in the  internal  canthus of
 each eye, before the union of the eyelids.  It appears
 lo be  formed of  numerous  sebaceous glands, from
 Which many small hairs grow.  The hardened smegma
 observable  in this part of tlie eye  in the  morning, is
 separated by this caruncle.
   Carunculje mamillares.  The  extremities of the
 tubes in the nipple.
   Carunculte myrtiforxks.  When the hymen has
 been lacerated by attrition, there remain in its place
 two, three, or four caruncles, which have received the
 name of myrtiform.
   Caruncul.epapili.ares.  The protuberances within
 the pelvis of  tlie kidney, formed by tlie papulous sub-
 stance of the kidney.
   Caruon.  See Carum.
   CA'RUS.  (Kaoos; from xapa, tlie head,  as being
 the part affected.)   Caros; Carosis.  1. Insensibility
 and sleepiness, as in apoplexy, attended with quiet
 respiration.
  2. A lethargy, or a profound sleep, without fever.
  3. Dr. Good gives this name to a germs in his Noso-
 logy, embracing those diseases characterized by mus-
cular immobility; mental or corporeal torpitude, or
 both.  It has  six species; Cxrus asphyxia; ccstasis ;
 catalepsia; lethargus ; apoplexia ; paralysis.
  4. The caraway seed.
  Ca'rva.  The cassia lignea.
  Cary'don.  See Caryedon.
  Carye'don. (From xapva, a  nut.)  Carydon.  A
 sort of  fracture, where the bone is broken into small
 pieces, like the shell of a cracked nut.
  Caryocosti'num.  An electuary; so named from
 two of its ingredients, the clove and costus.
  CARYOPHYLLATA.  (From  xapvoctoXXov, the
 caryophyllus; so  named, because  it smells like the
 caryophyllus, or clove July flower.)  See Geum  ur-
 banum.
  Caryophylloi'dks cortex. See Laurus culilawan.
  CARYOPHY'LLUM.  (Kapvo<pvXXov; fromKupvov,
 a nut, and  tbvXXov,  a leaf; so named because  it was
 supposed to be the leaf of the Indian nut.)   The clove.
 See Eugenia caryophyllata.
  Caryophyllum aromaticum.  See Eugenia caryo-
phyllata.
  Caryophillcm rubrum.  The  clove pink.  See
Dianthus caryophyllus.
  CARYOPHYLLUS.  The clove-tree.  The name
jf a genus of plants in the Linmean system.  Class,
Polyandria ; Ord«r, Monogynia.  See Eugenia caro-
  CaRYOPIIYLLIS  AtlOMATICUS  AMLRICANL1.   StB
Myrtus pimenta.
  Caryophyllus hortensis.  See Dianthus caryo-
phyllus.
  Caryophyllus vulgaris.  See Geum urbanum.
  Caryo'tis.  (From xapvov, a nut.)  Caryota.  Galen
gives this name to a superior sort of date, of the shape
of a nut.
  CASCARI'LLA.    'Diminutive  of  cascara, t) •
bark, or  shell.  Spanish.)  A  name given originally
lo small specimens  of cinchona; but now applied to
another bark.  See Croton cascarilla.
  Cas'chc.  See Acacia catechu.
  Cashew-nut.  See Anacardium  occidcntale.
  Cashow.  See Acacia catechu.
  CASEIC ACID.   Acidum  cascicum.  The nam:
given l.y Proust to an acid formed in cheeses, to which
lie ascribes their flavour.
  Ca'sia. See Cassia.
  Casmisa'ris.  See Cassumuniar.
  C.i<s.i. (Arabian.) The breast.
  CASSA'DA. See Jatropha manihot.
  Ca'ssamu.m.  The fruit ofthe balsam of Gilead-tree,
or Amyrus opobalsamum.
  Ca'ssava.  Poe Jatropha manihot.
  C ASSBHOH.M, Frederic, a professor of anatomy
at Halle in Saxony, published, in 1730, a treatise on tlio
difference between the Foetus and Adult, in which he
notices the descent of the testicle from the abdomen
and, four years after, a very minute and exact descrip
tion of the ear.  He  likewise explained, in subsequent
publications, the manlier of dissecting the muscles and
tlie viscera ;  but an  early death  prevented his com-
pleting his design of elucidating  the anatomy of the
whole body in the same way.
  CASSERIUS, Junes, was born of humble  parents
at Placentia, in 1545. lie became servant to Fabri-
cius at Padua, who, observing his talent, first taught
him anatomy, then made him his assistant, and finally
coadjutor in the professorship in 1609.  He  pursued
the study with uncommon zeal, expending almost all
his profits in procuring subjects, and in having draw-
ings and prints made of the parts, which he discovered,
or traced more accurately than his predecessors.  He
employed comparative anatomy, not as a substitute
for, but only as a clue to that  of the human  subject.
He published an account of the organs  of voice and
hearing,  which he afterward  extended  to tlie other
senses, explaining also the uses of these parts.  Sut:;-e
years after his death, in  161ti, the rest of his  plates,
amounting to  78, with the  explanations, were pub-
lished with the works of Spigelius.
  CA'SSIA.  (From the Arabic katsia, which is from
katsa, to tear off; so called from  the act of stripping
the bark from  the tree.)   The name of a tonus ot
plants in the Lirmaan system.   Class, Decandria:
Order,  Monogynia.
  Cassia bark.  See Laurus cassia.
  Cassia caryophyllata.   The  clove bark u?-e
See Myrtus caryophyllata.
  Cassia fistula.  Cassia nigra; Cassiafiitularis;
Alcxandrina;  Ckaiarxambar; Canna ;  Cassia solu-
tiva; Tlai Xiem.  The  purging cassia.  This tree,
Cassia—foliis  quinquejugis ovatis acuminctis gla-
bris, petiolis eglandulatis of Linnaeus, is a native of
both Indies.  The pods of the East India cassia are
of a less diameter,  smoother, and  afford  a  blacker,
sweeter, and more grateful pulp, than those which are
brought from the West Indies.  Those pods which are
the heaviest, and in which the seeds do  not rattle on
being shaken, are commonly the best, and contain t!:a
most pulp, which is the part  medicinally employ...!,
and  to be obtained in the  manner described  in <■ a
pharmacopoeias.  The best pulp is of a bright  shim.:-
black colour, and of a sweet taste, with a slight C:-di  ,■
of acidity.  It has been long used  as a laxative m ,!i-
cine, and being gentle in its operation, and seldom .iis
turbing the bowels, is well adapted to chiltlren, ;i.d ;-,
delicate or pregnant women.  Adults, however tind
it of little effect, unless taken in a very large dose, ,-,s
an ounce or more; and, therefore, to them this pulp is
rarely given, but usually conjoined with some  of the
brisker purgatives.   The officinal preparation of this
drug is the confectio cossiae; it is also an ingredient in
the confectio sennae.
  Cassia fistularis. See Cassia fistula.
  Cassia latinoru.m. See Osyris.
                                       195 
CAS
CAT
   CA38IA lignea.  See Laurus cassia.
   Cassia monspkliknsiim.  See Osyris.
   (,'assh nigra.  See Cassia fistula.
   Cassia poetica.  Poet's rosemary;  a plant whicl
 trows in the south of Europe, and is said to be astrin-
 gent.  See Osyris.
   Cassia, purging.  See Cassia fistula.
   Cassia senna.  The systematic name of the plant
 ■vhich affords  senna.   Senna  alexandrina;  Senna
 italica.  Senna, or Egyptian cassia.  Cassia—foliis
 s.jugis subovalis, petiolis  eglandulalis of Linnaeus.
 'The leaves of senna, which are  imported here from
 Alexandria, for medicinal use, have rather a disagree-
 able smell, and a  subacrid, bitterish, nauseous taste.
 '. hey are in common use as a purgative.  The formulae
 tiven of the senna by the colleges, are in infusion, a
 compound powder, a tincture, and au electuary.  See
 Infusum senna, Sec
  Cassia  solutiva.  See Cassia fistula.
  cassia Marylandica.   See American senna.
  Cassia: aramentum. The pulp of cassia.
  Cassia: flores.  What  are called  cassia  flowers
 >n tbe shops, are the  flowers of the true cinnamon-
 tree, Laurus cinnamomum of Linnaeus.   They possess
 aromatic and adstringent virtues, and may be success-
 fully employed  in decoctions, &ev in all cases where
 cinnamon is recommended.  See Laurus cinnamo-
 mum.
  Cassia: pulpa.  See Cassia fistula
  Cassius's  Precipitate.  The purple powder, which
 firms on a plate of tin immersed in a solution of gold.
 it is used to  paint in enamel.
  Ca'ssob.  An obsolete term for kali.
  Cassoleta.  Warm fumigations described by Mar-
 cellus.
  Cassonada.  Sugar.
  CASSUMMU'NIAR.  (Of uncertain derivation;
 perhaps Indian.)  Casamunar;  Casmina; Risagon;
 Bengale Indorum.  The root, occasionally exhibited
under one of these names, is brought  from the East
Indies.  It conies over in irregular slices of  various
forms,  some cut transversely, others longitudinally,
The cortical part is marked with circles of a dusky
 brown colour:  the internal  part is  paler, and une-
qually yellow.  Il possesses moderately warm, bitter,
and aromatic qualities, and a smell like ginger. It is
 recommended in hysterical, cpilectic,  and paralytic
 affections.
  CASTA'NEA.  (Ka5-.11 «■;  from Castana, a city in
Thessaly,  whence  they  were brought.)  See Fagus
castanea,
  Castanea equina. The horse-chesnut. SeeJEscu-
 lus hippocastanum.
  CASTELLANCS, Peter, or Du Chatel, was
 born at Granunont, in Flanders, in  1585.  His rapid
 improvement in the Greek language procured him the
 professorship, at Lovain, in 1609; but he did not gra-
 duate in medicine till nine years after.   At the same
 period, he published the lives of  eminent physicians
 ii  Latin, written iu a concise but very entertaining
 t lanner, with useful references to the original authori-
 ties.  He died in 1G32.
  CASTELLUS,  Bartholomew, an  Italian  physi-
cian, who practised at Messina about the end of the
 J6lh century.  He was author  of two works, both for
a long  time extremely popular, a Synopsis of Medi-
cine, and  " Lexicon Medicum Gra-co-Lalinum,"  in
 which  great learning and judgment are conspicuous.
  Castjoi.  See Acacia catechu.
  CASTLE-LEOD.  The name of a place in Ross-
 Fhire, in Scotland, where there is a sulphureous spring,
celebrated for the cure of cutaneous diseases and foul
tlcers.
  CASTOR.   (Castor:  from Kns-otp,  the  beaver,
 quasi yas-oip; from yasvp, the belly: because of the
 I'irgeiiPss of  its belly; or a caslrando, because he was
baid to castrate himself in order to escape the hunters.)
  I. The name of a genus of animals.
  2. The English name of the Castorcum of the phar-
 macopoeias,  a peculiar concrete substance obtained
from the Castor fiber of Linnaeus.  See  Castor fiber.
  Castor fiber.   The systematic name of the bea-
 ver, an amphibious quadruped inhabiting some parts
ef Prussia, Russia, Germany, See;  but the greatest
number of ihese animals is met with in Canada.  The
name of castorcum, or castor, is giveu to two bags,
actuated in tlie inguinal regions of the beaver, which
      IOC
 contain a very odorous substance, soft, and almost
 fluid when recently cut from the animal, but which
 dries, and assumes a  resinous consistence in process
 of time.  The best comes from Russia.  Ills of a gray-
 ish yellow, or light brown colour.  It consists of a muci-
 lage, a bitter extract, a resin, an essential oil, in which
 the peculiar  smell appears to reside, and a flaky crys-
 talline matter, much resembling the adipocire of bi i-
 ary calculi.  Castor has an acrid, bitter, and nauseous
 taste ; its smell is strong and aromatic, yet at the; same
 time foetid.  It is used medicinally, as a powerful an-
 tispasmodic  in hysterica and hypochondriacal aff'ee
 lions, and in convulsions, in doses of from  10 to 30
 grains.    It has also  been  successfully administered
 in epilepsy and tetanus.  It is occasionally adulterated
 with dried blood, gum-ammoniacum, or galbanum,
 mixed with a little of  the powder of castor, and some
 quantity of the fat of the beaver.
   Castor oil.  See Ricinus.
   Castor, Russian.  Sec Castor fiber.
   CASTOREUM.  See Castor fiber.
   Castori'um.  See Castorcum.
   CASTRATION.  (Castratio, onis. f.; from caslr
 to emasculate, quia castrando vis libidinis  extingui-
 tur.)  1. A chirurgical operation, by wliich  a testicle
 is removed from the body.
  2. Botanists  apply this term to the removal of the
 nnthera of a flower, and lo a plant naturally wanting
 this organ.
  CASTRE'NSIS.  (From castra, a camp.)  Belong-
 ing to a camp: applied to those diseases with which
 soldiers, encamped in  marshy places, are afflicted.
  CATA'BASIS.   (From  xana&aivoi, to descend)
 An operation downwards.
  CATABI BASIS.  (From *araSi6a'"'a>, to cause to
 descend.)  An expulsion of the humours downwards
  CATABLACEU'SIS.  (From Karut>XaKcvio, to  be
 useless.)  Hippocrates uses this word  to signify care-
 lessness and  negligence in the attendance on and ad-
 ministration to the sick.
  Catable'ma.  (From KaraCaXXto, to throw round.)
 Tlie  outermost fillet,  which  secures  the rest of the
 bandages.
  CATABRONCIIE SIS.  (From iru7a, and Bpoyxos,
 the throat; or Kafa6poy\i^to, to swallow.)   The act
 of swallowing.
  CATACAL'MA.   (From KnfaKaiuy, to bum.)  A
 burn or scald.
  CATACAU'SIS. (From *a7«*aiw,lo bum.) 1. The
 act of combustion, or burning.
  2.  The name of a genus of diseases in Dr. Good's
 Nosology : general combustibility of the body. It has
 only one species, Catacaitsis ebriosa.
  CATACECLI.MENLS.   (From Ko^axXivopat,  to
 lie down.)  Keeping the bed, from the violence of a
 disease.
  CATACECRA'MENl S.   (From   Ka"/aKee,aiyoph
 to reduce  to small particles.)  Broken  into  smaB
 pieces:  applied to fractures.
  Catacera'stica.  (From xaraxtpavvvpi,  to  mix
 together.)  Medicines  which obtund the acrimony of
 humours, by mixing with them and reducing them.
  CATACLIDE'SIS.   (From xafrxXifaw, to indulge
 in delicacies.)  A gluttonous indulgence in sloth and
 delicacies, to the generation of diseases.
  CATACIIR1 S.MA.   An ointment.
  CATACHR1 STON.  ..From xalaxptv, to anoint.)
 An ointment.
  CATA'CLASIS.  (From xalaxXam, to break, or dis-
 tort.)  Distorted eyelids.
  CA TACLEIS.  (From  ka7a, beneath, and kXus,
 the clavicle.)  Catacleis. The subclavicle, or first rib,
 which is  placed immediately under the  clavicle.
  CATACLl'NES.  (From ko^okXivu, to lie down.)
 One who, by disease, is fixed to his bed.
  CATA'CLISIS.  (From Ku7a(c\iyw, to lie Jown.)  A
 lying down.  Also incurvation.
  CATACLY'SMA.  (From koJokXv?io, to wash.)  A
clyster.
  CATACLY'SMUS.   (From kiJojcXvIu, to wash.)
 1. An embrocation.
2.  A dashing of water upon any
Catacrk'mnos.  (From ica7a, ar
                                part.
                           ,_, and xpvpvos, a preci
pice.)  Hippocrates means, by this word, a swoln and
inflamed throat, from the exuberance of the pans.
  CVTACRU'SIS.  (From Kalaxoonto, to drive back.)
A revulsion of humours. 
CAT
CAT
    Catadoule''sis.  (From  xalalovXow,  to enslave.)
  Ihe subduing of passions, as in a phrensy, or fever.
    CAT/EGIZE SIS.  (From xojaiyifa, to repel.)  A
  revulsion or rushing back of humours, or wind in ihe
  intestines.
    CAT^EONE'SIS.  (From «a7aior-£W,  to irrigate.)
  Irrigation  by a  plentiful affusion of liquor on some
  part of the body.
    -JATA'GMA.   (From xa7a, aud ayto, to break.)  A
  fracture.   Galen says a solution of the bone is called
  catagma, and elcos is  a solution of the continuity of
  the rfesh: Dial when it happens to a cartilage, it has
  no name, though Hippocrates calls it catagma.
    Catagma tica.  (From Ka~]aypu, a fracture.)  Ca-
  lagmaiics.  Remedies which promote ihe formation of
  callus.
    Cataoo'ge. (From «ra7ayouai, lo abide.)  The seat
  or region of a disease or part.
    Catagyio'sis.   (From ica7ayc«ou»,  to debilitate.)
  An imbecility and enervation of Ihe strength  and
  limbs.
    CATALE'PSIS.  (From xaJaXapSavu, to seize, to
  hold.)   Catvche;   Catochus; CongHatio, Detentio;
  Encatalepsis; by Hippocrates, Aphonia; by Anligenes,
  Anaudia; by Cieliusi Aurelianus,  Apprehensw,  Op-
  trcssio; Comprehensio; Carus eatalepsia of  Good;
  Apoplexia cataleptica of Cullen. Catalepsy. A sudden
  suppression of motion and sensation, the body remani-
  ng in the same posture that it was in when seized.
    Dr. Cullen says, he has never seen the catalepsy ex-
  eept when counterfeited; and is of opinion, thai many
  if those cases related by other authors, have also been
  eouuterfeiied.  It is said to come on suddenly, being
  mly preceded by some languor of body and mind, and
  <o return by paroxysms.  The patients are said to be
  ("or some minutes, sometimes (though rarely) for some
  .lours,  deprived   of  their senses, and  all power of
  voluntary motion ; but constantly retaining  the posi-
  iioti  in which they were first seized, whether lying or
  silling;  and if the limbs be put into any other posture
  during the fit, they will keep the posture in which they
  are placed.  When they recover  from the paroxysm,
  :i:ey remember nothing of what passed during the lime
  of it, but are like persons awakened out of a sleep.
    Catalo'tica.   (From Ka]aXoaio, to grind down.)
  Medicines to soften and make smooth the  rough edges
  and  crust of cicatrices.
    CATA'LYSLS.  (KariXvoif. from xaraXvto, to dis-
  solve or destroy.)  It signifies a palsy, or such a reso-
  lution as happens before the death of ihe patient;  also
  lhat dissolution which constitutes death.
   CATAMARA'SMUS. (From xafapapaivu, to grow
  thin.)  1. An emaciation of the body.
   2.  The resolution of tumours.
   CATAMASSE'SIS.  (From xa]apaaao^at, to man-
 ducate.)  The grinding ofthe teeth, and biting ofthe
 tongue;  common in epilepsy.
   CATAME'NIA.  (Catamenia,  orum, neut. pleur.;
 from  ica7a, according lo, and pjjv, the month.)  Menses.
 The monthly discharge from the uterus of females, be-
 tween the ages of  14 and 45.  Many have questioned
 whether this discharge arose from a mere rupture of
 vessels, or whether it was owing to a secretory action
 There can be little doubt of  the  truth of the  latter.
 The secretory organ is composed  of the arterial ves-
 sels situated in the fundus of the uterus.  The dissec-
 tion of women, who have died during the time of their
 menstruating,  proves this. Sometimes, though very
 rarely, women, during  pregnancy, menstruate; and
 when this happens, the discharge takes place  from  tho
 arterial vessels of the vagina.   During pregnancy and
 lactation, wnen me person is in good health, the cata-
 menia, for the most part, cease to flow.   The quantity
 a female menstruates at each time  is very various; de-
 pending  on climate, and a variety of other  circum-
 stances.  It is commonly in England from five lo  six
 ounces; it rarely exceeds eight.  Its duration is  from
 three  to four, and sometimes, though rarely, five days
 With respect to the nature of the  discharge, it differs
 very much from pure blood;  it never coagulates; but
 is sometimes grumous, and membranes I ike the decidua
are formed in difficult menstruations: in some women
it always smells rank and peculiar; in others it is ino-
dorous.  The use of this monthly secretion is said to
be to render the uterus fit for the conception and nutri-
tion of the fefctus; therefore girls rarely conceive before
the catamenia appear, and women rarely after  their
  entire cessation ;  but very easily soon after menstna-
  lion.
    Catana'nce.   Succory.
    CATANi'rHTins.   '.From   xalnviirju,   to  wash
  Washed, or scoured.  L's, d by Hippocrates of a diat
  rhotea washed and cleansed by boiled milk.
    Catantle'm v.  (From «,r7.ii/7Aaui, to pour upon.1  .1
  lotion by infusion of water, or medicated fluids.
    Cvtantle'sis.    \ medicated fluid.
    CATAPA  SM A.  (Erom Karanaovto,  to sprinkle.,
  Catapastum; Conspcrsio; F.pipaston; Pasma ; Syn
  pas ma; Aspersio; Aspergo.   The ancient Greek phy-
  sicians meant by this, any dry medicine  reduced  lo
  powder,  lo be sprinkled on the body.  Their various
  forms and uses may be seen in Paul of Egina, lib. vn.
  cap. xiii.
    CATAPAU'SIS.  (From Kajairavto, to rest, or cease.)
  That rest or cessation from pain wliich proceeds from
  the resolution nf uneasy tumours.
    CATAPE'LTES.  (From xafja, against, and zzcXni,
  a shield.)  1. This word means a sling, a granado, or
  battery.
   2.  It was  formerly used to  signify the medicii..-
  wliich heals the wounds and bruises made by such u:i
  instrument.
   CATA'PHORA.  (From KaTutpcoo), to make sleepy.)
  A  preiernatural propensity to  sleep ;  a mild apoplexy ;
  a species of  Dr. Good's  Cams Lethargus; remissive
  lethargy.
   Cataphra'cta.   (From Kof]aq)pacrcru), to fortify.)   V
  bandage  on theiborax.
   CATAPLA'SMA. (Cataplasms, matis. neut.; from
  KalaicXaacrto,  to spread like  a plaster.)  A poullir?.
  The  following are among the most useful:—
   Cataplasm a acetos.e. Sorrel poultice. The leav^
  are to be beaten in a mortar into a pulp. A good appli-
  cation to scorbutic ulcers.
   Cataplasma aeratum. See Cataptasma fermen'
   Cataplasm a aluminis.    This application  was
  formerly  used to inflammation of the eyes, which wt>=i
  kept up from weakness of the vessels; it is now seldom
  used, a solution of alum being mostly substituted.
   Cataplasma conii.  Hemlock  poultice.  R. Cori
  foliorum  exsiccatorum 3j.  Aquae fontanre, tbij.  To
  be boiled fill only a  pint remains, when as much lin
  seed-meal as necessary is to be added.  This is an ex-
  cellent application to many cancerous and scrofulous
  ulcers, and other malignant ones; frequently producir.j;
 great diminution ofthe pain of such diseases, and im-
 proving  their appearance.  Justamond preferred t'-e
 fresh herb bruised.
   Cataplasma cumini.  Take of cumin  seeds, one
 pound; bay-berries,  the  leaves of water germander
 dried, Virginia snake-root, of each three oifnces; cloves,
 oneouncc; with honey equal to thrice the weightof the
 powder formed: of these make a cataplasm.  It was for-
 merly called TheriacaLondinensis. This is a warm and
 stimutaiing  poultice, and was  formerly much used as
 an  irritating  antiseptic  application  to  gangrenors
 ulcers, and the like.  It is now seldom ordered.
  Cataplasma dauci.  Carrot poultice.  tteV. Radic-.
 dauci rccentis, tbj.   Bruise it in a mortar into a pul.i.
 Some, perhaps, with  reason, recommend ihe carrots to
 be  first boiled.  The carrot poultice is employed ,-s
 an  application to  ulcerated cancers, scrofulous sores
 of an irritable kind,  and various inveterate maligna it
 ulcers.
  Cataplasma fermenti.  Yest cataplasm.  Tare
 of flour a pound ;  yest half a pint.  Mix and ex no,  re
 to a gentle heat, until the mixture begins to rise.  Th'.<
 is a celebrated application in  cases of slougnmg and
 mortification.
  Cataplasma ruct. This is prepared by bruising a
 quantity of the marine plant, commonly called se:i
 tang,  which is afterward to be  applied by way of a
 poultice.   Its  chief use is in cases of scrofula, white
 «uellings, and glandular tumours more  especially.
 When this vegetable cannot be obtained in its recent
state,  a common poultice of sea-water and oatmeal
has been subtttiiled by tlie late Mr. Hunter, and other
surgeons of eminence.
  Catap-asma lini.  Linseed poultice,   ft Farinae
lini, Ibss.   Aquae ferventis, ftjss.  The powder is to be
gradually  sprinkled  into  the  water,  while they are
quickly blended together wilh  a spoon. This is the
best and most convenient of all emollient poultices for
common cases, and  has, in a great measure, super
                                        197 
i,AT
CAT
ceded the bread and milk one, so much in use for-
merly.
  Cataplasma plumbi acetatis. Be. Liquoris plumbi
acer.. is  3j   Aquae distill, lbj.  Micae panis, q. s.
»..see   Practitioners, who place much  confidence in
me virtues of lead, often use this poultice in cases of
inflammation
  Cataplasma sinapkos.  See  Cataplasma sinapis.
  Cataplasma sinapis.   Mustard cataplasm.  Take
nf mustard-seed, linseed, of each powdered half a
l.ound;  boiling vinegar,  as  much  as  is  suflicient.
Mix until it acquires the consistence of a cataplasm.
  CATAPLE'XIS.   (From xaia, and  zzyijoaio,  to
strike.)  Any sudden stupefaction, or deprivation of
►onsation,  in any  of the members, or organs.
  Catapo'sis. (From itara7riv(j, lo  swallow down.)
According to Aretaeus, it signifies the instruments of
deglutition.
  Catapo'tium.   (KarairoTiov; from  xarairivu, to
iv allow down.*)  A pill.
  CATAPSY'XIS.  (From ipvxf), to refrigerate.)  A
coldness, or dullness, without shivering, either univer-
sal, or of some particular part.
  CATAPTO'SIS.  (From xaraiwrru, to fall down.)
-' falling down.  1. Such as happens in apoplexy.
  2. The falling down of a limb from palsy.
  CATAPU'TlA.  (From KaTjairvOto, lo have  an ill
savour; or from the Italian, cacapuzza, which has the
same  meaning;  so named  from  ils  foetid smell.)
Spurge.
  Cataputia major.  See Ricinus.
  CaTapittia minor. See Euphorbia Lathyris.
  CATARACTA.  (From Karapar/rjci), to confound or
t'.isturb: because  the sense of vision is confounded, if
not destroyed.)  A cataract;  a disease of the eye.
■ 'ttropsis cataracta of Good.  The  Caligo  lentis of
Cullen.  Hippocrates calls it yXauicuiiia.  Galen, viro-
vuin.  The Arabians, gutta opaca.  Celsus, suffusio.
it is a species of blindness, arising almost always from
an opacity of the crystalline lens, or  its capsule, pre-
venting  the rays of light passing  to the optic nerve.
It commonly begins with a dimness of sight;  and this
generally continues  a considerable  time before  any
opacity can  be observed in the lens.  As the disease
advances,  the opacity becomes sensible, and tlie patient
imagines there are particles of dust, or motes, upon the
rye, or in  the air, which are called musca volitantcs.
This opacity gradually increases till the person  cither
becomes entirely blind, or can merely distinguish light
from  darkness.  The disease  commonly comes on
rapidly, though sometimes  its progreess is  slow  and
gradual.   From  a transparent state, it  changes to u
perfectly white, or light gray colour.   In some very
tare instances, a black cataract is found.  The con-
sistence also varies, being at one  time hard, at another
entirely dissolved.  When the opaque lens is  either
more indurated than in the natural state, or retains a
: ilerable degree of firmness, the  case Is termed  a firm
i r  hard cataract.  When the  substance of  the lens
• -rins lo be converted into a whitish or  other kind of
fluid, lodged in the capsule, the case is denominated a
milky or fluid cataract.  When  the substance is of a
middling consistence, neither hard nor fluid, but  about
; $  consistent as a thick jelly,  or curds, the case is
i.amecl a soft or caseous cataract.  When the anterior
or posterior  layer of the crystalline  capsule becomes
opaque, after the  lens itself has been removed from this
I'ttle  membraneous  sac, by a previous operation, the
infection is named a secondary membraneous cataract.
'''here are many  other distinctions made by authors.
Cataract is  seldom  attended with pain; sonietimes,
,'ioweM-r,  every exposure to light cieatcs uneasiness,
owing probably to the inflammation at the bottom of
the eye.  The real cause of cataract is not yet well
i-nderstood.   Numbers of authors consider it as pro-
etutiling from it preternatural contraction of the vessels
of  the lens, arising from  some external violence,
i"i>ueh more commonly from some internal and  occult
i   ije.  The cataracta  is distinguished from  gutta
s=.-ri-n,i, by the pupils in the latter beiiiK never affected
with light, and from no opacity  being obM-rvcd  in the
"-us.  It is distinguished lrom  hypopyon, staphyloma,
i'i' any otlier disease in the forepart of the eye, by the
evident marks which these affections produce, ns well
•«  by the  pain attending  their beginning.   But it is
difficult to determine when the opacity is in the lens,
or in its capsule   If the retina (which is on expansion
      198
of the optic nerve in the inside.of the e>c; be not dis
eased, vision may, in most cases, be restored, by eithel
depressing the diseased lens, which is termed couch-
ing, or extracting it.
  C AT A R RIIE U' M A.  (From xalapptio,  to flow
from.)  A defluxion of humours from the  air-pas
sages.
  CATARRHE'XIS.  (From Ka^appnywot, to  burst
out.)   A  violent  and copious eruption or effusion .
joined with AoiXiac, it  is a copious evacuation froni
the belly,  and sonietimes alone it is of the same signi-
fication.   Vogel applies it to a discharge of pure blood
from  the intestines, such as takes place in dysentery
  CATARRHCECCS.  (From xafappcio, to flow froin.j
A disease proceeding from a discharge of phlegm.
  CATA'RRHOPA.  (From xafaaptw, to flow down.)
Tubercles tending downward; or, as  Galen states,
those that have their  apex on  a depending part have
received this appellation.
  CATA'RRHOPOS.  (Karappoiros vovaos-) A remis-
sion  of the disease, or its decline, opposed to  the
paroxysm.
  CATARRHUS.   (From Kalappm, to flow down.)
Coryia.   A catarrh. An  increased secretion of mu-
cus from  the  membranes  of the nose, fauces,  and
bronchia,  with fever,  and attended with sneezing,
cough, thirst, lassitude,  and want of appetite.  It is a
genus of disease in the class Pyrexia, and order Pro-
fluvia of Cullen.  There are two species  of  catarrh
viz. eatarrhus ii frigore, which is very common, and
is called a cold in the head; and eatarrhus d contagio,
the influenza, or epidemic catarrh, wliich  sometimes
seizes a whole city.  Catarrh is also symptomatic of
several other diseases.  Hence we have the eatarrhus
rubeolosus; tussis  variolosa, verminosa, calculosa,
phthisica,  hysterica,a dentitions, gravidarum, metalli
colarum, Sec
  Catarrh is seldom fatal, except in scrofulous Iwibit*,
by laying the foundation of phthisis; or where it is
aggravated by improper treatment, or repeated expo-
sure to cold, into some degree of peripneumony; when
there is hazard of the patient, particularly if advanced
in life, being suffocated by the copious effusion of vis-
cid matter into the  air-passages.   The epidemic is
generally, but  not invariably, more  severe than  the
common  form of the disease.  The latter is  usually
left to subside spontaneously, which will commonly
happen in a few days,  by observing the antiphlogistic
regimen.  If there should be fixed pain of the chest,
with  any  hardness of the pulse, a little blood may be
taken from the arm, or topically, followed by a blister:
the bowels must be kept regular, and diaphoretics ex-
hibited, with demulcents  and mild opiates to quiet
tlie cough.  When the disease hangs about  tlie patient
in a chronic form, gentle tonics and expectorants  are
required, as myrrh, squill, &c. In the epidemic catarrh
more active evacuations are often required, the lumrs
being more seriously affected; but though these should
be promptly employed,  they must  not be carried  too
far, the disease  being apt to assume the typhoid cha-
racter in its progress; and as the chief danger appears
to be  of suffocation happening from the cause above-
mentioned, it is especially important to promote  ex-
pectoration, first by antimontals, afterward  by squill,
the inhalation of steam, &c. not neglecting  to  support
the strength of the patient as the disease advances.
  Catarrhus  a prioorb.  The common defluxion
from  the head from cold.
  Catarrhus a contaoio.  The influenza.
  Catarrhus  bcllinsi lanus.   Mumps.  See  (\
nanche parotidaa.
  Catarrhus sufpocativi-s.  The  croup   Bee  Cy
nanche trachealis.
  Catarrhus vesica.  A discharge of mucus from
the bladder.
  Catarrti'smvs.   (From Ka7ap7<?<*i to make  per
feet.  According to Galen, it is a translation of a bone
from  a preternatural to its natural situation.
  CATASA'RCA.  (From *a7a and oap\,  flesh.)  See
Anasarca.
  CATASBE'STIS.   (From «:a7a  and e€evvvpi, to
extinguish.)  The resolution of tumours without sup-
puration.
  CATASCHA'SMUS.  (From *a7aoxa|u,  to  sea
"iv)   Scarification.
  CAT ASEPSIS.  (From  <to7o, and eei*>, tc  shakt.j
A concussii'ii. 
CAT
CAT
  CATASPA'SMA. 'From xalacnrau, to draw back-
wards.)  A icvulsionorretractionothumours.orparts
  CATASTA'GMOS.  (From *a7a, and j-agw, to dis-
til.t  The name which tlie Greeks, in the lime of
Celsus, bad  for distillation.
  CATASTA'LTICUS.   (From KaraoreXXm, to  re-
strain, or contract.)   Stvptic, astringent, repressing.
  CAT A STASIS.   Kuruarauij.  The constitution,
state, or condition of any thing.
  Cata tasis.   (From Kalaruvio, to extend.)   In
Hippocrates it  means the  extension  of a fractured
limb, or a discolated one, in order to replace it.  Also
the actual replacing il in a proper situation.
  CATA X1S.   (From Kajayio, to break.)  A  frac-
ture.  Also a division of pails by an instrument
  Gate.  See Acacia catechu.
  CATEC1H) MENUS.  (From Kalrxf, to resist.)
Resisting and making ineffectual the lemedies which
have been applied or given.
  CATECHU.  (It is said, that, in the Japanese lan-
guage, kate signifies a tree, and cliu, juice.)  See Aca-
?ia Catechu.
  CATEIA'DION.   (From Kara, and aa, a blade of
;rass.)  An  instrument mentioned by Aretu-us, having
at the end a blade of grass, or  made like a  blade of
grass, winch was thrust into the nostrils to provoke a
haemorrhage when the head ached.
  CATELLIS.  (Dim. of catulus, a whelp.)  LA
roung whelp.
  2.  Also a chemical instrument called a cupel, which
ivas formerly in the shape of a dog's head.
  CATH-E RESIS.  (From xaOatpui, to lake away.)
I. The subtraction  or  taking away any part or  thing
rrom the body
  2.  Sometimes it means an evacuation, and Hippo-
crates uses it for such
  3. A consumption of  the  body, as happens without
manifest evacuation.
   Cath^re'tica.   (From xadaipuj, to take away.)
Medicines which consume or remove superfluous ffesh.
   CATHA'RMA.   (From xaOaipui, to remove.)   The
exciements, or humours, purged off from the body.
   Catha'rmus.  (From xadatpu), io remove.)  1. A
purgation ofthe excrements, or humours.
   2  A cure by incantation, or the royal touch.
   Catha'rsia.   (From xadatpto, to purge.)   Medi-
cines which have a purging property.
 «,CATHA'RSIS.    (From KaOatpto,  to take away.)
Purgation of the excrements, or humours, either me-
dically or naturally.
   CATHA'RTIC.   (Catharticus ; from xaBaipoi, to
purge.)  That which,  taken internally, increases  the
number of alvine evacuations.  These medicines have
received many appellations: purgantia ; catocataar-
tica ; catoretica; caloteretica ; dejectoria ; alviduca.
The different articles referred to this class are divided
into five orders.
   1. Stimulating cathartics, as jalap, aloes, bitter ap-
ple, and croton  oil,  which are well calculated to dis-
charge accumulations of serum, and are mostly select-
ed for indolent and  phlegmatic habits, and those who
are hard to purge.
  2. Refrigerating  cathartics, as sulphate of soda,
supertartrate of potassa, &c.  These are better adapt-
ed for plethoric habits, and those with an inflamma-
tory diathesis.
   3. Adstringent cathartics, as rhubarb and damask
roses, which are mostly given to  tliose whose bowels
are weak and irritable, and subject to diarrhoea.
   4. Emollient cathartics, as manna, malva, castor oil,
and olive oil, which muy be given in preference to
other cathartics, to  infants and the very aged.
   5. Narcotic cathartics, as tobacco, hyoscyamus, and
digitalis.  This order is never given but to the very
strong and indolent, and to maniacal patients, as their
operation is very powerful.
   Murray, in his Materia Medica, considers the differ-
ent cathartics under the two divisions of laxatives and
purgatives;  the former being mild in their operation,
and merely evacuating the contents of the intestines;
the latter  being more  powerful, and even  extending
their stimulant operation to the neighbouring parts.
The following  he  enumerates among the principal
laxatives:—manna, Cassia fistula, Tamariudus indica,
Ricinus communis.  Sulphur,  Magnesia.   Under  the
head of purgatives, he names Cassia senna, Rheum
palmatum, Convolvulus jalapa, He.Ueborus niger.Brvo-
nia alba, Cucumis colocynthis, Momordica elaicrium,
Rhamnus catharticus, Aloe perfoliata,  Convolvulus
scanimonia, Gambjgia, Submurius hydrargyii, Sul
phas magnesia, Sulphas sodare, Sulphas potassa.-, Su-
p.ertartias potassa-, Tarlras potassae, Tartras potussae
et sods, Phosphas sodie, Murias sodae Terebinlhina
veneta, Nicotiaua tabacum. *
  Cathartic Glaubers salt.  See Soda sulphas.
  Cathartic Salt.  See  Sulphas magnesia, and Sul
phas snitt.
  CATIIARTIN !■'..   A substance of a reddish colour,
a peculiar smell, and a bitter nauseous taste, soluble
in water and alkohol, but insoluble in aether; obtained
by Lassaigue and Fenuelle from the leaves of senna.
  CATHKDRA.    (From  KtiOelopat, to sit.)   The
anus, or rather, the whole of the bullocks, as being the
part on wliich we sit.
  Catiiere'tu a.  (From «aOa<pw, to remove.)   Cor
rosives.    Applications which,  by  corrosion, remove
superfluous flesh.
  CATHETER.  (Catheter, tens.  in. Kadcn.p; from
xadtnpi, to thrust into.)  A long and hollow lube, that
is iutioduccd by surgeons into  ihe urinary bladder, to
remove the urine, when the person is unable  to pass
it.  Catheters are either made  of silver or of the elas-
tic gum.  That for the male urethra  is much  longer
than that for the  female, and so curved,  if made of
silver, as lo adapt itself to the urethra.
  CATHETERI SMl'S. (From Kadtrnp, a catheter.)
The operation of introducing the catheter.
  CATHI'DRYSIS.   (From xadiiyvm, to  place to
gelher.)   The reduction of a fracture, or operation of
selling a broken bone.
  Ca'thma.  A name for, litharge.
  Ca'thodos. (From Kara, and o5os)  A descent of
humours.
  Catho'lceus.  (From Kara, and  oXkuo, to draw
over.)   An oblong fillet, made to draw over and cover
the whole bandage of the head.
  CATHO'LICoN.   (From Kara, and  oXikos, uni-
versal.)  A universal medicine: formerly applied io a
medicine, that was supposed to purge all the humours.
  [" CATHRAL, Isaac, M. D., was a native of Phila-
delphia, and studied medicine  under the direction of
the late Dr. John Redman, the  preceptor of Rush and
Wistar.  After acquiring all the instruction in his pro-
fession,  which the opportunities of  Philadelphia offer-
ed, aided by a diligent attention on  his part, he visited
Europe, and attended the practice of the London hos-
pitals, and the lectures of the most distinguished pro-
fessors in that city.   During  the  pievalence of the
widely destroying epidemic fevers of 1703, '97, '98,
and '99, he remained in the city, instead of seeking
safety by flying, and was a severe sufferer by tlie dis-
ease of the first of those years. Previously to his ill
ness, and after his recovery, besides attending to prac
tice, he lost no opportunity of investigating every phe-
nomenon  connected  with that  pestilential epidemic,
which could in any manner tend to illustrate its patho-
logy, or  the  peculiarities it exhibited.  In the year
1794, he published his remarks thereon, and the mode
of treatment he pursued.   In conjunction with Dr.
Physick,  he dissected the bodies of some subjects of
the fever of 1793, in order to discover Ihe morbid effects
produced by it on the system, and in  particular refer-
ence to the nature of that singular and generally fatal
symptom, tbe dark-coloured ejection from the stomach,
in some cases ofthe disease. The result of their joint
labours was published by them, with their individual
signatures, and he afterward continued his dissections
alone, with unabating  zeal, whenever  opportunity
offered, during the subsequent  epidemics and occa-
sional appearance of the disease, which more or less
occurred for several years, until he obtained  all the
light wliich he thought disseclion and experiment could
throw upon its production and nature.   In the year
1800, he read to the American  Philosophical Society,
of which he had been elected a member, an interesting
paper on that subject.   This paper affords ample evi-
dence ofthe patient and accurate manner in which he
investigated that  hitherto inexplicable and supposed
pestilential appearance, and of his fearless zeal in the
prosecution of medical science.  It is inserted in the
5th vol. of the Transactions of tbe Society, and was
also published in pamphlet  form, of 32 pages.   A full
account of it  may be found iu the 4th volume of the
New-York Medical Repository.  He died on the 22d
                                        199 
CAU                                           CAU
 February, 1819, in the 56th year of his age, by a stroke
 of the apoplexy
  " Dr. enthrall was educated  in the religious princi-
 ples of the Society of Friends, and naturally possessed
 a grave turn of mind, and a serious deportment.  Re-
 tired in his habits, he  was shy in  making acquaint-
 ances, but firm in his friendships, and a well-bred gen-
 tleman in his manners.   In the important and endear-
 ing relations of a  son, husband, and father, he was
 truly estimable.  As a  member of  society, he set an
 example of rigid morality and inflexible integrity, attri-
 butes which every medical man ought to be proud  to
 have annexed to his character,  however distinguished
 his literary acquirements may be."— Thacher's Med.
 Biog.  A.j
  CATHY'PNIA.   (From Kara, and virvos, sleep.)  A
 profound but unhealthy sleep.
  Ca'tias.  (From xadtrjui, to place in.)  An incision
 knife, Ibrmerly used for  opening  an abscess in the
 uterus, and for extracting a dead foetus.
  Cati'llus.  See Catcllus.
  Ca'tinum alumen.  A name given to potassa.
  CA'TINUS.  Karavov.  A crucible.
  CAT-KIN.  See Amentum.
  CATMINT.  (So called, because cats are very fond
 of it.)  See Ncpeta.
  CATOCATHA'RTICA.  (From  xarto, downward,
 and KaOatpio, to purge.)  Medicines that operate by
 stool.
  Cato cue.  (From xarex^t to detain.)  See Cata-
 Icpsis.
  CATOCHEILUM.    (From koto,  beneath,  and
 XaXos, the lip.)  The lower lip.
  CATOCHUS.   (From jcarex"', to  detain.)    A
 spasmodic disease in which the body is rigidly held in
 an upright posture.
  Catomi'smus.  (From xarto, below, and topos, the
 shoulder.)  By this word, P. ^Egineta expresses a me-
 thod of reducing a luxated shoulder, by raising the
 patient over the shoulder of a strong man, that by the
 weight of the body, the dislocation may be reduced.
  CATO'PSIS.  (From KaToirropat, to see clearly.)
 An acute and quick perception.  The acuteness of the
 faculties whicli accompanies the latter stages of con-
 sumption.
  Catophyllum inophyllum.  Calaba.  The Indian
 mastich-tree.  A native of America, where the whole
 plant is considered as a resolvent and anodyne.
  Cato'pter.  (From icara, and  oirropai, to see; by
 metaphor, a probe.)  An instrument called a specu-
 lum ani.
  Catorchi'tes.  (From xara, and opxis, the orchis.)
 A wine in which the orchis root has been infused.
  Catore'tica.  (From xario, downwards, and  ptu>,
 to flow.)  Catoteretica; Catoterica.  Medicines wnich
 purge by stool.
  Catotere'tica.  See Catoretica.
  CATOTICA.   (Catoticus; from kutw, below;
 whence icaraiT£|SOc, and KaTtoraros, inferior, and infer-
 nus.)  The name of an order of the class Eccritica, in
Good's Nosology ; diseases affecting internal surfaces;
defined, pravity ofthe fluids, or  emunctories that open
into the internal surfaces of organs.  It embraces hy-
dropsis, emphysema, paruria, and lithia.
  Cats-eye.  A mineral, much valued as a precious
stone, brought from Ceylon.
  Catulo'tica.  (From xarovXoto, to cicatrize.)  Me-
dicines that cicatrize wounds.
  Catutri'pali.  A name ofthe Piper long urn.
  Uati-lus.  See Amentum.
  CAUCALIS.  (From xavxtov, a  cup; or from Sav-
KaXis, the daucus.)   1. Thenameof a family, or genus
of plants.  Class Pentandria; Order, Monogynia.
 2. Bastard parsley ; so named from the shape of  its
 flower.
  3. The wild carrot.
  CAUCALOTDES.  (From  caucalis, and  «c*oc, a
likeness , from its likeness to the flower of the cauca-
lis.)  Like unto the caucalis.  The patella is some-
times so called.
  CAU'DA.  (From cado, to fall;  because it hangs
or fulls down behind.)  A tuil.
  1. The tail of animals.                    .
  2 A name formerly given to the os coccygis, that
 being in tailed animals the beginning ot the tail.
  3 A fleshy substance, projecting from the lips ofthe
vagina, and resembling a tail, according to Ai tius.
      200
  4.  Many herbs are  called cauda, with the affixed
name of some animal, the  tail of which  the herb is
supposed to be like; as cauda equina, horse-tail; can
da muris, mouse-tail; and in many other instances.
  Cauda  equina.  1.  The  spinal marrow, at its ter-
mination about the second lumbar vertebra, gives off a
large number of nerves, which, when unravelled, re-
semble the horse's tail; hence tlie name.  See Medulla
spinalis.
  2.  See Hippuris vulgaris.
  Cauda  seminis.  The tail, or elongated, generally
feathery appendage to a seed, formed of the pernianen
style.  It  is simple, in Geranium zonale;  hairy, in
Clematis and Pulsatilla; and geniculate in Tormen-
tilla.
  Cauda'tio.  (From cauda, a  tail.)  An elongation
of the clitoris.
  CAUDATUS.  (From cauda, a tail.)  Tailed: ap-
plied to seeds which have a  tail-like  appendage; as
those of the Clematis vitalba, and Anemone sulphurea.
  CAUDEX.  (Caudex,  ids. m.)   The body of the
root  of a plant.   See Radix.
  CAUL.  1. The English name for  the omentum
See Omentum.
  2.  The  amnion, which is sometimes torn by the
child's head, passing from the uterus, and comes away
with it wholly separated from the placenta.
  Caule'don.  (From icauXoc, a stalk.)  A transverse
fracture, when the bone is broken, like the stump of a
tree.
  CAULIFLOWER.   A  species  of brassica, the
flower of whicli is cut  before the fructification ex
pands.  The observations  which have been  made
concerning cabbages are applicable here.  Cauliflower
is, however,  a far  more  delicious  vegetable.  See
Brassica capitata.
  CAULINLS.   Caulinc.   Belonging to the stem
Leaves and peduncles are so  called, which  grow on
or come immediately from, the stem.
  CAU'LIS.   (Caulis, is. m. KavXos ;  from  kalab, a
Chaldean  word.)  The stalk  or stem of herbaceous
plants.  The  characters of the stalk  are, that  it is
rarely ligneous, and lives but one or two years in the
natural state ofthe plant.
  A  plant is said to be
  Caulescent, when furnished with a stem.
  Acauline, when without  a stem;  as in  Caulina
acaulis.                                         •
  From its duration, the stem is distinguished into,
  1.  Caulus herbaceus, which perishes every  year; as
Melissa officinalis.
  •2.  Caulis suffruticosus, which  perishes half way
down every year; as Cheiranthus incanus.
  3.  Caulis frutieosus, shrubby, having many stems,
whicli do not perish in the winter; as Melissa fruti
cosa.
  4.  Caulis arborcus;  as the trunk of trees.
  From the substance, it is distinguished into,
  5.  Caulis fistulosus, hollow internally;  as  iu Ana
thum graveolens, and Allium fistulosum.
  6.  Caulis loculamentosus, hollow and divided into
cells  ; as in Angelica, Archangelica, and Phellafidruiu
aquaticum.
  7.  Caulis inanis, ormedullosus, empty or pithy;  as
in Sambucus nigra.
  8.  Caulis solidus, solid; as in Mentha and Melissa.
  9.  Caulis ligneus, woody; as Prunus spinosa.
  10. Caulis camosus, fleshy; as in Sodum arboreum,
and Slapelia hirsuta.
  II. Caulis pulposus, pulpy; as  in Mesembryanthe-
tnmn crystallinum.
  12. Caulis fibrosus, separable into  long fibres; aa
Coros nucifera.
  13. Caulis surcosus, full of a juice; as in the Eu
phorbias, and Chelidonium majus.
  From the difference of tlie surface, the taulis is said
to be
  14. Glaber, or laris, smooth, without any hairiness,
or roughness, or inequality; as Lepedium latifolium.
  15. Scaber, or asper, when it has hard inequalities;
as in Galium nperine,  nnd Lithospermum nrvense.
  16. Suberosus, corky,  as Passiflora suberosa, and
Quercus suber.
  17. Rimosus, cracky ;  as in Ulmus cnmprsirls.
  ltf. Tubcrculatus, with rough nobs;  as in Cissus III
bereulata.
  19. 'Punicatus, the cuticle peeling off spontaneous.") 
CAU
CAU
  fa large portions;  as in Betula alba, and  some of the
  Spiraeas.
    20. Striatus, having superficial  longitudinal lines;
  as in Chaerophyllum  sylvestre, Aster sibiricus, and
  Daphne mezereon.
    21. Sulcatus, furrowed, fluted, when longitudinally
  indented with long and deep hollows;  as in Celosia
  coccynea, Selinum carvifolia, Pimpinella sanguisarba,
  Doronicum pardalianches.
    22. Perfotlatus, perfoliate; as in Bupleurum nerfo-
  liatum.
    The figure affords the following dis "inctions:
    23. Caulis teres, or cylindricus, round, without an-
  gles ; as Sinapis arvensis.
    24. Semitercs, half-rounded, flat on one side; as Hy-
  acinthus orientalis, Allium descendens.
   25.  Caulis compress us, wliich implies that two sides
 of the stem are flat, and approach each other;  as  in
 Poa compressa, Lathyrus latifohus, Pancratium decli-
 natum.
   26.  Caulis anceps, two-edged; as Iris graminea, Hy-
 pericum androseinum.
   27.  Caulis angulatus, presenting several acute an-
 gles in its circumference.
   a.  Triangulatus, three-cornered; as in Cactus tri-
 angularis.
   b.  Quadrangulatus, four-cornered;  as Cactus tera-
 gonus.
   c. Quinqueangulatus; as in Cactus  pentagonus.
   d. Sexangulatus, six-cornered; as  Cactus  hexa-
 gonus.
   e. Multangulatus, many cornered; as Cactus cereus.
   28.  Caulis obtusangulatus, obtuse-angled;  as in
 Scrophularia nodosa.
   29.  Caulis acutaitgulatus, acute-angled; as in Scro-
 phularia aquatica.
   30.  Caulis triquetrus, three-sided, when  there are
 three flat sides, forming acute angles; as Hedysaruin
 triquetrum, Viola mirabilis, Carex acuta.
   31.  Caulis tetraquelius,  four-sided; as  in Hype-
 ricum quadrangulare, Monarda fistulosa, Mentha offi-
 cinalis.
   32.  Caulis membranaccus,  leaf-like; as in Cactus
 phyllanthus.
   33.  Caulis alatus, when the edges or angles expand
 into leaf-like borders; as in Onopordium  acanthium,
 and Lathyrus latifolius.
   34  Caulus articulatvs, jointed; as Cactus flagelli-
 formis, and Lathyrus sylvestris.
   35.  Caulis nodosus, knotty, divided at intervals by
 swellings; as in Scandix nodosa, Geranium nodosum.
   36.  Caulis enodus, without knot.
   From  the directions, a stem is called
   37. Rectus, erect, when it ascends almost perpendi-
 cularly ;  as the firs, Chenopodium scoparium, &c.
  38. Strictus,  straight, perfectly perpendicular; as
 Alcea Rosea.
  39. Obliquus, oblique; as the Solidago Mexicana.
  40. Ascendens, ascending, when its  lower portion
 forms a curve, the convexity of which  is towards the
 earth, or rests upon it, and the  summit rises;  as exem-
 plified in many grasses, Trifolium pratense, Hedysa-
 rum onobrychis.
  41. Descendens,  or Declinatus, the  reverse of  the
 former, forming an arch, towards the  ground; as in
 Pancratium declinatum, Ficus carica.
  42. Nutans, or cernuus, nodding, when bent towards
 the summit; as Polygonatum multiflora.
  43. Procumbens, or Prostatus, lying  on  the earth;
 as Veronica officinalis.
  44. Decumbens, rising a little, and returning to  the
 earth; as Thymus serphyltum.
  45. Repens, creeping and sending radicles into the
 ground;  as Trifolium repens, Gnaphalium repens.
  46. Flexuosis, zigzag; as  in Celestrus buxifolius,
 and solidago flexicaulis.
  47. Radicans, sending fibres which take  root in  the
 earth; as Ficus Indica.
  48. Sarmentosus, trailing, or sending off a runner,
which fixes on neig'abouring  bodies;  as the Hedera
helix.
  49  Stoloniferus,  sending  off radicating stolos; as
Agrostis  stolonifera, and Fragi ria vesca.
  50.  Scandens, climbing, furnished with tendrils; as
Solanum dulcamara, Coboea scandens.
  51.  Volubihs, twining, winding itself spirally round
    otlier plant or body.
   a. Dextrorsum, when from right to left;  as Phaseo-
  lus liiujiiflorus, and Convolvulus.
   b. Sinistrorsum, in the opposite direction, or follow-
  ing the apparent motion of the sun; as the Lonicera
  poriclemmuin, and Humulus lupulus.
   52. Laxus,  bent  by the lightest wind; as Secale
  sereale, and Juncus bufonius.
   53. Rigidus, breaking when lightly bent; as Boer
  haavia scandens.
   When clothed with any kind of appendage, the stem
  is designated by a term expressive of this; thus,
   54. Caulis foliosus, when leafy; as Melissa offici
  nalis.
   55. Caulus aphyllus, when without leaves; as As
  phodelus fistulosus.
   56. Caulus squamosus,  scaly;  as the Orobranche
  major.
   57. Caulis stipulatus, when furnished with stipulx;
  as Cystus helianthemum, and Geranium terebinthina
  ceum.
   58. Caulis imbricatus, tiled or covered  with little
  leaves or scales; as Crassula imbricata, Aloe viscosa.
   59. Caulus vaginatus, sheathed, embraced by the
  base of a leaf as by a sheath; as Canna indica, Arundo
  donux.
   60. Caulis bulbifcrus, bulb-bearing, when studded
  with bulbs in the axilla of the leaves;  as Lilium bul-
  biferum.
   61. Caulis nudus, naked, without leaf, scale, or other
 covering;  as Cuscuta europea.
   From its mode of branching, into
   62. Caulis simplex, having few branches; as Cam
 panula perfoliata, Verbascum thapsus.
   63. Caulis  simplicissimus, without branches;  as
 Orobanche americana and major,  Campanula barbata.
   64. Caulis prolifer, giving off branches only from
 the tops ofthe former ; as the Dracena draco.
   65. Caulis dichotomus, forked,  always divided into
 pairs; as in  Horanthus europaeus and Valeriana lo-
 custa.
   66.  Caulis ramosus, branched; as Rosmarinus offi-
 cinalis.
   67. Caulis ramossissimus,  having many branches;
 as Chenopodium scoparia, Uhnus, Grossularia, &c.
   68. Caulis paniculatus, paniculate;  as in Crambe
 tataria.
   From the pubescence and armature, or defences, into
   69. Caulis spinosus, when furnished  wilh sharp
 spines; as Prunus spinosa, and Mespilus oxyacantha
   70. Caulis aculeatus,  prickly, when  covered with
 sharp-pointed bodies; as Rosa centifolia and elegan-
 terea.
   71. Caulis cetaceus, bristly, when the armature con
 sists of brushes of minute bristles;  as Cactus flagelli
 formis.
   72. Caulis  ramentaceus, ramentaceous; as in Erica
 rainentacea.
   73. Caulis pilosus, hairy, the pubescence consisting
 of long hairs;  as  Ilieiaccum pilocella, Salvia pra
 tensis.
   74. Caulis  muricatus, or hispidus, when  the hairs
 are stiff or bristly;  as Borago officinalis, and Echiura
 vulgare.
   75. Caulis  tomentosus, downy, soft to the  touch,
 like down; as Verbascum thapsus, and Geranium ro-
 tundifolium.
   76. Caulis  villosus, shaggy; as Stachys germanica,
 and Veronica villosa.
  77. Caulis  lanatus, woolly, when the hairs are long
 and matted;  as in Stachys lanata, and Ballota lannta.
  78. Caulis  scricus, silky, when the hairs are shining
 and silky.
  Instead of  pubescence, the covering is in some in-
 stances either a dry powdery, or  a moist, excretion j
 and hence, the stem is denominated either
  79. Incanus, or pruinosus, when covered with a fine
 white dust; as the Artiplex portulacoidis.
  80.  Farmosus, mealy;  as the Primula farinosa.
  81.  Glaucus, of a sea-green colour; as Ricinus offi
cinalis.
  82.  Viscidus, viscid, covered with a resinous exuda-
tion;  as Siline viscosa.
  83.  Glutinosus,  glutinous,  when the exudation ia
adhesive and soluble in  water; as in Primula gui
tinosa.                               ,
  The primary division of a stem is into lateral stcvi-
or branches.  These are variously denominated 
CAU
CEL
   From their situation, into
   84. Opposite, when one branch stands on the oppo-
 site side of the stem to another, and tlieir bases are
 nearly on the same plane; as in Mentha arvensis.
   85. Alternate, one opposite to another, alternately;
 as Althaea officinalis.
   86. Verticillated, when  more  than  two  proceed
 from a centre, like the spokes of a wheel; as Pinus
 abies.                 *■
   87. Scattered, when given off from the stem in any
 indeterminate manner.
   From  their direction,  the branches,  or rami, are
 termed,
   88. Patentes, spreading, when the angle formed by
 tlie branch and the  upper part of  the siem is obtuse:
 as in Galium mollugo, and Cestus italicus.
   89. Patcntissimi, proceeding at  a right  angle  from
 the stem, or horizontally; as Ammania ramosior, and
 Asparagus officinalis.
   90. Brachiati, biachiate,  spread in four directions,
 crossing each  other alternately in pairs;  as Syringa
 vulgaris, and Panisteria brachiata.
   91. Dcfiexi, bending downward from the stem, in an
 arched or curved direction;  as Pinus larix.
   92. Refiexi, hanging almost perpendicularly from tlie
 stem; as Salix babylunica.
   93. Retrofiexi, turned  backward; as in Solanum
 dulcamara.
   94. Introfiexi, bent inward, when the tops bend to-
 wards the slem; as Populus dilatata.
   95. Fasligiati, when the tops of the branches,  from
 whatever part of the stem  they spring, rise nearly to
 the same  height; as Chrysanthemum corymbosum,
 and Dianthus barbatus.
   96. Vigati, weak and long; as Salix viminalis.
   97. Appressi, approximated, when nearly  parallel
 and close to the stem; as  Genista tinctoria.
   98. Fulcrate, supported, when  they  project nearly
 horizontally, and give out  root-like shoots from the
 under side, whicli, extending until they reach the
 ground, take root, and serve as props to the branches;
 as in the banyan-tree, or Ficus religibsus.
   Caulis  Florida.  Cauliflower.
   Caulo'dks.   (From xavXos, a slem.)   The white or
 green cabbage.
   Caulo'tom.   (From xavXos,  a stem; because it
 grows upon a stalk.)  A name given to the beet.
   CAU'MA. (Kavpa, heat; from xaiio, to burn.)  The
 heat of the body in a fever.
   2. The heat of the atmosphere, in a fever.
   3. The name given by Good and Young, to an in-
 flammatory lever.
   Cau'noa. A name ofthe areca.
   CAU'SIS.   (From xaiw, to  burn.)   A burn; or
 rather, the act of combustion, or burning.
   CAUSO'DES.  (From xaito, to  burn.)   A term ap-
 plied by Celsus to a burning fever.
   CAUSO'MA.  (From icaiu), to  burn.) An ardent or
 burning heat and inflammation.  A term used by Hip-
 pocrates.
  .CAUSTIC.  See  Causticum.
   Caustic alkali.  The pure  alkalies  are so called.
 See Alkali.
   Caustic barley.  See Cevadilla.
   Caustic lunar.  See Argenti nitras.
   Caustic volatile alkali.  See Ammonia.
   CAUSTICUM.   (From xatio,  to burn; because  it
 always produces a burning sensation.)  A caustic.  A
 substance which has so strong u tendency to combine
 with organized substances', as to destroy their texture.
 See Escharotic.
   Causticim ameuicanum. The ccvadilla.  See Ve-
 ratrum sabadilla.
   Caustiitm  antimomale.  Muriate of antimony,
   Caustu i m armemcai.K.  See Arsenical caustic.
  Causticum  commune portius.  See Potassa cum
 calce.
   Cai siiruM lunare.  See Argenti nitras.
   < Al SUS.  (From naiio,  to burn.) A highly ardent
 fever.  According to Hippocrates, a fiery heat,  insa-
 tiable thirst, a  rough and black tongue, complexion
 yellowish, and tlie saliva bilious, are its peculor cha-
 racteristics. Others also  are particular in describing
 It; but, whether ancients or moderns, from what they
 relate, this  fe\ er is no other than a continued ardent
fever in a bilious constitution.   In it the  heat of the
 body is Intense; tho breath is particularly fiery; the
      iiU-l
extremities are cold; the pulse is frequent and small
the heat is more violent internally than externally
and the whole soon ends in recovery or death.
  CAUTERY.   (Cauterium,  from Katui, to burn.)
Cauteries were divided, by the ancienls, into actual
and potential; but the term is now given only to the
red-hot iron, or actual cautery.  This was formerly the
only means of preventing hoemorrhages from divided
arteries, till the invention of the ligature.  It was also
used in diseases, with the same view as«we  employ a
blister.  Potential cautery was the name by whicli
kali  purum, or  potassa, was distinguished  in former
dispensatories.  Surgeons of the present day under-
stand, by this term, any caustic application.
  CA'VA.  See  Cavus.
  CAVE'RNA.  (From cavus, hollow.)  A cavern
The  pudendum muliebre.
  CAVIARE.   Caviarium.  A food made of the hard
roes of sturgeon, formed into a soft mass, or into cakes,
and much esteemed by the Russians.
  Cavi'cula.  (Diminutive of cavilla.)  See Cavilla.
  Cavi'lla.   (From cavus.)  The ankle, or hollow
of the foot
  CAVITY. (Cavitas, from caieu*, hollow.)  1. Any
cavity, or hollowness.
  2.  The auricle of the  heart  was formerly called
cavitas innominata, the hollow without a name.
  CAVUS. Hollow. l.The nameof a vein, vena cava.
See Veins.
  2.  Applied  to  the roots of plants; as lhat of the
Fumaria cava.
  Cawk.  A term by which the miners distinguish tlie
opaque specimens of sulphate of barytes.
  Cayenne pepper.  See Capsicum.
  Cazabi.  See Jatropha.
  CEANO'THUS. (From KtavaSos, quia xui axioSev,
because it pricks at the extreme part.)  A genus oi
plants  in the Linnaean system.  Class, Pentandria,
Order, Monogynia.
  Ceanothus americanus.   Celastrus;  Cclastus
Some noted Indians depend more on this plant,  than
on the lobelia, for the cure of syphilis, and  use  it in
the same manner as lobelia.
  Cea'sma.  (From xtio, to split, or divide.)  Ccasmus
A fissure, or fragment.
  Ce'ber.  (Arabian.) The Lignum aloes.  Also tlie
capparis.
  Ceripi'ra.  (Indian.)  A tree which grows in Bra-
zil, decoctions of the bark of wliich arc used in baths
and  fomentations, to relieve  pains in the limbs, and
cutaneous diseases.
  CEDAR.   See Pinus cedrus
  Ce'dma.   (From xciaia, to disperse.)  A defluxion,
or rheumatic affection, of the ports about the hips.
  Ce'drinum lignum.  See Pinus cedrus.
  Cedri'tks.  (From. Ktipos, tlie cedar-tree.)  Wine
in which the resin which distils from the cedar-tree
has been steeped.
  CE'DRIUM.   1. Cedar, or cedar-tree
  2.  Common tar, in old writings.
  Cedrome'la.  The fruit of the citron-tree.
  Cedrone'lla.  Turkey baum.
  Cedro'stis.   (From  Ktipos,  the cedar-tree.)   A
name ofthe while bryony, whicli sniclis like the cedar.
See Bryonia alba.
  CE'DRUS.  (From Kcdron, a valley where this
tree'grows abundantly.)  See Pinus cedrus.
  Cedrus Americana.  The arbor vitae.
  Cedrus baccifera.  The savine.
  Cei'ria.   (From  xttpu, to abrade.)  The  tape
worm; so called from its excoriating  and abrading
the intestines.
  CELANDINE.  See Chelidoniummajus.
  Cela'strus.  (From wXa, a dart, which it repre-
sents.  Sec Ceanothus americanus.
  Celastus.  See Ceanothus americanus.
  CE'LE.  (From rrjAri.)  A  tumour caused by tlie
protrusion of any  soft  part.   Hence the compound
terms hydrocele, bubonocele, Sec.
  CE'LERY.  The English name for a variety of the
npium graveolens.
  CEL 11ST INF.. So  called from  its occasional deli
cate blue colour. A native sulphate of strontites.  See
Heavy spar.
  Ce lis.  (From Kami, to burn.)  A  spot or blemish
upon the skin, particularly that which is occasioneel
by a burn. 
CEN
CEl>
   Ck lla turcica.   See Sella turcica.
   CE'LLCLA.  (Diminutive of ceWa, a cell.)  A little
 tell, or cavity.
   Celh l t. mastoid.*.  See  Temporal bones.
   CELLULAR.  Cellularis.  Having little cell*.
   Cellular membrane.  Membrana cellulosa : Tela
 cellulosa;  Panniculus adiposus ; Membrana adiposa,
 pingucdinosa et reticularis.   Cellular tissue.  The
 cellular tissue of the body, composed of laminae  and
 fibres variously joined together, which is the connecting
 medium of every  part of the body.  It is by means
 of the communication of the  cells of this membrane,
 Jiat the butchers  blow  up  their veal.   The cellular
 membrane is, by some anatomists, disthiteui-lied  into
 the reticular and adipose membrane.   The former is
 evidently dispersed throughout the whole body, except
 the substance of the brain.   It makes  a  ln-d for the
 other solids of the body, covers them all, and unites
 them one to another.  The adipose membrane consists
 of the reticular substance, and a particular apparatus
 for the secretion of  oil, and  is mostly found imme-
 diately  under the  skin of many parts, and about the
 kidneys.
   CELOTO'MIA.  (From 107X17, hernia, and rcpvto, to
 cut.)  The operation for hernia.
   Ce'lsa.  A term of Paracelsus, to signify what  is
 called the live blood in any particular part
   CELSUS, Aurelius Cornelius.  Il is commonly
 supposed, that this (esteemed ancient author was a
 Roman of the Cornelian family, horn towards the end
 of the reign of Augustus, and still livina  in the time of
 Caligula.   But these  points are not  established upon
 certain  testimony, and it is even disputed whether he
 practised medicine;  thouuli his perfect acquaintance
 with  the doctrines of his predecessors, his  accurate
 descriptions of diseases, and  his  judicious  rules of
 treatment,  appear to leave litlle room for doubt on thai
 head.   At  any rate, his eight bonks, " De  Medicina,"
 have  gained him deserved celebrity in modern times,
 containing  a large fund  of valuable information; de-
 tailed  in  remarkably elegant and concise language.
 In surgery particularly he has been greatly admired,
 for tiie methods of  practice  laid down,  and for de-
 scribing several operations as they are still performed.
 There have been  numerous editions of his work, and
 translations of it into the several modern languages.
   CEMENT.  Chemists call by this name  whatever
 they employ to unite or cement things together;  as
 lutes, glues, oolders of every kind.
   CEMENTATION.   A  chemical  process, which
 consists in surrounding a body in the solid state with
 the powder of some  other  bodies, and exposing the
 whole for a  time  in  a closed vessel, to a degree of
 heat not sufficient to fuse the contents.  Thus iron  is
 converted into steel   by cementation with charcoal;
 green bottle glass  is converted into porcelain by ce-
 mentation wilh sand, 4c.
   Ceme'nterium.  A crucible.
   Ce'nchramis.  (From xeyxpof, millet.)  A grain 01
 seed of the fig.
   Ce nchrius.  A species  of herpes that resatnblci
 Kiyxnic. or  millet.
   CENEANGEl'A.   (From kcvos, empty, and ayyos,
 a vessel )   A deficiency of blood, or other fluids in the
 vessels; so that they have not their proper quantity.
   Ceni'qdak.   Ceniplam;  Cenigotam;  Cenipolam.
 An instrument anciently used for opening the head in
 epilepsies.
   Ceniote'miim.  A purginz remedy, formerly of use'
 in the venereal disease, supposed to be mercurial.
   CENO'SIS.   (From  kcvos, empty.)   Evacuation.)
 It imports  a general evacuation.  Catharsis was ap-i
 plied to the evacuation of a particular humour, which
 offends with respect to quality.
   CENOTICA.  (Cencticus; from Kevtas'is, evacuatio,\
 eiinanitio, emptiness.)  The name of an order in the'
 class Gencttca of Good's Nosology: diseases affecting |
 the fluids,  and embracing paramenia, lcucorrha.il, |
 blenorrhaa, spcrmorrhaa, and galcclea.
  CENTAUREA   (So called from Chiron, the cen-!
 taur, who is said to  have employed one of its species'
 to cure himself of a wound  accidentally received, by j
 letting one of the arrows of Hercules fall  upon his
foot.)   The name cf a genus of plants in the Linnaean j
system,  of  the Order, Polygamia frustanea; Class,!
Syngenisi*
  Cextalreabehen.  The systematic mime ofthe
officinal brken album;  Jacca orientalis palvta  Rtr
pkoiiticaidrs Intra.  The true white behen of the an-
cients.  The root possesses astringent virtues.
  Ce.ntvurea ben i; m or a.   The systematic name of
the  blessed or  holy  thistle.   Carduus  benedictus;
('incus  sylvestris;  Centaurea  benedicta—calycibus
diiplieato-spinosis lanalis  invotucratis, foliis semt-
decurrenttbus denticulalo-spinosis of Linnaeus.  This
exotic plant, a  native of  Spain,  and  some  of the
Archipelago islands, obtained the name of Benedictus,
from  ils  being supposed  to  possess  extraordinary
medicinal  virtues,  in  loss of  appetite,  where the
stomach win injured by irregularities, its good effects
have  been frequently experienced.  It  is u powerful
bilter tonic  and adstringent.  Berg-jus considers it as
antacid, corroborant,stomachic, sudorific, diuretic,.and
eccopntie.  Chamomile lloweis  are now generally
substituted for the Carduus benedictus, and are thought
to be of al least equal value.
  Centaurea cai.citr u-v  Tine systematic name of
the common  stnr-thistle.    Star-knapweed.   Calci-
trapa;  Cirduns srellatus; ./area ramosissima, ste.l-
luta, rupina. The plant thus called in the pharmaco-
poeias, is the Centaurea—calycibus subduplicato-spino-
sis, scssilibus ; foliispinnatifidis, lincaribus dentatis;
caule piloso, of Linnaeus, every part of which  is bitter.
The juice, or extract,  or  infusion,  is said  to cure
intermittenls ;  and the bark of the root, and the seeds,
have been recommended in nephritic disorders, and in
suppression of Urine.  It scarcely differ, in its effects,
from other bitters, and is now little used.
  Centaurea centaurium.  Rhaponticum vulgare :
Ccntaurium magnum;  Cmtaurium majus.   Greater
centaury.   The root of  this  plant was formerly used as
an aperient and corroborant in alvine fluxes.  I; is
now totally discarded from the Materia Medica of this
country.
  CexrAUREA cvanus.  The systematic name of the
blue bottle,  or  corn-rtnwer plant.  Cyani.  Cyanus.
The ff iwers of this plant, Centaurea—calycibus serra-
tis : foliis linearibns, integerrimis, infimis dentatis, of
Linna-us, were formerly in frequent use; but their an-
tiphlogistic,  antispasmodic,  cordial, aperient, diuretic,
and other properties, are now,  with great  propriety,
forgotten.
  Centaurea solstitialis.  Calcitrapa officinalis;
Carduus  stellatus Iulcus ;  Carduus  solstitialis; Ja-
cea slcllala ; Jaceu lutea cetpite spinoso mivori; Leu-
canthe vctcriim.  St. Bamaby's thistle.   It  is com-
mended as an untictcric, auticachectic, and lithonlriii-
tic, but is, in reality, only a weak tonic.
  Ckvtvurioi'des. The eratiola.
  CENTAURIUM.  (From Ktv]avpos, a centaur: so
called, because  it was feigned that Chiron cured Her-
cules's foot, which he had wounded with a  poisonous
arrow, with il.)   Centaury.  See Chironia centaurium.
  Centaurium  magnum.   See  Centaurea  Ccntau-
rium.
  Centaurium majus.  See Centaurea Centaurium.
  Centaurium minis.   See Chironia centaurium.
  CENTAU'RY.  See Chironia.
  Centimor'bia.  (From  centum, a  hundred, and
morbus, a  disease.)  The  Lysimachia nummularia,
or moneywort, was so  named, from its supposed effi-
cacy in the cure of a multitude of disorders.
  Ckntino'du.  Si e Centum nodia.
  CICNTI PES.  (From centum, a hundred, and pes,
a foot.)   The woodlouse, so named from the multi-
tude of its feet.
  Cr\rRi'rio.   (From centrum, a centre.)  The con-
reentiation and alfinity  of certain substances  to each
miner.  Paracelsus expresses by it the degenerating of
a saline principle, and  contracting a  corrosive and
ex'ilceraliug quality.  Hence Centrum salis is said to
be the principle anil cause of ulcers.
  Ce'ntrium.   (From  kevteoi, to prick.)  A plaster
recommended by Galen against  stitches and pains in
the side.
  CE'N'TRUM.  (From xevreio, to point or prick.)  1.
T!we middle point of a circle.
  ■2. Iu ch.;ini3try, it is  the  residence or foundation of
''inner.                              ....
  'I. In medicine, it is  the  point in which  its virtue
resides.                           ,
  1. In anatomy, ihe middle point of some parts Is so
nrn.ed, a* centrum nerveum, the middle or tendinous
pa    I the diaphragm 
CER
CER
   Centrum nerveum.  The centre of the diaphragm.
 Bee Diaphragm.
   Centrum ovale.   W hen the two hemispheres of
 the  brain are removed on a line with a level of the
 corpus callosum, ihe internal medullary part presents
 a somew hat oval centre, which is called centrum ovale.
 Vieussenius supposed all the medullary fibres met at
 this place.
  Centrum tendinosum.  The tendinous  centre of
 tlie diaphragm.  See Diapragm.
  CENTUMNO'DIA.  (From centum, a hundred, and
 nodus, a knot; so called from its many knots or joints.)
 Ccntinodia.   Common knot-grass.  See  Polygonum
 aticulare.
  Centu'nculus.  Bastard pimpernel.
  CE PA.  (From Kniros, a wool-card, from the like-
 ness of its roots.)  The onion.  See Allium cepa.
  Cep.e'a. A species of onion.
  CEPHAL-rE'A.  (From xttpaXr,, the head.)  1. The
 flesh ofthe head which covers the skull.
  2. A headache.  Dr. Good makes this a genus of
 disease in his Order, Systatica;  Class, Neurotica.  It
 has five species, Cephalaa graverus, intensa, hemicra-
 nia, pulsatilis, nauscosa.
  CEPHALALGIA.   (From xttpaXn, the head,  and
 aXyos, pain.)   Cephalaa.  The headache.  It is symp-
 tomatic of very many diseases, but is rarely an original
 disease itself.   When mild,  il is called  cephalalgia;
 when inveterate, cephaliea.  When one side of the
 fiead only is affected, it takes the name3 of hemicrania,
 migrana, hemipagia, and megrim;  in one of the tem-
 ples only, crotaphos; and that which  is fixed to a
 point, generally in  the  crown of the head,  is distin-
 guished by the name of clavus.
  Cepiiala'rtica.  (From KecbaXn, the head, and ap-
 rt^to, to  make pure.)   Medicines which purge the
 head.
  CE'PHALE.  KctpaXn-  The head.
  CEPHALIC.  (From Kt^aXq, the head.) Pertaining
 to the head.   I. A variety of external and internal
 medicines are so called, as  being adapted for the cure
 of disorders of the head.  Of this class are the snuffs,
 wliich produce a discharge from the mucous membrane
 of the nose, &c.
  2. Nerves, arteries, veins, muscles, &c. are so called,
 wliich are situated on the head.
  3. The name of a vein of the arm, wliich il was sup-
 posed went to the head.
  Cephalic vein.    (Vena cephalica; so called  be-
 cause the head was supposed  to be relieved by opening
 it)  The anterior or  outermost vein of the arm, lhat
 receives the cephalic  ofthe thumb.
  Cephalicus pulvis. A powder prepared from asa-
 rum.
  CEPHALI'TIS.  (From KtcbaXn, the head.)  Inflam-
 mation of the head.   Emprcsma cephalitis  of Good.
 Sec Phrenitis.
  CEPHALO.  This term is joined to others to denote
 the connexion of the  muscle, artery, nerve, &c. to the
 head.
  CEPHALONO'SUS.  (From KccbaXtj, the head and
voaos, a disease.)  Any disease of the head.   Applied
 to the febris  hungarica, in which the head is princi-
 pally affected.
  Cephalo-pharynoeus.  (From  KeajaXr;, the  head,
 and  diapvyl, the throat.)  A muscle of the pharynx.
 Sec Constrictor pharyngis inferior.
  CEPHALOPONIA.  (From KtipaXn, the head, and
Bovos, pain.)   Headache.
  Cepi'ni.  Vinegar.
  Ckpula. Large myrobalans.
  CERA.  Wax.   Bees' wax.  A solid concrete sub-
 stance, collected from vegetables by bees, and extracted
 from their combs after the honey is got out, by heating
 and pressing them.
  It was long considered as a resin, from some proper-
 ties common to it witn resins.  Like them it furnishes
 an oil anel an acid by distillation, and is soluble  in all
oils;  but  in several respects it differs sensibly fiom
 lesins. Like  these, wax has not  a str->.,g aromatic
taste and smell, but a very weak Rtneil, and when pure,
 no laste.   With the he»' ol Dolling water, no princi-
 ples are distilled iiom it; whereas, with that  heat,
some essential oil, or at least a  spiritus rector, is ob-
 tained from every resin  Farther, wax is less soluble
 in alkohol.  If wax be distilled with a  heat greater
 than that of boiling water, it may be decomposed, but
      204
 not so easily as resins  can.   By this distillation, a
 small quantity of water is first separated from the war,
 and then some very volatile and very penetrating acid
 accompanied with a small quantity of  a very fluid
 and very odoriferous oil.   As Ihe distillation advances,
 the acid becomes more  and more strong, and the oil
 more and more thick, till its consistence is such that it
 becomes solid in the receiver, and is then called butter
 of wax.  When the distillation is finished, nothing re-
 mains  but a small quantity of coal, whicli is almost
 incombustible.
   Wax cannot be kindled, unless it is previously heat-
 ed and reduced  into  vapours; in  wliich respect "»l
 resembles fat oils.  The  oil of butter of wax may, by
 repeated distillations, be attenuated and rendered more
 and more fluid, because some portion of acid is there-
 by separated from these substances; which effect is
 similar to what happens  in the distillation of other oils
 and oily concretes: but this remarkable effect attends
 the repeated distillation of oil and butter of wax; that
 they become more and more soluble in alkohol; and
 lhat they never acquire greater consistence by evapo-
 ration of their more fluid parts.  Boerhaavo kept but-
 ter of wax in a* glass vessel, open, or carelessly closed.
 during twenty years, without  acquiring a more solid
 consistence.  It may be remarked, that wax, its butter,
 and its oil, differ entirely from essential oils and resins
 in all the above-mentioned properties, and that  in all
 these they perfectly resemble sweet oils.   Hence -Ma-
 quer concludes, that wax resembles  resins only in  be-
 ing an oil rendered concrete by an  acid;  but that it
 differs  essentially from these in the kind of the  oil,
 which in resins is ofthe nature of essential oils, while
 in wax and in other  analogous oily concretions  (as
 butter of milk, butter of cocoa, fat of animals, sperma-
 ceti, and myrtle-wax) it is of the nature of mild unc-
 tuous oils, that are not aromatic, and not volatile, t.-.id
 are obtained from vegetables by expression. It seems
 probable, that the acidifying principle, or oxygen, and
 not an actual  acid, may be the leading cause of  tlie
 solidity, or low fusibility of wax.
   In the state in which it is obtained  from the combs
 it is  called yellow wax, cera flava; and this, when
 new, is of a lively  yellow colour, somewhat tough,
 yet easy to break: by age, it loses its fine colour, and
 becomes harder and more brittle.  Yellow wax, after
 being reduced into thin cakes,  and bleached by a long
 exposure to the sun and open air, is again melted, and
 formed into round cakes, called virgin wax, or  white
 wax, cera alba.   The chief medicinal  use of wax, is
 in plasters, unguents, and other like  external applica-
 tions,  partly for  giving the requisite  consistence to
 other ingredients, and partly on account of its own
 emollient quality.
   Cera alba.  See Cera.
   Cera dicardo. The carduus pinea.
   Cera flava.  Yellow wax.  See Cera.
   [Cera vegetabilis.  Vegetable wax, or  natural
 wax.  Wax  seems to abound  in some plants  more
 than in others, and is easily collected from them.  The
 bayberry  (Myrica cerifcra) abounds  on the sandy
 shores of the United Slates, and in the autumn the wax
 is scraped from the plants, nnd, when melted and run
 into cakes, forms a  beautiful   green vegetable  wax
 which is made into wax  tapers, or sometimes melted
 with n portion of tallow, and made into candles, wliich
 partake of the green colour of the wax, and are called
 bayberry candles, tlie vegetable cera giving hardness and
 consistence to the candles, and  therefore  more useful
 in tlie heat of summer.  We recollect seeing  a  large
 specimen of white vegetable wax in the possession of
 Dr. S. L. Mitchill, received  by him  from South Ame-
 rica, and exhibited to his class when h* lectured on
 Materia Medica, in the Collet s.'rnysicians and Sur-
 geons of New-York   On inquiry, since, he informs
 us, that he no-^ could ascertain the  botanical name
 of thp p.ant, though it was said to be a tree.  A.j
 ■ CER,f '■*■•   (From «nu>, a horn.)  So Rufus Ephe-
 sius calls the cornua or appendages of the uterus.
  l erani tes.  (From Ktpavvvpi, to temper together.)
 Galen"'6       lly aPPlied «°  « Pastil, or troch,  by

  Ce'ras.  (Kepas, a horn.) A wild sort of parsnip
is so named from its shape.
  CH RASA,  (llcpao-os, the cherry-tree ;  from Ktaa-
<rov/n,atown in Pontus, whence Lucullusfirst brought
them to Rome:  or from x>ip, the heart; from the  fruit 
CER
CER
naving a resemblance to it iu shape and colour.)  The
cherry.   See Prunus.
  Cerasa nigra.  See Prunus avium.
  Cerasa rubra.  See Prunus cerasus.
  Cerasia'tum.  (From cerasus, a cherry ;  so called
because cherries are an ingredient.;   A purging medi-
cine in Libavius.
  CERASIN.   The name given by Dr. John of Ber-
lin, to those gummy substances which swell in cold
water, but do  not  readily  dissolve  in  it.  Cerasin is
soluble iu boiling water, but separates in a jelly when
the water cools.  Water, acidulated with sulphuric,
nitric, or muriatic  acid, by the aid  of  a gentle heat,
forms a permanent solution of cerasin.  Gum traga-
canth is tlie bast example of this species of vegetable
product.
  Cera'sius.  (From  cerasus,  a cherry.)   Crasios.
The name of two ointments iu Mesue.
  Cera sma.  (From xepavvvpi, to mix.)  A mixture
of cold  and warm  water, when the  warm is poured
into the cold.
  CERASUS.   The  cherry and  cherry-tree.  See
Prunus cerasus.
  CE'RA'TE.  Ceratum.   A composition of  wax, oil,
or lard,  with  or without otlier ingredients.  The
obsolete synonymcs are, ccrelaum, ceronta, eeronium,
cerotum,  ceratomalagma.   Cerates  take their name
from the wax which enters into llieir composition, and
to which they owe their consistence, which is iuter-
inediaie between that of plasters and that of ointments;
though no very definite rule for this consistence is, in
fact, either given or observed.
  Cera'tia.   (From  xepas, a horn, which its fruit
resembles.)  See Ceratonia siliqua.
  Ceratia dipuyllus. See Courbaril
  Ceraticum.  See Ceratonia siliqua.
  CERA TO.  iFiom xtpas, a horn.)  Some muscles
have this word as  a  part  of  their names, from then-
shape.
  Cerato-gLosses.  (From xtpas,a horn,and yX-oaca,
a tongue.)   A  muscle, 60 named from iLs shape and
insertion into tlie tongue   See Hyoglossus.
  Cerato-uyoideus.   See Stylo-hyoidcus.
  Ceratomalagma.   A cerate.
  CERATOl DES.  (From xtpafos, the genitive of
Ktpas, horn, and eiios, appearance.)  See Cornea.
  CERATONIA.   (Kcparuvia of Galen and Paulus
^Egineta; so called from its horn-like pod.) The name
of  a  genus of  plants.  Class, Polygamia;  Order,
Triacia.
  Ceratonia siliqua. The systematic name of the
plant  which affords the sweet pod.  Ccratium;  Ce-
ratia; Stliqua dulcis.   The pods are about four inches
in length, and as thick as one's finger, compressed and
unequal, and mostly bent;  they contain a sweet brown
pulp,  which is given in the form of decoction, as a
pectoral  in asthmatic complaints and coughs.
  CERA'TUM.  (Ceratum; i. in.;   from cera,  wax,
because its principal ingredient is wax.)  Sec Cerate.
  Ceratum album.  See Ceratum cetacei.
  Ceratum calamine.  Ceratum lapidis calamina-
ris; Ceratum  epuloticum.   Calamine  cerate. Take
of prepared calamine, yellow wax, of each half a
pound;  olive oil, a pint. Mix the oil with the melted
wax; then remove it from  the fire, and, as soon as il
begins lo thicken, add the calamine, and stir it con-
stantly until the mixture becomes cold   A  composi-
tion of this  kind was first introduced under the name
of  Turner's cerate.  It is well calculated to promote
the cicatrization of ulcers.
  Ceratum cantharwis.  Ceratum Lytta. Cerate
of  blistering fly.  Take   of  spermaceti cerate,  six
drachms; blistering flies, in very fine powder, a drachm.
Having softened the cerate by heat, add the  flies, and
mix them together.
  Ceratum cetacei.  Cratum spennatis ccti   Ce-
ratum album.  Spermaceti cerate.  Take of sperma-
ceti, half au ounce; white wax, two ounces;  olive
oil, 4 fluid-ounces.  Add the oil to the spermaceti and
tvax, previously melted together, and stir thorn until
the mixture becomes cold.   This cerate is cooling and
emollient, and  applied to excoriations, Sec.: il may be
ased with advantage  in all  ulcers, where no stimu-
lating substance can  be applied, being extremely mild
and unctuous.
  Ceratum citrinum  See Ceratum resina.
  Ceratum conii.  Hemlock  cerate    R.  unguenti
conii, Ibj. Spermatis ccti, Jij. Cerae albae, j iij. Misce
One of the  founiihe of St. Bartholomew's  hospital
occasionally applied to cancerous, tcrotulous, phage-
denic, herpetic, and other inveterate sores.
  Ceratum  epuloticum.  See Ceratum calamina.
  Ceratum  lapidis  calaminaris.   See  Ceratum
calamina.
  Ceratum  lituaroyri acetati compositum.  Sec
Ceratum plumbi compositum.
  Ceratum  plumbi ai ktatis.  Unguentum cerussa
acetata  Cerate ol" acetate of lead.  Take of acetate
of lead, powdered, two drachms; white wax, two
ounces; olive oil, half a pint.   Dissolve the wax in
Beven fluid-ounces  of oil; then gradually add thereto
the acetate of lead, separately rubbed down  with the
remaining oil, and stir the mixture with a wooden
slice, until the  whole has united.  This cerate is cool
ing and desiccalive.
  Ceratum plumbi compositum.  Ceratum lithargyri
acetati compositum. Compound cerate of lead.  Take
6f solution of acetate of lead, two fluid-ounces and a
half; yellow wax, four ounces; olive oil, nine fluid-
ounces; camphor, half a drachm.   Mix the  wax pre-
viously melted, with  eight fluid-ounces of  oil; then
remove it from the fire, and, when it begins to thicken,
add gradually the solution of acetate of lead, and con-
stantly stir the mixture with a woodeu slice until it
gets cold.  Lastly, mix in the camphor, previously
dissolved in the remainder  of the oil.  Its virtues arc
cooling, desiccalive, resolvent against chronic rheuma-
tism, &c. &c.; and as a proper application  to super
ficial ulcers,  whicli are inflamed.
  Ceratum  resina:.   Ceratum resina flava ; Cera
turn citrinum. ■ Resin  cerate.  Take of yellow resin,
yellow wax, of each a pound ; olive oil, a pint.  Melt
the resin and wax together, over a slow fire ;  then add
the oil, and strain the cerate, while hot, through a
linen cloth.  Digestive.
  Ceratum sabin.e.  Savine cerate. Take of fresh
leaves of savine, bruised, a pound; yellow wax, half
a pound ; prepared lard, two pounds.  Having melted
together the wax  and lard, boil therein  the savine
leaves, and strain through a linen cloth.   This article
is of late introduction, for the purpose of keeping up
a discharge from blistered  surfaces.  It was first de
scribed by Mr. Crowther, and has since been received
into extensive use, because it  does  not produce the
inconveniences that follow the constant application
ofthe common blistering cerate.  A thick white layer
forms daily  upon the part, which requires  to be re-
moved, that  the cerate may be applied immediately tc
the surface from whicli the discharge is to be marie.
  Ceratum saponis.  Soap ceiute.  Take of bar*!
soap, eight ounces: yellow wax,  ten ounces; semi
vitreous oxide of lead, powdered, a pound;  olive oil.
a pint; vinegar, a  gallon.  Boil the vinegar, with thn
oxide of lead, over a slow  fire, constantly stirring,
until the union is complete ; then add ihe soap, and
boil it again  in a similar manner, until the moisture is
entirely evaporated ; then mix iu the wax, previous!)
melted wilh  the oil.   Resolvent;  against scrofulous
tumours, &.c.  It is a convenient application in fiac
lures, and may be used as an external dressing for ulcers
  Ceratum  simplex.  Ceratum.   Simple cerate
Take of olive oil, four fluid-ounces; yellow wax, fou
ounces: having melted the wax, mix the oil with it.
  Ceratum  spermatis ceti.   See Ceratum cetacei.
  Ce'rberus.   (KEpfitpot; because, like the dog Cei
berus, it has  tliree heads, or principal ingredients, eac/
of which is eminently active.)  A fanciful name givei
to the compound powder of scammony.
  Cerchna'leum.  (From xtpxu,t0 make  a noise,
A wheezing, or bubbling noi.-e, made by the trachea
in breathing.
  CE'RCHNOS.   (From it£px«), to wheeze.)  Cerch
nus.  Wheezing.   Dr. Good applies it to a species o,
his genus Rhonchus, to designate a primary evil <
disease; rhonchus cerchnus, or wheezing.
  CERCHNO'DES.  (From xtpx", t0  wheeze.
Ccrchodes.   One who labours under a dense breathing
accompanied with a wheezing noise.
  CERCHO'DES.  See Cerchnodes.
  Ce'rcis.  (Ktpxi;  literally means the spoke of ;
wheel, and has its  name from the noise which wheek
often make; from  KptKto, to shriek.)  The radial bom
of the fore-arm was formerly so called from its shape;
like a spoke   A*«o a oesfJe from its shape.
                                       205 
CER                                            CER
   CKRCO'SIS.  (From xepKos, a tail.)  1.  A polypus
 4tfthe uterus.
   2.  An enlargement ofthe clitoris.
   CE'REA.  (From  cera, wax.)  The cerumen  au-
 rium, or wax ofthe ear.
   C'EREA'LIA. (Solemn feasts to the goddess Ceres.)
 All sorts of corn, of which  bread or  any  nutritious
 substance  is made, come under the head of cerealia,
 which term is applied by bromatologists as a genus.
   Cerebe'lla urina.  Paracelsus thus distinguishes
 mint wliich is whitish, ofthe colour ofthe  brain,  and
 from which he pretended to judge of some of ita  dis-
 orders.
   CEREBE'LLUM.  (Diminutive of cerebrum.) The
 little brain.  A  somewhat round viscus, of the same
 iise as the  brain; composed,  like the brain, of a cor-
 tical  and  medullary substance, divided by a septum
 into a right and left lobe, and situated under the ten-
 torium, in  tlie inferior occipital  fossae.  In the cere-
 bellum are to be observed  tne  crura cerebelli,  the
 fourth ventricle, the valvula  magna cerebri, and  the
 protuberantia vermiformes.
   CE'REURUM.  (Quasi cerebrum;  from xaaa,  the
 head.)  The brain.  A large round viscus,  divided
 superiorly  into a right and left hemisphere, and infe-
 riorly into six lobes, two  anterior, two  middle, and
 two posterior; situated within the cranium, and sur-
 rounded by tire dura and pia tnater, and tunica arach-
 noides.  It is composed of a cortical substance, which
 is external;  and a  medullary, which  is internal.   It
 has three cavities, called ventricles; two anterior, or
 lateral, which are  divided from each other by  the
 septum lucidum, and in each of which  is the  choroid
 plexus, formed of blood-vessels; the third ventricle is
 u space between the thalami nervorum opticorum.
 The principal prominences of the brain are, the corpus
 callosum,  a  medullary eminence, conspicuous upon
 laying aside the hemispheres of the brain; the corpora
 striata, two striated protuberances, one in the anterior
 part of each lateral ventricle; the thalami  nervorum
 opticorum, two whitish eminences behind the former,
 which terminate in the optic nerves; the corpora quad-
 rig cmina,  four  medullary projections, called  by  tlie
 ancients nates and  testes; a  little cercbrine tubercle
 lying upon the nates, called  the pineal gland; and,
 lastly, the  crura cerebri,  two  medullary  columns,
 Which proceed from the basis  of the brain to the me-
 dulla oblongata.  The cerebral arteries are branches
 of the carotid and vertebral arteries.   The veins ter-
 minate in  sinuses, which return their blood into
 the internal  jugulars.  The  use  of the  brain  is to
 give off nine pairs of nerves,  aud the spinal marrow,
 from  which thirty-one more  pairs  proceed, through
 whose means the various senses are performed, and
 muscular motion excited.  It is also considered  as  the
 organ of the intellectual functions.
  Vauquelin's analysis of the  brain is in 100  pnrte;  80
 water, 4.53 white fatty matter, 0.7 reddish fatty- matter,
 7 albumen,  1.12 osmazome, 1.5 phosphorus, 5.15 acids,
 salts,  and sulphur.
  Cerebrum  elonoatum. The  medulla oblongnta,
 and medulla spinalis.
  CEREFOLIUM.   A corruption of  charophyllum.
 See Scandix cerefolium.
  Cerefolium hispanicim. Sweet-cicely.  SecScan-
 dix odorata.
  Cerefolium sylvkstre.   See  Charophyllum syl-
 vestrc.
  CEREL/E'UM. (From xnpos, wax, and tXatov, oil.)
 A cerate, or liniment, composed of wax and oil.  Also
 tne oil of tar.
  CEREOLUS.  Awaxboujle.
  CF/REUS  MEDICATUS.  See Bougie.
  CEUEVTSfA.  (From ceres, corn, of which !t is
 made.)  Any liquor made from com, especially ale and
strong beer.               „             ,  ,
  Cerevisije cataplasma.  Into the grounds:* strong
 beer stir as much oatmeul as will make  it of n suitable
consistence.  This is sometimes employed ns a stimu-
lant and an antiseptic to mortified  parts.
  Cerevisi*  fermbhtum

"'ce'ria.   (From  cereus, soft,   pliant.)   The flat
 norms which breed  In the intestines.  See 7anta.
  CER IN.  1.  Subercerin.  A   peculiar substance ;
 which precipitateson evaporation  from alkohol, which I
 'ios been digested on cork.
           206
see Fermcntum  Cere-
   2. The name given by Dr. John to the part of Com-
 mon wax which dissolves iu alkohol.
   3. The name of a variety of the mineral allanite.
   Ce'rion.  (From Ktipiov, a honey-comb.)   An erup
 live disorder of the head.  See Achor.
   CER1TE.  The siliciferous oxide of cerium. A rare
 mineral of a rose-red colour, found only in tlie cop-
 per mine of Bastnacs, in Sweden.  It consists of silica,
 oxide of cerium, and oxide of iron, lime and carbonic
 acid.
   CERIUM.  The name of the metal, the  oxide of
 which exists in the mineral cerite.
   To obtain the oxide of the new metal, the cerite is
 calcined,  pulverized, and  dissolved in nitromuriatic
 acid.  The filtered solution being neutralized with pure
 potassa, is to  he precipitated by tartrate of  potassa;
 and the precipitate, well washed, and afterwards cal-
 cined, is oxide of cerium.
   Cerium is susceptible of two stages of oxidation; in
 the first it is white, and this by calcination becomes of
 a fallow-red.
   The white oxide exposed to the blowpipe  soon be-
 comes red,  but  does  not  melt, or  even agglutinate.
 With a large proportion of borax it fuses into u trans
 parent globule.
   The white oxide becomes yellowish in the open air,
 but never so red as by calcination, because it absorbs
 carbonic acid, which prevents its saturating itself with
 oxygen, and retains  a portion of water, which  dimi-
 nishes its colour.
   Alkalies do not act on it; but  caustic potassa in the
 dry way, takes |«rt of the oxygen from the red oxide so
 as to convert it into the white without altering its nature
   The protoxide of cerium  is composed by Hisinger of
 8.).17 metal + 14.83 oxygen, and the peroxide of 79.3
 metal + ao.7.  The protoxide has  been supposed a
 binary compound of cerium 5.75 + oxygen 1, and the
 peroxide a compound of 5.75 X 2 of cerium  -f- 3 oxy
[ gen.  An alloy of this metal with iron was obtained
 by Vauquelin.
   The salts  of cerium  are white or yellow-coloured,
 have a sweet taste, yield a white precipitate with hy-
 drosulphuret of  potassa, but none with sulplieretted
 hydrogen ; a milk-white precipitate, soluble  in nitric
 and muriatic acids, with ferroprussiate of potassa, and
 oxalate of ammonia; none with infusion of gnlls, and
I a white one with arseniate of potassa.
   CERO'MA.  (From icijpos, wax.)  Ceronium. Terms
 used by the ancient physicians for an unguent, or ce-
 rate, though originally applied to a  particular compo
 sition  whicli the wrestlers used in their exercises.
   CEROITSSUS.  (From xt/pos,  wax, and mcov
 pitch.) A plaster composed of pitch and wax.
   Cerotum.  KeoatTov.  A cerate.
   [Clrulin.  " By tlie action of sulphuric ncid on in
 digo, two new substances are obtained, termed, by Mr
 Crum, Cerulin  and Phenicin.  To prepare the former,
 tlie  indigo is digested in the acid, the mixture is dis-
 solved in a large  quantity of sulphuric acid, and the
 filtered solution is precipitated  by potassa.  The pre-
 cipitate consists of cerulin, in combination with the
 sulphate of potassa, and  has been called Cerulco-sul-
phate of potassa.  It requires about  120 parts of wa-
 ter for its solution, and forms a very deep blue-colour-
 ed liquid.  Iu its property of forming insoluble com
 pounds with neutral salts, cerulin is analogous to tan,
 From  its ultimate analysis,  it appears to consist  of 1
atom of indigo -f 4 atoms of water."— Webster's Man.
of Chem.  A.]
  CERUMl'.N. (Cerumen; diminutive of eera, wax.)
 Wax.  See Cera.
  Cerumen aurium.  Cerea; Aurium sordes; Mar-
morata aurium;  Cypsele;  Cypselis;  Fugile.   The
waxy secretion of the ear, situated in tlie meatus audi-
torius extemus.
  [" Cerumen atiris.  A degree of deafness is fre-
quently produced by the lodgment of hard dry pellets
of this substance in the meatus auditorius.  The best
plan, in such cases, is to syringe the ear with warm
water, which should  be injected with moderate force
in some Instances, deafness seems  to depend on a de
lective secretion of the cerumen, and a consequent dry-
ness of the meatus.  Here, a drop or two of sweet o 1
may now and then be introduced into the ear,  and
'"mentations applied."—Cooper's Surg. Diet.  A.l
  CERU'SSA.  (Arabian.'■  Cerjsse  See Plumbitub
carbonas. 
CHA
CHA
  Ceri-s«.\  acetata.  See Plumbi acetas.
  Cervi spina.  See Rhamnus catharticus.
  CERVt CAL.  (Ccvicalis; from cerieix, the neck.)
Belonging to the neck;  as cervical  nerves, cervical
muscles, &c.
  Cervical artery.  Arteria  ccrvicalis.  A branch of
the subclavian.
  Cervical vertebra.  The seven uppermost ofthe ver-
tebra, which fotm the spine.  See Vertebra.
  Cervica'ria.   (From cereic, the neck; so named
because it was supposed to be efficacious in disorders
and ailments of the throat and neck.)  The liei b thront-
wort,
  CE'RVtX.  (Grrri'z, vicis. f.; quasi  cerebri ria;
as being the channel of the spinal marrow.)   1. The
neck.  That part of the  body which is between the
head and shoulders.
  2. Applied also to organs, or parts which have some
extent, to distinguish their parts ; as the  cervix uteri,
neck ofthe uterus;  cervix vesica, neck of tlie bladder,
neck of a bone, &c.
  CespititijC plant*.  (From c>-sprs, a sod, or turf.)
The name of a class of plants in Sauvages' Methodus
Foliorum, consisting of plants wliich huveouly radical
leaves ;  as primrose, &c.
  CESP1TOSUS.  (From cespes, n sod, or turf.)   A
plant is so called which produces many stems from one
■oot, thereby forming a close thick carpet on the sur-
face of tbe earth.
  Cespitos£ paludes.  Turf-bogs.
  CtsTRi tes.  (From KC$-pov,  belony.)  Wine  im-
pregnated wilh betony.
  CE'STRUM.  (From Kt$pa, a dart; so called from
the shape of its flowers, which resemble a dart; or be-
cause it was used to extract the  broken ends  of darts
from wounds.)  See Betonica officindis.
  CETA'CEUM.  Spermaceti.   See  Physetcr macro-
crphalus.
  CE TERACH.   (Blanchard says this word  is cor-
rupted from Pteryga, zzfjnpvl, q. v. as peteryga, cete-
ryga, and celerach.)  See Asplenium  ccterach.
  CETIC ACID.  Acidum ceticum.  The name given
by  Chevreuil to a supposed peculiar principle of sper-
maceti, winch he has lately found to be the substance
he has called margarine, combined w ith a fatty matter.
  CET1NE. Tbe name given by Chevreuil to sper-
maceti.  See Fat.
  CEVADIC ACID.  By the action of potassa on tlie
fat matter of the cevadilla, a plant thai comes from
Senegal, called by the French petite orge, there is ob-
tained in the same way as the delphinic  acid, an acid
which is called the cevadic.
  CEVADATE.  A salt formed by the combination
ofthe cevadic acid, wilh earthy, alkaline, and metallic
bases.
  Cevadilla.   (Dim. of ceveda, barley. Spanish.)
See Veratrum sabatilla.
  Ceyenne pepper.  See Capsicum.
  •CEYLAN1TE.  The  name of the mineral  called
pleonaste, by Haiiy, which comes from Ceylon, com-
monly in round pieces, but occasionally in crystals.  It
is of an indigo blue colour, and splendent internally.
  CHABASiTE.  The name of a mineral found in the
quarry of Alteberg, near Oberstein, iu crystals, the pri-
mitive form  of wliich is nearly a cube.  It is white, or
with a tinge of rose colour, and sometimes transparent.
  Chacari'll« cortex.  See Croton Caecanlla.
  CH^EROFO'LIUM.  See Scandix.
  CHAROPHYLLUM.  (XaipocbvXXov; from xaipu,
to rejoice, and qjvXXov, a leaf; so called from the abun-
dance of its  leaves.)  Chervil.  1. The name of a ge-
nus of plants in the  Linnaean system.  Class, Pentan-
dria; Order, Digynia.
  2. The  pharniacopoeial name of some plants.  See
Scandix, and Charophyllum syloestre.
  Cii.ERornYlLUM sylvestre.  The systematic name
ofthe Cicutana, or bastard hemlock.  Charophyllum;
caule lavi striato ; geniculis tumidiusculis, of Lin-
naeus.  Ii is often mistaken for the true hemlock.   It
may with greal propriety be banished  from the  list of
officinals, as it possesses no remarkable property.
  Chje'ta.  (From xtio, to be diffused.)  An obsolete
name of the human hair.
  CHALA'SIS.   (From xa^au>t to relai-)   Relaxa-
tion.
  Chala'siica.   (From xaXato, to relax.)  Medicines j
Which relax                                       I
   CHALAZION. (From xaXa^a, a hailstone.)  CU
 laza ;  Clialazium ;  Granaao.  All indolent moveable
 tubercle on the margin of the eyelid, like a hail-stone.
 A species of hordeolum.  It is lhat well-known affec-
 tion of the eye, called a  stye,  or stian.  It is white,
 hard,  nnd encysted, and differs from the crithe, anothei
 species, only in  being  moveable.   Writers mention a
 division of Chalazion into scinhous, cancerous, cystic,
 and earthy.
   I'iialbane.  KaXOavn.  Galbanum.
   Chalca ntiium.  (From xaAxos, brass, und aiBos, a
 flower.)  \ itriol; or rather, vitriol calcined red.  The
 flowers of In ass.
   Ciiah ei os.  A species of pimpinella.
   Ciialcoi'ueum  os.  The os cuiieiforuie of the tar
 sus.  See Cuneiform bone.
   Chalkpits.   See  Colcothar.
   Cuali ckatum. (From xaXis, on old word thatsijj
 nilies pure wine, and. xtpavvvpt, to mix.)  Wme mixed
 with water.
   Chai.i nos.  (hnlinus. Thai  part of the checks,
 whicli, on each side, is contiguous 10 the angles of the
 mouth.
   CHALK.  A very common species  of  calcareous
 earth, or carbonate of" lime, of a white colour.  See
 Ore fa.
   Chalk, black.  Drawing slate, found iu primitive
 mountains, and used iu crayon  drawing, w hence its
 name.
   Chalk, red.   A clay coloured with oxide of iron.
   CHALK-STONE. A name given to the concretions
 in the hands aud feet of people violently afflicted with
 the gout, from their resembling chalk, though chemi-
 cally different.  Dr. Wollaston first demonstrated their
 true composition to be uric acid combined with ammo-
 nia, and thus explained  the mysterious pathological
 relation between gout and gravel.
   Gouty concretions are  soft and friable.  They are
 insoluble in cold, but slightly  in boiling water.  An
 acid being added lo  this  solution, seizes the soda, and
 the uric acid is deposited in small crystals.  These con-
 cretions  dissolve readily in water of polassa.  An arti-
 ficial  compound may be made by triturating uric acid
 and soda with warm  water, which exactly resembles
 gouty concretions in its chemical constitution.
   CHALY'BEATE.   (Chalybeatus ; chalybs,  from
 iron, or steel.)   Of or belonging to iron.  A term given
 to any medicine into which iron enters; as chalybeate
 mixture, pills, waters, Sec.
   Chalybeate water.  Any mineral water whicli
 abounds with iron ;  such  as  the water of Tuubridge,
 Spa, Pryinont, Cheltenham, Scarborough, and ilartlel;
 aud many others.
   [Chalybeate waters arc so  numerous in  the United
 States as to attract little or no attention unless con
 ne-cted with some peculiarity of circumstance, besides
 the mere solution  of iron. The Ballston and Saratoga
 waters, of New-York, although they contain iron, are
 not ranked among the chalybeates, having other an 1
 more  powerful  ingredients in their composition.  Ot
 the pure chalybeate waters, containing nothing bul
 iron in solution, those most resorted to for health and
 pleasure  are the Stafford Springs, in Connecticut, and
 Orange and Schoolcy's  Mountain Springs in  New
 Jersey.   The Stafford Springs are at tlie foot of a sand
 stone  ridge, (old red  sand-stone formation of Werner.)
 Orange Springs are in  the same sand-stone formation,
 in ihe beautiful town of Orange, in New-Jersey, ubotii
 20 miles from New-York.  There is an excellent house
 of entertainment at the springs, and there is a salubri-
 ous and  well-cultivated country surrounding  it.  Ad
 jacent to the springs is a  considerable elevation, from
 which an extensive prospect is  obtained.  The city
 and bay of New-York are plainly visible, with other
 and more distant prospects.  The water of the spring*
 is strongly impregnated, is not very palatable, and is
 oaly drunk by invalids, whose physicians recommend
 them.
   Sehooley's Mountain Spring is  about 60 miles from
 New-York, and about the same distance from Pliila-
 delphia, and is resorted to in summer by the  inhabit-
 ants of both cities, and othei places.   If-is on  the side
 of a mountain nearly 1500 feet above tide water.   The
 water runs in a constant stream from the crack  of  a
 rock by the side of the road leading down a ravine of
i the  mountain, which from ils elevation is cool and sa-
 lubrious.  On the top of the mountain is an extensive 
CHA                                          CHA
plain, crossed by good roads.  There are several pub-
lic houses in the neighbourhood of the spring. The
water is a simple chalybeate, without  being afirated.
The iron is deposited in an ochreous'sediment as tiie
water passes over the rock.   The mountain  appears
to be a vast deposite of iron ore, much of* which is
magnetic, affecting the  surveyor's compass.   Loose
specimens of magnet are occasionally picked up on the
mountain.  A.]
  Ciialybis rueioo pr.eparata.  See Ferri subcar-
bonas.
  CHA'LYBS.   (From  Chalybes, a people In Pontus,
who dug  iron out of the earth.)   Aden.  Steel. The
best, hardest, finest,  and the closest-grained  forged
iron.  As a medicine, steel differs not from iron.  See
Iron.
  Chalybs tartarizatus.   See Fcrrum tartariza-
tum.
  Ciiam.£Ba'lanus.  (From  x<"<f""> on the  ground,
and BaXavos, a nut.)  Wood pea; Earth nut.
  CHAM/EBU'XUS. (From xaual> °" trie  ground,
and rzvios, the box-tree.)   The dwarf box-tree.
  CHAMiECE'DRUS.  (From x°-u<">  on lnc ground,
and xeipos, the cedar-tree.)  Chamacvdrys.  A species
of dwarf abrotanum.
  CHAMAiCI'SSUS. (From %aMa') on tne  ground,
and xiao-os, ivy.)  Grouud-ivy.
  CHAM^ECLE'MA.  (From x«A«"i on tne ground,
and xXrjpa, ivy.)  The ground-ivy.
  Ciiam.ecrista.   The  Cassia chamacrista of Lin-
naeus, a decoction of which drank liberally is said to
be serviceable against the poison of the  night-shade.
  CHAMiE'DRYS.   (From  x°-l*<", on the  ground,
and r5puc, the oak; so called from its  leaves resem-
bling those ofthe oak.)  See Teucrium chamadrys
  Chamjedrys frutescens. A name for teucrium.
  Chamjedrys incana  maritima.    See Teucrium
marum.
  Chamjedrys palustris.  See Teucrium scordium.
  Cham.*:DRYS spuria.   See Veronica officinalis.
  Cham-sdrys sylvestris.  Wild germander. The
Veronica chamadrys.
  Cham.ele'a.   (From  xauat, on  trie  ground, and
tXaia, the olive-tree.)  See Daphne alpina.
  CHAM^EL^EA'GNUS.    (From gaum,  on  tne
ground, and eXaiayvos, tlie wild olive.)   See Myrica
gale.
  CHAM.E'LEON.  (From xaMal> on  the ground,
and Xetov, a lion, i.e. dwarf lion.)  1. Thechaniaeleon,
an animal supposed to be able to change his colour at
pleasure.
  2. The name of  many thistles, so named from  the
variety and uncertainty  of their colours.
  Chameleon album.   See Carlina acaulis.
  Chameleon verum.   See Cnicus.
  CHAM^ELEU'CE.  (From xariati  on the ground,
and Xevxn, the herb colt's-foot.)  See  Tussilago far-
fara.
  Ciiahijeli'num.  (From xaualt on the ground, and
Xtvov, flax.)  Purging flax.  See Linum catharticur.i.
  CHAMA'ME'LUM.  (From X"u"h  on tlle ground,
tmd pvXov,  an apple;  because  it  grows upon  the
ground, and has the smell of an apple.)   See Anthemis
nobilis.
  Cham/imelvm canariense.  The Chrysanthemum
frutescens of Linnaeus.
  Chamamelum chrysanthemum.   The Bupthal-
vium germanicum of Linnaeus.
  Chamamelum foitidum.  The Ant hem is cotula ot
 Linnaeus.
  Cham.i-:melum nobile. See Anthemis nobilis.
  1'HAM.tMELUM vulgaRE.  See Matricaria chamo-
 mil I a.
  CHAMjE'MORUS.  (Xauoiuopta; from vauai, on
 Ihe ground, and popca, the mulberry-tree.)  See Rubus
 chamamorus.
  cHAMjEPEUCE.   (From %a//ai,  on the ground,
 and ircvxn, the pine-tree.)  Sec Camphorosma Mons-

 '"cHAM-rETITYS.   (Chamapitys,   yos. f.; from
 Xa>iai,thcground,andciinis,thepine-tree.)  See Teu-
 t rinm chamapitys.                         ,  .
  Cham/kpityi mosciiata.  TheFrenchground pine.
 See Tetieriiim int.
  CHAM/E'PLION. See Erysimum  alliarta.
  Cham.erapiianus.  (From vajiui,  on the groiind,
 and patbavos, the radish.)  1. 'ihe upper part of the
      208
root of apium, according to P. ^Egineta  The zrual
age, or parsley.
  2. The dwarf radish.
  Cham t'RiPHES.  The Chamarops bumilis,or dwarf
palm.  The fruit called wild dates, aie adstringent
  Cham arodode'ndron. (From xapai, on the ground,
and poioievipov, the rose laurel.)  The Azalaapontics
of Linnaeus.
  Chamarubu3.  (From xauali on tne ground,  and
rubus, the bramble.)  See Rubus chamamorus.
  Ciiam/espa'rtium.   (From j£a/*ai, on the ground,
and oiraprtov, Spanish broom.)  See Genista linctoria
  CHAMBER.   Camara.  The space between  the
capsule of the crystalline lens and the corner of the
eye, is divided by the iris into two spaces,called cham-
bers; the space before the iris is termed tlie anterior
chamber; and that behind it, the posterior.  They are
filled with an aqueous fluid.
  CH AMBERLEN, Hugh, a native of London, about
the  middle of the 17th  century.   He succeeded his
father as a practitioner in midwifery, and had also two
brothers in the same profession.  They invented among
them an instrument, the obstetric forceps, which greatly
facilitated delivery in many cases, and often saved the
child:  but to  him alone,  as most  distinguished,  the
merit has been usually ascribed.  In 1683, he publish-
ed a translation of Mauriceau's Observations, which
was  much sought after.  The instrument  procured
him great celebrity in this, as well as other countries;
and,  with  successive  improvements by Smellie,  &c.
still continues to be esteemed one ofthe most valuable
adjuvants in the obstetric art.   The period of his death
is not ascertained.
  [Chamite.   See organic relics.  A.]
  CHAMOMILE.  See Anthemis nobilis.
  Chamomile, stinking.  See Anthemis cotula,
  CHAMOMI'LLA.   From  xa/iai, on the ground,
and prjXov, an apple.)  See Anthemis nobilis.
  Chamomilla nostras.   See Matricaria  Chamo-
milla.
  Chamomilla romana.  See Anthemis.
  CHAMPIGNION.  See Agaricus pratensis.
  CHA'NCRE.   (French.  From xapxivos, cancer.)
A sore which arises from the direct application of the
venereal poison to any part ofthe body.  Of course it
mostly occurs on the genitals.  Such venereal sores as
break out from a general contamination of ihe system,
in consequence of absorption, never  have  the term
chancre applied to them.
  Channelled leaf. See  Leaf.
  Chaoma'ntia siona.   So  Paracelsus calls those-
prognostics that are taken from observations of thfi
air;  and the skill of doing this, he calls Chaomancia,
  Chao'sda.   Paracelsus uses this word as an epithe*
for the plague.
  CHAPMAN, Edmund, was  born  about the end ol
the 17th century; and,  after  becoming properly in
structed as a surgeon and accoucheur, settled in Lon
don, and soon distinguished himself by his success in
difficult labours.  His plan consisted chiefly in turnini
the child, and delivering by tlie feet when any part bu|
the head presented; also in often availing himself of1
the forceps of Chamberlen, much  improved by him-
self, and of which he had the merit of first  giving an
account to the public in his treatise on Midwifery, in
 1732.  He also ably defended the  cause of the men-
mldwivcs against the  attack of Douglas, in  a small
work, in 1737.
  Cha'rabk.  An Arabian name for  amber.
  Cha'radra.  (From xapaff<ru>, to excavate.)  The
bowels, or sink of the body.
  Ciiaramais.  The purging hazel-nut.
  Charantia.  See Momordica elaterium.
  CHA RCOA L.  When vegetable substances are ex-
posed  to a strong heat in the apparatus for distillation,
the- fixed residue is called charcoal.  For general pur-
poses, wood is converted into charcoal by  building it
up in a pyramidal form, covering ihe pile with clay or
earth, and leaving a few  air holes, which are closed
as soon as the mass is well lighted; and by this means
the combustion is carried on in on imperfect manner.
  In  charring wood it has been conjectured, that a
portion of it is sometimes converted into a pyrophorus,
and that the explosions that hapiien  iu powder-mills
.lie sometimes owing to this.
  Chntcoal  is  made on the great  scale, by igniting
wood  in iron cylinders.  When the resulting charcoai 
CHA
CHE
la to be used in the manufacture of gunpowder, it is
essential that the last portion of vinegar  and tin ■ •
suffered to escape, and  that the reabsorpiiou  of lli
crude vapours be prevented, by cutting off' thecuiiiinii
nication between the interior of the cylinders and the
Apparatus for condensing the pyrolignous acid, w hen-
i'er the  fire is withdrawn from the furnace.   If this
precaution be not observed, the gunpowder made with
Ihe charcoal would be of inferior quality.
  In the third volume of Tilloch's magazine, we have
some valuable facts on charcoal,  by Mr.  Mashet.  He
justly observes, that the produce of charcoal  in the
small way, differs  from that  on the  large  scale, in
which  the quantity of  char depends more upon the
hardness and compactness ofthe  texture  of wood, and
the skill of tlie workman in  managing  the  pyramid
of fagots, than on the absolute quantity  of carbon  it
contains.
  Clement and Desorme-s say, that wood contains one-
half its weight of charcoal.  Proust says, that good pit-
coals afford 70, 75, or 80  per cent, of charcoal or coke;
from which only two or  three  parts  in the hundred of
ashes remain after combustion.— 'TUlocJi's Mag. vol.
viii.
  Charcoal is black, sonorous, and brittle, and in gene-
ral  retains tlie figure of tlie vegetable it was obtained
from.  If, however, the vegetable consist for the most
part of water or other  fluids, these in their extrication
will destroy the connexion of ihe  more fixed ports.  In
this case the quantity of charcoal is much less than in
the former.  The charcoal of oily or bituminous sub-
stances is of a light pulverulent form,  and rises in
soot.  This charcoal of oils is  called lamp-black.  A
very fine kind is obtained from burning alkohol.  See
Carbon.
  Cua'rdone.  The artichoke.
  Charistolo chia.  (From xapts, j°y> an(I  Xoxta,
the lochia; so named  from its supposed  usefulness to
women in childbirth.)  The plant mugwort.  See Ar-
temisia vulgaris.
  CHARLTON, Walter, was born  in  Somerset-
shire, 10TJ.   After graduating at Oxford, where he
distinguished himself by his learning, he  was appoint-
ed  physician to Charles I., and admitted a fellow cf
the Royal College of Physicians,  in London.  He had
afterward the honour of attending Charles II.,  and
was one of the first members of the Royal Society.
He was author of several publications, on medical and
other subjects; the former of  which contained little
original matter,  but had the  merit of spreading the
knowledge of the  many improvements  made  about
that period, particularly in  anatomy and physiology;
the principal of them are his "Exercitationes Patholo-
gica-,"  and his "Natural History of Nutrition, Life,
and Voluntary Motion."   In 16e!y, he was chosen  pre-
sident of the College, and held that office  two years
He afterward retired lo Jersey, and died in  1707.
  Cha'rme.  (From xa«od», to rejoice.)   Charmis. A
cordial mentioned by Galen.
  Cha'rpie.  TheFrench.  Tor  scraped linen, or lint.
  CHA'RTA.   (Chaldean.)  1. Paper.
  2. The amnios, or interior  foetal  membrane, was
sailed the charta virginea, from its likeness to a piece
of fine  paper.
  Cha'rtrecx,  poidre de.   (So  called because  it
was said to have been invented by some friars of the
Carthusian order.)   A name ofthe kermes mineral, or
hydrosulphuret ot antimony.
  Cha'sme.  (From xatvto, to gape.)  Chasmus.  Os-
citation, or gaping.
  CHASTE TREE.  See Agnus castas.
  Cha'te.  The Cucumus agyplia.
  ["CHAUNCEY, Charles, M.D. second President
of Harvard College, was born in England in loc'O.  He
had his grammar education at Westminster, and was
at the  school when the  gunpowder plot was to have
taken effect, and must have perished if the parliament-
house had been blown up.  At the university of Cam-
bridge  he commenced Bachelor of Divinity, and took
tlie degree of M.D.   Being intimately acquainted with
Archbishop  Usher, one of tbe finest scholars in Eu-
rope, he had more than common advantages to expand
his mind, and make improvements  in literature.  A
more learned man than Mr. Chauncey was not to be
found among the fathers of New-England.  He  had
been chosen Hebrew  professor at Cambridge,  by the
heads of both bouses,  and exchanged this branch of
. instruction to nbliyo Dr. Williams, Vice-Chancellot ol
; the  univiM-ity.   lie was well skilled ill many oriental
 languages, but especially the Hebrew, which he knew
 by very  close study, and by conversing wilh a Jew,
I who resided  in  ihe  same  house.   He was also nil
 accurate Grcik scholar, and was made professor of
 ill's language when  ho left the other piotessorship.
 This uncommon scholar became a preacher, and was
 settled at Waie.   He displeased irchbishop Laud, bj
 opposing the book of sports, and reflecting upon Ibis
 discipline of the chinch, which caused him to einisrale
 to Plymouth, in .Massachusetts, in 1G"!8.         " <
   President Chauncey is said to have been  an  eminent
 physician; but wr a-ee not informed to what extent he
 devoted  himself to tin  practice.  He hit  six  sons, all
 of whom wore educated ,-.t Harvard cullene, and won
 preachers.  Sonne of ihem were learned  divines.  Dt.
 Mather says they were nil eminent physicians, as thcli
 father was before them."—Thach. Med. Biog.  A.]
   Ckay.   See Oltlcnlandia umbellata.
   Chniia.  See Olde.nlandta umbelluta.
   CHEEK-BONE.  See Jugate os.
   CHEF.SE.  Cjscus.  Tliecoagiilumofnalk.  When
 prcpaied from rich milk, and  well  made, ii i-> veiy
 nutritious in small qii'iii'nies; but .-host Iv" indigestible
 when hard and ill prriarcd, especially to weak sto
 machs.    If any vegetanlo or mineral acid lie mixed
 with milk, the cheese separates, and, if  assisted by
 heat, coagulates inlo a mass.  The quantity of cheese
 is less when a  mineral  acid  is used.   Neutral sal's
 and likewise till earthy and metallic salts, to-partite the
 cheese  from the whey.  Sugar and gum-arabic pro-
 duce the same effect.  Caustic alkalies will  dissolve
 the curd by the assistance of a boiling heat, and acids
 occasion a precipitation again.  Vegetable acids have
 very little solvent power upon curd. This accounts
 for  a greater quantity of curd being obtained when  ;i
 vegetable acid is used.  But what answers best is ren-
 net, whicli is made by macerating in water a  piece oi
 the last stomach of a calf, salted and dried  for this
 purpose.
   Scheele observed, that cheese has a considerable ana-
 logy to albumen, which it resembles in being coagula
 ble by fire and acids, soluble in ammonia, and afford
 ing the same products by distillation or treatment with
 nitric acid.  There are, however, certain differences
 between them.  Rouelle observed, likewise, a striking
 analogy between cheese and the gluten of  wheat, and
 that found in the fecula; of green vegetables.  By
 kneading the gluten of wheat with a little salt and  a
 small portion of a solution of starch, he  gave it  the
 taste, smell, and  unctuosity of cheese; so  that after  it
 had been kept  a certain time, it was not to be distin-
 guished from the celebrated Rochefort cheese, of which
 it had all the pungency.  This caseous substance from
 gluten, as well as the cheese of milk, appears to con-
 tain acetate of ammonia, after  it has been kept long
 enough to have undergone the requisite feimentation,
 as may be proved by examining it with sulphuric acid,
 and with potassa.  The pungency of strong cheese
 too, is destroyed by alkohol.
   In tlie 11th volume of Tilloch's Magazine, there is an
 excellent account of the mode of making Cheshire
 cheese,  taken  from the Agricultural Report of  the
 county.   " If the milk," says the reporter,  " be sol
 together very warm, the curd will be firm;  in this case,
 the  usual mode is to take a common case-knife, anil
 make incisions across it, to the full depth of the knife's
 blade, at the distance of about one inch; and  again
 crossways in the same manner, the incisions intersect
 ing  each other at right  angles.   The  whev  rising
 through  these incisions  is of a fine pale-green colour.
 The cheese-maker and  two assistants then proceed to
 break the curd: this  is performed by their repeatedly
 putting their  hands down into the tub; the  cheese-
 maker, with the skimming-dish in one hand, breaking
 every part of it as they catch it, raising the curd from
 the  bottom, and still breaking it.  This part ofthe bu-
 siness is continued till the whole  is broken uniformly
 small; it generally takes up about forty minutes, nnd
 the  curd is then left covered over with a cloth for about
 half an hour, to subside.  If the milk has been set cool
 together, the curd will be much more tender, the whey
 will not  be so green, but r?therof a milky appearance.
   CHEILOCA'CE.   (Fioi.i xtiAoc, a lip, and xaxnv,
 an  evil.)  A swelling of the lips, or canker in the 
CHE
CHE
  ^hkime'lton.  (From xe'l'o., winter.) A chilblain.
 ^ee Pernio.
  CHEIRANTHUS.   (From ^«p, a hand, and avBos,
 k flower ;  so named from the likeness of its blossoms
 lo the fingers of the hand.)  The name of a genus of
 plants in the Linnaean system.  Class, Tetradynamia,
 Order, Siliquosa.  The wall-flower.
  Cheiranthus cheiri.  The systematic name of
 the  wall-flower.   Leucoium  luteum:  Viola lutea.
 Common  yellow wall-flower.   The flowers of this
 plant, Cheiranthus ; foliis lanceolatis, aculis,glabris;
 ramis angulatis; caule fruttcoso, of  Linnaeus,  are
recommended  as possessing  nervine and deobstruent
 virtues.   They have  a moderately  strong, pleasant
tnicll, and a  nauseous, hitler,  somewhat pungent
 taste
  JCheiranthodendron.  A tree growing in Mexico,
so called from the appearance of the flower represent-
 ing the human hand and fingers.  (From xm, a hand,
avOos, a flower, and icvipov, a tree.)  It is a large tree,
 bearing a flower resembling a human hand.  The part
producing this resemblance  is  the  pistillum, which
rises above the calyx,  and is divided into  five parts,
analogous to the thumb and fingers.  The resemblance
is very striking, but the digits are sharp  and pointed,
more like claws.  We have seen preserved specimens
ofthe flowers in very good order.  A.]
  CHEIRA'PSIA.  (From x"P, tlle hand, and arrro-
uai, to touch.)  The act of scratching; particularly
Ihe  scratching  one hand with another, as in the itch.
  C11ETRI.    (Cheiri,  Arabian.)   See  Cheiranthus
 Cheiri.
  CHEIRIA'TER.   (From vtip, the hand, and talpos,
a physician.)   A surgeon whose office it is  to remove
maladies by operations of the hand.
  CHEIRI SMA.   (From  xe'P'louai,to labour with
 Ihe hand.)  Handling.   Also a manual operation.
  CHEIRI'XIS.   (From xcipi^ofiai,  to labour with
 the hand.)  The art of surgery.
  CHEIRONO'MIA.  (From xcipovo/uu, to exercise
with the hands.)  An  exercise mentioned  by Hippo-
crates,  which  consisted of  gesticulations with  the
hands, like our dumb-bells.
  CHELA.    (X1/A17,  forceps;  from x"*ui t0 take.)
 1. A forked  probe, Ibr drawing a polypus  out of the
nos-e.
  2. A fissure in the feet, or other places.
  It. The claw of crabs, which  lays hold like forceps.
  Chel.<£  cancrorum.  See Cancei:
  Cheli'don.  The bond ofthe arm.
  CHELIDONIUM.  (From x^tiiov,  the swallow.
It is so named from an opinion, mat il was pointed out
as useful  for the eyes by swallows, who are said to
open tlieeyes of their young by it; or  because it blos-
soms about the time when swallows appear.)  Celan-
dine.  A genus of plants in tlie Linnaean system.
 Class, Polyandria; Order, Monogynia.  There is only
 one species used in medicine, and that rarely.
  Chelidonium majus.   Papaver corniculatum, lu-
 teum;  Curcum.   Tetterwort,  and great  celandine.
The herb and root of this plant, Chelidonium—pedun-
 culis umbellatus, of Linnaeus,  have a  faint, unplea-
sant smell, and a bitter, acrid, durable taste, which is
stronger in the roots than the leaves. They are ape-
rient and diuretic, and  recommended in  icterus, when
not accompanied wilh  inflammatory symptoms. The
 chelidonium should be administered with caution, as il
 is liable to irritate the stomach  and  bowels.  Of the
 dried root, from  3ss to 3j is  a dose;  of ihe fresh
 root, infused in water,  or wine, the dose  may be about
 j ss. The decoction of the fresh loot is used in dropsy,
 cachexy, and cutaneous complaints.  The fresh juice
 is used to destroy warts, and films in the eyes; but,
 for the latter purpose, it is diluted with milk.
  Chelidonium  minus.  The pill-wort.   See Ranun-
 culus ficaria.
  CIlilLO'NE.  XcXwvn.  1. The tortoise.
  2. An instrument for extending a limb, and so called
 because, in its slow motions, il represents a tortoise.
 This instrument Is mentioned in Oribasius.
  Chei.o'nio».  (From xd-wvn, the tortoise; so-called
 from its  resemblance  to the shell of a tortoise.)  A
 bump or gibbosity in the back
  CHELTENHAM.   The name of a village, now be-
 come a large and populous .own, in  Gloucestershire.
 it is celebrated for ils purging waters, the reputation
 of which is duily increasing, as  it possessed both a sa-
      210
line and chal> beate principle.  When first drawn, it la
clear and colourless, but somewhat brisk; has a sa
line, bitterish, chalybeate taste.   It does not keep, noi
bear transporting to any distance ;  the chalybeate part
being lost by precipitation of the iron, and in the open
air it even  turns foetid.  The salts, however, remain.
Its heat, in summer, was from 50° to 55° or 5'JO, when
Ihe medium heat of the atmosphere was nearly 150
higher.  On evaporation, il is found to contain a cal-
careous earth,  mixed with ochre and a purging salt
A general survey of the component parts of this wa-
ter, according to a variety of analyses, shows that it is
decidedly saline, and contains much more salt than
most mineral waters.  By far the greater part of the
salts are of a purgative kind, and therefore an action
on the bowels is a constant effect, notwithstanding the
considerable quantity of selenite and earthy carbonates,
which may  be supposed to have a contrary tendency.
Cheltenham water is. besides, one of the strongest clia-
lybeates we are acquainted  with.   The iron is sus-
pended entirely by the carbonic acid, of which gas the
water contains  about an eighth of its bulk;  but, from
the abundance of earthy carbonates, and oxide of iron,
not  much of it is  uncombined.   It has, besides, a
slight impregnation  of sulphur, but so little as to be
scarcely appreciable, except  by very  delicate tests.
The sensible effects  produced by this water, are gene-
rally, on first taking il, a degree of drowsiness, and
sometimes headache, but which soon go off spontane-
ously, even  previous to the operation on  the  bowels.
A moderate dose acts powerfully,  and  speedily, as a
cathartic, without occasioning griping, or leaving that
faintness and languor which often follow the action of
the rougher cathartics.   It is principally on this  ac-
count, but partly too from the  salutary operation of
the chalybeate, and perhaps the caibonic acid, that the-
Cheltenham water may be, in most case*, persevered
in, for a considerable length of time, uninterruptedly,
without producing any inconvenience to the body; and
during its use,  the appetite will be improved, the di-
gestive  organs  strengthened,  and the whole constitu-
tion invigorated.  A dose of  this water, too  small to
operate directly on  the bowels, will generally deter-
mine pretty powerfully to the kidneys.  As a purge,
this water is drank from one to tliree pints; in general,
from half a pint to a quart is sufficient.  Half a pint
will contain half a drachm of  neutral purging salts,
four grains  of  earthy carbonates, and  selenite, about
one-third of a grain of oxide of iron; together  with an
ounce in bulk of carbonic acid  and half an ounce of
common air, with  a  little  sulphuretted hydrogen.
Cheltenham water is used,  with considerable  benefit,
in a number of diseases, especially of the chronic kind,
and particularly tliose called bilious:  hence it has
been found of essential service in the cure of glandular
obstructions, and especially  those lhat affect the liver.
and the other organs connected  with the functions of
the alimentary canal.  Persons who have injured their
biliary organs,  by a  long residence  in  hot climates,
and who are suffering under the symptoms, either of
excess of bile or deficiency of bile, and an irregularity
in its secretion, receive  remarkable benefit from  a
course of this  water, judiciously exhibited.   Its use
may be here continued,  even during a considerable
degree of debility ; and from  the great determination
to the bowels, ii may be employed with advantage to
rheck the  incipient symptoms of dropsy, and  general
anasarca, which so often proceed from an obstruction
of the liver.   In scrofulous affect ions, the sea  has the
decided  preference; in painful affections of the skin,
called scorbutic eruptions, which make their  appear-
ance at stated intervals, producing a copious discharge
of lymph, and an abundant desquamation, iu common
with other saline purgative springs, this is found to
bring relief;  but it requires to be persevered iu for a
considerable time, keeping  up a constant determina-
tion to the bowels, and making  use of warm bathing.
The season  for drinking the Cheltenham  water  m
during the whole of the summer months.
  CHE'LYS.   (XeXvs, a shell.)    The  breast is so
culled, as resembling, in shape and office, ihe shell ot
some fishes.
  Chely'scion.  (From  xtXtij,  the breast.)    A dry,
short cough,  in  which the muscles of the breast are
very sore.
  Ciik'ma.   A mteasure mentioned  by the Greek phy
sicinuc. suonosed to  contain two small spoonfuls 
CHE
CHE
  CftlJ'MlA.  Sec CAsnristry.
  CHEMICAL.  Of or belonging to chemistry.
  CHEMISTRY.   (Xiyua, and  sonietimes xifta-
Chamta, from thama, loburn, Arab, this science being
ihe examination of all substances by fire.)  Chemia;
Chimia; Uiymia,  The learned are not yet agreed as
lo the most proper definition of chemistry.  Boerhaave
seems to have ranked it among the arts.  According to
Macquer, it is a science, the object of which is to dis-
cover the nature and  properties of till bodies by their
analyses and combinations. Dr. Black says, it is a
science which  teaches, by experiments, the effects of
heat and mixture on bodies; and Fourcroy defines it
a science which teaches the mutual actions of all na-
tural bodies on each other.  "Chemistry," says Jac-
quin, "is  that branch of natural  philosophy which
unfolds the nature of  all  material bodies, determines
the number and  properties of their component parts,
and teaches us how tliose parts are united, ami by what
means they may be separated and recoinbined."  Mr.
Heron defines it, "That  science which investigates
and explains the laws of that attraction which takes
place between the miimte component particles of na-
tural  bodies."   Dr. Ure's definition  ist " the science
Which investigates the composition ot material sub-
stances, and the permanent changes of constitution
which their mutual actions produce."  The objects to
which the  attenlion of" chemists is directed,  compre-
hend  the whole of the substances  that compose the
globe.
  CHEMO SIS.   (From  xatvui,  to gape;  because it
gives the appearance of a gap, or apertme.)  Inflam-
mation  of the conjunctive  membrane of the eye, in
which the white of the eye is  distended with  blood,
and elevated above the margin of the transparent cor-
nea.  In  Cullen's Nosology, ft  is  a  variety of the
ophthalmia membranarum, or an inflammation of the
membranes of the eye.
  Chesopodio-morus.  (From chenopodium  and mo-
rns, the mulberry; so called  because it is a sort of
chenopodium, with leaves like  a mulberry.)   The
nerb mulberry-blight.   The Blitum capitalum of Lin-
naeus.
   CHENOPO DIUM.  (From  x»?v, a goose, and zzovs,
a foot; so called from its supposed resemblance to a
goose's foot)   The name of a genus of plants in the
 Linnaean system.  Class, Pentandria ;  Order,  Digy-
nia.  The herb chenopody: goose's foot.
   Chenopodic*  ambrosioides.    The   systematic
name of the Mexican tea-plant.  Botrys Mexicana;
 Botrys ambrosioides  Mexicana; Chenopodium  Mexi-
canum; Botrys Americana,   Mexico  tea;  Spanish
tea and Artemisian botrys.  Chenopodium—foliis lan-
ceolatis dentatis, racemis foiiatis simplicibus, of Lin-
naeus.   A decoction of this plant is recommended in
paralytic cases.  Formerly the infusion was drank in-
stead of Chinese tea.
  Chenopodium anthelhiinticu«.   The seeds of
this plant,  Chenopodium—foliis  otato-oblongis den-
tatis, racemis aphyllis, of Linnaeus, though In great
esteem in America, for the cure of worms, are seldom
exhibited in this country.  They are powdered and
made into an electuary, with any proper syrup, or
conserve.
  ["The Chenopodium anthelminticum, Is a native
plant, found in the middle and southern states, usually
known by the names of wormseed and Jerusalem oak.
The name wormseed is applied in Europe  to the Ar-
temisia  saiitonica, a very different plant.  The cheno-
podium Is accounted  a good vermifuge, especially in
the lumbrici of children.  The expressed juice of the
whole plant is sometimes  given in the dose of a table-
spoonful to a child two or tliree years old.  More fre-
quently tlie powdered seeds are employed,  mixed with
treacle or syrup.  The seeds yield a volatile oil on dis-
tillation, which is prescribed in doses of six  or eight
drops, in sugar or some suitable vehicle."—Big. Mat.
Med.  A.]
  Chenopodium bonus Henricus.  The systematic
name of the English mercury. Bonus Henricus; Tola
bona; Lapathum unctuosum;  Chenopodium; Cheno-
podium—foliis  triangularisagittatis,  integerrimis,
ipicis composi'is aphyllis  axillaribus, of Linnaeus.
The plant to which these names are given, is  a native
of this country, and common in waste grounds  from
June to August.  It differs little from spinach when
cultivated ; and in  many olaces the young shoots are
eaten in spring like asparagus.   The leaves are  tc
counted emollient, and have been made an ingredient
in decoctions for clysters.  They are applied by  ll^
common people to flesh wounds and sores under  tl&
notion of drawing and healing
  Chenopodium  botuvs.  The  systematic  name of
the Jerusalem oak.  Botrys vulgaris;  Botrys; Am-
brosia; Artemisia chenopodium; Atriplex  odurata:
Atriplex saaveoltns;  Chenopodium—foliis  ollongis
sinuatis, racemis nudis/multifidis, of Linnaeus.  Thin
plant was formerly administered in form of decoction
in some diseases of the  chest; as humoral asthma,
coughs, and catarrhs.  It is now fallen into disuse.
  Chenopodium  fcetidum.   See Chenopodium  - <d-
varia.
  Chenopodium  vulvaria.  The systematic name
for Ihe stinking orach.   Atriplex ftetidn ;  Atnplzx
olida; Vulvaria; Garosmum: Raphex; Chenopodium
fatidum ; Blitum fatidum.  The very foetid smell ol
this plant, Chenopodium—foliis integerrimn rlunubca
ovatis, fioribus conglomcralis axillaribus, of  Linna-us,
induced physicians to exhibit  it in hysterical diseases.
It is  now superseded by more  active preparations.
Messrs. Chevalier and  Lasseigne have detected am-
monia in this plant in an uncombined state, which is
probably the vehicle of the remarkably nauseous odo-er
which it exhales, strongly resembling that  of putrid
fish.  When tlie plant is  bruised with water, aud the
liquor expressed and afterward distilled, we piocuic
a fluid which contains the subcarbonate of ammonia,
and an  oily matter, which gives the fluid  a  milky ap-
pearance.  If the expressed juice of the chenopodiiiui
be  evaporated to the consistence of an extract, it is
found to be alkaline; there seems to be acetic acid iei
iL  Its basis is said to be of an albuminous nature. Ii
is slated also to contain a small quantity  of the sub-
stance which tlie French coll osmazome, a little of an
aromatic resin, and a bitter  matter, soluble both in
alkohol and water, as well as several saline bodies.
   Che'ras.  (From x«*i to pour out.)  An obsolete
name of struma, or scrofula.
   Cherefo'lium.  See Scandix cerefolium.
   CHE'RMKS.   (Arabian.)  A small  berry, full of
insects like worms: the juice of which was formerly
made into a  confection,  called confectio alkenr.es,
which has been long disused.   The worm itself was
also so called.
  Chermes mIneralis.    Hydro-sulphuret of anti-
mony.
  Cherni'bium.  Chernibhn.  In Hippocrates it  sig-
nifies a urinal.
  Chero'nia.   (From Xeiptav,  the Centaur.)   Sci
Chironia centaurium.
  CHERRY.  See Cerasa nigra, and Cerasa. ruim
  Cherry bay.  The Lauro-ccrasus.
  Cherry-laurel.  The Lauro-ccrasus.
  Cherry, winter. The Alkckengi.
  CHERVTLLUM.  See Scandix cerefolium.
  CHESELDEN, William, was born in Leicester
shire, 1688.  After serving his apprenticeship to a sur
geon  at Leicester, he came to study at St. Thomas's
hospital, to whicli he afterward became surgeon.   He
began to give lectures at the early age of 22, and about
the same period was elected Fellow of the Royal  So-
ciety   Two years after, he published his " Anatomical
Description of the Human  Body," with some select
coses in surgery, which passed through several  edi-
tions ; in one of which he detailed his success in the
operation of lithotomy by the lateral method, as  it is
termed, which he found not so liable to failure as  (be
high  operation.   He also gave,  in the Philosophical
Transactions, an interesting account of a grown per-
son whom he restored to sight after being blind from
infancy; and furnished some other contributions to
the same work.   Besides being honourably distin
guished  by some of the French societies, he was ap-
pointed principal surgeon to Queen Caroline, to whom
he dedicated his splendid  work on the bones in 17311.
He was four years  after chosen surgeon  to Chelseu
Hospital, and retired from public  practice, and lived it
the age of 64.
  CHESNUT.  See JEsculus and Fag us.
  Chesnut, horse.  See JEsculus Hippocastanum
  Chesnul, sweet.  See Fagus castanea.
  Cheu'sis.  (From x«">it0  Pout out0  Liquation
Infusion.
  Cuevv'stpe.  A double-headed roller, applied to
                                        2l\ 
CHI
CHI
 I't middle below the chin;  then running on each side,
 It is crossed on the top of  the head ; then passing to
 the nape of the neck, is there crossed:  it then passes
 under the chin, where crossing, it is carried to the top
 ->f the head, Sec. until it is all taken up.
   CHEYNE,  George, was born iu Scotland, 1670.
 After graduating in  medicine, he came to London, at
 the age ot 30,  and published a Theory of Fevers, and
 l.ye years after a work on  Fluxions, which procured
 Ins election into the Royal Society; and this was soon
 Mlowedby his  "Philosophical Principles of  Natural
 Religion."  Being naturally inclined to corpulency,
 Jiid indulging in free living, ho became, when only of
 n middle age, perfectly unwieldy, with otlier marks of
 ten impaired constitution; against which, finding medi-
 i ines of  little avail, he determined to abstain  from  all
 cermented liquors, and confine himself to a milk and
 > egetable diet.  This plan  speedily relieved the most
 distressing symptoms, which led  him after a while to
 resume his luxuries; but  finding  his complaints pre-
 sently returning, he resorted again to the abstemious
 I Ian ; by a steady perseverance  in which he retained
 a tolerable share of health to the  advanced age of 72.
 In 1722,  in a treatise  on the gout, &c. he first incul-
 cated this plan ; and two years after greatly enlarged
 on  the  same  subject,  in "his celebrated  "Essay  on
 Health and Long  Life."   His " English  Malady, or
 Treatise on Nervous Diseases," which he regarded as
 especially prevalent in this country, a  very  popular
 work, published 1733, contains a. candid and judicious
 narrative of his own case.
  CHEZANAN'CE.   (From xr-Sw, to go to stool, and
 avayxt}, necessity.)   1. Any thing that  creates a ne-
 cessity lo go to stool.
  2. In  P. jEgineta, it  is the name of an ointment,
 with which the anus is  to be rubbed for  promoting
 stools.
  CHI'A.  (From Xtos, an island  where they were
 formerly propagated.)  1. A sweet  fig of tlie island
 of Cyprus, Chio, or Scio.
  2. An earth  from the island of Chio, formerly used
 i:i fevers.
  3. A species of turpentine.  See  Pistacia lerebin-
 tktts.
  Chi'actjs.   (From  Xtos, the island of Scio.)  An
 epithet of a  collyrium, the chief  ingredient of which
 was wine of Chios.
  Chi'adus.  In Paracelsus it signifies the same as
 furunculus.
  Chian turpentine.   See Pistacia tcrebinthus.
  Chia'smus.   (From xiv-W, to form like the letter
 X, chi.)  The  name of a bandage, the shape of which
 is like the Greek letter X, chi.
  CHIASTOLITE.   The name of a mineral found in
 Britany and Spain, somewhat like steatite.
  Chia'stos.   The name  of a crucial bandage  in
 Oribasius ; so called from its resembling the letter  X,
 r.'ii
  Chia'stre.   The name of a bandage for the tempo-
 ral artery.  It is a double-headed roller, the middle  of
 which is applied to the side of the head, opposite to
 that in which the artery is opened, and, when brought
 ■ nind to the part affected, it is crossed upon the com-
 press that is laid upon the wound, and then, the con-
 t;nualion is over the  coronal suture, and  under the
 i hin; then crossing on the compress, the course is, as
 at the first, round the head,  &c. till the whole  roller is
 taken up.
  Chi'bou.  A spurious species ofgum-elemi, spoken
 if by the faculty of Paris, but not  known in England.
  Chii'hi'na.   Contracted  from  China Chinae.  See
 ('ini huna.
  CHICKEN.   The young  ofthe gnllinaceous order
 <f birds, especially of the domestic  fowl.  Bee Pha-
 sianus gullit.-
  f' 111C K F. \ P. JX.  Se e  Varicella.
  ('IIU'KVVl'.IID.  See Alsine media.
  CIHCOYNHAU, Francis, was born at.  Montpelier
 tn 1U72, the second son of a professor there, who be-
 coming blind, he was appointed to discharge  his du-
 ties, after taking his degrees in medicine.  Having ac-
quitted*  himself very creditably, he was  deputed with
nther physicians to Marseilles in 1720, lo devise mea-
inires for arresting the  progress of the plague, which
Li the end  almost depopulated that city.  The seal
 which he evinced on that orcasion was  rewarded by
 « pension ; and on the death of his father-in law, M.
      213
 Chirac, in 1731, he was appointed to succeed him S3
 first physician  to the king; and  received  also otlier
 honours previously to his death in 1752.  He published
 in 1721, in conjunction with the other physicians, an
 account ofthe  plague at Marseilles, in  which the opi-
 nion is advanced, that the disease was not contagious-
 and having received orders from the king to collect all
 the observations that had been made concerning that
 disease, he drew up an  enlarged treatise with  much
 candour,  and containing a number of useful  facts,
 which was made public in 1744.
  [Chigoe, or gigger.  A small insect so called in the
 West India islands, infesting the feet of those who go
 barefoot, and particularly the negroes.   It is a very
 minute insect, and, when magnified, haz very much the
 appearance of  a flea.  It penetrates the skin of the
 feet without producing pain, and there forms its nidus.
 As it increases  in growth in its new situation, it pro-
 duces little swellings and intolerable itching.  The fe
 male negroes carefully extract them with a needle.
 When they are  not extracted, the parent deposites  its
 eggs, and as these hatch, the irritation causes increased
 swellings  and ulceration, which sometimes cause tlie
 loss of limbs, and even death to the sufferers.  Poul-
 tices  of Indian meal are  the only  applications  to
 heal the ulcerations and abscesses caused by the chi
 goes.  A.]
  CHILBLAIN.  See Pernio.
  [" CHILDS, Timothy, M.D., was born at Decrfield,
 Massachusetts,  February, 1748. He was  entered as a
 member of Harvard College in  1764, but was  under
 the in < »ssity of taking a dismission at the close of his
 junior year, by the failure of tlie funds on  which  he
 had relied to carry him through the regular course of
 that seminary.  From Cambridge he returned to Deer-
 field, where he studied physic and surgery with Dr.
 Williams; and from whence, in  1771, at the age  of
 twenty-three, he removed to practise in Pittsfield.
  An ardent  and decided friend of civil liberty, he took
 a deep interest  in those great political questions which
 at lhat period were agitated between Great Britain mid
 her American colonies.  No young man, perhaps, was
 more zealously opposed to the arbitrary encroachment
 of  the British  parliament than  Dr.  Childs, and as a
 proof of the  confidence reposed in him by the fatheis
 of  the town, it  need only be  mentioned that  in  17/4,
 when the crisis of open hostility was approaching, he-
 was appointed chairman of a committee to draw a pe
 tition to his  Majesty's Justices of Common Pleas in
 the county of Berkshire, remonstrating against certain
 acts of parliament which had just been promulgated,
 and praying them to stay all proceedings till those un-
 just and oppressive acts should be repealed.
  In the same year, (1774,) Dr. Childs took  a commis-
 sion in  a  company of minute-men, which, in  compli-
 ance wilh a  recommendation from the conve-ilion of
 the New-England slates, was organized in that town.
 When ihe news of  the oattle of Lexington  in 1775
 was received, he marched w ith  his company to Bos-
 ton, where he was soon after appointed a surgeon  of
 Colonel Patterson's regiment.  From  Boston he went
 w ith the army to New-York, and from thence accom-
 panied the expedition to Montreal.  In  1777 he left
 the army, and  resumed  his practice in the town  of
 I ittsfield,  and continued in it till less than a week be-
 fore his death, at the advanced age of seventy-three.
  In 1792, Dr. Childs was elected a  representative to
 the General Court, and for several years received the
 same pledge of public confidence.  He also held a seat
 in the senate for a number  of years, by the suffranes
 of the county in wliich he lived and died.  But it \va«
 m his profession  he  was most highly  honoured ana
 extensively useful.  He was early elected a member
 of the  Massachusetts Medical Society, and held the
 office of counsellor of that society to the time of his
 death.   In the year 1811, the University of Cambridge
 conferred on  him the degree of  Doctor of Medicine
 When the district society, composed ofthe fellows of
 the state  society, was  established in  the county  in
 Which  he lived, he was appointed censor, and elected
 to the office of president.
  As a practitioner, Dr. Childs stood high in  public es-
 t malum, both at home and  abroad.  For more than
thirty years he was the  only physician of note in the
town; and this single fact strongly testifies to the un-
common estimation in which he was held by  those
who were most  competent to judge of his professiona. 
CHI
C11L
«kirl and succevj.  He died on the 25th Fd». lr»21, as
he lived, honoured, respected, and  lamented."— Th.
Med. Biog.   A.]
  Chi li, ha«samum de.  Salmon speaks,  but with-
out any proof, of its being brought from Chili. The Bar-
hadoe-s tar, in which are mixed a few dropsof the oil
of aniseed, is usually sold  for it.
  Chiliody'namon.  (From  \lXtot,  a  thousand, and
&vvapi£, virtue.)  In Dioscorides,  this name is given
on account of  its many virtues.  An  epithet of the
herb Polemonium.  Most probably  the wood sage, Teu-
crium scorodonia of Linnaeus.
  Chiliophvllon.  (From  j_i)u<x,  a thousand,  and
dvXXor, a leaf,  because of the great  number of leaf-
lets.)  A name  of tlie milfoil.  See  Achillea millefo-
lium.
  Chi'lon.  XuXwe.  An inffamod and swelled lip.
  Chilpela'oua.  A varietjr of" capsicum.
  Chime thlon.   A chilblain.
  Chi'mia.  See Chemistry.
  Chimia'ter.   (From fctifita, chemistry, and tarpos,
a physician.)   A physician who makes tlie science of
riiomistry subservient  to  the purposes of medicine.
  Ciiimo lea laxa.  Paracelsus means, by this word,
the sublimed powdei which  is separated  from the
flowers of saline ores.
  CHINA.   iSo named from the country of China,
from whence it was brought.)  See Smilax China.
  China cmx.v..   A name  given to  the  Peruvian
dark.
  China occsdentams.   China spuria nodosa; Smi-
lax pseudo-China; Smilax Indica spinosa ; American
er West-Indian China.  This root is chiefly brought
from Jamaica, in large round pieces full of knots.  In
scrofulous disorders, il has been preferred to the ori-
ental kind.  In other cases it is of similar but inferior
virtue.
  China suppostta.  See Snirsio pseudochina.
  ChinchTna.   See Cinchona.
  Chincbi'na Carib.Ea.   See Cinchona Caribaa.
  Chinchina de Santa Fe'.  There arc several spe-
 cies  of bark sent from Santa Ft; but neither their
 particular  natures, nor the  trees which afford them,
 «re  yet accurately determined.
   Chinchina Jamaicenszs.  See  Cinclwna Caribaa.
   Chinchina rubra.  See Cinchona oblongifolia.
   Chinchina de  St. Lucia.  St. Lucia  bark.  See
 Cinchona floribunda.
   CHINCOUGH.  See Pertussis.
   CHINE NSIS.  See Citrus aurantium,
   Chinese Smilax.  See Smilax China.
   Chio turpentine.  See Pistacia tercbinthus.
   Chi'oli.  In Paracelsus it is synonymous wilh fu-
 runculus.
  CHIRA'GRA.   (From xaf'tne naluL and ayaa,  a
 seizure.)  The gout in the  joints of the hand.  See
 Arthritis.
  CHIRO'NES.  (From xup, the hand) Small  pus-
 tules on the hands and feet, enclosed in which is  a
troublesome worm.
  CHIRO NIA.   (From  Cliiron, tlie  Centaur, who
discovered its use.) 1. The name of a genus of plants
 m ihe Linnaean system.   Class,  Pentandria; Order,
 Monogynia.
  '2.  (From  x"d  the hand.)  An  affection of the
 hand, where  it  is troubled with chirones.
  Chironia Centaurium.  The systematic name of
 ihe  officinal  centaury.  Centaurium minus vulgare;
 Centauriumparvum;  Centaurium minus; Libadium;
 Chironia—corollis  quinquefidis infundibuliformibus,
 caule dichotomo, pistitlo  simplici, of Linnaeus.  This
 plant is justly esteemed to be the most  efficacious bit-
 ter of all the  medicinal plants indigenous to this coun-
 try.  It has been recommended, by  Cullen, as a  sub-
 stitute for gentian, and by several is thought to be  a
 more useful medicine.  The tops of the centaury plant
are directed for use by the colleges of London and Edin-
 burgh, and are most commonly given in infusion; but
they may also be* taken in powder, or prepared  into
 an extract.
  [Chironia anqularis.  See American centaury. A.]
  Chiro'nium.  (From  Xupwv, the  Centaur, who is
 laid to have been the first who healed them.)   A ma-
 lignant ulcer, callous on its edges, and difficult to
cure.
  CHIROTHE'CA.  (From xup,tne handi *n'l riOrj-
ui. to out)  A  glove of the  scarfskin, with ilic nails,
which is brought off from the dead subject, after the
cuticle is loosened by putrefaction, from the parts un
der it.
  CHIR'URGIA.  (From  xuP< "le 'ini*"L a,id cpyov.
a work ; because surgical operations are performed bv
the hand.)  Chuurgery, or surgery.
  Cm ton.  Xirov.  A coat, or membrane.
  [Chitonitb.  See Organic relics.  A.]
  Cm um.  (From Aios, the island where it was :>rn
duced.)  An epithet of a wine made at Scio
  Chlia'sma.  (From x*«m»u, to make warm.;  .".
warm fomentation.
  CHLORAS.MA.    (From  xXupoj, green.)    S-,
Chlorosis.
  CHLORATE.  A compound of chloric acid with  u
salifiable basis.
  CHLORIC ACID.   Acidum chloricum.  " It w-s
first eliminated from salts containing it  by Gay  Lus-
sac, and described by him in his admirable" memoir c,
Iodine, published in the 01st volume of the Annates «',<
Chimie.   When a current of chlorine is passed for f.-.imj
time through a solution of barytic earth in warm wa-
ter, a substance called hyperoxymuriate of barytes by
its  first  discoverer, Cheuevix,  is formed, as well ;: i
some common  muriate. The  latter is separated, by
boiling phosphate of silver  in the compound solium.-:
The former  may then be obtained  by evaporation, hi
fine rhomboidal prisms.  Into a dilute solution of tins
salt,Gay Lussac poured weak sulphuric acid. Though
he added only a few drops of acid, not nearly eii.niL'.
to saturate  the barytes, the  liquid became scnsin:;,
acid, and uot a bubble of oxygen escaped.   By conti-
nuing to add sulphuric acid wilh caution, he succeeded
in obtaining an acid liquid entirely free from sulphur:
acid and barytes, and not  precipitating nitrate of .-,
ver.  It was chloric acid dissolved in water.  Its cl;.i
racters are the following.
  This  acid has no sensible smell.   Its solution i i
waler is  perfectly colourless.  Its taste is very acid
and il reddens  litmus without destroying the colour
It produces no alteration on solution of indigo in mu
phuric acid.  Light does not decompose it.   it mat
be concentrated by a gentle  heat, without undergoing
decomposition, or without evaporating.  It was kept:,
long time exposed to the air without sensible diuiinu
tion of its quantity.  When concentrated, it has some
thing of an oily consistency.  When exposed to  heat,
it is partly decomposed into oxygen and chlorine, and
partly volatilized without  alteration.  Muriatic acid
decomposes  it in the same way, at the common  tour
perature.  Sulphurous acid, and sulphuretted hydro
gen, have the same property; but nitric acid proiluc< s
no  change upon it.  Combined with ammonia, it form*
a fulminating salt, formerly described by M. Chcncvix
It does not precipitate any metallic solution.  It readily
dissolves  zinc, disengaging hydrogen;  but  it  act.-
slowly on mercury.  It cannot be obtained in the
gaseous state.  It is composed of 1 volume chlorine -t-
2,5 oxygen, or, by weight, of 100 chlorine, 111.70 o.w
gen, if we consider the specific gravity of chloi inc '•■
be 2.4866.
  To the preceding account of the properties of c-hlor i
acid, M.  Vauquelin has added the following.   1-
taste is not only acid, but astringent, and  itsodoui.
when concentrated, is somewhat pungent.  Itdulc..-
from chlorine, in  not precipitating gelatine.  When
paper stained wilh litmus is left for some time in con-
tact with il, the colour is destroyed.   Mixed with mn
rialic acid, water is formed, and both acids are con-
verted into chlorine.   Sulphurous acid  is convene <J
into sulphuric, by taking oxygen from the chloric  aci.i,
wliich is consequently converted into chlorine.
  Chloric  acid combines with the bases, and forms tiiie
chlorates,  a set of salts formerly known  by the nau.e
of  the  hyper oxygenated  muriates.   They  may he
formed either directly by saturating the alkali or eanh
with the chloric acid, or by the old process of trans
mitting chlorine through the solutions of the bases, m
Woolfe's  bottles.  In this case the water is decoi.i
posed. Its oxygen unites to one portion ofthe chlorine.
forming chloric acid,  while  its hydrogen  unites u>
another portion  of chlorine, forming muriatic acid ,
and hence, chlorates and muriates must be contempo-
raneously generated, and must be afterward separated
by  crystallization, or peculiar methods.
  The chlorate of potassa or hypcroxymuriate, has been
long known, and  may be procured by receiving  chio
                                        213 
CHL
CHL
line, as it is formed, into a solution of potassa. When
the solution is saturated, it may be evaporated gently,
and the first crystals produced will be the salt desired,
tills crystallizing before the simple muriuie, which is
produced at the same time with it.  Its crystals are in
shining hexaearal laminae, or rhomboidal plates.  11 is
soluble  in  17 parts of  cold  water; and,  but  very
sparingly, in  alkohol.  Ils taste is cooling, and rather
unpleasant,  lis  specific gravity  is 2.0." 16 parts of
water, at  60°, dissolve  one of it, and 2\  of boiling
water.  The purest oxygen is extracted from this salt,
by exposing it lo a gentle red heat.  One hundred grains
yield about 115 cubic inches of gas.  It consists of 9.5
chloric acid+6 potassa=15 5, which is the prime equi-
valent ofthe salt.
  The effects of this salt on inflammable  bodies are
very powerful.   Rub two grains into  powder  in  a
mortar, add a grain of sulphur, mix them well by gentle
trituration, then collect the powder into a  heap, and
press upon it suddenly and forcibly with the pestle, a
loud detonation will ensue. If the mixture be wrapped
in strong paper, and struck with a  hammer, the report
will be still louder.  Five grains of the salt, mixed in
the same manner with two and  a half of charcoal,
will  be inflamed by strong trituration, especially if a
grain or two of sulphur  be added, but without much
noise.  If a little sugar be mixed with half its weight
ofthe chlorate, and a little strong sulphuric acid poured
on it, a sudden and vehement inflammation will ensue;
hut this experiment requires caution, as well as the
following.   To one  grain of the powdered salt in  a
mortar, add half a grain,of phosphorus; it will deto-
rrite, with  a  loud report, on the gentlest trituration.
I.i this experiment the hand should be defended by a
g'ove, and great care should be taken that none of the
i Isosphorus get into the eyes.  Phosphorus  may be in-
f lined by it under water, putting into a wine-glass one
P-irt of phosphorus and  two of the chlorate, nearly
fining the  glass with water,  and then pouring in,
i, rough a glass tube reaching  to the bottom, tliree or
f^ur parts of sulphuric acid.  This experiment, too, is
wry hazardous to the eyes.  If olive or linseed oil be
taken instead of phosphorus, it may be inflamed  by
similar means on the surface of the water.   This salt
should not  be kept mixed with sulphur, or perhaps any
inflammable substance,  as in  this state it has been
known to detonate spontaneously.  As it is the common
effect of mixtures of this salt with inflammable sub-
c'.ances of every kind, lo take fire on being projected
into tbe stronger acids, Chenevix tried the experiment
with it mixed with diamond powder in various propor-
tions, but without succce-s.
  Chlorate  of soda may be prepared in the same man-
ir r as the preceding, by substituting soda for potassa ;
I>ut it is not easy to obtain il separate, as it is nearly
n, soluble as the muriate of soda, requiring only '.i parts
nf cold water.   Vauquelin formed it, by  saturating
chloric acid with soda ; 500 parts of the dry carbonate
yielding 1180  parts of crystallized chlorate.  It consists
i.t 4 soda, 9.5 acid=13.5, which is its prime equivalent.
V crystallizes in square plates, produces a sensation of
cold in the  mouth, and a saline taste ; is slightly deli-
quescent, and in  its  other properties  resembles the
chlorate of potassa.
  Barytes  appears  to be the next base in order of
affinity for  this acid.   The best method of  forming it
Is to pour hot water on a large quantity of this earth,
aid to pass a current of chlorine  through  the liquid
k>pt warm, so that a fresh portion of barytes may be
taken up as the former is saturated.  This salt is solu-
ble in about four parts of cold water, and less of warm,
;rid crystallizes like the simple muriate.  It may be
obtained,  however, by the agency of double affinity;
for phosphate of silver boiled In the solution will de-
c nipose the simple muriate, and the muriate of silver
nnd phosphate of barytes being insoluble, will both fall
down and leave the chlorate in solution alone.  The
phosphate of silver employed in this process must be
perfectly pure, and  not  the least  contaminated  w ith
copper.                                .
  The chlorate of strontites may be obtained in Ihe
siiiiie manner.  It is deliquescent, melts Immediately
In (he mouth, and produces cold; is more soluble in
nll-obol than the  simple  muriate, and crystallizes in
no 'dies.
  The chlorate of lime, obtained in n similar way,  is
c.x:i:rmelv deliquescent, liquefies at a low heat, is very
      an
soluble in alkohol, produces much cold in solution, saf.
has a sharp bitter taste.
  Chlorate of ammonia is formed by double affinity,
the carbonate of ammonia  decomposing  the earthy
salts of this genus, giving up its carbonic acid to theii
base, and combining with their acid into chlorate ol
ammonia, whicli muy be obtained by evaporation.  Il
is very soluble both in water and alkohol, and tlecoin
posed by a moderate heat.
  The chlorate of magnesia much resembles that af
lime.
  To obtain chlorate of alumina, Chenevix put some
alumina, precipitated  from the  muriate,  and well
washed, but still  moist, into a Woolfe's apparatus, and
treated  it as  the  other earths.  The alumina shortly
disappeared; and on  pouring sulphuric acid into the
liquor, a strong smell of chloric  acid was perceivable ;
but on attempting to obtain the salt pure by means of
phosphate of 6ilver, the whole  was decomposed, and
nothing but chlorate of silver was found in  ihe solu-
tion."
  CHLORIC OXIDE.  Deutoxide of chlorine.  When
sulphuric acid is poured upon  hyper-oxymuriate of
potassa in a wine-glass, very little effervescence takes
place, but the acid gradually acquires an orange colour,
and a dense yellow vapour, of a peculiar and not dis-
agreeable smell,  floats on the surface.  These pheno-
mena led Sir H. Davy to believe, lhat the  substance
exlticatcd from the salt is held in solution by the acid.
After various unsuccessful attempts to obtain this sub-
stance in a separate slate, he at  last succeeded by ihe
following method: About 60 grains of the salt are tri-
turated  with  a little  sulphuric  acid, just sufficient to
convert them into a  very solid paste.  This is put
into a  retort, which is heated by means of hot water
The water must  never be allowed to become boiling
hot, for fear of explosion.  The heat drives off the new
gas, which may be received over mercury.   This new
gas has a much more intense colour lhan euchlorinc
It does not act on mercury.   Water absorbs more of
il than euchlorine.  Its taste is astringent.  It destroys
vegetable blues without reddening them. When phos-
phorus  is introduced into il, an explosion takes place.
When heat is applied, the gas explodes with more vio-
lence,  and  producing more  light than euchlorine.
When thus exploded, two measures of it are converted
into nearly three measures, which consist of a mixture
of one  measure  chlorine, and two  measures oxygen.
Hence,  it is composed of one atom chlorine and four
atoms oxygen.
  Deutoxide of chlorine has a peculiar aromatic odour,
unmixed with any smell of chlorine. A little chlorine
is always absorbed by the mercury during  tlie explo-
sion of  the gas.   Hence the small deficiency of the re-
sulting  measure  is accounted for.  At common tem-
peratures none of the simple combustibles which Sir
H. Davy tried,decomposed the gas, except phosphorus.
The taste of the aqueous solution is extremely astrin-
gent and corroding, leaving for a long while a verv
disagreeable sensation.   The action  of liquid  nitric
acid on the chlorate of potassa affords the same gas.
and a much larger quantity of this acid may be safely
employed than of the sulphuric.  But as the gas  must
be procured by solution of the salt, it is always mixed
with about one-fifth of oxygen."
  CHLORIDE.   A compound  of cldorine  with dif-
ferent bodies.
  Chloride of azot.  Sec Nitrogen.
  CHLO'RINE.   (So called from xXupoj,  green, br
cause it is of a  green colour.)  Oxygenated niuriailr
acid.  " The introduction of this  term, marks an era
in chemical science.  It originated from the masterly
researches of Sir H. Davy oh the oxvniuriatic acid gas
of the French school; a substance which, after resist-
ing the most powerful means of decomposition which
his sagacity could invent, or his  ingenuity apply, he
declared to be, according to the true logic of chemistry,
an elementary body, and  not a compound of muriatic
acid and oxygen, as was previously imagined, and as
its name seemed to denote.   He accordingly assigne*
to it the term chlorine,  descriptive of ils  colour; a
name now generally used.  The chlorldic  theory of
combustion, though more limited in  its application?
to the  chemical  phenomena of nature, than the auti-
phlogistic of Lavoisier, may justly be regarded  as of
equal importance to the advancement ofthe science it
self  When we  now s-irvev the Transactions ol tl» 
CHL
CHL
 RoyM Society for 1803, 1809, 1810, and 1811, we fee! I
 overwhelmed with astonishment  at the unparalleled
 skill, labour, and saga-'ity, by which the greal English ]
 chemist,  in so short  a space, prodigiously multiplied
 the objects and resources of the science, while he pro- !
 mulgaied a new code of laws, flowing from views of
 elementary action, equally profound, original, and sub-
 lim-e.  The importance of the revolution produced by
 his researches on chlorine, will justify us in presenting
 a detailed account of the steps by which it has been
 effected.  Hmv entirely the  glory  of this great work |
 belongs to Sir il. Davy, notwithstandingsome invidious
 attempts in this country to tear the well-earned laurel
 1'iom his brow, and transfer  it to the French chemists,
 we may readily judge by  the following decisive facts.
   The seconc' part of the Phil. Trans, for  IpO'J, con-
 tains researcl es on oxymuriatie acid, its nature and
 combinations, by Sir H. Davy, from which the follow-
 ing interesting euiacts are taken.
   'In the Bakcnan lecture for 1808,' says he, 'I have
 given an  aicmiit of the anion of potassium  upon
 muriatic acid gas, by  which  more than one third of ils
 volumeof hydrogen is produced;  and I have statted,
 that muriatic acid can in  no  instance be procured from
 oxymuriatie acid, or from dry muriates, unless water
 or its elements be present.
 >  ' In the second volume of  the Meinoires D'Arcueil,
 Gay Lussac and Thenard have detailed au extensive
 series of  facts, upon  muriatic acid, and oxymuriatie
 acid.  Some of their  experiments  are similar to those
 1 have detailed in the  paper just referred to; others are
 peculiarly their own, and  of a very curious  kind;
 their general conclusion is, that muriatic acid gas con-
 tains about one quarter of its weight of water; and
 thai oxymuriatie acid is not decomposable by any sub-
 stances but hydrogen, or such as can form triple com-
 binations with it.
   1 One of the most singular  facts that I have observed
 on this subject, and wliich I have  before referred  lo,
 is, that charcoal, even when ignited  to whiteness in
 oxymuriatie or muriatic acid  gases, by the  voltaic
 battery, effects no change in them, if it  has been pre-
 viously freed  from hydrogen,, by intense ignition in
 vacuo.
   'This experiment,  which I have several times  re-
 peated, led me to doubt of the existence of oxygen in
 thai substance, which has been supposed to  contain it,
 above all others, in a loose and active state; and to
 make a more rigorous investigation, than had hitherto
 been attempted for its detection.'
   He then proceeds to interrogate  nature, with every
 artifice of experiment and reasoning, till he finally ex-
 torts a confession of the true constitution of this mys-
 terious muriatic essence.  The above paper, and his
 Bakerian lecture, read before the  Royal  Society in
 Nov. and Dec. 1810, and published  in the first part of
 their Transactions for 1811, present the whole body of
 evidence for the undecompounded  nature of oxymu-
 riatie acid gas, thenceforward  styled  chlorine; and
 they will be studied in every enlightened age and coun-
 try, as a just and splendid pattern of inductive Baco-
 nian logic.  These views were slowly  and reluctantly
 admitted by the chemical philosophers of Europe.
   In  1812, Sir H. Davy  oublished his  Elements of
 Chemical Philosophy, containing a systematic account
 of his new doctrines concerning the combination of
 simple bodies.  Chlorine is there placed in  the same
 rank with oxygen, and finally removed from the class
 of acids.  In 1813, Thenard published the first volume
 of his Traits  de Chimic  Elementaire Thiorique  et
 Pratique.  This distinguished  chemist, the fellow-
 labourer of Gay Lussac in those able researches on the
 alkalies and oxymuriatie  acid, which form the distin-
 guished rivalry of the French school,  to the brilliant
 '.areer o<" Sir  H. Davy, slates, at p. 584, of the above
 • olume, .he composition  of  oxymuriatie acid as fol-
 lows :
  1 Composition. The oxygenated muriatic gascontains
 the half of ils volume of oxygen gas, not including lhat
 which we may suppose in muriatic acid.  Il thence fol-
 ows, that it is formed of 1.9183 of muriatic acid, and
 5517 of oxygen ; for the specific gravity of oxygenated
 .inriatic gas is 2.47, and that of oxygen gas  1.1034.'—
1 Chenevix first determined the proportion of its con-
stituent principles.  Gay Lussac and Thenard deter-
mined it more exactly, and showed  that we could not
•decompose the oxygenated muriatie gas, but by putting |
 it in contact with a body capable  of uniting with the
 two elements of this gas, or wilh muriatic acid.  They
 announced al ihe same lime that they could explain all
 the phenomena which ii presents, by considering it as
 a simple or as a compound body.  However, this last
 opinion appeared more  probable to thein.  Davy, on
 theconlrary, embraced the first, admitted ilexclusively,
 and  sought to  fortify it by experiments wliich arc
 peculiar to him.'  P. 585.
   In ihe second  volumeof Thenard's work, publisher**
 in 1814, he explains the mutual action of chlorine and
 ammonia gases, solely on the oxygenous  theory. ' On
 peut deinontrer  par ce dernier "proceed^, que"  le gas
 murialique oxigeue, doit comcnir la  moitie de son
 volume d'origCne, uni a I'acide murialique.' P.  147 —
 In the 4th  volume, which appeared in lwlii, we find
 the following passages: ' Oxygenuted mur.atic gas —
 Oxygenated  muriatic gas, in  combining  with  the:
 metals, gives rise to the neutral muriates.  Now, 107.fi
 of oxide of silver, contain 7.(5 of  oxygen, and  absorb
 .'('.-I of muriatic acid, lo pass to the stale  of neutral
 muriate.   Of consequence, 348 of this last  acid sup-
 posed dry, and 100 of oxygen, form this gas.  But ihu
 sp.  gr.  of oxygen is  1.1034, and that  of oxygenated
 muriatic gas is 2.47 ; hence, this contains the half of
 its volume of oxygen.'  P. 52.
   The force of Sir H. Davy's demonstrations, pressing
 for six years on the public mind of the French philo
 sophers, now begins lo transpire in a note lo the above
 passage.—' We reason here,' says Thenard, 'obviously
 on the hypothesis, which consists in regarding oxygen-
 ated muriatic gas as a compound body.' This pressure
 of public  opinion becomes conspicuous at the end  of
 Ihe volume. Among the additions, we have the follow
 ing decisive evidence of the lingering nltachfnciit to
 the old theory of Lavoisier and Berthollet.—' A  pretty
 considerable number of persons who have subscribed
 for this work, desiring a detailed  explanation  of the
 phenomena which oxygenated muriatic gas presents,
 on the supposition that this gas is  a simple  body, we
 are now going lo explain  these phenomena, on this
 supposition, by considering  them attentively.   The
 oxygenated muriatic gas will take the name of chlorine;
 its  combinations with  phosphorus,  sulphur,  azot,
 metals, will be  called chlorures;  the muriatic acid,
 which results from equal parts in volumeof  hydrogen
 and oxygenated  muriatic gases, will be  hydrochloric
 acid; the superoxygenated  muriatic  acid  will  be
 chlorous  acid;  and  the hyperoxygenated  muriatic.
 chloric  acid; the first, comparable to the  hydriodic
 acid, and the last to the iodic acid.'  In fact, therefore,
 we evidently see, that so far from ihe chloridic theory
 originating  iu France, as has been more than insi
 nuated, it was  only the  researches on  iodine, so ad
 mirably conducted by Gay Lussac,  that, by their auxi-
 liary attack on  the oxygen  hypothesis, eventually
 opened the minds of its adherents to the evidence long
 ago advanced by Sir II. Davy.  It will be peculiarly
 instructive, to give a general outline of that evidence,
 which has been mutilated  in some systematic works
 on chemistry, or frittered away into fragments.
  Sir II. Davy subjected oxymuriatie gas to the action
 of many simple  combustibles,  as well as metals, and
 from the compounds formed, endeavoured to eliminate
 oxygen, by the most energetic powers of affinity and
 voltaic electricity, but without success,  as the follow-
 ing abstract will show.
  If oxymuriatie acid gas be introduced into a  vessel
 exhausted of air, containing tin, and the tin be gently
 heated, and the gas in suflicient quantity, the tin and
 the gas disappear,  and a limpid fluid, precisely the
 same as Libavius's liquor, is formed : If this substance
 is a combination of muriatic acid and oxide of tin,
 oxide of tin ought to be separated from it by means of
 ammonia. He admitted ammoniacal gas over mercury
 to a small quantity of the liquor of Libavius; it was
 absorbed with great heat, and no gas was generated ;
 a solid result was obtained, which was of a dull white
 colour; some of  it was heated, to ascertain  if il con-
 tained oxide of tin; but  the whole volatilized, pro-
ducing dense pungent fumes.
  Another experiment of the same kind, made with
great care, and  in whicli  the ammonia was used in
great excess, proved lhat the liquor of Libaviuscannol
be decompounded  by ammonia; but that il forms a
 new combination with  this substance.
  He made a considerable nuantity of the solid  com
                                        215 
CHL
CHL
pound of oxymuriatie acid and  phosphorus by com-
bustion, and saturated it with am,noma, by healing it
in a proper receiver tilled with aminoniucal gas, on
wliich it acted wilh great energy, pruduciug much
heat; and they formed a white opuque powder. Sup-
posing that this substance was composed of the dry
uiuriaics and phosphates of ammonia; as muriate of
tiiiihionia is very volatile, and as ammonia is driven
off from  phosphoric acid by a heat below redness, ho
conceived that, by igniting the product obtained, he
should procure phosphoric acid; ho therefore intro-
duced some of the powder into a tube of green glass,
and heated it to redness, out ofthe contact of air, by a
spirit lamp; but  found, to his great surprise,  that it
was not al all volatile, nor decomposable at this degree
nf heat, and that it gave off no gaseous matter.
  The circumstance, that a substance composed prin-
cipally of oxymuriatie ncid, and ammonia, should re-
sist decomposition or change at so high a temperature,
induced him to pay particular attention to the proper-
ties of this new body.
  It  has  been said, and taken for granted by many
t-.he-inists, that when oxymuriatie acid and ammonia act
upon each oilier, water is formed: he several times
uiade the experiment, and was convinced lhat this U
not ihe case.
  He mixed together sulphurated  hydrogen in  a high
degree of purity, and oxymuriatie acid gas, both dried,
in equal volumes.   In this instance the condensation
was not l-40th.; sulphur, which seemed to contain a
little oxymurialic acid, was formed on the sides ofthe
vessel; no vapour was deposited, and the residual pas
contained about 19-20ths of murialic acid gas, and The
rein,under was inflammable.
   Wmen oxymuriatie acid  is acted upon by nearly an
equal volume of hydrogen, a combination takes place
between them, and murialic acid gas results.  When
muriatic acid gas is acted on by mercury, or any otlier
metal, the oxymuriatie acid is attracted from  the hy-
drogen by the stronger  affinity of the  metal, and an
,ixy muriate, exactly similar to that formed by combus-
tion, is produced.
  The iiclion of water upon those compounds which
have been  usually considered as muriates, or as dry
muriates, but which are properly combinations of oxy-
muriatie  acid wilh inflammable  bases, may be easily
explained, according to  these views of the subject.
  . hen water  is added in certain  quantities to Liba-
vius's  liquor,  a solid crystallized mass  is obtained,
[>(>iit which oxide of tin and muriate of ammonia can
be procured by ammonia.   In this case, oxygen may
lite conceived lo be supplied to the  tin, and hydrogen to
Ihe oxymuriatie acid.
  The  compound  formed  by  burning phosphorus in
oxymuriatie acid, is in a similar relation to water.  If
Hun substance be added to it, it is resolved into  two
powerful acids; oxygen, it maybe supposed,  is fur-
nished to the  phosphorus to form phosphoric acid, hy-
dro.jen to the oxymuriatie acid to form common inuri-
ulir ai id gas.
  lie caused strong explosions from an electrical jar to
pass through oxymuriatie gas, by means of points of
platina, for several hours in succession; but it seemed
not lo undergo the slightest change.
  He  electrized the oxymuriates of phosphorus and
<ulphur for some  hours, by the power of the voltaic
apparatus of 1000 double plates.   No gas separated,
but a minute quantity of hydrogen, which he was in-
clined to atlribute to the  piesence of moisture in the
apparatus employed; for he once obtained hydrogen
from Libavius's liquor by a similar operation.  But
lie ascertained that this was owing to the decomposi-
tion of water adhering to the  mercury:  and in some
late experiments made with  2000  double  plates, in
which  Ihe discharge was from platina wires, and in
which  the mercury used for confining the  liquor was
carefully boiled, there was  no  production of an/ per-
manent elastic matter.
  Few substances, perhaps, have less claim to be con-
sidered as acid, than oxymuriatie acid.  As  yet. wo
have no rieht to say that it has been decompounded;
and as its "tendency of combination is with pure in-
llammable matters, it may possibly belong to the same
class of bodies us oxygen.
  May it not in fact be a peculiar acidifying and  dis-
solving principle, forming compounds wilh combustible
bodies, analogous to acids containing oxygen or oxides,
      210
 in their  properties  and powers of combination; Oct
 diii'enug  from thein, in being for the most part decom-
 posable by water 1  On this idea, murialic acid may
 be considered as having hydrogen for its basis, and
 oxymuriatie acid for its acidifying principle; and the
 phosphoric sublimate  as  having phosphorus  for its
 basis, and oxymuriatie acid for its acidifying matter;
 and Libavius's liquor, and the compounds of arsenic
 with oxymuriatie acid, may be regarded as analogous
 bodies.   The combinations of oxymuriatie acid with
 lead, silver, mercury, potassium, and sodium, in this
 view, would be considered as a class of bodies related
 more to oxides than acids, in their powers of attraction.
 —Bak. Lee. 1809.
   On the Combinations of the Common Metals with
           Oxygen  and Oxymuriatie Gjs.
   Sir H.  used in all  cases small retorts of  green glass,
 containing from three to six cubical  inches, furnished
 with stop-cocks.  The metallic substances were intro
 duced, the retort exhausted and filled with the  gas to
 be acted upon, heat was applied by means of a spirit
 lamp, and after  cooling, the results were examined,
 and the residual gas analyzed.
   All  the metals that he tried, except  silver, lead,
 nickel, cobalt, and  gold, when heated, burnt in the
 oxymuriatie gas, and  the volatile metals  with  flame
 Arsenic,  antimony,  tellurium, and zinc, with a white
 flame, mercury with a red flame. Tin became ignited
 to whiteness, and iron and copper to redness; tungsten
 and manganese io dull  redness ; platina was scarcely
 acted upon at the heat of fusion of the glass.
   The product from mercury was corrosive sublimate.
 That from zinc was similar in  colour lo lhat from
 antimony, but was much less volatile.
   Silver and lead produced horn-silver and horn-lead;
 and bismuth, butter  of bismuth.
   In acting upon metallic oxides by oxymuriatie gas, he
 found illt'-i those of lead, silver, tin, copper, antimony,
 bismuth, and tellurium, were decomposed in a heat
 below redness,  but  the oxides of the  volatile metals
 more readily than those of the fixed ones.  The oxides
 of cobalt and nickel were scarcely  acted upon at a
 dull red heat.  The red.oxide of iron was uot affected
 at a strong red heat, while the black oxide was readily
 decomposed at a much lower temperature; arsenical
 acid underwent no change at the greatest heat  thai
 could be  given it in the glass retort, while the white
 oxide readily decomposed.
   In cases where oxygen was  given off, il was found
 exactly the same in  quantity as that which  had been
 absorbed by the metal.  Thus, two grains  of red oxide
 of mercury absorbed 9-10ths of a cubical inch of oxy-
 murialic  gas, and afforded 0.45 of oxygen.  Two grams
 of dark olive oxide  from calomel decomposed by po-
 tassa, absorbed  about  94-100ths  of oxymurialic gas,
 and afforded  24-100ihs of oxygen, and corrosive sub
 limate w as produced in both cases.
   In  the  decomposition of the white oxide of zinc,
 oxygen was expelled exactly equal to half the volume
| of the oxymuriatie acid absorbed. In the case of the
 decomposition of the  black oxide of iron,  ami the
 white oxide of arsenic, the changes lhat occurred were
 of a very beautiful kind ; no oxygen was given oft" in
 either case, but butter  of arsenic and arsenical acid
 formed in one instance, and the ferruginous sublimate
 and red oxide of iron in the other.
   General Conclusions and Observations, illustrated
                  by Experiments.
   Oxymuriatie gas combines with inflammable bodies,
 to form simple binary compounds; and in  these cases,
 when it acts upon oxides, it either produces Hie expul-
 sion of their  oxygen, or causes it to enter into new
 combinations.
   If it be said that the oxygen arises from the decom-
 position  of the  oxymuriatie  gas, and not from  the
 oxides, it may be asked, why it is  always the quantity
 contained in  the oxide *? and why in some cases, as
 those of the  peroxides of  potassium and sodium, if.
 bears no relntion to the quantity of gas 1
   If there existed any acid  matter in  oxvmuriatic gas,
 combined with oxygen, it ought to be exhibited in  the
 fluid compound of one  proportion of phosphorus, and
 two of oxymuriatie tins ; for this, on such on assump
 tion, should consist of muriatic acid (on the old  hypo-
 thesis, tree from water) and phosphorous acid ; but tlii*
 substnncn has no effect on litmus paper, nnd does  not
 act under common  circumstances, on fixed  alkaline 
CHL
CHL
  Wses, sjeh as dry lime or magnesia.  Ox  muriatic
  gas, like oxygen, must be combined in larye  quantity
  wilh peculiar inflammable matter, to lonn acid mutter.
  In ils union with hydrogen, it instantly reddens the
  driest litmus paper, though a gaseous body.  Contrary
  to acids, it  expels oxygen  from protoxides, and com-
  bines with peroxides.
    When potassium is burnt in oxymuriatie gas, a dry
  compound is obtained.  If potassium combined with
  oxygen is employed,  the whole of the ovygeri is ex-
  pelled, and the same compound formed.  It is contrary
  lo sound logic to say, that this exact quantity of oxygen
  is given off from a body not known to be compound,
  when we are certain of its existence in another; and
  all the cases are parallel.
   Scheele explained the bleaching powers of the oxy-
  muriatie gas, by supposing that il destroyed colours by
 combining with  phlogiston.  Berthollet considered it
 as acting by supplying oxygen.  He made an experi-
 ment, w hich seems to prove that the pure gas is in-
 capable of altering vegetable colours, and that ils opera-
 tion in bleaching depends entirely upon its properly of
 decomposing water, and liberating its oxygen.
   He rilled a glass globe, containing dry powdered mu-
 riate of lime, with  oxymurialic  gas.  He introduced
 some dry paper tinged with litmus that had been just
 heated, into  another globe containing dry muriate of
 lime- after  some time this globe was exhausted, and
 then connected with the globe containing the oxymu-
 rialic gas, and by an appropriate  set of slop-cocks, the
 papei was exposed to the aclion of the gas.  No change
 of colour took  place,  and after  tw o days theic was
 scarcely a perceptible alteration.
   Suiiie similar paper  dried, introduced into gas that
 had not been exposed to muriate of tune, was instantly
 rendered white.
   It is generally stated in chemical books, that oxymu-
 riatie gas is capable ol" being condensed and crystal-
 lized at a low temperature.  He  found by several ex-
 periments that this is not the case.  The  solution of
 oxymurialic gas in water  freezes  more readily than
 pure water, but the pure gas dried by muriate ef lime
 undergoes no change whatever, al a temperature of 40
 below 0° of Fahrenheit.  The mistake seems  to have
 arisen from the exposure of the gas to cold in bottles
 containing moisiure.
   He attempted  to decompose boracic and  phosphoric
 acids by oxymuriatie  gas, but without success; from
 which il seems probable, that the attractions of bora-
 cium and phosphorus  for oxygen are stronger than for
 oxymuriatie gas. And from the experiments already
 detailed, iron and  arsenic are analogous  in this re-
 spect, and probably some other metals.
   Potassium, sodium,  calcium,  strontium, barium,
 zinc, mercury, tin, lead, and probably silver, antimony,
 and gold, seem to have a stronger attraction for oxy-
 muriatie gas than for oxygen.
   ' To call a body which is not known to contain oxy-
 gen, and which cannot contain muriatic acid, oxymu-
 rialic acid, is contrary to the principles of lhat nomen-
 clature in which it is adopted ;  and  an alteration of it
 seems necessary  to assist the progress of discussion,
 and to diffuse just ideas on the subject. If the great dis-
 coverer of this substance had signified il by any simple
 name, it would have been proper to  have recurred to
 it; but dephlogisticated marine acid Is a term which
 can hardly be adopted in the present advanced era of
 the science.
   ' After consulting some of the most eminent chemical
 philosophers in this country, it  has  been judged most
 proper to suggest a name founded upon one of  its ob-
 vious and characteristic properties—its colour, and to
 call it ehlorineot chloric gas.
   ' Should it hereafter be discovered to be compound,
 and even to  contain oxygen, this name can imply no
 error, and cannot necessarily require a change.
  ' Most of the sails which have been called muriates,
 are not known to contain any muriatic acid, or any
oxygen.  Thus Libavius's liquor, though  converted
into a muriate by water, contains only tin and oxymu-
riatie  gas, and horn-silver seems incapable of being
converted into a true muriate.'—Bak. Lee. 1811.
  We shall  now  exhibit a summary view of the pre-
paration and  properties of chlorine.
  Mix in  a mortar 3 parts of common salt and J of
black oxide of manganese.  Introduce ihem into a glass
retort, and add 2 oarts of sulphuric acid.   Gas will |
  issue, which must be collected in the water-pnc-.ii:iat)(
  trough.  A gentle heat will favour its extrication.  In
  practice, the above pasty-consistenced mixture is apt
  to boil over into the neck.  A mixture of liquid mu
  rialic acid and manganese is therefore more conve-
  nient for the production of  chlorine. A very slight
  heat is udequute lo its expulsion from  the retort.  In-
  stead of manganese, red  oxide of mercury, or puoe-
  colourcd oxide of lead, may be employed.
   This gas, as  we  have  alreudy remarked,  is of a
  greenish yellow-colour, easily recognised by daylight
  but  scarcely distinguishable  by  that  of candles.   Ilf
  odour and taste aie  disagreeable, strong, and ro cha
  racleristic, that it is impossible  lo mistake ii for any
  other gas.   When we breathe it, even much diluted
  with air, it occasions a sense of strangulation, constric-
  tion of Ihe thorax, and a copious discharge from the
  nostrils.  If respired in larger quantity, its excites vio-
  lent coughing, with  spitting of  blood,  and would
  speedily desiroy the individual, amid violeni  distress.
  Ils  specific gravity is 2.4733.  This  ib better  inferred
  from the specific gravities of hydrogen and muriatic
  acid gases, than from the direct weight of chlorine,
  from the impossibility of confining it  over mercury.
  On   volume of hydrogen, added to  one of chlorine,
  form two of the ccid gas.  Hence, if from twice the
  specific gravity of muriatic gas=2.5427, we subtract
  lhat of hydrogen=0.00U4, the difference 2.4733 is the
  sp. gr. of chlorine.  100 cubic  inches at mean pressure
  and temperature weigh 75£ grains.  See Gas.
   In its perfectly dry state, it has  no effect on dry vege
  table colours.  With  the  aid of a little moisture, it
  bleaches them into a yellowish-white. Scheele first
  remarked this bleaching property; Berthollet applied
  it to the art of bleaching in France; and from him
  Mr. Watt introduced its use into Great  Britain.
   If a lighted wax taper be immersed  rapidly into this
  gas, it consumes very fast, with  a dull reddish flame,
  and much smoke.  The taper will not burn at the sur-
  face of the gas.  Hence, if slowly introduced, it is apt
  to be extinguished.  The   alkaline metals, as  well  as
  copper, tin, arsenic, zinc, antimony, in  fine laminae or
  filings,  spontaneously burn  in  chlorine.   Metallic
  chlorides result-  Phosphorus also takes fire at ordi-
  nary temperatures, and is converted  into a chloride.
  Sulphur may be melted in the gas without taking fiie.
  It forms a liquid chloride, of a reddish colour.   When
  dry,  it is not altered by any  change of temperature.
  Enclosed in a phial with a little moisture, it concretes
 into crystalline needles, at 40° Fahr.
   According to Thenard. water condenses, at the tern
 perature of 68° F. and at  29.92 barom. 11-2 times its
 volume of chlorine, and forms aqueous chlorine, for-
 merly called liquid oxymuriatie acid.   This combina-
 tion is best made in the second  bottle of a Woolfe's ap-
 paratus, the first being charged with a little water, to
 intercept the muriatic acid gas, while the third bottle
 may contain potassa-water  or milk of lime, to con-
 dense the superfluous gas.   Thenard says, that a kilo-
 gramme of salt is suflicient for saturating from 10 to
 12 litres of water.   These measures correspond to
 2 1-3 lbs. avoirdupois, and  to from 21 to 25 pints Eng-
 lish.  There  is an ingenious  apparatus for making
 aqueous chlorine, described in Berthollet's Elements
 of Dying, vol. i.; which, however, the  happy substi-
 tution of slacked  lime for  water, by Mr. Charles Ten-
 nant, of Glasgow, has superseded, for the purposes of
 manufacture.  It congeals by cold at 40° Fahr. and
 affords crystallized plates, of a deep yellow, contain-
 ing a less proportion of water than the liquid combina-
 tion.  Hence when  chlorine is  passed into water at
 temperatures under 40°, the liquid finally becomes a
 concrete  mass, which  at a gentle heat liquefies with
 effervescence, from the escape ofthe excess of chlorine.
 When steam and chlorine  are passed together through
 a red-hot porcelain tube, they ars converted into mu-
 riatic acid and oxygen.  A like result is obtained by
 exposing aqueous chlorine to the solar rays; with this
 difference, that a little chloric acid is formed.   Hence
aqueous  chlorine should  be kept in  a dark place.
 Aqueous chlorine attacks  almost all the metals at an
ordinary temperature, forming  muriates or  chlorides,
and heat is evolved.   It has the smell,  taste, nnd co
lour of chlorine; and  acts, like it, on vegetable ani
animal colours.  Its taste is somewhat astringent, bu
not in the least degree acidulous.
  When we out iu a perfectly dark place, at the-oieU
                                        217 
CHI
CHL
nary temperature, a mixture of chlonne and hydrogen
It experiences no kind of alteration, even in  the space
of a great many days.  But if, at  the same low tem-
perature, we expose the mixture to the diffuse light of
day, by degrees the two gases enter into chemical com-
bination, and  form muriatic acid gas.  There is no
change in the volume of  live  mixture, but the  change
of ilsnature may be proved, by its rapid absorbability
by water, its not exploding by the lighted taper, and
the disappearance  of the chlorine hue.   To produce
ihe complete discoloration, we musl expose the mix-
ture finally for a few minutes to the sunbeam.  If ex-
posed at first to this intensity of light, it explodes with
great violence, and instantly forms muriatic acid gas.
5'he same explosive combination is produced by the
electric spark and the lighted taper.  Thenard says, a
heat of 392° is sufficient to cause  the explosion.  The
proper proportion  is an equal volume of each  gas.
Chlorine  and nitrogen combine into a remarkable de-
tonating  compound, by  exposing  the  former gas to a
solution of an ammoniacal salt.  Chlorine is the most
powerful agent for destroying contagious miasmata.
The  disinfecting phials of Morveau evolve this gas."
-Ure.
  CHLORITE.  A mineral usually friable or very
easy to pulveuze, composed of a multitude of little
spangles, or shining small  grains, falling to  powder
under the pressure  of the fingei s   There are four sub-
species.
  1. Chlorite earth.  In  green, glimmering, and some-
what pearly scales, with a shining green streak.
  2. Common chlorite.  A massive mineral of a black-
ish-green colour, a shining lustre, and a foliated frac-
ture passing into earthy.
  3.  Chlorite slate.  A massive, blackish-green mine-
ral, with a resinous lustre, and curve slaty or scaly-
foliated fracture.
  4. Foliated chlorite.  Colour between mountain and
blackish-green.
  CHLORIODATE.  A compound of the chloriodic
arid with a salifiable basis.
  OHLORIODE ACID.  Acidum chloriodicum.  See
Chloriodic acid.
  CHLORIODIC ACID.  Acidum chloriodicum.
Chloriode acid.  Sir II.  Davy formed it, by admitting
chlorine  in excess to known quantities of iodine, in
vessels exhausted  of air, and repeatedly healing the
sublimate. Operating in this way, he found that iodine
absorbs less than one-third of its weight of chlorine.
  Chloriodic acid is a very volatile substance, formed
by the sublimation  of iodine in a great excess of chlo-
rine, is of a bright  yellow colour; when  fused it be-
comes of a deep orange, and when rendered elastic, il
forms  a  deep orange-coloured gas.  It is capable of
combining with much iodine when they are heated
together; its colour becomes, inconsequence,deeper,
and the chloriodic  acid and the iodine rise together in
the elastic state.  The solution of the chloriodic acid
in water, likewise dissolves large quantities of iodine,
so that it is possible to obtain a fluid containing very
different  proportions of iodine and chlorine.
  When two bodies so similar in their characters, and
In the compounds they form, as iodine and chlorine, act
upon substances at the same time, it is difficult, Sir H.
observes, to form a judgment of the different parts that
they play in the new chemical arrangement produced.
It appears most probable, that the acid property of
tlie chloriodic compound depends upon the combination
of the two bodies: and  its  action upon  solutions of
the alkalies and the earths may  be easily explained,
when it is considered that chlorine has a greater ten-
dency  than iodine to form double compounds wilh the
metals, and that iodine  has a greater tendency than
chlorine  to form triple  compounds with oxygen and
the. metals.
  A ti ipie compound of this  kind with sodium may
exist iu sea water, and  would be separated with the
first  crystals  that  are  formed  by its  evaporation.
Hence, it may exist in common salt.  Sir II. Davy
ascertained, by feeding birds with bread soaked with
water, holding  some of it  in solution, thai it is not
poisonous like iodine itself.— I 're's Ch. Diet.
  CHLORO-CARBONOUS ACID. "Theterm
chloro-carhonic which has been given to this compound
Is incorrect, lending to the belief  of its being a com-
  Snund of chlorine  and acidified  charcoal, instead of
  eing  a  compound of chlorine  and the protoxide of
       218
iharcoal.  Chlorine has no immediate action on car
bonic oxide, when they are exposed to each either in
common daylight over mercury: not even when the
electric  spark is  passed through them.  Experiments
made by Dr. John Davy, in the presence of his brother
Sir H. Davy, prove that  they combine  rapidly  when
exposed to ihe direct solar beams, and one volume oi
each is condensed  into one volume  of the compound.
The resulting gas possesses very curious  properties,
approaching to those of an acid.  Fiom the peculiar
potency of the sunbeam in effecting this combination,
Dr. Davy called  it phosgene gas.  The constituent
gases, dried  over  muriate of lime, ought to be  intro-
duced from  separate reservoirs  into  an exhausted
globe, perfectly dry, and exposed for fifteen minutes to
bright sunshine, or for twelve hours to daylight The
colour of the chlorine disappears, and on opening the
stop-cock  belonging to the globe  under mercury re-
cently boiled, an  absorption  of one-half the gaseous
volume is indicated.  The resulting gas possesses pro-
perties perfectly distinct from  those belonging to either
carbonic oxide or chlorine.
  It does  not  fume in the atmosphere.  Its odour is
different from that of chlorine, something like that
which might be  imagined  to result from the smell of
chlorine combined with that of ammonia.  It is  in
fact more intolerable and suffocating than chlorine it-
self, and affects the eyes  in  a  peculiar manner, pro-
ducing a rapid flow of tears,  and occasioning painful
sensations.
  It reddens  dry  litmus paper;  and condenses foul
volumes of ammonia  into a  while salt, while heat is
evolved.  This ammoniacal compound is neutral, has
no odour, but a pungent saline taste; is deliquescent,
decomposable by the liquid mineral acids, dissolves
without effervescing in vinegar, and sublimes  unal-
tered  in muriatic,  carbonic, aud  sulphurous  acid
gases. Sulphuric  acid resolves itself into caroonicand
muriatic acids, in the proportion of two in volume of
the latter, and one of the former.  Tin, zinc,  anti
mony, and arsenic, heated in chloro-carbonous  acid
abstract the chlorine, and  leave the carbonic  oxide
expanded to  its original  volume.   There  is  neither
ignition nor explosion takes place, though the action
of the metals is rapid.  Potassium  acting on the com-
pound gas produces a solid  chloride  and charcoal
White  oxide of  zinc, wilh  chloro-carbonous  acid,
gives  a metallic chloride, and carbonic acid.  Neither
sulphur, phosphorus, oxygen, nor hydrogen, though
aided by heal, produce any change on the  acid gas.
But oxygen and  hydrogen together, in due propor-
tions, explode  in it; or more exposure to  water con-
verts it into muriatic and carbonic acid gases.
  From its completely neutralizing ammonia, which
carbonic acid does not;  from its separating carbonic
acid from  the subcarbonate of this alkali, while  itself
is not separable by the acid gases or acetic acid, and
its reddening vegetable  blues, there can  be no hesita-
tion in pronouncing the chloro-carbonous compound to
be  an acid.   Its saturating  powers indeed surpass
every other  substance.  None condenses so large a
proportion of ammonia
  One measure of alkohol condenses twelve of chloro-
carbonous gas without decomposing it;  and acquires
the peculiar odour and power of affecting the eyes.
  To  prepare the gas in a  pure slate, a good air-pump
is  required, perfectly tight stop-cocks, dry gases, and
dry vessels.  Its specific gravity  may be inferred from
tlie specific gravities of its constituents, of  which it is
the sum.    Hence 2.4733 +  0.9722 = 3.4455, is the
specific gravity of chloro-carbonous gas;  and  100
cubic inches weigh  105.15 grains.  It  appears that
when hydrogen, carbonic oxide, and chlorine, mixed in
equal volumes, are  exposed to light,  muriatic and
ctiloru-carboiious  acids are formed, iu  equal propor-
tions, indicating an equality of affinity.
  The paper in the Phil Trans, for 1812 from which
the preceding facts are taken, does honour to the school
of Sir H. Davy.  Gay Lussac and Thenard, as well as
Dr. Murray, mnde controversial investigations on the
subject  at the same time, but without success.  The-
nard  has, however, recognised  its  distinct existence
and properties, by the name of carbo-muriatic acid, in
the 2d volume of his System, published in 1814, where
he considers it asa compound  of muriatic and carbonic
acids, resulting from the mutual actionsof the oxygen-
ated muriatic acid and carbonic Oxide "—Ure. 
CHL
CHL
   CHLOROCYANIC ACID.  Acidum chloro-cyani-
 >um.  Chloroprussic acid.   " When hydrocyanic acid
 * mixed with chlorine, it acquires new properties,   lis
 'idour is much increased.   It no longer forms prussian
 Dine wifli solutions of iron, but a green  precipitate,
 whicli  becomes blue by the addition of sulphurous
 acid.  Hydrocyanic acid, thus altered,  had acquired
 the name of oxyprussic,  because it was supposed to
 have acquired oxygen.  Cay Lussac subjected  il to a
 minute examination, and found  that it was a com-
 pound of equal volumes of chlorine and  cyanogen,
 whence he proposed to distinguish  it by the name of
 chlorocyanic acid.   To prepare  this compound,  he
 passed a current of chlorine into solution of hydrocya-
 nic acid, till it destroyed the colour of sulphate of  in-
 digo; and by agitating the liquid with mercury,  he
 deprived it ofthe excess of chlorine.  By distillation,
 afterward, in a moderate heal,  an elastic fluid  is dis-
 engaged,  which possesses the  projxerties formerly
 assigned to oxyprussic acid.   This, however,  is  not
 pure chlorocyanic acid, but a mixture of it with car-
 bonic acid,  in  proportions wliich vary so  much as to
 make it difficult to determine them.
  When hydrocyanic acid is supersaturated with chlo-
 rine, and the excess of this last is removed by mercury,
 the liquid contains chlorocyanic  and muriatic  acids.
 Having put  mercury into a glass jar until it was3-4ths
 full, he filled it completely with that acid  liquid, and
 inverted the jar in a vessel of mercury.  On exhaust-
 ing the receiver of an air-pump, containing this vessel,
 the mercury sunk in the  jar, in consequence of  the
 elastic fluid disengaged.  By degrees, the liquid  itself
 was entirely expelled, and  swam on the mercury on
 the outside.  On admitting the air, the liquid  could
 not enter the tube, but only the mercury, and  the
 whole elastic fluid condensed, except a  small bubble.
 Hence it was concluded, that chlorocyanic acid was
 not  a permanent gas, and  that, in order  to remain
 gaseous under the pressure of the air, it  must be mix-
 ed with another gaseous substance.
  The mixture of chlorocyanic  and carbonic acids has
 the following  properties.  It is colourless.   Its smell
 is very strong.  A very small quantity of  it irritates
 the pituitory membrane, and occasions tears.   It red-
 dens litmus, is not inflammable, and doe s not detonate
 when mixed with twice its bulk  of oxygen or hydro-
 gen.  Its density, determined by calculation, is 2.111.
 Its aqueous solution does not  precipitate  nitrate  of
 silver nor barytes water.  The alkalies absorb it  ra-
 pidly, but an excess of them is necessary to destroy its
 odour.   If we then add an acid, a strong effervescence
 of carbonic acid is produced, and the odour of chloro-
 cyanic acid is no longer perceived.   If we add an ex-
 cess of lime to the acid solution, ammonia is disen-
 gaged in abundance.   To  obtain  the  green preci-
 pitate from  solution of iron, we must begin by mixing
 chlorocyanic acid with that solution.  We then  add a
 little potassa, and at last a little acid. If we add the
 alkali before the iron, we obtain no green precipitate.
  Chlorocyanic acid exhibits with potassium almost
 the same phenomena as cyanogen.   The inflammation
 is equally slow, and the gas diminishes as much  in
 volume."—Ure.
  CHLOROPHANE.  A violet fluor spar, found  in
 Siberia.
  CHLOROPHILE.  The name lately given by Pel-
 Ictier and Caventou to the green matter of the leaves
 of plants. They obtain it by pressing, and then wash-
 ing in water, the substance of many leaves,  and  after-
 ward treating it wilh  alkohol.    A matter was dis-
 solved, which, when  separated by  evaporation, and
 purified by washing in hot water, appeared as a deep-
 green resinous substance.  It dissolves entirely in alko-
 hol, aether, oils, or alkalies; it is not altered by  expo-
 sure to air;  it  is softened by heat, but does  not melt;
 it iiurns  with flame, and  leaves  a  bulky coal. Hot
 water slightly dissolves it.   Acetic arid is the only acid
 that dissolves it in great quantity.  If an earthy or me-
 tallic salt be  mixed with the alkoholic  solution, and
 then  alkali  or alkaline subcarbonate be added, the
 oxide or  earth  is thrown down in combination with
 much of the green substance, forming a lake.  These
 lakes appear moderately permanent when exposed  to
the  air.  It  is supposed to  be  a peculiar proximate
principle.
  CHLOROPRUSSIC ACID.  See Chlorocyanic acid.
  CHLORO'SIS.  (From xXomoc, green, pale;  from
 xXoa, or xXori, herba virens ■ and hence x^upaapa SRd
 xXupiaais, riror, pallor; so called from the yellow-
 grrenish look those have who  aie affected with if.)
 Febris alba; Febris amatoria;  Icterus albus; Chio
 rasma.  The green-sickness.  A genus of disease ir
 the class  Cachexia, and order Impetigines of Cullen
 It is a disease which affects young females who Iaboa-
 under a retention or suppression of the menses.   Ilea
 viness, listlessness to motion, fatigue on  the least exei
 oise, palpitations ofthe heart, pains in the back, loins
 and hips, flatulency, and acidities in the stomach ami
 bowels, n preternatural appetite for chalk, lime, and
 various other absorbents, together with  many dyspep-
 tic symptoms,  usually  attend on this disease.   As i1
 advances in its progress,  the face becomes pale, u
 assumes a yellowish hue;  the whole body is flaccid
 and likewise pale; the Icet are affected with oedema     *
 tous swellings; tlie breathing is much hurried  by an)
 considerable exertion of the body ; Ihe pulse is quick,
 but small; and the person  Is apt to be affected with
 many of the symptoms of hysteria.  To procure a flow
 of the mouses,  proves in some cases a very difficult
 matter; and where the disease has been  of long stand-
 ing, various morbid aftections ofthe viscera are often
 brought on, which at length prove fatal.  Dissections
 ol" those who have died of chlorosis,  have usually
 shown the ovaria  to be in a scirrhous, or dropsical
 state.   In some cases, the liver, spleen, and inesculent
 glands, have likewise been found in a diseased slate
   The cure  is  to be attempted by increasing the tone
 of the system, and  exciting the action of the uterine
 ve-ssels.  The first may be effected  by a generous nu-
 tritive diet, with the moderate use of wine;  by gentle
 and daily exercise, particularly on  horseback;  by
 agreeable company, to amuse and quiet the mind; and
 by tonic medicines, especially the preparations of iron,
 joined wilh myrrh, Sec.  Bathing will likewise hclji
 much to strengthen them, if the temperature of the
 bath be made gradually lower, as the patient bears  it;
 and sonietimes  drinking the mineral chalybeate wa-
 ters may assist.  The bowels must be kept regular, and
 occasionally a gentle emetic will prepare for the tonic
 plan.   The otlier object of stimulating the uterine ves-
 sels may be attained  by the exercises of walking and
 dancing;  by frequent friction of the lower extremities ;
 by the pediluvium,  hip-bath, Sec.; by electric shocks',
 pns.-ed through the region of the  uterus; by active
 purgatives, especially tliose formula containing  aloes,
 which acts particularly on the rectum.   These means
 may be resorted to with more probability of success,
 when  there appear efforts of the system to produce the
 discharge, the general health having been previously
 improved.  Various remedies have been dignified with
 the title of emmenagogues, though  mostly little to be
 depended on, as madder, &c.  In obstinate cases, the
 tinctura lyttae, or savine, may be tried, but with propel
 caution, as the most likely to avail.
  CHLOROUS  ACID.   Acidum  chlorosum.   Set
 Chlorous oxide.
  CHLOROUS OXIDE.  Euchorine.   Protoxide of
 chloi ine.  " To prepare it, put chlorate of potassa into
 a small retort, and pour in twice as  much  muriatic
 acid as will cover it, diluted with an equal volume of
 water.  By the application of a gentle heat, the gas ia
 evolved.  It must be collected over mercu ry.
  Its tint is much more lively, and more yellow than
 chlorine, and hence its discoverer named it euchlorine
 Its smell is peculiar, and approaches to that of burnt
 sugar.   It is not  respirable.  It is soluble in water, lo
 which it gives a lemon colour.  Water absorbs  8  or
 10 time? 'is volume of this gas.   Its specific gravity is
 to that of common air nearly as 2.40 to 1;  for 100 cubic
 inches weigh, according to Sir H.  Davy, between li
 and 75 grains.  If the  compound gas result from 4 vo-
 lumes  of chlorine -4- 2 of oxygen, weighing 12.1154,
 which undergo  a condensation of one-sixth, then the
 specific gravity comes out  2.423, in accordance with
 Sir II. Davy's experiments.  He  found that  50  mea
 suits detonated in a glass tube over pure mercury, losl
 their  brilliant colour,  and  became 60  measures,  ol
 which 40 were chlorine and 20 oxygen.
  This gas must be collected and  examined with much
 prudence, and in very small quantities.  A gentle heut,
even that of the hand, will cause its explosion, with
such force as to burst thin glass.   From this facility of
decomposition, it is not easy to ascertain  the action of
combustible bodies upt u it.  None of the metsls that 
CHO
CHO
burn in chlorine act upon this gas at common temper- ,
atures;  but when the oxygen is separated,  they then
inflame  in the clorine.   This may be readily exhibited, I
by first  introducing into the protoxide a little Dutch
foil, which will not be even tarnished; but on apply-
ing a heated glass tube to the gas in the neck of the
bottle, decomposition  instantly lakes  place, and the
foil burns with brilliancy.   When already in chemi-
cal union, therefore, chlorine has a stronger attraction
for oxygen than for metals; but  when insulated, its
affinity  for the latter  is predominant.   Protoxide of
chlorine has no  action on meicury, but chlorine  is
rapidly  condensed by this metal into calomel.  Thus,
the two gases may be completely separated.   When
 Ehosphorus is introduced into the protoxide, it instantly
 urns, as it would do in a mixture of two volumes of
chlorine and one of oxygen ; and a chloride and acid
of phosphorus  result.   Lighted  taper  and burning
sulphur  likewise instantly decompose it.  When the
protoxide, freed from water, is  made to act on dry ve-
getable  colours, it gradually destroys  them, but first
gives to  the blues a tint of red  ; from which, from its
absorbability  by water, and the strongly acrid taste of
the solution approaching to sour, it may be considered
as approximating to an acid in its nature."—Ure.
  Clilorure of iodine.  The chloriodic acid.
  CHNUS.  (Fromxvavu, to grind, or rasp.) 1. Chaff;
Bran.
  2. Fine wool, or lint, which is, as it  were,  rasped
from lint.
  Cho'ana.   (Xoava,  a funnel*;  from x^, t0 P°ar
out.)  1. A funnel.
  2. The infundibulum ofthe kidney and brain.
  Cho'anls.   A furnace made like a funnel, for melt-
ing metals.
  CHOCOLATE.   (Dr.  Alston says  this word is
compounded  of two Indian  words, choco, sound, and
attc, water ;  because of the noise made in its prepaia-
tion.)  An article of diet prepared from the cacao-nut;
highly nourishing, particularly when boiled  with milk
and eggs.  It is frequently recommended as a restora-
tive in  cases of  emaciation and consumption.  See
Tlteobroma cacao.
  Chocolate tree.  Sec Theobroma cacao.
s Chox'nilis.  (From x0lvlKlS, "le uave of a wheel.)
The trepan ;  so called by Galen and P. ^Egineta.
  Chce'rades.   (From x0lP<>(, a  swine.)  The same
as scrofula.
  Cikekadole'tiiron. . (From xoipoy, a swine, and
oXcOpos, destruction; so named from its being danger-
ous if eaten  by hogs.)  Dogbane.  A name in Afitius
for the Xanthium, or louse-bur.
  CHOI'ttAS.   (From x°<-P<>S, a swine;  so called
because hogs are diseased with it.)  See Scrofula.
   Choke damp.  The name given by miners to a nox-
ious air, which is now known to be carbonic acid gas,
found in mines, wells, and mineral springs.  See Car-
bonic acid.
  Cho'laces.  (From x^V,lue bi\e.)  So the sinallei
intestines are called, because they contain bile.
   CHOLiEUS.   (XoXatos, bilious.)  Biliary.
   Chola oo.  See Cholas.
   CHOLAGO'GA.  (From  x<>)>1, bile, and ayio,  to
evacuate.)   Cholegon.  By cholagogues, the ancients
meant only  such purging medicines as expelled the
internal faeces, wliich resembled the cystic bile in their
yellow  colour, and other properties.
   Cholas.   (From xp^lt lue bile-)   Cholago.  All
the cavity of the right hypochondrium, and part of the
neighbourhood, is so  called becuuse it contains the
liver  wliich  is the strainer ofthe gall.
   CHO'LE.  XoXn-  The bile.
   CHOLE DOCHUS.  (From x Aij, bile, and Scxopat,
to  receive;  receiving or retaining the gall.)  The re-
ceptacle of bile.
   CiioLEnoiHi'S ductus.   Ductus communis chole-
dochus. The common biliary duct, which conveys
both  cystic  and hepatic bile into the inteslinum duo-
denum.
   Ciiole'con.   See Cholagoga.
   CHOLERA.  (Celsusderives itfrom xuAi?, and ptu>,
 literally a flow of bile, and Trallian, from xoAaj, and
ptui,  intestinal Hi <■)   Diarrhaa  cholerica; Fellifiua
passio.  A gc-ius of disease arranged by Cullen in the
class Nrurosn, and order  Spasmi.  It is  a  purging
 and vomiting of bile,  with  anxiety, painful gripings,
 •pasms of the abdpininal muscles, and those of the
      2e2ll
calves of the legs.  There  are two  species of this
genus:—1.  Cholera spontanea, which happens, in hot
seasons,  without any  manifest cause.   2.  Cholera
accidentalis, wliich occurs after the use of food that
digests slowly, and irritates.  In warm climates it is
met with at all seasons ofthe year, and its occurrence
is very frequent;  but in England, and other cold cli-
mates, it is apt to be most prevalent in the middle of
summer, particularly in the  month of August; and
the violence of the disease has usually been observed
to be  greater  in  proportion to the  intenseness of the
heat.   It usually comes on with soreness, pain, riisten
sion,  and flatulency in tlie stomach  and intestines,
succeeded quickly by a severe and frequent vomiting,
and purging of bilious matter, heat, thirst, a  hurried
respiration, and  frequent  but weak and  fluttering
pulse.  When the disease is  not violent, these synip
toms, after continuing for  a day or two, cease gra
dually,  leaving the patient in  a  debilitated and ex
hausted state; but where the disease proceeds with
much violence, there arises great depression of strength,
with cold clammy sweats, considerable anxiety, a hur-
ried and short respiration, and hiccups, with a sinking,
and irregularity of the pulse, which quickly terminate
in death; an event  that  not unfrequently happens
within the space of twenty-four hours.
  The appearances generally observed on  dissection
are, a quantity of bilious matter in the  prima; viae,
the ducts of the liver relaxed and distended; and seve-
ral of the viscera have been found displaced, probably
by the violent vomiting.  In  the early period of the
disease, when the strength is not much exhausted, tbe
object is to lessen the irritation, and facilitate  the dis-
charge of the bile, by lepid demulcent liquids, fre-
quently exhibited. It will likewise be useful to procure
a determination to the surface by fomentations to the
abdomen, v»e pediluvium,  or even the warm bath.
But where the symptoms are urgent, and the  patient
appears rapilly sinking tfom the continued vomiting,
violent pain, &c. it is necessary to give opium freely,
but in a small bulk;  from one to three grains, or even
more, in a table  spoonful of linseed infusion, or with
an effervescing saline draught; whicli must be repeated
at short intervals, every hour perhaps, till relief be ob-
tained.  Sometimes, where the stomach could not be
got to retain the opium, it has answered  in the form
of clyster; or a liniment containing it may  be rubbed
into  the abdomen;  or a blister, applied over  the
stomach, may lessen  the  irritability  of  that organ.
Afterward  the bile may be allowed  to evacuate itself
downwards;  or  mild  aperients, or civ sters, given,  if
necessary, to promote its discharge.  When the urgent
symptoms are relieved, the strength must he  restored
by gentle tonics, as the aromatic bitters, calumba, and
the like, wilh a light nutritious diet: strong toast and
water is the best drink, or a little burnt brandy may be
added if there is much langour.  Exposure to cold
must  be carefully avoided,  particularly keeping  the
abdomen and the feet warm; and great attention  is
iieo ssaiy lo regulate ihe bowels, and procure a regular
discharge of bile, lest a relapse should happen.   It will
also  be proper to examine the state of the  abdomen,
whether pressure give  pain at  any part, because in-
flammation in tlie prima; viae is very liable to super
vene, often in an  insidious manner; should that be the
ease,  leeches, blistering the  part, and otlier  suitable
means, must be prompt!-) resorted to.
  CHOLERICA. (From xoA«pa, tlie cholera.)  Me-
dicines which relieve the cholera.
  CHOLESTERIC ACID.  " When the fat matter of
the human biliary calculi  is treated with nitric acid,
which Chevreuil  proposed to call cholesterine, there  is
formed n peculiar acid, which is called the cholcsteric
To obtain it, the cholesterine  is  heated with its weight
ot concentrated nitric acid, by which it is speedily at-
tacked and dissolved. There is disengaged, ot the same
time,  much oxide of azot; and the liquor, on  cooling,
and especially on the addition of water, lets fall a yel
low matter, which is the cholcsteric  acid impure, or
impregnated with nitric acid.  It may be purified by
repeated washings in boiling water.   However, after
having washed it, it is better to effect its fusion  in the
midst of hot  water; to add to  it  a small quantity oi
carbonate of lead; to let the whole boil for some hours,
decanting and renewing the water from time  to time;
then tn put the remaining dried mass  in contact with
alkohol and to evaporate tlie alkoholic solution.  The 
CHO
CHO
  residuum now obta ned is the purest possible choleste-
  ric acid.
    This acid has an orange-yellow colour when il is in
  mars; but it appears in white needles, when dissolved
  in alkohol, aud  left to spontaneous evaporation.  Its
  taste is very feeble, and  slightly styptic;  its taste re-
  sembles that of butier; and ils specific gravity is inter-
  mediate  between that of alkohol and water.  It fuses
  at 58° C. and is not decomposed till the temperature be
  raised much above that of  boiling water.  It  then
  affords oil, water, carbonic acid, and carburetted  hy-
  drogen, but no trace of ammonia.  It is very soluble in
  alkohol, sulphuric and acetic  tether, in the volatile oils
  of lavender, rosemary, turpentine, bergamot, &c.  It
  is,on the other hund, insoluble in the fixed oilsof olives,
 sweet almonds, and castor oil.  It is equally so in  the
 vegetable acids, and almost entirely insoluble in water,
 which takes up  merely enough to make it redden lit-
 mus.   Both in the cold, and with heat, nitric acid dis-
 solves without altering it.  Concentrated sulphuric acid
 acting on it for u considerable  time, only carbonizes it.
   It appears that the  cholesteric  acid  is capable of
 uniting with the greater  part of the salifiable basfs.
 All the resulting salts are coloured, some yellow, others
 orange, and others red.  The cholesterates of potassa,
 soda,  ammonia,  and  probably of  morphia, are very-
 soluble and deliquescent;  almost all tlie others are in-
 soluble, or nearly so.   There  is  none of them which
 cannot be decomposed  by  all the mineral acids, except
 the carbonic, aud by the greater  part of the  vegetable
 acids; so that  on  pouring one of these acids into a
 solution of the cholesterate, the cholcsteric acid is in-
 stantly separated in flocks.  The soluble cholesterates
 form precipitates  in all the metallic solutions, whose
 base has the  property of  forming an insoluble or
 slightly soluble salt wilh cholesteric acid.
   Pelleiier and Caventou found the cholesterate of
 barytes to consist of  l'K) of  acid, and 56.259 base;
 whence the prime equivalent of  the former appears to
 be about 17.35.  Yet they observed, on the other hand,
  that on treating the cholesterate of lead with  sulphuric
 acid, they obtained as much sulphate  of lead as of
 cholesterate.  From this experiment, the equivalent of
  the dry acid would seem to be 5; hence we may ima-
  gine, that when the cholesteric acid unites to the oxide
  of lead, and in general to all the oxides which have a
  slight affinity for oxygen, there takes place something
  similar to what  happens in the reaction of oxide of
  lead and oxalic acid."—Journ. de Phar. iii. -1)2.
   CHOLESTERINE.   The name given by Chevreuil
  to the pearly substance of human biliary calculi.  It
 consists of 72 carbon, 6.66 oxygen, and 21.33 hydrogen,
 by Berard.
   CHOLICE'LE.  (From  V1A17, bile, and  xn^t, a
 tumour.)   A swelling forineu by llie bile accumulated
 in the gall-bladder.
   CHOLOLITHUS.  (From x»Xn, bile, and Xtdos, a
 stone, gall-stone.)   A name of a genus of disease in
 the  Class, Caliaca, Order, Splanchnica,  of Good's
 Nosology, characterized by pain about the region of
 the liver, catenating with pain at the pitof the stomach;
 the pulse unchanged ; sickness; dyspepsy; inactivity;
 bilious concretion in the gall bladder, or bile ducts.  It
 has two species,  Chololitkus quiescens, the quiescent
 gall-stone, and C. means, the passing of gall-stones.
   CHOLOL1THICUS.  Of or belonging to gall-stone.
   Cholo'ma.   (From vmAoj,  lame, or maimed.)  1.
 A halting, or lameness in the leg.
   2. Galen says that, in Hippocrates, it  signifies any
 distortion of a limb.
   CHONDRO. Some muscles have this word forming
 a part of their name, because they are connected with
 a particular cartilage.
   Chundroglo'ssus.   (From xovipov, a cartilage, and
 f \01ao1, the tongue.)  A muscle so named from its in-
 sertion, which is  in the basis  or cartilaginous part of
 thft tongue.  See  Hyoglossus.
  CHONDRO'LOGY.   (Chondrologia; from xovipos, ,
 a cartilage,  and Xoyos, a discourse.)  A discourse on
 cartilages.
  Chondro-pharyno-ISUS.   (From vpvipos, a carti-
 lage, and  dtupvyl, the upper part of the fauces.)   A
 muscle so nanieef because it rises in the cartilaginous
part of the tongue, and  is inserted in the pharynx.
  CHO'NDROS.   Xovipos-  1. A cartilage.
  "2. A food of the ancients, the same as alica
  3 Any grumous concretion.
   CHONDRCSYNDE SMUP.  (From x<»o>*>a <"*'
 tilngc, and oviitw, to  tie together.)  A cartilaginous
 ligament.
   Cuo ndrus.  A cartilngc.
   Cho'ne.  Xuivtj.  The inlundibulum.
   Chora.  Xwoa.  A  legion.  Galen, in his book De
 L'su Purtium, expresses by ii particularly ihe cavities
 of the eyes;  but, in others of his writings, he intimates
 by it any void space.
   CHORDA.   (From \opiij, whicli properly signifies
 an intestine, or gut, of  which a chord  may be nnde.)
 1. A cord, or assemblage of fibres.
   2.  A tendon.
   3.  A painful  tension  of ihe penis iu the  venerea
 disease.
   4.  Sonietimes the intestines arc culled chordue.
   Chorda magna.  A  name of the lendo Achillis
   Chorda tvmpani.  A brunch of the seventh  pair
 of nerves.   The  portio dura of the seventh pair of
 nerves, having entered  the tympanum, sends a small
 branch to  the stapes, and another  more considerable
 one,  which  runs  ucross the tympanum from behind
 forwards, passes between the long leg of the incus and
 the handle of the malleus, then goes out at the same
 place where  the tendon  of the anterior  muscle of the
 malleus enters.  It is called chorda lympaui, because
 it crosses the tympanum as a cord crosses the bottom
 of a drum.   Dr. Monro thinks, that the chorda tympani
 is formed  by the  second branch of the filth pair, as
 well as by  the portio dura of the seventh.
  Chorda tendinea.    The tendinous and cord-like
 substances which  connect the carnea columna of the
 ventricles of Ihe heart to the auricular valves.
  Chorda Willisu.  The small fibres which cross the
 sinuses of  the dura mater. They are so termed, be-
 cause Willis  first described them.
  Cuorda'psus.  (From x°p-5"7i a cord, and a7r7">, to
 knit.)  A sort of  painful colic, where  the intestines
 appear to be  twisted into knots.
  CHORDEE'.   (Chordi.  French.)   A spasmodic
 contraction of the penis, that sometimes attends go-
 norrhoea, and is  often followed by a  haemorrhage.
  CHOREA.  (Xoptia; fiom xppos, a chorus, which
 of old accompanied dancing.  It is called St. Vitus'a
 dance,  because  some devotees of St. Vitus exercised
 themselves so long iu dancing, that their intellects were
 disordered, and could only be restored by dancing again
 at the anniversary of St. Vitus.)  Chorea Sancti Viti.
 Synclonus  chorea  of Good. St. Vitus's dance.  Con-
 vulsive motions of the  limbs, as if the person were
 dancing.  It is a genus of disease, arranged by Cullen
 in the class Neuroses; and order Spasmi.  These con
 vulsive motions, most generally, are confined to  one
 side, and affect principally the arm and leg.  When
 any motion is attempted to be made, various fibres of
 otlier muscles act  which ought not; and  thus a con
 trary effect is  produced from what the patient intended.
 It is chiefly incident to young persons  of both sexes,
 and makes its attack between the age often and fifteen,
occurring but seldom after that of puberty.
  By  some  practitioners it has been  considered ralhet
as a paralytic affection than as a convulsive disorder,
and has been thought to  arise from a relaxation of the
muscles, which,  being unable  lo perforin their func-
tions  in moving the limbs, shake them  irregularly by
jerks.  Chorea Sancti Viti is occasioned  by various
irritations,  as teething, worms, offensive smells, poi-
sons, &c.  It  arises likewise in consequence of violent
affections of the  mind, as horror, fear, und anger.  In
many cases it is produced  by general weakness; and,
in a few, it takes piace from sympathy,  at seeing  the
disease in others.
  The fits are sometimes preceded by acoldnes3of the
feet and limbs, or a kind of tingling sensation,  that
ascends like cold air up the spine, and there is a flatu-
lent pain in the left hypochondrium, wilh obstinate
costiveness.   At other times, the accession begins with
yawning, stretching, anxiety about the  heart, palpita-
tions, nausea, difficulty  of swallowing, noise in the
ears, giddiness, and pains in the head and teeth; and
then come on the convulsive motions.
  These discover themselves at first by a kind of lame-
ness, or instability of one of the legs, wliich the person
draws after him in an odd and ridiculous manner; nor
can he hold the arm of the same side still for a mo-
ment: for if he lays it on his breast, or any other n/uf
of his body, it i* forced auickly from thence by an iu 
CttR                                              CHK
 Voluntary  motion.  If he is desirous of drinking,  he
 uses ninny singular gesticulations before he can carry
 the cup to his head, and  it is forced in various direc-
 tions, till  at length he gets  it to his mouth ;  when  he
 pours the  liquor down his throat in great haste, as if
 fie meant  to  afford amusement  to the by-standers.
 Sonietimes various attempts at running Bnd leaping
 take place; and at others, the  head and trunk of the
 body are affected with convulsive motions.   In many
 instances,  the mind is affected with some degree  of
 fatuity, and often shows the same causeless  emotions
 (such as weeping and laughing) which occur in hyste-
 ria.  When this disease  arises in children, it usually
 ceases about the age of puberty; and in adults, is often
 carried off by a change from the  former mode  of living.
 Unless it  passes Info some other disease, such as epi-
 lepsy, it is  liardly attended with danger.
   The lending indications in the treatment of this com-
 plaint are, 1.  To obviate the several exciting causes;
 2.  To correct any faulty state of the constitution,
 which may appear to give a predisposition; 3. To use
 those means which experience  has shown best calcu-
 lated to allay irregular muscular action.  Among the
 sources of irritation, the  most common is the state  of
 the bowels; and the steady, but moderate, use of active
 cathartics has often a great effect upon the disease, im-
 proving the appetite and strength at the same time.
 Senna, scammony,  jalap, fee. 'may be exhibited ac-
 cording  to  circumstances, often in  conjunction with
 calomel, particularly where  the liver is torpid.  The
 Eencral debility usually attending  indicates  the em-
 ployment of tonics, as the cinchona, chalybeate*,  or
 sulphate of zinc, which  is  particularly useful;  and
 with these, cold bathing, not too long continued, may
 oe advantageously conjoined; also  requiring the pa-
 tient  to  use muscular exertion, as much as  they can
 readily, will assist materially in  the cure.   Sometimes
 in violent cases, and in irritable constitutions, the oc-
 casional exhibition  of opium, or other sedative, may
 be required, taking care, however, that the bowels are
 not confined thereby.  Occasionally too,  where the
 above means are not successful,  the more  powerful
 antispasmodics may be tried, as aether, camphor, musk,
 Sec.   Electricity also has  been by some recommended.
  CHO'RION.  (From xuprcii,  to escape ; because it
always  escapes  from the  uterus  with  the foetus.)
Shaggy chorion.  The external membrane of the foetus
 in ute-ro.
  CHO'ROID.  (Choroidea; from xww, the chorion,
and £tr5os, resemblance.)  Resembling the  clwrion, a
 membrane of the foetal ovum.
  Choroid membrane   Membrana choroides.  The
second tunic of the  eye, lying immediately under the
sclerotica, to which it is connected by vessels.  The
Irue knowledge of  this membrane  is necessary to a
 perfect idea of the iris and uvea.  The tunica cho-
 roidea commences at the optic nerve, and passes for-
 wards, with the sclerotic coat, to the beginning of the
 cornea transparens, where it adheres very firmly  to
 Ihe sclerotic membrane, by means of a cellular mem-
 brane, in tlie form of a white fringe, called the ciliary
 circle. It  then recedes from the sclerotica and cornea
 Bud ciliary circle, directly downwards and inwards,
 forming u round disk, which is variously coloured;
 hence, blue, black eyes, tec  This  coloured portion,
 re-fleeted inwards, is termed the iris, and its posterior
surface is  termed uvea.   The choroid membrane  is
 highly vascular, and its external vessels are  disposed
 like stars, and termed vasa  votticosa.  The internal
 surface of this membrane is covered with a black pig-
 ment, called the pigment of the choroid membrane.
  Choroid plexus.  Plexus choroidcus.  A plexus
 nf blood-vessels, situated in the lateral ventricles ofthe
 brnin.
   Choroid tunic.   See Choroid membrane.
  Ciiri'sis. (From xpm>, to anoint.) An inunction,
or anointing of any part.
  Christmas rose.  See Helleborus niger.
  (iiris'tiim.   (From xpiw.iomioiiit.)  Anmguent,
 or ointment of any kind.
  CHROMAS.  A eliminate, or salt, formed by the
 union of chromic acid with  salifiable bases;  us elim-
 inate of lead, &c.
  [" Chromate of iron, is  found  In large quantities,  at
 the bare hills, near Baltimore, (Maryland.) massive and
 granular, in veins nnd masses disseminated through  a
 serpentine rock.  Peril ips in no part of the world has
      •&2
 so much been discovered at one place, it furnishes MM
 means of preparing the beautiful paint called the chro-
 mic yellow, with whicli carriages and furniture are
 now painted in the United States.  Chromateof iron,
 in octaedral crystals, very small and magnetic, is found
 at the same place, and lias nowhere  else been disco-
 vered, as far as  we can learn from  the  writings of
 mineralogists.  The crystals  are found  in the ra-
 vines, and  on the sand of the  rivulets of the  bare-
 hills, mixed with granular chromate of iron.  The
 green oxide of chrome  is also found  there, colouring
 the talc, as well as the ruby or violet  coloured ore.' —
 Bruce's Min. Jour.  A.]
  Chromati'smus.   (From  xP<*ua7^<'',  t0 colour.)
 The morbid discoloration of any of the secretions, as
 of the urine, or blood.
  CHROMIC  ACID.  Acidum ckromicum.  "This
 acid was extracted from the red lead ore of Siberia.
 by treating  this ore  with carbonate  of potassa, anu
 separating the alkali by means of a more powerful
 acid.  In this state it is a red or orange-coloured  pow-
 der, of a peculiar rough metallic taste, which is  more
 sensible in it than in any other metallic acid.  If thit
 powder be exposed to the  action of light and heat, it
 loses its acidity, and  is converted into green oxide of
 chrome, civing out pure oxygen gas.   The chromic
 acid is  the  first that  has been found to deoxygenate
 itself easily by the action of heat, and afford  oxygen
 gas by this simple operation.  It appears  that several
 of its properties are  owing to the weak adhesion of a
 part at least of its oxygen.  The green oxide of chrome
 cannot  be brought back to the state of an  acid, unless
 its oxygen be restored by treating it with some other
 acid.
  The chromic acid is soluble :n water, and crystallizes,
 by cooling and evaporation, in longish  prisms o>" a ruby
 red.   Its taste is acrid and styptic.   Ils specific iravity
 is not exactly known; but it always exceeds  thato"
 water.  It powerfully reddens the tincture of ti xnsole.
  Its action on combustible  substances is little (mown
 If it be strongly heated with charcoal, it grows Mack,
 and passes to tlie metallic state without melting
  Of the acids, the action of the murialic on it -■> the
 most remarkable.  If this be distilled with the chromic
 acid, by a gentle heat, it is readily converted into chlo-
 rine.  It likewise imparts to it by mixture  the property
 of dissolving  gold; in which the chromic  resemblei
 the nitric acid. This is owing to  the weak adhesioc
 of its oxygen, and il  is the only one of the metallic
 acids that possesses this property.
  The extraction of chromic acid from the French ore,
 is performed by igniting it with its own weight of nitre
 in a crucible.  The residue is lixiviated with water
 which being then filtered,  contains the chromate of
 potassa.  On pouring into this a  little nitric acid ana
 muriate of barytes, an instantaneous precipitate of the
 chromate of barytes  lakes  place.  After having pro-
 cured a certain quantity of this salt, it must be put ir
 its moist  state into a  capsule, and dissolved in the
 smallest possible quantity of weak nitric  acid.  The
 barytes  is to  be then  precipitated  by very dilute sul
 phuric acid, taking care not to  add  an excess of it
 When the liquid  is found  by trial to contain  neither
sulphuric acid nor barytes, it must be filtered.  It now
consists of water, with nitric and chromic acids.  The
 whole is to  be evaporated to dryness, conducting the:
heat at the end so as  not to endanger the  deconqiosi-
tion of  the  chromic  acid, which  will remain in the
capsule  under the form of a reddish matter.  It  must
be kept in a glass  phial well corked.
  Chromic acid, heated with a powerful acid, becomes
chromic oxide; while the latter, heated with the hy-
drate of an  alkali, becomes chromic  acid.  As the
solution of the oxide is green, and that of the acid
yellow,  these transmutations become very remarkable
to the eye.   From  Bcrzelius's  experiments on the
combinations of tlie  chromic acid with barytes, and
oxide of lead, its   prime equivalent seems to be 6.5 •
consisting of 3.5 chromium, and 3.0 oxygen.
  It readily unites with ulkalies, and  is the only acid
that has the property of colouring its sait«, whence the
name of chromic  has been given it.  If two parts of
the red  lead ore of Siberia in fine  powder be boiled
with one of an alkali saturated with carbonic  acid
in forty parts of  water, a carbonate  of lead will  be
precipitated, and the chromate remain  dissolved.  The
solutions are of n lemon colour, nnd afford crys*:il* 
CHIl
CHY
ot a somewhat deeper hue.   Those of chromate of
ammonia  are  in yellow laminae,  having the metallic
lustre of gold.
  The chromate of banjtes is verv little soluble, and
that of lime still less.  They are  both  of a pale yel-
low, and when heated give out oxygen gas, as do the
alkaline eliminates.
  It the chromic acid be mixed with filings of tin and
the muriatic acid, it becomes at first yellowish-brown,
and afterward assumes a bluish-green colour, which
preserves  the  same shade after desiccation.   ./Ether
alone gives it the same dark  colour.  With a solu-
tion of nitrate of mercury, it  gives a precipitate of a
dark cinnabar colour.  WitlTa solution of nitrate of
silver, it gives a precipitate, which, the moment it is
formed, appears of  a beautiful carmine colour,  but
becomes purple by exposure to the light.  This com-
bination, exposed* to the heat of the  blow-pipe, melts
before  the  charcoal i> inflamed, and assumes a black-
ish  and metallic appearance.   If il be then pulver-
ized, the powder is still purple;  but  after the blue
flame of the lamp is brought into contact with this
powder, it  assiime-s a green  colour, and the  silver
appears in  globules disseminated through  its  sub-
stance.
  With nitra.  -f copper it gives a chesnut-red preci-
pitate.   With the solution  of  sulphate  of zinc, muri-
ate of bismuth, muriate of antimony, nitrate of nickel,
and muriate of platina, it produces yellowish precipi-
tates, when tlie solutions do not contain an excess of
acid. With muriate of gold  il produces  a greenish
precipitate.
  When melted with borax, or «"!sss, or acid of phos-
phorus, it  communicates  to it a  beautiful emerald-
green colour.
  If paper  be  impregnated with  it,  and exposed  to
the sun a few days, it acquires a green colour, which
remains permanent iu the-dark.
  A slip of iron, or  tin, put into  ils  solution, imparts
to it ihe same colour.
  The aqueous solution of tannin produces a floccu-
lent precipitate of a brown fawn colour.
  Sulphuric acid, when cold, produces  no effect on it;
but when  warm it  makes it  assume  a bluish-green
colour."— Ure's Diet.
  CHROMIUM.  (Chiomium, ii.  n.; from xp^i^a, co-
lour : because il is remarkable for giving colour to its
combinations.)  The name of a metal  which may be
extracted either from the  native  chromate of lead or
of  iron.  The latter being cheapest  and most  abun-
dant, is usually employed.
  The hi own eliminate of iron is not acted upon by
nitric  acid, but most readily by nitrate of potassa,
with the aid of a red heat.  A chromate of potassa,
soluble  in  water, is thus  formed.   The  iron oxide
thrown out of combination may be removed from the
residual part of the ore by a short digestion  in dilute
muriatic acid.  A second fusion with 4, of nitre, will
give rise to a  new  portion of chromate of potassa.
Having decomposed the whole of the ore, we saturate
the  alkaline excess  wilh  nitric acid, evaporate and
crystallize.  The pure crystals, dissolved in water, are
to be added to a solution of neutral nitrate of mer-
cury ; whence, by complex affinity, red chromate of
mercury precipitates.  Moderate  ignition expels  the
mercury from the chromate. and the remaining chro-
mic acid  may be reduced to the metallic state, by
being excised in contact of the charcoal from sugar,
to a violent heat.
  Chromium thus procured, is a  porous mass of ag-
glutinated grains.  It is very brittle, and of a grayish-
v> hite, intermediate between tin and steel.  It is some-
times obtained in needleform  crystals, which  cross
each other in all directions.  Its sp. gravity is 5.9.  It
is susceptible of a feeble magnetism.   It resists all
the acids  except  nitroinuriatic, wliich, at a  boiling
heat, oxidizes it and forms a  muriate.   Thenard  de-
scribes only one  oxide of chromium ;  but there are
probably two, besides the acid  already described.
  1. The protoxide is green, infusible, indecomposable
by heat, reducible by voltaic electricity, and not acted
du by oxygen or air.  When heated to dull  redness
with the half of its  weight of potassium or sodium,
il forms a brown matter, which, cooled and exposed
to the air, burns with flame, and  is transformed into
eliminate of potassa or soda,  of a canary-yellow co-
lour   It is  ihis oxide whicli is obtained by calcining
 the chromate of mercury In a small earthen retort
 about "{ of an hour.  The  beak of the retort is to  h*
 surrounded with a tube of  wet linen, and plunged
 into water, to facilitate the condensation of the mer-
 cury.  The oxide, newly precipitated  from acids, has
 a dark-green  colour,  and  is easily re-dissolved ;  but
 exposure to a dull-red  heat ignites it, and renders it
 denser, insoluble, and of a liglit-groeii colour.  This
 change arises  solely  from tlie closer aggregation  of'
 the particles, for the weight is not altered.
   2. The deutoxide is procured by exposing the pro-
 tonltrate to heat, till  the fumes of nitrous gas ce-ase
 to issue.  A   brilliant  brown  powder,  insoluble  in
 acids, and scarcely soluble in alkalies, remains.  Mu-
 riatic acid digested on II  exhales chlorine, showing
 the increased proportion of oxygen in this oxide.
   3. The tritoxide  has been already described  among
 the acids.  It may bo directly procured by adding nitrate
 of lead to the above nitrnchromate of potassa, and  di-
 gesting the beautiful  orange precipitate of" chromate
 of lead with moderately strong muriatic acid, till  its
 power of action be exhausted.   The fluid produced
 is to  be  passed through a filler, and  a little oxide  of
 silver very gradually added, till the whole solution
 becomes of a  deep red tint  This liquor, by slow eva-
 poration, deposites small ruby-red crystals, whicli are
 the hydrated chromic  acid.  The  prime equivalent of
 chromic acid deduced from the eliminates of barytej
 and lead by Berzelius, is 6.544, if we suppose them to
 be neutral salts.  According to this chemist, the acid
 contains double the oxygen that tlie green oxide does
 But if those eliminates be regarded  as subsalts, then
 the  acid prime would be 13.088, consisting of 6 oxy
 gen = 7.088 metal; while the protoxide would consist
 of* 3  oxyxen + 7.088  metal; and the deutoxide of ai
 intermediate proportion.
   CHRONIC.  (Chronicus; from xpovos, time.)  A
 term applied  to diseases which are of long continu
 mice, and mostly without fever.  It  is used in oppo
| sition to the term acute.  See Acute.
   CHRU'PSIA.  (From xpoa,colour, and o^ts, sight *
I Visus coloratus.  A disease of the eyes, in which  lilt
i person perceives objects of a diffeerent colour from theii
| natural  one.
   CHRYSANTHEMUM.  (From xpixrof, gold, and
I avdepov, a flower.)   1.  The name of a gemis of plants
 in the Linna-an system.  Class, Syngenesia ;  Oilier
 Polysomia.   Sun-flower, or marigold.
   2.  Many herbs are so called, the flowers of Which  are
 of a bright yellow colour.
   Chrysanthemum  leucanTmemuM.  The system
 atlc name of  the great  ox-eye daisy.  Maudlin-wort
 Bellis-major;  Buphthalmum majus;  Leucanthemum
 vulgare; Bellidioides ; Consolida media; Oculus  bo-
 vis.  The Chrysanthemum;—foliis  amplexicaulibus,
 oblongis, supcrni serratis, inferni dentatis, of Lin-
 naeus.  The flowers and herb were formerly esteemed
 in asthmatic  and  phthisical  diseases, but have now
 deservedly fallen into disuse.
   Chry'se.  (From xPv<">Si  E0,<'-)   The name of a
 yellow plaster.
   Chysele ctrum. (From xP"<">s, gold, and^^povi
 amber.)   Amber of a  golden yellow colour.
   Chrysi'ppea.  (From Chrysippus,  its  discoverer.)
 An herb enumerated by Pliny.
   Chrysi'tis.  (From xpvaoc, gold.)   1. Litharge.
   2. The yellow foam ot lead.
   3. The herb yarrow, from the golden  colour of its
 flower.
   CHRYSOBA'LANUS.  (From xp«-<">S> g°lu. a"d
 BaXavs, a nut;  eo  named because of its colour,
 which, before it is dried, is yellow.)  The nutmeg
   CHRYSUBKRYL.   Cyniophnne of HaUy.  A  mi-
 neral of  an asparagus green colour and vitreous lus-
 tre, found in the Brazil, and Ceylon.
   [CHRYsoBERYiris found in the United States, and is
 sometimes employed in jewelry.  In the township ot
 Haddam, on the Connecticut river, and in  the State of
 Connecticut, it occurs in  granite in six-sided  prisms
 and six-sided  tables;  its colour varies from greenish
 yellow to yellowish green.  A.]
   CHRYSOCO LLA. (From xpuWi gold, and xoXXti,
 cement.)  Gold solder;  Borax.
   CHYSO'COMA.   (From  xourros,  gold, and xauv,
 hair; so called from its golden, hair line aj pearance.)
 The herb milfoil, or  yarrow.  See Achdlta  mtlleft- 
CHY                                             CHV
  Chrysogo'nia.  (From xf«"f) Ro'ri, and yivouat,
to become.)   A tincture oi gold.
  Chrysoi.a'ciiason.  (From xPva"s, gold, and Xa-
vavov, a pot-herb;  so named from ils having a yellow
leaf)  The herb orach ; a species of atriplex.
  CHRYSOLITE.  Peridot of Haity.  Topaz of the
ancients, while our topaz is their chrysolite.  The hard-
est of all gems of a pistachio-green colour.  It comes
from I'gvpt and Bohemia.
  CIIRYSOSPLE'NIUM.  (From xpvaos, gold, and
aoirXcviov, spleenwort.)   The name of a genus  of
plants  in the Linna-an system.   Class,  Decandria;
Order, Digynia.  Golden saxifrage.
  CHRYSOPRASE.   A variety of calcedony.
  Chrysu'lcus.  (From xpv<">S, gold, and tXicii;, to
take away.)   The aqua regia whicli has the property
of dissolving gold.
  [CHURCH, Dr. Benjamin, was graduated at How-
ard College in 1754.   He established himself as a phy-
sician  in the  town of Boston, where he  rose  to very
considerable eminence in his profession.  As a skilful
and dexterous operator in surgery, he was inferior to
no one of his contemporaries  in New-England; and
as a physician, he was  in a career of distinguished  re-
putation.  He possessed  a brilliant genius, a lively
poetic fancy, and was an excellent writer.   Forseveral
years preceding the  American revolution, he was a
conspicuous character,  and had great influence among
the leading whigs and patriots of the day.   When the
war commenced in 1775, his  character was so high
that he was appointed physician-general to the army.
  But while he was performing the duties assigned him,
circumstances occurred which led to a suspicion that
he held a treacherous correspondence with the enemy.
Certain letters in cipher  were intercepted, which  he
had written  to a relation in Boston.   He was imme-
diately arrested, imprisoned, and  tried before  a mili-
tary tribunal appointed to investigate his conduct, and
was pronounced guilty of a criminal correspondence
with the enemy.  It appears that the only evidence
by which he was convicted, rested on an intercepted
letter directed to a friend in Boston.   This letter was
written in cipher,  and when  it  was deciphered and
examined, its contents seemed in a considerable  de-
gree tc justify the plea which he had made, that it was
designed as an innocent stratagem to deceive and draw
from the enemy some  information for tlie benefit of
the public.  Dr. C. was, at the same time, a member of
the House of Representatives, from which he would
have been expelled had he not resigned his seat.   He
was, however, arraigned before  the House, subjected
to a rigid examination, and his letter was read by him-
self by paragraphs, and commented upon, and explain-
ed.  His defence before the House may be  considered
as a specimen of brilliant talents and great ingenuity.
" Confirmed," said he, in assured  innocence, "I stand
prepared for your keenest searchings.  The warmest
bosom here does not flame with a brighter zeal for the
security, happiness, and  liberties of America,  than
mine." Se high was party zeal, and such the jealousy
and prejudice of the day, that a torrent of indignation
was ever at hard to sweep from  the land every guilty
or suspected character.   In the instance of Dr. C, there
were not a few among  the most respectable and intel-
ligent of the community, who expressed strong doubts
of a criminal design in his conduct.  It was, however,
his hard fate to pine iu prison  until the following year,
when  he  obtained permission to depart for the West
Indies. The vessel in  which  he  sailed was supposed
lo have foundered at sea, as no tidings respecting her
were ever obtained.  A.l
   CHUSITE.  A yellowish-green translucent mineral,
found by  Saussure in the cavities of porphyries, in
the environs of Llmbourg.
   CHYAZIO ACID.  See Prussic acid.
   Chyla'ria.  (From  xv\os, chyle.)  A discharge of
a whitish mucous urine, ot the colour and consistence
of chyle.
   CIIYLE.   Chylus.  The milk-like liquor observed
pome  hours after; eating, in the  lacteal vessels of  the
mesentery, and In the thorucic duct.  It  is separated
by digestion  from  the  chyme, and is that fluid sub-
Btance from which the blood is formed. See Digestion.
   " The chyle may be  studied  under two different
forms:                      ,      ,
   1st,  When it  in mixed with chyme in the small  in-
testine.
  2d,  Under the liquid form, circulating in the ehyll
ferous vessels, and the thoracic duct.
  No  person having particularly engaged in the exa
mination of the chyle during its stay in the small intes
tine, our knowledge on this point is little.  The liquid
chyle  contained in the chyliferous vessels has been ex
amincd with great care.
  In order to procure it, the best manner consists in
giving food loan animal, and, when the digestion is
supposed to be in full activity, to strangle it, or to cut
ihe spinal  marrow behind the occipital bone.  The
whole length of the breast is cut open ;  the hand is
thrust in so as to pass a ligature which embraces  the
aorta, the oesophagus, and the thoracic duct, the near-
est to the neck possible; the ribs of the left side  are
then twisted or broken, and the thoracic duct is seen,
closely adhering to the oesophagus.  The upper part is
detached, and carefully wiped, to absorb the blood; it
is cut, and  the chyle flows into the vessel intended to
receive it.
  The ancients were acquainted with the existence of
the chyle, but  their ideas of it were very inexact; it
was observed anew at the beginning of the seventeenth
century; and  being, in certain  conditions,  of  an
opaque white, it was  compared  to milk: the vessels
that contain it were even named lacteal vessels, a veiy
improper expression, since there is very little other
similarity between chyle and milk  except the colour.
  It is only in modern times, and  by the labours of
Dupuytren, Vauquelin, Emniert, and Marcet, that  po
sitive  notions concerning the  chyle have been  ac
quired.
  We shall give the observations of these learned
men, with the addition of our own.
  If the animal from which the chyle is extracted has
eaten  animal or vegetable substances of a fatty nature,
the liquid drawn from the thoracic  duct  is of a milky
white, a little heavier than distilled water, of a strong
spermatic odour, of a  salt taste, slightly adhering to
the tongue, and sensibly alkaline.
  Chyle, very soon after it has passed out of tlie vesse
that contained it, becomes firm, and  almost solid: aflei
some  time, it separates into three parts; the one solid
lhat remains at the bottom, another liquid at the top,
and a third that forms a very thin layer at the surface
of the liquids.  The chyle, at the same time, assumes
a vivid rose colour.
  When the chyle proceeds from food that contains no
fat substance, it presents the same sort  of properties,
but instead of being opaque white, it is opaline, and
almost transparent; ihe layer which forms at the top
is less marked than in the former sort of chyle.
  Chyle  never takes  the hue  of the colouring sub-
stances  mixed iu tlie food, as many authors have pre-
tended.
  Animals  that were made to eat indigo, saffron, and
madder, furnished a chyle, the colour of which had no
relation to that of the substances.
  Of  the three substances into which the chyle sepa-
rates when abandoned to itself, that ofthe surface, of
an opaque white colour, is a fatty body ;  the solid part
is formed of fibrin and a little colouring matter;  the
liquid is like the serum of tlie blood.
  The proportion of these three parts is variable ac
cording to the nature of the food.  There are species
of chyle, such as that the sugar, which  contain very-
little fibrin; others, such as that of flesh, contain more
The same thing happens with the fat matter, which is
very abundant when the food  contains  grease or oil,
while there is scarcely any seen  when tlie food is
nearly deprived of fatty bodies.
  The absorption of the chyle has  been attributed to
the capillarity of the lacteal radicles,   to  the com-
pression of tlie chyle by the sides  of the smnll intes
tine, &c.  Latterly, it has been pretended that it takes
place  by virtue of the proper sensibility  ofthe absorb
ing mouths, and ofthe insensible organic contractility
that they arc supposed to possess,  "it first enters  the
threads of the lacteal vessels, it then traverses the me-
senteric glands, it arrives at  the thoracic duct, and at
last enters ihe subclavian vein.
  The causes that determine ils motion are the con
tmctility proper to the chylilerous  ves.-els, the  un
known cause of its absorption, tlie  pressure of the ab-
dominal muscles, particularly in the motions of icspi-
ralion, and, perhaps, tlie pulsation of the arteries Ol
the abdomen. 
CHY
CIC
   If we wisli to have a correct idea of the velocity
 with which the chyle flows into the thoracic duct, we
 -nust open this canal in a living animal, at tlie place
 where it opens into the subclavian vein.  We find that
 this rapidity is  not very great, and that it increases
 every lime that the animal compresses the viscera of
 the abdomen, by the abdominal muscles; a similar
 effect is produced by compressing  the  belly with the
 hand.
   However, the rapidity ofthe circulation of the chyle
 appears lo  me to be in proportion  to the quantity
 formed in the small intestine; this last is in proportion
 to the quantity ofthe chyme: so that if the food is in
 great abundance, and of easy digestion, the  chyle will
 Bow quickly;  if, on the contrary, the food is in small
 quantity, or, which is tlie same thing, if it is of diffi-
 cult digestion, as less chyle will be formed, so its pro-
 gress w ill be more slow.
  It would be difficult to appreciate the quantity of
 chyle that would be formed during a given digestion,
 though it ought to be considerable.  In a dog of ordi-
 nary size, that had eaten animal food  at discretion, an
 incision into the thoracic duct of the  neck (tlie dog
 being alive)  gave about half an ounce of liquid in five
 minutes, and the  running was not suspended during
 the whole continuance of the formation of the chyle,
 that is, during several hours.
  It is  not known whether there is any variation in
 the rapidity ofthe motion ofthe chyle during tlie same
 digestion; but, supposing it uniform, there would enter
 six ounces of chyle per  hour into the venous system.
 We may presume lhat the proportion of chyle is more
 considerable in man, whose chyliferous organs are
 more voluminous, and in whom the digestion is, in ge-
 neral, nioie rapid than ill the dog."—Magendie's Phy-
 tiology.
  The chyle is mixed wilh  the albuminous and gela-
 tinous lymph  in the thoracic duct,  which receives
 them from the lymphatics.
  The uses of tlie chyle are,  1. To supply the matter
 from which the blood and other fluids of our body are
 prepared; from which fluids the solid parts are form-
 ed.  2. By its  acescent nature, it somewhat restrains
 the putrescent tendency of the blood:  hence the dread-
 ful putridity of the humours from starving; and thus
 milk is an excellent remedy against scurvy.  3. By its
 very copious aqueous latex, it prevents the thickening
 ofthe fluids, and thus renders them fit for the various
 secretions.  4. The chyle secreted in ihe breasts of
 puerperal  women, under the name of milk, forms the
 most excellent nutriment of all aliments for  new-born
 infants.
  CHYLD7IC.VTION.  (Chylificatio;   from  chylus,
 and fio, to become.)  Chylifactio.  Tlie process car-
 ried on in tbe  small intestines, and principally in the
 duodenum, by which the chyle is separated from the
 chyme.
  Chyli'sma.  (From x<*^°$> juice.)    An expressed
 juice.
  CHYLOPOIE'TIC.  (Chylopoieticus ; from xv^«(,
chyle, and rsoitio, to make.)  Chylopoielic.  Anything
connected with the formation of chyle; thus  chylopoi-
etic viscera, chylopoielic vessels, Sec.
  CHYLO'SIS.   (From  xuAos, juice.)  Chylification,
or the changing the food  into chyle.
  Chylosta'gma.  (From  x^oSi iaic^j and j-a^u, to
distil.)  The distillation or expression ot any juice, or
 humid part from the rest.
  Chy lostagma diapiioreticum. A name given by
 Mindererus to a distillation of Venice treacle and milh-
 ridate.
  CHYLUS.  (XvXos, succus, from xuw, juice.)  See
 Chyle.
  CHYME.   (Chymus; from x"l">i, which signifies
 humour or juice.)  The ingested mass  of food  that
 passes from the stomach into the duodenum, and from
which the chyle is prepared in the small intestines  by
the admixture of the bile, Sec  See Digestion
  CHY'MIA.  Chemistry.
  CHYMIA'TER.  A chemical physician.
  CHYMIA'TRIA.   (From xvaia\  chemistry, and
taopai, to heal.)   The art of curing diseases by the ap-
plication of chemistry lo the uses of medicine.
  Chymo'sis.  See Chcmvsis.
  Chy'nlen radix.  A  cylindrical root, of the thick-
ness of a  goose-quill, brought from China.   It has a
bitterish taste, and imparts a yellow tinge to ihe saliva
                                          P
 The Chinese hold it in great estimation as a stomachic,
 infused in wine.
   Chy'sis.   (From x«w, to pour out.)  Fusion, or the
 reduction of solid bodies into fluid by heat.
   Cuy'tlon.  (From xuu, to pour out.)  An anoint-
 ing with oil and water.
   CIBA'LIS.  (From cibus, food.)   Of or belonging
 to food.
   Cibalis risTCL.v.  An  obsolete term for the cesc-
 phagus
   CIBA'TIO.  (From cibus, food.)   The  taking of
 food.
   Ci'dur.   An obsolete term for sulphur.
   C1CATRISANT.  (Cieatrisans ; from cicatrico, to
 skin over.)  Such applications- as dispose wounds and
 ulcers to dry up  and heal, and  to be  covered with a
 skin.
   CICATRIX.   (From cicatrico, ,o heal up or skin
 over.)  A seam or scar upon the skm, after the healing
 of a sore or ulcer.
   Cicely, sweet.  See Scandix odorata.
   CI CER.   (A plant so called.  The Cicerones had
 their name from this pulse, as the Pisoncs had from
 the  pisum or pea,  and the  Lentuli from the lens oi
 lentil.)   1. The name of a genus of plants in the Lin
 nrcan system.  Class, Diadelphia; Order, Dccandria.
 The vetch.
   2. The pharmacopsial  name of the common cich
 or cichrs.
   Cicf.r arietini'm.  The systematic  name  of  the
 cicer plant.   Ercbinthus; Cicer—foliis serratis,  of
 Linnaeus.  The seeds have been employed medicinally,
 but are now fallen into  disuse.   In some places they
 are toasted, and used as coffee; and in others, ground
 into  a flour  for bread.  The colour of the arillus of
 the seed is sometimes white, red, or black; hence the
 distinction into cicer album, rubrum, and nigrum.
   Ci'oera.   (From cicer, the vetch.)  A small pill of
 the size of a vetch.
   Cicera tartari.  Small pills composed of turpen-
 tine and cream of tartar, of the size of a veich.
   CICHO RIUM.  (Originally, according to Pliny, an
 Egyptian name,  and adopted  by the  Greeks.  It k
 written  sometimes Kixopctov:  whence  Horace has
 cichorea, levesque malva : sometimes Kixopiov or Ki-
 X<opwv-  It is  supposed by some to have this name,
 zzapa to ita riov xwpiw xttiv, from its creeping through
 the fields.  Others  derive  it from Ktxtoj, invenio; on
 account of its being so readily found/or so common.)
 Succory.  1. The name of a genus of plants  in  the
 Linnaean system.  Class, Syngcnesia; Order, Polyga,
 mia aqualis.
   2. 1 he pharmacopceial  name of the wild cichory
 See  Cichorium intybus.
   Cichorium endivia.  The systematic name of  the
 endive.   Endivia;   Endiva;  Cichorium;—fioribus
 solitariis, pendunculatis, foliis integris ; crenatis, of
 Linnaeus, is an extremely wholesome salad, possessing
 bitter and anodyne qualities.
   Cichorium intybus.  The systematic name of the
 wild  succory.   Cichorium;  Cichoreum;  Cichorium
 sylvestre vel officinarum, Cichorium;—fioribus gemi-
 nis, sessilibus; foliis runcinatis, of Linnaeus.  It be-
 longs to the same family with the garden endive, and
 by some botanists has been supposed to be the same
 plant in its  uncultivated state; but the endive com
 monly used  as  salad  is an annual, or at most a bien
 nial plant, and its parent is now known to be the ci
 chorium endivia.  Wild succory or cichory, abounds
 wilh a milky juice, of a penetrating bitterish taste, and
 of no remarkable smell, or particular flavour: the roots
 are more bitter than  the leaves or stalks, and these
 much more so than the flowers.  By culture in gar-
 dens, and by blanching, it loses its b'tterness, and may
 be eaten early in the spring in salads.  The roots, if
 gathered before the  stein shoots up, are also^ eatable,
 and when dried may be made into bread.  The .roots
 and leaves of this plant are stated by Lewis to be very
 useful aperients, acting mildly and without irritation,
 tending rather to abate than to increase heat, and which
 mav therefore be  given with safety in hectic and  in
 ffainmatory  cases.  Taken  freely, they keep the belly
 open, or  produce  a  gentle diarrhoea; and when thus
 continued for some time, ihey have often proved salu-
 tary  in the beginning obstructions of  the viscera, in
jaundices, cachexies, hypochondriacal andotiierchroni-
cul disorders.  A decoction of this herb, with othen
                                        225 
CIM
of the like kind, in whey and rendered purgative by a i
suitable addition of polychrest salt, was found a use- ,
ful remedy in cases of biliary calcali, and promises ad- |
vantage in many complaints requiring what have been
termed attenuants and resolvents.  The virtues ot
succory, like those of dandelion, reside in its milky
»ujce ■ aud we are warranted, says Dr. Woodville, in ]
asserting, that the expressed juice of both these plants,
taken in large  doses  frequently repeated, has been
found an efficacious remedy in phthisis pulmonalis, as
well as the various other affections above mentioned.
The milky juice may bo extracted by boiling in water,
or by pressure.  The  wild  and  the garden sorts are
used indifferently.  If the root is cut into small pieces,
dried, and roasted, it resembles coffee, and is sonietimes
a good substitute for it.
   CTCHORY.  See Cichorium intybus.
   Cichory, wild.  See Cichorium intybus.
   Cicinde'la.  (A dim. of candela:  i. e. a littlo can-
dle ; so called from  its light.)  The glowworm.  By
some thought to be anodyne, lithontriptic, though pro-
bably neither.  Not used in the present day.
   Cici'ncm  olbuk.  (From iciki,thericinus.)  Anoil,
obtained by boiling the bruised  seeds of the Jatropha
eurcas of Linnaeus.  It is somewhat similar in its pro-
perties to castor oil.
   Ci'cla.  A name for the white beet.
   CICU'TA.   (Quasi cacuta,  blind; because it de-
stroys the sight of those who use it.  Cicuta signifies
also the internode, or space between two joints of a
 reed- or the hollow stem of any plant which the shep-
 herds used for making their rural pipes.  Est mihi
 disparibus septem conjuncta cicutis fistula.    Virgil.)
 Hemlock.   1. The  name of a genus  of plants in the
 Linnaean system.    Class, Pentandria; Order, Di-
 vunia.                                 ,  .
 ' 2. The name, in most pharmacopoeias, of the com-
 mon hemlock.  See Conium.
   Cicuta aquatica. See Cicuta virosa.
   Cicuta virosa.  The systematic name of the Cicuta
 aquatica; Cicutaria virosa; Sium majus alterum an-
 guslifolium;  Sium  eruca folio; long-leaved water
 hemlock and cow-banc.  This plant, Cicuta—umb Mis
 ovpositifoliis; petiolis marginatis  obtusis,  ot  Lin-
 mcus, is seldom  employed medicinally in the present
 day.   It is  an active poison, and often eaten by mis-
 take for the wild smallage, the Apium graveolcns, ot
 Linnaeus- when it produces tremors, vertigo, a violent
 burning at the stomach, epilepsy, convulsions, spasms
 of the jaw, a flowing of blood from the ears, tumelac-
 tion of the abdomen, and  death.     ,,,.„..,
    CICUTA'RIA.   (From cicuta, hemlock.)  Bas.ard
  hemlock.  Sec Charophyllum sylvestre.
    Cicutaria aquatica.   See FAci/anaYium aqua-
   ticum.                    _.  .       _
    Cicutaria virosa.  Sec Cicuta virosa,
    CIDO'NIUM.  See Pyrus cydoma.
    CILIA.   (The plural of cilium.)  A species of pu-
  bescence of plants which consists of hairs on the mar-
  gin of a leaf or petal, giving it "f''"^^^'^^
    Cl'LIAR.  (Ciliaris; from cilium, the eyelid.)  be-
   longing to the eyelid.                 .     _    .
    cTiliar  lioamsnt.  Ligamentumictliare  Thecir-
   cular portion that  divides the  chroid membrane from
   the iris, and which adheres to the sclerotic membrane
   It appears like a while circular ring.  See Choroid

   ""fTiLURB ligamentum   See Choroid  membrane.
    C maris musculus.   That  part of the musculus
   orbiculans palpebrarum which lies nearest the cilia,
   eonsidced by Riolan n* a distinct muscle.
 '   CILIATI/S.  Bordered, fringed: applied to leaves,
   corolla, petals,ft*.: 1^/*?*^'?
   ciliatum%nd petala ciliata.   See Leaf, Corolla, An-

   'ASlm   (From cilleo, to move about.)  The eye

   ,,ac,rL,Cr«toeS^«!.S0  TtoVrhto folds at the mar-
   ring tfeu™ a In the eye, covered with a black mat-
   S" winch proceed from the uvea to the crystalline

   'Ti'IIT IBSMSh •* *#&  °"f- ?»<> ia
   affectedwith Vsnasm or trembling of the-^
     CILLOSIS.  (From ttUtum, the eyelid.)  A spas-
   ntodlt. titmollHB ofthe eyelids.

     CIMEX^^m^S inhabit; so  ca.led be-
         326
                      CIN

    „ .lm mfe^t houses.i   The name of a genus ol
Kti ni IteiS W««n.   The wall-louse o,

bu.K.'   „ „„Mv«TirL*s   Six or seven arc given in-
  ^v to curett"a?ue, ]L before the fits ,ome on,
£iTh'ave t£"ameW with every thing nauseous

"kSfuoa.  Black snake root.  This is the  root
J^rtlTracemosa of Wildeiiow, an American plant.
AccoXa  to thl late  Dr.  Barton, a decoction ot it
forms a useful  astringent gargle  in sore throats, and
a"so cures psora.   We- are told that the Indians iiiade
g eat u* of it in rheumatism; also as an agent arfpar-
turn accelerandum.  Dr. Tully acquaints me, that he
ha^fou id Udfaphoretic, diureucand moderately tonic
?oT, fing a  useful auxiliary ".the treatment ot icuM
and chronic rheumatism,  and ot  dropsy   Lkcewse
operating very beneficially in  hystcria.  1  "";"»»>
rr ven in the form of decoction.—Big. Mat. Med. A.J
PW^1 CFroi,iK,^X0^Ci,nohisan^aiiu
 in the Cretan sea, where it is urucmwl.) _su Umolite.
   CtMOLIA PURPURtSCKNS. 1 U "'f*5".'^"''^.   ..  „f
   CIMOLlTE.   Cimolian earth.  1 he  Cimotia of
 Pliny   A,  earth  of  a grayish white colourwhich
 consists of silex, alumina, oxide of iron, and water.
   Ci'na ciN/E.   See Cinchona.
   Ci'n* semen.  See Artemisia santonica
Ci'NARA. "(From mrcii, to move; quasimoveti
           ■inam.)  Artichoke.  1. The name of
an
Class, Syn-
venerem vel urinam.)
genus of plants in the Linnaean system.
irenesia • Order, Polygamia aqualis.
S 2  The pharmacopceial name for the common arti-
choke.  See Cinara sColymus.
  Cinara scolymus.  The systematic  name of the
artichoke, called in the pharmacopoeias Atcooalum,
Airrioctnara; Arlicocalus, Arli,chocasl*ris ; Costus
ntm-a; Carduus sativus non spinosus; Cinara Hor-
tensis; Scolymus satieus;  Carduusdumeeticus capite
majorc; Carduus  altilis.   The Cinara—Joins sub-
spinas is pinnatis indivisique,calycmts squamisovalis,
of Linnaeus.  A native of the southern parts ot  Eu-
rope, but cultivated here lor culinary purposes.  Ihe
leaves are bitter, and afford, hy expression, u considera-
 ble quantity of juice, which, when sitamed, and mixed
 with an equal  quantity of white wine, has been given
 successfully in dropsies, in the dose ot a or 4 table-
 spiHinfuls nighl and morning, but il is  very uncertain
 in the operation.                              ...
   C1NCHO NA.  (Gcoftroy states that ihe use of this
 bark was  first learned from  the following circum-
 stance:—Some cinchona  trees being thrown  by the
 winds into a  pool of water,  lay theere till ihe water
 beenme so bilter, that every body reiused  to dunk it.
 However, one  of tlie neighbouring inhabitants being
 seized wilh a  violent paroxysm of fever,  and finding
 no other water to quench his thirst,  was lorced to
 drink of this,  by which he was perfectly  cured.  He
 afterward related the circumstance to others, and pre
 vailed upou some of his friends, who were iil of fevers,
 lo make use ol" the same remedy, with whom il proved
 equally successful.  The  use of this excellent remedy,
 however, was very  Utile known  till about the year
 163S, when a signal cure  having been performed by it
 on the Spanish viceroy's lady, the Countess del Cin-
 chon, al Lima, it came into general use, and hence it
 was distinguished by the appellationof cortex cinchona,
 and putt-is comitissa, or  the Countess's powder.  On
 the recovery of the Countess, she distributed a large
 quantity of the bark to  the Jesuits, iu whose hands
 it acquired still greater reputation, and by them il w as
 first introduced into Europe, and thence called cortex,
 or pulvis jcsuiticus, pulvis patrum; mid  also Cardi-
  nal del Lugo's powder, because that charitable prelate
  bought a large quantity of it  at great  expense lor the
  use of the  religioun poor at Rome.)   1. The  nmue c
  a genus of plants in the Linnaeiui system.   Class, Pen.
\tandria;  Order, Mom gynia.  Cinchona, or Peruvian
 I bark-tree.
 I   2. The pharmacopceial name  of several kinds  oi
 j barks; culled also Cortex.  Cortex china; China; Chin-
 I china; h'ina  kina, Kinkina;  Quinu quina, Qumqut-
 1 na; the trees affording which, grow wild  in  the hilly
 I parts of Peiu ; the bark is stripped from the brunches,
  trunk, and root, and dried. Three binds of it are now
  in use.
     1. Cortex cinchona cordifolia.—The  plant which
 ! affords this ppecies is the Cinchona cordifolia, of 2ea 
CiN
CIN
B«e Vtnckona officinalis, of Linnieus;  the CimAona
macrocarpa,  of Wildeiiow.  Heart-leaved cinchona.
The bark of this tree is called yellow bark, because it
approaches more to that colour than either of the others
does.  Il is in flat pieces, not convoluted like the pale,
nor dark-coloured Kite the red ;  externally smooth, in-
ternally «f a light cinnamon colour, friable and fibrous,
has no peculiar odour different from the others, but a
taste incomparably more bitter, with some degwee of
astringently.
  B  Cortex cinchona iencifoUm.—This species is ob-
tained from the Cinchona lancifsiia of Zea.  Lance-
leaved cinchona.  This is the  quilled bark, wliich
comes in small quilled  twigs, breaking  close and
smooth, friable  between the teeth,  covered with a
rough coat of a brownish colour, inie, tally smooth,
and of a light brown;  its taste is lut'or, and slightly
astringent; flavour slightly aromatic, with some degree
of musliness.
  3.  Cortex cinchona oHongifolia.—This kind is pro-
cured from  Ciiicltona obtongifolia of Zea.   Oblong-
leaved cinchona.  Tliis is the red barl: it is in large
thick pieces, externally covered with a brown rugged
coat, internally more smooth and compact, but fibrous,
of a dark red colour;  taste and smell similar to lliat
of the cinchona lancifolia cortex, but the taste rather
stronger.
  From the  general analysis of  bark, it  appears to
consist, besides the woody matter which composes the
greater part of it, of gum, resin, gallic acid, of very
small  portions of tannin  and  essential oil, nnd  of
several sails  having principally lime for their basis.
Seguiu also supposed the existence of gelatin in it, but
without suflicient proof.   Cold water infused on pale
bark for some hours, acquires a bitter taste, wilh some
share of its odour; when assisted by a moderate heat,
the water takes up more of the active matter; by de-
coction, a fluid, deep coloured, of a bitter styptic taste,
is obtained, wliich, when cold, deposites a  precipitate
of resinous matter and gallic acid.  By long decoction,
the virtues of the bark are nearly destroyed, owing to
the  oxygenation of its active matter.   Magnesia en-
ables water to dissolve a larger portion of ihe princi-
 ples of bark, as does lime, though in an inferior degree.
 Alkohol is the most  powerful solvent of its active
 matter.  Brandy and  other spirits and wines, afford
 also strong solutions, in proportion to the quantity of
 alkohol they contain.  A saturated solution of ammo-
 nia is also a powerful solvent; vinegar is less so even
 than water.   By distillation, water is slightly impreg-
 nated with the flavour of bark ; it is doubtful whether
 any essential oil can be obtained.
   The action of menstrua on the red bark is nearly
 the same,  the  solutions  only  being considerably
stronger, or  containing a larger quantity of resinous
matter, and of the astringent principle.
   Tlie analysis of the  yellow bark shows that its
active principles arc more concentrated  than in either
of the others, affording  to water, alkohol, &c.  tinc-
tures, much  stronger  both in bitterness and astrin-
gency, especially in the former principle.
   Vauquelin made infusions of all ihe varieties of cin
chona he could procure, using the same quantities of
the barks and water, and leaving the powders infused
for the same time.  He observed, 1. That certain in-
fusions were precipitated  abundantly  by infusion of
 galls, by solution of glue and tartar emetic.  2. That
 some  were precipitated by glue, bul not  by the two
other reagents; and, 3. That others were,on the con-
 trary, by nutgalls, and tartar emetic, without being af-
 fected by glue. 4. And that there were some which
 yielded  no precipitate by nutgalls, tannin,  or emetic
 tartar. The cinchonas that furnished the first infusion
 were  of excellent quality; those  that afforded the
 fourth were not febrifuge; while tliose that gave the
second and third were febrifuge, but in a smaller degree
than the first.  Besides mucilage, kinateof lime, and
 woody fibre, he obtained  in his analyses  a resinous
substance, which appears not to be identic in all the
species of bark.  It  is very bitter, very  soluble in
alkohol, in acids, and alkalies; scarcely soluble in cold
water, but more soluble in hot.  It is this body which
gives to infusions of cinchona the property of yielding
precipitates by emetic tartar, galls, gelatin; and in it
the  febrifuge viilue seems to reside.  It is this sub-
stance in part which falls  down on cooling decoctions
of cinchona, and from concentrated infusions.  A table
                                       P S
of precipitations by glue, tannin, and tartar  enie'ue,
from infusions of different barks, has been given by
Vauquelin.
  Pelleiier and Cnventou analyzed the Cinchona con
iamineea, gray bark, and found it composed of, 1. cin
choniua, united to kinic acid; 2. green fatty  matter,
3. red colouring mutter, slightly soluble;  4.  tannin,
5. yellow colourim: metier; t>.  kiniteof lime;  7. gum ,
8. starch ; i). lignme.
  The red bark has been considered as superior to th*
pale, the  yellow  is represented, apparently with jus
lice, as being more active than either of ihe others.
  The effects of" Peruvian bark are those of n power
ful and  permanent tonic, so slow in its operation, thai
its stimulating property is scarcely perceptible by any
alteration in the stnle of the pulse, or of the tempera-
ture of  the body.   In a large dose, it occasions Hansen
and headache; in some habits it operates as a laxative'
in others it occasions costiveness.  It is one  of those
medicines, the efficacy of which, iu  removing disease,
is much greater than could be expected, 4 priori, lioin
its effecd on the system in a healthy state.
   Intermittent fever  is  the disease, for line  cure of
which bark was introduced into practice, and there in
still no  remedy which equals it in power.   The din-
putcs respecting tlie mode of administering it  are now
settled.  It Is given as early as possible,  alter clearing
the stomach and bowels, in the dose of from one scru-
ple to a drachm every second or thiixl hour, during ihe
interval of the paroxysm ;  and it may even  be given
during  the hot fit, but it is then mewe apt to excite
nausea.
   In  remittent fever  it is eiven with equal  freedom,
even though the remission of tlie  fcver  may be ob-
scure.
   In some forms of continued fever which are con-
 nected  with debility, as in typhus, cynanche  maligna,
 confluent small-pox, &c. it S3  regarded  as one  of the
 most valuable remedies.  Il may be  prejudicial, how-
 ever, in those diseases where the  brain or  its mem-
 branes are inflamed, or where there is much irritation,
 marked by subsultus  tcirdinutn, and convulsive  mo-
 tions of tlie extremities; andMn pure typhus it appears
 to be less useful in the beginning of the disease than in
 the convalescent singe.
   Even in fevers of "an opposite type, where  there are
 marks  of inflammatory action, |«rticularly  in acute
 rheumatism, bark has T«-cn found  useful after blood-
 letting.   In erysipelas, in grangrcne, in extensive sup-
 puration, and venereal ulceration, the freeuse of bark
 is ofthe greatest  advantage.
   In the various forms of passive htrmorrhsi-y, in
 many other  diseases  of chronic debility, dyspepsia,
 hypochondriasis, perulysis, rickets, scrofula, dropsy,
and in  a variety of  spasmodic affections,  epilepsy,
chorea, nnd hysteria, it is administered as a powerful
and permanent tonic, either alone, or combined with
other remedies suited to the particular case.
   The officinal preparations of bark are an  Infusion,
decoction, an extract, a resinous extract, a simple tinc-
 ture, an ammoniared  and a compound tincture. 'The
 usual dose is half a drachm of the powder.  The only
 inconvenience of n larger dose is its sitting uneasy on
 the stomach.  It moy therefore, if necessary, be fre-
 quently repeated, and in urgent coses may be taken to
 the extent of an ounce, or even two ounces, in twenty
 four hours.
   The  powder is more  effectual than any of the pie
 parations ; it is given in wine, in any spirituous liquor;
or, If it excite nausea, combined with  an aromvic.
ThecoW infusion is the least powerful, but most er.ue-
 ful; the decoction contains much more of the active
 matter  of the bark, and is the preparation  gent-:My
 used when the powder is rejected; Its dose is from
 two to four ounces.   Tlie spirituous tincture, though
 containing still more of the bark, cannot be extensively
 used on account of the menstruum, but is principally
employed, occasionally, and in small doses of two <*
 three drachms, as a stomachic.  The extract is n pre-
 paration of considerable power, when properly pas-
 pared, and is adapted to those cases where the remedy
 requires  lo be continued  for some time.  It is tote
given in the form of pill, in doses of from five to fit
teen grains.
   Bark is likewise sometimes given in  the form <jf
enema; one scruple of the extract, or two drachms dt
 the powder, being diffused in four ounces of starch
     1                                    Wt 
UN                                             CIN
ciucilage.  The decoction is also sometimes applied
as a fomentation to ulcers.
  C.nchona carib.ka.  The systematic name of the
Caribaean bark-tree.  It grows in Jamaica, where it is
called tiie sea-side beech.  According io Dr. Wright,
the bark of this tree is not less efficacious than that of
the cinchona of Peru, for which it will prove a useful
bubstiiuie; l>ul by the experiments of Dr. Skeete, it
appears to have less astringent power.
  Cinc.iona condaminiea.   See Cinchona and  Cin-
chonina.
  Cinchona cordifolia.  See Cinchona.
  Cinchona flava.  See Cinchona.
  Cinchona floribunda.  The systematic name of
ihe plant whicli affords  the Saint Luc  bark.   Cin-
chona—fioribus paniculatis  glabris,  capsulis  tur-
binatis lavibus, foliis ellipticis acuminatis glabris,
of Liiiiiious.   It  has an adstringent, bitter  taste,
Fomowhat like gentian.  It  is  recommended  iu in-
leimitienls,  putrid  dysentery,  and  dyspepsia;  it
should always  be joined with  some aromatic.  Dr.
Withering considers this bark  as greatly  inferior to
that of the oilier species  of ihis genus.  In its recent
stale it is considerably emetic and cathartic, properties
wliich in some degree il retains on being dried; so that
the stomach does not bear ihis bark in large doses, and
iu small ones us effects are nol such as lo give it any
peculiar recommendation.
  Cinchona lancifolia.   See  Cinchona.
  Cinchona oblonoifolia.  See Cinchona.
  Cinchona officinalis.  The name of the officinal
Feruviau bark. See Cinchona
  Cinchona rubra.  See Cinchona.
  Cinchona Sancta Fe'. Several species of cinchona
have  been lately discovered at Sancta Fe, yielding
barks both of the  pale and red kind; and which, from
their sensible qualities, are likely upon trial to become
equally useful with those produced in the kingdom of
Peru.
  Cinchonia.   See Cinchonina.
  CINOHONINA.   Cinchonia;  Quinia;  Quinina.
Cinchoniiie or Quinine is Ihe salifiable base, or vege-
table alkali, discovered in the Cinchona condaminoea,
by Pe-lletier  and  Caveulou.  The person, however,
who first recognised ils existence, though he did uot
ascertain its alkaline nature,or study its combinations
with acids, was Comis of Lisbon.
  The following process for  extracting cinchonina is
that of Henry, the younger, which the above chemists
approve.   A kilogramme of bark reduced  -uto a tine
powdei, is to be acted on twice  with  heal, by a dilute
sulphuric acid, consisting of 50 or 60 grammes, diluted
With 8 kilogrammes of" water for each time.  The fil-
tered decociious are very bitter, have a reddish colour,
which assumes on cooling a yellowish  tint. To dis-
colour (blanch) these liquors, and saturate the acid,
either pulverized quicklime or  magnesia may be em-
ployed.  The liquors, entirely deprived of colour, are
to be passed through a cloth, and the precipitate which
forms is io be washed with a small quantity of water,
to separate the excess of lime (if this earth has  been
used).  The deposite on the cloth, well drained and
almost completely deprived  of moisture for twelve
lours, after having been put  three successive times to
dme.-t in  alkohol  of 30° (0.837), will furnish, by dis-
tilling ofthe liquid alkohol, a brown viscid matter, be-
coming brittle on cooling. It is lo be acted on with
v. ater sharpened  with sulphuric acid, and the refri-
g'.-raled liquor  will afford about  thirty grammes of
white crystals, entirely soluble in alkohol, scarcely so-
luble in cold water, hut more in boiling water, particu-
hrly if this be  slightly acidulated.  They  consist of
pure sulphate  of  eineiiouiiia.  They ought to he bril-
liant, crystallized in parallelopipeds, very hard, and of
a glassy-white.  It  should burn without leaving any
residuum.  Otlier processes have been given, of which
» full account will he found in the 12th volume of ihe
Journal of Science,  p 32a.  From a solution of the
above salt, the cinchonina may be easily obtained by
tin- addition of any alkali. The cinchonina falls down,
and may be afterward dissolved in alkohol, and crys-
tallized by evaporation,   its form  is a  rhouiboidnl
prism, of 10t*3  and 72°,  terminated by a bcvelmeni.
It has but little taste, requiring  7000 parts of water for
its solution; bill when dissolved in alkohol, or an acid,
It has the bitter taste of bark.   When  heuted  u does
not fuse before decomposition.   It consists of oxygen,
      Sttd
hydrogen, and carbon, the latter being predominant
It dissolves in only very small quantities in the oils
and iu sulphuric ether.
  The sulphate is composed of cinchonina...... 100
  Sulphuric acid .............................  13
whence the prime equivalent would appear  to b«
38.5.  The muriate is  more soluble.   Il consists of
  Cinchonina........«........................100
  Muriatic acid..........*............-........ 7-9
The nitrate is uncryslallizable.   Callic, oxalic, and
tartaric acids, form  neutral  salts  with  cinchonina,
which are soluble only with excess of acid.  Hence in-
fusion of nut-galls gives,  wilh  a decoction  of good
cinchona, an abundant precipitate of gallate of cin
chonina.
  Robiquet gives as the composition of a subsulphate-
of cinchonina ofthe first crystallization,
  Sulphuric acid............................. 11.3
  Cinchonina................................7'J.O
The alkaline base found  in  yellow barks  is called
Quinina.  It is extracted  in  exactly the same way
Red bark contains a  mixture of these two  alkalies
The febrifuge virtue  of the sulphates is considered n
be very great.
  Cinci'nnus.   The hair on the temples.
  CIN CLE SIS.  (From  xiyxXi(,u.  to move.)   Cin
clismus.   An involuntary nictitation or  winking
Vogel.
  CINERA'RIUM    (From cent'*, ashes.)  The ash
hole of a chemical instrument.
  CINERES.   (Plural of cinis, ashes.)  Ashes.
  Cineres clavellata.   See Potassa impura.
  Cineres ritssici.  See Potassa impura.
  C1NERI TTOUS.  (Cineritius ; from cinis, ashes.;
Of the colour of ashes.  A name applied to tlie corti-
cal substance of the brain, from its  resemblance to an
ash-colour.
  CINERI'TIU.M.  tFrom cinis, ashes.)  A cupe>" or
test;  so named fiom its being commonly made of the
ashes of vegetables or bones.
  Cine'rulam.  A name for epodium.
  C1NETICA. (Kivnltxo;, having the power of mo
tion.)  The name of an order in the class Neuroses of
Good's Nosology.   Diseases affecting the muscles, and
embracing Entasia, Clonus, and Synclonus.
  Cine'tus.  The diaphragm.
  Cinoula'ria.  (From cingulum, a girdle; because
it grows in that shape.)  The lycopodium.
  CTNGULl'M.   (From cingo, to bind.)  A girdle or
belt about the loins.
  Cingulum mercuriale.  A mercurial girdle, called
also cingulum  sapientia, and  singulum  stultitia.   It
was an invention of  Rulaudus's-  different directions
are given for making  it, but the following is one of the
neatest:—" Take three drachms of quicksilver: shake
it wilh two ounces of lemon-juice until ihe globules dis-
appear , then separate the juice, and mix with ihe ex-
tinguished quicksilver, half the white of an egg; gum-
dragon, finely  powdered, a scruple; and spread Ihe
whole on a belt of flannel."
  Cingill.m Sancti  Johannis.   A name of  the artc-
misia.
  Cinifica'ti m.  A  name for calcinatum.
  CINIS.  (Cinis, eris.  m.,  in  the plural  cineres.)
The ash which remains after  burning any thing.
  CINNABAR.  (Cmnabaris, ris. f.   Pliny says the
Indians call by this name a mixture of the blood of the
iliation and elephant, aud also many substances which
resemble it in  colour, particularly ihe minium ; but it
now denotes the red sulphuret ol mercury.)
   1. An ore of mercury,  consisting  of  that mineral
united to sulphur.  A native sulphuret of  mercury
See Hydrargyri sulphuretum rubrum.
  2. An artificial compound of mercury and sulphur,
called factitious cinnabar, red sulphuret of  mercury,
and vermilion.  See Hydrargyri sulphuretum rubrum.
   Cinnabaius  factitia.  Factitious cinnabar.  See
 Hydrargyri sulphuretum  rubrum.
   Cinnujmus or.,-tcoiti'M. The sanguis draconis and
cinnabar.
   Cinn.vbaris  nativa.  Native cinnabar.   See Hy-
drnrgyri sulphuretum rubrum.
   CINNAMO'MIIiM.   (From  kinamrm,  Arabian J
Cinnamon.  See Lauruscinnamomum.
   CINNAMON.  1.  The name of a tree.  See Laurus
cinnamomum.
  2. The name of a stone, which is a rare minciul 
Ulll
cm
Rmndin the :a.,d of rivers in Ceylon, of a blood and
hyacinth red, passing into orange yellow.
  CINUCEFOIL.  See Potcntdla reptans.
  Ci on.  (Eiuiv, a column ; from una), to go.)
  1. The uvula was formerly so named  from its pyra-
midal shape.
  2. Au enlargement of lite uvula.
  Cio'nis   (From  kiuiv, tlie uvula.) An enlargement
and painful swelling of the uvula.
  CIPOLIN.   A marble from Rome and Autun.
  CIRCiE'A.    (From Circe,  the  enchaiiiress:  so
named from the opinion that it was used by Circe in
her enchanted preparations.) 1. The name of a genus
of plains in the Linnaean system.  Cla-s, Dinndria;
Order, Monogynia.  Enchanter's nightshade.
  2. The name  in some pharmacopoeias for the Cireaa
lutetiana, which is now fallen wholly into disuse.
  CIRCOCE'LE.   (KipaoxnXn;  from kiooos, varii,
or a dilatation of a vein, and xnXq, a tumour.)   lari-
cocele.   A morbid or varicose distention and enlarge-
ment of the spermatic veins; il is fre-quently mistaken
for  a descent of a  small portion of omentum.   The
uneasiness which il occasions is a kind of pain in the
back, generally relieved by suspeusiou ofthe scrotum ;
and whether considered on account of the pain, or on
account of the  wasting ofthe testicle, whicli now and
then follows, it may truly be called a disease.  It has
been resembled to  a  collection  of earth-worms.   It
is most frequently confined to thai part of the  sper-
matic  process,  which  is below  the opening in the
abdominal  tendon;  and the vessels generally become
rather  larger as they  approach the testes.  There is
one sure method of distinguishing between a circocelc
and omental hernia;  place the  patient in a  hori-
zontal  posture, and empty tlie swelling by pressure
upon the scrotum; then put the fingers firmly upon ihe
upper part of the abdominal ring, and desire the pa-
tient to rise; if it is a hernia, the tumour cannot re-
appear, as long as the pressure  is continued al the
ring; bul if a  circocele, the swelling returns wiih in-
creased size, on account of the return of blood into the
abdomen being prevented by the pressure.
  Ci'rcos.  (From kt.jvo;, a  circle.)  A ring.   It is
sometimes  used  for the sphincter muscle  which is
round like a rim:.
  CIRCULATION.   (Circulatio; from circulo,  to
compass about.)  Circulatio sanguinis.  Circulation
 >f the blood. A vital action performed by the heart in
the following manner: the blood is returned by the de-
scending and ascending venae cavae into the right auri-
cle of the heart, which, when distended,  contracts, and
sends its blood  into the right ventricle; from the right
ventricle it is propelled through the pulmonary artery
to circulate through,  and  undergo a change in the
lungs, being prevented from returning into the right
auricle by the closing ofthe valves, which arc situated
there for that purpose.  Having undergone this change
in the lungs, it is brought to the left auricle of the heart
by the four pulmonary veins, and from  thence it is
evacuated into  the  left ventricle.  The left ventricle,
when distended,  contracts, and  throws the blood
through the aorta to every part of the body, to be re-
turned by the veins into the two venae cavae.  It is pre-
sented from passing back  from the left ventricle into
.he auricle  by  a valvular  apparatus; and the pul-
monary artery and aorta at their origin  are also  fur-
nished with similar organs, to prevent its returning
into the ventricles.  This is a brief outline of the cir-
culation,the particulars of which we shall now describe.
  " The best informed physiologists avow that the cir-
culation of the venous blood is still very little under-
stood.   We shall describe here only ils most apparent
phenomena, leaving the most delicate questions until
we treat of  the relation of the flowjng of the blood  in
tne veins, with that in the arteries.  We will then
speak of the cause lhat determines the  entrance of
blood inlo the venous radicles.
  To have a general, but just idea ofthe course ofthe
blood in the veins, we must consider that the sum of
the  small veins forms a cavity much larger than that
of the larger but less numerous veins, into which they
pass;  that  these bear the  same relation to the trunks
in which they terminate:  consequently,  the blood
which  flows in the  veins  from branches towards the
trunks, passes always from a larger to a smaller cavity;
now, the following  principle of hydro-dynamics may
ierehe  perfectly applied:
   IV hen  a liquid flows in a tube which it fills com
 pletcly, the quantity of this liquid which traverses the
 different sections of the lube in a given time ought lit
 be every where the same: consequently, when the  tube
 increases, the velocity diminishes; when the tube di-
 minishes, the velocity increases in rapidity.
   Experience confirms this principle, and  its' just ap-
 plication to  the current of venous blood.   If a very
, small vein is cut, the blood flows from  it very slowly;
I it flows quicker from  a larger vein, and it flows with
 considerable rapidity from an open venous trunk.
|   Generally  there are several veins to transport the
 blood that has traversed an organ towards the larger
 trunks.  On account of their anastomoses, the corn-
 pressure or ligature of" one or several of these veins
 does not prevent or diminish the quantity of blood thai
 returns to the heart; it merely acquires a greater rapi
 dity in the veins which remain free.
   This happens when a ligature is placed on the an i
 for the purpose of bleeding.  In the ordinary state, the
 blood, which is carried lo the forc-ann and the ban J.
 returns to the heart by four deep veins, and at least us
 many superficial  ones; but as soon as tlie ligature is
 tightened, the blood passes no longer by ihe  subcuta-
 neous veins, nnd it traverses with difficulty those which
 are deeper seated.  If one of  the veins is then opem 1
 at the bend of the arm, it passes out in form of a roi-
 tinued jet, which continues as long as the ligature r-e
 mains firm, and stops as soon as it is removed.
   Except in  particular cases, the veins are not muc'i
 distended  by the blood; however,  those in  which it
 moves with the greatest  rapidity are much  more s.:
 the  small veins are scarcely distended  at all.  For a
 reason very easy to be understood, all the circum-
 stances that  accelerate ihe rapidity of the blood  in :i
 vein, produce also an augmentation in  the distention
 of the vessel.
   The introduction of blood into  the veins  taki.-.j
 place  in a  continued manner,  every  cause  whic.i
 arrests its course produces distention of the vein, aie I
i the stagnation of a greater or less quantity of blood :-i
 its cavity, below the obstacle.
   The sides of the veins seem to  have but a small
 influence upon the motion of the  blood; they easily
 give way when the quantity  augments, and  return t-a
 their usual form when it diminishes; but their co <
 traction is limited; it is not sufficiently strong to exp> I
 the blood completely from the vein, and therefore tbo-o
 of dead  bodies always contain some.
   A great number of veins, such as those of the  bone;,
 ofthe sinuses ofthe dura mater, of the testicles, ofthe
 liver, &c, the sides of which  adhere  to an inflexible
 canal, can have evidently no  influence upon the n. >-
 tion of the blood that flows in their cavity.
   However, it is to the elasticity of the sides of tl-e
 veins,  and not to a contraction similar to that of the
 muscles that we must attribute the faculty which they
 possess of diminishing the size  when  the column of
 blood diminishes: this diminution is also much  mor-e
 marked in those that have tlie thickest sides, such :.s
 the superficial veins.
   If the veins have  themselves  very  little iufluem e
 upon the motion of the blood, many other necessai •/
 causes exert a very evident effect.   Every continu; <
 or alternate pressure upon  a vein, when strong cnoue^'i
 to flatten il, may prevent the passage of the blood;  .1
 it is not so strong, it will oppose the dilatation  of tl ■'.
 vein by the blood, and consequently favour its moticu.
 The constant pressure which the  skin ofthe members
 exert upon the veins  that are below  it, renders t' ?
 flow of the blood more easy and rapid in these vessels
 We cannot doubt this, for all the circumstances  ttitel
 diminish the contractility of the tissue of the skin, ate
 sooner or later followed by a considerable dilatation of
 the  veins, and in  certain cases  by varix; we  kno v
 also that mechanical compression, exerted by  a proper
 bandage, reduces the veins again to their ordinary di-
 mensions, and also regulates the  motion of the bloc, J
 within them.
   In the abdomen, the veins are subject to the alternate
 pressure of  the  diaphragm,  and of the abdomin.il
 muscles, and this cause is equally favourable  to the
 flow of the venous  blood in this part.
   The veins of the brain  support also a considerate
 pressure, which must produce the same result.
   Whenever  the blood runs  in  the direction  of its
 weight it flow6 with greater facility; the contrary tak-.s
                                         229 
CIR
CIR
place when  it  flows  against  the direction  of its
gravity.
  We must not  neglect to notice the relations of these
accessory causes with the disposition of the veins.
Where  they  are very  marked,  the veins  present no
valves, and their sides are very thin, as is seen in the
abdomen, the chest, the cavity  of  the skull, &c.;
where these  have  less influence, the veins present
valves and have thicker  sides;  lastly, where they are
very w eak, as in the subcutaneous veins, the valves
are "numerous, and tlie sides have a considerable thick-
ness.
  We must take care, however, not to confound among
the circumstances favourab.e to the  motion  of the
ilood in the veins, causes which act in another manner.
  For example,  it is generally  known that  the con-
traction of the muscles of the fore-arm and the hand
during bleeding, accelerate Ihe motion of the blood
which passes through  the opening ofthe  vein; phy-
siologists say  that the contraction of the muscles com-
presses the deep veins, and expels the blood from them,
which then passes into  the superficial veins.   Were il
thus,  the  acceleration  would be  only  instantaneous,
or at least of short duration, while it  generally con-
tinues as long as the contraction.  We shall see, farther
on, how this phenomenon ought to be explained.
  When the feet are plunged some time in hot water,
the subcutaneous veins swell, whicli is generally attri-
buted to the rarefaction of the blood;  though the true
cause is the augmentation of the quantity of blood in
the feet, but particularly at the skin, an augmentation
which ought  naturally to accelerate the motion of the
blood in the  veins,  since they are in a given  time tra-
versed by a greater quantity of blood.
 • After  what has preceded, we can easily suppose that
the venous blood must be frequently stopped or hindered
fn its course,  either by the veins suffering too strong a
pressure in the  different positions of  the body, or by
other bodies pressing upon it, Sec: hence the necessity
ofthe numerous anastomoses that exist not oidy in the
small veins, but among the large, and even among the
largest trunks.   By these frequent communications,
one or several of the veins being compressed in such a
Way, lhat they cannot permit the passage of the blood,
this fluid  turns  and arrives ul the heart by  other di-
rections.—one of the uses of the azygos vein appears
to be to establish au easy communication between the
superior and  inferior vena cava.  Its principal utility,
however,  seems to consist in its being the common ter-
mination of most of the intercostal veins.
  There is no obscurity in the action of the valves of
the veins; ihey are real valves, wliich prevent the re-
turn of the  blood towards  the  venous radicles, and
which do  this so much better in proportion as they are
large, that is to say, more suitably disposed  to stop
entirely the cavity of the  vein.
  The friction of the  blood  against the sides of the
veins ; its adhesion to these same sides, and the want
Of fluidity, must modify the motion ofthe blood in the
veins, and tend to retard it; but in the present state of
physiology and hydrodynamics, it is impossible to as-
s,-n the  precise effect of each of these particular
causes.
   We ought  to perceive, by what has been said upon
the motion of the venous blood, thai it must undergo
great modifications, according to an infinity of ciicum-
stanees.
  At any rate, the venous blood of every part of the
body arrives  at  the right auricle of the heart by the
trunks that we  have  already named; viz. two very
large, the venae  cave,  and one very small, tlie coro-
•ru j vein.
  'lint blood probably flows in each of these veins with
dilfereu'. rapidity: what is certain, is, that the three
columns of  liquid  make an effort to pass into the
auricle, and that the effort must be considerable.  If it
>.> contracted, this eliort has no effect:  but, as soon us
i' dilutes, the  blood enters ils cavity, fills it  completely,
foil even  distends the  sides a little; it would imme-
diately enter  the ventricle, if it did not contract itself
at this instant.  The blood then confines itself to filling
up exactly ihe cavity of the auricle; but this very soon
eontracls, compresses the blood, which escapes into
the place where there  is least compression.   Now it
has only two issues: 1st, by tho vena cava;  2dly, by
the opening which  conducts  into the  ventricle.  The
columns of blood which are coming to tlie  auricle pre-
      -.iiu
sent 3 certain resistance to its passage into the caw o?
coronary veins.  On the contrary, it finds every facility
to enter the ventricle, since the latter dilates itself with
force  tends to  produce a vacuum, and consequently
draw's on the blood instead of repulsing it.
  However, all the blood that passes out ofthe auricle
does not enter the ventricle;  it has been long observed
that, at  each  contraction of the auricle, a  certain
quantity of  blood flows back into the superior and in-
ferior venae cavae; the  undulation produced  by  this
cause is sonietimes felt as  far as the external iliac
veins, and into the jugulars;  it has a sensible influence,
as we will s<ee, upon the flowing ofthe blood in several
organs, and particularly in the brain.
  The quantity of blood which  flows back  in  this
manner, varies according to the facility with which
this liquid enters the ventricle.  If at the instant of its
dilatation,  the ventricle still contains  much  blood,
which has not passed into the pulmonary artery, it can
only receive a small quantity of that of the  auricle,
and then the reflux will be of greater extent.
  This  happens when  the flowing of the blood in the
pulmonary aitery is retarded, either by obstacles in the
lungs, or by the want of sufficient force in the ven-
tricle.   This reflux, of which we speak, is the cause
of the  beating which  is  seen in the veins of certain
sick persons, and which bears the name  of venous
pulse.   Nothing similar can  take place in the coronary
vein, for its opening is furnished with a valve, whicli
shuts on the instant of the contraction of  the au
ride.
  The instant in which the auricle ceases to contract,
the ventricle enters into  contraction, the  blood it con-
tains is strongly pressed, and tends to escape in every
direction: it would return so much  more  easily into
the auricle, tliat, as we  have already frequently said,
it dilates just at this instant; but  the tricuspid valve
which shuts the auriculo-ventricular opening prevents
this reflux.  Being raised by the liquid introduced be-
low it, and wliich tends to pass into the auricle, it gives
way until it has become perpendicular to the axis of
the ventricle; its three divisions then shut almost com-
pletely the opening, and as the tendons ofthe columna
carnea  do not  peimit them to go farther, the valve
resists the effort of the blood, and thus prevents it from
passing into the auricle.
  It is not the same with the blood, whicli, during the
dilatation ofthe ventricle, corresponded to the auricu-
lar surface of the valve; it  is evident that in  the mo-
tion of the ventricle it is carried forward into the auri-
cle, where it mixes with that which comes from the
vena cava and coronary veins.
  Not being able to overcome the resistance of the tri-
cuspid valve, the blood  of the ventricle has no otlici
issue than the pulmonary artery, into which it enters
by raising the three sigmoid  valves that supported tlie
column of blood contained in the artery during the di-
latation of the ventricle.
  Suppose the artery full of blood, and left to itself, the
liquid will  be pressed in the whole extent of the ves-
sel, by the sides which  tend to contract upon  the ca-
vity ; the blood, being thus pressed, will endeavour to
escape in every direction; now it  has only two ways
lo pass, by  the cardiac  orifice, and by the  numerous
small vessels that terminate  the artery iu the tissue ol
the lungs.
  The orifice ofthe pulmonary artery in tlie heart be-
ing very large, the blood would easily pass  into the
ventricle, if there were not  a particular apparatus at
this orifice, intended to prevent this; the three  sigmoid
valves.  Being pressed  agninst the sides of tlie artery,
at the instant that the ventricle sends a wave of blood
that way, these folds become perpendicular to its axis;
as soon as the blood tenets to now back into the ventri-
cle, they place themselves so as to shut up the cavity
of this vessel completely.
  On account  of the  bag-like form of the   sigmoid
valves, they ure swelled by  the blood that enters into
their cavity, and their margin tends to assume  a circu-
lar figure.   Now, three circular portions, placed upon
each other,  necessarily leave a space between  them.
  When the valves, therefore, of the pulmonary artery
are lowered by the blood, there ought  lo remain an
opening l<y  which this liquid may flow back  into the
ventricle.
  If each valve were alone, It would undoubtedly take
a semicircular form;  but there  are tliree of thenar 
CUR
CIR
 Swrg piessed by the blood, they lie all close together:
 and as they cannot extend as fur as their fibres permit
 them, they  ptess upon each otlier, on account of tlie
 small space in  whicli they are  contained, and which
 does not permit their extending themselves.  The
 valves theu assume the figure of three triangles, whose
 summit is in the centre of the artery, aud ihe sides aie
 in juxta position, so as completely to intercept the ca-
 vity of the  artery.   Perhaps  the knots, or buttons,
 ivhich are upon the summit of some of the triangles,
 are intended to  shut mote  perfectly the centre of the
 artery.
  Finding no passage into the ventricle, the blood will
 pass  into the radicles of tlie  pulmonary veins, wilh
 which the small arteries that terminate the pulmonary
 artery form  a continuation, and  this passage will con-
 tinue as long as the sides of the artery press tlie con-
 tained blood with suflicient force; and, except in the
 trunk and the principal branches, this effect continues
 until the whole of ihe blood is expelled.
  We might suppose the smallness of the vessels that
 terminate the pulmonary artery an obstacle lo tine flow-
 ing of the blood: that might be,  if they were not  nu-
 merous, or  if the capacity of the whole  were less, or
 even equal to that of the trunk ;  but as they ate innu-
 merable, aud their capacity is much greater than that
 ofthe trunk, there is no difficulty in the motion.  It is
 true lhat the distention or subsidence of the lungs ren-
 ders this passage more or less easy.
  In order lhat this flowing may take place w ilh faci-
 lity, the force of contraction of the different divisions
 of the artery ought to be every where iu relation lo
 their size; if, on the contrary, that of tlie small weie
 greater than that of the large, as soon as the first had
 expelled tlie blood  by whicli  they were filled, they
 would  not   be  suflicieully distended   by the bit oil
 coining from the second, and the flowing of the blood
 would be retarded:  uow, what lakes place is quite the
 contrary of  this  supposition.  If the pulmonary artery
 of a  living  animal were  tied  immediately above the
 heart, almost all the blood contained iu the artery at
 the instant of tlie ligature, would pass quickly into tlie
 pulmonary  veins, and arrive at ihe heart.
   This is what  happens when the blood contained in
 the pulmonary artery is exposed  to the single action of
 this vessel; but in the common slate, at each con-
 traction of  the right ventricle, a certain quantity  of
 blood is thrown with force inlo the artery; the valves
 are immediately raised;  the artery,and almost all  its
 divisions, are so much more distended, in  proportion
 as the heart is  more uxcibly contracted, and as the
 quantity of blood  injected inlo  the artery is greater.
 The ventricle dilates immcdiateely after its contraction,
 and at this instant the sides ofthe artery contract also;
 the sigmoid valves  descend and shut the pulmonary
 artery, until they are raised by a new contraction of
 the ventricle.
  Such is the second cause ofthe motion ofthe blood
 in the artery that goes towards the lungs: we see it is
 intermittent; let  us endeavour to appreciate ils effects:
 for which purpose, let us consider the most apparent
 phenomena  of the flow of the blood in the pulmonary
 finery.
  It has been just  observed, that in the instant the
 ventricle injects the blood into the artery, the trunk,
 and all the divisions of a certain size, undergo an evi-
 dent dilatation.  This phenomenon is called the pulsa-
 tion of the artery.  The pulsation is very sensible near
 the heart; it becomes feeble in  proportion to its dis-
 tance from it; when the artery,  by being divided, has
 become very small, it ceases.
  Another  phenomenon,  which is  only the conse-
 quence of the preceding, is observed when the artery
 is opened.
  If it be near  the  heart, and  in a place where the
 beating is sensible, the blood spouts out by jerks; if
 the opening  be made far from the heart, and in a small
 division, the jet is continued and uniform; lastly, if
 one ofthe very small vessels that terminate the artery
 be opened, the blood flows,  but  without  forming any
jet: it flows uniformly in a sheet.
  We see at first, in these phenomena, a new applica-
 tion of the  principle of hydro-dynamics, as already
 mentioned,  with regard to the influence of the size of
 tbe tube upon the liquid that flows in it: the greater
the tube is, the rapidity is the less.  This capacity of
 \U0 vessel increasing according as it advances towards
 the lungs, the quickness of the blood necessarily dl
 iniiiishes.
   With regard to ihe pulsation of the artery, and the
jet ol  blood that escapes from it when it iso|>eu, we sew
 plainly thai these two effects depend on the contraction
 of tlie right ventricle, and the introduction of a certain
 quantity of blood inlo theariciy, which takes place by
 this means while flowing llnough the small vessels
 lhat terminate the  artery, and that give commence-
 ment  to  Ihe puluiouaiy  veins;  the venous  blood
 changes its nature by ihe elloct of the contact  of the
 air; it acquires the qualities of arterial blood: itisthlb
 change iu the properties of ihe blood wliich essentially
 constitutes respiration.
   At  the instant  in which the venous blood traverses
 tlie small veocls of the pulmonary lobules, it assumes
 a scarlet colour; ils odour becomes stronger, and il3
 tasie  more distinct, its  leiupciuiurc rises about a de-
 gree ;  a purl el* ils serum disappears in the form of va-
 pour in the tissue of  the  lobules, and  mixes w ilh the
 air.  Its tendency to coagulate augments considerably
 whicif is  expressed  by saying thai  iu plasticity be
comes stronger, its specific giuvity diminishes, us wel.
as ils capacity for caloric.  The venous blood, having
acquired these characters, now becomes arterial blood,
and enters the radicles of the pulmonary veins, which
have their origin, like the veins properly so called, in
the tissue of the  lungs; lhat is, they form at Inst an
infinite number of radicles, which appear lo be the con-
tinuation of  the pulmonary  artery.  These radicles
unite lo form thicker roots, which become still thicker.
 Lastly, they all terminate in lour vessels,  which open,
after a short passage, into the  left auricle.  The pul-
monary veins are different from the oilier veins, in
their  not  anastomosing after they have acquired a
certain thickness; a similar disposition has been seen
 in the  divisions of the artery which is distributed lo
the lungs.
   The pulmonary veins  have no  valves, and  their
structure  is similar to  that of the other veins; their
 middle membrane is, however, a little thicker, and it
 appears to possess more elasticity.  The  blood passes
 into the radicles of tlie pulmonary veins, and very soon
 reaches the trunk of these veins:  in  this passage it
 presents a gtadually accelerated motion, in proportion
 as it  passes  from  the small veins into the  larger:
 finally, it does not al all flow by jerks, and it appears
 nearly equally rapid in  the  lour  pulmonary  veins.
From  tlie pulmonary veins the left auricle  receives
the blood.
   The mechanism by which the blood traverses the
left auricle and ventricle is the same as lhat by which
the vi nous blood traverses the right cavities.
   When the left auricle dilates, the  blood of the four
pulmonary veins enters and fills it; when it contracts,
part of the blood passes into  the ventricle, and pari
flows back into the  pulmonary veins;  when the ven-
tricle dilates, it receives the blood which comes from
the auricle, and a small quantity of  that ofthe aorta;
when it contracts, the mitral valve  is raised, it shuts
the auriculo-ventricular opening, and the blood, not
being able to return  into the auricle, it enters into tlie
aorta by raising the three sigmoid valves, which were
shut during the dilatation of the ventricle.
  Il is  necessary to  remark, however, that  the fleshy
columns having no existence iu the auricle, their influ-
ence cannot exist ns in the ri^ht, and the  arterial ven
tricle  being  much thicker than the venous, it  coin
presses the blood with a much greater force than the
right, which was  indispensable on account of the dis-
tance to which it has to send this liquid.
   Course of the blood in the aorta, and its divisions.—
Notwithstanding  the differences which exisl between
this and the pulmonary  artery, the phenomena of the
motion of the blood are nearly the same in both: thus
a  ligature being  applied  upon this vessel, near the
heart,  in a living animal, it  contracts in its whole
length, and, except a small quantity that remains in the
principal arteries^ the blood posses immediately into
ihe veins.
  Some authors doubt the  fact of the contraction of
the arteries;  the following experiment may be made
to convince them:  uncover the carotid artery of a
living  animal the length of several inches; take tlie
transverse dimension of the vessel with compasses, tie
it at two different points  at tne same time, and  you
may then have any  length  whatever of artery full of 
CIR
CIR
 blood; make a small opening in the sides of this por-
 tion ofthe artery, you will immediately see almost the
 whole ofthe blood pass out, and it will even spout to
 a certain  distance.  Then measure the breadth with
 the compasses, and there will be no doubt ofthe artery
 being much contracted, if the rapid expulsion of the
 blood has not already  convinced you.  This experi-
 ment also proves that the force  with whicli the artery
 contracts  is sufficient to expel  the  blood that it con-
 tains.
  Passage of the blood of the arteries into the veins.—
 When, in the  dead body, an injection  is thrown into
 an artery, it immediately returns by the corresponding
 vein: the same thing takes place, and with still more
 facility, if the injection is thrown into  the  artery of a
 living animal.  In cold-blooded animals, the blood can
 he seen, by the aid of a  microscope, passing from the
 arteries into the veins.   The communication between
 these vessels is then direct, and very easy; it is natural
 to suppose that the heart, after having forced the blood
 to the last arterial twigs, continues to make  it move
 into the venous radicles, and  even into the wins.
 Harvey, and a great number of celebrated anatomists,
 thought so.  Lately, Bichat has been strongly against
 this doctrine:  he has limited the influence of the blood;
 he pretends that it ceases entirely in the place where
 the arterial is changed  into  venous blood, that is, in
 the numerous small  vessels  that terminate the arte-
 ries and commence the veins.  In this place, according
 to him, the action of the small vessels  alone is the
 cause ofthe motion ofthe blood.
  Remarks on the Movements of the Heart.—A.  The
 right auricle  and ventricle,  and the left  auricle and
 ventricle, the action of which we have studied sepa-
 rately,  in  reality form  only  one organ, whicli is the
heart.
  The auricles contract and dilate together; the same
 thing takes place with  the  ventricles, whose move-
ments are simultaneous.
  When the contraction of the heart is  spoken of,
 that ofthe ventricle is understood.  Their contraction
Is called systole, their dilatation diastole.
  B. Every time that  the  ventricles contract,  the
whole of the heart is rapidly carried forward, and the
point of this organ strikes the left lateral side of the
chest, opposite the internal of the sixth and  seventh
true ribs.
  C. The  number of the pulsations of the heart is
 considerable; it  is generally greater in proportion as
the person is younger.
    At birth it is from 130 to 140 in a minute.
    At one year......  120 to 130.
    At tw-o years.....  100 to 110.
    At three years---   90 to 100.
    At seven years....   85 to 90.
    At fourteen years   80 to 85.
    At adull age.....   75 to 80.
    At first old age....   65 to 75.
    At confirmed old age 60 lo 65.
  But these numbers vary according to an infinity of
 circumstances, sex, temperament, individual disposi-
 tion, &.C.
  The  affections of the  mind have a great influence
 upon the  rapidity of the contractions of  the heart;
 every one knows that even a slight emotion immedi-
 ately modifies  the contractions, and  generally accele-
 rates them.  In this respect  great changes take place
 also by diseases.
  D. Many researches have  been made to determine
 with what force  the ventricles contract.  In order to
 appreciate that of the  left ventricle,  an experiment
 has been made, which  consists  in  crossing the legs,
 and  placing upon one knee the ham of the other leg,
 with a weight of 55 pounds appended to the extremity
 of the foot.  This considerable weight, though placed
 at the extremity of such a  long lever, is  raised at
 each contraction of the ventricle, on account of the
 tendency to straighten the accidental curvature of the
 popliteal artery, when the legs  are crossed  in  this
 manner.
  This experiment shows that the force of contraction
 ofthe heart is very great; but it cannot give the exact
 value of it.   Mechanical physiologists have made
 great efforts to express it in numbers.  Borelli compares
 the force which keeps up the  circulation to lhat which
 would  be necessary  to  raise 180,000 pounds; Hales
 believes it to be 51 pounds 5 ounces: and Keil reduces
      yrj2
 it to from 15 to 8 ounces.  Where shall we find tta
 truth in these contradictions 7
   Il seems impossible to  know exactly the force de-
 veloped by the  heart in its contraction; it very pro-
 bably varies  according to  numerous  causes, such as
 age, the  volume of the organ, the size of the indivi-
 dual,  the particular  disposition, the quantity of
 blood, the state of the nervous system, the action of
 the organs, the state of health or of sickness, &c.
   All that has been said of the force of  the heart re
 lates only to  its contraction, its dilatation having been
 considered as a passive state, a sort of re-pose of the
 fibres; however, when the ventricles  dilate, it is with
 a very great  force,  for example, capable of raising a
 weight of twenty pounds,  as may be  observed in ani-
 mals recently dead.  When the heart of a living ani
 mal is taken hold of by the hand, however small it may
 be, it is impossible by any effort to prevent the dilata-
 tion of the ventricles.  The dilatation of the heart, then.
 cannot be considered as a state of inaction or repose.
   E. The heart moves from the first days of existence
 of the embryo to the instant of death by decrepitude.
   Why does it move 1  This question  has been  ask
 ed by ancient  and modern philosophers and physi-
 ologists.   The wherefore of phenomena is not easy
 to be  given  in  physiology;  almost  always what is
 taken  tor such  is only in other terms the expression
 of the phenomena; but it is remarkable how  easily
 we deceive  ourselves  in  this respect;  one  ol" the
 strongest proofs  of it is afforded by the different expla-
 nations of the motion of the heart.
   The ancients said that there was a pulsific virtue in
 the heart, a concentrated fire, that gave  motion to this
 organ.  Descartes imagined that an explosion as sud-
 den  as that  of gunpowder took  place in the  heart
 The motion of the heart was afterward attributed to
 the animal spirits,  to the nerrotes fluid, to the soul,
 to the process of the nervous system, to the arcliea:
 Haller considers it as an effect of irritability.  Lately,
 Legallois has endeavoured to prove,  by experiments,
 that the principle or cause  of the  motion of tlie heart
 has its seat in the spinal marrow.
   Remarks upon the circular Motion  of the Blood, or
 the Circulation.—We now know all  the links of the
 circular  chain  that the sanguiferous system repre-
 sents ;  we know how the  blood  is carried from the
 lungs toward all the other parts of the body, and how
 it returns from these parts to  the heart.  Let us ex-
 amine these phenomena in a general manner, in order
 to show the most important.
  A. The quantity of blood contained in the system is
 very considerable.   It  has  been estimated by several
 authors at from  24  to 30 pounds.  This value cannot
 be at all exact, for the quantity of blood varies accord-
 ing to numerous causes.
  The relation ofthe mass ofthe arterial with that of
 the venous blood, is somewhat better known.   This
 lost, contained in vessels larger than that of tlie  arte-
 ries, is necessarily in greater quantity, though we can-
 not say exactly how much greater its mass is than that
 of the arterial blood.
  B. The circulatory path of the blood being continu
 ous, and the capacity of the  canal variable, the rapidity
 of this fluid must be variable also; for the same quan-
 tity must pass through all the points in a given time:
 observation confirms this.   The  rapidity is great in
 the trunk, and the principal divisions of the pulmonary
 arlerv and aorta: it diminishes much in the secondary
 divisions; it diminishes still more  at the instant ofthe
 passage from the arteries into the veins; it continues
 to augment in proportion as the blood  passes from the
 roots of the veins into larger roots, and lastly into the
 large veins ; but the rapidity is never so great in the
 venae cavae as  in the aorta.  In the  trunks and the
 principal arterial divisions, the course of the  blood
 is not only continued  under the influence of the con-
 traction of the  arteries, but, besides, it flows in jerks
 by the effect of the contraction of the ventricles.   This
jerking manifests itself in the arteries  by a simple di
 latation in those that are straight,  and by a dilatation
 and tendency to straighten in those which are flexuous.
  The  pulse is formed by the first of these phenomena,
 to which  the second is sometimes joined.  It is no,
 easy to study, in man or in the animals, except where
 the arteries are laid close upon a  bone, because they
 do not thi-.li  retire from under the finger when it is
 placed  upon them, as happens to arteries in soft porta 
CIR
CIR
  In general, the  pulse makes known  the principal
modification ofthe contraction ofthe left ventricle, its
quicknr--s, its intensity, its weakness, its regularity, its
irregularity.  The quantity of the blood is also known
by the-pulse.  If it is great, the artery is round, thick,
»nd  resisting.  If the blood  is in small quantity, the
artery is small  and easily flattened.  Certain dis|K>si-
tions in the arteries have  an influence also upon the
pulse, and may render it different in  the  principal
arteries.
  C. The beating of the arteries is necessarily felt in
the organs which are next them, and so much more
in proportion a9 the arteries are more voluminous, and
as the organs give way with  less facility.  The jerk
which they undergo is generally considered as favour-
able  to their action, though no positive proof of it
exists.
  In this respect none of the organs ought to be more
affected than the  brain.   The  four cerebral arteries
unite in circles at the base of the skull, and raise the
brain at each contraction ofthe ventricle, as it is easy
to be convinced of by laying  bare the brain of an  ani-
mal,  or by observing  this organ in  wounds of the
head.  Probably, the numerous angular bendings of
the internal carotid arteries,  and of the vertebrals be-
fore their entrance into the skull, are useful for mode-
rating this shaking;  these bendings must also  neces-
sarily retard the course ofthe blood in these vessels.
  When the arteries penetrate in  a voluminous state
into the parenchyma of the  oreans, as the  liver, the
kidneys, &c, the  organ must also receive  a jerk al
each contraction of the heart.  The organs into which
the vessels enter, after being  divided and subdivided,
can suffer  nothing similar.
  D. From tlie  lungs to the left auricle the blood is of
the same nature; however, it sometimes happens that
it is not the same in  the four pulmonary veins.  For
insteince, if the lungs are so  changed that the air can-
not penetrate into the lobules, the blood which tra-
verses them will not be changed from venous to arteria]
blood; it will arrive  at the heart without having un-
dergone this  change; but in its passage through the
left cavities it  will be  intimately mixed with that of
the lungs  opposite. The blood is necessarily homoge-
neous from the left ventricle lo the last divisions ofthe
aorta; but, be-ing arrived at  these small divisions, its
elements separate; at least there exists a great num-
ber of parts, such as the serous membranes, the cellu-
lar  tissue, the  tendons, the  aponeuroses, the fibrous
membranes, ic, into whicli  the red part ofthe blood
is never seen to penetrate, and the capillaries of which
contain only serum.
  This separation of the elements of the  blood takes
place only  in a slate of health ; when the parts that I
have mentioned become diseased, it  often  happens
that their  small vessels contain blood, possessed of all
ils characteristic properties.
  There have been endeavours to explain this particu-
lar analysis of the blood by the small vessels.  Boer-
haave, who admitted several sorts of globules of dif-
ferent sizes in the blood, said, that globules of a certain
largeness could only pass into vessels of an appropri-
ate size: we have seen that globules, such as they were
admitted by Boerhaave. do not exist.
  Bichat believed  that there  existed in the small ves-
sels a particular sensibility,  by which they admitted
only the part of the blood suitable to them.  We have
already frequently contested ideas of this kind;  nei-
ther can they be admitted here; for the most irritating
liquids, introduced into the arteries, pass immediately
into the veins, without any opposition to their passage
by the capillaries.
  E.  The elements of the blood separate in traversing
the small  vessels;  sometimes the  serum escapes, and
spreads upon the surface of the membrane: sometimes
the fatty matter is deposited  in cells; here the mucus,
there the fibrine; elsewhere are the foreign substances,
which were accidentally mixed with the arterial blood.
In losing  these different elements, the blood assumes
the qualities of venous blood.  At the same time that
the arterial blood supplies these losses, the small veins
absorb the substances with which they are in contact.
In the  intestinal canal, for  example, they absorb the
drinks;  on the other hand, the lymphatic trunks pour
the lymph and the chyle into the venous system;  it is
certain, then, that  the venous blood cannot  be homo-
geneous, and that its composition must be variable in
the different veins; but, having reached the heart, by
the motions of the right auricle and ventricle, and the
disposition of Ihe fleshy columns, the elements all mix
together, and when they are completely mixed,  they
pass into the pulmonary artery.
  F. A general law of the economy is, that no organ
continues to act without  receiving  arterial  blood;
from this results, that all  the other functions are de-
pendent on the circulation;  but the circulation, in its
turn, cannot continue  without the  respiration by
which  the arterial blood is formed, and without the
action  of the neervous system, whicli has a great influ-
ence upon the rapidity ofthe flowing of the  blood, and
upon its distribution in the organs.   Indeed, under the
action  ofthe nervous system, the motions of ihe heart,
and consequently the general quickness of  the course
of the  blood, ure quickened or retarded.   Thus, when
the organs act voluntarily or involuntarily, we learn
from observation, lhat they receive a greater quantity
of blood without the motion of the general circulation
being accelerated on  that account; and if their action
predominates, the arteries  which are directed there,
increase considerably.   If, on the contrary,  the action
diminishes, or  ceases  entirely, the arteries  become
smaller, and permit only a small quantity to reach the
organ.  These phenomena are manifest in the mus-
cles: the  circulation  becomes  more  rapid in  them
when  they contract; if they are often contracted, the
volume of their arteries increases; if they are para-
lyzed, the arteries become very small, and the pulse is
scarcely felt.
  The  circulation, then, may  be influenced by the
nervous system iu three ways:  1st, By modifying the
motions of the heart; 2dly, By  modifying the capilla-
ries of  the organs, so as to accelerate the flowing of the
blood in them;  3dly, By producing the same ctlccts  in
the lungs, that is, by rendering the course of the blood
more or less easy through this organ.
  The  acceleration  of tlie  motions of the  heart be-
comes  sensible to us by the manner in which the point
of the organ strikes the walls of the chest.  The  diffi-
culty of  the  capillary circulation is  discovered  by a
feeling of numbness and a particular prickling; and
when the pulmonary circulation is difficult, we are in
formed of it by an oppression or sense of suffocation,
more or less strong.
  Probably the  distribution of the  filaments of the
great sympathetic on  the sides of  the arteries, has
some important use; but this i^e is entirely unknown;
we have  received no  light on the  point by any ex-
periment."—Magendie's Elements of Physiology.
  Circula'tor.  (From circulo, to compass about.)
A wandering practiser in medicine.   A  quack;  a
mountebank.
  Circulato'rium.  (From circulo, to move round.)
A chemical digesting vessel in wliich the  fluid  per
forms a circulatory motion.
  CI'RCULCS.   (Dim. of circus, a circle.)  1. A cir-
cle or ring.
  2. Any part of the body wliich is round or annular,
as circulus oculi.
  3. A  round chemical instrument  sometimes called
abbreviatorium by the old chemists.
  Circuli s arteriosus iridis.  The artery which
runs round the iris and forms a circle, is so termed.
  Circulis quadruplex.   A bandage.
  Circdmcaula'lis.  A name of the adnata of the
eye.
  CIRCUMCI'SION.  (Circumcisio, from circumcido,
to cut about.)  The  cutting off the prepuce from the
glans penis; an ancient custom, still practised among
the Jews, and rendered necessary by  the heat of the
climate in which it was first practised, to prevent col-
lections and a vitiated state ofthe sebaceous secretion
from the odoriferous glands of Ihe part.
  CIRCUMFLE'XUS   (Circumficxus, sc. musculus.)
A muscle of the palate.  Tensor palati of Innes.  CiV
cumflexus palati mollis of Albinus.  Sphcno-salpingo-
staphilinus, seu  staphilinus extcrnus  of  Winslow.
Musculus tuba nova of Valsalva.  Palalo-salpingeus
of Douglas.  Pterigo-staphylinus of Cowper, and Pe-
trosalpingo staphilin of Dumas.  It arises from the
spinous process ofthe sphenoid bone, behind the  fora-
men ovale, which transmits the third branch of the
fifth pair of nerves, and from the Eustachian tube, not
far from its osseous part; it then runs down along the
ptcrygoideus  inlernus, passc3  over the hook  of tan 
CIS                                              C1T
internal plate of the pterygoid process by a round ten-
don, which soon spreads into a broad membrane.  It
is inserted  into the velum pendulum palati, aud  the
semilunar edge of the os palati, and extends as far as
the  suture  which joins the two  bones.   Generally
some of its posterior fibres join with the constrictor
pharyngis superior,  and palato-pharyngoeus.  Its  use
is to stretch the velum, to draw it downwards, and to
ihe  side towards the hook.  It hath little effect upon
 he  tube, being chiefly connected to its osseous part.
  CIRCUMGVRA'TIO.   (From circumgyro, to turn
round.)  Circumgyration, or the turning a limb round
in ils socket.
  Circumli'tio.  (From  circumlino,  to anoint all
over.)   A medicine  used as a geueral unction or lini-
ment to the pai t.
  CIRCUMOSSA'LIS.  (From circum, about, andos,
a bone.)  Surrounding a bone as the periosteum does;
or surrounded by a bone.
  C1RCUA1SCISUS.  Circumcised.   Applied  to  a
membranous capsule, separating  into two parts  by  a
complete circular fissure.
  CI RCUS.  (Kipicos; from earka, a Chaldean word,
to surround.)  1. A circle or ring.
  2.  A circular bandage.
  Cirnk sis.  (From  xipvau, to  mix.)  A union of
separate things.
  CIRRUS.  (From xtpas, a horn, because it has the
appearance  of a horn )  Cirrhus.  A clasper or ten-
dril.  One of the fulcra or  props of plants.  A long,
cylindrical, slender, spiral  body, issuing from various
parts of plants.
  From their orio-in, Cirri are distinguished into,
  1.  Foliar, when they are a continuation ofthe mid-
rib of a simple leaf;  as in Fumaria claviculata, Mi-
mosa scandens, and Gloriosa superba.
  2.  Pctiolwr, when terminating  the common petiole
of a compound leaf;  as iu Pisum sativum.  This  is
sometimes  distinguished  by the  number  of  leaflets
whicli grow under it: hence cirri diphylli, tetraphylli,
and polyphylli.
  3. Peduncular, when they proceed from the pedun-
cle; as in Vitis vinifera.
  4. Axillary, which arise from  the stem or branches
in the axillae of the leaves; as in Passifiora incarnata.
  5. Subaxillary, when they originate below the leaf.
  6. Lateral, when at the side of it; as in  Bryonia.
  From the division of its apex, a Cirrus is,
  1. Simple, consisting of  one undivided piece;  as  in
Momordica balsaminea, Passifiora quadrangular is,
and Bryonia dioica.
  2. Compound, consisting of a stalk variously branch-
ed or divided.
  3. Bifid, when it has two divisions; as in Vitis vi-
nifera, Lathyrus palustris, Ervum tetraspcrmum, Sec.
  4. Trifid, "when there are three; as in Bignonia
 uniruis, and Lathyrus hirsutus.
  5. Multifid,  or  branched, when the divisions are
more numerous; as in Lathyruslatifolius, and Cobea
scandens.
  From  its convolution into,
  1. Convolute, when all  the gyrations are regular  in
the same direction ;  as in Hedera quinquefolia.
  2. Rcvolute, winding itself" irregularly, sometimes on
one side, sometimes on the other; as in Passifiora in-
carnata.
  C1RROSU3.  Having a cirrus or tendril.  Applied
to a leaf tipped with a tendril; ns in Gloriosa and
Hagellana, two Indian plants.
  Ci'rshtm arvensk.  (From Kiprsoc, a vein, or swell-
ing of a vein, which this herb was supposed to heal.)
The common way thistle, or Scrratuta arvensis of
 Linnaeus.
  Cirsock'lk.   See Circoccle.
  CIRSOTDES.   (From  xipaos, a varix, and  tiios,
 likeness.)  Resembling a varix :  an epithet applied by
 Rufus Ephcsius to the upper pail of the brain.
  CTRSOS.  (VLtpoos; from xtpaoto,  to dilate.)  A
 preternatural distention of any  part of a  vein.  See
 Varix.
  Ci'bsa.  (From xtoaa,  a gluttonous bird.)  A de-
 praved appetite, proceeding from previous gluttony
 ai.» voracity.
  C1SS.VMPELOS.  (From kiobos, ivy, and auveXof,
 the vine.)  The name of a genus of plants in die Lin-
 naean system.   Class, Diacia;  Order, Monadclphia-
 The wild vine wilh leaves like ivv
       1234
  Cissampelos pareira.   The systematic name of
the Pareira  brava;  Pareyra;  Ambutua;  Butua;
Overo butua.  The root of this plant, Cissampeloo—
foliis peltatis cordatis emarginatis, of Linnaeus; s
native of South America and the West Indies.*aa no
remarkable smell, but to the taste it manifest* a nota
ble sweetness of tlie liquorice kind, together with a
considerable bitterness, and a slight roughness covered
by the sweet matter.   The facts adduced on the utility
of the radix pareira brava in nephritic and calculous
complaints,  are  principally by foreigners, and  no re-
markable iustancesof its efficacy are recorded by Eng-
lish practitioners.
  Cissa'rus.  See Cistus  Creticus,
  Cissi'.num.  (From <ci<rcro$, ivy.)  The name of a
plaster mentioned by Mgiwein,
  C1STA.  (From xeipai, to lie.)  A cyst.
  CISTE'RNA.  (From cista, a cyst.)   The  fourtli
ventricle of the brain is so called  iTom its cavity; also
the lacteal vessels in  the breasts of women.
  Ci'sthorus.  See Cistus Crelicue.
  CIST1C.  See Cystic.
  Cistic oxide.   See Calculus.
  CISTUS.   (Kiofos, the derivation of which is un-
certain; perhaps from his, Heb.)  Tlie name  of  a
genus of plants in the Linnaean system.  Class, Poly
andria ; Order, Monogynia.  The Cistus.
  Cistus creticus.  The systematic  name  of the
plant from which the ladanum of tlie shops is obtained,
called also  Cistus  ladanifera, Cisthorus; Cissarus;
Dorycinium,  Cistus—arborescens exlipulatus, foliis
spatulato-ovatis petiolatis enerviis scabris  calyeinis
lanceolatis,  of Linnaeus.   The resinous juice called
ladanum exudes upon the  leaves of this plant in  Can-
dia, where the inhabitants collect it by lightly rubbing
the leaves with leather, and afterward scraping it off,
and forming it into  irregular  masses for exportation
Three sorts of ladanum have been described  by au-
thors, but only two are to be met with  in  the shops.
The best, which is very rare, is in dark-coloured masses,
of the consistence of a soft plaster, and growing still
softer on being handled; tbe other is in long rolls, coil-
ed up, time h harder than tbe preceding, and not so dark,
The first has  commonly a small, and the last a  large
 admixture of fine sand, without  wliich they cannot be
 collected pure, independently of designed abuses: the
 dust blown on the plant by winds, from tbe loose sands
 among which it grows, being retained by the tenacious
juice.   The soft kind has  an agreeable smell, and
 a lightly pungent bitterish taste: tlie  bard is much
 weaker.  Ladanum was formerly much employed in-
 ternally as a pectoral and adstringent in catarrhal af-
 fections, dysenteries, and several other diseases;  at
 present, how ever, it is wholly confined to external use,
 and is an ingredient in the stomachic plaster, emplas-
 trum ladani.
   Cistus humilis.   A name most probably of tbe
 Lichen caninus of Linnaeus.
   Cistus ladanifera.   See Cistus creticus
   Cistus ledon.  See Ledum palustre.
   CITE'Sll'S  (Citois),  Francis, of  Poitiers, in
 France, who, after graduating at Montpelicr in 1596,
 and  practising a few years in his native city, went  to
 Paris, and acquired  great  celebrity, being made physi-
 cian to Cardinal Richelieu.  He published a  treatise
 on tlie Colica Pictonum,  which was much  esteemed,
 noticing its termination in paralysis of the extremities.
 He also gave an account of a girl who  bad fasted for
 tliree years; in which case he appears to have been
 imposed upon.  In  another publication he advocated
 repeated bleeding, as well as purging, in small-pox,
 and other fevers of  an inflammatory type.  He died in
 1652, at the advanced age of 80.
   Ci'tiiarus.  (From xSapa, a harp.)  The breast is
 sonietimes so named from its shape.
   CITRA'GO.  (From citrus, a citron; so called from
 its citron-like smell.)  Citraria.  Baum.  See Me
 lissa.
   Cl'TRAS.  (Citras, atis. foem.: from citrus, the
 lemon.)  A citrate.   A salt formed by the union ofthe
 citric acid, or acid of lemons, with the salifiable bases;
 as citrate of ammonia, citrate of potassa.
   CITRATE.  See Citras.
   Ci'trka.   See Citrus medica.
   CI'TREUM. (From citrus.)   The citron-tree. See
 Citrus medica.
,   CITRIC  ACID.   Acidum citricvm   "The juice ol 
CIT
CIT
.emons, or lunes, liar all the characters of an acid of
considerable  strength; but on account of the mucila-
ginous matter with which it is mixed, it is very soon
altered  by  spontaneous  decomposition.    Various
methods have been contrived to prevent this effect
from taking  place, in order that this wholesome and
agreeable acid might be preserved for use in long voy-
ages, or other domestic occasions.  The juice may be
kept in bottles under a thin stratum of oil, which in-
deed prevents, or greatly retards, its total decomposi-
tion ; though  the original fresh taste soon gives place
to one which is much  less grateful.   In tho East In-
dies it is evaporated to tlie consistence of a  thick ex-
tract.  If this operation be carefully  performed by a
very gentle heat, it is found to be very effectual.  When
the juice is thus  heated, the inucilase thickens, and
separates in the form of flocks, part of which subside,
and  part rise  to the surface: tliose must be taken out.
The vapours  wliich arise are not acid.  If the evapo-
ration be not carried so far as to deprive the liquid of
its fluidity, it may be  long preserved in well  closed
bottles; in which, after some weeks standing, a far-
ther portion of mucilage is separated, without any per-
ceptible change in the acid.
  Of all the methods of preserving lemon-juice, that
Df concentrating it by  frost appears  to be the best,
•hough in the warmer climates it cannot conveniently
be practised.   Lemon-juice, exposed to the  air in a
temperature between 50° and 60°, depositee  iu a few
hours a white semi-transparent mucilaginous matter,
which leaves the fluid, after decantation and filtration,
much less alterable than before. This mucilage is not
of a gummy nature, but resembles the gluten of wheat
in its properties: it is not soluble in water when dried.
More mucilage is separated from lemon-juice by stand-
ing iu closed vessels.  If this depurated lemon-juice
be exposed to a degree of cold of about seven or eight
degrees below the freezing point, the aqueous part will
freeze, and the ice may be taken away as it forms;
and if the process be continued until the ice begins to
exhibit signs  of acidity,  the remaining acid will be
found to be reduced to about one-eighth of its original
quantity, at the same time that ils acidity will be eight
times as intense, as is proved by its requiring eight
times the quantity of alkali to saturate an equal por-
tion of it.  This concentrated acid  may be kept for
use, or, if preferred, it may be made into a dry lemon-
ade, by adding six times iu weight of fine loaf sugar
in powder.
  The above processes may be used when tlie acid of
lemons is wanted for domestic purposes, because they
leave it in possession of the oils, or other principles,
on which its flavour peculiarly depends; but in chemi-
cal researches, where the  acid itself is required to be
had  in the utmost purity, a more elaborate  process
must be used.  Boiling lemon-juice is to be saturated
with powdered chalk,  the weight of  which is to be
noted, and the powder must be stirred up from the bot-
tom, or the vessel shaken from time to time.  The
neutral saline compound is scarcely more soluble in
water than selenite; it therefore fa"lls to the bottom,
while the mucilage remains suspended in the watery
fluid, whicli must be decanted off; the remaining pre-
cipitate must then be washed with warm water until
it comes off clear.   To the powder thus edulcorated,
a quantity of sulphuric acid, equal the chalk In weight,
and  diluted wilh ten parts of water, must be added,
and the mixture boiled a few minutes.  Tlie sulphuric
acid combines with the earth, and forms sulphate of
lime, which remains behind when the cold  liquor is
filtered, while the disengaged acid of lemons remains
dissolved in the fluid.  This last must be evaporated
to the consistence of a thin syrup, which yields  the
pure citric acid in little needle-like crystals.  It is ne-
cessary that the sulphuric acid should be rather in ex-
cess, because the presence of a small quantity of lime
will prevent tlie crystallization. This excess is allow-
ed for above.
  Its taste is  extremely sharp,  so as to appear caustic.
It is among the vegetable acids the one which most
powerfully resists decomposition by fire.
  In a dry and warm air it seems to effloresce; but it
absorbs moisture when  the air is damp, and  at length
loses its crystalline form.   A hundred parts of this acid
arc soluble in seventy-five of water at 60°.  Though
it is less alicable than most other solutions of vegeta-
'As acids, it will undergo decomposition when long kept.
  It is not altered by any combustible substan •  ■  Kinr
caul alone appears to be capable of whitening  it.  The
most powerful acids decompose it less easily than- they
do other vegetable  acids; the sulphuric evidently con
verts it into acetic acid.  The niiric acid likewise, if
employed in large  quantity, and heated on it a Ions
time, converts tlie greater part of it  into acetic acid,
and a small portion into oxalic
  The citrate of lime  has been mentioned already in
treating of Ihe mode of purifying the acid.
  The citrate of  potassa is very soluble  and  deli-
quescent.
  The citrate of soda has a dull saline taste; dissolves
in less than twice  its weight of water, crystallizes in
six-sided prisms with flat summits; effloresce*  slightly,
but does not fall to powder;  boils  up, swells, and id
reduced lo n coal on the fire.   Lime waterdecoinposes
il, but does not render the solution turbid, notwithstand-
ing the little solubility of citrate of lime.
  Citrate of ammonia  is very soluble;  does not crys
tallize unless its solution be greatly concentrated ; and
forms elongated  prisms.
  Citrate of magnesia does not crystallize.  When its
solution had been boiled down, mid il had stood some
days, on being slightly shaken it fixed in one  white
opaque mass, which remained soft,  separating  from
the sides of the vessel,  contracting its dimensions, and
rising in the middle like a kind of mushroom.
  All the citrates  are  de-composed by the powerful
acids, wliich do not form a  precipitate with them, us
with the oxalates and  tartrates. The oxalic  and tar-
taric acids decompose them, aud form  crystallized or
insoluble  precipitates  in their solutions.   All  afford
traces of acetic acid, or a product of the same nature,
onbeing exposed to distillation: this character exists
particularly in the metallic citrates.  Placed on burn
ing coals  they melt, swell up, emit an empyreumatic
smell of acetic  acid, and leave a  light eoal.   All of
them, if dissolved in water, and left to stand for a time,
undergo decomposition, deposite  a flocculeut mucus
which grows black, and leaves their bases combined
with carbonic acid, one of the products of the decom-
position.   Before  they are  completely decomposed,
they appear to pass to the state of acetates.
  The affinities ofthe citric acid are arranged  by Vau-
quelin in the following order: barytes, lime,  potassa,
soda, strontian, magnesia, ammonia, alumina. Those
for zircone, glucine, and the metallic oxides, are not
ascertained.
  The citric acid is found in many fruits united with
the malic acid.
  Citric acid being more costly than tartaric, may be
occasionally adulterated with it.  Thii fraud is  dis
covered, by adding slowly to the acid dissolved in wa
ter  a solution of subcarbonate of potassa, which will
give a white pulverulent precipitate of tartar, if the
citric be contaminated  with the tartaric acid.   When
one part of citric acid is dissolved in 19 of water, the
solution may be  used as  a substitute for lemon-juice.
If before solution the crystals be triturated with a little
sutiar and a few drops of the oil  of lemons, the re-
semblance to the native juice will  be complete.   Il Is
an antidote against sea scurvy; but the admixture of
mucilage and other vegetable matter in the recent fruit
ofthe lemon, has been supposed to render it preferable
lo Ihe pure acid of the chemist."—Ure't Chem. Diet
  Citrina'tio.  Complete digestion.
  CITRI'NULA.  (A  diminutive of citrus.)   A small
citron or lemon.
  CITRON. See  Citrus medica.
  Citrul, Sicilian.  See Cucurbita citrullus.
  CITRU'LLUS.  S.e Cucurbita citrullus.
  CTTRUS. 1. The  name  of a  genus of plants in
the Linnaean system.   Class, Polyadelphia; Order,
Icosandria.
  2. The name of Ihe  lemon.   See Citrus medica.
  Citrus aurantium. 'The  systematic nnme of the
orange tree and  fruit.   Aurantium;  Aurantium His-
palense; Aurantium Chincnse; Mains aurantia ma-
jor; Mai us aurantia; Aurantium vulgare ; Malus
aurantia vulgaris, Mala aurca ; Chrysomclia ; Ne-
rantia; Martianum pomum; Poma aurantia    The
China and Seville  orange are both only varieties ot the
same species: Citrus:—petiolis alatis, foliis acumina
tis, of Linnaeus.  The latter is specified in our phar-
macopoeias; and the flowers, leaves, yellow rind, and
juice, are made use of for different medical purposng.. 
CIT
CLA
  The flower;, fores nttph-e, are highly odoriferous, |
nnd are u.-cd as a perfume; they are hitler to the taste; I
they give their taste and smell both  to water and to i
spirit, but most  perfectly to rectified spirit of wine. '
The water which is distilled from these flowers, is
called aqua fiorum napha.  In distillation, they yield
a small quantity of essential oil, which is called oleum
vel essentia  neroli: they are brought from Italy and
France.  Orange flowers were, at one time, said to be
a  useful remedy in convulsive diseases;  but expe-
rience  has not confirmed the virtues attributed  to
them.
  The leaves have a bitterish taste, and yield, by dis-
tillation,  an  essential oil; indeed, by rubbing them
between the fingers and the thumb, they manifest con-
siderable fragrance.  They have been applied  for  the
same purposes as the flowers, but without success.
  The yellow rind of the fruit, freed from the white
fungous part, has a grateful aromatic flavour, and a
warm, bitterish  taste.   Infused  in boiling water, it
gives out nearly all its  smell and taste: cold  water
extracts the  bitter, but very little of the  flavour.   In
distillation, a light, fragrant, essential oil rises, without
the bitter. Its qualities are those of an aromatic and
bitter.  It has been employed to restore the lone of the
stomach, and is a very common addition to combina-
tions of bitters, used in dyspepsia.   It has likewise
been given in intermittents, in doses of a drachm,
twice or thrice a day.  It is also much celebrated as a
powerful remedy, in monorrhagia, and  immoderate
uterine evacuations.
  Thej'ttiee of Seville oranges is agrateful acid, whicli,
by allaying heat, quenching thirst, promoting various
excretions, and diminishing  the action of the sangui-
ferous system, proves extremely useful in both ardent
and putrid fevers;  though the China orange juice, as
impregnated with a larger proportion of sugar, becomes
more agreeable, and may be taken in larger quantities.
The Seville orange juice is particularly serviceable as
an antiscorbutic, and alone will prevent or cure scurvy
in the most  apparently desperate circumstances.   In
dyspepsia, from putrid bile in the stomach, both lemon
and orange juice are highly useful.
  Citrus medica.  The  systematic name  of  the
lemon-tree.  Limon; Limonia mala; Malus medica;
Malus limonia acida;  Citrea malus;  Citrus.  The
nee which affords the lemon is the Citrus:—petiolis
linearibus, of Linnaeus:  a native of the upper part of
Asia, but cultivated  in Spain, Portugal,  and  France.
The juice, which is much more acid than that  of the
orange,  possesses similar virtues.  It is always pre-
ferred where a  strong  vegetable acid  is  required.
Saturated with the fixed vegetable alkali, it forms the
nitrate of potassa, wliich is in frequent extemporane-
ous use in febrile diseases, and by promoting the secre-
tions, especially that of the skin,  proves of considera-
ble service in abating the  violence  of  fever. This
medicine is also  often employed  to restrain vomiting.
As au antiscorbutic, lemon juice has been often taken
on board ships destined for long voyages;  but even
when well depurated of its mucilaginous parts, it is
found to spoil by long  keeping.  To preserve it in
purity for a considerable  length of time, it is necessary
that it should be brought to a  highly  concentrated
state, and for this purpose it has been recommended
to expose the juice to a degree of cold sufficient to con-
geal the  aqueous and mucilaginous parts.  After a
crust of ice is formed, the juice is poured into another
vessel; and, by  repeating this process several times,
the remaining juice, it is said, has been  concentrated
lo eight  times  its original strength, aud kept without
sulfering any   material  change  for  several  years.
Whyll found  the  juice of lemon to allay hysterical
palpitations of the heart, after various other medicines
had  been experienced ineffectual; and this juice, or
that of oranges, taken to the quantity of four or  siv
mnces in a day, has sometimes been found  a remedy
iu the jaundice.   The exterior rind of the lemon is a
very grateful aromatic bitter, not so hot as orange peel,
aud  yielding  in  distillation a  less quantity  of  oil,
whicli is extremely light, almost colourless, and gene-
rally brought from the southern parts of Europe, under
the name of Essence of Lemons.  The lemon-peel,
though less warm, is similar in its qualities to that ot
the orange, and is employed with the same intentions.
The pharmacopoeias direct a syrup of the juice, syru-
uu» limonis, and the pool enters into some vinous una
      e>36
aqueous bitter infusions; it is also ordered to be can
died; and the essential oil is  an ingredient in somt
formulae.
  The citron-tree is also considered as belonging to the
same species, the Citrus medica of Linnaeus.  Its fruit
is called Cedromcla, which is larger and less succulent
than the lemon; but in all other respects the citron
and lemon trees agree.  The citron juice, when sweet-
ened with  sugar,  is called by  the  Italians  Agro di
cedro.   The Cirrus mella rosa of Lamarck, Ls ano-
ther variety ofthe Citrus medica of Linnaeus.  It was
produced, at first, casually, by an Italian's grafting a
citron on a stock of a bergamot pear-tree; whence the
fruit produced by this union participate,) both of  the
cilron-tree and the pear-tree.  The esseice  prepared
from this fruit is called essence of berg.i.note and es
sentia de cedra.
  Cl'TTA.  A voracious appetite.
  Citto'sis.   See Chlorosis.
  CIVET-CAT.  See Zibethum.
  CIVE'TTA.   (From sebct, Arabian.)  TAbelhum
Civet;  an  unctuous odoriferous  drug  used by per
fumers,  collected between the anus and the organs of
generation of a fierce carnivorous quadruped met with
in China and the East and West Indies, called a civet-
cat, the  Viverra  Zibethum of Linnaeus, but bearing a
greater resemblance to a fox or marten than a cat.
  Several of these  animals have been brought into
Holland, and afford a  considerable branch  of com-
merce,  particularly at  Amsterdam.  The  civet  is
squeezed out in summer every other day, in  winter
twice a-week : the quantity procured at once is from
two scruples to a drachm or more.  The juice thus
collected is much-purer and finer than that which  the
animal  sheds against  shrubs or stones in its  native
climates.
  Good  civet is of  a clear yellowish or brownish co
lour, not fluid  nor hard, but about the consistence of
butter or honey, and uniform throughout; of a very
strong smell;  quite offensive  when undiluted;  but
agreeable when only o  small portion of civet is mixed
with a large one of other substances
  Civet unites with oils, but not with  alkohol.  Its
nature is therefore not  resinous.
  CLAP.  See Gonorrhaa.
  CLA'RET.   (Claretum; from  clareo, to be clear.)
A French wine, that may be given with great  advan-
tage, as atonic and antiseptic,  where red port wine
disagrees with the  patient; and in  typhoid  fevers of
children, and delicate females, it is far preferable, as a
common drink.
  CLARETUM.   1.  The wine called claret.   Se*
Claret.
  2.  A wine impregnated with spices and sugar, called
by some Vinum Hippocraticum.
  3.  A Claretum purgatorium,  composed of a vinous
infusion of glass of antimony with  cinnamon water
and sugar, is mentioned by Schroeder.
  CLARIF1CA "TIO.   The depuration of any thing,
or process of freeing a fluid from  heterogeneous mat-
ter, or feculencies.
  ["CLARK, John.  The name of John Clark  has
been, for a longer succession of years than  any other
in our country, distinguished in the ranks of medical
practitioners.  Of the earliest physician of that name,
who probably came from England in 1631 or  1632,  and
after living a few years in Boston, removed to Rhode
Island,  where he died April 20th, 1676, filling a long
course  of service  in administering  to the religious as
well  as natural wants of his neighbours "   He was
succeeded  by several  individuals ol" the same name,
who were all conspicuous members cf the medical pro
Cession.— Thach. Med. Biog.   A.]
  I'LASS,  (Classis; from xaXtu, congrego,a class
being nothing more than a multitude assembled apart)
Tin- name of a  primary division of bodies in natural
hislorv.
  CLARV.  See Salvia.
  CLA'SIS.   (From  xXau, to break.)  Clasma.  A
fracture.
  CLAU'STRUM.   (From  claudo, to shut.) Clei
thrum gutturis.  Any aperture which has a power of
contracting itself, or closing its orifice by any means;
as the passage ofthe throat.
  t'l.AOSTRUM  viroinitatis.   The hymen.
  CLAUSU'RA.   (From claudo, to shut.)   An  im-
pertitration of any canal or cavity in the body   Thufl 
CLA                                              CLA
 slausura uteri is a preternatural imperforation of tho
 Uterus; clausura  tubarum Fallopiarum, a morbid im-
 perforation of  the  Fallopian  lubes,  mentioned  by
 Kuysch as one cause of inlecundity.
   Clava RUuosa.  See Acorus calamus.
   CLAVAR1A.  (From  clava, a club.)  The name
 of a genus  of plants, Class,  Cryptogamia;  Order,
 Fungi.  Club-shaped fungus.
   Clavaria  corolloides.   The  systematic  name |
 of the  Fungus corolloides of old writers; called also
 erotelus. It was once used as a strengtiienor  and
 astringent.
   CLAVA'TIO.  (From  clava,  a club.)  A  sort of
 wticulation without motion, where the parts are, as it
 vere, driven in with a hammer, like the teeth in the
 sr-ckets.  See Gomphosis.
   OLAVATUS.  Clubbed.   Applied  to  parts  of
 plants,  as the stigma ofthe Genipi.
   Clavell atus.  (From clavus, a wedge.  The name
 cineres  clavellati originated from the little wedges or
 billets,  into which the wood was cut to burn for  po-
 tassa.)   See Potassa impura.
   CLA'VICLE.   (Clavicula, diminutive of claris;
 so called from its resemblance loan ancient key.) Col-
 lar-bone. The clavicle is placed  at the root of  the
 nock, and at the upper part of the breast.   It extends
 across, from tlie tip ofthe shoulder to the upper part of
 the sternum; it  is a round bone, a little flattened to-
 wards the end, wliich joins the scapula ; it is curved
 like an  Italic 5, having one curve turned out towards
 the breast:  it  is  useful  as an  arch, supporting  the
 shoulders, preventing them from falling forwards upon
 the breast, and making the hands strong antagonists to
 each other;  which, without this steadying, they could
 nut have been.
   1. The thoracic  end, that next the sternum, or what
 may be called the  inner head of the clavicle, is round
 and flat, or button-like; and it is received into a suita-
 ble hollow on the  upper piece of the sternum.  It is
 not only, like other joints, surrounded by a capsule or
 purse;  it is further  provided with a small moveable
 cartilage, which, like a friction wheel  in machinery,
 saves the parts and facilitates the motions, and moves
 continually as the clavicle moves.
   2. But the outward end of the clavicle is flattened,
 as it approaches the scapula, and the edge of thai flat-
 ness is turned lo the edge of the flattened acromion, so
 lhat they touch but  in one single point.  This outer
 end ofthe clavicle, and the corresponding point of tbe
 acromion, are flattened and  covered with a crust of
 cartilage; but the  motion here is very slight and quite
 insensible; they are tied  firmly by strong ligaments;
 nnd we may consider this as almost a fixed point,  for
 there is little motion of the scapula upon tbe clavicle;
 but there is  much motion of the clavicle  upon  the
 breast, for tbe clavicle serves as a shaft, or axis, firmly
 tied to the scapula, upon which the scapula moves and
 turns, being connected with  the trunk  only by this
 single point, viz. the  articulation of the clavicle with
 the breast-bone.
   CLAVICULA.  See Clavicle.
   CLAVI'CL'LUS.  See Clavicle.
   CLA'VIS.  (From  claudo, to shut.)  The clavicle.
   CLAVUS.   (A nail.)  1. A com called clavus,
 from its resemblance  to the head of a nail;  Ecphyma
 clavus of Good.  A roundish, horny, cutaneous extu-
 berance, with a central nucleus, sensible at its base;
 found chiefly on  the  toes,  from the pressure of tight
 shoes.
   2. A painful and often an intermitting affection of
 the head, and mostly a severe pulsating pain  in the
 forehead, which may be  covered by  one's thumb,
 giving a sensation  like as if a nail were driven into the
 part.   When connected with  hysterics, it is  called
 Clavus hystericus.
   3. A n artificial palate.
   4. Diseased uterus.
   Clavus hystericus.  See Clavus.
   Clavus oculorum.  A staphyloma, or tumour on
 the eyelids.
  CLAY.  Argilla,   Argillaceous earth,  of which
 there are many kinds, and being opaque and noncrys-
 lallized  bodies, of  dull fracture, afford no good princi-
ple for determining their species; yet as they are ex-
tensively distributed  in nature, and are used in many
arts, they deserve  particular  attention.  The argilla-
ceous minerals are all sufficiently soft to be scratched
 by iron;  they have a  dull or even earthy fracture,
 they  exhale,  when  breathed on,  a peculiar  smell
 called argillaceous.  The  cloys form  with water a
 plastic paste,  possessing considerable tenacity, which
 hardens  with  heat, so as to strike fire with steel
 Maries  and chalks  also soften in water, but theii
 paste is not temiccous,  nor docs it acquire a siliceous
 hardness  in the  fire.  The affinity  of the  clays  for
 moisture is manifested by their sticking to the tongue,
 and by the intense heat necessary to make them per
 fectly dry.   The odour ascribed  to clays  breathed
 upon, is due  to the oxide  of iron mixed with them
 Absolutely pure clays emit  no smell.
   1. Porcelain earth,the kaolin ofthe Chinese.—This
 mineral is friable, meagre to the  touch,  and,  when
 pine, forms with difficulty a paste with water.
   •2. Potter's clay, or plastic clay.—The clays of this
 variety ore compact, smooth, and almost  unctuous to
 the touch, and may be- polished by the  finger when
 they are dry.  They  have  a  great affinity lo  water,
 form  a tenacious  paste, and adhere strongly  to  the
 tongue.
   3. Loam— This is an impure potter's  clay, mixed
 Willi mica and iron oc*ire.
   4.  Variegated  clay.—Is  striped  or  spotted with
 white, red, or yellow colours.
   5. Slate clay.—Colour, gray or grayish-yellow.
   6.  Claystone.—Colour,  gray, of  various  shades,
 sometimes red, and spotted, or striped.
   7. Adhesive slate.—Colour, light-greenish gray.
   8. Polishing slate of Werner.—Colour, creara-yel
 low, in alternate stripes.
   0. Common clay way be  considered to be the same
 as loam.
   Clay, pure.  See  Alumina.
   Clay-slate.  Argillaceous slate.  Argilllte of Kir
 wan.   A mineral whicli  is extensively distributed,
 forming a part of both primitive and transition moun-
 tains of slate, is found in many countries.
 ^  ["CLAYTON, Dr. John, an eminent botanist and
 physician, of Virginia, was born in England in 1685,
 and came to Virginia in 1705, and resided near Wil-
 liamsburg.  He was  elected a member of several of the
 first literary societies of Europe,  and corresponded
 with  many ofthe most learned  naturalists of that pe-
 riod.  As a practical botanist, he  was, probably,  not
 inferior to any one of the age.  He passed a long  file
 in exploring and describing the plants of his country,
 and is supposed to have enlarged the botanical cata-
 logue as much as  any man who ever lived.   He is  the
 author of "Flora Virginica," a work  published by
 Gronovius at  Leyden,  8vo. in  173'J, 1743,  and 1762.
 He published in the philosophical transactions several
communications, treating of the  culture of the differ-
ent species of  tobacco, and au ample account of the
medicinal plants which he had discovered iu Virginia
He also left behind  him two volumes of manuscript
neatly prepared for the press, and a llortus Siccus with
marginal  notes and  references  for the engraver who
should prepare the plates for his  proposed work.  He
died December 15th,  177:1, in the  88th year of his age.
During the year preceding  his decease, such was the
vigour of his constitution, even at  this advanced pe-
riod, and such was his  zeal  in  botanical researches,
thai he made a botanical tour through Orange County;
and it is believed that he had visited  most of the set
lied parts of Virginia. His  character stands very high
as a man of integrity, and as a good citizen."—Thach.
Med.  Biog.  A.l
  ["CLAYTON, Dr. Joshua, was Governor  ofthe
State of Delaware, and a member of the United States
Senate;  he.died in 1799.   He was highly respectable
in the medical profession,  in which he practised  for
many years.
  In 1792, he addressed a friend as follows:  " During
the late war, the Peruvian  bark was very scarce and
dear.  I was at that time engaged  in  considerable
practice, and was under the  necessity of seeking a sub
stitute for  the  Peruvian bark.  I conceived lhat the
poplar, Liriodendron tulipifera,  had more aromatic
and bitter than the  Peruvian,  and less astringency.
To correct  and amend those qualities, I  added to it
nearly au  equal quantity of  the bark of the root of
dogwood, cornus florida, and half the quantity of the
inside bark of the  white-oak ire-e.  This remedy I pre-
scribed for several years,  in every case  in whicli 1
conceived the Peruvian bark necessary or proper, with 
CLE                                             CL1
l. Irast equal If nr-t superior success I used It in every
species of intermittent, gangrenes, mortifications, and
in short, every case of debility."— Thacli. Med.Biog.A.]
  CLEAVAGE.   This term  is applied to the mecha-
nical division of crystals, by showing the direction in
which  llieir lamina can separate, enables us to deter-
mine the  mutual inclination of these lamina: Wer-
ner called il  durchgung, but  he attended  only to the
number of directions in which this mechanical divi-
Fion of the plates, or cleavage, could be effected.  In
the interior  of many minerals, the direction of the
cleavage  may be frequently seen, without  using any
mechanical violence.
  CLEAVERS.  See Galium aparine.
  CLEGHORN,  George, was born near Edinburgh,
In 1716, and, after studying in that city, went  at the
age of twenty to Minorca, as n regimental surgeon.
During the thirteen years that he spent there, he sedu-
lously studied the natural productions of  the island.
In 1750, coming to Loudon, he published his "Treatise
on the  Diseases of Minorca," whicli displays great ob-
servation and ability.  He then went to Dublin, and
gave lectures on anatomy with such success, that he
Was soon after appointed public professor; and, in 1774,
an honorary  member of  the  College of Physicians
there.  He died in 1789.
  Ci.ei'dion.   Ctidion.   The epithet of a pastil, de-
scribed by Galen  and Paulus Aelgineta ; nnd it  is the
name also of an epithem described by Afitius.
  Clkiuo'ma. (From xXttiou, to close.)  A pastil, or
troch.  Also the clavicle.
  CLEIDOMASTOIDE'US.   (From xXas, ihe clavi-
cle, and pa^otiins, the mastoid process.)  See Sterno-
cleido-mastoideus.
  CLEISA'GRA. (From  kXus, the clavicle, and aypa,
n prey.)  The gout in the  articulation of the clavicles.
  Clki'tiirom.  (From xXttifo, to shut.)  See  Claus-
tntm.
  CLE'MATIS.   (From  xXqpa, a tendril; bo named
from its climbing up trees, or  any thing it  can  fasten
upon with its tendrils.)  Th'e niune of a genus of plants
in the  Linnaean  system.   'ass,  Polyandria;  Order,
Polygynia.
  Clkmatis  recta.  Ii.-  wstcinntic name  of the
.tpright virgin's-bower.   Flammula Jovis. Clematis
—foliis pinnatis, foliolis  ovato lanceolatis integerri-
mis, caule credo, fioribus  pentupetalis letrapelalisque
of'Linnaeus.   More praises have been bestowed upon
the virtue which the  leaves of this plant are said to
 Sossess, when exhibited internally, as  antivenercal,
 y foreign physicians, than its trials in this country can
justify. The powdered leaves are sometimes applied
externally to  ulcers, as an escharotic.
  Clkmatis  vitalba.  The  systematic name  of the
traveller's-joy.   Vitalba; Atragenc;  Viorna;  Cle-
matis arthrageneof Theophiastus. This plant is com-
mon in our hedges, and is the Clematis—foliis pinna-
tius, foliolis cordatis scandentibus, of Linnaeus,  lis
leaves, when fresh, produce a warmth on the tongue,
and if  the chewing is continued, blisters arise.  The
same effect  follows  their being rubbed on the skin.
The plant has been  administered internally to  cure
 ucs venerea, scrofula, nnd rheumatism,   iu France,
the young sprouts are cuten, when boiled, as hoptops
are in  this country.
  Clemati'tis.  The some rs clematis.
  Clko'nis coiilyiuum.   The name of a collyrium
 lescribed by Celsus.
  Cxkonis gluten.  An  astringent formula of myrrh,
frankincense, and white of egg mixed together.
  Ci.k'i'svura.  (From xXcimt, to conceal, and ucuip,
wuter.)  Properly, an instrument to measure time by
Ihe dr ipping of water through a hole, from one vessel
to another; but it is used  to cxpiess a chemical vessel,
perforated in the same manner.  It is also uu instru-
ment mentioned by  Paracelsus, contrived to convey
Bulfiimiimtions to the  uterus in hysterical cuses.
  CLEYER, Andrew, was born nt Cnssel, iu  Hie be-
ginning of the 17th century.  Afterstudying medicine,
he went as phvsician to  Datavia, where  he resided
many years.  He transmitted several interesting  com-
liiimiculions  to the  Imperial Academy, of which he
had been chosen a member, particularly "An Account
nf Hydatids found in n Human Slomaoh,' and  "Or
the Custom  of the Indians of taking Opium;  also
descriptions and  drawines of the plants indigenous  in
Java, especially the moxa, ginoeng, and tea-plant. He
      838
 likewise  published, in  1C80, a curious spcclniMi ol
 Chinese medicine.
   Cli'bvnus.  (Quasi  xaXi6avos; lrom  xaAvv/m, to
 conceal.)   A  portable furnace, or still, in which the
 materials to be wrought on are shut up.
   CLIFTON,  Francis,  after studying at  Oxford,
 came to London, and was admitted Fellow ofthe Col-
 lege of Physicians, as well ns of the Uoyal  -Society.
 about the year 1730. Two years after, he published
 on " The State of Physic, ancient and modern, with a
 Plan for improving it;" in whicli  a  law is proposed,
 to compel practitioners  to send to a public institution
 descriptions  of the several cases which  come  under
 their care.  He was also author of " A plain and sure
 Way of practising Physic;" and translated some parti
 of Hippocrates into English, with noles.
   Clima'cter. (From xXipa^io, to proceed gradually)
 The progression of tbe  life of man.  It is usually di-
 vided into periods of seven years.
   Climacteric.  See Septenary.
   CLIMATE. The prevailing constitution of the at-
 mosphere, relative to heat, wind, and  moisiure, pecu-
 liar to  any region.  This denends chiefly on the lati-
 tude of the place, its elevation above the level of tlie
 sea, and its insular or continental position.  Springs
 which  issue from  a  considerable depth, and  caves
 about 50 feet  under the surface, preserve a  uniform
 temperature through all  the vicissitudes of the season
 This is the mean temperature of that country.
   It appears very probable, that the climates of Euro-
I pean countries were more severe in ancient times thnn
 they ore at present.  Caesar says, that the vine could
! not be cultivated in Gaul, on account of its Winter-
! cold.  The rein-deer, now found only in  ihe  zone of
 Lapland, was then an  inhabitant of the  Pyrenees.
 The Tiber was frequently frozen over, and the ground
 about Rome covered with snow for several weeks to-
 gether, which almost never happens in our times.
 The Rhine and the Danube, in the reign of Augustus,
■ were generally frozen over for several months of win
I ter. The barbarians, who overran the Roman empire a
I few centuries afterward, transported  their armies and
 wagons across the  ice of these rivers.  The improve-
 ment that is continually taking place in the climate of
 America, proves, that the power of man extends to
 phenomena, which, from the magnitude and variety
 uf their causes, seemed entirely beyond his  control.
 At Guiana, in South America, within five degrees of
 the line, tlie inhabitants  living amid immense forests, a
 century ago, were obliged to alleviate the severity of
 the cold  by evening fires.  Even  the duration of the
 rainy season has been shortened by the clearing ofthe
 country, and the warmth is so increased, that a fire
 now would be deemed an annoyance.  It thunders
 continually in the woods, rarely in  the  cultivated
 purts.
   Drainage of the ground, and removal of forests,
 however, cannot be  reckoned among the sources of
 the increased warmth of the Italian winters.  Chemi-
 cal writers  have omitted to notice  an astronomical
 cause of the progressive amelioration of the climates
 of the northern  hemisphere.  In consequence of the
 apogee portion of the terrestrial orbit being contained
 between our vernal and autumnal equinox, our sum-
 mer half of tlie  year, or the interval which elapses
 between  the sun's  crossing the equator in spring, and
 in autumn, is about seven days longer than our winter
 half year.   Hence nlso, one reason for the relative
 coldness of the southern hemisphere.
   [While Dr. Priestley was enguged, during the month
 of July,  1801, in making  experiments wilh a double
 convex lens upon some metallic substances nt Northum-
 berland, in Pennsylvania, he wrotethus to Dr. Mitchill:
 " If I have a few  days more sunshine, I shall finish
 what I am about, and write  the  next post.  Happily
 we are never long  without sunshine, whereas in Eng-
 land  1 have often waited months;  and the days in
 which I could use a burning lens have not, I am con-
 fident, exceeded one fortnight in some whole years,
 and I have often  watched  every  gleam tlie  year
 through.  I think the climate of ihis country greatly
 preferable to that of England."—Med. Repos.  A.]
   CLI'MAX.   (From x-Xifiugu, to proceed.)  A name
 of some  antidotes, which, in regular  proportion, in-
 creased or diminished the  ingredients of which it was
 conposed,e. g. ft. Chammdryos 5jjj.   Centaurii \\$
 Hyperici  Jj. 
CLO
CNI
   Climbinj birthwort.  See Aristolochia clcmatilis.
   Climbing stem.  See Caulis.
   CLINICAL.  (Clinicus; from kXivti, abed.)   Any
 thing concerning a bed: thus clinical lectures, notes,
 a clinical physician, &c.;  which mean lectures given
 at the bedside, observations taken from patients when
 in bed, a physician who  visits his patients in their
 bed, &c.
   CLINKSTONE.  A  etone of an imperfectly slaty
 nature, which rings like  metal, when struck with a
 hammer.
   CLI'NOID.   (Clinoidcus; from kXivti, a bed, nnd
 ulos, resemblance.)  Resembling a  bed.  The  four
 processes surrounding ihe sella turcica ofthe sphenoid .
 bone are so called, of which two are anterior, and two
 posterior.
   Clinomastoide'us.   A corruption of cleidomastoi-
 dcus.  .Nee Sterna cleido-mastnideus.
   CLINOMETER.  An instrument for measuring the
 dip of mineral strata.
  Cli'ssus.   A chemical term denoting mineral com-
 pound spirits; but antimony is considered as tlie basis
 clyssi.  See Clyssus.
  Clito ridis musculus.  Pee Erector clitoridis.
  CLI'TOKIS.  (From kXciw, to enclose, or hide; lie-
 cause il is hid by the labia pudendoruin.)   Columella.
 A small glandiform body, like a  penis in miniature,
 and, like it, covered with a prepuce, or fore-skin.   It
 is situated above tlie nyinphoe, and before the opening
 of the urinary passage of women.  Anatomy has dis-
 covered, thai tlie clitoris is composed, like the penis,
 of a cavernous substance,  and of a glnns, which  has
 no perforation, hut is like that ofthe penis, exquisitely
 sensible.  The clitoris is the principal seat of plea-
 sure: during coition it  is  distended with blood,  and
 after the venereal orgasm it becomes flaccid and falls.
 Instances have occurred where the clitoris was so en-
 larged as to enable the female to have venereal com-
 merce wilh others; and, in Paris, this fact was made
 a public exhibition of to  the faculty.  Women thus
 formed  appear to partake,  in their general form, less
 of the female character, and  are termed hermaphro-
 dites.  The clitoris in children is larger, in proportion,
 than iu full-grown women: it often projects beyond
 the external labia at birth.
   CLITOR1 SMUS.  (From xXt^oms; the clitoris.)
 An enlargement of the clitoris.
   CLONIC.  (From nAov£iD,tomoveto andfro.)  See
 Convulsion.
   Closo des.  (From kXovoo, to agitate.)  A strong
 unequal pulse.
   CLONUS.  (From xXovcto, to agitate.)  The name
 of a genus nf disease in ihe Class, Neuroses; Order,
 Lenettca, of Good's Nosology.  Clonic  spasm, com
 prising r.ix species: Clonus singultus, alernitlatio,pal-
 pitatio, nictilatio, subsultue, and pandiculatio.
   ["CLOSSEY, Samuel, M.D. was an  Irish physi-
 cian, of very respectable attainments, who established
 himself in medical practice in New-York.  He hod,
 previously to his arrival in America, attained a high
 degree of eminence iu the medical profession, both as
 a practitioner, and an author of an interesting volume
 on morbid anatomy : this was entitled "Observations
 on some of the Diseases of the Human Body, chiefly
 taken from the Dissections of Morbid Bodies;" it was
 published in London in 1763.   He was lor a short
 time chosen to the anatomical chair, aud the profes-
 sorship of Natural Philosophy in  King's College, now
 Columbia College.  Upon the organization ofthe first
 medical school in New-York, in 1708, Dr. Clossey was
 chosen the professor of Anatomy, and  directed his la-
 bours with great assiduity to the establishment of thai
 institution.   Political dilnculties iu the American go-
 vernment, caused  him to leturn  to his own country,
 where he died a short time after his arrival."—Inacli
 Med. Biog.   A ]
  CLOVE  See Eugenia caryophyllata.
   Clove-bark.  See Myrtus caryophyllata.
  Clove gillifioiccr.  See Dianthus caryophyllus.
  Clove-pink.  See Dianthus caryophyllus.
  Cloven-leaf.  See Leaf.
  CLOWES, William, an eminent English surgeon
of the  16th century, received  his education  under
George Keble, whose skill he strongly commends.  Af-
ter serving for mine time professionally in the navy.
he settled in London, and was made surgeon toClnist's
and St. Barthol miew's hospitals, and appears to have
had considerable practice.  In 1586. he \s as sent
Low Countries, to the assistance of the army iiwlei
the Earl of Leicester;  and on his return was appointed
surgeon to the Uucen.  His works are in the  English
language, but evince much  learning, as well a* skill In
his profession.  The first whicli  he published was on
the lues venerea,  in 15H5; in which lie notices the in-
creasing frequency of that  disease, and states that in
five years he had  cured above a thousand patients la-
bouring under it lit St. Bartholomew's hospital.  Hut
his most celebrated  publication appeared ilnee yet-.rs
after, on  the method of treating wounds  ot  various
kinds,  the result  of extensive experience,  saiictiniu*'
by  refemiccs to the most approved wiiieis.  He  ap-
pears to have possessed an enlnrged  understanding,
and was very severe on all quacks and impost-irs; mid
he may justly be reckoned among the restorers unci im-
provers of surgery in modern times.
  CLUM'.SIA.  (From dunes,  the bullocks.)  An
inflammation of the buttocks.
  CLU'PEA.  The mime of n genus of fishes, in  the
Linmi'Rn system.
  Cm-pea  alosv.   The Linna-an name for the shad
or chad, the flesh  of whicli  is by some couuiiended us
a restorative.
  [Clupea is the generic name  for the herring tribe.
to wliich the shad belongB, and which  is Ihe best and
largest of thcin all.   It  is  one of the most excellent
eatable fish that frequents  the waters of the United
States.  It is a  migratory fish appoaring on our coast
in March and April,  and disappearing by June.  It
comes  from the Gulf  of Mexico, and  in  ils course
northwardly, ascends our fresh water rivers to deposite
its spmvn.  It is  tuken in  iuinieu.-e numbeis m the
Delaware, the "Hudson, and the Connecticut rivers, in
April and  May.  After  depositing iu spawn in the
upper  and small branches of these fresh streams, the
shad returns to the ocean, so altered in shape mid size
as hardly  to be known for the same fish; and hence it
is called maugre shad, not fit to eat, and not suffered
lo be sold in the New-York markets.   A.J
  Clupea  encRasicolus.  The anchovy,  n little fish
found in greal abundance about the island of Goi gona,
near Leghorn.  It is prepared for sale, by salting and
pickling,   it is supposed the ancient Greeks and Ro-
mans prepared a kind of gnriiui for the table from this
fish.  Its principal use is, as a sauce for seusoning.
  CLU'SIA.  (So called in  memory of Charles Clu
sius, an eminent botanist.)   The name of a genus of
plants  in  the Linnaean  system.   Class, Polygamia;
Order, Monacia.  Balsam-tree.
  CU'STER.  See Raccmus.
  CLU'TIA.  (Named after Cluyt,  ond sc>metimes
spelled cluytia.)  Tile  name of a genus of plants in the
Linna-an system.  Class, Diacia; Order, Gyuandria
  Clutia  elutiieiua.  The systematic  name of the
tree whicli is by some  supposed to atiord the cascarlUa
bark.
  Cluy'tia.  See Clutia.
  CLY'DON.  KAihW.  A fluctuation and flatulency
in the stomach.
  CLYPEA'LIS.   (From clypeus, a shield.)  Formed
like a shield.
  CLY'SMUS.   (From aAtigw, to wash.)   Clysma
A L'lyster.
  Ci.v'bsos.  Clissus.  A term anciently used by the
chemists for medicines made by the reunion of differ
em principles, as oil, salt, and spirit, by long digestion;
but it is not now practised, and the term is almost lost.
  Clyssus antimonii.  Clyssus mincralis.  A weak
acid of sulphur.
  Cly'ster.  (Clysterium.   From *Augw, to cleanse.)
A glysler.   See Enema.
  Cnk'mia.  (From Kvnpq, the tibia.)   Any part con
uei ted with the tibia.
  C .cuodactyl&'us.   (From xvnun, the tibia, and
ZjkIvXos, a finger, or toe.)   A muscle, the  origin  of
whicli  is in the tibia, and insertion in the toes.  See
l.i U nsor longus digitorum pedis.
  CNKSIS.  (From xvaw, to scratch.)  Cni*me«.  A
painful itching.
  Cmcil/E'on.  (From kvikos, cnicus, and eXnwv, oil.)
Oil made of the seeds of cnicus.  Its virtues are tbe
name- wilh those of the ricinus, but in un mlerier de-
gree.
  CNI'CL'S.  (From  xvaui, to scratch.)   The plant
u«< d by Hippocrates by this  name, is supposed to  be 
COB
coc
tne carthamus;  but modern botanists exclude it from j fusible metal, of a «^^B™y ~^ s°aid'tote 13<£
the species of this plant.
  Cnicus ckrnuus.  The systematic name of the
nodding cnicus, the tender stalks of which are, when
boiled and peeled, eaten by the Siberians as a food.
  Cnicus lanatus.  Chamalim verum.  The distaff
thistle.  Formerly used as a depuration, but now for-
gotten.                                      .  ,
  Cnicus oleraceus.  Round-leaved meadow thistle.
The leaves  of this plant are  boiled in the  northern
parts of Europe, and eaten as  we do cabbage.
  Cmcus sylvestris.  See Centaurea benedicta.
  Cnidia grana.  See Daphne  mezereum.
  Cnidii cocci.  See Daphne mezereum.
  Cnidii grana. See Daphne mezereum.
  Cnido'sis.  (From xviin, the nettle.)     .
  1. An itching  sensation, such as is perceived lrom
 the neltle.
  2. A dry ophthalmy.
   Cnii-o'tes.   An itching.
   Cni'smos.  Sec Cncsis.                     „.
   Cny'ma.  (From xvau, to scrape, or grate.)  In Hip-
 pocrates it signifies  a rasure,  puncture, or vellicalion.
 also the same as cnesis.              . .        .
   Coaounatje.   (From coadunare, to join  or  gathei
 together.)   The name of an  order of plants, in lan-
 naeus's Fragments of a Natural Method.
   COA'GULABLE.   Possessing the property of co-
 agulation.   See Albumen.
   Coaervlaile lymph.   See Albumen.             .
   COAGULANT.  (Coagulans ; from coagulo, tom-
 irassate, or curdla.)  Having the power of coagulating
  he blood or juices flowing trom it.
   COAGULA'TION.   (Coagulatio; from con,  antl
 airo, to drive together.)  The separation of the coagu-
 lable particles, contained in any fluid, from the more
 thin and not coagulable particles:  thus when  milk
             _____.i_ui-  nn..inioa  rx*tn thp p.itrn ■  and
kndT<m."ar. of 8.6.  Its melting point is said to be 130°
WedUweiod.  It is generally associated in its ores with
nickel  arsenic, iron, and copper; and the cobalt of
commcmeiisually contains a proportion of these me-
tX  To separate  them, calcine with lour parts of
nitre, and wash away, with  hot water, the soluble ar
seniate of potassa.  Dissolve the residuum  m dilute
niuSaoid.m.d immerse a plate of iron in the .olu-
Uo. to precipitate the copper.  Filter the liquid and
evaoorale to  dryness.  Digest the mass with water oi
ammonia, which will dissolve only the oxides of nickel
and cobalt.   Having expelled the  excess of alkali b>
a gentle heat from  the clear ammomaca  solution,
add cautiously water of potassa, which will precipi-
tate the oxide of  nickel.   Filter immediately, and boil
  he  liquid, which will throw down tlie pure oxide of
cobalt   It is reduced to the metallic state by ignition
in contac  wilh  lamp-black.and  oil.  Laugier treats
  he above ammoniacal solution with oxalic acid  He
   en redissolves the precipitated oxalates of nickel and
 cobalt in concentrated water of ammonia, and exposes
 the Solution to the air.  As the ammonia exhales, oxa-
  ate of  nickel,  mixed with ammonia, is (deposited.
 The nickel is entirely separated from the liquid by re-
 peated crystallizations. "There remains ^combination
 If oxalate of cobalt and ammonia, which is easily ie-
  duccd by charcoal to the metallic state..  The small
  quantityof cobalt remaining in the precipitated salt of
  nickel, is separated by digestion in water ol ammonia.
   Cobalt is  susceptible of magnetism, but  m a  lower
  decree than steel and nickel.
    Oxygen combines with cobalt in two Proportionss;
  forming the dark-blue protoxide, and the black deutox-
   dc   The first  dissolves in acids without efferves-
  cence.  It is procured by igniting gently in a retort the
  oxide precipitatedIby potassa.from U.e mi„c -lulion
thin  and not coagulable paricles:  thus when mi.K  oxioe' ^"I^e^oxidT^nsisis of 100 metal+ 19.S
When acius are uinmiuu" —j ;■-•---------=.
a«ulable panicles, they form what is called a coagulum
 °COA'GULUM.  A term applied frequently to blood
and  other fluids, when they assume a jelly-like con-

SISCoagulum aluminis.  This is made by beating the
white of eggs with a little alum, until it  forms a co-
agulum.   It is recommended as an efficacious applica-
tion  to relaxations of  the cbnjunclivc membrane of
the eye.
  COAK.  Charred coal.
  '"The substance called coke is light,  spongy, and
of a shining steel-gray colour.  It burns less easily
than coal, but produces a great heat, and does not cake
nor  smoke.  The preparation of  coke may  be con-
ducted  in the same manner as that of charcoal from
wood.   By this  process, from 700  to 1100 lbs. of coke
 are  obtained from one ton of coal; but the volatile
 products, consisting of bilumen, or coal-tar, and am-
 monia, are lost.  For collecting these, a plan has been
 contrived by Lord Dundonald, and successfully exe-
 cuted.   The coke is  prepared in ovens,  or stoves,
 almost close; and from W0 tons of coal  arc collected
 about 3£ tons  of tar, and a quantity of ammouiacal
 salt."—Cleav. Min.
   In the modern process of making  gas for burning
 from bituminous coal, the profit arises principally from
 preserving the coak and ammoniacal liquor, while most
 of  the tar is decomposed and converted  into gas.  A.]
   COAL.   A combustible mineral, of which there are
 many species.
   Coalte'rn.e febres.    (From con,  and  altcrnus,
 alternate.)  Fevers mentioned by Bellini, which he
 describes as two fevers affecting Hie same patient, and
 the paroxysm of one approaching as lhat of the other
 subsides.                                  . .  .  ,
    COARCTA'TIO.   (From  coarcto, to straighten.)
 The  contraction or diminution of any  thing.   For-
  merly  applied  to the pulse: it meant a lessening in

  ""cOAllCTATUS.  Crowded.  A panicle is so called,
  which is dense or crowded, as in Phleum paniculatum,
  the inflorescence of which  looks, at first sight, like a
  cylindrical spike; but when bent to  either side, sep.i-
  lotes into branched lobes, constituting a  real  pan de.
     Coarticulv'tio.  (From con, and articulatio, an
  artirXim. )  Tliat sort of  articulation  which has

  ™ OBALT?°A brittle, somewhat soft, but difficultly
         340
deutoxi'de 100 + 36.77.  If we call the first 18.5, and
the second 37 ;  then the  prime equivalent of  cobalt
will be 5.4; and ihe two oxides will consist of
Protox.
Deutox.
l Cobalt, 5.4
J Oxygen, 1.0
I Cobalt, 5.4
| Oxygen, 2.0
100
 18.5
100
 37
R4.3S
15.62
100.00
73
27
100
  The precipitated oxide of cobalt, washed and gently
heated in contact with air, passes into tlie slate  of
black peroxide.         ,.,.,.    ..,   r      i
  When cobalt is heated in chlorine, it takes fire, and
forms the chloride.  The  iodide, phosphuret, and sul-
phuret of this metal, have not been much examined.
  The salts of cobalt are interesting from the remark-
able changes of colour which they can exhibit.
  Their solution is red  in the neutral slate, but green
with a sli"ht excess of acid ;  the  alkalies occasion a
blue-coloured precipitate from the salts of pure  co
bait, but reddish-brown when arsenic acid is  present
sulphuretted hydrouen produces no precipitate, but  by
drosulphurets throw down a  black powder, soluble in
excess  of the precipitant;  tincture ot  galls gives a
yellowish-white precipitate; oxalic acid throws  down
the red oxalate.  Zinc does not precipitate this metal.
   COBALUS.   The demon of mines, whicli obstruct
ed and destroyed the miners.
   COBHAM.  The name of a town in Surrey, in the
 neighbourhood  of  which is a weak saline  purging
 water.
   Co'bra de capello.  (From cobra, the head, or
 covering, Spanish.  See Crotalus homdus.
   Cocao, butter i,f.  See Butter of Cocao.
   Cocao-nut.   See Cocos nucifera.
   Cocca cnidia.  See Daphne mezereum.
   Cocca'rium.   (From kokkov, a berry.)   A very
 small pill.
   COC11NELLA.  (Diminutive of coccus, a  berry
 from its resemblance to a berry.)  See Coccus cacti.
   Coc i o-dai.sam.um.  The fruit of the  Amyris gilea
 dcnsis.
   CoeeoaNi'DiA.  See Daphne mezereum 
coc
COL
   C OCCOLITE.  A mineral of a green colour, of va
 rionssho'V's, found with granular limestone, garnet, and
 mnanetic iron stone, in Norway, Sweden, and Spain.
   CO'CCOS.   See Daphne mezereum.
   COCCULUS.  (Diminutive of/eoicitoj, a berry.)  1.
 •1 little berry.
   2. The name given by De Candolle, in his Systema
 Natura, to a new genus  of plants.
   3. Cocculus indicus.  See Menispermum cocculus.
   4. Cocculus palmati  s.   The systematic  name of
 the plant, which afford-: the calumba root of the phar-
 macopoeias.  See Calumba.
   Co'ccui.cs  indi  aromaticus.   Jamaica  pepper.
 See Myrtus pimenta.
   COCCUM.   A species of capsule, but separated
 from it by Gaertner, who defines it to be a dry seed-ves-
 sel, more or less aggregate,  not solitary, the sides of
 which are elastic, projecting the seeds with great force;
 as in the Euphorbia.
  Coccux baphicu.m.  A name for chermes.
  CO'CCUS.  The name, in entomology, for a tribe of
 Infects.
  Coccus cacti.  The systematic name of the cochi-
 neal animal, or insect.  Coccinella; Coccinilla ; Ficus
 India grana; Scarabaolus hemispharicus ;  Cochincli-
fera cochinilla;  Coccus Americanus;  Cochinella;
 Coccus indicus tinctorius.   Cochineal.  That whicli
 is used is the female insect found on, and collected in
 South America from, the  Opuntia, or Indian fig-tree.
 It possesses stimulating qualities, and is ordered by the
 College in the tinctura cardamomi composita, and tinc-
 tura cinchona  composita; but, most probably, merely
on account of  the beautiful  red colour which it im-
 parls to them.
  [The cochineal is not now used in this country as a
 medicine.  It is principally employed in producing a
 beautiful  scarlet  colour,  in  dying  calico, colouring
 morocco leather, &c.  A.]
  COCCYGE'L'S. (Coccygeus ; frornxoKKvl: because
 ii  is inserted into the coccyx.)  A muscle of the os coc-
 cygis, situated within the pelvis.   Ischio-cocigien of
 iiumas.   It ari-es tendinous and fleshy, from the spi-
 nous process of the ischium, and covers the inside of
 the sacro-ischiatic ligament;  from  this narrow begin-
 ning it gradually increases to form a thin fleshy belly,
 interspersed with tendinous fibres.   It is inserted into
 the extremity of the os sacrum, and nearly the whole
 length ol" the os coccygis laterally.  Its use is to support
 aud move the os coccygis forwards, and to tie it more
 firmly  to the sacrum.
   cJ'CCYGIS OS.  (From  xoxxv\, the cuckoo, the
 bill of wliich  bird it is  said to represent)   Cauda.
 Ossis  sacri acumen.  Coccyx.  This bone is a small
 appendage to the point ofthe sacrum, terminating this
 inverted column with an acute point, and found in
 very diffeiout conditions  in the several stages of life.
 In the  child, it is merely cartilage, and we can find no
 point of bone:  during youth, it is  ossifying into dis;
 tinct bones, which continue moveable upon each other
 till manhood:  then the separate bones gradually unite
 with each other, so as to form one conical bone, with
 bulgings and marks of the pieces of which it was ori-
 ginally composed; but still the last bone continues to
 move upon the joint of the sacrum, till, in  advanced
 years,  it is at last firmly united; later in women than
 in men,  with  whom it is often fixed  at twenty or
 twenty-five.  It is not, like the os sacrum, flat, but of
 a  roundish  form, convex without,  and concave in-
 wards; forming with the sacrum the lowest part of the
 pelvis behind.   Il has no  holes  like the  sacrum; has
 no communication with the spinal canal, and transmits
 no nerves; but points forwards to support the lower
 parts ofthe rectum;  thus it contracts the lower open-
 ing of the pelvis, so  as to support effectually the rec-
 tum, bladder, and womb; and yet continues so move-
 able in women, as to recede in time of labour, allowing
tlie head ofthe child to pass.
  CO'CCYX.   (KokxvI,  the  cuckoo.)  See Coccygis
is.  Also the part in which the os coccygis is placed.
  COCHF.NILIN.   Carminium.   The name of the
colouring principle of cochineal.
 Co'chia  (From  xoxaio,  to turn or make round.)
An ancient name of some officinal  pills.  The pill of
eochia of tnc shops, in tlie  present day, is the compound
solocyuth pill.
 Co'cmeiEAL.  See Coccus cacti.
 CO'CHLEA.  (From xoxafy, to turn round *i  A
cavity of the  internal ear, resembling the shell of a
snail, in which are the modiolus, or nucleus, extending
from its basis to the apex, the scala tympani,scala ves-
tibvli, and spiral lamina.  See Eur.
  Cochlea terrestris.   See Umax.
  COCIIL BARE.  (Crom cochlea, a cockle, the shell
of whicli  its  bowl represents.)   A spoon.  Cochleare
amplum or magnum is a table-spoon, calculated to hold
half a fluid ounce; cochleare medium  is a dessert or
pap spoon, supposed to hold two tea  spoonfuls; and
cochleare  minimum, a tea-spoon, which  holds about
one fluid drachm.
  COCHLEA RIA.   (From cochleare, a spoon ;  fo
called  from its resemblance.)  'The name of u genus
of plants  in the Linnaean system.  Class, Tetvadyna
mia; Order, Siliculosa.
  Cochlearia armoracia.   The systematic mime of
the horse-radish: Raphnnus rusticanus; Armoracia,
Raphanus marinus;  Raphanus sylvestris ;  Cochlea-
ria—foliis radicalibus lanceolatis crenatis caulinis in
cisis, of  Linnaeus.  The mot of this  plant  has lone
been received into the materia medica, and is also well
known at our tables.   " It affects the  organs both of
taste  and smell with  a quick penetrating pungency;
nevertheless it contains in certain vessels a sweet juice
which sometimes exudes  in little drops upon the sin
face.   Its pungent matter is of a very volatile kind,
being totally  dissipated in drying, and carried off in
evaporation, or distillation by water; as the pungency
exhales, the sweet matter of the  root becomes more
sensible, though this also is, in a great  measure, dissi-
pated or  destroyed.  It impregnates both  water and
spirit, by  infusion, or by distillation, very richly with
its active matters.  In distillation with  water, it yields
a small quantity of essential oil, exceedingly pene-
trating and pungent."
  Dr. Cullen  has mentioned every thing necessary to
be known respecting  the medicinal virtues of horse
radish, we shall therefore transcribe all that the itige
nious professor has written on this subject.  " The root
of this plant only is employed; and it affords one of
the most  acrid substances of tins order (Siliculosa).
and therefore proves  a powerful stimulant, whethei
externally or  internally  employed.   Externally,  it
readily inflames the  skin,  and proves a rubefacient
that may be  employed with advantage in palsy and
rheumatism ; and if its application be  long continued.
it  produces blisters.   Taken internally, it may be so
managed  as to relieve hoarseness, by acting on the
fauces. Received into the stomach, it  stimulates this,
and promotes digestion; and therefore  is properly em-
ployed as  a condiment with our animal food.   If it bo
infused in water, and a portion of this infusion be taken
with a large draught of warm water, it readily proves
emetic, and may either be employed by itself to excite
vomiting,  or to assist  the operation of other emetics,
Infused in water, and taken into the stomach, it proves
stimulant  to the nervous system, and is thereby useful
in palsy, and, if employed in large quantity, it proves
heating to the whole body; and thereby it proves often
useful  in chronic rheumatism, whether  arising from
scurvy or  other causes.  Beigius has given us a parti-
cular method of exhibiting this root, which is, by cut-
ting it down, without  bruising, into small  pieces; and
these, if swallowed  without chewiiit.',  may be taken
down in  large quantities, to that of a table-spoonful
And the author alleges, that, iu this way, taken in the
morning for a month  together, this root has  been ex-
tremely useful in arthritic cases; wliich, however, I
suppose to have been of the rheumatic kind.   It wi uld
seem, in this manner  employed, analogous to the use
of unbruiscd mustard-seed ; it gives out in the stomach
its subtile volatile parts, that stimulate considerably
without inflaming.   The  matter of horse-radish like
the  same matter of the otlier siliquose plants carried
into the blood-vessels,  passes readily into the  kidneys,
and proves a powerful diuretic, and is therefore useful
in dropsy; and we need not say, that,  in this  manner,
by promoting both urine and perspiration, it has been
long known as oneof the most powerful antiscorbutics."
  Cochlearia  hortensis.    Lemon scurvy-gre«
See Cochlearia officinalis.
  Cochlearia officinalis.  The systematic nanw
of the lemon  scurvy-grass.  Cochlearia hortensis;
Cochlearia—foliis radicalibus cordato subrolundis;
caulinis ohlongis subsinuatis, of Linnaeus.   This in
digenous plant is cultivated iu gardens for its inediciral
                                        241 
coc
CCEL
 qualities.   Its expressed juice has been long conside :ed
 as the most effectual of the scorbutic plants.
  COCHLEATUS.  Spiral, like the winding  of  a
 shell.  Applied in botany to leaves, leguminous seeds,
 &c;  as legumen cochleatum, seen in  Mcdicago poly-
 morpha, and the seeds of the Salsola.
  Cocho'ne.   (From xoxaw, to turn  round.)  Galen
 explains this  to be the  juncture of the ischium, near
 the seat or breech; whence, says he, all the adjacent
 parts about the seat are  called  by the  same name.
 Hesychius says, that cochone is the part of the spine
 which is adjacent to the os sacrum.
  ["COCHRAN, John, M.D.  This  gentleman was
 born in 1730, in Chester county, state of Pennsylvania.
 About tne time he finished his medical studies, the war
 of 1755 commenced in America, between England and
 France.  The army then presented to the mind of Dr.
 Cochran a scene of usefulness and farther improve-
 ment. As there were not any great  hospitals at that
 time  in the provinces,  he readily perceived lhat the
 army would be an excellent school for his improve-
 ment, especially in surgery, as  well as in the  medical
 treatment  of  many diseases.   He soon obtained the
 appointment of Surgeon "s Mate in the  Hospital De-
 partment;  and having  continued  with  the  northern
 army during  the  whole  of  that  war,  enjoying the
 friendship and advice of Dr. Munro, and other eminent
 surgeons and  physicians, he  quitted the  service with
 tlie character of an able and experienced practitioner.
  When (twenty years after) the war became serious
 between Great Britain and  the  United  States, Dr.
 Cochran was too zealous a  whig, and too much at-
 tached to the  interests of his native country, to remain
 an idle spectator.  Towards the last of the year  1776,
 he offered  his services  as a volunteer in the hospital
 department   General Washington  afterward recom-
 mended him  to Congress.  He was  accordingly ap-
 pointed, in April, 1777, Physician and Surgeon Gene-
 ral in the middle department.  In ihe month of Octo-
 ber, 1781, Congress was pleased to give  him the ap-
 pointment of  Director General of the  hospitals of the
 United Stales;  an appointment  that was the  more
 honourable because it  was uot solicited  by him.  A
 short time after the peace, Dr. Cochran removed with
 his family to New-York, where he  attended lo ihe
 duties of his profession until the adoption of the new
 Constitution,  when his friend President Washington,
 retaining, to use hi3 own words, "a cheerful recollec-
 tion of his  past services," nominated him to the office
 of Commissioner of Loans for the State of New-York.
 This office he held until a paralytic stroke disabled him
 in some measure from the discharge of its duties;  upon
 which he  gave in his resignation, and retired to Pala-
tine, in the county of Montgomery, where he termi-
nated a long and useful life, on the 6th of April,  1807,
 in the 77th year of his age."— Thach. Med. Biog.   A.]
  COCK.   The male of the domestic fowl. StePAo-
 sianus gallus.
  COCKBURN, William, was born in the latter part
of the 17lh century.  After being some years physician
 to the navy, he settled in London; and soon distin-
guished himself so much, lhat  he was admitted into
 the College, as well as  the Royal  Society, and  made
 physician to King William.  He published a "Trea-
tise on Sea Diseases," whicli  was often reprinted, and
translated  into French and German.  He referred the
scurvy principally to the diet of seamen, and consider-
ed fresh provisions as  the chief remedy for it.  He
wrote also on Alvine  Fluxes, on Gonorrhoea, (which
 he contends may exist  independent of syphilis.) and
on the Human QGconomy; which latter publication
 was much noticed at the time, but is since superseded
 by more accurate treatises.
  CO'COS.  (So called from the  Portuguese coco, or
coqutn, the three  holes at the end of the cocoa-nut
shell,  giving it the resemblance of a monkey's head.)
The name of a genus of plants in the Lumrcmi system.
Class, Monacia; Order, Hexandna.
  Cocos butyracka.   The  systematic name of tl-:
plant  which  affords  the  palm oil;  Cocos—inermis,
frondibus, pennatis ; foliolis simplieibus, of Linnaeus.
The oleum  palma is produced chiefly  by bruising and
dissolving  the kernels of the fruit in water, without
the aid of heat, by which the oil  is separated, and
rises to the surface, and on being washed two or three
times, is rendered fit for use.  When brcjught into this
country, it is of the consistence of an ointment, nnd
      242
of an orange-yellow colour, with little taste, and of a
strong, though not disagreeable smell.  Its use is con-
fined to external applications in pains, tumours, and
sprains; but it appears to  possess verv little, if any,
advantage over other bland oils.
  Cocos nucifera.   The  systematic  name of the
plant, the fruit of which is the cocoa-nut.  Within the
nut is found a kernel, as pleasant as au almond, and
also a large quantity of liquor resembling milk, wliich
the Indians greedily drink  before the fruit is ripe, il
being then pleasant, but when the nut is matured tne
liquor becomes sour.  Some full-grown nuts will con-
tain a pint or more of  this milk, ihe frequent drinking
of'which seems to have no bad effects upon  ihe In-
dians; yet Europeans should be cautious of making
too free with it at first, for when Lionel  Wafer was  at
a small island in the South Sea, where the tree grew
in plenty, some of his  men were so  delighted with it,
that at parting they resolved to  drink their till, wliich
they did; but their appetites had like to have cost iheui
their lives, for though they  were not drunk, yet they
were so chilled  and benumbed, that they could not
stand, and were obliged  to be carried aboard by iliose
who had more prudence than themselves, and  it was
many days before they recovered. The shellsol'these
nuts being hard, and  capable  of receiving a polish.
they are often cut transversely, when, being mounted
on stands, and having  their edges silvered, or gilt, or
otherwise ornamented, they serve the purpose of drink
ing-cups.  The leaves of the tree are used for thatch-
ing, for  brooms, baskets, and otlier  utensils;  and of
the reticular web, growing al  llieir base, the Indian
women make cauls and aprons.
  CO'CTION.  (Coctio, from coquo, to  boil.)   Con-
coction.  1.  The digestion of the food in the stomach.
See Digestion.
  2. A boiling or decoction.  See Decoction.
  3. It was formerly used in a medical sense, signify-
ing that alteration, whatever it be, or however occa-
sioned, which is  made  in the crude matter of a dis-
temper, whereby it is  either tilted for a discharge, oi
rendered harmless to the body.  'This is often brought
about by nature;  that is, by the vis viiae, or the dispo
siiiou or natural tendency of the matter itself, or else
by proper remedies, which may so alter its bulk, figure
cohesion, or give it a particular deterniina.ioii, so as
to prevent any farther ill effects, or  drive it quite out
of the  body.  And that time of a disease whe-iem this
action  is performing, is called its state of coction.  It
is now fallen into disuse.
  Cocu'stu.  The name for courbaril.
  Copa'ga fala.  See AVrium antidysentericum.
  Codegella.  A name given  by the Italians to the
carbuncle.   See Anthrax.
  Codoce'le.  (From xuiia, a bulb, and 107X17, a tu-
mour.i   A bubo.
  CObCA LIS.  (From  cacum, the Wind gut, through
whicli  it runs.)  A vein, being a branch from the con-
cave side of the vena mesaraica.
  Co: la. (From xoiXos, hollow.) Applied to depres-
sion, or hollow parts on the surface ofthe body, as the
hollow pits above, and sometimes below the eyes: the
hollow parts at the bottom of the feet.
  CQS'LIA.   (From  koiXos, hollow.)   A  cavity in
any part of  the body;  as the belly, the womb, &c.
  CUi'Lt AC.  (Caliacus, belonging to the belly; from
xoiXta, the belly.)   Appertaining 10 the belly.
  Coeli ac artery. Arteria caliaca, The first branch
given off from the aorta in the cavity of the abdomen
It sends branches to  the diaphragm, stomach,  liver,
pylorus, duodenum, omentum, and spleen.
  Cceliac passion. (From xotXia, the belly.)  Coefica
chylosa; Caslica lactea.  There are very great diner
ences among physicians concerning the  nature of this
disease.  Sauvages says it is a  chronic flux, iu whicn
the aliment is disclmiged half digested.  Dr. Cullen
considers it  as .1 species ol diarrhoea, and mentions il
in his third and  fourth  species, under the leans mu-
cosa,  chylosa, lactea;  making  tbe puruleuta only
symptomatic.   See Diarrhaia.   It  is attended wilh
great pains in the stomach, resembling the pricking of
pins;  rumbling and flatus in the  intestines;  white
stools, because deprived  of bile;  while ihe paiieni be-
comes weak and lean.
  CCKLIACA.   (Caliacus; from xoXata, alvus  ven-
ter.)  Dr. Good selects this name for Ihe first class of
diseases  in his Nosology; diseases  of  the  digestive 
cot
COI
 Mritt«>»    It  contains  two  orders, Enfcnea and
 Sptanchnica.
   Ccelo ma.  (From rotXos, hollow.)  An ulcer in the
 tunica cornea of the eye.
   Ccelosto'mi.v.  See Coilostomia.
   COSNOLO'GI \. (From xotvos, common, and Xi yt(,
 discourse.)  A consultation, or common consideration
 of a disease, by two or more physicians.
   Coino'tes.   (From xotvos, common.)  The physi-
 cians of the methodic sect asserted that all diseases
 arose from relaxation, stricture, or u mixture of both.
 These were called canotcs, vis. what diseases have in
 common.
   Ccenu'Lcus  lapis.   The sulphate of copper.  See
 Cupri sulphas.
   CCE'TE.  (From xc.pat, to lie down.)  A lied, or
 couch, for a sick person.
   CO'FFEA.   (From kofuah,  a mixing together, He-
 brew ; so called from the pleasant potation whicli is
 made from its berry:  others assert that the true name
 is Oaffe, from  Caffa  a province in South America,
 where the tree grows spontaneously  in great abun-
 dance.)   The name of a  genus of plants in the Lin-
 naean system.   Class, Pentandria; Order, Monogynia,
 The coffee-tree.
   Copfba arabica.  The plant which affords coffee.
 Jasminum  Arabicam; Ckoava.  Coffee is  tlie seed
 of tlie Ceffea—fioribus quinquefidis, dispcrmis,oflAn-
 nteus.
-  The coffee-tree is cultivated  in  Arabia, Persia, tlie
 East Indies, the Isle of Bourbon, and several parts of
 America.  Good Turkey coffee is by far the most salu-
 tary of all  liquors drunk  at meal-time.  It possesses
 nervine and adstringent qualities, and may be drunk
 with advantage at all times, except when there is bile in
 the stomach.  It  is said to be a good antidote against
 an over dose of opium, and to relieve  obstinate spas-
 modic nsthmas.  For the latter purpose, the coffee
 ought to be of the best Mocco, newly burnt, and made
 very strong, immediately after grinding il.  Sir John
 Pringle commonly ordered one ounce for a dose; which
 is to be repeated fresh, after the interval of a quarter
 or half an hoar; and which he directed to be taken
 without milk or sugar.
   Besides  the  peculiar bitter  principle, which is de-
 scribed under tlie name Caffein, coffee contains several
 otlier vegetable products.   According to Cadet, 64
 parts of raw coflee consists of 8 gum, 1 resin, 1 ex-
 tractive and bitter principle, 3.5 gallic  acid, 0.14 albu-
 men, 4.1.5 fibrous insoluble matter, and C.86 loss.  Her-
 man found in 1920 grains of
             Levant  Coffee,     Mart. Coffee,
    Resin...........    74 ...........   68
    Extractive.......   320...........  310
    Gum............   130...........  144
    Fibrous matter... 1335........... 1380
    Lose............    61 ...........   12

                     1920            1920
  The nature of the volatile fragment  principle deve-
 loped in coffee by roasting, has  not been ascertained.
 The Dutch in Surinam improve the flavour  of their
 coffee by suspending  bags  of it, for two years, in a
 dry atmosphere.  They never use new coffee.
  If coffee be drunk warm within an  hour after din-
 ner, it is of singular use to those who have headache,
 from weakness in the stomach, contracted by seden-
 tary habits, close attention, or accidental drukenness.
 It is of service  when the digestion is weak; and per-
 sons afflicted with tbe  sick headache are much bene-
 fited by its use, in some instances, though this effect is
 by no means  uniform.  Coffee Is often  imitated by
 roasting rye with a few almonds.
  [" COFFIN, Nathaniel, M.D.,son of Dr. N. Coffin,
 one of  the most  eminent physicians in  the state of
 Maine.   The ffrst ancestor of his family who came to
 this country was Tristram Coffin, who emigrated from
 England in 1042.
  Dr. Nathaniel Coffin was born in Portland, on the
3d of  May, 1744, in which place he always lived, and
where he closed his long and useful life.  The country
at the time of his birth, for may miles round Casco
bay, including  the site of Portland, was  called Fal-
mouth ;  afterward, the part most thickly settled, lying
on the harbour, was incorporated intr a separate town
by the name of Portland.
  He  completed his preparatory  medical education
under his father; but the limited means of scIo::'.!!tc
improvement ihen existing in this thir'y peopled sec-
tion of the country, induced the 6on, with the advice-
of his father, to  embark  for England «t the a^c  .1
eighteen.  He there prosecuted his studies nt Guy's ai .1
St. Thomas's hospitals, under the distinguished Huei
ter, Akenside, M'Konzie, and others;  and returned '. i
commence the  practice  of his profession at the e- .y
age of twenty-one.
  Possessing  a  constitution naturally henlthy and vi-
gorous, and a mind resolute and intelligent, there wtu
no peril whicli he was not prepared to encounter, and
no adversity which he could not endure; and he tics
well deserved  the distinction awarded  him by the
public, for his constant and unremitted exortiousdtir:::^
a period of more than sixty years.
  Dr. Coffin was surrourfded, in the early part of bis
career, by suffering friends and  patients;  but his li'e
was closed amid  the blessings of freedom and inde-
pendence.  In the peaceful evening of his davs,  . I
the enjoyments of prosperity and affection cluster, I
around his dwelling; but it should not  be forgotten
that the  respectability and happiness he had expe
rienced, were the well earned reward of the virtu.*
the talents, and the faithfulness of former years.
  In his  manners, he was a polished specimen of the
state of American society existing before the RcvuIj-
tion; he  was one of the most graceful gentlemen of
the old school, and his deportment was marked by a
uniform and captivating urbanity.  He died on the I--ri
of October, 1826,  aged  82 years."—Thachcr's Mc.l.
Biog.  A.)
  COGAN, William, woj  born in  Somersetshire,
about the middle ofthe 16th century.  He  s'ltdied,
and took the  degree of bachelor  in medicine, at Ox-
ford ; soon after which he was appointed  master of the
school at  Manchester, where he  also practised hi his
profession till his death  iu 1607.  He published a cu-
rious book, abounding in classical quotations, entitled
" The Haven of Health," in which he strongly  re-
commends temperance and exercise.  There is add.: 1
an account of the sweating sickness; and  of  a  re-
markable disorder, which  prevailed at Oxford iu '"'y
and August,  1575, before he left it, by which he states,
that in thirty-seven days " there died 510 persons, a.l
men, and no  women."
  COHESION.  (Cohasio; from con, end htereo, ta
stick together.)   Vis coha-sionis;  Vis  adhasionis;
Vis attractions.  That  power by which the  particlo.i
of bodies are  held together.  See Attraction.
  Cohoba'tion.  (A term invented  by  Parncels' =)
Cohobatio;  Cokobium;  Cohoph.  The ancient cl-9-
mists use this term to signify the distillation of a fliuJ
poured afresh upon a substance of tbe same kind ;.J
that upon which  it was before distilled, ami repeat
ing this operation several times to make it more effi-
cacious.
  Co'iiot.   (Cohol, Hebrew.)   Castellus days this
word is used in Avicenna, to express dry collyria  'or
the eyes, in fine powder.
  Coi'lima.  (From  xotXia, the  bowels.)  A  suddcj
swelling of the  belly from  wind.
  COILOSTOMIA.  (From xotXof, hollow, and c-oa i,
the mouth.)  Catostomia.   A defect of speaking, from
the palate, or through the nose, the voice being so ob-
scured as to sound as if it proceeded from a cavern.
  COINDICA'NTIA.  (From con, and indico, to indi-
cate.)  Signs, or symptoms, are called  coindicant,
when, besides the usual  incidental appearances, the.a
occur others, as age, habit, season, &c.
  Coi'ra.   A name for catechu.
  COPTER, Volciier, was born atGroningen in 1534
After studying at the different universities in  Italy, he
attended as physician to  the French army during one
campaign, that he might  have more opportunity lor in-
vestigating human anatomy.  He ihen sealed at Nu-
remberg,  where he continued till his death  in 1570.
He made considerable improvements in anatomy nr.J
surgery.  He  found that the brain had a motion com-
municated to it by the arteries; and that in some ani-
mals the organ might be removed without destroying
life.  He  first described the corpora lutea In the  ov*.
ria;  and  noticed the order in which the parts of the
chick are evolved.  He described the frontel sinuse*,
and the organ of hearing, more accurately than any
preceding author.   He pointed out two muscles which
depress the eyebrows, and two  which  perforin the
                                        213 
COL
COL
Mttite office to the lips.  He observed, that injuries to
Hie brain are more  dangerous when the dura mater
remains entire; and therefore he boldly divided that
membrane.  He  was also  accustomed  to  pare down
liuitii arising from  the  brain.   He published good
i-'atcs of the cartilages, of the foetal skeleton, and of
U,use of various animals, Sec.
  COITUS.  (From coco, to go together.)  The con-
junction ofthe male and  female in the  act of pro-
< r 'ation.
  [ Corns.  See Coak.  A.]
  COLA.  (From xufXov, a joint.)  The joints.
  Colato'ria lactea.   Astruc says  they were for-
rierly called glands, and are situated in the third and
internal tunic of the uterus, and that they are vcsiculo-
vascular bodies.
  COLATO RIUM. (From colo, to strain.) AsUainer
of any  kind.
  COLATU'RA. (From  colo, to strain.)  A filtered
or stinined liquor.
  COLBATCH, John, was born in the latter part of
I'm- 17th century.  He practised in London, first as a
surgeon and apothecary, afterward as a physician, and
lad considerable repute.  He published several works:
the first was " A New  Light of Chirurgery,"  con-
demning the use  of tents, and Ihe injection of acrid
S'.ib.-.tances into wounds;  then  a treatise, in which
tu.-t diseases are ascribed to  alkalescency, and acids
strongly recommended; this, in a subsequent  publica-
tion, he applied particularly  to the gout; lastly, he
highly extolled the misletoe, as a remedy  for  epilepsy
and other nervous diseases.
  COLCHESTER.  The  name of a seaport on the
coast of Essex, near Which is a mineral water, aqua
Coleslrcnsis, which is  of the  bitter  purging  kind,
similar to that of Epsom, but not so strong.
  CO'LCHICUM.   (From Colchis, a city of Armenia,
where this plant is  supposed  to have been common.)
I. The name of a genus of plants in the Linnaean sys-
tem.  Class, Hcxandria; Older,  Trigtjnia. Meadow-
•oilron.
  2.  The pharmacopceial name ofthe meadow-saffron.
Bee Colchicum autumnale.
  Colchioum autumnalk. The systematic name of
the common meadow-salfron.   Colchicum—-foliis pla-
ids lanceolatis erectis,  of Linnaeus.   A native of
England.  The sensible qualities of the fresh root are
very various, accoiding to the  place of  growth and
season of the year.  In autumn  it is almost inert; but
i i the beginning of summer, highly acrid:  hence some
have found  it to be a corrosive poison, while others
have eaten it in considerable  quantity, without expe-
riencing any effect.  When it is possessed of acrimony,
this is of the same nature with that of garlic, and
some otlier plants, and is entirely destroyed by drying.
The German physicians  have  celebrated  ils virtues as
a diuretic, in hydrothorax  and other dropsies; and, in
France, it continues to be a  favourite remedy; but it
is,  nevertheless, in  ihis  country, unsuccessful, or at
him a very uncertain remedy.  The expressed juice is
used, in Alsace, to destroy vermin  in the heads of
children.  The officinal preparations of colchicum are,
syrupus colchici autumnalis, Edin. Pharm.  The oxy-
ii'iel colchici  of the former London pharmacopoeia  is
now omitted, and the acetum colchici ordered iu its
room;  as  the honey may  easily be added extempora-
neously, if it be thought requi.-ite.  The active ingre-
dient of this plant has lately been ascertained to be an
alkali, possessing peculiar properties.   See Veratria.
  ["Colchicum is in large doses a deleterious, acrid
narcotic;  in small ones, a cathartic and diuretic; pos-
sessing, likewise,  peculiar properties of a  sedative
kind.  It appears to have been  known to the sneients
as a poison, and during the  last century it  has been
occasionally employed as a medicine in  drops j, asthma,
 and some other chronic diseases.  Recently it has ex-
 cited much notice, especially in Gr»"»t Britain, as a
 leiiicdy in gout, and n sedative  in various painful and
 inflammatory affections.  The interest excited by u
 n.-cret French specific, the Eau Medicinale, which was
 found to relieve the paroxysms of gout, led to various
 imitations and substitutes for that preparation.  Among
 these, a various tincture of colchieuin  was found very
 nearly to resemble  the foreign compound, both in ils
 aew*:ble qualities and medicinal effects.   Accordingly,
 Hit; Wine at* Colchicum became a prevailing  medicine
 fur gout, and was used  w ith  vurious  buco ss iu that
       241
disease by different  practitioners.  The use of cofclt*
cum was soon extended to chronic  rheumatism, and
other painful affections, and at length it was applied.
by Mr. Haden and others, to the cute of acute inflam-
matory diseases, and the treatment of cases in  whicli
blood-letting is  commonly employed.  Sufficient evi-
dence has been published to establish ihe fact, thai this
medicine, when  possessed  of its full activity, may be
so managed, as to diminish morbid force and frequency
of the pulse, to  allay pain and other  phenomena of
inflammation, and in  certain  cases to  fulfil the object
of depletion by the lancet.  The Messrs. Ilatfen inform
us,  that in pure inflammations, if it be given every
four hours until it produce  an  abundant purgative
effect, the pulse Will become nearly natural, from being
either quick and hard, or slow and full; that  in many
cases, its use may be  substituted for blood-letting, at
least when Inflammation does not exist to an alarming
degree in a vital part; and that the patient is left in a
state favourable to  more rapid recovery, when fever
and inflammation have been removed by colchicum,
than when the same  end  has been effected  by other
means.  In chronic rheumatism, it  is  said rarely to
fail, if persevered in  for a time  sufficiently  long , in
habitual discharges of blood from plethora, it has been
substituted for frequent venesections;  and after acci
dents, it is said to  have  the  power of averting tlie
severe consequences which usually follow such  cases.
  In Boston, considerable attention has been bestowed
upon the effects of colchicum indifferentdiseases The
article employed has been the  bulb, imported  in a live
state, packed in sand,  and dried immediately after its
airival.  The sprouting  of  the flower-bud, during
transportation,  did  not appear to lessen its  activity.
Administered in powder, this medicine has been  found,
in a variety of instances, to relieve  the symptoms of
pulmonary and of peritoneal inflammation, in a man-
ner not easily to be accounted  for, except by the  reduc-
tion of the inflammation.  Its most frequent operation,
I believe, when fairly  tried, has been to allay  pain, re-
duce the pulse, and diminish symptomatic fever; to
move the bowels, generally within twenty-four  hours,
and to excite nausea  and  great disgust, if the dose be
large.  It  has,  nevertheless, sometimes failed to pro-
duce these effects.  In rheumatic complaints, its suc-
cess lias been  equivocal,  but, on  the whofe,  rather
favourable to its reputation than otherwise.
•  Colchicum has, of late, been  most frequently adminis-
tered in powder.   Five grains may be given, three
times a day, to  an  adult,  where the stomach  is not
particularly delicate.  This quantity I have  found  to
remain on the stomach, and to move the bowels, com-
monly on  the second day.  In important cases, the
dose may be increased to eight or nine grains, if  nausea
does  not  prevent.  In chronic cases, the dose  of five
or six grains may be given, according  to Mr. Hayden,
once a-day, in the morning, and continued for weeks
together.  This writer combined with  it small quanti-
ties of sulphate and carbonate of potass, and gave it in
a state of effervescence, with an acid.
  It is prudent  to  begin the  use of a new parcel, or
specimen, with  smaller doses than those above speci-
fied, and gradually to increase them, since the  root  is
at some times more active than at others.  The varia-
ble activity of the medicine is, indeed, a great impedi-
 ment to its usefulness, and nothing can be  more dis-
 cordant than the statements of writers on this subject.
 Professor Murray has cited various instances in which
 this root has  produced distressing, and  even  fatal
 effects; while, on  the oilier hand, an author by the
 name of Kratochville asserts, that  himself and others
 have  eaten drachms of the root, both in spring nnd
 fall, with  impunity; and Orfila tells  us, that  he hud
 repeatedly given several bulbs to dogs, in the month of
 June, without causins them any  inconvenience."—
 Big. Mat. Med.  A.]'
    [Colchici  semina.   The seeds of Colchicum.—•
 These have been proposed, by Dr. Williams, as a sub-
 stitute for the bulb, possessing all Ihe medicinal advan-
 tages ofthe plant,  attended with greater mildness and
 uniformity of operation.   Several  practitioners have
 agreed in their accounts of ihe efficacy of these seeds,
 particularly in chronic rheumatism.    Dr.  Williams
 uses n wine, made by infusing two ounces ofthe seeds
 in a pint of slieriy.  From  one to three dinchins  are
 given, once or  twice a-day,  in aromatic water.  He
 also employs a tincture, made with the same  propor 
COL
COL
 irons.  In this country, colchicum  seeds have been
 used with some  benefit  in  rheumatic  complaints.
 They apparently possess the advantage of being less
 liable than the root to alter by age.  I hove found two
 or three grains of the powder lo produce vomiting and
 purging in a mild degree, and ten grains  to bring; on
 powerful vomiting and purging, with vertigo and im-
 paired vision during twenty-four  hours."—Big. Mat.
 Med.  A.j
  Colcuicum  illvricum.  The plant supposed to
 afford the root called hemiodactyl.  See Hermodac-
 tylus.
  Colchicum zeylanicum.  See Zedoaria.
  COLCOTHAR   Chalcitis; Colcotharvitrioli.  The
 brown-red oxide of iron, whicli remains after  the dis-
 tillation ofthe acid from sulphate of iron.
  Colcothak vitrioli.  See Colcothar.
  COLD.   1.  A privation of heat.   It is nothing posi-
 tive, but somewhat of the negative kind.  The human
 body contains within itself, as long as it is living, a
 principle of warmth: if any other body, being in con-
 tact with it, abstracts the heat with  unusual rapidity,
 it is said lo be cold ; but if it carries  off the heat more
 slowly than usual, or even communicates  heat to our
 body, it is said to be hot.
  2.  A cold is a popular name also for a catarrh.  See
 Catarrhus.
  Culd Affusion.   See Affusion.
  ["COLDKN,  Cadwallader,  Es.i.   This  truly
 worthy and eminent character, who  united in himself
 the several qualities we are accustomed to admire in
 the physician, naturalist, and philosopher, was the son
 ofthe Rev. Alexander Colden, of Dunse, in  Scotland,
 and  was born on  the 17th day  of February, ItiteH
 After he had laid the foundation of a  liberal education,
 under the immediate inspection of his father, he went
 to the University of Edinburgh, where,  iu  1705, he
 completed his course of collegiate studies.  He now
 devoted his attention to  medicine and  mathematical
 science, until  the  year  17U-', when, being allured by
 the fame of William Penu's colony, he came over to
 this country about two years after.   He practised phy-
 sic, with no small share of reputation, till 1715, when
 he  returned to  England.  While in London, he was
 introduced to that eminent philosopher, Dr. Edmund
 Halley, who  formed so favourable an opinion of a
 paper on Animal Secietion, written by Dr. Colden in
 early life, that he read it before the Royal Society, the
 notice of which learned body it greatly attracted.  At
 this time he formed an acquaintance with some of the
 most distinguished literary and scientific characters,
 with whom he ever after maintained a regular corres-
 pondence.  From London he went  to Scotland,  and
 married a young lady of a respectable Scotch  family,
 by the name of Chrystie, with whom he returned to
 America in 1716.
  In 1718, he settled in the city  of  New-York; but
soon after relinquished the practice of physic, and be-
 came a public character; be held, in succession, the
office of Surveyor General ofthe Province, Master in
 Chancery, Member of the Council, and Lieutenant Go-
 vernor.  Previous to his acceptance of this last  sta-
 tion, he obtained a patent for a tract of land, designated
 by the name of Coldenham, near Newburgh, to which
 place he retired with his family, about the year 1755,
 and spent a great part of his life.   Here he appears to
 have been occupied, without interruption, in the pur-
 suit of knowledge, particularly in botanical and  ma-
 thematical studies, al the same time that he continued
 his correspondence with learned men in Europe and
 America.
  In 1761, he was appointed Lieutenant Governor of
 New-York, which commission he held until the time
 of his decease  -Jie administration of the government
 repeatedly falling on him, by the death or absence of
 several governors  in chief.   His political character
 was rendered  very conspicuous by the firmness of his
 conduct, during the violent commotions  which  pie-
 ceded the Revolution.  His administration is also  me-
 morable for several charters of incorpcration, for use-
 ful and benevolent purposes.  After  the return of Go-
 vernor Tryon, in 1775, he was relieved from Ihe cares
 of government.   He then  retired  to a  seat on Long
 Island, where a recollection of his former studies, and
 a few select friends, ever welcomed by a social  and
 hospitable disposition, cheered htm in  his last days.
 rib died in the 39th year of his age, on the memorable
28th of September, 1770, a few hours before the cily ef
New-York was  in flumes, retaining his senses to the
last, and expiring without a groan.
  Dr. Colden li.-nn, at an early period of his life, n
pay great attention  to the vegetable  productions cf
America, in wlm !i delightful study his daughter alicr
ward became distinguished.   In  honour of Dr. Col-
den, Linnaeus named a plant,  of the tetundrous class,
Coldenia.   This plant. Miss  Colden  had  tiist de-
scribed.  He was attentive to the physical constitution
of the country, and left a long course of diurnal ob
servations on the thermometer, baroineeter, and winds.
He also wrote a history of the prevalent disea.-esnf
the climate, and, if  he was not the first to recomuieri.l
the cooling regimen in the euro of levers, he w as c>r
tainly one of its  earliest and wannest advocates;  auJ
opposed, with great earnestness, the prevailing mode
of treatment in the small-pox.
  In the years 1741 and'42,a  fever, whicli occasionc!
great mortality,  prevailed in  the city of New-York,
and created much  alarm.   He  communicated  lid
thoughts to ihe public, on the most piobable method of
curing the calamity, in a small treatise, in which Iu:
enlargeil on Ihe  pernicious effects of marshy exhala-
tions, moist air, damp cellars, filthy stores,  and dirty
streets;  showed  how much these nuisances prevailed,
in many parlsof thecily, and pointed out the re-ineili.-i.
The corporation  of the city presented him their thanks,
and established a plan for draining and  clearing net
the city, whicli was attended  with the most salutary
effects!   He published a  treatise  " On the Cure of
Cancer." Another essay of his, "On the Virtues <f
Ihe Great Water Dock," introduced him  lo an ac-
quaintance  "ith Linna-us.   In  1753, he  publish.  I
some observations on an epidemical sore throat, whi.'i
appeared in  Massachusetts, iu 1735,  and had sprcl
over a great part of North America.  These observa-
tions are to bcVound in Cary's American Museum.
  When he became acquainted with  Linmeus's sys-
tem of botany, he applied  himself wilh new delight tc.
lhatstudy.   His descriptions, of between three and four
hundred American plants, were ptinted  in the Atra
Upsaliensia. He published the "History of the Five
Indian  Nations," in 2 vols. 12mo.  But the subject
whicli drew Dr.  Colden, atone period of his life, from
every other  pursuit, was what he first published, undie
the title of "The Cause of Gravitation," which lying
much enlarged   was republished by Dodsley, in 1751,
in 1 vol. 4to., entitled,  " The Principles of Action in
Matter,  &c."
  Though his principal attention, after the year l"t"),
was necessarily directed from philosophical to political
matters,  he   maintaind, with  great  punctuality,  I..-
literary correspondence, particularly with Linnaeus  f
Upsal, Gronovius of  Leyden, Drs. Porlcrfield,  and
Whytteof Edinburgh, Dr. Fothergill, and Mr. Collin
son, F.R.S.  of  London.   There  were  also sever. I
communications  on  mathematical and astronomic:'.!
subjects, between him  and the Earl of  Macclesfield.
With most of the eminent men of our own country be-
held an  almost  uninterrupted  epistolary coircspoii.,-
ence.   Among  them we  may  mention the  names (f
Dr. Garden,  Mr. J. Bartram,  Dr. Douglass,  Dr. John
Bard, Dr. Samuel Bard, James Alexander,  Esq., and
Dr. Franklin.  With  Dr. Franklin, in particular, : c
'.va- a constant and intimate correspondent, and th. y
regularly communicated to each other their philoso-
phical and physical discoveries, especially on elect!i-
city.  In their  letters are to be observed the lir->
dawnings of many of those  discoveries which Dr.
Franklin has communicated to ihe world, and which
so much astonished and  benefitted mankind.  In .-,
letter to one of his friends, Dr. Franklin gives an -.<•_.
count of the organization of the American Philosophi-
cal Society, in which he mentions that Dr. Colden t   i
suggested the idea and plan of that institution.
  The numerous manuscript papers left by Dr. Colden
at the time of his death, wliich for many years ivre
supposed to have been lost, have  been  lately found,
and are now in  possession of his grandson, Cadwal-
lader D. Colden. Esq.  They are chiefly on  historic-J
and philosophical subjects, and many of them are of
the greatest value.  Among these are Observations on
Smith's History of New-York, in a series of  letters fj
his  son, Alexander  Colden:  An Introduction io the
Study of Ptiilosophv.- a correct copy of his Account
of the Fever which prevailed in  New-York  in t>e
                                        245 
COL
COL
years 1741-2.   This* production may be found in Ho-
eack and Francis's Register, vol. i.   An  Inquiry into
the Principles  of Vital Motion : A Translation of the
Letters of Cicero, with an Introduction by C. Colden:
Planta   Coldenhamia in provincial Noveboracensi
spontanea crescentes,  quas ad  methodum Linnai Sex-
iLalem, anno 1742, observavit Cadwallader Colden:.A
Corrected and augmented copy of his Principles of Ac-
tion  in Matter: A Treatise on Electricity, &c.  Be-
sides these, there is a great mass of correspondence on
i-iedical,   philosophical, and  literary subjects,  with
i;iany eminent physicians and philosophers in Europe
and America.   These letters carry his correspondence
hack to the year 1710, and bring it down, almost unin-
terruptedly, till the time of his death.  There are, too,
a great variPty of papers on public affairs, which must
be considered'ns documents ol" primary importance, as
they necessarily contain numerous facts which throw
light on the history of this State.   Dr. Colden was un-
questionably a man of various and extensive learning,
of superior talents, of the most indefatigable industry,
and, indeed, in many respects, his character will not
suffer by  a  comparison with  that of our illustrious
countryman,  Benjamin  Franklin.— Thacher's  Med.
Biography.  A.]
  COLE,  William,  studied at Oxford, and took his
degree there in 1666.  After practising some  time in
Bristol, he came to London, and distinguished  himself
by several publications on physiology and medicine,
which, however,  are  too theoretical. The principal
are on animal  secretion, on apoplexy, on the cause of
fever, on insensible perspiration. &c.  He published
also a case of epilepsy, cured,  in his opinion, by the
reisletoc.
  Co'les.   (From  xavXos,  a stalk.)   Colis.   The
penis.
  COLEWORT.   See Brassica.
  CO'EICA.   (From  xwXov,  colon, the name of one
of the intestines.)  The  colic.  The appellation of
colic is commonly given to all pains in the abdomen,
almost indiscriminately; but, from the different causes
and circumstances of this disorder, it is differently de-
nominated.  When the pain  is accompanied wilh a
vomiting of bile, or with obstinate  costiveness,  it is
cnlled a bilious colic;  if flatus causes the pain, that is,
if attended with temporary distention, relieved by the
rMs'-harge  of wind  it takes the name of flatulent or
tr.indy colic; when accompanied with heat  and in-
f animation, it  takes the name of inflammatory colic,
or enteritis.   When this  disease arises  to a violent
height, and is attended with obstinate costiveness, and
an evacuation  of  faeces by the mouth, it is called pas-
sio iliaca, or iliac  passion.
  Dr. Cullen places this genus of disease in the class
neuroses, and order spasmi; nnd defines il pain of the
abdomen, particularly around the umbilicus, attended
with vomiting and costiveness.  He enumerates seven
species.
  1.  Colica spasmodica, with retraction of the navel,
and spasm ofthe muscles of the belly.
  ■2.  Colica pictonum.  This is called from the place
where it is  endeuiial, the Poictou,  the Surinam, ihe
Devonshire colic; from its victims, the plumbers'nnd
the painters' colic ; from  its symptoms, the dry belly-
ache, the  nervous and spasmodic colic.   It has been
attributed to the poison of lead, and this is undoubt-
edly the cause, when it occurs to glaziers, painters,
and those employed in lead works ; but, though this is
one, it is by no means the only cause.  In Devonshire,
it certainly  more often arises from the  early cider.
made of harsh, unripe fruit, and in  the West Indies
from  now rum.  The characteristics of  this disease
are, obstinate costiveness, with a vomiting of  an acrid
or porraceous bile, pains about the region  ofthe navel,
shooting from  thence to each side with excessive vio-
lence, strong convulsive spasms in the intestines, and a
tendency to a paralysis ot  the extremities. It is occa-
sioned by a long-continued costiveness;  by nn  accu-
mulation  of acrid b le; by cold, applied  either to the
extremities or to the belly itself; by a free use of un-
ripe fruits, and by great irregularity in  the  mode of
living.  From  its  occurring frequently in  Devonshire,
tiud other cider countries, it has been supposed to arise
from an  impregnation of lend received  into  the sto-
mach; but this seems to be a  mistake, as it is a very
prevalent disease  in ihe West  Indies likewise, where
  o cider is made, and where tlierc is only a very small
      246
quantity of lead in the mills employed to extract the
juice from the sugar-canes.  One or oilier of the causes
just enumerated, may justly be said always to give rise
to this species of colic.
  The disease comes on gradually, with a pain at the
pit of the stomach, extending downwards to the intes-
tines, accompanied with eructations, slight sicknesH at
ihe stomach, thirst, anxiety, obstinate costiveness, and
a quick contracted pulse.  After a short time, the pains
increase considerably in violence; the whole region of
the belly is highly painful to the touch ; the muscles of
the abdomen are contracted into hard irregular knots
or lumps; the intestines themselves exhibit symptoms
of violent spasm, insomuch that a glyster can hardly
be injected,  from the  powerful  contraction of the
sphincter ani; and there is constant restlessness, wilh
a frequent vomiting of an acrid or porraceous matter,
but more particularly after taking either food or medi-
cine.
   Upon  a  farther  increase of the symptoms, or  their
not being quickly alleviated, the spasms  become more
frequent, as well as violent; the costiveness proves in-
vincible, and  an inflammation of the intestines ensues,
which soon destroys the patient by gangrene.  In an
advanced stage of the disease, it is no uncommon oc-
currence for  dysuria to take place, in a very  high de-
gree.
  The dry bellyache  is always attended with some
degree of danger; but which is ever in  proportion to
the violenoe of the symptoms, and the duration of the
disease.  Even when  it does not prove fatal, it is too
apt to terminate in palsy, and to leave behind it con-
tractions of the hands  and feet, with an  inability in
their muscles to perform their office; and in this misc.
rable state of existence, the patient  lingers out many
wretched years.
  Dissections of this disease usually show the same
morbid appearances as in common colic, only  in a
much higher degree;  namely,  irregular  contractions
and distentions of tlie intestines, often with marks of
inflammation.
  [Miners, and manufacturers of white-lead, red-lead,
plumbers, pewterers, shot-casters, are all subject lo tlie
same forms  of disease which attack painters.   In
making white-lead, in  tlie old way, tbe most danger-
ous time is when tlie pots  arc uncovered, and during
that operation, few or none of those engaged in the
corroding house escape without a severe  turn of the
painters' cholic. In making red-lead, the persons who
attend the furnace and stir the metal, never escape the
operation with impunity, being attacked with weak-
ness,  loss of appetite, nervous trembling, or cholic
White and red-lead are the most extensively used, nnd
produce the most mischief, but tbe other preparations
of lead exert a similar injurious effect upon the human
constitution.
  Dr. James Mann, hospital-surgeon in the U. S. army
during the  late war, has related the ill effects arising
from  tbe use of tbe acetate of lead as an astringent.
When the dysentery prevailed  in the northern army
on the frontiers of New-York and Canada, ii was
found that a few grains of acetate of lead was effectual
in restraining the evacuations.  In some cases, where
il  was necessary to continue the  remedy, the disease
was allayed;  but the patients afterward died with tor-
por or paralysis of the intestines, or other fatal ope-
ration ofthe lead as a poison.  A.)
  3.  Colica stcrcorea,  which  happens from obstinate
and long continued costiveness.
  4.  Colica uccideiitalis, called also cholera sicca, from
acrid undigested matters.
  5.  Colica meconialis, in infants, from a retention of
meconium.
  6.  Colica c alios a, with a sensation of a stricture in
some part of the colon, and frequently  of  previous
flatulence, gradually passing off; the habit costive, or
fo-ces liquid, and in small quantity.
  7.  Colica calculosa, from calculi  formed in the in
testines,  attended with a fixed hardness in some part
of the abdomen.   It is distinguished by  the  previous
discharge of calculi.
  P.  Colica flatulentia may be added to these species.
It is distinguished by a sudden fulness, with pain and
constipation, relieved by a discharge of wind from the
mouth, or anus.
  The colic is distinguished from inflammation i t tiro
intestiues by the pain being wringing, and not of a 
COL
COL
 burnirg kind; by the spasmodic  contraction of  the
 abdominal muscles;  by the absence or trifling degree
 of fever;  by the state of the pulse, and by the  dimi-
 nution of  puin upon pressure, whicli increases il in
 cnteriiis.
   The flatulent and inflammatory colic are  thus dis-
 tinguished from each oilier:—In the flatulent colic, the
 pain comes on by fits, flies from one part of the bowels
 lo another, and is much abated by a discharge of wind,
 either upwards or downwards; but in the inflamma-
 tory colic the pain remains equable, and fixed and set-
 tled  in one spot; the vomitings are severe, and fre-
 quently bilious;  the belly is obstinately bound, and
 the pulse quick and feverish.
   The colic should be distinguished from a fit of the
 gravel; stones passing through the  ureters; rheumatic
 pains iu the muscles of the belly ; a beginning dysen-
 tery ; the blind piles; and from a stone passing through
 the gall-duct.   Gravel in the kidneys produces  often
 colic pains, not easily distinguishable; but when stones
 pass  through  the ureters, the  testicle on that side is
 often retracted,  the  leg is  benumbed, a pain shoots
 down the  inside  of the thigh; symptoms occasioned
 by the stone passing through the ureter over the  sper-
 matic chord, or the sacro-sciatic nerve.  Rheumatic
 pains in the muscles of the belly rately affect so accu-
 rately the umbilical region,  lint dart in various direc-
 tions, to the chest, or lo the  pelvis, and  are attended |
 with soreness, not confined  to  the abdomen. A be-
 ginning dysentery dili'ers  little  from colic.  The pain
 from die blind piles is confined to the rectum: and that
 from a stone- in the gall-duct, is felt in the pit of the
 stomach, occasionally shooting through  the  body to
 the back.
   The ireE'ment of this disease must vary according
 to its form: but the leading indications are, 1. To ob-
 viate inflammation.  2. To relax the spasm, and  re-
 lieve the pain attending.   3. To remove local irrita-
 tion, especially by evacuating the alvine contents.  4.
 By various prophylactic measures  to guard against a
 relapse.
   1. The chief danger arising from inflammation  su-
 pervening, it may be prudent to anticipate this, where
 the habit and strength will allow, by taking away an
 adequate quantity of blood from the arm, or  more
 generally  by leeches  to the abdomen, but especially
 where any sign of inflammation appears, this plan  be-
 comes necessary, followed by a hot bath, or fomenta-
 tions, a blister to  the abdomen, Sec. as detailed under
 enteritis.
   2.  The means  already noticed may serve to relax
 spasm also, though nol requisite in slight cases, besides
 the various antispasmodic remedies, as aether, assafue-
 tida, Sec, likewise aromatics, or spirituous liquors, will
 often by their stimulus on the stomach afford  relief in
 flatulent colic, though their use is sometimes hurtful;
 but by far the most powerful remedy is opium in ade-
 quate quantity, which is best regulated in severe at-
 tacks, by giving divided doses at short intervals till
 ease is obtained.
  3.  Local  irritation may sometimes be relieved  by
 chemical remedies, as antacids, particularly magnesia,
 &c; but for the most part the evacuation of the in-
 testines should be attempted, when the pain is relieved.
 To prepare for this, calomel may be given in conjunc-
 tion  with the opium, and when the patient has  been
 tome lime at ease, this may be  followed up by castor
 oil, sulphate of magnesia, or other  mild  laxative, re-
 peated till  the desired effect be produced; or where
 these do not presently operate, some more active ca-
 thartics, as the compound extract of colocynth, jalap,
 fcc. should be tried.   If the stomach be  irritable, the
 effervescing saline draught may enable it to retain
 them ; and clysters will often assist the articles taken
 by the mouth, particularly where there are indurated
 faeces.  In  very obstinate cases, an injection of tobacco
 smoke has  often succeeded in procuring evacuations:
 also  putting the feet for some time in cold water, or
 pouring this on tlie abdomen  and  lower extremities.
 Sometimes it has been necessary to remove foecal ac-
 cumulations mechanically per anum.
  4.  The great liability of this complaint to return
 renders it  necessary for some time after carefully to
 regulate the diet, to attend to the state of the bowels,
 as well  as  of the liver, to avoid the several causes,
•especially cold, maintaining the functions of the skin
 by suitable  clothing, exercise, Sec  In the colica picto-
 num, stimulant aperients, as the peruvian balsam,
 mustard, &c. steadily persisted in, will mostly effect a
 complete cure; and mercury has been by some highly
 extolled; by others, astringents, especially alum, though
 certainly somewhat objectionable, as liable to confine
 the bowels.
   Colica acciduntalis.  Colic from crudities in the
 bowels.
   Colica artsria sinistra.  The lower mesenteric
 artery.
   Colica arteria superior.  The upper mesenteric
 artery.
   Colica biliosa.  Colic from  excess of bile.
   Colica calcui.oja.   Colic from slony matters in
 the intestines.
   Colica callosa.  Colic from hardened and obstl
 note strictures.
   Colica damnoniorum.   Colic peculiar to Devon-
 shire.  See Colica.
   Colica feiiricosa.  Colic with fever.
   Colica flatulenta.  Colic from wind.
   Colica gravidarum.  Colic  in pregnant women
   Colica hysterica   Hysteric colic.
   Colica lactantium.  Colic peculiar to nurses.
   Colica lapsonk a.   Colic peculiar lo Laplanders
   Colica meconialis.  Colic from meconium in in-
 fants.
   Colica mesenteric.*..   Colic from  diseased me
 sentery.
   Colica nervosa.   The nervous colic.
   Colica i-ancreatica.   Colic from diseased  pan-
 creas.
   Colica phlogistica.  Colic with inflammation.
   Colica pictonum.   See Colica.
   Colica pituitosa.   The spasmodic colic.
   Colica plethorica. The inflammatory colic.
   Colica plumbariorum.  The colic of"lead-workers.
   Colica pulsatilis.  The inflammatory colic.
   Colica saturnisa.  The  Devonshire colic.  See
 Colica.
   Colica scirrhosa.  The colic from scirrhous tu-
 mours.
   Colica spasmodica.  The spasmodic colic.
   Colica stercorea.  Colic from retained fieces.
   Colica vena.  A branch of  tlie upper mesenteric
 vein.
   Colica vena recta.  The vein of the colon.
   Colica verminosa.  The colic from worms.  •
   CO'LICE.   The colic.
   COLIFO'RMIS.  (From cola, a strainer, and forma,
 a  likeness; so called  from its having many perfora
 tions, like a strainer.)  Califorme os.  A name for
 merly given to the ethmoid bone.
   Coli'phium.   (From  xtoXov,  a limb,  and  ie/)t,
 strongly.)   A kind of bread given to wrestlers.  It was
 made of flour and bran together, aud was thought to
 make men athletic.
  Co'us.  See Coles.
  COLLA'PSCS.  (From collabor,to shrink dovvn.j
 A  wasting or shrinking of ihe body, or strength.
  Coilate'nna.  A specific vulnerary.
  Collatera'les.  So Spigelius calls  the  erectorej
 penis from their collateral order  of fibres.
  Collk'tica.  (From xoXXa, glue.)  Conglutiiiating
medicines.
  Collici^.   (From colligo, to  collect.)  The union
of the ducts, which convey the humours of the eyes
from the puncta lachrynialia to the cavity of the nose.
  COLLI'CULUM.   (Diminutive of collis, a hill.)
1.  A small eminence.
  2. The nympha, or prominency, without the vagina
of women.
  COLLIGA'MEN.  (From colligo, to tie together.)
 A  ligament.
  COLLINS, Samuel, was born in the early part of
the 17th century.  After studying at Cambridge and
 Oxford, he went to the Russian court as physician, and
continued there nine years.  On his return, he was
made Fellow of the College of Physicians in London.
He afterward published a History ofthe Court of Rus-
sia, and, in 1685, a system of anatomy, treating of the
body of man,  animals, and plants, with numerous
 plates.  The comparative anatomy, to which Dr. Ty-
son greatly contributed, was much admired, though
now superseded by otlier publications.
  OOLLIQUAME'NTUM.  'From colliquco,lo melt.)
 A  term first made use of by Dr. Harvey, in his npplf
                                       247 
COL                                              COL
tallon of it to the first rudiments of an embryo, in ge-
neration.
  COLLIQUATIVE.   (Colliquativus,  from  colli-
queo, to melt.)   Any excessive evacuation is so called
which  melts down, as it were, the strength of  the
body:  hence colliquative  perspiration,  colliquative
diarrhoea, Sec
  COLLI'SIO.   (From collido, to boat together.)   A
contusion.
  Co'llix.   (From koXov, food.)  A troch, or lozenge.
  COLLOBO MA.  (From xoXXato, to glue together.)
Colobroma.  1. The growing together of the eyelids.
  2. The want of any member ofthe body.
  COLLUDES.  (From KoXXa, glue.)  Glutinous.
  CO'LLUM.  (From kuiAov, a member, as being one
of the  chief; or  diminutive of columna, as being  the
pillar and support of the  head.)   The Neck.    See

  COLLUTION.  Colbitio.   The  washing of  the
mouth, or any other part.
  COLLUTO'RIUM.   (From colluo, to wash.)   A
gargarism, or wash for the mouth.
  COLLUV1ES.  (From colluo, to cleanse.)  Filth;
Excrement,  The discharge from an old ulcer.
  CO'LLYRIS.  (KoXXvpts-  A little  round cake; so
called from its likeness to a cake.)   A bump, or  knob,
which  rises after a blow.
  COLLY RIUM.  (From xuXvui, to check, and frovs,
a defluxion; because it stops the defluxion.)  A me-
dicine  was formerly so called which  was  applied to
check any discharge.   The term is now only given to
fluid applications for the eyes, or eye-waters.
  [Collvria, the plural of Collyrium.  " The Colly-
ria of  the Pharmacopoeia are metallic lotions, pre-
pared of such strength as to be applicable to the eyes
in many cases of disease; also occasionally to mucous
membranes of other parts, and to  inflamed or  exco-
riated surfaces.
  Collyriu.m  plumbi acetatis.   Collyrium of ace-
tate of lead. This is of use as a sedative and astrin-
gent lolion in some forms of chronic ophthalmia.  It
is also useful as a discutientin erysipelatous and other
superficial inflammations.  It is sometimes employed
as an injection  in gonorrhoea;  but when this practice
is adopted, a weaker solution is preferable.
  Collyrium plumbi acetatis et opii.   Collyrium
of opium and acetate of lead.  This resembles the pre-
ceding, but agrees better with irritable cases of chro-
nic opthalmia.
  Collyrium zinci acetatis.  Collyrium of acetate
of zinc. A double decomposition takes place during the
preparation  of this article; sulphate of lead is depo-
sited, and acetate of zinc remains dissolved. Ii is a
valuable astringent collyrium.
  Collyrium zinci sulphatis. Collyrium of sulphate
of zinc.  This is one ofthe best astringent  lotions for
cases of ophthalmia, which requires remedies of that
class.  I have observed it  to agree particularly well
with the weak eyes of nursing women.—Big. Mat.
Med.   A.]
  Coloboma.  See Colloboma.
  Colobo'mata.  In Celsus this word is expressed by
curia.  Both the words signify a deficiency iu some
part of the body, particularly the ears, lips, or aloe of
the nostrils.
  Coloca'sia.   (From  xoXov, food, and   xa&u), to
adorn; so called from its use as a food, and the cus-
tom  of wearing its flowers  in  wreaths.)  The faba
.lEgyptia.  See Nymphaa nclumbo.
  COLOCY'NTHIS.   (From  kuiXov, the colon,  and
■ci.cai, to move;  becnuse of its great purging powers.)
Co'oquinteda.  See Cucumis colocynlhis.
  COLOMBO.  See Calumba.
  COLON.  (Colon, i. neut.; KwAov, quasi koiXov;
from koiXos, hollow: so called from its capacity,or
from its generally being found empty, and full of wind
in dissection.)  The greater portion of the large intes-
tine is so called.  Il proceeds towards the liver, by the
name of the ascending portion of  the colon;  and
having  reached  the  liver, forms a transverse arch
across  to the other side.  The colon then  descends,
forming what  is termed its sigmoid flcxicre, into the
pelvis,  where the gut is called rectum.  See Intestine.
  COLOPHO'NIA. (K.oXoq)h>via, the city from whence
it was first brought.)  Colophony.  1.  The black resin
which  remains iu  the retort, after distilling the com-
mon resin with a strong fire.
      248
  2. Paracelsus seems to mean by it what is now pre
scribed by the name of terebinthina eocta.
  3. The ancients, and  particularly Galen, seemed to
understand by it a soft kind of mastich, from Chio,
probably the same  as our Chio turpentine.
  COLOPHONITE.  Resinous garnet of Hauy and
Jameson.  A mineral of a blackish or yellowish brown,
or orange-red colour, and a  resino-adamantine lustre,
found  in magnetic  ironstone, in  Norway and  in
Ceylon.
  COLOQUINTIDA.  See Cucumis colocyntkis.
  COLORATUS.  Coloured :  applied to leaves, caly-
ces, seeds, Sec to express any colour besides green, as
in Arum bicolor; or to any part thereof when of ano-
thei colour than green,  as  in  Amaranthus  tricolor,
and to a pcrianthium, when not of a green colour, as
that of the Gomphrena globosa: and the seeds of Cha-
rophyllum aurcum.
  COLOSTRUM.  (From  xoXcw, food, or xoXXwpai
to agglutinate ;  so  called, either because il is the tirsl
food of the young, or  from its being  at that time pecu-
liarly  glutinous.)   1. The  first milk in the breast*
after delivery.
  2. An emulsion made  by  the solution ot turpentine
with the yelk of an egg.
  COLOT, Germain, a French surgeon of the loth
century, appears to have been the first of the proles
sion who practised lithotomy,  that  operation having
been previously in  the hands of itinerant practitioners
He acquired great celebrity by his skill, and was much
in favour with Lewis IX., who granted him a pension
Several of his descendants,  in succession, enjoyed
great  reputation as lithotomists.
  COLOT, Francis, the lost of them, left a treatise,
published in 1727, describing the method of operating
wilh the greater apparatus,  the invention whereof he
ascribes to John de  Romanis, an  Italian physician,
about two centuries before.  But this  has long been
superseded by the less apparatus, which Mr. Sharp
attributes to another  French surgeon, Mons. Foubert.
  Colotoi'des.  (From xtoXunis, a lizard, and ciooc,
likeness.)  Variegated like  the skin of a lizard.  Hip-
pocrates applied it  to the excrements.
  Coloured leaf.  See Leaf.
  COLPOCE'LE.   (From  xoXiros, the  vagina,  and
xnXn, a tumour.)   A hernia  forced into the vagina.
See Hernia vaginalis.
  COLPOPTO SIS.  (From xoXvos, the vagina,  and
raiin-u, to fall down.)  A bearing down of the vagina.
See Hernia vaginalis.
  COLT'S-FOOT. See Tussilago.
  CO'LUBER.  (Quod colit  umbram, because it de
lighteth iu the shade.)  A genus of animals in the
Linnaean  arrangement,  of which  there are  many
species.
  Coluber berus-  The systematic name  of the vi-
per, which possesses the power of forming a poisonous
fluid in little bags near ils teeth.  The flesh is perfectly
innocent, and often  taken  by the common people
against the king's evil, and a variety of disorders ot
the skin.  Experience evinces it lo  be an inefficacious
substance.
  Coi.ubri na  virginiana.  See  Aristolochia  ser-
pentaria.
  Colubium'M liqnum.  (Colubrinus ; from coluber.
so called from the snake-like contortions of  its roots.)
This species of snake-wood is brought from America.
It is solid, ponderous, acrid, extremely bitter, and in-
odorous; its  bark  is  of a ferruginous colour, covered
with cineritious spots.
  COLU'MBA. See Calumba.
  COLUMBIC ACID.  Acidum Columbicum.  <■'  The
experiments of Hatchett have proved, that  a peculiar
mineral  from Massachusetts, deposited in the British
Museum, consisted of one part of oxide of iron, and
somewhat more than three parts ol" a white-coloured
substance,  possessing the properties of an  acid.   lis
basis  was  metallic.   Hence  he named this Colum-
bium, and the acid the Columbic.  Dr. Wollaston, by
very  exact analytical comparisons, proved, that  the
acid of Hatchett was the oxide of the metal  lately dis-
coveied in Sweden by Ekeberg, in  the mineral yttro-
tantalite, and thence called tantalum.   Dr. Wollas-
ton's  method of separating the acid from the  mineral ii
peculiarly elegant. One part of tantalite, five parts of
carbonate-  of potassa,  and two parts of borax,  are
fused together  in a platina  crucible.  The mass, after 
COM
COM
  oemg softened in water, is acted on by muriatic acid.
  The iron and manganese dissolve, while the coluinbic
  acid remains at the bottom.  It is in the form of a
  white powder, which is insoluble in nitric and sul-
  phuric acids, but partially in muriatic.  Il forms with
  barytes  an insoluble salt, of which the  proportions,
  according to Berzelius, are 24.4 acid, and 9.75 barytes.
  By oxidizing a portion of the revived tantalum or co-
  lumbium, Berzelius concludes the composition of the
  acid to be 100 metal, and 5.4ft"i oxygen."
    COLUMBINE.   Sec Aqmletria.
    COLU MBIl'M.  Hatchett describes the ore, from
  whicli this metal is obtained, as being of a dark brown-
  ish gtay  externally, and more inclining to nn iron-gray
  internally; the longitudinal fracture he found  laincl-
  lated, and the cross fracture had a fine grain. Its lus-
  tre was  vitreous, slightly inclining, in some parts, to
  metallic; moderately hard, and very brittle.  The co-
  lour of the streak,  or powder, was dark chocolate-
  brown.  " If the oxide of columbium, described under
  Columbic acid, be mixed with charcoal, and exposed
  to a violent heat in a charcoal crucible, the metal co-
  luinbium will be obtained.  It has a dark gray colour;
  and  when newly abraded, the lustre nearly of iron.
  Its sp. gr., when in  agglutinated particles, was  found
  by Dr. Wollaston to be 5.61.  These metallic grains
  scratch glass,  and are easily pulverized.  Neither ni-
  tric, muriatic,  nor nitro-muriatic acid,  produces any
  change in this  metal, though digested on il for several
  days.  It has been alloyed with iron and tungsten."
    [This metal, which was said to have  been first dis-
  covered in a specimen found in Massachusetts, it ap-
  pears (Med. Repos. vol. viii. p. 437,) was taken from a
  spring of water in the town of New-London, in Con-
  necticut,  and near the house in which Governor Win-
  throp used to live, about three miles distant from  the
  margin ofthe salt water at the head of Ihe harbour.
    " Within a short time after the discovery of colum-
  bium by Mr. Hackett in 1801, a metallic substance was
  also discovered in Sweden, by Mr. Ekeberg, differing
  from every metal then known to him; and according-
  ly he described the  properties by  which it might be
  distinguished from those which it most nearly resem-
  bled.  But although the Swedish metal has retained
  the name of Tantalum, given to it by Mr. Ekebers, a
  reasonable degree of doubt has been entertained by
  chemists, whether these two authors had not, iu fact,
  described the same substances;  and it has been regret-
  ted that the discoverers  themselves, who would have
  been most able to remove the uncertainty, had not
 had opportunities of comparing their respective mine-
 rals, or the products of their analyses."—Min. Jour.
   The doubt, however, has been removed, as Dr.  Wol-
 laston had obtained portions of both metals, and upon
 examination and analysis has determined, that Co-
 lumbium  and Tantalum are one  and the same me-
 tal.  A.]
   Coluhbo'be.  See Calumba.
   COLUMELLA.   (Diminutive of eolumna,  a co-
 lumn.)  1. A column or little pillar.
   2. The  central column, or  filament, which unites
 tlie partitions of the caplule of plants.  The seeds are
 usually attached to it.  See also  Uvula and Clitoris.
   Columella'ris. (From columella, a little column.)
 A name of the dens caninus.
   COLU'MNA.  A column, or pillar.   Many  parts
 of the body, which in their shape or office resemble
 columns,  are so named; as columns carneae, &c.
   Columna carnea.  See Heart.
   Coluhna nasi.  The lowest and fleshy part of the
 nose, which forms a part ofthe septum.
   Columna oris.  The uvula.
   COLUMNIFER^B.  The name  of  an  order of
 plants in Linnaeus's Fragments of a Natural Method,
 consisting of plants, the stamina  and pistil of which
 have the  appearance of a pillar in  the centre of the
 flower.
  COLUMNULA.  A little column.  The name given
 by botanists to the filament which passes through the
 middle of the capsule of frondose mosses, to which
 the seeds are connected ; also called Sphrongidium.
  Colu'rium.  (Tlapa to xoXXav tov povv: because it
 prevents a defluxion.)  A tent to thrust into a sore, to
prevent a defluxion of humours.
  CO'MA.  (From xu>, or kcio, to lie down.)
  In pathology,  a  propensity to  sleep.  This word
anciently meant any total suppression of the powers
  of sense; but now  it means  a lethargic drowsi-
  ness.
    In botany,  I. A  fasciculus of leaves on the top of
  a stein or stipe.  It is said to be,
    a.  Foliose, when formed of leaves; as  in BromeliA
  ananas.
    b.  Frondose, when proceeding from the frond at the
  apex ofthe stipe; as in Palms.
    c.  Bracteal, formed of floral  leaves ; as in Laven
  dula stachas.
    2. Goertner  applies this term  to the feathery crown
  of seeds furnished wilh a capsule.
    Coma somnolentum.  Is when the patient contl
  nues in a profound sleep ; and,  when awakened, im-
  mediately relapses,  w ilhout being able lo keep  open
  his eyes.
    Coma vioil. A disease where the patients are con-
  tinually inclined to sleep, but cannot.
    CO'MATA.  (Comata, the plural of  coma.)  An
  order of the class Neuroses  of Cullen's Nosology, em-
  bracing diseases  that are characterized by a diminu-
  tion of the powers of voluntary motion, with sleep or
  tlie senses impaired.
    COMATOSE  Having a strong propensity to sleep.
    COMBINATION.  The  inlimate union ofthe par-
  ticles of different substances by chemical attraction,
  so as to form a compound possessed of new and pecu-
  liar  properties.
   COMBUSTIBLE. Having the property of burning.
  See Combustion.
   COMBU'STIO.  (From comburo, to burn.)  A burn,
  or scald.  See Burn.
   COMBUSTION.   (Combustio; from  comburo, to
  burn.)  Burning.  Among the  various operations of
  chemistry, none acts a more conspicuous part  than
  combustion; and  in  proportion  to its utility in the
  science, the necessity of thoroughly investigating its
  nature and mode of action,  becomes more obvious to
  the philosophical chemist.
          Lavoisier's Theory of Combustion.
   Lavoisier's theory of combustion is founded upon
  the absorption of oxygen by a combustible body.
   Taking this  for granted, it follows lhat combustion
  is only the play of affinity between oxygen, the matter
  of heat, and a combustible body.
   When an incombustible body (a brick for instance)
  is heated, il undergoes no change, except an augmen
  tation of  bulk  and  temperature;  and when left lo
  itself, it soon regains  its former state.  But when it
  combustible body is heated to a certain degree, in ihe
 open air, it becomes on a sudden intensely  hot, and at
 last emits a copious stream of caloric and light to the
 surrounding  bodies.   During this emission, the burn-
 ing body gradually wastes away.   It either disappears
 entirely, or  its physical  properties become totally
 altered.  The principal change  it  suffers,  is  that of
 being no longer capable of combustion.  If either of
 thess phenomena, namely, the emission of heat  and
 light, and the waste of substance, be wanting, we do
 not say that a body is undergoing combustion, or lhat
 it is burning.  It follows, therefore, that every theory
 of combustion ought lo explain the following facts:
   1. Why a burning body is  consumed, and its indivi-
 duality destroyed.
   2. Why, during the progress of this alteration, heat
 and light are omitlcd.
   For  the  elucidation of these  objects, Lavoisier's
 theory has laid down the following laws:
   1. Combustion cannot take place without the pre-
sence of oxygen, and  is more rapid in proportion to
the quantity of this agent, in contact wilh the inflamed
body.
  2. In every act of combustion, the oxygen present ii
consumed.
  3. The weight of Ihe products of every  body after
combustion, corresponds with the weight of the "M«ly
before  combustion, plus lhat of  the oxygen con-
sumed.
  4. The oxygen  absorbed by the  combustible body
may be recovered from the compound formed, and the
weight regained will be equal to the  weight which
disappeared during the combustion.
  5. In every instance of combustion, light and heat,
or fire, are liberated.
  6. In a limited quantity of air,  only a certain quan-
tity ofthe combustible body can be burnt.
  7. The air,  wherein a body has been burnt, is ren
                                        241) 
COM
COM
Jered unfit for continuing combustion, or supporting
animal life.
  Though every case of combustion requires that light
and heat should be evolved, yet ihis process  proceeds
very differently in different circumstances; hence the
terms ignition; or glowing heat; inflammation, or ac-
ecnsiou ; and detonation, or explosion.
  Ignition takes place when the combustible body is
not in an aeriform state.
  Charcoal,  pyrophorous,  ice. furnish  instances of
this kind.
  It seems as if the phenomenon of" glowing was pecu-
liar to  those bodies which require a considerable
quantity of  caloric, to become converted  into the
gaseous state.
  The disengagement of caloric and light is  rendered
more evident to  the senses in the act of
  Inflammation, or accension.  Here  the combustible
Bubstances are more easily converted into an  elastic or
aeriform state.  Flame, therefore,  consists of the in-
flammable matter in the act of combustion  in the
gaseous slate. When all circumstances are favourable
to the complete combustion ofthe products, the flame
is perfect; if this is not  the case, part  ofthe com
bustible body, capable of  being converted inlo the
gaseous state, passes through the luminous flame un-
burn!, and exhibits  the appearance of smoke.  Soot,
therefore,  always indicates an imperfect combustion.
Hence a common lamp  smokes,  an Argand's lamp
yields no smoke.
  This  degree of combustion  is very accurately ex-
emplified in  the
  Flame of  candles.—-When a candle is first lighted,
whicli must be done  by the application of actual flame,
a degree of heat is given to the wick, sufficient to de-
stroy the affinity of  its constituent parts ; part of the
tallow is instantly melted, volatilized, and burnt.  As
this is destroyed by combustion, another portion melts,
rises, and supplies  its  place, aud undergoes a like
change.  In this way combustion is maintained.  The
tallow is liquefied as it comes into the  vicinity of Ihe
flame, and is, by the capillary attraction of the wick,
drawn up to supply the place of what is burnt; the
unmelted tallow, by  this means, forms a kind of cup.
  The congeries of. capilary  tubes which  form  the
wick is black, because the charcoal of  the cotton be-
comes   predominant, the circumambient air is  de-
fended by the flame from oxidising it;  it therefore re-
mains, for a c:  -nderable  time, in its  natural state;
but when  the wick,  by the continual consumption  of
tallow, becomes too long to support itself in a perpen-
dicular position, its upper extremity projects nearly out
of the cone  of the flame, and there forms a support
for an accumulation of soot, which is produced by the
imperfect  combustion.  A  candle,  in  this situation,
affords scarcely  one-tenth of the light it can otherwise
give, and tallow caudles, on this account, require con-
tinual snuffing.
  But if the candle be made of wax, the wick'does
not long occupy its place in the  middle of the flame;
,ts thinness makes it bend on one side, when its length
is too great for its vertical position ; its extremity
comes then inlo contact with the air, and is completely
burnt, or decomposed, except so much  ef it  as is de-
fended  by the  continual .afflux of the melted wax.
This  small  wick, therefore,  performs  the  office  of
Bnuffing itself.  The difficult fusibility of wax enables
us to use a thinner wick for it than  can be used  for
tallow,  whicli is more fusible.   But wax being a sub-
t-tance which contains much more  oxygen than tallow
or oil, ihe  light it affords is not so luminous.
   Detonation is an instantaneous combustion, accom-
panied with a loud report; it lakes  place in  general
when the  compounds resulting from the union of two
or more bodies, occupy much more or less space than
Ihe substances did before their union ; a great impulse
is therefore  given to the surrounding air, or else a
vacuum is formed, ami the air rushing in fiom  all
sides to fill it up is the cause of the report.
   A mixture of oxygen and hydrogen gases detonates
very loud.  Gunpowder, fulminating gold, silver, nnd
mercury; oxygenated muriate of potassa; and various
other explisive  compounds, are  capable of producing
very loud detonations.
   With respect to  the disengagement of  light and
caloric.
   By thee  older  chemists, it was universally supposed
that the light  and heat emitted during combustion,
proceeded  from the inflammable body;  and this opi-
nion would indeed appear unquestionable, while the
composition of the atmosphere was imperfectly known.
The burning  body appeared  luminous and fell hot,
and no other  agent was supposed to be concerned;
the conclusion that the  light  and  heat  were evolved
from the burning substance, was,  therefore, unavoid-
able.   But when the nature of the aslniosphere was
ascertained, and when it became evident that pari of
the air was absorbed during  combustion, the  loriner
conclusion fell to the ground; for when twobodiesexert
a mutual  action on each other, it becomes a priori
equally probable that the products may be derived
from either of them; consequently, the light and heat
evolved might proceed  either from the one  or the
other.  Whether they proceed fom the atmosphere,
or from the combustible body, they mast be separated
at the part where the combination takes  place: that is,
upon the surface of the burning body itself; and con-
sequently  it appeared luminous and heated, while the
air being invisible escaped observation.
  When  the  laws of heat became known, at least
when  it was ascertained that bodies contain at the
same temperature, and in equal quantities, either of
mass or bulk, unequal quantities of heal, the conclu-
sion became probable, that the caloric evolved iu com-
bustion proceeded rather from the oxygen gas of the
atmosphere, than from  the combustible body; since
the former contains a much larger quantity than the
latter.  The caloric evolved was  therefore supposed
to be derived  from the condensation ofthe oxygen gas
in the  new combination  into which it entered.
  Though approaching to the truth, Ihis evplanation
is not  strictly true.  It is not  merely from.the oxygen
gas being  condensed that the caloric is evolved, be-
cause,  in many cases of combustion, tlie product still
exists in the gaseous state, and in others, the quantity
of caloric evolved bears no proportion to ihe degree of
condensation.  Philosophers ascribed this to a change
of  capacity;  for, in different  bodies, the difference in
the proportion of the capacities before and after com-
bustion, is by no means uniform;  and hence the dif-
ference in the  quantities of caloric  extricated  in
various cases of combustion.
  This being premised,it remains to explain the origin
of the light emitted during combustion ; for although
we take it for granted thai the caloric is evolved from
the oxygen gas, we cannot infer that the light has the
same origin.
   It is very probable that light is a constituent part of
inflammable  bodies;  for it is frequently evolved in
combinations when the oxygen is merely transferred
from one inflammable substance to another. In those
cases  it must proceed from  the  inflammable body.
The accension of oils by the affusion  of acids, the
combustion of metals in the same way, furnish in
stances ofthe kind.
   It seems, therefore, probable, that the  light is de-
rived from the inflammable substance; and that the
oxygen, combining with the bases of these substances,
disengages the light        •
   It may be concluded then, that light enters into the
composition of all combustible bodies; but as we are
unable to separate the light, so  as to obtain  these
bodies pure, we treat of them as simple bodies.
   According to this theory, the combustion of phos-
phorous  in oxygen gas, is, therefore, the effect of a
double affinity.  The basis of the oxygen gas unites
 with  the phosphorus, to form phosphoric acid; and
 the light  disengaged  from the phosphorus, together
 with the  heat of the  oxygen gas, produces the vivid
 flame.
   The quantity of light emitted by different bodies is
supposed to depend on the quantity contained in them,
 and on the proportion in whicli it is united to caloric.
   Such is the theory of combustion of  Lavoisier, mo-
 dified  by  Gren, Leonardi, and Richter.
          Thomson's Theory of Combustion.
   Though the preceding theory of combustion is sim-
 pie and beautiful, it appears, from what we are now
 going  to  state, to be by no  means completely  satis-
 factory.
    Il has misled chemists, by confining  the term com-
 bustion to the act of oxygenation, and considering
 that all bodies, during their combustion, combine with
oxygen, w ithout at the same time recollecting that this 
                      COM

 ratter eflect may take  place without any oi the phe-
 nomena usually attendant on combustion; and lhat,
 though certainly all combustion presupposes the com
 biuuuon of oxygen wilh a base, yel tins combination
 may be, aud repeatedly is, effected wlmre no combus-
 tion can possibly take" place.  Nothing can be  more
 evident  than the difference which, iu numberless in-
 stances, prevails between the act of oxygenation in
 bodies and  that of combustion, inasmuch as neither
 the phenomena attending on, nor the results arising
 from them,  are the- same. That a distinction  there-
 fore should  be  made between tliose  processes  is ob-
 vious ;  and  it is on this  account  lhat Dr. Thomson
 has offered a theory, which considers this subject in
 a new point of view, and whicli bids fair io  enable
 us to estimate  the phenomena of combustion  much
 Detter than has hitherto been done.
  According to Dr. Thomsons theory, all tbe bodies
concerned in combustion  are either,  1. Combustibles.
 —2.  Supporters of combustion.—3.  Incombustible.-,-.
  I. Combustible bodies are those substances which
ure said, iu  common language, lo bum.   During tlie
combustion,  they appear to emit light and In at, and, nt
the same time, gradually waste away.   When this
change has reached its maximum, ihe  process of com-
bustion is al an end.
  The class of combustibles is very numerous; but
all the bodies belonging lo il may be  subdivided into
 three sets, namely:
  1. Simple  combustibles.   2. Compound combus-
 tibles.  3. Combustible oxides, Sec.
               Simple  Combustibles.
  1. Sulphur.             4. Hydrogen gas
  2. Phosphorus.          5. All the metals
  3.  Diamond, or Carbon.  6. Boron.
             Compound Combustibles.
  The compound combustibles consist of compounds,
 formed by Ihe simple combustibles uniting together,
 and are of course much more numerous than the sim-
 ple combustibles.  They may be arranged under the
 five following heads:
  1. Sulphurets.          3. Carburets.
  2. Phosphurets.         4. Alloys.
  S. Sulphuretted,  phosphuretted,  and  carburetted
 hydrogen.
  The combustible oxides aie either simple, having a
 single base, or compound, having mure than one base.
 All the simple combustible oxides are by combustion
 converted into acids.
  The compound  combustible oxides arc by far the
most numerous.
  II. The supporters of combustion are bodies
which are not of themselves, strictly speaking, capa-
ble of undergoing  combustion, but  which arc  abso-
lutely necessary for the process; for  no  combustible
body can burn unless some one or other of them be pre-
sent.   Whenever  they are  excluded,  combustion
ceases.  All  the supporters of combustion known at
present  are  oxygen, chlorine, iodine, and the  com-
pounds which these form with each other, and with
azote.
  There are  indeed certain substances besides  these,
which possess nearly the same properties; these shall
be afterward enumerated under the title of partial
supporters.
  III. The incombustible bodies are neither capable
of undergoing combustion themselves, nor of support-
ing the combustion of those bodies that are;  they are
therefore not immediately connected with combustion ;
though most of them appear to  be tlie results of that
process.  Azot, the alkalies,  earths,  Sec come under
this division.
  Some of the alkalies and earths possess certain pro-
perties in common with combustibles, and are capable
of exhibiting phenomena somewhat analogous to com-
bustion ; which will be described  afterward  under
the title of semi-combustion.
  In every case of combustion, there must therefore
be present a combustible body, and  a supporter of
combustion.  During combustion, the combustible al-
ways  unites with  the  supporter.  It is this combina
lion which occasions the apparent waste and alteration
of the combustible.  The new compound thus formed
is a product of combustion.  Every product of com-
bustion is either, 1. an  acid, or, 2. an oxide, See.   It is
true, indeed, that otlier bodies sometimes  make their
appearance during combustion, but these will be found,
                       COM

 upon examination,not to be products, nor to have un-
 dergone combustion.
   Thus one  of  ihe two characteristic minks which
 distinguish combustion, namely,  the apparent waste
 and alteration of the combustible body, has been Hilly
 explained.  For the explanation ot it we are indebted
 lo Lavoisier, as stated before.
   But though the combination  of the combustible
 with oxygen, or other supporter, be a constant part of
 combustion, yel the facility with which combustibles
 burn is not proportional to their apparent affinity for
 oxygen.
   Phosphorus, for instance, burns more readily than
 charcoal;  yet charcoal is cupuble of abstracting o<)<;eii
 from phosphorus, and of course bus a greater  nihility
 for it.  Some of tne combustible oxides Hike file- more
 readily than some of the simple combustibles; alkohol,
 uether, and oils, ure exceedingly combustible, whereas
 all the meiuls require very high temperature when the
 supporter  is air.
   This greaier combustibility of combustible oxides is
 probably owing to the weaker affinity  by w Inch llieir
 panicles are  united.   Hence they are more easily se-
 parated than homogeneous particles, and of course
 combine more readily with oxygen; those simple com-
 bustibles which melt easily, or which are in the state
 of lastic fluids, are also very combustible, because the
 cohesion between their particles is easily oveicome.
  It is owing to the same inferiority in the cohesion of
 heterogeneous particles, thai some of the compound
 supjiorters occasion combustion  in  circumslances
 when  the combustibles  would not  be acted  on by
 simple supporters.
  Thus phosphorus burns in air at the common tem-
 perature ;  but il does not bum iu oxygen gas, unless
 its temperature be raised. Thus also oils burn  rapidly
 when mixed wilh nitric acid. Nitrous gas and  nitrous
 oxide constitute exceptions lo this rule.
   None of the products of combustion are combus-
 tible, according to the  definition of combustion  here
 given.  This want of combustibility is not owing to
 their being saturated wilh oxygen; for several of them
 are capable of combining with an additional dose of it.
 But, during this  combination, no caloric or light is
 ever emitted; and the compound formed differs essen-
 tially from a product of combustion; for by this nddi
 tional dose of oxygen, the product is converted into a
 supporter. Hence we sec that combustion ought not to
 be confounded with the combination of a body with
 oxygen, as was done formerly.
  Combustion, indeed, cannot lake place without the
 combination of oxygen or other supporter; but oxygen
 may combine with bodies  in different  proportions
 without the phenomena of combustion; and the pro-
duct obtained by combustion is capable of becoming
converted  into a supporter of combustion; for instance,
 if lead be melted, and  kept so for some time, it  be
comes  covered wilh a gray pellicle, or oxide of lead, a
 product consisting of oxygen and  lead; but  if this
oxide is suffered to be'heated longer, it absorbs an ad-
ditional quantity of oxygen, and  becomes  converted
 into a yellow  powder, called yellow oxide of lead.  If
this yellow oxide  be again exposed lo heat, it absorbs
still mnreoxvgeii, and becomes converted inlo red oxide
of lead.  When  the supporters thus formed  by the
combination of oxygen  with products, are made  to
support combustion/they do not lose all their oxygen,
 but only tbe additional dose which constituted them
supporters.  Of course they are again reduced to theii
original state of products of combustion.  Hence it
 follows, that they owe their  properties as  supporters.
not to the  whole of the oxygen which they contain, bul
 to the  additional dose which constituted Ihem sup-
 porters. We may therefore call  them partial sup-
porters; indicating by the term, that part only of iheii
oxygen is capable of supporting combustion, and not
the whole.
  All the  partial  supporters with  which we are  ac-
quainted, contain a metallic basis; for metallic oxide*
are the only products  at present known, capable of
combining with an additional dose of oxygen.  It is a
circumstance  highly deserving attention,  that when
metals are capable of combining with several doses of
oxygen, the product, or oxide formed by combustion, U
seldom or  never that which contains a maximum of
oxygen.
  Thus it  is evident that several of the  products ol
                                        251 
COM
COM
tombustion are capable of combining with oxygen.
The incombustibility of products, therefore, is not ow-
inir to their want of affinity for oxygen, but to some
other cause.
  No product of combustion is capable of supporting
combustion.  This is not occasioned by any want of
affinity to combustible bodies;  for several of them are
capable of combining with an  additional dose of their
basis.   But by this combination, they lose  their pro-
perties  as products, and are converted  into combusti-
bles. The  process, therefore,  differs essentially from
combustion.  Thus phosphoric acid,  a product of
combustion, is capable of combining  with an addi-
tional dose of phosphoius, and forming phosphorous
acid, a combustible body.  When  this last  acid is
heated  in contact with a supporter, it undergoes com-
bustion ;  but it is only the additional dose of the com-
bustible which bums, and the whole is converted into
phosphoric acid.   Hence  we see that it  is not the
whole  basis of these  compounds which  is combus-
tible, but merely the additional  dose.  The compounds,
therefore, formed  by the union of a product and com-
bustible,  may be termed partial combustibles; indi-
cating  by the  name, that a part only of the  base is
capable of undergoing combustion.  Since the pro-
ducts of  combustion  are  capable  of combining with
oxygen, but never exhibit the  phenomena of combus-
tion, except when they  are in the state  of  partial
combustibles, combustible bodies must contain a sub-
stance  which they lose in burning, and to which they
owe their combustibility;  for, after they have lost it,
they unite  to oxygen witltout exhibiting the  pheno-
mena of combustion.
  Though the products of combustion are not capa-
ble of  supporting combustion, they not unfrequently
part wilh their oxygen just as supporters  do, give it
out to  combustibles, and convert them into products;
but during this   process,  no  heat  or light   is ever
evolved.   Water, for instance, gives  out  its  oxygen
to iron, and converts it into  the black oxide,  a pro-
duct.   Thus we see  that  the oxygen  of  products is
capable of  converting combustibles into products, just
as the oxygen of supporters; but during the combina-
tion of the last only,  are heat  and light emitted. The
oxygen of  supporters  then contain something which
the oxygen of products wants.
  Whenever  the whole of the oxygen is abstracted
from products, the combustibility of their  base is re-
stored  as completely  as before combustion;  but no
substance is capable  of abstracting  the whole  of the
oxygen, except a combustible, or a partial combustible.
Water, for instance, is a product of combustion, whose
base is hydrogen.  To restore  the combustibility ofthe
hydrogen,  we have  only to mix  water with  iron or
zinc filings, and  un acid ;  the metal is oxidized, and
the hydrogen  gas is evolved  as combustible as ever.
But no substance, except a  combustible, is capable of
separating  hydrogen  gas from water, by  combining
with its oxygen.   Thus we see that combustibles are
capable of restoring the combustibility of the bases of
products; but they themselves lose their combustibility
by the process, and are converted into products. Com-
bustibility, therefore, may be thrown at pleasure from
one boely to another.
   From these facts it is obvious, that the products of
combustion may be formed without combustion ; but
in these cases a  new combustible is always evolved.
The process  is merely an  interchange ot combusti
bility; for  the combustible is converted into a product
only by  means of a  product.    Both the oxygen  and
the base of the  product  having undergone combus-
tion, have  lost something wliich is essential to coinbus
tion.   The process is merely a double  decomposition.
The product yields its oxygen to the combustible, while
at the  same time the  combustible gives  out  something
to the base of the product; the combustibility  of that
ooese Ihen is restored  by the loss of its oxygen,  and by
the restoration of something wliich it receives from
the otlier combustible thus converted into a product.
   There is indeed another method of forming the pro-
ducts  of combustion without actual  combustion in
certain cases;  but the  phenomena are much more
complicated.  This method is to expose them  to the
Bclion of some of the supporters dissolved in water;
especially nitric acid.  Thus most of the metallic ox-
ides may be formed without combustion by the action
of that acid on the metals.  But, in that case, a new
       252
supporter is always evolved, namely, nitrous gas; am
moiiia, a new combustible, is  also usually formed;
and, not unfrequently, the product is converted into a
partial supporter.
  No supporter  can be produced by combustion, or
by any equivalent process.  As several of the support-
ers consist of oxygen combined with a base, it follows
as a consequence,  that oxygen  may combine wilh a
base without losing that  ingredient, which  occasions
combustion.  The  act of  combination of oxygen with
a base, therefore, is by no means the same with com-
bustion.  If we take a view of the different support-
ers, we shall  find that all of them which can lie ob-
tained artificially, are procured either  from  othei
supporters, or by the agency of electricity.
  I.  Oxycen cas  may be procured  from nitric acid
and  from several  of the partial supporters,  as the
black oxide of manganese, the red oxides of lead and
of mercury.  The  action  of heat is always necessary;
but the process is very different from combustion.
  II. Air, as far as is known  at present, cannot be
formed artificially.  The gas,  indeed, which comes
over during part of the usual distillation of nitrate of
potassa and sulphuric acid, to obtain  nitric acid,  re-
sembles air very closely.  But it  is obtained from a
supporter.
   III. Nitrous  oxide has hitherto been only pro-
cured from nitrous gas and nitric acid, (in nitrate of
ammonia,) both of which are supporters.
   IV. Nitrous  gas can  only be procured by the de-
composition of nitric acid, a supporter.
   V. Oxymlriatic acid, or Chlorine, can be formed
by the action of muriatic acid on the  black oxide of
manganese, the red oxides  of lead, iron, or mercury;
all of which are  partial supporters.
   VI. Nitric acid is formed spontaneously upon the
surface ofthe earth, by processes with which we are but
imperfectly acquainted; but whicli certainly have no
resemblance to  combustion.  Its oxygen is probably
furnished by the air, which is a supporter; at least, it
has been observed, that nitrogen and oxygen, at high
temperatures, are capable of forming nitric acid.
   This formation  of nitric acid by means of electri-
city, has  been  considered  as  a combustion, but  for
what reason it is not easy to say: the  substance acted
upon is not a combustible with a supporter, but a sup-
porter alone.  Electricity is so far from being equiva-
lent to combustion, that it sonietimes acts in a manner
diametrically opposite; imburning, if  we may use the
expression, a substance which has already undergone
combustion,  and converting a' product into a combus-
tible and a supporter.   Thus  it decomposes  water,
and converts it into oxygen and hydrogen eas; there-
fore it must be  capable  of supplying the substances
wliich Ihe oxygen and  combustible lose when they
combine by combustion,  and form a product.
   Several of the supporters and partial supporters are
capable of combining with combustibles, without un-
dergoing decomposition, or  exhibiting  the phenomena
ol combustion.  In this  manner, the  yellow oxide of
gold combines with ammonia; the red oxide of mer-
cury willi oxalic acid; and oxymuriatie acid with am-
monia.  Thus also nitrate of  potassa  may be com-
bined, or at least intimately mixed, with several com
bustible bodies, as  in gunpowder, fulminating powder,
tc   In  all these compounds, Ihe oxygen of the  sup-
porter and  the  combustible  retain  the  ingredients
whicli render them susceptible of combustion ; hence
the compound  is  still  combustible.   And in  conse-
quence of the intimate combination ofthe component
parts, the least alteration is apt lo destroy the  equili-
brium which subsists between them; the consequence
is, combustion and the formation of a new compound.
Hence these compounds burn with amazing facility
not only when heated,but when  triturated,or  struck
smartly with a  hammer.  They have therefore re-
ceived the name of detonating or fulminating bodies
Plius we have fulminating gold, fulminating mercury,
fulminating powder, &c.
  Such are  the properties of  the  combustibles,  the
supporters, and the products; and such the phenome-
na which they exhibit when made to act upon eacli
other.
  If we compare together the supporters and the pro-
ducts, we shall find that  they resemble each otlier in
many respects.   Both of them contain oxygen, or other
supporter, as an essential constituent part; both are 
COM
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 capable of converting combustibles into products; and
 several of both combine with combustibles and with
 additional doses of oxygen.  But they differ from each
 otlier in their effects on  combustibles.   The former
 only produce combustion; whereas the products con-
 vert combustibles into  products without  combustion.
 Now, as tlie ultimate change produced upon combus-
 tibles by both these sots oi'  bodies is the same, and as
 the substance which combines with  the combustibles
 is in both  cases the same,  oxygen,  for instance,  we
 must conclude that ihis oxygen in the supporters con-
 tains something which the oxygen of the  products
 wants, something which separates during the passage
 of  the oxygen from  the  product  to  the combustible,
 and occasions the combustion, or emission  of  fire,
 which  accompanies this  passage.   The  oxycen of
 supporters  then contains some ingredient which  tlie
 oxygen of products wants.   Manv circumstances con-
 cur to render it probable that tliis'ingredient is caloric.
  The combustibles and the products also resemble
 each otlier.   Both of them contain the same or a
 similar base ;  both frequently combine  with combus-
 tibles, and  likewise with oxygen ;  but they differ  es-
 sentially in the phenomena which accompany their
 combination with oxygen.  In  the one case, fire is
 emitted; in the other, not.  If we  recollect that  no
 substance but  a combustible is capable of restoring
 combustibility  to the ba.-e of a product, and that at its
 doing so it always loses its own combustibility ;  and if
 we recollect farther, that the base of a product does not
 exhibit the  phenomena of combustion  even when it
 combines with oxygen, we cannot avoid concluding,
 that all combustibles contain  an ingredient whicli they
 lose when converted  into products, and that this loss
 contributes to  the lire  which makes its appearance
 during Ihe  conversion.  Many circumslances contri-
 bute to render  it probable that this ingredient is light.
  If we suppose  that the oxygen of supporters con-
 tains caloric as an essential  ingredient, and that light
 is a component part of all combustibles, the phenome-
 na  of combustion above enumerated, numerous and
 intricate as they are, admit of an easy and obvious ex-
 planation.   The  component parts of the oxygen  of
 supporters are  two; namely,  1. a base, 2. caloric.  The
 component parts  of combustibles are likewise two;
 namely, 1.  a base, 2. light.  During combustion, the
 base of the oxygen combines with the base of the com-
 bustible, and forms the product;  while, at the same
 time, the caloric of the oxygen combines with the light
 of the combustible, and the compound flies off in  Ihe
 form of fire.   Thus combustion is a double decompo-
 sition: the  oxygen and combustible divide themselves
 each into two portions, which  combine in pairs;  the
 one compound is the product, and the other the fire,
 which escapes.
  Hence the reason that the oxygen of  products is
 unfit for combustion.   It wants ils caloric.   Hence the
 reason that combustion does not lake place when oxy-
 gen combines with products, or with the base of sup-
 porters. These bodies contain no light.   The caloric
 of the oxygen  of course is not separated, and no fire
 appears. And this oxygen still retaining its caloric, is
 capable of producing combustion whenever a body is
 presented wliich contains light, and whose base  has an
 affinity for oxygen.  Hence also the reason why a com-
 bustible alone can restore combustibility to the" base of
 a product.  In all such cases, a double decomposition
 takes place.   The oxygen of the  product combines
 with  the base of the  combustible, while the light
 of the combustible combines with the base  of the
 product.
  But the application of this  theory to all the different
 phenomena described above,  is so obvious, that it is
 needless to give any more examples.  Let us rather
 inquire, wilh the author, into the evidences which can
 be brought forward in its support.
  As caloric and light are always emitted during com-
 bustion, it  follows that they must have previously
eiisted in the combustible, the supporter, or in both.
  That the  oxygen of the supporters contains either
one or both of tiiese substances, follows incontroverti-
 bly  from a  fact already mentioned, namely, that the
oxygen of products will not support combustion, while
that of supporters will.   Hence  the oxygen of sup.
porters must contain something which the oxygen of
the products wants, and this something must be caloric,
or light, or both.
    That the oxygen of some of the supporters at least
  contains caloric, as an ingredient, has been proved, in
  a atisfaciory manner, by the experiments of Craw-
  ford, Lu\ oi.-ier, and La Place.  Thus the temperature
  of hot-blooded animals is maintained by the decompo-
  sitioiKof an-.  Now, if the oxygen of one supporter
  contains caloric, the same ingredient must exist m the
  oxygon of every  supporter, because all  of them are
  obviously in the same state.  Hence we conclude frat
  the oxygen of every  supporter contains caloric ns an
  essential ingredient.
    The light emitted during combustion  must  cither
  proceed Ironi the combustible or the supporter.  That
  it proceeds from the  combustible, mist appear  pretty
  obvious, if we rccc.Ilcct that  the  colour  of the light
  emitted during combustion varies, and that this varia-
  tion usually depends, not upon the supporter, but upon
  the combustible.   Thus  charcoal  burns with  a red
  flame, sulphur w ith a blue or violet, zinc w ith a green-
  ish white, &c.
    The formation of combustibles in plants, obviously
  requires the presence and agency ol" light.   The leaves
  of" plants emit oxygen gas, when exposed to the sun's
  rays, but never in the shade, or in the dark.
    Besides vegetation, we are acquainted  with two
  other methods of unburning products, or of converting
  them into products and combustibles, by exposing them,
'  in certain circumstances, to the agency of fire, or of
  electricity.  The oxides of gold, mercury,  Sec.  when
  healed to redness, are decomposed, oxygen gas is emit
  ted, and the  pure metal remains behind.  In Ihis case,
  the necessary caloric and  light  must be furnished by
  Ihe fire; a circumstance wliich explains why such re-
  ductions always require a red  heat.  When carbonic
  acid  is made to pass repeatedly over red-hot charcoal,
  it combines  with a portion of charcoal,  and is con-
  verted  into gaseous oxide of carbon.  If this gas be a
  combustible  oxide, the base of the carbonic acid and
  ils oxygen must have been supplied with light and
  caloric from the fire; but  if it be a  partial combusti-
  ble, il  is merely  a compound of carbonic acid and
  charcoal: wliich ofthe two it is, remains still to be
  ascertained.
    Electricity decomposes water, and converts  it into
  oxygen gas and hydrogen gas;  it must, therefore, sup-
  ply the heat  and the light which these bodies lost when
  converted into a product.
   These facts, together with the exact correspondence
 of ihe theory given above with the phenomena of com-
|  bustion, render it so probable, that Dr. Thompson has
I ventured to propose it as an additional step towards a
■ full explanation of the theory of combustion.   Every
 additional experiment has served  to confirm it more
 and more. It  even throws light upon the curious ex-
 periments of the  accension of metals  with sulphur,
 which  succeed in vacuo,  under mercury, in nitrogen
 gas, &c.
   Dr. Thompson has noticed, that  the same emission
 of caloric and light, or of fire, takes place when melted
 sulphur is made to combine with potassa, or with lime,
 in a crucible or gloss tube, and  likewise when melted
 phosphorus is made to  combine w ith lime heated to
 redness.  He supposes that, in  all probability, barytes
 and strontia exhibit the same phenomenon when com-
 bined with melted sulphur or  phosphorus; and per-
 haps  some of the metals when combined with  pliOR-
 phorus.
   The phenomena Dr. Thompson explains thus:—The
 sulphur and  phosphorus are in the melted state, and
 therefore  contain  caloric  as an ingredient; the alka.
 lies, earths, and metals which produce the phenomenon
 in question, contain light as an essential ingredient
 The sulphur,  or phosphorus, combines with the base of
 the metal, earth, or alkali; while  at the  same lime
 the caloric, to which the sulphur or phosphorus owe*
 its fluidity, combines with the tight of the metal, earth,
 or alkali; and the compound flies off under the torn"
 of fire.
   Thus the process is exactly the same w ith combup
 tion,  excepting as far as  regards  the product.   Thr
 melted  sulphur, or phosphorus, acts the  part of tin
 supporter, while Ihe metal, earth, or alkali, oceupie
 the place of the combustible. The first furnishes calo
 ric, the second light, while the  base of each combine!
 together.  Hence we see tl at  the  base of sulphurett
 arid phosphurets resembles the base of  produces in
 beina destitute of light; tlie formation of these  bodies 
COM                                           COM
exhibiting the separation of fire like combustion, but
the product differing from a product of combustion in
being destitute of oxygen, Dr. Thompson distinguishes
me process by the title of semi-combustion; indicating
by the term, that it possesses one half of the charac-
teristic marks of combustion, but is destitute %f the
other half.
  The only part of this theory  which requires proof
fe, that light is a component part ofthe earths and  al-
kalies.  But as potassa and lime are the only bodies
of that nature, which we are certain to be capable of
exhibiting the phenomena of  semi-combustion, the
proofs must  of necessity be confined to  them.  That
lime contains lignras a component part, has been long
known.   Meyer and Pelletier observed  long ago, that
when water is poured upon  lime, not only heat but
light is emitted.  Light  is emitted  also abundantly,
when sulphuric acid is poured upon magnesia, or upon
lime, potassa, or  soda, freed from the water of crys-
tallization.   Iu all these cases, a semi-combustion takes
place.   The water and the acid being solidified, give
out caloric, while the lime or potassa gives out light.
  Thai lime, during its burning, combines with light,
and that light is u component part of lime,  is demon-
strated by the following experiment, for which we are
indebted to Scheele.
  Fluor spar (fluate of lime) has the property of phos-
phorescing strongly when heated, but the experiment
does not succeed twice with the same specimen.  After
it has been  once heated sufficiently, no subsequent
heat will cause it to phosphoresce.   Now phosphores-
cence is merely the emission  of light; light of course
is a component part of fluor spar,  and  heat  has the
property  of  separating il.   But the phosphorescing
quality of the spar may be again recovered to it, or,
which is the same thing, the light which the spar had
lost may be restored by the following process:—
  Decompose the fluate of lime by sulphuric acid, and
preserve the fluoric acid separate.   Boil the sulphate
of lime thus formed, with a sufficient quantity of car-
bonate of soda;  a double decomposition takes place;
sulphate of soda remains in solution, and carbonate of
lime precipitates.  Ignite this  precipitate  in a crucible,
till it is reduced to lime, and combine it with the fluoric
acid to which it was formerly united.  The fluor spar
thus regenerated, phosphoresces as at first.  Hence the
lime,  during its  ignition, must have combined  with
light.
  That potassa contains light, may be proved in the
same  manner as the existence of that body in  lime.
Now, as potassa is deprived of its  carbonic  acid  by
lime, the Doctor supposes that  the process must be a
double decomposition; namely, that the base of the
lime combines with carbonic  acid, while  ils light com-
bines  with the potassa.
  These remarks on semi-combustion might easily be
much enlarged upon:  for it is obvious, that whenever
a liquid combines with a solid containing  light, and
the product  is a solid  body,  something analogous to
semi-combustion must take place.
  COMEDO.  (From comedo, a glutton.)  The come-
dones of old writers are a sort of worm which eats
into the skin and devours the flesh.
  CO'MFREY.  See Symphytum.
  Comi'sdi.   The gum-arabic.
  Comi'ste.  The epilepsy.  This  name arose  from
the frequency of persons being seized with this disor-
der, while in Ihe assemblies called Comitia.
  Comiti'ssa.  A countless.  Some preparations are
distinguished by this name; as Pulvis  Comitissa  de
Cantia,  the  Countess of Kent's powder.   Also the
Cinchona was called Pulvis Comitissa.
  Co -a m ag k ' num . (From Commagcnc, a place in Syria.
whence it was brought.)  Syrian ointment, mentioned
by Galen.                _
  COMMANDUCA'TIO. (From cn»imatt(tuce>,toeat.)
The act of mastication, or chewing.
  Comma'nsum.  (From commando, to eat.)   A  mas-
ticatory.   A medicine put Into the mouth  and chewed,
t<i promote a discharge of phlegm, or saliva.
  Commi'ndato'rhjs.  (From commendo, to  recom-
mend )  An epithet of the traumatic balsam, tinctura
Benzocs emposita, from its singular virtues and use-

 Vo'mmi   Gum.   When alone  it signifies gum-
arabic  The xoppi Xtvxov, mentioned by Hippocrates
In his De Morb. Mulieb, is gum-arabic.
      354
  COMMISSU RA.   (From  commtto, to join tttft»-
ther.)  A suture, juncture, or joint  A tetrm auplied
in anatomy to the corners of the lips, where they meet
together;  and also to certain parts of the brainwhich
go across and join one hemisphere to the other.
  Commissura anterior cerebri. The white nerve-
like substance which  crosses  the  anterior  part of the
third  ventricle of  the brain,  immediately above the
infundibulum, and between the anterior crura of the
fornix ;  uniting one hemisphere of the brain with the
other.
  Commissura magna cerebri.   The corpus callo-
sum of the brain is so termed by some writers.
  Commissura posterior cereeri.  A while nerve*
like substance, which passes from one hemisphere of
the brain across to the other, immediately over the
opening of the aqueduct of Sylvius, in the posterior
part ofthe third ventricle of the brain, and  above the
corpora quadrigemina.
  Communicant.   (From communico, to make par-
take.)   A term applied by Bellini,  to fevers of two
kinds afflicting the same person, wherein as  one goes
off the other immediately succeeds.
  Compa'ges.  (From compingo, to put together.)  A
suture, or joint.  A commissure.
  COMPARATIVE.  That wliich illustrates by com-
paring with the human body:  applied to anatomy and
physiology.  See Anatomy.
  Ckmpbba.  See Piper Cubeba.
  Complete Flower.  See Flos.
  Completion.  A term used by the ancient writers
in various ncceptations; but latterly it signifies only
the same as Plethora.
  COMPLE'XUS.  (From complector, to comprise.)
Complexus seu biventer cercicis of Albinus.   Dorso
trachelon occipital of Dumas.   A  muscle situated on
the back part of the neck, that draws the head back-
wards, aud to one side: and when  both act,  they draw
the head directly backward.  It arises from the trans
verse processes of the seven superior vertebrae of Ihe
back, and four inferior of the  neck, by as  many dis-
tinct  tendinous origins; in its ascent, it receives  a
fleshy slip from the spinous process of the first verte-
bra of the back: from these different origins it runs
upwaids, and  is every where  intermixed with  tendi-
nous  fibres.  It is inserted, tendinous and fleshy, into
the inferior edge of the  protuberance in the middle of
the os occipilis, and into a part ofthe curved  lino that
runs forwards from that protuberance.  It draws the
head backwards.
.  Complexus minor.  See Trachelo-mastoideus.
  COMPOSITUS.  Compound.  The result  or effect
of a composition of different things; or that which
arises from them.  It  stands opposed to' simple.  In
botany, applied to leaves and flowers.  See Flos, and
Folium.
  COMPOUND.  See Compositus.
  Compound affinity.   See Attraction.
  COMPRESSION.   (Comprcssio ; from comprimo,
to press together.)  A diseased state of the body, or of
a part, the effect of something pressing upon  it.  The
term  is  generally applied to the brain.  Compression
of the brain should be distinguished from concussion
and inflammation.  When the brain is compressed
either by bone, extravasated blood, or any other fluid,
there is a general insensibility, the eyes are half open,
the pupils dilated and motionless, even when  a candle
is brought near the eye;  the retina is insensible; the
limbs  relaxed;  the breathins   stertorous;  the pulse
slow,  and,  according  to Abernethy, less subject to
intermission than iu cases of concussion.   Nor is the
patient ever sick, when the pressure on the brain, and
ihe general  insensibility, are  considerable;  for the
very action of vomiting  betrays an irritability in the
stomach and oesophagus.
  COMPRE'SSOR.  (Compressor ; from comprimo, to
press  together.)  A name applied to those  must-leu
which press together the parts on which they act.
  Compressor naris.   Rinaus vel  nasalis of Doug*
las. Transversalis vcl myrtiformis of Winslow. Di-
latores alarum nasi of Cowper; and Maxillo normal
of Dumas. A muscle of the nose, that.rompresses the
aire towards  the septum nasi, particularly when we
want to smell acutely.  It also  corrugates tlie nose, and
assists in expressing certain passions.  It arises, by a
narrow beginning, from the root of the ala nasi exter-
nally, and spreads into n number of thin  separata 
CON
CON
 fibres, which  re n up along the cartilage In an oblique
 manner towards the back ol* the nose, where it joins
 with its fellow, nnd is inserted into  the narrow ex-
 trem'uy of the os nasi, and nasal process of the supe-
 rior maxillary bone.
   COMPKKSSU8.  Compressed; flattened laterally;
 applied to leaves.  See Leaf
   COMPTONITE.  A new mineral first brought Into
 this country by Lord  Compton, and  found  iu  drusy
 cavities, iu ejected masses,on Mount Vesuvius.
   Compu'sctio. (From compungo, to prick.)  A  punc-
 ture.
   CONA'lUl'M.  (From kuivcs' so named  from its
 conical shape.)  A cone.   See Pineal gland.
   Coniac'sa.  (From  con, with, and causa,  a cause.)
 A cause which co-operates  with another  in the pro-
 duction ol  a disease.
   CONCAVES.   Hollow; depre-ssed  in  the middle.
 Applied to leaves, petals, &c. depre-ssed in their cen-
 tre, owing, as  it were, to  a tightness iu some part of
 the circumference; as in Cyamus nelumbo,  and the
 petals of the Galanthus nivalus.
   CONCENTRATION.   [Conccntratio; from con,
 and centrum, a centre.)   The volatilizing of part of
 the water of fluids, in order to improve their  strength.
 The matter to be concentrated, therefore, must  be of
 superior fixity to water.  This operation is  performed
 on some acids, particularly the sulphuric  and  phos-
 phoric.  It is also employed in solutions of alkalies and
 neutral salts.
   CONCENTRIC  Bulbus concentricus.   A concen-
 tric bulb, is one of the laminated kind, well  illustrated
 in the common onion, Allium cepa.
   CONCEPT ACULUM.   A former name for what is
 now called in botanv receptaculuin.
   CONCE'PTION."  (Conccptio;  from  concipio, to
 conceive.)  The impregnation of the  ovulum in the
 female  ovarium, by the  subtile prolific aura of the
 semen virile.  In order  to have a fruitful coition, it is
 necessary that the s men  be propelled into the uterus,
 or vagina, so that its fecundating vapour shall be con-
 veyed through ihe Fallopian tube to the ovarium: it is
 also necessary that there  be a certain state ofthe ova-
 rium of the female in order to impregnate it; which
 is, that the ovum shall be mature, and emhaced by
 the fimbriae of the Fallopian tube, to convey that vivi-
 fying piinciple to the ovum.  See Generation.
   CO'NCMA.   (Concha, xoyxi, a liquid  measure
 among the Athenians.)   A term applied by anatomists
 to several parts of the body ; as the hollow of the ear,
 the spongy bones of the nose, &c.
   Concha auricula.  See Auricula.
   Concha auris.  The hollow part of the cartilage of
 the outer ear.
  Concha  maroaritifera.   The shell from which
 pearls are obtained.   See  Margarita.
  Conch* narium.  The turbinated  portion of the
ethmoid bone, and the inferior spongy bones of ihe
nose, which are  covered  by the Schneiderian  mem-
brane, are so termed.
  CO NCIICS. (From  xoyxi,"» shell:  so named from
their likeness to a shell.)  The cranium, and the cavity
 of the eye.
   [CONCHOLITE.  See Organic relics.]
  CoNcfDENS.   (From  eoncido,  to  decay.)   1. A
 decrease of bulk in  the  whole or any  part of the
 body.
  2. A diminution of a tumour.
   Concoagula'tio.  (From con, and  coagulo, to co-
 agulate together.)  The coagulation or crystallization
 of different salts, first dissolved together in the same
 fluid.
   CONCO'CTIO. (From concoquo, to digest.) 1. Con-
 coction;  digestion.   This term  was  formerly  very
generally used to express that operation of nature upon
 morbid matter which  renders it fit to be separated
 from the healthy fluid.
  2. The alteration which the food  undergoes in the
primae viae.
  Concrema'tio.  (From con, and cremo, to burn to-
gether.)  Calcination.
  CONCRETION.  (Concretio; from concresco, to
grow together.)
  1. The  condensation of any fluid  substance into
a more solid consistence.
  2. The growing together of parts which, in a  natu-
ral state, aie separate.
  CONCU RSUS. (From concurro, to meet together..
The congeries or collection of symptoms which cotf
stitute and distinguish tbe particular disease
  CONCU SSION.   (From conditio, to shake  toge-
ther.)  Concussion of the brain.   Various alarming
symptoms, followed sonietimes by the most fatal con-
sequences, are found to attend great violence offered
to the head; and upon the- strictest  exaininatioiijboth
of the living and the  dead, neither fissure, fracVire,
nor extravasation of any kind can bo discovered. The
same symptoms and Ihe same events are met  w ilh
when the head has received no injury at all ab externa,
but has only been violently shaken; ::iv,when only
the body, or general  frame, has seemed  to have sus-
tained the violence.  The symptoms attending n con-
cussion, are generally in proportion to  the degree of
violence  which  the  brain  itself has sustained, and
which, indeed, is cognizable only by ihe symptoms.
If the concussion be very great, all sense  and power of
motion arc immediately abolished, and death follows
soon; but between this degree and that slight confusion
(or stunning, as  it is culled,) which attends moat vio-
lences done to the hend, there are many shades.  The
following is Abernethy's description of Ihe symptoms
of concussion, which he is of opinion, may be divided
into three stages.
  The first is lhat state of insensibilify and derange-
ment ofthe bodily powers which  immediately suc-
ceeds the accident. While it lasts, the patient scarcely
feels  any injury that may be inflicted on him.  His
breathing is difficult, but in general without sterlor;
his pulse intermitting, and his extremities cold.  ' But
such  a state cannot last long; it goes  off gradually,
and is succeeded by another,  which is considered  us
the second stage of concussion.  In this, the pulse und
respiration become better, and, though  nut regularly
performed, are suflicient lo maintain life, and to diffuse
warmth  over the extreme  parts of the body.   The
feeling of the patient is  now so far restored, that he is
sensible  of his skin being pinched ; but he lies stupid
and inattentive to slight external impressions.  As the
effects of concussion diminish, he becomes capable of
replying  to questions put  lo  him  in a loud lone of
voice, especially when they refer to his chief suffering
at the time, as  pain in the head,  &c; otherwise he
answers  incoherently,  and as if his attention was
occupied  by  something  else.  As long  as the stupo;
reinuins, the inflammation of the brain  seems to  be
moderate; but as the former abates, the latter seldom
fails to increase ;  and this constitutes the third stage,
which is the most important of the series of effects
proceeding from  a concussion.
  These  several stages vary considerably in their de-
gree and duration; but  more or less of each will be
Ibund to  take place in every instance where the-  biain
has been violently shaken.  Whether they bear any
certain proportion to each other or not, is not known;
indeed, this will depend upon such a variety of ciicuin-
stances in  the constitution, the  injury, and the  after
treatment, that it must he difficult to determine.
  To distinguish between an extravasation and a con-
cussion by the symptoms only, Mr. Potts says, is fre-
quently a very difficult matter ; sometimes au impossi-
ble  one.  The similarity of the effects, in  some cases,
and the very small space of time which may intervene
between the going off" of the one and accession of the
other, render this a very nice exercise of the judgment.
The first stunning or deprivation of sense, whether
total or partial, may be from either, and no man can
tell  from  which ; but when these first symptoms have
been removed, or have spontaneously disappeared, if
such patient is again oppressed with drowsiness, or
stupidity, or total or partial loss of sense, il then be-
comes probable that  the first complaints were  from
concussion, and that the latter are from extravasation;
aud the greater the distance of lime between the two
the greater is the probability not only that an extrava-
sation is the  cause,  but that the extravasation  is of
the  limpid  kind, made gradatim, and within the
brain.
  Whoever seriously reflects  on  the nature of  these
two causes of evil within the  cranium, and considers
them as liable to frequent combination  in the  same
subject, and at Ihe same time  considers lhat, in many
instances, no degree  of information can be obtained
from the only person capable of giving it,  (the patient)
will immediately be sensible how very difficult a pari 
CON
CON
a practitioner has to act in many of these cases, and
how very unjust it must be to call  that  ignorance
which is only a just diffidence arising from the obscu-
rity of the subject,  and the impossibility of attaining
materials to form a clear judgment.
  Abernethy observes, that in cases of simple concus-
sion, the insensibility is not  so great, as where com-
pression exists, the pupils are more contracted,  the
musa**s less relaxed, little or no stertor attends, but
the pulse is very intermitting, and In slight cases there
is often considerable sickness.
  Very  different modes of treating these accidents
have been practised, and no doubt the same  means
should  not be pursued indiscriminately.  Much must
depend on the state of the patient, when he received
the injury, the degree of this,  the  time which  has
elapsed  since,  and other  circumstances.  Abernethy
considers, that in the first stage little should be done;
that the stimulants often employed may be even inju-
rious ; but more especially so in the second stage, in-
creasing the tendency to  inflammation; and where
this has come on, that the antiphlogistic plan must be
actively pursued.   However, a moderate abstraction
of blood, general or topical, will be commonly proper
at first, where  the habit  will allow it, as congestion
may be  suspected,  and to obviate inflammation, espe-
cially where the person was intoxicated at the time of
the accident;  and the effect of this measure  may influ-
ence the subsequent treatment.  If the pulse rose after
it, and the patient became more sensible, we should be
led to  pursue  the  evacuating plan,  taking  perhaps
more.blood, exhibiting active  cathartics, as the bowels
will be found very torpid, applying cold lotions to the
head, Sec.  These means, however, will be especially
called  for,  when  marks of inflammation  appear.
Sometimes brisk emetics have been very beneficial, as
sulphate of zinc,  Sec.: they are particularly  recom-
mended, where  the person was under the influence of
anger;  or  the stomach full,  when the accident hap-
pened; but they are liable to objection, where there
are marks of congestion, or  increased action in the
vessels of the head.  If bleeding should  lower  the
pulse, and render the patient worse, evacuations must
not be pursued ; it may be better generally to wait the
gradual  return  of  sensibility, unless  the  torpor  be
alaiming, like a state of syncope: in which  case, or if
it continue very long, stimulants appear justified, as
ammonia, or others of transient operation, with a blis-
ter to the head, to restore some  degree of sensibility.
If. in the sequel, marks of irritation appear, as spasms
or convulsions, opium joined with antimony, or in the
form of Dover's powder, will probably be useful, the
necessary evacuations  being  premised, and  the warm
bath.  In all cases the  head should be  kept quiet; as
the patient is convalescent,  tonics, and the shower-
bath may be employed with advantage; and it will
be particularly necessary  to avoid great bodily  ex-
ertion,   stimulating  liquors,  &c.  Should paralytic
symptoms remain,  stimulants, general or local, may
be required.  Where  alarming  symptoms  follow an
injury to the  head, extravasation  may be suspected:
and the operation of trepanning,  skilfully performed,
will  do no harm to the  patient, but may materially
relieve,  even by the loss of blood attending.
  CONDENSATION. (Condensatio;  fromcondenso,
to make thick.)  A thickening of any fluid.
  CONDIME'NTUM.  (From condio,  to preserve, or
season.)  A condiment, preserve, or sweetmeat.
  Condu'ctio.  (From conduco, to draw along.*)   In
Caelius Aurelianus, it is a spasm, or convulsion, draw-
ing the muscles out of their proper positions.
  CONDU'CTOR.  (From conduco, to lead, or guide.)
A surrical instrument, the use of which is to direct the
knife in certain operations.  It is more commonly
called a director.                     ,....,
  CONDUPLICATUS.  Folded.  Applied to leaves,
when the margins are clapped flatly together; as in
Roscaa purpurea,  and the  bases of sword-shaped
leaves.  See Leaf.
  CO'NDYLE.  (Condylus; from xoviv, an ancient
cup, shaped like  a joint.)  A round eminence of a
bone in any of the joints.
  CONDYLO'MA.  (Condyloma,  alis.n.;  from xov
IvXos, a tubercle,  or knot.)  A soft, wart-like excres-
cence, that appears about the anus and pudendum of
both sexes.   There are  several species of condylo-
mata, which have received names from their appear-
      25(>
ances;  as ficus, crysta, thymus, from  tfceir resem
blance to a fig, Sec.
  CONE.  See Strobilus.
  Conki'on.  (From xwvav, to turn round.)  In Hip-
pocrates it imports hemlock.   It is said to be thus
named, because it produces a vertigo in those who
take it inwardly. See Conium.
  Cone'ssi  cortex.   See  Nerium antidyc-snteri-
cum.
  CONFE'CTION.  (Confectio, onis. f.;  from con-
ficio,  to make  up.)   A confection.  In general,  it
means any thing made  up with sugar.   The term, ii
the new London Pharmacopoeia, includes those arti-
cles which were formerly called electuaries and con
serves,  between which there do not appear to be suffi-
cient grounds to make a distinction.
  [" Confections are soft solids, in the composition of
which sugar forms a principal article.  The term in-
cludes what have been called conserves, made from
recent vegetable substances, beaten with sugar as  u
preservative; and electuaries, which were formed of
dry powders, &c. brought to a  proper  consistence
with  syrup, either to facilitate their deglutition, or to
conceal their taste."—Big. Mat. Med.
  The  Pharmacopoeia of the United States has the
following:—Confectio aromatica, Confectio  aurantii
corticis, Confectio cassia,  Confectio rosa,  Confectio
scammonia, Confectio senna. A.]
  Confectio amygdalarum. Confection of almonds.
Take of sweet almonds, an ounce; Acacia gum pow-
dered, a drachm ; refined sugar, half an  ounce. The
almonds having been previously macerated  in  water
and their external coat removed, beat the whole to
gether,  until they are thoroughly incorporated.   It has
beenobjected to the almond mixture, which is an article
of very general use, that it  requires considerable time
for its extemporaneous preparation, and that it  spoils,
and cannot be kept when  it is made   This will be
obviated by the present  form, which does keep for a
suflicient length of time, and rubs down  into the mix-
ture immediately.
  Confectio aromatica.  This preparation was for-
merly called  Confectio cardiaca.  Confectio Raleigh-
ana.  Take of cinnamon bark, nutmegs, of each two
ounces; cloves, an ounce; cardamom seeds, half an
ounce; saffron dried, two ounces;  prepared shells, six-
teen ounces; refined sugar powdered, two pounds;
water, a pint.  Reduce the dry  substances, mixed to-
gether,  to very fine powder; then add the water  gra-
dually,  and mix the whole, unlil  it is  incorporated.
This preparation is now much simplified by the Lon-
don college.  It is an excellent medicine, possessing
stimulant, antispasmodic, and adstringent virtues ; and
is exhibited with these views to children and  adults,
in a vast variety of diseases, mixed with oilier medi-
cines.   It  may be  given  in doses of  10  gr. lo  a
drachm.
  Confectio aurantiorum.  Conserva corticis exte-
rioris aurantiihispalensis.   Conserva fiavedtnus cor-
ticum aurantiorum.   Take of fresh external rind of
oranges, separated by rasping, a pound; refined sugar,
three pounds.   Bruise the rind with a wooden  pestle,
in a stone mortar;  then, after adding the sugar, bruise
it again, until the whole is thoroughly incorporated.
This is  well calculated to form the basis of a tonic and
stomachic confection, and may be given alone  in
doses of from  two to five drachms, twice  or three
times a day.
  Coniectio cardiaca.   See  Confectio  aromatica.
  Confectio cassi.e.  Electuarium cassia.   Electu-
arittm e cassia.  Confection of cassia. Take of fresh
cassia pulp, half a pound; manna, two ounces; tama-
rind pulp,  an  ounce;  syrup of roses,  half a pint.
Bruise  the manna; meli it in the syrup by a water-
bath ; then mix in the pulps, and evaporate down to a
proper consistence.  This is a very elegant, pleasant,
and mild aperient for the  feeble,  and  for children.
Dose from two drachms to an ounce.
  Confectio  opii.   Confectio opiata.   Philonium
Londmense.   Philonium Romxnum. Confection of
opium.  Take of hard opium powdered, six drachms,
long pepper, an ounce; ginger root, two ounces; cara-
vy ay-seeds, three ounces; syrup, a pint.  Rub together
the opium and  the syrup pieviously heated; then add
tlie remaining articles reduced to powder, and mix.
To the  credit of modern pharmacy, this is the only one
that remains of all  those complicated and confused 
CON
CON
 preparations called inithridate, theriaca, Sec ; it more
 nearly approximates, in its composition, the philonium
 than any other, and  may be considered as an effectual
 substitute for them in  practice.  This very warm and
 stimulating confection is admirably calculated to re-
 lieve diarrhoea, or spasms of the stomach and bowels,
 nnd is frequently ordered in doses of from 10 grs. lo
 half a drachm.   About 30  grains contain  one of
 opium.
   Confectio piperis  niqri.  Confection of black
 pepper.  Take of black pepper; elecampane, of each
 a pound; fennel seeds, three pounds; honey; refined
 sugar, of each two pounds.  Rub  the dry ingredients
 together, so as to reduce them to  a very fine powder;
 then, having added the honey, rub them again, so that
 the whole may incorporate.  This confection is given
 internally against a relaxed condition of the extremity
 ofthe rectum, producing partial prolapse, and against
 that piley  state which results from  weakness.  A
 similar compound has  been long celebrated and sold
 under the name of Ward's paste.
  Confectio  ros£ camnjs.   Conserva  cynosbati.
 Conserva fruetus ctjnosbati.  Conserve of hips. Con
 fection of" dog-rose.  Take of dog-rose pulp, a pound ,
 refined sugar powdered, twenty ounces.   Expose tlie
 pulp in a water bath to a gentle heat; then add the
 sugar gradually, and  rub them  together until they are
 thoroughly incorporated.   This preparation is cooling
 and  adstringent;  it is seldom given alone, but mostly
 joined to some other  medicine,  in the form of linctus,
 or electuary.
  Confectio ros.e gallics.  Conserva rosa. Con-
 serva  rosarum  rubrarum.  Conserve of red rose.
 Take of the petals of the red rose, before it is expanded,
 and without the claws,  a pound; refined sugar, three
 pounds.  Bruise the  petals in  a stone mortar; then,
 having added the sugar, beat them again together, until
 they are thoroughly incorporated.   This is an excel-
 lent  sub-astringent composition.   Rubbed down with
 water, it forms an excellent  drink, with some lemon
 juice, in hemorrhagic complaints;  it may also be
 given with vilriolated zinc, in the form of an electuary.
  Confectio rut*.  Electuarium ebaccis lauri. Con-
 fection of  rue.  Take  of rue  leaves dried, caraway
 seeds, bay-berries, of each an ounce and a half; saga-
 penura, half an  ounce; black  pepper, two drachms;
 clarified honey, sixteen ounces.  Rub the dry  articles
 together, into a very fine powder; then add the honey,
 and  mix the whole.  Its use is  confined to clysters.
  Confectio scammone.k. Electuarium scammonii.
 Elcctuarium e scammonio. Electuarium caryocosti-
 num.  Confection of scammony.  Take of scammony
 gum  resin   powdered,  an ounce and a  half; cloves
 bruised, ginger root powdered,  of  each, six drachms;
 oil of caraway, half a drachm;  syrup  of  roses, as
 much as is sufficient.  Rub tbe dry articles together,
into very fine powder; next rub them again while  the
sy rup is gradually added ;  then add the oil of caraway,
and mix the whole well together.  This  is a  strong
stimulating cathartic,  and calculated to remove worms.
from the primae viae, with which view it is mostly ex-
hibited.  Dose from 3 ss. to 3 j.
  Confectio ssnn.£.  Electuarium  senna.  Electu-
 arium lenitivum. Confection of senna. Take of senna
 leaves, eight ounces; figs, a pound;  tamarind pulp,
 pulp of prunes,  cassia pulp, of each half a pound;
 coriander  seeds,  four  ounces; liquorice root, three
 ounces ; refined sugar, two pounds and a half.  Pow-
 der the senna leaves with the coriander seeds, and
separate, by sifting ten ounces  of the mixed powder.
 Boil the remainder with the figs and the liquorice-root,
 in four pints of water, until it be reduced to half; ihen
 press out and strain the  liquor.  Evaporate the liquor,
 until a pint and a half only remains of the whole;
 then add the sugar, to  make syrup.   Lastly, mix the
 pulps gradually with  the syrup, and, having added the
sifted  powder, mix the whole together.  This is a
mild and  elegant aperient, well adapted  for pregnant
women, and tliose whose bowels  are easily moved.
Dose, 3 ss.  "^ ss.
  CONFERTUS.  Clustered,  or  crowded together:
applied to leaves.   See Leaf.
  CONFERVA.   (From conferveo, to knit together.)
1. The name of a genus of plants in the Linnaean sys-
tem.   Class, Cryptogamia; Order, Alga.
  2. A kind of moss: named from its use formerly in
healing broken bones
   Conferva helminthocortos.  Sec Corallina cer
 sicana.
   Conferva  rivalis.   This plant, Conferva; Ma
 mentis simplicissimus aqualibus longissimus, of Lin-
 naeus, has been  recommended in cases of spasmodic
 asthma, phthisis, Sec on account of the great quantity
 of vital air it contains.
   CONFIRMA \TIA.   (From  eon,  nnd firmo,  to
 strengthen.)   1.  ltestoratives.
   2. Medicines winch listen the teeth in their sockets
   CONFLUENT    Kunniiig together.  Applied  to
 eruptions.  See  Variola.
   CONFLU'XluN.   .Much used by Hippocrates, and
 his Interpreter Galen, irom  a  notion that parts at a
 distance have mutual consent with one another, and
 that they arc  all perspirable by many subtle streams.
 Paracelsus, according to his way, expressed the former
 by confederation.
   CONFORMA  TIO.  (From conformo, to shape or
 fashion.)   Conformation.  The  natural  shape and
 form of any part.
   Conforta'ntia.   (From  conforto, to  strengthen
 Cordial and strengthening medicines.
   Confortati'va.  The same.
   CoNPO'sn.  (From cr-nfundo, to mix together.)  A
 confusion, or disorder in the eyes, proceeding from a
 rupture of the membranes, winch  include the  hu-
 mours, by which means they are all confounded to-
 gether.
   Conoela'ti.  (From congelo, to freeze.)  Congcla-
 tiei.  Persons  afflicted with a catalepsy are so called,
 by which all sensation seems to be taken away.
   CONGELATION.   (Congelatio; from congelo, to
 freeze.)  That change of  liquid  bodies which takes
 place when they pass to a solid state, by losing the
 caloric which kept them in a state of fluidity.
   Congelati'va.  (From congelo, to congeal.)  Medi-
 cines that inspissate humours, and slop fluxions aud
 rheums.
   CONGENER.  (From con, and genus, kind.)  Of
 the same kind; concurring in  the same action.  It is
 usually said of the muscles.
   CONGESTION.  (From congero,  to  amass.)  A
 collection of blood or other fluid; thus we say a con
 gestion of blood in the vessels, when they are over dis-
 tended, and the motion is slow.
   CONGLOBA TE.   Conglobatus ; from conglobo, to
 gather into a  ball.)  1.  A term applied  to a gland,
 Glandula conglobata, wliich is formed of a contortion
 of lymphatic vessels, connected  together  by cellular
 structure, having neither  a cavity nor any excretory
 duct:  such are  the  mesenteric,  inguinal, axillary
 glands, Sec.  See Gland.
  2. A conglobate flower, is a compound one growing
 in the form of  a sphere or globe.
  CONGLOMERATE.   (Conglomerate ; from con-
glomero, to heap  upon one.)  1. Applied lo a gland,
 Glandula conglomcrata, which consists of a number
of" smaller glomerate glands, the excretory ducts  of
which all unite into  one common duct: such are the
salival, parotid glands, &c.
  2. Conglomerate flowers, are such as are heaped to-
gether on a footstalk, to whicli  they arc  irregularly,
but closely connected.  See Panicula.
  CONGLOMERITE.  A compound  mineral mass,
in which angular fragments of rocks are imbedded.
The Italian term  brecchia, has the same meaning.  In
pudding stone, the imbedded fragments  are  round,
bearing the marks of having been polished by attrition.
  CONGLUTIN A'NTI A.  (From conglutino, to glue
together.) Healing medicines; and such as unite parts
dtsjoined by accident.
  CONICUS.  Conical.   Applied to leaves, nectaries,
ieceptacles, Sec.—Nectarium  conicuin, in  the Ulrica-
lariafoliosa, and the receptacle ofthe daisy, Anthemis
arvensis, cotula, and Matricaria chamomilla.
  CONIFERjE.  Cone-bearing plants. The name of
an order  in  Linnaeus's  Fragments of a Natural Me-
thod.
  CO'NIS.  Kovis-  Dust; fine powder; ashes; a nit
in the hair; scurf from the  head;  and sometimes it
signifies lime.
  CONITE.   1.  An ash or greenish-gray coloured mi
neral, which becomes brown on exposure to air.  It 19
found in Saxony and Iceland.
  2. Dr. Maccullock has given ihis name to a pulveru-
 lent ininetal, as fusible as glass into a transparent bead
                                        257 
CON
CON
wnich he found in the trap hills of Kilpatrick, and the
Isle of Sky.
  [3. The petrifaction of a conus.  See Organic re-
lics.  A.]
  CONTUM.  (r rora xovia, dust, according to Lin-
naeus ; or from xuvaio, circumago, on account of its
inebriating and poisonous quality.)  Hemlock.
  1. The name of a genus of plants  in  the Linnaean
system.   Class, Pentandria; Order, Digynia.
  2. The pharmacopoDial  name of the officinal  hem-
lock.  See Conium maculatum.
  Conium maculatum.  The systematic name for the
cicuta of the pharmacopoeias.  It is called  by  some
camaran; by others abiotos;  and, according to Ero-
titr., cambeionis an old Sicilian word for cicuta.   Ci-
cuta major fatida.  Conium—seminibus striatis, of
Linnaeus.
  Hemlock is found in every part of England, and is
distinguished from tliose  plants which bear  some re-
semblance to it, by the spotted stem.  It is generally
believed to be a very active poison.   In  a very mode-
rate dose it is apt (• occasion sickness and vertigo; in a
larger quantity it produces anxiety, cardialgia, vomit-
ing, convulsions, coma, and death.  Baron Stoerk was
the first who brought hemlock into repute as  a medi-
cine of extraordinary efficacy: and although we have
not in this country any direct facts, like those men-
tioned by Stoerk, proving that inveterate scirrhuses,
cancers, ulcers, and many other diseases hitherto deem-
ed irremediable,  are to be  completely  cured by  the
cicuta; we have  however the testimonies of several
eminent  physicians, showing that some complaints
which had resistedother powerful remedies, yielded to
hemlock ; and that even  some disorders, which if not
really cancerous, were at least suspected to be of that
tendency, were greatly benefited by this remedy.   In
chronic rheumatisms, some glandular swellings, and in
various  fixed and  periodical pains, the cicuta is now
very generally employed; and from  daily experience,
it appears in such cases to be a very efficacious remedy.
It has also been of singular use in the hooping-cough.
Nor is it less efficacious  when applied externally; a
poultice made of oatmeal and the expressed juice, (or
a decoction of the extract, when the otlier cannot be
obtained,) allays the most excruciating torturing pains
of a cancer, and thus gives rest to tiie distracted patient.
  The proper method  of administering conium  inter-
nally, is to begin with a few grams of the powder or
inspissated juice, and  gradually to increase the  dose
until a giddiness affects the head, n motion is felt in the
eyes as if pressed outwards, with a slight sickness and
trembling agitation of the body.  One or more of these
symptoms are the evidence of a full dose, which should
be continued until they have ceased, and then after a
few days the dose may be increased; for little advan-
tage can  be expected but  by a continuance of the
greatest quantity the patient can  bear.  In some con-
stitutions even small doses greatly offend, occasioning
spasms, heat and thirst; in such instances it will be of
no service.  As  the powder of the  dried leaves has
been thought to act, and may be depended upon with
more  certainty than the extract, the following direction
-hould be observed in the  preparation:—Gather  the
plant  about the  end of June, when it is in flower;
pick off  the  little  leaves, and throw away the leaf-
stalks: dry the small selected leaves in a hot sun, or in
a tin or pewter dish before the fire.  Preserve them in
bags  made  of strong  brown paper, or powder  them
and keep the powder in gloss phials where the light is
excluded ; for light dissipates the beautiful green co-
lour very soon, and thus Ihe medicine loses its appear
ance, if not itselficacy. this mode is recommended by
Dr. Withering.  The extract should also be made of
the plant gathered at this period.  From 2 to 20 grains
of the powder may be taken twice or thrice a day.
  CONJUGATUS. Conjugate or yoked: applied to
leaves, which are said to be conjugate or binate. They
consist of one pair of leaflets; as in the Mimosa.
  CONJUNCTIVA.  Membrana conjunctiva.  The
conjunctive membrane of tlie eye;  a  thin,  transpa-
rent, delicate membrane, that lines the internal super-
ficies of one eyelid, and is reflected from thence over
the anterior part of the  bulb, then reflected  again to
the edge  of the other eyelid.  That portion wliich
covers the transparent cornea cannot, without much
difficulty, be separated from it.  Inflammation of this
mambrone is called ophthalmia.
      358
  CONJUNCTUS.  Conjoined.   A  botanical tens
applied to a tuber which is said to be conjoined when
in immediate coulact with another, as in many of the
Orchides.
  CONNATUS.  (From con, and nascor, to grow
together.)  1. Rom with a person; the same with con-
genitus.
  2. In botany it is applied to leaves, which are said
to be connate when united at their base; as in Chlora
perfoliata.
  CONNEXION.  See Articulation.
  CONNIVENS.  (From conniveo, to make as if be
did not see.) In botany applied to  petals of llovt ers,
as in those of the Rumex, and to the receptacle ol the
rig, which the fmit really is, being a fleshy conni -ent
receptacle, enclosing and hiding the florets.
  Connutri'tus.   (From  con, and  nutnor, t > be
nourished with.)  It is what becomes habitual  to a
person  from his  particular nourishment,  or what
breaks out  into a disease in process of lime, wliich
gradually had its foundation  in the first aliments, as
from sucking a distempered nurse, or tlie like.
  Conquassa'tio.  Conquassation.   In pharmacy il
is a species of comminution, or an operation by which
moist concrete substances, as recent vegetables, fruits,
the  softer  parts of  animals, Sec.  aie  agitated  aud
bruised,  till, partly by their proper succulence, or by
the affusion of some liquor, they are reduced to a soft
pulp.
  CONRI'NGIUS, Herman, was born at Norden, in
East Friesland,  1606, and  graduated  in medicine at
Helmslat, where he soon  after became professor in
that science, and  subsequently in  physics, law, and
politics.   He was also made physician and anlic coun-
sellor to  the Queen of Sweden, the King of Denmark,
and several of the German princes.   He wrote nume-
rous works in philosophy, medicine, and history, dis-
playing  great learning, and long highly esteemed. In
one treatise he  refers  the degeneracy of the  modern
Germans to theii  altered  mode of  living, the  use of
stoves, tobacco, Sec.  He published also an " Introduc-
tion to the  whole Art  of  Medicine,  and  its several
Parts," containing a History of Biblioiheca  Medica,
with numerous  Dissertations on particular Diseases.
He died in 1681.
  CONSENT.   Consent of parts.  See Sympathy.
  CONSERVA.  (From con servo, lo keep.)   Aeon
serve.  A composition of some recent vegetable and
sugar, beat  together  into a  uniform mass of  the con-
sistence  of honey; as conserve of hips, orange  peel,
&c.  Conserves are called confections in the  last edi-
tion of the London Pharmacopoeia.   See Confectio.
  Conserva absinthh maRitimi.  See  Artemisia
maritima.
  Conserva ari.  This is occasionally exhibited as  a
stimulant and diuretic.   See Arum maculatum.
  Conserva aurantii  hispalensis.   See  Confectio
aurantiorum.
  Conserva cynosbati.  Sec Confectio rasa canina.
 . Conserva lujul.e.   A preparation of woodsorrel,
possessing acid, cooling, and antiseptic qualities.  See
Oxalis acetoselta.
  Conserva menth.e.  This preparation of  mint  is
given occasionally as a stomachic,  in  sickness and
weakness of tlie stomach.   See Mentha viridis.
  Conserva pruni sylvestris.  Astringent virtue*
are ascribed to this medicine, whicli  is now seldom
used but in private formulae.
  Conserva rosje. This conserve, rubbed down with
water, to which  is  added some lemon-juice, forms an
excellent drink in rsemorrhagic complaints.  See  Con-
fectio rosa galiica.
  Conserva icill.v.  A preparation of squills, w hich
affords an excellent basis for an electuary, possessing
expectorant nnd diuretic qualifies.
  [Co.NSEHVATtvss.  See Organic relics.  A.)
  Consiste'ntia.   (From consisto, to  abide.)  The
state or acme of a disease.  The appearance  or state
of the humours and excrements.
  CONSOLIDA.  (So  called, quia  tonsolidandi ei
conglutmandi vi pollet; from its power in agglutina-
ting and  joining together things broken.)   See Sym
phytum.
  Consolida aurba.  See Solidago virga aurc*.
  Consouda major.  See Symphytum."
  Consolida media.  See Ajitga pyramidalis
  Consomda minou.  See Prunella. 
CON
CON
   Cosioliba regalis.  See Delphinium consotrtla.
   Consolida saracentca.  See Solidago virga aurta.
   CONSOUND.  See Symphytum.
   Consound middle.  See Ajugapyramidalis.
   CONSTANTT.NUS, Afric anus, was  bom at Car-
 thage, towaids the middle of the 11th  century.  He
 lived near forty years at Babylon, and was celebrated
 for his knowledge of the Eastern  languages.  Among
 the  sciences, medicine appears to have principally
 occupied his attention; and two of his works were
 thought deserving of being printed at Bale, about 4 1-2
 centuries after his death, which occurred in 1087.  They
 ars  thought however to have been chiefly  translated
 from Arabian writers.
   CONSTIPATION.   (Conslipatio .-  from  consiipo,
 to crowd  together.)   Ohslipatio.  Costiveness.  A
 person  is said to  be costive when  the ulvine excre-
 ments are not expelled daily, and when the faeces are
 so hardened as not to receive their form from tlie im-
 pression of the rectum upon them.
   CONSTITUTION.  Constitifio.  The general con-
 dition of the body, as evinced by the peculiarities in
 the performance of ils functions:  such are, the pecu-
 liar  predisposition  to certain diseases, or liability of
 particular organs to disease;  the varieties  in  digestion,
 in muscular power and motion, in sleep,  in  the appe-
 tite, Sec  Some marked peculiarities of  constitution
 are observed to be accompanied with certain external
 characters, such as a particular colour and texture of
 tlie skin, and of the hair, and also with a peculiarity of
 form and disposition of< mind; all of wliich have been
 observed  from the earliest time, and  divided into
 classes: and whicli received names during the preva-
 lence of the humeral pathology which they still rctaiu.
 See Temperament.
   ConstrictTva.  (From  eonstringo, to bind toge-
 ther.)   St v plies.
   CONSTRICTOR. (From eonetringo, to  bind toge-
 ther.)   A name given to those muscles which con-
 tract any opening of the body.
   Constrictor al.£ nasi.  See Depressor labii su-
 perioris alaque nasi.
   Constrictor ani.  See Sphincter ani.
   Constrictor isthmi faucjim.  Glosso-stapkUinus.
 of Winslow, Douglas, and Cowper; and  Glosso sta-
 philin of Dumas.   A muscle situated at the side of
 the  entry of the fauces, that draws  the velum pendu-
 lum palati towards the root of the tongue, which il
 raises at  the same time, and w ith its fellow contracts
 the passage between the two arches, by whicli it shuts
 the opening of the fauces.
   Constrictor labiorcm.  See Orbicularis oris.
   Constrictor oris.  See Orbicularis oris.
   Constrictor palpebrarum.  See Orbicularis pal-
 pebrarum.
   Constrictores r-HARYNG.Ei.  The muscles of the
 oesophagus.
   Constrictor pharyngis inferior.   Crico  pha-
 ryngeal ;  Thyro-pharyngeus of Douglas and  Win-
 slow.  Cricothyropharyngien of Dumas.  A muscle
 situated on the posterior  part  of the  pharynx.  It
 arises from the side of the thyroid cartilage, near the
 attachment ofthe sterno-hyoidcus and thyro-hyoideus
 muscles;  and from the cricoid cartilage, near the
 crico-thyroideus; it is inserted  into the white  line,
 where it joins with its fellow, the superior fibres run-
 ning obliquely upwards, covering  nearly  one-half of
 the middle constrictor, and terminating in a point; the
 inferior fibres run more transversely, and cover the
 beginning of tlie oesophagus. Its  use is to compress
 that part of the pharynx which  it covers, and to raise
 it with the larynx a little upwards.
   Constrictor pharyngis  mewus.    Hyopharyn-
 gcus and  cephalo-pharyngeus of Douglas and Win-
 slow.  Chondro-pharyngeus  of  Douglas.  Syndesmo-
 pharyngeus  of Winslow.    Cepkah-pharyngeus of
 Winslow and Douglas.  Hyo-glosso basi pharyngien
 of Dumas.  A muscle situated on the posterior part of
 the pharynx.  It  arises from the appendix of the os
 hyoides, from the  cornu of that bone,  and  from the
 ligament which connects it to the thyroid cartilage; the
 fibres of the superior part running obliquely upwards,
and covering a considerable  part of the superior con-
strictor, terminate in a point; and il is inserted into
the middle of the cuneiform proces3of theos  occipitis,
before tire foramen magnum, and joined to its fellow
at a  white line in  the middle part of the  pharynx
                                       R2
 Tina muscle  compresses  that part of the pharynx
 whicli it covers, and draws it and the os hyoides up
 wards.
   Constrictor pharyngis superior.   Gtosso-pha-
 ryngeus ; Mylo-pharyngeus ;  Ptcrygo-pharyngeus of
 Douglas and Winslow, and Pterigo syndesmo stapltili
 pharyngien of" Dumas.  A muscle situated on the pos-
 terior part of  the pharynx.  It arises above, from the
 cuneiform process of the  os occipitis, before the fora-
 men  magnum, from the pterygoid process of the sphe-
 noid  bone, from the  upper and  under jaw, near the
 roots of the last dentes  molares,  and  between the
 jaws. It is inserted in the middle of the phnrynx  It*
 use is to compress the upper part of the  pharynx, ami
 to draw  it forwards and upwards.
   Constrictor vesic.e  urinaria.   See Detrusor
 urime.
   CONSTRICTO'RU'S.   A  disease attended with
 constriction, or spasm.
   Constrimjen'tia.  (From eonstringo, to bind to-
 gether.)   Astringent medicines.  See Astringent.
   CONSUMPTION.  (From consumv, to waste away.)
 See Phthisis.
   Contabesi  e'ntia.  (From  ctntabesco, to  pine or
 waste away.)   An atrophy, or nervous consumption.
   CONTAGION.   (Contagio;  from contango, to
 meet or  touch each  other.)  This  word properly im
 ports the application  of any poisonous matter to the
 body through  the medium of touch.  It  is applied to
 thos" very  subtile particles arising from putrid sub-
 stances,  or from persons labouring under certain dis-
 eases, which  communicate the disease to others; as
 the contagion  of putrid fever, the effluvia of dead ani-
 mal or vegetable substances, tlie miasm  of bogs and
 fens,  the virus of smallpox, lues venerea, &c. Sec
   The principal diseases  excited by poisonous mias-
 mata are, intermittent, remittent,  and yellow fevers,
 dysentery, and typhus. That of the last is generated in
 the human body itself, and is sometimes called the
 typhoid  fomes.   The other miasmata are produced
 from moist vegetable matter, in some unknown state of
 decomposition.  The contagious virus of the plague,
 smallpox, measles, chincough, cynanche maligna, and
 scarlet fever, as well as of typhus  and the jail fever,
 operates lo a much more limited distance through the
 intermedium of the atmosphere,  than the marsh mias-
 mata.  Contact of a  diseased person is said to be ne-
 cessary  for  the communication  of plague;  and ap-
 proach within 2 or 3  yards of him, for that of typhus.
 The Walcheren miasmata extended their pestilentisl
 influence to vessels riding al anchor, fully a quarter of
 a mile from the shore.
   The chemical nature of  all these poisonous effluvia
 is little understood.   They undoubtedly consist, how  -
 ever,  of  hydrogen, united  with sulphur, phosphorus,
 carbon, and azot, in  unknown proportions,  and un-
 known states  of combination.  The proper neutral-
 izersor destroyers of these gasiform poisons, are nitric
 acid vapour, muriatic acid gas, and chlorine.   The last
 two are  the most efficacious;  but require to be used
 in situations from which the patients can be removed
 at the time  of the application.  Nitric  acid  vapour
 may,  however, be diffused in the apartments of the
 sick, without much inconvenience.   Bed-clothes, par
 ticularly  blankets, can retain the  contagious foincs, in
 an active state, for almost any length of time.   Hence,
 they ought to be fumigated with  peculiar care.  The
 vapour of burning sulphur or sulphurous acid is used
 in the East, against the plague.  It is much inferior in
 power to the other antiloimic reagents.
  There  does  not appear  to be  any distinction com
 menly made between contagious and infectious dls
 cases.
  [The very evidentdislinction has longsincebeen made
 and employed  in this country.   Contagion is applied
 to those  diseases wliich are propagated  from one to
 another  by  contact or  close  approach,  ami which
 produces a like disease; as the venereal disease, itch,
 smallpox, measles, &c.  Diseases produced by infee
 tion, are those  contracted from a vitiated atmosphere,
 as intermittent, remittent,  bilious, and yellow fevers.
 In 1819 and  1822, we  had the  yellow-fever in New-
 York, and  the board of  health shut  up that part
of the city where the disease  prevailed,  by  running
fences across the streets leading to it.  This was called
the infected  district,  from  the local causes contami-
nating the atmosphere and  producing the infection
                                        259 
CON
CON
Beyond this district the city was not unhealthy, and
tliose Who were taken  sick in  the  infected  district,
when removed to  other parts not infected, recovered,
and did not communicate the disease to others.  A.]
  Conte'nsio.  (From contineo, to restrain.)  It is
sometimes used to express a tension or stricture.
  Co'ntinens fkbris.  A continent fever, Which pro-
ceeds regularly in  the same tenor, without either exa-
cerbation or  remission.  This rarely, if ever, happens.
  (onii'nua febris.   (From continuo, to persevcre.j
A continued  fever. See Febris continua.
  CONTINUED.   Continuus ;  from continuo, to per-
s> \ ere.)  A term applied in  pathology to  diseases
winch  go on with a  regular tenor of symptoms, but
mostly to fevers,  the symptoms of which continue,
without intermission, until  the disease terminates:
hence  continual fevers in distinction lo intermittent
fevers.
  CONTINUUS.   See Continued.
  CONTO'RSIO.   (From contorquco, to twist about.)
A contortion, or twisting.  In medicine this word  has
various significations, and is applied to the iliac pas-
sion, to luxation of Ihe vertebrae, head, &(..
  CONTORTiE.   Twisted plants.  The name of an
nder in Linnaeus's Fragments  of a Natural  Method,
con.-isting of plants which have a single petal that is
twisted or bent toward ihe side, as Nerium Vinca, Sec
  CONTORTUS.  (From con, and torqueo, to twist.)
Twisted.  Applied to the seed-vessel of plants:  as the
Icgumen contvrtum ofthe Mcdicago sativa
  CONTRA-APERTURA.   (From contra,  against,
and  apcrio, to open.)  A counter-opening.  An open-
ing made opposite to the one that already exists.
  CONTRACTILITY.   Conlractilitas.  A  property
in bodies, the effect of the cohesive power, by which
their  particles resume their former  propinquity when
the force ceases which was applied  to separate them.
It also denotes the power whicli muscular fibres pos-
sess of shortening  themselves.
  CONTRACTION.   (From contraho, to draw toge-
ther.)  Contractura ;  Beriberia.  A rigid contraction
of the joints.  It is a genus of disease in the class Lo-
cales, and order Dyscinesia of Cullen.  The species
are,
  1.  Cjntractura  primaria, from a rigid  contraction
ofthe muscles, called also obstipitas; a word that,
with any other annexed, distinguishes the variety of
the contraction.  Of this species he forms four  va-
lieties.   1.  Contractura  ab inflammations,  when it
arises from inflammation.  2.  Contractura d  spasmo,
called also tonic spasm  and cramp, when it depends
upon spasm. 3. Contractura ob antagonistas parali-
tieos, from the antagonist muscles losing their action.
4.  Contractura ab acrimonui irritante, Which is in-
duced  by some irritating cause-.
  2.  Contractura  articularis, originating from  a dis-
ease of the joint.
  CONTRAFISSU'RA.  (From contra, against, and
f ndo, to cleave.)  Conlre-coup of French writers.  A
t.ucture in a part  opposite to that in which the blow
i.s received ;  as when the frontal bone is broken by a
fall on the occiput, where the bone remains sound.
  Contraue'ntia.   (From  contraho, to contract.)
Medicines which  shorten and  strengthen the  fibres.
Astringents  ate the only medicines of this nature.
  CONTUA-INDICATION.  (Conlra-indicatio; from
contra, against, and  indico, to  show.)   A symptom
attending a disease, which forbids the exhibition of a
remedy whicli would otherwise be  employed; for iii-
a'mice, bark and  acids ore usually given m  putrid
fevers; hut  if there be difficulty of breathing,  or m-
liuiiimatiou  of any viscus, they  are contra-indictitions
to their use.
  Contri-luna'iiis.   (From contra,  and luna, the
moon.)  An epithet given by Dictericus to a woman
who conceives during the menstrual discharge.
  Contii* semen.  See Artemisia  Santonica.
  CONTRAVE'RVA.   (From contra,  against,  and
y rvu, poison, Span.; i. e. an herb good against poison.)
;-'cv  Dorstcnia.
  Co-.trayeiiva  alba.  Cantrayci va Gcrmanorum.
 A name for  a species of asclepias.
  Contiiayerva  nova.  Mexican  contrayerva.  See
 Vsoralea ptntaphylla.
  Contrayerva virginiana.  See Anstcloclua  ser-
pentaria.
   Conlre-coup. See  Contrafissura.
       200
  CONTRITIO.  The act of grinding, or reducing M

  CONTUSION. (Contusio; from contundo, to knock
tcether.)   A bruise, or contused wound.
  CONLS.  A cone.  See Strobilut
  CONVALESCENCE.   (Convalescentia; from con
valcsco, to grow  well.)  The recovery of health  after
the cure of a disease.  The period of convalescence is
that space from the departure of a disease, to  the  re-
covery of the strength lost by it.
  CONVALESCENT.  Recovering or returning to a
state of health after the cure of a disease.
  CONVALLARIA.   (From  convallis,  a  valley,
named from its  abounding in  valleys and marshes.)
The name of a genus of plants in  the Linna-an sys
tein.  Class, Hexandria ; Order, Monogynia.
  Convallaria majalis. The systematic name of the
lily of Ihe valley.  Lillium convallium; Convallaria;
Maianthemum.  May-lily. The flowers of this plant,
Convallaria—scapo nudo of Linnaeus, have a pene
trnting bitter taste, and. are given in nervous and catar-
rhal disoidirs.  When'dried and powdered, they prove
strongly purgative.  Watery or spirituous  extracts
made from them, given in doses of a scruple, or drachm,
act as gentle stimulating aperients and laxatives; and
seem  to partake  of the purgative virtue, as well as the
bitterness of aloes.  The roots, in the form of tincture,
or infusion, act as a sternutatory when snuffed up the
nose,  and as a laxative or purgative when taken inter-
nally.
  Convallaria  polygonatum. The systematic name
of Solomon's seal.  Sigillum Salomonis ;  Convallaria
—foliis allernis  amplexicaulibus, caule ancipiti, pe-
dunculis axillaribus  subunifioris, of  Linnseus.  The
roots  are applied externally as adstringents, and arc
administered infernally as corroborants.
  CONVENES.  Convex.  A term iu very  general
use in anatomy,  botany, Sec.
  Convolu'ta ossa.  See Spongiosa ossa.
  CONVOLUTUb'.  Rolled  up or folded.  Applied
to bones, membranes  eaves, &c.
  CONVOLVULUS   From convolvo, to roll  toge-
ther, or entwine.)
  1. A name for the iliac passion.
  2. The name of a genus of plants  in the Linnaean
system, so called from their  twisting round  others,
(Class, Pentandria; Order, Monogynia,) which affords
the Jarapa, mechoacanna, turbith,  and  scammony.
The whore genus consists of plants containing  a milky
juice strongly cathartic and caustic.
  Convolvulus americanus.  The jalap root.   See
Convolvulus jalap a.
  Convolvulus batatas.  Batatas.  A  native of
the West Indies.  Its root is firm and  of a pale brown
on the outside, and white within.  When  boiled it is
sweet, like chesnuts, and is esteemed by some as an
esculent.
  [This is the sweet potato, extensively cultivated and
eaten  in all the  southern  parts of the United States,
even  as far north as New-Jersey.   It is  commonly
called the Carolina potato.  See Batatas.   A.]
  Convolvulus cantabrica.  A name for the can-
tabrica.  Convolvulus minimus  spica foliis;  Convol
cuius linaria folio; Convolvulus Cantabrica of Lin
naeus.   Lavender-leaved bind-weed., Pliny  says it
was discovered in the time of Augustus, in the  coun-
try of Ihe Cantabri in Spain;  whence its name.  It is
anthelmintic and actively cathartic.
  Convolvulus colubrinus.  The  pariera brava
See Cissampelos pareira.
  Convolvulus jalapa.   The systematic name of the
jalap  plant.   Jalapium mechoacanna  nigra.  Convol
vulus;  caule volubli; foliis  ovatis,  subcordatis,  ab-
tusis, obsolete repandis, subtus villosis ;  peduiculis
unifioris of Linnaeus. It is a native of South Ameri
ca. In the shops, the root is found  both cut into slices
and whole, of an oval shape, solid, ponderous, black-
ish on the outside, but gray within, and niaiked with
several dark veins, by the number of which, and by
its hardness, heaviness, and dark colour, the goodness
of the root is to be  estimated.  It has scarcely anv
smell, and  very little  taste, but to  tlie tongue, and to
the throat, manifests a  slight degree of  pungency.
The medicinal activity of jalap resides principally, if
not wholly, in the resin,which, though given in  small
doses, occasions violent tormina.  The root powdered
is a very common, efficacious, and safe purgative, as 
CON
CON
*sny experience evinces; but, according as it contains
more or less resin, its effects must of course vary.  In
large doses, or when joined with calomel, it is recom-
mended as an anthelmintic and hydragogue.  In the
pharmacopoeias, this  root is ordered  in the form ot
tincture and  extract; and  the Edinbuigh College di-
rects il also in powder  with t\\ ice ils weight of crys-
tals of tartar.
  Convolvulus  major  albus.   See  Convolvulus
scpiun'
  Convolvulus  maRitimus.   The  brassica mari-
tima. or sea colewort.
  Convolvulus mecuoacan.  Mechoacanna; Jalapa
alba; or  Bryonia alba Peruviana;  Rhabarbarum
album,  Mcchoacan.  The root of this species of con-
volvulus is brought from Mexico.  It possesses aperi-
ent  properties,  and  was long used  as  the common
purge of ihis country, but is now wholly superseded by
jalap.
  ["Convolvulus panduratus.   Wild potato. The
affinity of this plant to jalap, in its botanical charac-
ter, has caused a medicinal  quality to be ascribed to it
whicli it does not possess.  It is one of the weakest of
our indigenous cathartics, and requires too large a dose
lo be of much use iu thai character.  It is said lo miti-
gate strangury and gravel, and lo operate as a diuretic."
—Big. Mat. Med.  A.]
  Convolvulus scammonia.  The systematic name
of  the scammony plant.   See  i-cimmonium;  Con-
volvulus syriacus ; Scatnmonium syriacum ;  Diagry-
dium.  This plant, Convolvulus—foliis sagittatispos-
tice truncatis, pedunculis terctibus subtifiuris of Lin-
naeus, affords the concrete giinimi-resinous juice termed
scammony.   It grows plentifully about Maraash, An-
tioch, Eallib, and towards Tripoli, in Syria.  No pari
of tile dried plant possesses  any medicinal quality, but
the root, which Dr. Rus-rel administered in decoction,
and found it to be a pleasant and mild cathartic.  It is
from the milky juice of tlie root  that we obtain the
officinal scammony, whicli  is procured in  the follow-
ing manner  by the peasants, who collect it in the be^
ginning of June.  Having cleared  away the earth from
about the root, they cut off the top in an oblique di-
rection, about  two inches below where the stalks
 spring from it.  Under the most depending part of
 the slope, they fix a shell, oi some other convenient re-
ceptacle,  into whicli the milky juice gradually flows.
It is left there about twelve hours, which time is suffi-
 cient for draining off the whole juice; this, however,
is iu small quantity, each root affording but a very few
drachms.   This juice  from the several roots is put
together, often into tlie leg of an old boot, for want of
some  more proper vessel,  where, iu a little time, it
grows hard, and is the genuine scammony.  The smell
of scammony is rather  unpleasant, and  the taste bit-
terish and slightly acrid.   The different  proportions
of gum and resin, of which  it consists, have been vari-
ously stated; but, as proof spirit is the best menstruum
for it, these substances  are supposed to be nearly in
equal  parts.  It  is brought from Aleppo and Smyrna
in masses, generally of a light shining gray colour, and
friable texture;  of rather  au  unpleasant  smell, and
bitterish and slightly acrid taste.  The scammony of
Aleppo is by far the purest. That of Smyrna is pon-
derous, black, and mixed  with  extraneous matters.
Scammony appears to have been  well known  to the
Greek and Arabian physicians, and was exhibited in-
ternally as a purgative, and externally for the itch,
tinea, fixed pains, &c.   It is seldom given alone, but
enters several compounds, which are administered as
purgatives.
  Convolvulus sepium.   Convolvulus major albus.
The juice of this plant, Convolvulus—foliis sagittatis
postice truncatis pedunculis tetragonis, unifioris, of
Linnaeus,  is violently purgative, and given in dropsical
affections.   A  poultice of the  herb,  made with
oil, is recommended in white swellings of the knee
joint.
  Convolvulus soldanella.  The systematic name
of the sea convolvulus.  KpapSy SaXuoaia,   Brassica
marina; Convolvulus maritimus; Soldanella.  Sol-
danella.  This plant, Convolvulus—foliis  reniformi-
bus, pedunculis unifioris, of Linnaeus, is a native of
our coasts.  The leaves are said lo be a drastic purge.
ft is only used by the common  people, the pharmaco-
poeias having now substituted uiore safe and valuable
remedies in its place.
   Convolvulus syriacus.   The  scammon)  plant
 See Convolvulus scammonia.
   Convolvi lis TURrKTHUM.  The systematic name
 of the tuibith plant.   Turpethum.  The cortical part
 of the root of a species of convolvulus, brought fro >
 the East Indies, in oblong.pieces:  it is of a brown i.r
 ash colour on  the outside, and whitish within.  The
 best is ponderous,  not wrinkled, easy to break, and
 discovers to the eye a large quantity of resinous mat
 ter.  When chewed, il at first imparts a sweetish taslc-
 whicli is followed by a nauseous acrimony.  It iscoiiai
 dercd as a jiu rgative liable to much irregularity of action
   CON V L I .SIO.V.  (Convulsio; from cnnvello, lo fin! I
 together.)   Hieranosos; Disteutio nervorum; Syspo-
 cia convulsio of Cood.   Clonic spasm.  A  diseased
 action of  muscular fibres,  known  by  alternate  re-
 laxations,  with  violent and involuntary contractim ,i
 ofthe muscular  parts, without sleep.  Cullen arranged
 convulsion in tlie class Neuroses, and order  Spasmi.
 Convulsions are universal or partial, and have obtain-
 ed different name-, according to the parts affected, or
 the symptoms;  as the risus sardonicus,  when  the
 muscles of the  face are affected;  St. Vitus's dance,
 when the  muscles of the arm are  thrown  into invo-
 luntary motions, with lameness and  rotations.  Tine
 hysterical  epilepsy, or other epilepsies, arising from
 different causes, are  convulsive diseases of  the uni
 versal kind:  the muscles of the  globe of the eye,
 throwing ihe eye into involuntary  distortions in defi-
 ance of Ihe direction of" the will, are instances of par-
 tial convulsion.  The muscles principally alfected in
 all speciesof convulsions,  are those immediately under
 the direction of the will;  as those of  the eyelids, eye,
 face, jaws,  neck, superior  and inferior extremities.
 The muscles of respiration, acting both voluntarily a lit!
 involuntarily, are not unfrequently convulsed ;  as the
 diaphragm,  iutercostals, &c.   The more  immediate
 causes of  convulsions are, 1. Either mental affection,
 or any irritating cause exciting a greater action  in tii<-
 arterial  system of the brain and  nerves.  2. An in-
 crease of nervous energy, which seems to hold pace or
 be equipotent with  the increased  arterial energy ex-
 cited in the brain.  3.  This increased energy, convey-
 ing its augmented effects, without the direction  of the
 will, to any muscles  destined to voluntary  motion,
 over-irritates them.  4. The muscles, irritated  by the
i increased  nervous energy  and arterial influx,  contract
 more  forcibly and  involuntarily by their excited vis
 iusita, conjointly with other causes, as long as the in-
 creased nervous energy continues.   5. This increased
 energy in the nervous system may be excited either by
 the mind,  or by any acrimony in the blood, or other
 stimuli sufficiently  irritating 10  increase the arterial
 action, nervous influence, and  the vires  insitae  of
 muscles.   (5. After muscles have been once accustom-
 ed to act involuntarily, and with increased action, the
 same causes can readily produce the same effects  on
 those organs. 7. All parts that have muscular fibres
 may be convulsed.  0. The  sensations in the mind
 most capable of producing  convulsions, are timidity,
 horror, anger, great sensibility ofthe soul, fee.
   Convulsio canina.  A wry mouth.
   Convulsio cereai.is.  Ceieal convulsion  is a sin-
 gular disorder of the spasmodic convulsive kind, not
 common to this country, but mentioned by Cartheusiet
 under this  title,  from the peculiar tingling and formi-
 cation perceived in tine arms and legs.  Molus spas
 r.iodicus of Hoffman.   It is  endemial in some places:
 in Germany; but more a  rural than urbanical  disor-
 der, said to arise from the use of spoiled corn.
   Convulsio habitualis.  Saint Vitus's dance. So<:
 Chorea Sancti Viti.
   CONY'ZA.  (From xcvts, dust; because its powder
 is sprinkled to kilt fleas in places where thevarc trou-
 blesome.)   The  name of a genus of plants in the Lin-
 na-an system.  Class Syngenesia;  Order, Polygamic
 superfiua.  There is some difficulty in ascertaining the
 plants called conyzas by the older practitioners: they
 are either of the  genus conyza, inula, gnaphalium, eri-
 geron, or chrysocoma.
   Conyza  *thiopica.  The plant so called  is most
 probably the Chrysocoma  comaurea of Willdenow, a
 shrub  wliich grows wild about the Cape of  Good
 Hope, and  is cultivated in our green-houses, because it
 flowers the greater part ofthe year.
   Conyza  ccerulea.   The Erigeron acre of Linnsrig
 answers to the description of this plant.
                                        2G1 
COP
COP
  Conyza major.  Supposed  to be the Inula v.scosa
 of Linnaeus.
  Conyza major vulgaris.  See Inula dysenterica.
  Conyza media.  See Inula dysenterica.
  Conyza minor.  The Inula pulicaris of Linnaeus
 answers to the description given of this plant in
 most  books.   Its chief use is to destroy fleas and
 gnats.
  Cooperto ria.   (From  co-operio, to cover over.)
 'Ihe thyroid cartilage.
  Coo'strum.  The centre of the diaphragm.
  COPA'IBA.  (Copaiba,  a. faem.;  from  copal, the
 American name for any odoriferous guru, and iba, or
 ioa, a tree.)  The name given by the College of Physi-
 cians of London to the balsam of copaiva.  See Co-
 j-fifira officinalis.
  COPAIFERA.  (From  Copaiva, the Indian name,
 and fero,  to bear.)  The name of a genus of plants in
 the Linnaean system.  Class, Decandria ; Order, Mo-
 nogynia.
  Copaifera officinalis.   The systematic name of
 lite plant from which the Copaiba balsam, Balsamum
 Braziliense; Balsamum copaiba;  Balsamum de co
paibu; Balsamum capivi;  Copaiba ; Capevi ; is ob-
 tained.
  Copaiba is a yellow resinous juice, of a moderately
 agreeable smell, and a bitterish biting taste, very per-
 manent on the tongue.   The tree which affords  it
 grows in Brazil, New-Spain. It is obtained by making
 deep incisions near its trunk, when the balsam imme-
 diately issues, and, at the proper season, flows  in such
 abundance, that sometimes, in three hours,  twelve
 pounds have  been procured.  The older trees afford
 the best balsom, and yield it two or three times in the
 Fame year.  The balsam  supplied by the young and
 vigorous trees, which abound with the most juice,  is
 crude  and watery,  and is, therefore, accounted less
 valuable.   While flowing from  the tree, this  balsam
 is a colourless fluid ; in time,  however, it acquires a
yellowish  tinge, and the consistence of oil; but, though
 by age it has been found thick, like honey, yet it never
 becomes solid, like other resinous fluids.  By distilla-
 tion in water, the oil is separated  from the resin ; and,
 in the  former,  the taste and smell of the balsam are
concentrated.  If the operation is carefully performed,
 about one-half of the balsam rises into the receiver, in
the form  of oil.  The  balsam unites with fixed and
 volatile oils, and with spirit of wine.   Il is given  in all
diseases of the urinary organs, when no inflammation
is present.  In gleets, and in gonorrhoea, it was once a
favourite remedy, but is now disused.  In diseases of
the kidneys it is still employed, though less frequently
than usual; and  in haemorrhoids it  is  occasionally
trusted. The dose is  from  20 to 30  drops, twice or
three times a day, mixed with water,  by means of an
egg, or any mucilage. The balsam of copaiva is occa-
sionally adulterated with turpentine, but its virtues
are not greatly injured by the fraud.
  Copaiva.  See Copaiba.
  COPAL.  (The American name of all clear odori-
 ferous gums.)  Gum copal.   This resinous substance
 is imported from Guinea, where it is found in the sand
on the shore.  It is a hard, shining, transparent, citron
coloured, odoriferous, concrete juice of an American
 tree, but  which has neither the  solubility in water
common to gums, nor the solubility in alkohol common
 to resins,  at least  in any  considerable degree.   By
these  properties it resembles amber.  It may  be dis-
solved  by  digestion in linseed oil, rendered drying by
quicklime, with a heat very little less than sufficient
 to boil or decompose the oil.  This solution, diluted
 with oil of turpentine, forms a beautiful transparent
 varnish, which, when properly applied, and  slowly
dried, is very hard, and very durable.  This varnish
is applied to snuff-boxes, tea-boards, and other utensils.
 Ii preserves nnd gives lustre to paintings, and greatly
 re-lores the decayed colours of old pictures, by filling
up the cracks, and rendering the  surfaces capable of
 inflecting light more uniformly.
  Cope'lla.  See Cupel.
  C'o'pher. A name for camphor.
  CO'PHOS.   (Kuxbos, dumb.)  Deaf or dumb.  Also
 n iluhiess in any ofthe senses.
  COPI10S1S.   (From kuhjios, deaf.)  A difficulty of
 hearing.   It is often symptomatic of some disease.
See Dyseeaa.
  COPPER.  (Cuprum,  •.  neut. Quasi as Cyprium;
      9li-7
 so nsmed from the island of Cypius, whence it was
 formerly brought.)  "A metal of a peculiar reddish
 brown colour: hard, sonorous, very malleable and
 ductile;  of considerable tenacity, and  of a specific
 gravity from 8.6 to 8 9.  At a degree of heat far below
 ignition, the surface of a piece of polished copper be-
 comes covered wilh various ranges  of  prismatic co
 lours, the red of  each order being nearest the end
 wliich has been most heated;  an effect which must
 doubtless be attributed to  oxidation, the stratum of
 oxide being thickest where the heat is  greatest, -jnd
 growing  gradually thinner and  thinner  towards  the
 colder part.   A greater degree of heat oxidizes il
 more rapidly, so that it contracts thin powdery scales
 on  its surface, which may easily be  rubbed off*;  the
 flame of the fuel becoming at the same time of a beau-
 tilV" bluish-green colour.  In a  heat, nearly the  same
 as l.  :ecessary to melt gold or silver,  it mells, and ex-
 hibits a bluish-green flame; by  a violent heat ii boils
 and is volatilized partly in the metallic state.
  Copper rusts in  the air; but  the corroded part is
 very thin, and preserves the  metal beneath from fai
 ther corrosion.
  There are two oxides of copper:
  1st, The black, procurable by heat, or by drying the
 hydratic  oxide precipitated by  potassa  from  the  ni-
 trate.  It consists of 8 coppcr-f-2 oxygen.  It is a deu
 toxide.
  -dly, The protoxide is obtained by digesting a solu-
 tion of muriate of copper with copper turnings, in a
 close  phial.  The  colour passes from green to dark
 brown, and  gray  crystalline grains are deposited.
 The solution of these yields, by potassa, a precipitate
 of an  orange colour, which is the protoxide.  It con-
 sists of 8 copper-fl oxygen.  Protoxyde of copper has
 been  lately found  by Mushet,  in a mass of copper,
 which had been exposed to  heat for a  considerable
 time, in one ofthe melting furnaces ofthe mint under
 his superintendence.
  Copper, iu filings, or thin laminae, introduced into
 chlorine, unites w ilh flame into  the chloride, of which
 there are two varieties;  Ihe piotochloride, a  fixed
 yellow substance, and the  deulochloride, a yellowish-
 brown pulverulent sublimate.
  1. The crystalline grains deposited  from the above
 muriatic solution,  are prolochloride.  The protochlo-
 ride is conveniently made by  heating together  two
 parts of corrosive sublimate, and one of copper filings.
 An amber-coloured  translucent substance, first dis
 covered by Boyle, who called it  resin of  copper, is ob-
 tained.  It is fusible al a heat just below  redness; and
 in a close vessel, or a vessel with a narrow orifice, is
 not decomposed or sublimed by a strong red  heat.
 But if air bo admitted, it is dissipated in dense white
 fumes.  It  is  insoluble in  water.  It effervesces  in
 nitric  acid.   Il dissolves silently  in muriatic acid, from
 which it may be precipitated by water. By slow cool-
ing ofthe fused mass, Dr. John^Davy obtained it crys-
tallized, apparently in small plates, semi-transparent
and of a light yellow colour.  It consists, by the same
Ingenious chemist,  of
       Chlorine, 36 or 1 prime =4 45   35 8
       Copper,  64  or 1 prime   8.00   64.2
100
12.45 100.0
  2.  Deutochloride is best made by slowly evaporating
to dryness, at a temperature  not much nbove AWP
Fahr. the deliquescent muriate of copper.  It is a yel-
jow powder.   By absorption of moistuie from the air,
it passes from yellow to white, and then green, repro-
ducing common muriate.   Heat converts it into pioto-
chloride, with the disengagement of chlorine.  Dr.
Davy ascertained the chemical constitution of both
these compounds, by separating the copper with iron.
and the chlorine by nitrate of silver.  The deutochlo
ride consists-of
         Chlorine,   53  2 primes ? 0  52.7
         Copper,    47  1   do.  8.0  47.3

                  100          16.9 100.0

  The iodide of copper is formed ov dropping aqueous
hydriodate of potassa into a solution of any cupreous
salt.   It is nn insoluble dark brown powder.
  Phosphuret of copper is made by projecting phos-
phorus into red-hot coppes. 
COP
COP
  Sulphuret of copper is formed  by mixing together
eight parts of copper filings, and two of sulphur, and
exposing the mixture to a gentle heat.
  The sulphuric acid, when concentrated and boiling,
dissolves copper.
  Nitric acid dissolves copper with great rapidity, and
disengages a large quantity of nitrous gas.   Part ot
Ihe metal falls down  iu the form of" an oxide;  and the
filtrated or decanted solution, which is of a much
deeper blue colour than the sulphuric solution; affords
crystals by slow evaporation. This salt is deliquescent,
very soluble in water, but most plentifully when the
fluid is heated.
  The saline combinations of copper were formerly
called  sales veneres,  because  Venus was the mytho-
logical name of  copper.  They have  the following
general characters:
  1. They are mostly soluble in water,.and their solu-
tions have a green or blue  colour, or acquire one of
tliose colours on exposure to air.
  3.  Ammonia added  to  the solutions, produces a
deep blue colour.
  3.  Ferroprussiate of potassa gives a reddish-brown
precipitate, with cupreous sails.
  4. Gallic  acid gives a brown precipitate.
  5. Hydrosulphuret of potassa gives a black precipi-
tate.
  6.  A  plate  of iron ■immersed  in  these  solutions
throws down metallic copper, and very rapidly if there
be a slight  excess of acid.  The protoxide of copper
can be combined with the acids only by very particular
management.  All the  ordinary salts of copper have
the peroxide for a base.
  Tlie  joiui agency of air  and acclic acid, Is neces-
sary to the  production of the cupreous acetates.   By
exposing copper plates to the vapours of vinegar, the
bluish-green verdigris is formed, which, by solution in
vinegar, constitutes acetate of copper.
  Arseniate of copper presents us with  many  sub-
species which are found native.  The arseniate may
be formed artificially by digesting arsenic acid on cop-
per, or by adding arseniate of potassa to a cupreous
saline  solution.
   Carbonate of copper.   Of this compound there arc
three native varieties, the green, the blue, and the an-
hydrous.
   Chlorate of  copper  is a deflagrating deliquescent
green  salt.
   Fluate of copper is in small biue-coloured crystals.
   Hydriodate of copper is a grayish-while powder.
   Protomuriate of copper has already been described
in treating ofthe chlorides.
   Deulomuriate of copper, formed  by dissolving the
deutoxide in  murialic  acid, or by  healing muriatic
acid on copper filings, yields by evaporation crystals
of a grass-green colour.
  The ammomo-nitrate evaporated, yields a  fulmi-
nating copper.  Crystals of nitrate, mixed with phos-
phorus, and struck with a hammer, detonate.
  Subnitrate of copper is  the  blue precipitate, occa-
sioned by adding a little potassa to the neutral nitric
solution.
  Nitrate of copper  is formed by mixing nitrate of
lead with sulphate of copper.
  The sulphate, or blue vitriol of commerce, is a bisul-
phate.
  A mixed solution of this sulphate and salammoniac,
forms  an ink, whose traces are invisible in the cold,
but become yellow when heated; and vanish again
as tne paper cools.
  Protosulphite of copper is formed by passing a cur-
rent of sulphurous acid gas through the  deutoxide
of copper diffused in water.  It is deprived of a part
of its oxygen, and combines with the acid.  The sul-
phate, simultaneously produced, dissolves in the  wa-
ter ; while the sulphite forms small red crystals, from
which merely long ebullition in water expels the acid.
  Sulphite of potassa  and copper is made by adding
the sulphite of potassa to nitrate of copper.  A yellow
flocculent precipitate, consisting of  minute crystals,
falls.
  Ammonia-sulphate of copper is the salt formed by
adding water of ammonia to solution ofthe bisulphate.
It consists, "according to Berzelius, of 1 prime of the
cupreous, and 1 of the ammoniacal  sulphate, com-
bined together; or 20.0+7.13-1-14.625 of water.
  Subsulphate of ammonia and copper  is formed by
adding alkohol  to the solution of the  preecding salt.
which precipitates the subsulphate.  Il is the cuprum
ammoniacum of Ihe pharmacopoeia.
  Sulphate of potassa and  copper  is formed by  di-
gesting bisulphate of polassa on the deutoxide or car-
bonate of copper.
  The following acids, antimonic,  antimonious,  bo-
racic, chromic, molybdic, phosphoric, tungstic, form
insoluble salts  with  deutoxide of copper.  The first
two are green, Ihe third is brown, the  lourth and fifth
green, and the sixth while.  The benzoate is in green
crystals, sparingly soluble.  The oxalate is also green
The biuoxalutes of potassa  and soda, with oxide of
copper, give triple sails, in green neeille-forni crystals.
There are also ammonia oxalates in different vai'ii-iies.
Tartrate of copjier forms dark bluish-green ciystnls
Creani-tnrtrate  of copper is a  bluish-green pow der,
commonly called Brunswick green.
  To obtain pure copper for experiments, we precipi-
tate it in the metallic slate, by immersing a plate- of
iron in a solution of the  deutomuriate.  The pulve-
rulent copper must be washed wilh  dilute muriatic
acid.
  This metal combines very readily  with  gold, silver,
and mercury.  It uniles imperfectly with iron in  the
way of fusion.   Tin combines with copper, nt a tern
perature much  lower than  is necessary  lo fuse  the
copper alone.   On this is grounded  the method  of
tinning copper  vessels.   For ihis purpose-, llioy  are
first scraped or scoured ; after which  they are rubbed
with  sal-ammoniac.   They are Ihen heated,  and
sprinkled with  powdered resin, whicli  defends  the
clean surface of the copper from acquiring the slight
film of oxide that would prevent the adhesion of  the
tin to its surface.  The  melted tin is then poured  in,
and spread about.  An  extremely small quantity  ad-
heres to the copper, which may perhaps  be supposed
insufficient to prevent the noxious effects of the cop-
per as perfectly as might be wished.
  When tin is melted with copper, it composes  the
compound called bronze.
  Copper unites with bismuth, and forms  a reddish
white alloy. With  arsenic it forms a white brittle
compound,  called tombac.  With  zinc it forms  the
compound called brass, and distinguished by various
other names, according to the proportions of the two
ingredients.
  Copper unites readily with antimony, and affords  a
compound  of a beautiful violet colour.  It does  not
readily unite with manganese.  With  tungsten  it
forms a dark brown spongy alloy, whicli is somewhat
ductile.
  Verdigris, and other preparations of copper, act as
virulent poisons, when introduced in very small quan-
tities into the stomachs of animals.  A few grains are
suflicient for this effect.   Death is commonly preceded
by very decided nervous disorders, such as convulsive
movements, tetanus, general insensibility, or a  palsy
of the lower extremities.  This  event happens  fre-
quently so soon, that it could not be  occasioned by in-
flammation or erosion of tbe prima via; and indeed,
where these parts are apparently sound.  It is proba-
ble that the poison is absorbed, and,  through the circu-
lation, acts on the brain and nerves.   The cupreous
preparations are no doubt very acrid, and if death do
not follow their immediate impression on the sentient
system, they will certainly inflame the intestinal canal.
The symptoms  produced by a dangerous  dose of cop-
per arc exactly  similar to those which are enumerated
under arsenic, only the taste of copper is strongly  felt.
The only chemical  antidote to  cupreous solutions,
whose operation is well understood, is water strongly
impregnated with sulphuretted hydrogen.  The al-
kaline hydrosulphurcts aie acrid, and ought not to be
prescribed.
  But we possess, in sugar, an antidote to this poison,
of undoubted efficacy, though its mode of action be
obscure.  Duval introduced into the stomach of a dog,
by means of a caoutchouc tube, a solution in acetic
acid,  of four  French drachms  of  oxide of copper.
Some  minutes  afterward  he injected into  it four
ounces of strong syrup.  He  repeated this injection
every half-hour, aud employed altogether  12 ounces of
syrup.  The animal experienced some tremblings  nnd
convulsive movements.  But  the last injection was
followed by a perfect calm.  The animal fell asleep,
and awakened  free from any ailment.
                                         363 
COR                                            con
  Orfila relates several cases of individuals who had
by accident or intention swallowed poisonous doses of
acetate of copper, and who recovered by getting large
doses of sugar.   He uniformly found, that a dose of
verdigris which would kill a dog in the course of an
hour  or two,  might be swallowed with  impunity,
provided it was mixed with a  considerable quantity
of sugar.
  As alkohol has the power of completely neutraliz-
ing, in the aethers, the strongest muriatic and hydriodic
acids, so it would appear that sugar can neutralize the
oxides of copper  and lead.  The neutral saccharite of
load, indeed, was employed by Berzelius in his experi-
ments, to determine the prime equivalent of sugar.  If
we boil for half an hour, in a flask, an ounce of white
sugar, an ounce of water, and  10 grains of verdigris,
we obtain a green liquid, which is not affected by the
nicest tests of copper, such as ferroprussiate of potassa,
ammonia, and  the hydrosulphurets.  An insoluble
green carbonate of copper remains at the  bottom of
the flask."—Ure's  Chem. Diet.
  Copper, ammoniated solution  of.  See Cupri ammo-
niati liquor.
  CO'PPERAS.  A name given to  blue, green, and
white vitriol.
  Coprago'ga.  (From kohoos,  dung, and  ayia, to
bring away.)  Purgatives. Co/irco-on-ttmisthenameof
a gently-purging  electuary, mentioned by Rulandus.
  COPRIE'MESIS.   (From xoirpoj, excrement, and
rpeto, to vomit.)  A vomiting of faeces.
  Coproori'tica.   (From  xoirpps, excrement, and
Kptvu, to separate.) Mild cathartic medicines.
 ' Copropho'ria.   (From  xoitpos,  excrement,  and
tbopcto, to bring away.)  A purging.
  CO'PROS.  Koirpos-  The faeces, or excrements from
the bowels.
  COPROSTA'SIA.  (From xoirpos, faeces, and 15-17/1!,
to remain.)   Costiveness, or  a  constriction  ot  the
belly.
  Copta'riom.   (Ko7r7>?, a small cake.)   Coptarium.
A lozenge.
  CO'PTE. (Koir7i7,  a small cake.)  1. The form of
a medicine used  by the ancients.
  2. A cataplasm  generally  made of vegetable sub-
stances, and applied externally  to the stomach, and on
many occasions given internally.
  [" Coptis trifolia.  Gold thread.  The coptis tri-
folia, which was arranged among the Hellebores by
Li mix us, is a beautiful native,  evergreen plant, of the
northern States.  Its roots are creeping, thread-shaped,
and of a bright yellow colour.  They have an intensely
bitter taste, without warmth or astringency.   Alkohol
is the best solvent of this article, forming a bright yel-
low tincture.   Water  also extracts the bitterness, but
less perfectly.  Gold thread is a pleasant tonic, and
promotes appetite and digestion.  It is a popular reme-
dy in apthous mouths  and ulcers of the throat, though
it does not  appear  to be very powerful in these com-
plaints.  As a tonic it may be givenyn the dose of ten
or twenty grains of the powder.  It is, however, some-
what difficult to pulverize, owing to the tenacity of the
fibres. A tincture, formed by an ounce of the root in
a pint of diluted alkohol, may  be given in doses  of  a
drachm."—Big. Mat. Med.  A.\
  Co'pula.  (Quasi compula; from compello, to re-
strain.)   A name for a ligament.
  Coque'ntia.  (From coquo,  to digest.)   Medicines
wliich promote concoction.
  COR.  (Cor, dis. neut.)
  1. The heart.  See Heart.
  2. Gold.
  3. An intense  fire.
  Coraci'ne.   (From xopal, a crow; so named from
its black colour.)  A name for a lozenge, quoted by
Galen from Asclepiades.
  CORACO.   The first part of the name of some
muscles which are attached to the coracoid process of
the blade-bone.
  Coraco-brachialis.   Coraco-humcral of  Dumas.
Ccraco-brachiaus.  A muscle, so called from its origin
and insertion.   It  is situated on the humerus, before
the scapula.  It arises, tendinous and fleshy, from the
forepart of the coracoid  process of the scapula, ad-
hering, iii its descent, to the short head of the biceps;
Inserted, tendinous and fleshy, about the middle of the
Internal part of  the os humeri, near the origin of the
third head  of the triceps, called  braehialis cxtcrnus,
      261
where it sends down a thin tendinous expansion to the
internal condyle of thi  .s humeri.  Its use is to raise
the arm upwards and forwards.
  Coraco hyoideus.   See Omo hyoideus.
  CORACOID.  (Coracoideus; from xopal, a <*-mw,
and eiios, resemblance: shaped like the beak of a
crow.)  Some processc-s of the bones are  so named
whicli were supposed to resemble the beak of a crow.
  Coracoid process.   Processus coracoides.  See
Scapula.
  CO'RAL.  See Corallium.
  CORALLINA.  (Diminutive of corallium.)  Mus
cus maritimus ; Corallina officinalis; Corallina alba-
Sea coralline; Sea moss; White wormseed.  A ma-
rine  production, or  fucus, resembling a small plant
without leaves, consisting of numerous brittle  creta-
ceous substances,  friable betwixt the  fingers, and
crackling between the  teeth.  Powdered, it is admin-
istered to children as an anthelminthic, in the dose
of half  a drachm  to a drachm once or twice a day.
  Corallina  corsicana.  Helmintho-corton; Con
ferva hclmintho-cortos: Corallina rubra; Corallina
melito-corton ; Lemitho-corton; Mouse de Corse. Cor-
sican worm weed.  Fucus helmintho-corton of De la
Tourrette.  This plant has gained great  repute in de-
stroying all species  of intestinal worms. Its virtues
are extolled by many; but impartial  experimentalists
have  frequently been  disappointed  of  its efficacy.
The Geneva Pharmacopoeia directs a syrup to be made
of it.
  Corallina  melito-corton.  See  Corallina corsi-
cana.
  Corallina rubra.  See Corallina corsicana.
  CORALLINE.  See Corallina.
  Coralline, Corsican.  See Corallina corsicana.
  [Corallinite.  See Organic relics.]
  CORA'LLIUM.   (Corallium, 1.  n.; from xopn. a
daughter, and aXs, the sea, because it is the production
of the sea.)  Coral.
  Corallium album.  A hard, white, calcareous brit-
tle substance; the nidus  of the Madrepora oculata.
Class, Vermes; Order, Lithophyta.  Il is sometimes
exhibited as an absorbent earth.
  Corallium rubrum.  Acmo. Azur. The red coral
is mostly employed medicinally.  It is a hard, brittle,
calcareous substance, resembling the stalk of a plant,
and is the habitation of the Isis nobilis.  Class,  Ver-
mes ; Order,  Zoophyta.   When powdered,  it is ex-
hibited as an absorbent earth to children;  but  does
not appear to claim any preference  to common chalk.
  CORALLODE'NDRON.  (From xopaXXiov, coral,
and ievipov, a tree, resembling in hardness and colour
a piece of coral.)   The  coral-tree of America;  auli-
venereal.
  CORALLOTDES.  (From  xopaXXiov,  coral,  and
ttios, likeness.)   Coral-like.   See Clavaria corol-
loides.
  Co'rchoron.   (From  xopri,  the  pupil of the  eye,
and A-opr.u), to purge; so called because it was thought
to purge away rheum from the eyes.)  The herb  pirn
pernel, or chickweed.
  CORCULUM.  (Corculum, a little heart; diminu-
tive of cor, a heart.)  An essential part of a germi
nating seed, called also the embryo, or germ.  It lies
between the cotyledons.  It is the  point from which
the life and organization of the future plant originate.
In some seeds it is  much more conspicuous than in
others.  The walnut, bean, pea, and lupine show it
in perfection.  Its internal structure, before it begins
to  vegetate, is observed to be very simple, consisting
of a uniformly medullary substance, enclosed in its
appropriate bark or skin.  Vessels are formed in it as
soon as the vital principle is excited to action, and  parts
are then developed  which seemed not previously to
exist. There are observed in  it,
  1.  The rostcllum, or little  beak, whicli penetrate*
into the earth and becomes the root.
  2.  The plumula, which shoots  above the ground,
and  becomes a tuft of young leaves, with which the
young stem, if there be any, ascends. See Cotyledon
  Co'rda.  See Gliorda.
  Corda tvmpani.  See Chorda tympani.
  Corda willisii.  See Dura mater.
  CORDATUS.  Heart-shaped.  Applied to leaves,
petals, &.c. wliich are ovate, hollowed out at tlie  base,
according to the vulgar  idea of a heart: a form very
frequent in leaves; as in these of Arctium lappa, and 
COR
COR
 Tamus communis, and the  petals of the  Sium Seli-
 num.
   A leaf is called obcordate, when the apex  of the
 heart-shaped leaf is fixed to the petiole.
   CORDIA.   (So called by Plumier in  honour of
 Euricius Cordius (mi  his son Valerius, two eminent
 German botanists.)  The name of a genus of plants.
 Class, Pentandria ; Order, Monogynia.
   Cordia myxa.   The systematic name of the  Scbes-
 ten plant.  Sebesten ; Sebestina;  Cordia—foliis ova-
 tis, supra  glabris ; corymbis lateralibus ; calycibus
 decemstriatis of Linnaeus.  The dark  black fruit pos-
 sesses glutinous  and  aperient qualities, nnd is exhi-
 bited in form of decoction in various diseases of the
 chest, hoarseness, cough, difficult respiration, &c.
   CORDIAL.   Cardiacus.   Medicines are generally
 so termed, which  possess warm and stimulating pro-
 perties, and that are given to raise the spirits.
   Cordine'ma.   (From xapa, the head, and iivcio, to
 move about.)  A  headache attended with a vertigo.
   Cordo'lium.   (From  cor, the heart,  and  dolor.
 pain.*)   A  name  formerly applied to cardialgia, or
 heartburn.
  CORDUS, Valerius, was bom in  1515, of a Hes-
 sian family.  After studying  in  some ofthe German
 universities, he travelled through Italy, chiefly engaged
 in botanical researches. He died at the early  age of
 29, leaving several works;  a-'History of Plants,"
 many of them never before described; "Annotations
 on Dioscorides;"  a Nuremberg Dispensatory, &c.
  CO'RE.  Kopr;.  The pupil of the eye.
  Core'mata.  (From xoptta, to cleanse.)   Medicines
 for cleansing the skin.
   CORIACEUS.  Leathery.   Applied to  leaves and
 pods that are thick and  tough without being pulpy, or
 succulent;  as in the leaves of Magnolia grandiflora,
 Aucuba, Sec and the pods of the Lupin.
   CORIANDER.  See Coriandrum.
   CORIA'NDRUM.   (Coriandrum,^. n.;  from xopij,
 a pupil, and avnp, a  man: because of its  roundness,
 like the pupil of a man's eye; or probably so  called
 from Kopis, cimex, a  bug, because the green  herb,
 seed and all, stinks intolerably of bugs.)  Coriander.
   1. The name of a genus of plants  in the Linnean
 system.  Class, Pentandria; Order, Dygynia.
   2. The pharmacopoeia! name of the officinal corian-
 der.  See Coriandrum sativum.
   Coriandrum sativum. The systematic name of
 the plant called  coriandrum in the pharmacopoeias.
 Cassibor;  Corianon.    The  Coriandrum—fructibus
 g-lobosis, of Linnaeus.  This plant is a native of the
 South of Europe, where, in some places, it is said to
 grow in such  abundance as frequently to choke the
 growth of wheat  and other grain.  From being culti-
 vated  here as a medicinal plant, it has for some time
 become naturalized to this country, where it is usually
 found in corn fields, the sides of roads, and about  dung-
 hills.   Every part of the plant, when fresh, has a very
 offensive odour, but, upon being  dried, the seeds have
 a tolerably grateful smell, and their taste is moderately
 warm and slightly pungent.  They give out their vir-
 tue totally  to  rectified spirit, but only  partially  to
 water.  In  distillation with water, they yield a small
 quantity of a  yellowish essential oil, which smells
 strongly and pretty agreeably of the coriander.
   Dioscorides asserts, that the seeds, when taken in a
 considerable quantity, produce deleterious effects; and,
 in some parts of Spain and Egypt, where the fresh
 herb is eaten as a cordial, instances of fatuity, lethar-
 gy, &c. are observed  to occur  very frequently; but
 these qualities seem to have  been unjustly ascribed to
 the coriander; and Dr. Withering informs  us, that he
 has known six drachms of the  seeds taken at once,
 without any remarkable effect.  These seeds, and in-
 deed most of those of the umbelliferous plants, possess
 a  stomachic and  carminative power.   They are di-
 rected  in the  infusum  amarum, the  infusum sennae
 tartarizatum, and some other  compositions of  the
pharmacopoeias ; and according to Dr. Cullen, the prin-
cipal use of these seeds is, " that infused along with
senna,  they more powerfully correct the  odour and
taste of this than  any other aromatic that I have em-
ployed, and are, I believe, equally powerful in  obvi-
ating the griping  that senna is very ready to pro-
duce."
  Coria'non.  See Coriandrum.
  CORIS.  (From Kttpw, to  cleave, or cut; so called
 because  it was  said to heal wounds.)  The herb St
 John's wort.  See Hypericum.
  Corns cretica.  See Hypericum Saxatile.
  Coris LUTEA.  See Hypericum coris.
  Coris monspbliensis. Symphetumpatreum. Heal*
 pine.  This plant is intensely bitter and nauseous, but
 apparently, an active medicine, and employed,  it is
 said, with success iu syphilis.
  CORK.  Suber.   The bark of the Quercus suberol
 Linnaeus, formerly employed as an astringent, but now
 disused.  By the action ot' nitric acid it is acidified. See
 Suberic acid.
  Cork has been recently analyzed by Chevreuil by
 digestion, first in water and then in alkohol. By distil
 lation  there came over an  aromatic principle, and a
 little acetic acid.  'The watery extract contained a yel
 low and a red colouring matter, an undetermined acid,
 gallic acid, an astringent substance, a substance con
 taining azot, a substance soluble in water and insolu-
 ble in alkohol, gallate.of iron, lime, nnd traces of mag-
 nesia.  20 parts of cork treated in this way, left 17.15
 of insoluble  matter.   The  undissolved residue being
 treated a sufficient number  of times with alkohol,
 yielded a variety of bodies, but which seem reducible
 to three ; namely, cenn, re-sin, and an oil.  The ligne-
 ous portion  of the cork still weighed 14 parts, whicli
 are called subrr
  [Cork, when burnt and reduced to a black coal, may
 be pulverized and given as a medicine.  It produces a
 light and delicate carbon, which may be given by the
 tea-spoonful, in a little syrup or milk, to children with
 cholera infantum or sour stomach.  It is an excellent
 corrector of acidity, and is a useful  domestic  remedv
 for  complaints of Ihe bowels iu children during warn.
 weather.  A.]
  Cork, fossil.  See Asbestos.
  CORN.  Clavus.  A  hardened portion  of  cuticle,
 produced by pressure: so called because a piece can be
 picked out like a corn of barley.
  Com salad. See Valerian a locusta.
  Cornachini pulvis.   Scammony, antimony,  and
 cream of tartar.
  CORNARIU8, John, was bom in Upper Saxony, in
 the year 1500.  According to Haller his real name was
 Haguenbot, or Hanbut.  He is said to.have been led to
 the  study of medicine  from the delicacy of" his  own
 constitution.  He graduated at Padua, after attending
 several other universities.  Besides translating Hip-
 pocrates, and some other Greek writers into Latin, he
 was author of several works on medicine; and is  said
 to have had an extensive practice.  He died in 1558,
 leaving a son, Diomede, who  succeeded  him,  and
 was afterward professof of medicine at  Vienna, and
 physician to Maximilian II.
  CORNARO, Lewis,  of a noble Venetian  family,
 was born in 1467.  Having  impaired his constitution
 by a debauched and voluptuous life, and brought on at
 last a severe illness, on recovering from this, at tlie age
 of more than 40, he adopted a strict, abstemious regi-
 men, limiting himself to twelve  ounces of solid food,
 and fourteen of wine, daily; which quantity he rather
 diminished  in the latter part of his life.  He carefully
 avoided also the extremes of heat or cold, with all vio-
 lent exercise ; and  took  care to live in a pure dry air.
 He  thus preserved a considerable share of health  and
 activity to the great age of 98.  His wife, by whom he
 had  an only  child, a daughter, when they  were both
 advanced in years, survived him, and attained nearly
 the  same period. When he  was 83, he  published a
short treatise in commendation of temperance, which
has been repeatedly translated, and  printed in every
country of Europe.  He then states himself to have
been able to mount his horse, without assistance, from
any rising ground.  He wrote three other discourses on
similar subjects  at subsequent periods, the last only
three years before his death.  The best English trans-
lation is said to be that of 1779.
  CO'RNEA. The sclerotic membrane of the eye is
so called, because it is of a horny consistence.  See
 Sclerotic coat.
  Cornea opaca.  See Sclerotic coat.
  Cor\ea transparent.  Sclerotica ccratoides. 'Tin:
transparent portion of the sclerotic membrane, through
which  the  rays  of light pass, is so called, to distin-
guish it from that whicli is opaque.  See Sclerotic
coat.
  ["Cornea tunica.  (From coniu, a horn.)  Thean
                                        -so.*; 
COR                                         COR
 ter'or  transparent convex part of the eye, wliich, in
 texture is tough like horn.  It has a structure peculiar
 to itself being composed of a number of concentric
 cellular 'lamellae,  in the cells of which is deposited a
 particular sort of fluid.  It is covered externally by a
 continuation of the conjunctiva, which belongs to the
 class of mucous membranes; and it is lined by a mem-
 brane,  the tunica humoris aquei, which seems to be-
 long to the serous class."—Cooper's Surg. Diet.  A.]
  Corne'sta.  A chemical retort.
  CORNFLOWER.  See Centaurea cyanus.
  Corni'cula.   (From cornu, a horn.)   Acuppingin-
Btrumeut, made of" horn.
  COKNIUULA'RIS.  (From cornu, a horn.) Shaped
like a horn ;  ;he coracoid process of the scapula.
  CORNIFORM IS.  (From cornu, a horn, and forma
resemblance.)   Horn-shaped:  applied to  the nectary
of plants :—ncctarium corniformc, in  the orchis tribe.
  CO'RNU.   A horn.   This term is used both  in ana-
tomy, surgery, and materia medica.  1.  A wart.  See
 Verruca.
  2. A corn or horny induration of the cuticle,  bee
Corn.
  3. The horn of the stag.
  4. The cavities of tlie brain.
  Cornu ammonis.  Cornu arietis.  When the  pes
hippocampi of the human brain is cut transversely
through, the cortical substance is so disposed as to re-
semble a ram's horn.  This is the true cornu  ammo-
nis, though the name is often applied to the pes hippo-

  ITh'is name is also applied  to the chambered shells
found in a petrified state, and designated among the
organic relics of another world as Ammonites.  They
are very abundant in  Yorkshire, England, and have
been found in some places in this country.  A.]
  Cornu arietis.  See Cornu ammonis.
  Cornu cervi.  Hartshorn.   The horns of  several
species of slag, as the  Cervus alces, Cervus  dama,
Cervus claphus, and Cervus taranda, are used medi-
cinally. Boiled, they impart to the water a nutritious
jelly, which is frequently served  at  table.  Hartshorn
jelly is made thus:—Boil half a pound of the shavings
of hartshorn, in six pints of water, to a quart; to the
strained liquor add one ounce of the juice of lemon, or
of Seville orange, four ounces of mountain wine and
half a  pound of sugar;  then boil the whole to a pro-
per consistence.  The  chief use of the horns is for cal-
cination, and to afford the liquor volatius cornu ceroi
and subcarbonate of ammonia.
  Cornu cervi calcinatum.  See Cornu ustum.
  Cornu ustum.   Cornu cervi  calcinatum.   Burn
 pieces  of hartshorn in an opeti fire, till they become
 thoroughly white; then powder, and prepare them in
 the same  manner as is directed for  chalk.   Burnt
hartshorn shavings possess absorbent, antacid, and ad-
stringent properties, and are  given in the form of
decoction, as a common drink in diarrhoeas, pyrosis, &c.
  Cornua uteri.  Plectena.   In comparative anato-
 my, the horns of the womb; the  womb being in some
 animals triangular, and its angles resembling horns.
  Cornumu'sa.  A retort.                    .
  CO'RNUS.  1. The name of a genus of plants in the
 Linnaean system.  Class, Tetrandria; Order,  Mono-

 ■^The pharmacopceial name of the cornel-tree. See
 Cornus sanguinea.                      .
  f" Cornus  Florida.  Dogwood.   This is a small
 native  nee, well known for ils ornamental flowers in
 most partB of the country, but more particularly in the
 middle and southern states.  The bark of the trunk is
 rough  externally, and of a brownish colour within.
 Its taste is a strong bitter, with  some astringent and
 aromatic flavour.  It  appears to  contain a bitter ex-
 tractive substance, tannin, gallic acid, and a small por-
 tion of resin.   This bark has been much employed as
 a tonic in various parts of the interior country.  It is
 particularly used in intermittent fevers, and is applied
 to various other cases of debility, in which tonics are
 indicated.  When fresh, it is  sometimes liable to dis-
 order  the stomach and bowels, which tendency it is
 thought to lose by age.  It may be given  in powder in
 doses  of one or two scruples.  Although tins  species
 has been most attended to, there  are several others of
 the same genus, which, from their bitterness promise
 quite as much efficacy"- Big. M>it.Moi. ^A.]
   L"Cornus ciucinata. Round-leafcddogwood. This
       ma
species of dogwood is  a native shrub, distinguished
from othew of its genus by its round leaves and beau-
tifully spotted  twigs.  The  bark is  not exceeded by
any other in bitterness,  and  unites with this rroperty
the chemical and sensible  evidences of nstringency.
It is highly valuable as a tonic and stomachic, and
appears to be largely in use in some parts of the United
States, particularly in  Connecticut,  where it is em-
ployed as a  substitute  for cinchona, and  has become
an officinal article.  It is exhibited in the same way as
Cornus florida."—Big. Mat. Med.  A.]
  ["Cornus sericea.    Swamp  dogwood.   This ia
anotner of the bitter cornels, native  in  the  United
States.  Its properties resemble the preceding so much,
that it is unnecessary  to repeat them.   Indeed, the
genus Cornus in the northern hemisphere, like Cincho-
na in the southern, appears  to have the same medical
character pervading  all  its species, differing only in
degree."—Big. Mat.  Med.  A.]
  Cornus sanguinea.   The fruit is moderately cool-
ing and astringent.
  Cornu'ta.  (From corn a; from its resemblance to
a horn.)  A retort.
  COROLLA. (From coronula, a little crown.)  The
leaves of a flower which consist of those more delicate
and dilated, generally more coloured leaves, which are
always internal wilh respect to the calyx, between it
and the internal organs  of the flower, and  which con-
stitute its chief beauty.   It always consists of one or
more coloured leaves, which are termed petals.
  A coloured calyx is to  be distinguished from a co-
rolla, wliich may be readily done in the Allyssum
alpestre, and Lamium orvala.
  There are four general divisions of corols.
  1.  Monopetalous, which consists of one petal, as in
Nicotiana tabacum.
  2.  Polypetalous, having many; as in Lillium candi-
dum.
  3.  Compound, consisting of many corolla, which are
not calyculated, and are on a common receptacle, and
calyx;  as in Helianlhus annuus.
  4.  Aggregate, consisting  of many calyculated co-
rolla placed on a common calyx; as in Scabiosa are en
sis, and Echinops sparocephalus.
  A. Corolla monopetala, formed of one petal, which,
for the most part, torms a cavity, and is divided into,
  a.  Limbus, the limb,  which is tlie margin, or hori-
zontal spreading portion.
  b.  Tubus, the tube, which is the cylindrical and in-
ferior part, and is enclosed in the calyx.
  c.  Fauces, or the orifice of the tube.
  From the figure of a regular or uniform  limb arc de-
rived the following terms:
  1. Corolla campanulata, bell-shaped;  as in Campa
nula and Atropa.
  2. C. globosa, globular; as in Hyacynthus  botryoi
des and Erica ramentacca.
  3. C. Tubulosa, tubular, as  in Primula and Erica
Massoni.
  4. C. claviculata;  as in Erica tubiflora.
  5. C. cyathiformis, cup-shaped; as in  Sympathum
officinale.
  6. C infundibuliformis, funnel-shaped; as in Ni-
cotiana tabacum, and Datura stramonium.
  7.  C. hypocrateriformis, salver-shaped, a fiat limb
upon a long tube; as  in Vinca rosea.
  8. C. rotata: wheel-shaped, that is, salver-shaped,
with scarcely any tube; as  in Borago-officinalis, and
Physalis alkekengi.
  0.  C. urccolata, saucer-like; as in Evolvulus alci-
noides.
  10. C. contorta, obliquely bent; as in Vinca  minor
and Nerium oleander.
  11. C. ligulata, the tube very short, and ending sud
denly in au oblong petal; as in the corolla of the ra-
dius of the Helianthus  annuus.
  From the figure of an unequal limb :
  1.  Corolla ringens,  irregular and gaping like the
mouth  of an animal;  as in Lamium album, and Salvu
sclarea.
  2.  C. personata, irregular and closed by a kind of
palate; as in Antirrhinum majus.
  In the ringent and personate corolla; are to fM> n<
ticed the  following parts:
  a. Tubus, the inferior part.
  b. Rictus, the space between the two lips.
  c.  Faux, tlie orifice of the tube in the rectus. 
COR
COR
  d- Galea, the helmet or superior arched lip.
  e. Labellum or barba, tlie inferior lip.
  f. Palatum, the palate, an eminence in the inferior
!ip which shuts the rictus of a personate corolla.
  g. Calcar, the  spui whicli forms an obtuse or acute
bag at the side ofthe receptacle.
  3. C. bilabiata,  two-lipped, the tube divided into
two irregular lips opposite each other, without any
visible rictus; as in Aristolochia bilabiata.
  In the bilabiate corolla are to be noticed,
  a. The tubus.
  b. The faux.
  c. The superior lip, form -J of one or two lobes.
  d. The inferior lip, mostly three-lobed.
  e. One-lipped,  the  upper or  lower wanting,  as  in
Aris'olochia clematitis, and Teucrium.
  Corolla infera, means that  it is below the gennen,
which is  the most common place of the corolla; and
corolla supci .1, above the germeu, as in roses.
  B. Corollapotypetala, formed of many petals.
  In the petal of this division are noticed,
  a The unguis, the claw, the thin inferior part.
  b The lamina or  border, the broader and superior
part; example, Dianthus canjophyllis.
  From the  number of  uniform  petals, tlie corol of
this division is named,
  1  Dipetalous; as in Euphorbia graminca.
  2. Tripetalous : as in  Tradescantia virginica,
  3. Tetrapetalous;  as in CJtieranthus incanus.
 ■ 4. Pentapctalous ; as in Paonia officinalis.
  5. Hexapetalous; as in Lilium Candida ni.
  6. Polypetalous;  as in Rosa ccntifolia.
  From the figure,
  1. Malvaccous;   pentapetalous,  with  its  claws
united  laterally, so that it appears monopetalous;  as
in Malva sylvestris, and Aleta.
  2. Rosaceous, spreading  like a rose, pentapetalous,
almost destitute  of claws; as  in Rosa canina, and
Paonia officinalis.
  3  Liliaceous; six-petalled, sometimes three with-
out a calyx; as in Lilium candidum.
  4. Caryophyllaceous:  five-pedalled,  with a  long
claw, spreading  border,  and a  monophyllous tubular
calyx; as in  Dianthus caryophyllus, and Saponaria
officinalis.
  5. Cruciform;  three-petalled,  like a cross; as, in
Sinapis alba, and Lunaria alba.
  6. Manifold, many corols lying one on another;  as
in Cactus Jlagiljiformis.
  From the jigiire of unequal petals :
  1. Orchideal, five  petals, three of which are bent
backward,  and two are lateral and  in  the middle  of
these:  the labellum is bent back on the  nectary.
  2. Papilionaceous, four petals, irregular and spread-
ing, somewhat like a butterfly; as in Lathyrus latifo-
lius, and Robinii pseudacacia.
  In a papilionaceous corolla, observe,
  a. The vexillum, the standard or large concave one
at tbe bark.
  b. Ala, the wings or two sido-petals, placed  in the
middle.
  c. The carina, or  keel, consisting of two  petals,
united or separate, embracing the internal organs.
  3. Calcarate or spurred, pentapetalous,  one petal
formed into a spur-like tube.
  C. Compound corolla; consisting of  numerous flo-
rets, not calyculate, and within a common perian-
tbium.
  It affords,
  a. The discus, disk, or middle.
  b. The  radius, which  forms  the circumference.
The marginal white florets of the daisy exemplify the
rays, and the central yellow ones the disk.
  From the  difference in the  florets of a compound
flower it is said to be,
  a. Tubulate, when all the florets are  cylindrical.
  b. IJgulate or semiflosculose, shaped like a strap or
riband; as in Leontodon taraxacum.
  c Radiate, if the florets in the radius are ligulate,
and those in the disk tubular.
  d. Semiradiate, the radius consisting of only a few
ligulate florets on one side; as in Bidens.  See also
Petala.
  COROLLULA  (A diminutive of corolla,  a little
wreath or crown.)   The partial  petal, or floret of a
compound flower.
  CORO'NA  A crown.  This term is used in ana-
tomy to designate the basis of some parts; and in 00-
tnny, to  parts of plants, from their resemblance.  In
Ihe writings of sonic botanists, it is synonymous  wilh
radius.
  Corona  ciliaris.  The ciliar ligament.
  Corona  glandis. The margin of  the glnns penis
  Corona  imi-eiualis.  A  name  for crown-imperial
The Turks use it as an emetic.  The whole plant its
poisonous.
  Corona  reuia.   The melilotus.
  Corona  solis.  See Helianthus annuus.        ,
  Corona  vk^eris.  Venereal  blotches 011 the  fore-
head tire so termed.
  CORONAL.   (Coronalis;  from corona,  a crown
or garland.)  Belonging to a crown  or garland :  M»
named because the ancients wore their garlands in in
direction.
  Coronal suture.   Sutura coronalis ; Sutura .ir-
cualis.  The suture of the head,  that extends from one
temple across to the other, uniting the two parietal
bones with the- frontal.
  CORONA'RIUS   See Coronary.
  Coronarle.   The name of an order of plants  in
Linnaeus's Fragments of a Natural Method, consisting
of such  as have beautiful  flowers, thus forming a
floral crown.
  CORONARY.   (Coronarius;  from  corona, a
crown.)  This term is applied lo  vessels and nerves,
which supply the corona or basis of parts, or because
they spread round the part like a garlund or crown.
  Coronary ligaments.   (From corona,  a crown.)
Ligaments  uniting the radius and ulna.   The  term
ligamentum coroiiarium is also  applied to a  ligament
of the liver.
  Coronary vessels.  Vasa coronaria.  The  arte-
ries and veins of the heart and stomach.
  CORONATUS.   Little  crown-like eminences  on
tlie surface of the petal; or in Nerium oleander.
  Coronati.  Coronaticus.  The  name of a class of
plants in Linnaeus's Fragments  of a Nntuial .Method,
consisting of plants which  have the seed-bud placed
under the flower-cup which serves it for a crown.
  CORO'NE.  (Koptovtj, a crow:  so  named from  its
supposed likeness to a crow's bill.)  The acute process
of the lower jaw-bone.
  CORONOID.   (Coronoideus; from xoptovr, a crow,
and eiios,  likeness.  Processes of bones are so called,
that have any resemblance to a  crow's beak ; as coro-
noid process of the ulna, jaw, Sec.
  CORONO PUS.   (From  xopuivq, a cairion crow,
and -rrov , a foot; the plant being  said to  resemble a
crow's foot.)   See Plantago.
  CORONULA. • The hem or border which surrounds
the seeds of some flowers in the form of a crown.
  CO RPUS.  1. The body.  See  Body.
  2. Many  parts  and substances  are also distinguished
by this name-  as corpus callosum, corpus luleum, Sec
  Corpus  albicans.   Two white eminences in the
basis of the brain, discovered by Willis, and called cor-
pora albicantia Willisii.
  Corpus  annulare.  A synouyme of the pons Va
rolii.  See Pons  Varolii.
  Corpus  callosum.  Commissura  magna cerebri.
The white medullary part joining the two hemispheres
of the brain, and coming into view under the falx of
the dura mater when Ihe hemispheres arc drawn  from
each other.  On  the surface of the corpus callosum
two lines are conspicuous, called  the raphe.
  Corpus cavernosus clitoridis.  See Clitoris.
  Corpus cavernosus penis.  See Penis.         ,
  Corpus  fimbriatum.  The flattened terminations
ofthe posterior crura of the fornix  ofthe brain, which
turn round into the inferior cavity of the lateral ventri
cle, and end in the pedes hippocampi.
  Corpus glandulosum.   The prostate gland.
  Corpus lobosu.m.  Part ofthe  cortical part of the
kidney.
  Corpus luteum.  A yellowspot found in that part
ofthe ovarium of females, from  whence an ovum has
proceeded; hence their presence determines that the
female has been impregnated.  The  number of the
corpora lutea corresponds with the number of impreg-
nations.  It is, however, asserted by a modern writer
that corpora lutea have been detected in J oung vir-
gins,  where no  impregnations  could  possibly  have
taken place.
  Corpus mucosum.  See Rcte  mucosum.
                                        2C7 
COR                                            COS
   Corpus nerveo-spongiosum.  The cavernous sub-
 stance of the penis.
   Corpus nervosum.  The  cavernous substance of
 the clitoris.
   Corpus olivare.  Two external prominences of
 the medulla oblongata, shaped somewhat like an olive,
 are called corpora olivaria.
   Corpus pampiniforme.  Applied to the  spermatic
 chord  and thoracic duct;  also to the plexus of veins
 surrounding the spermatic artery in the cavity of the
 •dbomen.
   Corpus pyramidale.  Two  internal prominences
 of the medulla oblongata, which are of a pyramidal
 shape, are called corpora pyramidalia.
   Corpus quadrigeminum.  See Tubercula  quadri-
 gsmna.
   Corpus reticulare.  See Rele mucosum.
   Corpus sesamoideum.  A little prominence at the
 entry of the pulmonary artery.
   Corpus spongiosum  urethra.  Substantia spon-
 giosa urvthra.  Corpus spongiosum penis.  This sub-
 stance originates before the prostate  gland,  surrounds
 the urethra, and forms the bulb ; then proceeds to the
 end of the corpora cavernosa, and terminates in the
 glans penis, whicli it forms.
   Corpus striatum. So named from its  appearance.
 See Cerebrum.
   Corpus varicosum.  The spermatic chord.
   Corra'go.  (From ipr, the heart; it being supposed
 to have a good effect in comforting the heart.)  See
 Borago officinalis.
   Co'rre   (From xtipta,  to shave.)  The temples.
 That part of the jaws  where the beard  grows, and
 which it is usual to shave.
   CORROBORANT.  (Corroborans.)   Whatever
 gives strength to the body; as bark, wine, beef, cold-
 bath, &c.  See Tonic.
   CORROSIVE.   (Corrosivus; from corrodo, to eat
 away.) See Escharotic.
   Corrosive sublimate.  The oxymuriate of mercury.
 See Hydrargyri oxymurias.
   CORRUGA'TOR.   (From corrugo, to  wrinkle.)
 The name of muscles, the office  of which is to wrin-
 kle or corrugate the parts they act on.
   Corrugator supercilh.  A  small muscle situated
 on the forehead.   Musculus supercilii of Winslow;
 Musculus frontalis verus, seu corrugator coilerii of
 Douglas; and Cutaniosourcillicr of Dumas.  When
 one muscle acts, it  is drawn towards the other, and
 projects over the inner canthus of the eye.  When both
 muscles act, they pull down the  skim of the  forehead,
 and make it wrinkle, particularly between the eye-
 brows.
   CORTEX.  (Cortex, icis. in. or f.)  This term is
 generally, though improperly, given  to the  Peruvian
 bark.  Il applies to any  rind, or bark.
   Cortex angelin.e.  The bark of a tree growing in
 Grenada.  A decoction of it is recommended as a vei-
 mifuge.  It excites tormina, similar to jalap, and ope-
 jatcs bj purging.
   Cortex angustura.  See Cnspana.
   Cortex antiscorbuticus.  The canella alba.  See
 Winleria aromatica.
   Cortex aromaticus.  See Winteria aromatica.
   Cortex  bela-aye.   See  Nu-ium antidysenteri-
 cum.
   Cortex  canell* malabarice.   See  Laurus
 cassia.
   Cortex cardinalis de lugo.  The Peruvian bark:
,so called, because the Cardinal Lugo had testimonials
 of above a thousand  cures performed by it in the year
 1653.                          ,    ,
   Cor tex cerebri.   The cortical  substance of the
 brain.  See Cerebrum,
   Cortex chin* regius.  See Cinchona.
   Cortex  chin*  surinamensis.  This  bark Is re-
 markably bitter, and preferable to the other species in
 intermittent fevers.
   Cortex ciunchin/e.   See Cinchona.
   Cortex elutherlb.  See Croton cascarilla.
   Cortex geoffroyje jamaicen«s.  See Geoffroya
 tamaicensis.
   Cortex .iamaicensis.  See Acras sapota.
   Cortex iavola.  The bark bearing this name is
 supposed  to be the produce of the tree which affords
 the Anisum stellatum   Its virtues are similar.
   Cortex macellanicus.  See II ttitina aromatica.
       2G8
  Cortex  massoy.   The produce of New Gutnee,
where it is beaten into a pultaceous mass with water,
and  rubbed upon the abdomen lo allay pain of the
bowels.  It has the smell and flavour of cinnamon.
  Cortex patrum.  See Cinchona.
  Cortex peruvianus.  Sec Cinchona.
  Cortex peruvianus.flavus.  See Cinchona.
  Cortex peruvianus ruber.  See Cinchona.
  Cortex pocgereb.i.  A bark sent from America;
said to be serviceable in diarrhoeas, and dysenteries.
  Cortex quassia.  See Quassia amara.
  Cortex winterianus.  See Winteria aromatica
  CO'RTICAL.   Corticalis.   1.  Belonging to the
bark of a plant or tree.
  2.  Embracing or  surrounding any part like the bark
of a tree ; as the cortical substance of the brain, kid
ney, &c.
  CORTICO'SUS.  Like  bark or rind.   Applied to
the hard pod of the Cassia fistularis.
  Cortu sa.  See Sanicula europaa,
  Co'ru canarica.  A quince-like tree of Malabar;
it is antidysenteric.
  CORUNDUM.  A genus of minerals,  which, ac
cording to Jameson, contains three species; theocto
hedral, rhomboidal, and prismatic.
  CORYDALES.   (From  xopvs, a  helmet.)  The
name of an order of plants in Linnaeus's Fragments
of a Natural Method, consisting of plants wliicn have
flowers somewhat resembling a hehnel or hood.
  CORYLUS.  (Derivation uncertain: according fee-
some, from xapva, a walnut.)  1. The name of a genus
of plants in the Linnaean system.  Class, Monacia;
Order, Folyandria.
  2. The pharmacopceial  name of the hazel-tree.  See
Corylus avellana.
  Corylus avellana. The hazel-nut tree. The nuts
of this tree are much eaten in this country; they are
hard of digestion, and often pass the bowels very little
altered;  if, however, they are well chewed, they give
out a nutritious oil.  An oil is  also obtained from the
wood of this  tree, Corylus avellana stipulis ovatis,
obtusis, of Linnaeus;  wliich f.s efficacious against the
toothache, and is said to kill norms.
  CORYMBIFERiE.  (From eoryntbus ;  a species of
florescence,  and  fero, to bear.)  Plants  wliich bear
corymbal flowers.
  CORYMBUS.  (KopvpBov,  or xopvpBos, a branch
or cluster crowning the summit of a plant; from xopvs,
a helmet.)  A corymb.  That species of inflorescence
formed by many-flowers, the partial flower-stalks of
wliich are gradually longer, as they stand lower on the
common  stalk, so that all the flowers are nearly on a
level; as in Ihe Crysanthemum  corymbosum.  It is
said lobe simple, when not divided into branches; as
in Thlaspi arvense, and  Gnaphalium dentatum: and
compound, when  it has branches; as in Gnaphalium
stachas.
  Co'ryphe.   Kcpvtpn-   The vertex of the head.—
Galen.
  CORY'ZA.  (Kopvga; from capo, the head, and tcu,
to boil.)  An increased discharge of mucus from the
nose.  See Catarrh.  Dr. Good makes this a genus of
disease;  running at the  nose.  It has two species,
Coryia entonica, and atonica.
  Coscu'ma.   The grains of kermes.
  COSMETIC.  Cosmeticus.  A term  applied  to
remedies against blotches and freckles.
  Cosmos.   A regular series.  In Hippocrates it is tlie
order and series of critical days.
  Co'ssis.  A little tubercle  in the face, like the head
of a worm.
  Co'ssum.   A malignant ulcer  of the  nose, men-
tioned by Paracelsus.
  ('OSTA.  A  rib.  1. The rib of an animal.  See Ribs.
  ■i.  1 he thick middle nerve-like cord of a leaf, which
proceeds from iu base to the apex.   See  Leaf
  ^rfXn HKRBA-  Tlle Hypocharis radicata.
  COS TALIS. (From costa, a rib.)  Belonging to a
rib: applied to  muscles,arteries, nerves, Sec.
  Costa pulmonaria.  Very probably the Hypocharis
radicata, or long-rooted hawk-weed, which was  used
in pulmonary affections, and pains of the side.
  LOSIA'TUS.  Ribbed.  Applied to leaves, and is
synonymous with nervous: the leaf  haviii" simple
lines extended from the base to the point.  See Leaf.
  J-osto-iiyoideus.   A  muscle, so named  from ils
origin and insertion.   See Omohyoideus 
COU                                              CRA
  CO'STUS.   (From kasta, Arabian.)  The name of
   genus of  plants in the Linmean system.   Class,
 Monandria; Order, Monogynia.
  Costus amarus.  See Costus arabicus.
  Costus arabicus.   The systematic  name  of the
 Costus indicus; amarus; dulcis; oricntalis.   Sweet
 and bitter costus.  The  root of this tree possesses bit-
 ter and aromatic virtues, and  is considered  as a good
 stomachic.  Formerly there wx're two other sjxecies,
 the fritter aud sweet, distinguished for use.  Al present,
 the Arabic only is known, and that is seldom employed.
 It is, however, said to be stomachic, diaphoretic, and
 diuretic
  Costus corticosus.  The canella alba.
  Costus hortorum minor.  The Achillaa ageratum.
  Co.-tus nigra.   The artichoke.
  Cotaro'nium.  A word coined by Paracelsus, im-
 plying a liquor into which all bodies, nnd even their
 elements, may be dissolved.
  Co'-ris.  (From  xorlq, the  head.)  The back port
of the head : sometimes the hollow of the neck.
  COTULA.   (Cotula, diminutive of cos, a  whet-
stone, from the resemblance of its  leaves to a  whet-
stone ; or from xo^Xn, a hollow.)  Stinking chamo-
mile.
  ["Cotula.  Mayweed.  The anthemis cotula is an
 annual weed imported from  Europe, and now very
common by road sides throughout the United States.
 Its taste is strong,  disagreeable, and  bitter.   In  small
 quantities it is Ionic, stimulating,  and diaphoretic; in
 large ones emetic and sudorific.  It is commonly given
 in infusion."—Big. Mat. Med. A.]
  CO'TULE.  'KoniAri, ihe name of an old measure.)
 The socket of the hipbone.  See Acetabulum.
  Cottula foetida.  See Anthemis cotula.
  COTYLEDON.   (Cotyledon, onis. f.; from xorvXn,
 a cavity.)  Seed-lobe, or  cotyledon.  The cotyledones
 ate Ihe two halves of  a seed, which, when  germi-
 nating, become two pulpy leaves, called the seminal
 leaves.  These leaves are often  of  a different form
 from  those whicli  are  about to appear; us  in  the
 Raphanus salivus; and sometimes they are of an-
 other colour;  as  in  Cannabis sativa, tlie seminal
 leaves of which are white.
  Almost all the cotyledons wither and fall off, as the
 plant grows up.
  These bodies are spoken of  in the plural, because it
 it is  much doubted  whether  any plant can  be said lo
 have a  solitary cotyledon, so that  most plants are
 dicotyledonous.  Plants without any, are called  acoty-
 ledones.   Those with more  than two, polycolyledo-
 nous.
  Retween the two cotyledons  ofthe germinating seed,
 is seated the embryo, or germ  of the plant, called by-
 Linnaeus, corculum, or little heart, in allusion to the
 heart of the walnut.   Mr. Knight denominates  it the
 germen:  but that term is appropriated to a very dif-
 ferent part, the rudiment of the fruit.  The expanding
embryo, resembling a  little feather, has, for  that rea-
son, been called by Linnaeus, plumula : it soon becomes
a tuft of young leaves, with which the young stem as-
cends.  See Corculum.
  COTYLOID.  (Cotyloides;  from xorvXn, the  name
of an old measure, and eiios,  resemblance.)  Resem-
 bling the old measure,  or cotule.
  Cotyloid cavity.   The acetabulum.  See Innomi-
 natum os.
  COTYLOTDES.—See Cotyloid.
  COUCHING.  A surgical operation that consists in
 removing the opaque lens out of the axis of vision, by
 means of a needle constructed  for the purpose.
  Couch-grass.  See Triticum repens.
  COUGH.   Tussis.  A sonorous  concussion of the
 thorax, produced by the  sudden expulsion of the air
 from the chest through the fauces. See Catarrh.
  Co'um.  The meadow-saffron.
  COUNTER-OPENING.    Contra-apertura.    An
opening made in any part of an abscess opposite to
one already in it.   This is often done in order to  afford
a readier egress to the collected pus.
  Coup de soleil.   The  French  for  an erysipelas or
apoplexy, or any affection produced instantaneously
from a scorching sun.
  Cou'rap  (Indian.)  The provincial name of a dis-
ease of the skin common in Java, and other parts of
the  East  Indies, accompanied by a perpetual itching
and discharge of matter.
  Con rbaril.   The  tree which produces the ffum
anitno  See Animc.
  Couro'ndi.   An evergreen tree of India, said to be
antidysenteric.
  Couroy moelli.  A shrub of India, said to be anti-
venoinous.
  Cou'scous.   An African food, much used about the
river Senegal,   tt is a  composition  of the flour of
millet, with some- flesh, and what is there called lalo.
  Covoi.e'M.   See Cratava marmelos.
  COWIIACl',.   Sec Dolichospruriens.
  COW 1 Tl '11.  See Dolichos pniricns
  COW'lM-'.lt, Willi vm, was born about the middle of
the 17th century, and became distinguished as a  sur-
geon and anatomist iu this metropolis.  His first work,
entitled " Myotomia Relbrmata," in 1094, far excelled
any which  preceded  it on  that  subject in correct-
ness, though  since  surpassed  by Albinus.   Three
years after, he published at Oxford " the Anatomy of
Human Bodies," wilh  splendid  plates, chiefly  from
Bidloo; but forty of the figures were fiom  drawings
made by himself; he added also  some ingenious  and
useful anatomical and surgical  observations.  Having
been accused of plagiarism by Bidloo, he wrote an apo-
logy, called " Eucharistia;" preceded by a description
of some glands, near  the neck of the bladder, whicli
have been called by his  name.  He was also  author
of several communications to  the Royal Society, and
some observations inserted  in the anthropologia of
Drake. He died in 1710.
  Cowper's  glands.   (Cowpcri glandula ;  named
from Cowper, who first described them.)  Three large
muciparous glands of the male, two of which are situ-
ated before the  prostate gland  under the  accelerator
muscles of the urine, and the third more forward, be-
fore the bulb of the urethra.  They excrete a fluid,
similar to that of the prostate gland, during the vene-
real orgasm.
  Cowpe'ri glandule.  See Cowper's glands.
  COXA.  The ischium is  sometimes so called, and
sometimes the os coccygis.
  COXE'NDIX.  (From coxa, the hip.)  The ischi-
um ;  the hip-joint.
   Crablouse.   A species of  pediculus which infests
the axillte and pudenda.
  [The crab-louse is not a pediculus, but belongs to the
genus of acarus.  If the parts infested  by them be
washed with  an infusion of  tobacco, it will soon kill
these vermin.  A.]
  Crab-yaws.  A name in Jamaica for a kind of ulcer
on the soles of the feet, with  callous lips, so hard that
it is difficult lo cut them.
  ["CRAIK,  James, M.D.  Dr. Craik  was born in
Scotland, where he received bis education for the
medical ser\ ice- of the British army.   He came to the
colony of Virginia in early life, and had the nonour to
accompany Ihe youthful  Washington in his expedition
against the French and Indians in 1754, and returned
in safety after the battle of the  Meadows, and surren-
der of Fort Necessity.  In 1755, he attended Braddock
in his march through the wilderness, and on the 9th
of July, assisted in dressing the wounds of that brave,
but unfortunate commander.  At ihe  close  of the
French war, the subject of this article resumed  and
continued his professional labours till the commence-
ment  of the Revolution in 17"i.">.   By the  aid of his
early  and fast friend,  General Washington,, he was
transferred to  the Medical Department in  the Conii
nental army, and rose to the first rank and distinction.
In 1777, he"had au opportunity, which he gladly  em-
braced, to show his fidelity to his General,  aud  lo his
adopted country, by taking an  active part  in the de-
velopement of a nefarious conspiracy, the object of
which was the removal of the commander in  chief.
In 1780, he was deputed to visit  Count de ltocliam-
beau, then recently arrived at Rhode-Island, and to
make arrangements for the establishment of Hospitals
to accommodate the French army. Having performed
this difficult duty, he continued in the army to the end
of the war, and was present at the surrender of Corn
wall's, on the memorable 19th October, 1781.
  After the cessation of hostilities, the Doctor settled
as a physician  in Charles County, in Maryland, but
soon removed to the neighbourhood of his illustrious
friend and companion, the fanner of" .Mount Vernon,
at  his particular, repeated,  and  urgent  -vequest.   In
1798, when, like a guardian angel, the never lo be for 
CRA
CRl
gotten Washington again stepped forth to ledressthe
Wrongs  of his country; the venerable Craik was once
more appointed to his former station in the medical
staff".  With the disbandment of the army, then called
into service, ceased the public professional labours of
the subject of this memoir, whose life, for nearly half
a century, has been devoted with zeal and high repu-
tation to the cause of his country.
  One trying duty yet remained to be performed; it
was to witness  the closing scene, and to receive  the
last sigh of  his  revered  commander, the most distin-
guished  man of his age.  Their youthful commissions
had  been signed on  tlie same day; they had served
together  in  the ranks of war; their friendship was
cemented by a social intercourse of fifty years' continu-
ance, and they were greatly endeared to each other by
common toils, privations, and honours.  At length  the
moment of parting arrived; it was tender, affectionate,
solemn,  and  impressive.  In reference to  that.painful
event, tlie Doctor is said to have expressed himself in
this manner: "1, who was bred amid scenes of human
calamity, who had so often witnessed death in its direst
and most awful forms, believed that its terrors were
too familiar to my eye lo shake my fortitude; but when
I saw this great  man die, it seemed  as if the bonds of
my nature were rent asunder, and  that the  pillar of
my country's happiness had fallen to the ground."
  Asa physician,  Dr. Craik was greatly distinguished
by his skill and success, and  his professional merits
were  highly and justly appreciated.  In  the  various
relations of private life,  his character was truly esti-
mable, and his memory is precious to all who  had  the
happiness and the honour of his acquaintance.  He
was one, and what a proud eulogy it is, of whom  the
immortal Washington was pleased to write,  "my
compatriot in arms, my old and intimnte friend."  He
departed this life at the place of his  residence in Fair-
fax county, on the 6th February, 1814, in the 84th year
of his age."—Thach. Med. Biog.  A.]
  CRA'MBE.  (KpapSv, the name given by Dioscori-
des, Galen, and others, to the cabbage;  the derivation
is uncertain.)  The name of* a genus of plants in  the
Linnaean system.  Class, Tetradynamia; Order, Sili-
culosa.  Cabbage.
  Crambe maritima.  The systematic name for  the
sea-cole, or  sea-kale.   A  delicious vegetable when
forced and  blanched.  It is brought to table about
Christmas, has  a  delicate  flavour,  and is much  es-
teemed.   Like to all oleraceous plants, it is flatulent
and watery.
  CRAMP.   (From  krempen, to contract.   Germ.)
See Spasm.
  CRANESBILL. See  Geranium.
  Cranesbill, bloody.  See Geranium sanguineum.
  CKA'NIUM.  (Kcaviov, quasi xapavtov ;  from xapa,
the head.)  The skull or superior part of the head.
See Caput.
  Crante'res.   (From xnatvu, to perform.)  A name
given to the dentes snpiciitiae and other molares, from
their office of masticating the food.
  CRA'PULA.  (KpaiirvXa.) A surfeit; drunkenness.
  CRA'SIS.  (From xtpavvvut, to  mix.)   Mixture.
A  term  applied to the humours of the  body, when
there  is such an  admixture of their principles as to
constitute a  healthy slate:  hence, in dropsies,  scurvy,
&c. the crasis, or healthy mixture of the principles of
the blood, is said to be destroyed.
  Ciia'si'kdon.  (KpaeirecW, the hem of a garment;
from xpzaaot, to hnng down, and »rcrW, Ihe ground.)  A
relaxation of the uvula, when it hangs down in a thin,
long membrane, like the hem of a garment.
  CRASSAME'NTUM.   (From crassus, thick.) -See
Blond,
  Cll.VSSULA.  (From crassus,  thick:  so named
from  the thickness of its leaves.)  See Sedum tcle-
phium.
  CRAT^E'GUS.   (From xpofjos, strength: so called
from  the strength and hardness of its wood.)  The
wild service-tree, of which there are many, are all spe-
cies of the genus Prunus.  The fruits are most of them
astringent.                      „
  CHATEVA.   (So  called from Cratevas, a Greek
physician, celebrated by Hippocrates for his knowledge
»i  plants.)   The name of a genus  of plants.   Class,
Polyandria; Order, Monogynia.
  Crateva marmki.os.  The fruit is astringent while
unripe;  but when Hdc, of a delicious taste.  The bark
 ofthe tree strengthens the stomach, and relieves fly
 pochondriac languors.
  Crati'cijla.  (From crates, a hurdle.)   The bars
 or grate wliich covers Ihe ash-hole in a chemical fur-
 nace.
  CRATON, John, called also Crafftheim, was born
 at Breslaw in 1519.  He was intended for the church)
 but preferring the study of medicine, went to graduate
 at Padua, and then settled at Breslaw.  But after a
 few years he was called to Vienna, and  made physi-
 cian and aulic counsellor lo the Emperor Ferdinand I.:
 which offices also  he  held under the two succeeding
 emperors, and died in 1585.  His works were nume-
 roue: the principal are, " A Commentary on Syphilis;"
 " A Treatise on Contagious Fever;" another on " The-
 rapeutics ;" and seven volumes of Epistles  and Con-
 sultations.
   Cream of tartar.  See Potassa superlartras.
  CREMA'STER.  (From xptpato, to suspend.)  A
 muscle of the testicle, by which it is suspended, and
 drawn up and compressed, in the act of. coition.  It
 arises from Poupart's  ligament, passes over the sper-
 matic chord, and is lost  in the cellular membrane of
 the scrotum, covering the testicles.
  Cre'mnus.  (From  xpnpvos, a precipice, or shelving
 place.)   1. The lip of" «n ulcer.
  2. The labium pudendi.
  CRE'MOR.   1. Cream.  The oily part of  milk
 which rises to the surface of that liquid, mixed with a
 little curd and serum.   When churned, butter is ob
 tained.   See Milk.
  2. Any substance floating on the top, and skimmed
 off.
  CRENATUS.   Crenate or notched, applied  to a
 leaf or petal,  when the indentations are blunted or
 rounded, and not directed toward either end of the
 leaf;  as in Glccoma hederacea.  The two British spe-
 cies of Salvia are examples of doubly crenate leaves
 The petals of the Linum nsitatissimum are crenate.
  CREPITUS.  (From crepo, to make a noise.)  A
 puff or little noise.  The word is generally employed
 lo express the pothognamonic  symptoms of air being
 collected in the cellular membrane of the  body; for
 when air is in these cavities, nnd the part is  pressed, a
 little cracking noise, or crepitus, is heard.
  Crepitus lupi.  See Lycoperdon bocista.
  Crescent-shaped.  See Leaf.
  CRESS.  There are several kinds of cresses eaten
 at the table, and used medicinally, as antiscorbutics.
  Cress, water.  See Sisymbrium nasturtium aquati-
 cum.
  CRE'TA.  Chalk.  An  impure carbonate of lime.
 See Creta praparata.
  Creta prjeparate.   Take of chalk a pound ;  add
 a little water, and  rub it  to a fine powder. Throw
 this into a large vessel  full of water; then shake them,
 and after a little while pour the still turbid liquor into
 another vessel, and set it by that the powder may sub-
 side ;  lastly, pouring off the water, dry this powder
 Prepared chalk  is  "absorbent, and possesses antacid
 qualities: it is exhibited in form of electuary, mixture,
 or bolus,  in pyrosis, cardialgia, diarrhoea, acidities of
 the primae viae, rachitis, crusta lactea, See. and is said
 by some to be an antidote against white arsenic.
  Cretaceous acid.  See Carbonic acid.
  Crete, dittany of.  See Origanum dictamnus.
  CRETINISMUS.  Cretinism.  A species of Cyrto
 sis in Dr. Good's Nosology: a disease affecting chiefly
 Ihe head  and  neck; countenance vacant and stupid ;
 mental faculties  feeble,  or  idiotic; sensibility obtuse,
 mostly with enlargement ofthe thyroid gland.
  CRIBRIFO'RM.  (Cribriformis; from cribrum, a
 sieve, and form a, likeness; because it is perforated
 like a sieve.)   Perforated like a sieve.  See Ethmoid
 bone.
  CRICHTONITE.   A mineral named  after  Or.
 Cnchton, which Jameson  thinks is a new species of
 ,,t?,D1",1"  orc*   II is of n splendent velvet black colour.
  CRICO.   Names compounded of this wori belong
 to muscles which ftre nttached to the cricoid  cartilago
  Crico-aryt*noideus  lateralis.    Crico-latcrt
 anthenoidien of Dumas.  A muscle ofthe clottis, that
opens the rima by pulling the ligaments from each
 other.
  Urico-aryT/T-noideus posticus.   Crico-creli uri
thennidien of Dumas.  A  muscle of the glottis  thai
opens the rima glottidis a little, and by pulling'bacK 
CRI
CRO
^ne arytaenoid cartilage, stretches the ligament so as to
make it tense.
  Crico-pharvnge'Js.   See  Constrictor pharyngis
inferior.
  Crico-thypoidkus.   Crico-thyroidien of Dumas.
The lost of the  second  layer of muscles  between the
os hyoides and trunk, that pulls forward and depresses
the thyroid cartilage, or elevates and draws backwards
the cricoid cartilage.
  CRICOID.   (Cricoides; from xptxos,  a ring, and
tiros,  resemblance.)   A round ring-like  cartilage of
the larvnx is called the cricoid.  See Larynx.
  CRI AIN ODES.  (From xpipvov, bran.)  A term
applied to urine, which dcpusites a sediment like bran.
  Crina tus.  (From xptvov, the lily.)  A term given
to a sutfuinigation mentioned by P. .rEgineta, composed
chieflv of the roots of lilies.
  CRI N IS.  The hair.  See Capillus.
  Crinomy'ron.  (From *pivoi', a lily, nnd pvpov, oint-
ment.)  An ointment composed .chiefly of lilies.
  CRINONES.   (From crinis, the hair.)   Malis gor-
dii of Good.  Morbus pilaris  of Horst.  Malis d cr»-
nonibus of Elmuller and Sauvages.  Collections of a
sebaceous fluid  in the cutaneous follicles upon  the
face  and breast, whicli appear like black spots, and
when pressed out, look like small  worms, or, as they
are commonly called, maggots.
  Crio'oknes.  An epithet for certain troches, men-
tioned by P. jEgincta, aud wliich he commends for
cleansina ulcers.
  CR1PSO RCHIS.  (From *pvir7t*, to conceal, and
 pxts, a testicle.)  Having the testicle concealed, or
not yet descended from the abdomen into the scro-
tum.
  CRTSIS.  (From  koivio, to judge.)  The judgment.
The change  of symptoms in acute diseases, from
wliich the  recovery  or death  is  prognosticated or
judged of.
  Crispatc'ra.  (From crispo, to curl.)  A spas-
modic contraction or curling  of the membranes  and
fibres.
  CRISPU3.   Cutled.  Applied to a leaf, when the
border is so much more dilated than the disk, that it
necessarily becomes curled and twisted;  as in Malva
 crispa, Sec.
   CRISTA.  (Quasi cerista; from (repay, a horn, or
 carista; from  xapa, the head, as being on the top of
the bead.)   Any thing which  has tlie appearance of a
crest, or the comb  upon the  head of a  cock.  1. In
 anatomy it is thus applied to a process of the ethmoid
 bone, christa galtl, and to a  part  of  the nympha ;—
crista clitoridis.
   •2. In surgery, to excrescences, like the comb  of a
cock, about the anus.
  3. In botany, lo several accessary parts or appen-
dages, chiefly belonging to the anthers of plants; as
.he pod of the Hedysarum crista galli, Sec.
  Crista galli.  An eminence of the ethmoid bone,
so called from its resemblance to a cock's comb.   See
Ethmoid bone.
  ClllsTATUS.  Crested.  Applied to several parts
of plants.
   Cri'thamum.  See Crithmum.
  Cri'tiie.   (KpiOij, barley.)   A stye or tumour on
the eyelid, in the shape and of the size  of a barley-
corn.
   Crithe'rion.  (From Kptvta, to judge.) The same
as crisis.
   CRITHMUM. (From icpivw, to secrete; so named
from ils supposed virtues in promoting a discharge of
the urine and menses.)  Samphire or sea-fennel.
   Crithmum maritimum.   The  Linnaean  name of
the samphire or  sea-fennel.  Crithmum  of the phar-
macopoeias.  It is a low perennial plant, and grows
about the sea-coast in several parts of the island.  It
has a spicy aromatic flavour,  which induces the com-
mon people to use it as a pot-herb.   Pickled with vine-
gar and spice, it makes a wholesome and elegant con-
diment, which  is in much esteem.
   CRITHO'DES.  (From xpidi], barley,  and uinf, re-
semblance.)  Resembling a barley-corn.  Ii is applied
lo small protuoerances.
   CRITICAL.  (Criticus ; from crisis; from kcivio,
in judge.)  Determining the event of a disease.  Many
physicians have been of opinion,  that there is some-
thing in the nature  of fevers which generally deter-
 mines them to bo of a certain duration; and, therefore,
that their terminations, whether salutary or fatal, hop-
pen at certain periods of the disease, rather than at
others.  These periods, which were carefully marked
by Hippocrates, are called critical days.  The critical
days, or those on which we  suppose the termination
of continued fevers especially to happen, arc the third,
fifth, seventh, ninth, eleventh, fourteenth, seventeenth,
and twentieth.
  CROCIDINIS.  (From xpoxtiil<o, to gather wool.)
Floccilation.   A fatal  symptom in  some diseases,
where the  patient gathers  up the bed-clothes, and
seems to pick up substances from them.
  Cro'cinum. (From xpoxos, saffron.)   A mixture of
oil, myrrh, and saffron.
  Caoco'DBS. (From xpoxos, sutl'ion ; so called from
the quantity of saffron they contain.)  A name of some
old troches.
  Croooma oma. (From xpoxos, saffron, and  pay pa,
the thick oil or dregs.)   A troch made of oil of  sutfron
and spices.
  CRO CCS.  (Kpoitoc of Theophrastus.   The story
of the young  Crocus, turned into this flower, may be
seen in the fourth book of Ovid's Metamorphoses
Some derive this name from xpoxij or xpoxis, a thread
whence the stamens of flowers  are called xpoKiics
Others, again, derive it from Coriscus,  a city am!
mountain  of Cilicia, and others from crokin, Chald.)
Saffron.
  1. The name of a genus of plants in the Linnaean
system. Class, Triandria; Order, Monogynia.  Saf
Iron.
  2.  The pharmacopceial name of the prepared stig-
mata of the saffron plant.  See Crocus sativits.
  3.  A term given by the older chemists to several pre-
parations  of metallic substances, from their  resem-
blance : thus, Crocus martis, Crocus veneris.
  Crocus  antimonii.   A sulphuretted oxide of an-
timony.
  Crocus  oermanicus. See CartAnmiu.
  Crocus  indicus.  See Curcuma.
   Crocus  martis.   Burnt green vitriol.
   Crocus  metallorum.    A sulphuretted oxide ot
antimony.
   Crocus  officinalis.  See Crocus sativus.
   Crocus  saracenicus.  See Carthamus.
   Crocus  sativus.   The  systematic  name  of the
saffron plant.   Crocus:—spatha vnivalvi radicali,
corolla tubo longissimo, of Linna us.   Saffron has  a
powerful, penetrating, diffusive smell, and a warm,
pungent, bitterish ttistel  Many virtues were formerly
attributed to this medicine, butjittle confidence is now
placed in it.   The Edinburgh College directs a tincture,
and that of London a syrup of this drug.
  Crocus veneris.  Copper calcined to a red powder.
  Cro'mmyon.   (Hung to ras xopus pveiv, because  it
makes the eyes wink.)   Au onion.
  Crommyoxyre'oma.  (From xpoppvov,  an  onion,
ol-uc, acid, and pnywpi, to break out.)   An acid eruc-
tation accompanied with a taste resembling onions.
  CROONE, William,  was born in London, where
he settled as a physician, after studying at Cambridge.
In 1659, he was chosen rhetoric professor of Gresham
College, and soon after register of the Royal Society,
which then assembled there.  In 1662, he was created
doctor in medicine by mandate of the king, and the
same year elected fellow of  the Royal Society, and of
the College of Physicians.   In 1671), he was appointed
lecturer on anatomy  to the Company of Surgeons.
On his death, in 1684, he bequeathed them 1007.; bis
books  on  Medicine to the College of Physicians, as
also the profits of a house, for Lectures, to be read an
dually, on  Muscular Motion; and donations to seven
of the colleges at Cambridge, to found  Mathematical
Lectures.   He left several papers on philosophical sub-
jects, but his  onlv publication was a small tract, "De
Raltoue Motus Alusculoruin."
  CROSS-STONE.  Harmotome; Pyramidal  zeolite
A crystallized  grayish-white  mineral, harder  than
fluor-spar, but not so hard as apatite, found  only in
mineral veins and agate bolls in the Hartz, Norway,
and Scotland.
  CROTALUS.  The name of a genus of reptiles.
  Crotalus horridus.  The rattle-snake; the stone
out of the head  ol" which is erroneously said to be an
antidote to the poison of venomous animals.  A name
also of the Cobra de capella, the  Coluber naja of Lin-
naeus.
                                        571 
CRO
CRO
  Crota piiica arteria.  The tendon of the tempo-
ral muscle.
  CROTAPHl'TES.   (From xpofaGos, Die temple.)
See Temporalis.
  Crotaphium.  (From xpoTcto, to pulsate; so named
from the pulsation which in the temples is eminently
discernible.)  Crotaphos.  Crotaphus.  A pain in the
temples.
  Cro taphos.  See Crotaphium.
  Cro'taphus.  See Crotaphium.
  CROTCHET.  A curved instrument with a sharp
hoiek to  extract the foetus.
  CHO'TON.   (From xpojeto, to beat.)
  1. An insect called a tick, from the noise it makes by
beating its head against wood.
  2. A name of the ricinus or castor-oil berry, from its
likeness to a tick.
  3. The name of a genus of plants in the Linnaean
system.  Class, Monacia; Order, Monadelphia.
  Croton bknzok.   See Styrax benzoe.
  Croton cascarilla.   The systematic name of the
plant which affords the Cascarilla bark.  Cascarilla;
Chocarilla ; Elutheria; Eluteria.   The bark comes
to us in  quills,  covered upon the outside with a rough,
whitish  matter, and  brownish  on  the inner side, ex-
hibiting, when  broken, a smooth, close, blackisli-brown
surface.   It has a light agreeable smell, and a mode-
rately bitter taste, accompanied with a considerable
aromatic warmth.  It is a very excellent tonic, adstrin-
gent, and stomachic, and is deserving of a more gene-
ral use than it has hitherto met with.
  Croton lacciferum.   The  systematic name  of
the  plant  upon  wliich  gum-lac is deposited.   See
Lacca.
  Croton tiglwm.   The systematic name of  the
tree which  affords the pavana wood, and tiglia seeds.
Croton—foliis  ovatis glabris acuminalis serratis, caule
arboreo  of Linuueus.
  1. Pavana wood.  Lignum pavana; Lignum pava-
num; Lignum molucccnse.  The wood is  of a light
spongy  texture,  white within,  but covered with a
grayish  bark:  and possesses a pungent, caustic taste,
and a disagreeable smell.  It is said to be useful as a
purgative in hydropical complaints.
  2. Grana tiglia.   Grana tilli.  Grana tiglii.  The
grana tiglia are seeds of a dark gray  colour, in shape
very like the seed of the  ricinus  communis.   They
abound  with an oil which is far more purgative than
castor-oil, which has been lately  imported from  the
East Indies, where it has been long used, and is now
admitted into the London  pharmacopoeia.  One drop
proves a drastic purge, but it  may  be so managed
as to become a valuable addition to the materia me-
dica.
  [The  oil of  Croton is the produce of a shrub or
arborescent plant well known  to botanists, and the oil
when taken into the stomach acts as a powerful ca-
thartic.  The shrub belongs to the Class Monacia, and
Order, Monadelphia, of Linnreus's sexual system.
  Peisoon  enumerates  82 species of  this genus  of
plants.  The specific character of the Tilgium is, that
"The leaves are ovate, smooth, acuminated,serrated,
and the stem arborescent." It is a native of the East
Indies, China, and other Australasian islands.  Ceylon,
and the  Moluccas are particularly quoted as affording
this species of  Croton.   It is also well known in Am-
boyna and Batavia, and, indeed, generally through the
distant east. Several parts cf the plant possess medi-
cinal virtue.
  1. Radix, the root, or pulvis radicis croti. The pow-
dered root of Croton is a drastic cathartic, when exhi-
bited  iu the small quantity of even a few grains, on
whicli account it has been considered by the Asiatics
as a grand remedy for dropsy, upon the same principle
uy which the operation of scnminony and gamboge is
explained.                     . .         .....
  2.  The  Wood of the  Croton.  Lignum  croti  tiglii.
This  is also efficacious, for in small doses it acts as a
judorific, by relaxing Ihe pores  of the skin;  while in
large ones it purges severely.         „,.,,.
  3.  The Uavcs. Folia croti tiglii.  Pulvis foliorum
tiglii siccatonu.i. The dried  leaves when  powdered
are reputed an antidote against the bite of that formi-
dable and venomous serpent the CoDia de Capello.
  4.  The Seeds.  Semina vel grana croti tiglii.  1  hey
are the part of the plant most known and employed m
medicine.  They are or a date at least as old as the
      272
age of Serapion,one of the earliest physicians of Ara-
bia who wrote on the Materia Medica, and he flour
ished about 1000 years ago, or probably iu the 8th cen-
tury.  When they were introduced into Europe long
since, they were "known by the name of  " Molucca
grains or seeds, and as the grains or seeds of Tilium
or Tiglium.
  It appears that they were freely administered, not
merely for the purpose as a cathartic, but for the ac-
complishment of mischievous and deleterious ends. It
is  even staled  by the  accomplished Ruinphius, the
Dutch physician and  botanist,  that  a dose of four
grains had been administered for the working of de
struction by women  who wished  to kill  their hus-
bands.  Though the seeds were freely administered at
that age and after, the extreme violence of their opera
tion seems to have induced  a  very unfavourable opi
nion of them.   This no doubt arose from injudicious
doses; as, under similar circumstances, the digitalis
purpurea, or purple fox-glove, had undergone a similat
fate.  It had been frequently administered, and was
even popular, but  from the bad consequences of inju
dicious prescription, was condemned  as noxious, and
was neglected as unfit for use.   So, cubebs (aiiiomuni
cubeba) were once in use,  then discontinued lroui a
supposed want of power, and  latterly  revived and
rendered fashionable.  It nevertheless  appears, that
molucca grains  are still used  in the East Indies as ait
effectual cathartic.
  5.  The baked Seeds.  Semina  tosta vel furno cocta
The baked or roasted  seeds of  the Croton Tiglium
By these operations the shell or hull was removed, the
seed rendered capable of being powdered, and,  accord-
ing to Ainslie's Materia Medica of Hindostan, the
acrimonious and vehement qualities very  much mo-
derated.
  The medicinal history of this plant seems to have
rested a long time. At length, however, as the seeds
were  replete with oil, it occurred to somebody to ex-
press it, and this oil  was  known to the  celebrated
pharmacians, Lemery and Geotfroy.  Yet  it lay dor-
mant, until a revival was made by Mr. E. Conwell, of
the English East India Company's service on the Ma-
dras Establishment.   Having prescribed  the Crolon
oil for many years with advantage, he sent a parcel ol"
il to London fur experiment.
  6. The Oil of Tiglium,  or oil of Croton.  Oleum,
croti tiglii exprcssum.   The oil has a yellowish hue,
but a faint smell, and an  acrimonious taste.  Though
these qualities have some variation, caused probably
by the degree of heat, or torrefaction, employed in the
process for obtaining it.
  7. Gustus old tiglii.   Touching the tongue with
the oil.  It is reported, that in some constitutions the
mere  application  of  a particle  to the tongue, is suffi
cient to produce n cathartic  effect, thereby evincing an
extraordinary power of sympathy between the organ
of taste and the alimentary canal.  There are, how-
ever, very striking analogies  to illustrate  its action.
Tobacco, for example, in the form of a segar, applied
to the mouth of some persons, moves the intestines to
evacuation.  A drop of the Prussic acid applied to the
mouth of a rat causes instant death.  'The poison of a
rattlesnake,  as  witnessed by  Dr. Mitchill,  infused iu
a wound, destroys the life of a rat, or other small
animal  in an exceedingly short time.  It is reported,
that a man who had been in the habit of using enemas,
had been brought to a stool by  the sight of a clyster-
pipe.
  8. Pills of the Oil  of Tiglium.   Pillulae  olei  tiglii.
A  single drop, or at most two, is a sufficient dose.  A
safe method is to take tlie pills, to contain each one
drop, with a crumb of bread; or, for more expeditious
practice, the prescriber may piepare them  containing
two drops.  He can thus administer with an assurance
that the laxative effect will be produced without tlie
fear of exciting any  alarming commotion.   In cases
where there is an aversion to taking medicines, and
where the  bulk and repetition of the doses are objec-
tionable, this remedy therefore  possesses advantages
whicli highly recommend it.  The  quantity of even
half a drop, or in other words  half a grain, will fre-
quently move the intestines to dischaige;  and the ef-
fect, which is  generally speedy, more  resembles that
of the saline cathartics than the other drastics,  such as
elaterium, gamboge, and scammony.
  9.  Tincture  of the Oil of  Tiglium.  Solulio olei 
            «            CRU

 tlglH ir alcohol.  Chemistry has proved that tnis oil
 u composed of two  principal  constituent parts  1. A
 fixed oil, resembling that of  tlie olive, destitute of
 cathartic qualities; and, 2. An acrid purgative prin-
 ciple, in which its virtue resides. The proportions are
 stated by Dr. Niinmo thus,
            Fixed oil,............55 parts.
            Acrid principle,......45  do.

                                100
 The latter has been denominated Tiglin, in the modern
 nomenclature.   Alkohol is  capable of decomposing
 this native oil; the tiglin being dissolved with a minute
 quantity only of the fixed oil, and the rest of it left un-
 teombined.   This discovery enables us to form a tinc-
 ture upon a  well-ascertained principle.  It is accord-
 ingly  proposed to  form the tincture, by adding two
 drops of the oil (hs it comes to us) to a fluid drachm of
 rectified spirit.  After digesting long enough to secure
 the union between the spirit aud the tiglin, the tincture
 must be filtered.  Yet, as a fluid so volatile as the
 spirit will sutler  some loss by evaporation, it is calcu-
 lated that half a fluid drachm ofthe tincture is equal lo
 a drop and an half of the oil. It is found that the alko-
 hol does not impair the cathartic power of the tiglin.
 This solution may therefore be  exactly apportioned to
 the nature of the disorder, and  tlie wish of the physi-
 cian, and thus be regulated  with the greatest exact-
 ness.  If taken in quantity corresponding to ihe num-
 ber of drops decomposed, experience has decided that
 ;he same effects were produced as by the same quantity
 of undecomuaunded and entire oil.
  An article so expensive as this in comparison with
 other fixed oiis, holds out a  strong temptation for
 fraud by adulteration.  This has been practised to a
 considerable extent by  mixing it with  the cheaper
 kinds.   A method, however, has been proposed for de-
 lecting such vitiation by Dr. Niinmo, by lueansof alko-
 hol, a phial, u balance, and an  evaporating process, of
 which an abstract will be found in the Phannacologia
 of  Dr.  Paris,  vol. 2, p. 338. New-York edit,  by Dr.
 Ives.   This  writer's  opinion is, on the whole matter,
 " that this oil  does  not  appear to produce any effects
 which cannot be commanded  by other drastic purga -
 lives.   Ils value depends upon  the facility with which
 it may be  administered.—Notes from Dr. Mitchill's
 Lectures on Mat. Med.  A J
  Croton tinctorium.  The  systematic name of the
 I acinus plant.  Croton—foliis rhombeis repandis, cap-
 sulis pendutis, caule herbaceo, of Linnaeus.   Bezetta
 carulea. This plant yields the Succus kcliolropii;
 ljacmus sen torna; Lacca  carulea;  Litmus.   It is
 much used by  chemists as a test.
  Croto'ne.  (From xpofov, tlie tick.)  A fungus on
 trees produced by an insect like a tick; and  by meta-
 phor  applied to tumours and  small  fungous excres-
 cences ou the periosteum.
  Crotopus.  (From xporoz, pulsus.)  Painful pulsa-
 tion.
  Crotophium.  (From xporos, the pulse.)   Painful
 pulsation.
  CROUP.   See Synanchc.
  Crousis.  (From xpovui, to beat, or pulsate.)  Pul-
 sation.
  Crou'smata.  (From  xpovai, to pulsate.)  Rheums
 or defluxions from the head.
  CROWFOOT.  See Ranunculus.
  Crowfoot-cranesbill.  See  Geranium pralense.
  CRUCIAL.   (Crucialis; from crus, the  leg.)  I.
 Cross-like.   Some parts of  the body are so called
 when they cross one another, as tlie crucial ligaments
 of the thigh.
  2. A name of the mugweed or crosswort.
  CRUCIA  LIS.  See Crucial.
  CRUCIBLE.  (Crucibulum; from crucio, to tor-
 ment:  so named,  because,  in the  language of  old
 chemists, metals are tormented in it, and tortured, to
yield up their powers and  virtues.)  A chemical ves-
sel  made mostly of earth to bear the greatest heat.
They are of various shapes and composition.
  CRUCIFORM1S.  Cross-like. Applied to leaves,
flowers, Sec.  which have that shape.
  CRU'DITAS.  (From crudus, raw.)  It is applied
to undigested substances  in the  stomach, and formerly
to huniMurs iu the body unprepared for concoction.
  CRUICKSHANK,  Wil-iam,  was born at Edin-
nurgh, in 1746.  He was intended for the church, and
                                         S
                       CRY

 made great proficiency in classical  earning;  but
 showing a partiality to medicine, he was placed with a
 surgeon at Glasgow-.  In 1771, he came to London, and
 was soon after made librarian  to Dr. William Hunter;
 and, on the secession of Sir. Hewson, became assist-
 ant, and  then  joint  lecturer  in  anatomy, with  the
 Doctor.   He contributed largely to enrich the Museum,
 particularly by his curious injections of the lympathic
 vessels.   He published, in 1786, a work on this subject,
 which is highly valued for its correctness.  In 1795, he
 communicated to  the  Royal  Society  an  Account
 ofthe Regeneration ofthe Nerves; and the same yeai
 published a pamphlet on Insensible Perspiration; ana
 in 17D7, an Account of Appeaiances in the Ovaria of
 Rabbits  in different Stages  of Pregnancy.  He died
 in 1800.
  Cru'kion.  (From xpovvos, a torrent.*!   A medicine
 mentioned by Afltius, and named toe-in the violence of
 ils operations as a diuretic.
  CRU'OR.  (Fri'in Kpvos,frigus, it  being that which
 appears like a coagulum as ihe blood cools.)  The  rod
 part of the blood.  See Blood.
  CRU'RA.  The plural of crus.
  Crura  cutoruus.  See Clitoris.
  Crura  medulla; oblongata.  The roots of  Ihe
 medulla oblongata.
  CRUR.E US.  (From crus,  a  leg; so named,  he
 cause it covers almost the whole foreside of the upper
 part of the leg or thigh.)  Cruralis.   A muscle of the
 leg, situated on the forepart of the thigh.  It  arises,
 fleshy, from between the two trochanters of the os
 femoris, but nearer the lesser, firmly adhering to most
 of the forepart of the os femoris ;  and is inserted, ten-
 dinous, into the upper part of the patella, behind  the
 rectus.  Its use is to assist the vasti and rectus muscles
 in the extension of the leg.
  CRURAL.   (Cruralis;  from crus, the leg.)  Be
 longing to the crus,  leg, or lower extremity.
  Crural hernia.  See Hernia cruralis.
  CRURALIS.  See Cruraus.
  CRUS.  1. The leg.
  2. The  root  or origin of some" parts of the bony,
 from  llieir resemblance to a leg or root; as Crura ce-
 rebri, Crura cerebelli; Crura of the diaphragm, Set-
  CRUSTA.   1. A shell.
  2. A scab.
  3. The  scum or surface of a fluid.
  Crusta lactea.  A  disease that mostly  attacks
 some part of the  face of infants at the breast. It it
 known  by an  eruption  of broad  pustules, full of a
 glutinous  liquor, which  form whitescabs  when they
 are ruptured.  It is cured by mineral alteratives.
  Crista villosa.  The  inner coat of the stomach
 and intestines has  been so called.
  Crustci.a.   (Dim. of crusta, a shell.)   A discolo-
 ration of the flesh from a bruise, where the skin is en-
 tire, and covers it over like a shell.
  Crubtumina'tum.  (From Crustuminum, a town
 where they grew.)   1. A kind of Catherine pear.
 " 2. A rob or electuary made of this pear and apples
boiled up wilh  honey.
  Crymo'des.   (From xpvos, cold.)  An epithet "or a
fever, wherein the external parts are cold.
  CRYOLITE.   A while or  yellowish  brown  mi-
neral, composed of alumina, soda, and fluoric acid. It
is curious  and  rare, nnd found  hitherto only at Wesl
Greenland.
  CRYOPHORUS.   (From xpvos, cold, and <),ep.o, tn
bear.)  The  fro3t-bearer, or  carrier of cold ; au  ele
gant instrument invented by Dr. Wollaston, to demon
strate the relation between evaporation at low tempe-
ratures, and the production of cold.
  CRYPSO RCHIS.  (From icptiir7<o» to conceal, and
opxis, a testicle.)  A term applied to a man whose
testicles are hid in the belly, or have not descended into
the scrotum.
  CRY'PTA.   (From xpvirrui, to hide.)  The little
rounded appearances at the  end of the small arteries
of the cortical  substance of the kidneys, that appear
as if formed bv the  artery being convoluted upon it-
self.
  CRYPTOGAMIA.  (From xpvirrio, to conceal, and
yauos, a marriage.)  The twenty-fourth and last class
of'the sexual or Linnaean system of plants, containing
several numerous genera, in which the parts essential
to their fructification have not been sufficiently ascer-
laned to  admit of their being  referred to the other
                                        273 
CRY
CRY
"lass   It is divided by Linnaeus into four orders, Fi-
lices', Musci, Alga, and Fun^i.
  Cryso'rchis.  Kpuoopxis-  1- A retraction or retro-
cession of one of the testicles.
  2. See Crvpsorchis.
  CRYSTAL.  See Crystallus.
  CRYSTALLINE.  (Cnjstallinus; from its crystal-
like appearance.)   Crystai-like.
  Crystalline lens.  A  lentiform pellucid part of
the eye, enclosed in a membranous capsule, called the
capsule of the crystalline lens, and situated iu a pecu-
liar depression in the anterior part of the vitreous hu-
mour.  Its use  is lo transmit and refract the rays of
light.   See Eye.
  Cryhtalli'num   (From Kpv?aXXos, a  crystal: so
called from its transparency.)   White arsenic.
  CRYSTALLIZATION.    (Crystallizalio ;   from
crystallus, a crystal.)  A property by which crystal-
lizable bodies tend to assume a regular form, when
placed in circumstances favourable to  lhat particular
disposition of their  particles.    Almost all minerals
possess this property, but it is most eminent in saline
substances.  The circumstances which are favourable
lo the crystallization of salts,  and without which it
cannot take place, are two:  1. Their particles must he
divided and separated by a fluid, in order that the cor-
responding faces of those particles may meet and unite.
■2. In  order that this union may take place, the fluid
which separates the integrant parts of the salt must be
gradually  carried  off", so that il may no longer divide
them.
  [" Crystallization, in the most limited extent of the
term, is that process  by which the particles of bodies
unite in such a manner as to produce determinate and
regular solids.  But it is equally true, that those mine-
rals, which possess a foliated or fibrous structure, are
the products of crystallization, under circumstances
which have rendered the process more or  less  imper-
fect, and  prevented the appearance of distinct and
regular forms.
  The ancients believed crystallized  quartz  (rock
crystal) to be water, congealed  by exposure to intense
cold;  and accordingly applied to it the term Kpv$-aXXos<
whicli signified ice.  Hence the etymology  of the word
crystal.  Now, as a beautiful regularity of form is one
of the most striking properties of crystallized quartz,
the name crystal has been extended lo all mineral and
other inorganic substances, which exhibit themselves
under the form of regular geometrical solids.
  A crystal may  therefore be defined an inorganic
body, which, by the operation of affinity, has assumed
the form of a regular solid, terminated by a number
of plane and polished faces.  The corresponding faces
of all crystals, which possess the same variety of form,
and belong to the same substance, are inclined to each
other in angles of a constant quantity.  This  con-
stancy of angles remains, even in those cases where
the faces themselves, from some accidental causes,
have changed their dimensions or number  of sides;
Transparency, though many  crystals  possess it  in  a'
greater or less degree,  is not  a necessary property.
But  plane surfaces,  bounded  by  right lines,  are so
essential  to the crystalline form, that their absence
decidedly indicates imperfection in the process of crys-
tallization.  The lustre and smoothness of" the faces
may  also  be  diminished  by  accidental causes."—
CZeao. Min.  A.]
   CRYSTA'LLUS.  (Crystallus, i. in.; from xpvos,
cold, and etXXto, to contract: «. e. contracted by cold
into ice.)   A crystal.  "When fluid substances are
suffered to pass with  adequate slowness  to  the solid
Itate,  the  attractive  forces frequently arrange their
ultimate particles, so as to form  regular polyhedral
figures or geometrical solids,  to whicli the  name of
crystals  has been given.  Most of the solids  which
compose the mineral crust of the earth are  found in
the crystallized state.  Thus granite consists ol crys-
tals of quartz, felspar,  and  mien.  Even mountain
masses like clay-slate, have a  regular tabulated form.
Perfect mobility among  the corpuscles is essential to
crystallization.  The chemist produces it either by ig-
neous fusion, or by solution in a liquid.  W hen the
temperature is slowly lowered in the former case, or
the liquid slowly abstracted by  evaporation in the lat-
ter, the attractive  fori«. resume the ascendency, and
arrange the particles in symmetrical forms.  Mere ap-
 proximation of the particles, however, is not alone suf-
       274
flcient for crystallization.  A hotsaturateJ salinesoia-
tion, when screened  from all agitation, will contract
by cooling into a volume much smaller than what it
occupies in the solid state, without crystal'izing. Hem e
the molecules must not only be brought within a cer-
tain limit of each other, for their concreting into crys-
tals; but they must also change the direction of theii
poles, from the fluid collocation to their position in the
solid state.
  This reversion of the poles may be effected, 1st, By
contact of any part of the fluid with a point of a solid,
of similar composition,  previously formed.  2d,  Vi-
bratory motions communicated, either from the atmos-
phere or  any other moving body, by  deranging, how-
ever slightly,  the fluid polar direction, will instantly
determine the solid polar arrangement, when the ba-
lance had been rendered nearly even by previous re-
moval of the interstitial  fluid.   On this principle we
explain the regular figures whicli  particles of dust or
iron assume, when they are placed on  a  vibrating
plane, in the neighbourhood of electrized or magnetized
bodies.   3d, Negative or resinous voltaic electricity
instantly determines the crystalline arrangement, while
positive  voltaic  electricity counteracts it.   Light also
favours crystallization, as is exemplified with camphoi
dissolved in spirits, wliich crystallize? in bright and r»
dissolves in gloomy weather
  It might be imagined, that the same body would al-
ways concrete in the same, or at least in a similar crys-
talline form.  This position  is true, in general, for the
salts crystallized in the laboratory; and on this unifor-
mity of figure, one of the principal critwria between
different salts depends.   But even  these forms are lia-
ble to  many modifications, from  causes apparently
slight; and in nature we find  frequently the same
chemical substance  crystallized in forms apparently
very dissimilar.   Thus, carbonate of lime assumes the
form of a rhomboid, of a regular hexaSdral  prism, of
a solid terminated by lv! scalene angles, or of a dodeca-
hedron with pentagonal faces, &c.  Bisulphuret of
iron or martial pyrites produces sometimes cubes and
sometimes regular octoliedrons, at one lime dodeca
hedrons with pentagonal faces, at another icosahedrons
with triangular faces,&c.
   While one and the same substance lends itself to sc
many  transformations, we  meet with very differcnl
substances, whicli present absolutely  the same form
Thus fluate of lime, muriate of soda, sulphuret of iron,
sulphuret of lead, &c. crystallize in cubes, under  cer
tain circumstances;  and in other cases, the same mi
uerals, as well as sulphate of alumina and the  dia
mond, assume the form of a regular octohedron.
   Rome1 de I'lsle first referred the study of crystalliza
tion to principles conformable lo observation.   He ar-
ranged together, as far as possible, crystals of the saint
nature.  Among  the different  forms relative  lo eacl.
species, he chose one as the most proper, from Its sim
plicity, to be regarded as the primitive form; and by
supposing it  truncated in different ways, he deduced
tbe other forms from it,  and determined a  gradation, ii
series of transitions between this same form and tha
of polyhedrons, which seem to be still further remove*
from it.  To Ihe descriptions  and figures which hi
gave of the crystalline forms, he added Ihe results ot
the mechanical measurement of their principal angles
and showed  that these  angles were constant in eacl
variety.
  The illustrious Bergmann, by endeavouring to peno-
trate to  the mechanism of  the  structure  ol" crystals
considered the different forms relative to one and tht
same substance, as produced  by  a superposition of
planes, sometimes  constant and sometimes variable
and decreasing  around  one and the same primitive
form.  He applied this primary idea lo a small nunibci
of crystalline forms, and  verified it with  respect  to a
variety of calcareous spar by fractures, wliich enabled
him to ascertain the position of the  nucleus, or ofthe
primitive form, and the successive order of the laminie
covering ihis nucleus.   Bergmann, however, stopped
here, and did not trouble himself cither with deter-
mining the laws of structure, or applying calculation
to it.  It was a simple sketch of the most prominent
point of view in  mineralogy, but iu which we see th«
hand of the same master who so sucrixfully fill-.d up
tlie outlines of chemistry.
   In the researches which Haiiy undertook, about the
same period, on the structure of crystals,  he proposed 
CUC                                            CUL
Soiiibining the form an 1 dimensions of integrant mole-
cules with simple and regular laws of arrangement;
and submitting these laws to calculation.  This work
>roduced a mathematical theory, which he reduced to
analytical formuke, representing  every possible case,
»nd the application of which to known forms leads to
valuations of angles, constantly  agreeing with ob-
servation."—Urc'sChem. Diet.
  2.  An eruption over the body of white transparent
iiirslules.
  j," Crystallography.  Of the pliysical properties
of minerals, no one is so important in itself, and ex-
tensive  in its influence  and application, as thai oy
which crystals or regular solids are produced.  To iu
vestigate and describe these solids is the object of crys-
tallography, and constitutes, without doubt, the most
interesting branch of mineralogical research."—Clcav.
Mineralogy.   A.]
  Cte'dones. (From xjijiuiv, a  rake.)  The fibres
are so called from their pectinated course.
  Ctkis.  Kteic.   A comb or rake.  Cleric.*, in the
plural number, implies those teeth which  arc called
incisores, from their likeness to a rake.
  CUBE ORE Hexaedral oliveuite.  Wurfelen of
Werner.  A mineral arseniate of iron, of a pistachio-
green colour.
  CUBE SPAR.  See Anhydrite.
  CUB EB. See Piper tubeba.
  CUBEBA.   (From cubabah, Arab.)   Sre Piper
cnbtba.
  CcBiT.tus  externus.   An extensor muscle of the
Sngers.  See  Extensor digitorum communis.
  Cubitjeus  internus.   A flexor muscle of the fin-
gers.  See Flexor sublimis, and profundus.
  CUBITAL.  (Cubitalis; from  cubitus, the fore-
arm.)  Belonging to tlie forearm.
  Cubital artery.  Arteria cubitalis;  Antcria ul-
naris.  A branch of the brachial that proceeds in the
forearm, and  gives off the recurrent and interosseals,
and  forms tlie  palmary  arch,  from which arise
branches going to the fingers, called digitals.
  Cubital nerve.   Nervus cubitalis ; Nervus ul-
naris.  It arises from Ihe brachial  plexus, and pro-
ceeds along tbe ulna.
  Cubitalis  musculus.  An extensor muscle of the
fingers. See  Extensor.
   CU'BITUS.  (From cubo, to lie down,  because the
ancients used to fie down on that part at their meals.)
1. The forearm, or that  part between the elbow and
wrist.
  2. The larger bone ofthe forearm is called os cubiti.
See  Ulna.
  CUBOIDES OS.  (From xv6os, a cube or die, and
nios, likeness.) A tarsal bone of the foot, so called
from its resemblance.
  CUCKOW  FLOWER.  See Cardamine.
  CUCU'BALUS.  The  name of  an  herb mentioned
by Pliny.  The name of a genus or family of plants in
the Linnaean system.  Class, Decandria; Order Try-
gynia.
  Cucubalus bacciferus.  The systematic name of
the berry-bearing  chick-weed,  which is  sometimes
used as an emollient poultice.
  C-3cubai.us behen. The systematic name of the
Behen officinarum, or spatling poppy, formerly used as
a cordial and  alexipharmic.
  CUCULLA'RIS.   (From cucullis, a  hood:   so
named, because it is  shaped like a hood.)  See Tra-
pezius.
  CUCULLATUS.  Hooded.   Applied  to a  leaf,
when the edges meet in the lower  part, and expand in
the upper, forming a  sheath or hood, of which the
genus Sarcacenia arc an example; to the nectary of
the aconite tribe, be.
  CUCU'LLUS.  1. A hood.
  2.  An odoriferous cap for the head.
  CUCUMBER.  See Cucumis.
  Cucumber,  bitter.  See Cucumis colocynthis.
  Cucumber,  squirting.  See Momordica elaterium.
  Cucumber, wild.  See Momordica elaterium.
  CU'CUMIS.  (Cucumis, mis. m.; also cucumer, ris.;
quasi curvimeres, from their curvature.)  The cucum-
ber.  1. The  name of a genus of plants in the Lin-
naean system.   Class, Monacia; Order, Syngcnesia.
The cucumber.
  t. The pharmacopceial  name of the garden cucum
ber.  See Cncumis sativus.
                                       S 3
  Cucumis agrestis.  See Momordica clatenvt*
  Cucumis asininus.  See Momordica elaterium.
  Cucumis colocynthis.  The systematic name for
the officinal bitter apple.  Colocynthis; Alhandula of
the Arabians.   Coloquintida.   Bitter apple; bittei
gourd; bitter  cucumber. The fruit, which is  the me
dicinal part of this plant, Cucumis—foliis multifidia,
pomis globosis glabris, of Linnams,  Is imported from
Turkey.  Its  spongy  membranous  medulla  or pith, is
directed for use; it  has  a nauseous, acrid,  and in-
tensely bitter taste;  and  is a powerful irritating c.i
thartic.  In doses of ten or twelve grains, it operatfh
with great vehemence, frequently producing violent
gripes, bloody stools,  nnd disordering the whole sys-
tem.  It is recommended in various complaints, at
worms, mania, dropsy, epilepsy, &c.; but  is seldom
resorted to, except whore other more mild remedies
have been used without success, and  then only in the
form of the extractum colocynthidis  compositum, and
the pilula ex colocyntkide cum  aloe of the pharmaco-
poeias.
  Cucumis melo.  The systematic name of  the me
Ion plant.   Melo.  Musk-melon.  This fruit, when
ripe, has a delicious  refrigerating taste, but must be
eaten  moderately, with pepper, or some aromatic, as
all  this class  of  fruits are obnoxious to the stomach,
producing spasms and colic.  The seeds possess muci-
laginous qualities.
  Cucumis sativus.   The systematic name of the cu-
cumber plant. Citcumis.  Cucumis—foliorum angu-
lisreclis; pomis oblongis scabris of Linnaeus.   It  is
cooling  and  aperient, but very apt  to disagree with
bilious stomachs.  It should always be eaten with pep-
per and oil.  The seeds  were formerly used medi-
cinally.
  Cucumis sylvestris.  See  Momordica elaterium.
  Cu'cupha.   A hood.  An odoriferous cap for the
head, composed of aromatic drugs.
  CUCU'RBITA.  (A  curvitate, according to Scali-
ger, the first syllable being doubled; a£ in Cacula, Po-
pulus, Sec.)   1.  The name of a genus of plants in the
Linnaean system.  Class, Monacia; Order, Syngene
sia.  The pumpion.
  2. The pharmacopceial name ofthe common gourd
See Cucurbita pepo.
  3. A chemical  distilling vessel, shaped like a gourd.
  Cucurbita citrullus.  The systematic  name of
the water-melon plant.  Citntllus;  Angura;   Jace
brasilientibus;  Tetranguria.   Sicilian citrul, or wa-
ter-melon.  The seeds of this plant, Cucurbita—foliis
multipartitis  of Linnaeus, were formerly used medi-
cinally, but now only  to reproduce the plant.   Water-
melon is cooling and somewhat nutritious;  but so
soon begins to ferment, as to prove highly noxious to
some stomachs, and bring on spasms, diarrhoeas,  cho-
lera, colics, &c.
  Cucurbita lagenaria.  The systematic name of
the bottle-gourd plant.  See Cucurbita pepo.
  Cucurbita pepo.  The  systematic name of the
common pumpion or gourd.  Cucurbita, The seeds
of this plant, Cucurbita—foliis lobatis, pomis lavibus,
are used indifferently with those ofthe Cucurbita lage-
naria—foliis subangulatis, tomentosis, basi subtus bi-
glandulosus ;  pomis lignosis.  They contain a  large
proportion of  oil, which may be made into emulsions;
but is superseded by that of sweet almonds.
  Cucurbitace.e.  (From cucurbita, a gourd.)   The
name of an order of Linnaeus's Fragments of a Natural
Method,, consisting  of plants  which resemble the
gourd.
  CUCURBI'TINUS.  A species of worm, so called
from  its resemblance to the seed of  tlie gourd.   See
Tania.
  CUCURBI'TULA.   (A diminutive of cucurbita, a
gourd ; so called from Its shape.)  A  cupping-glass.
  Cucurbitula cruenta.   A cupping glass,  with
scarification to procure blood.
  Cucurbitula  cum fERRO.   A cupping-glass, vr'tti
scarification to draw out blood.
  Cucurbitula sicca.  A cupping-glass  without
scarification.
  CUE'MA.   (From xvio, to  carry  in the  womb;
The conception, or rather, as Hippocrates signifies by
this word, the complete rudiments ofthe foetus.
  Culbi'cio.  A sort  of stranguary, of rather heat of
urine.
  Culila'wak.   See  Laurus culilawan.
                                       275 
CTJL                                            CUP
  CULl'NARY. (Culinanus, fromculina,'a kitchen.)
Any thing belonging to the kitchen, as salt, pot-herbs,
iiC
  CULLEN,  William,  was born at Lanark,  Scot-
land, in 1712, of respectable, but not wealthy parents.
After the usual  school education, he was apprenticed
lo a surgeon  and apothecary at Glasgow,  and  then,
r>iade several voyages, as surgeon, to the West Indies.
He afterward settled  iu  practice  at  Hamilton, and
formed  a  connexion with  the celebrated  William
Hunter; but their business being scanty, they agreed
to pass a w inter alternately at sonic university.  Cul
leu went first to Edinburgh, aud attended the classes so
diligently, that he was soon  after  able to commence
teacher.  Hunter came the next winter to London,
and engaged as assistant in the dissecting-room of Dr.
William Douglas, who was so pleased with his assi-
duity and talent, as to offer him a share in his lectures:
but though the partnership with Cullen was thus dis-
solved,  they continued ever after a friendly corres-
pondence.  Cullen had the good fortune, while at Ha-
milton,  to assist the Duke of Argyle in some chemical
pursuits: and still more  of being sent for to Ihe Duke
of Hamilton,  in a sudden alarming illness, which he
speedily relieved by his judicious treatment, and gain-
ed the entire approbation of Dr. Clarke, who afterward
arrived.  About the same time he  married Ihe daugh-
ter of a neighbouring clergyman, who bore him seve-
ral children.  In 1746 he took the degree of doctor in
medicine, and was appointed teacher of chemistry at
Glasgow.  His talents were  peculiarly fitted for this
office;   his systematic genius,  distinct  enunciation,
lively manner, and extensive knowledge of the subject,
rendered his lectures highly interesting.   In the mean
lime his reputation as a physician increased, so that
he was consulted in most difficult  cases.  In 1751, he
was chosen professor in  medicine to the university ;
and, five years after, the chemic.il chair at Edinburgh
was offered him, on the death of Dr. Pluiumer, which
was too advantageous to bo refused.  He soon became
equally popular there, and his class increased, so as to
exceed  that of any other professor, except  the anato-
mical.   This success was owing not only to his assi-
duity, and his being so well qualified for the office, but
also in a great  measure to the kindness which he
showed to his pupils, and partly to the new Views on
the Theory of Medicine, which he occasionally intro-
duced  into his  lectures.  He appears also, about this
time, to have given Clinical Lectures at the infirmary.
On the death of Dr. Alston, Lecturer on ihe Materia
Medica, he was appointed to succeed him: and six
years afterward, jointly with Dr.  Gicgory, to lecture
on the Theory and Practice- of Medicine, when  he re-
signed the Chemical Chair lo his pupil, Dr. Black.  Dr.
Gregory having died the following year, he continued
the Medical Lectures alone, till within  a few months
of his dealh, whicli happened in February 17SJ0,  in his
seventy-seventh year; nnd he is said, even at the last,
to have shown no deficiency in his delivery, nor in his
memory, being accustomed to lecture from short  notes.
His  Lectures on the Materia Medica being surrepti-
tiously printed, he obtained an injunction against their
being issued until he had corrected them, which was
accomplished in H~i2: but they were afterward much
improved, and  appeared in  I7WI, in  two quarto vo-
lumes.  Fearing a similar fate to his Lectures on Me-
dicine, he published an outline of them in 1784, in four
volumes, octavo, entitled  " First Lines of the Practice
of Physic."  He wrote also the " Institutions of Me-
dicine,"  in one volume, octavo:   and a "Letter to
Lord Cathcart,  on the Recovery of drowned Persons  "
But his most celebrated woik is his " Synopsis  Noso-
logic Mcthodicae,"  successively improved in different
editions;  the fourth, published in 1785, in two octavo
volumes, contains the Systems of otlier Nosologists till
 giut period, followed by his own, which certainly, as a
[-.radical  arrangement of diseases, greatly surpasses
 ibein.
   (T'LMUS.  Culm.   Straw  The stem of grasses,
rushes, and plants nearly allied to them.   It bears both
leaves and flowers, nnd its  nature is more easily un-
derstood than defined.  Its varieties arc,
   1. Culmus teres, round; as in Carcx uliginosa.
   2 C. tetragonus ;  as in Festuca ovina.
   3. C. triangularis; as in Eriocaulon triangularo,
   4. C. capillaris; as in  Scirpus capillaris.
   5. C. prostratus; us in Agrostis canina.
       ii70
  R. C. repens; as in Agrostis slolonifere,
  7. C. nudus. as in Carcx montana.
  8. C. enodis, without joints; as in Juncus conglo
meratus.
  9. C. articulatus, jointed;  as in Agrostis alba.
  10.  C. gemculatus, bent tike the knee; as in Ale
pecurua geniculatus.
  It is also eilher solid or nollow, rough or smooth,
sometimes hairy or downy, scarcely woolly.
  Culmifer^e.   Plants  wliich  have  smooth  sof
steins.
  CULPEPF.R, Nicholas, was the  son of a clergy
man,  who put him apprentice to an apothecary;  aftei
serving his time, he settled  in Spitalfields,  London.
about the year 1042.  In the troubles prevailing at that
period, he appears lo have favoured the Puritans; but
his decided  warfare was with the  College of Physi-
cians, whom he accuses of keeping the people iu igno-
rance like the Popish clergy.  He therefore published
a translation  of their Dispensary, with  practical re-
marks ; also au Herbal, pointing out, among other mat-
ters, under what planet the plants should be gathered;
and a directory to midw ives, showing the method of
ensuring a healthy progeny, See.  These work.-,  were
for some time popular.  He died in 1654.
  CU'LTER.  (From colo, to cultivate.)
  I. A knife or shear.
  2. The third  lr.be of  the liver is  so called from its
supposed resemblance.
  CU'LUS.    (From xovXo}.)  The anus or funda
in cut.
  Cu'mamus.  Sec Piper cubeba.
  CUMIN.  See  Cuminum,
  CU'MINUM.   (From xvia, to bring forth; because
it was said to cure sterility.;
  1. The name of a genus of plants  in  the  Linnaean
system.   Class, Heptandria; Order, Digynia.   The
cumin plant.
  2. The pharmacopoeia! name of the  cumin  plant.
See Cuminuin cyminum.
  Cuminum  -*thiopicum.  A name for tlie ammi ve-
lum.   See Sison ammi.
  Cuminum  cyminum.    The systematic name of the
cumin plant.   Cuminum; Faniculum  orientate.  A
native of Egypt aud  Ethiopia, but cultivated in Sitily
and Malta, from whence it is  brought to us.  The seeds
of cumin, which are the  only part of the plant in use,
have  a bitterish  taste, accompanied with an aromatic
flavour,  but not  agreeable.   They are generally pre-
ferred lo other seeds  for external use in eliscussing in-
dolent tumours, as the encysted scrofulous, Sec. and
give name both to a plaster and cataplasm in the  phar
mucopceias.
  Cunea'dis sutura.  The  suture by which the os
sphenoides is joined to the os frontis.
  CUNEIFORMIS.   (From cuncus, a wedge, and
forma, likeness.)  Cuneiform, wedge-like.   Applied
to bones, leaves, &c. which are broad and abrupt a!
the extremity.  See Sphenoid bone;  Tarsus, and Car
pus;  Leaf; Pctalum.
  Cunk'olus.   (From cuhco, to wedge.) A crooked
tent to put into a fistula.
  ["Cinila.  Pennyroyal.   The plant called penny-
royal, in England, is a  species of mint, Mentha pitlc-
gium; while  the American  plant, which  bears  the
same common appellation, belongs  to  the genus Cii-
nila, of Linnaeus, and Hedeoma, of Persoon.  Ameri
can pennyroyal is a warm aromatic, possessing a pun
gent flavour, which is common to many ofthe labiate
plants of other genera.   Like them, it is heating, car-
minative, and diaphoretic.   It is in popular repute a:*
an eiuiuetidgogue."—£ijr. Mat. Med.  A.)
   Cup of the flower.  See Calyx.
  CUPEL.    (Kuppel, a cup, German.)   Copclla;
Catcllus cinereus ,• Cincritium ; Patella docimastica;
Testa probatrix, exploralrix, or docimastica.  A shal-
low earthen vessel like a cup, made of phosphate of
lime,  which suffers the baser metals to pass through it,
when exposed to heat,  and retains the pure  metal.
This  process is termed cupellntion.
   CUPELLATION.  Cupcllatio.   The purifying of
perfect metals by means of mi addition of lead, w Inch,
at a  due heat,  becomes vitrified,  and promotes the
vitrification and calcination  of such imperfect metals
as may be in the mixture, so  that these last are carried
oti° in the fusible glass  that is formed, and fie |ierfect
metals arc left nearly pure.  The name of mis opera 
CUT*                                             CUS
tion is taken Ironi the ve vtls made use of, which are
called cupels.
  Cii'phos.  Kovtpas-  Light.   When applied to ali-
menis, it imports their being easily digested; when to
distempers, that they are mild.
  LCuppino.   Topical bleeding.   "This  is done by
means of a scarificator, and a glass, sliaped somewhat
like a bell.  The scarificator is an instrument contain-
ing  a number  of lancets, sometimes  as many  as
twenty, which are so contrived, that when the instru-
ment is applied to any part of the surface ofthe body,
and it spring is pressed, they suddenly start out, and
make the necessary punctures.  The instrument is so
constructed, that the depth, to which the  lancets pe-
netrate, ma.) be made greater or less, at the option of
the  practitioner.  As  only  small vessels can he thus
opened,a very inconsiderable quantity of blood would
be discharged, were not some  method taken to pro-
mote the evacuation.  This is commonly done with a
cuppinit-ielass, the air within ihe c.iviiy of which is
rarefied by the flame of a little lamp, containing spirit
of wine, and  furnished with a thick wick.   This plan
is pre lei able  to that of setting on  fire a piece of tow,
dipped in this fluid, and put in the cavity of the glass.
The larger the  glass,  if property exhausted, the less
(tain does the natient suffer, and the more  freely does
the blood flow.  When the mouth of the glass is placed
over the  scarifications, and the rarefied air iu it be-
comes condensed as it cools, the glass is forced down
on the skin, and a considerable suction takes place."—
Cooper's Surg. Diet.  A.)
  CUPRE SSI'S.  (So railed, avo tou xvtiv ir uptown
roue axptpovas, '->ecause it  produces equal  branches.)
Cypress.
  1. The name of a genus of plants  in the Linnaean
system.   Class, Monacia;  Order, Monadelphia.   The
cypress-tree.
  2. 'The  pharmacopceial  name of the cypress-tree.
See Cuprcssus sempervirens.
  Cupressus sempervirens.  The systematic name
of the cupressus of the shops.  Cuprcssus—foliis im-
bricatis  squamis quadrangulis,  of  Linnaeus; called
also  cyparissus.  Every part of  the plant abounds
with a  bitter, aromatic, terebinthinate fluid; and is
said to lie a remedy against intermittents.  Its wood is
extremely durable, and constitutes the cases of Egyp-
tian  mummies.
  Cupri ammomati liquor.  Solution of ammoni
ated copper.  Aqua cupri ammomati of Pharm. Loud.
1787, and formerly called Aqua sapphirina.  Take of
ammoniated copper, a drachm; distilled water, a pint.
Dissolve the  ammoniated  coppenrin  the  water, and
filter the solution through paper.  This preparation is
employed by surgeons for cleansing foul ulcers, and dis-
posing them to heal.
  Cupri  rubigo. Verdigris.
  Ccpri  sulphas.  Vttriolum cupri; Vitriolum cm-
rvltum ;  Vitriolum Romanum ; Cuprum vitriolatum.
Sulphate of copper.   It possesses acrid and styptic
qualities;  is esteemed  as a tonic, emetic, adstringent,
and escharotic, and is  exhibited internally in the cure
of dropsies, haemorrhages, and as a speedy emetic. Ex-
ternally it is applied to stop hemorrhages,  to hemor-
rhoids, leucorrhrjea, phagedenic ulcers,proud flesh, and
condylomata.
  CUPRUM. (Quasi as  Cyprium;  so called from
the island of Cyprus, whence it was formerly brought.)
Sec Copper.
  Cuprum ammoniacalk.    See  Cuprum ammonia-
turn.
  Cuprum ammoniatum. Cuprum ammoniacale. Am-
moniated copper.   Ammoniacal sulphate of copper
Take of sulphate of copper, half an  ounce; subcar
bonate of ammonia, six  drachms; rub them toge'her
in a glass  mortar, till the  effervescence ceases: then
dry the ammoniated copper, wrapped up  in bibulous
paper, by a gentle heat.  In this process the carbonic
acid is expelled from the ammonia, which forms a
triple compound with the sulphuric acid and oxide of
copper.   This preparation is much  milder than the
sulphate of copper.  It is found to produce tonic and
astringent effects on the human body.  Its principal
internal use has been in  epilepsy, and other obstinate
spasmodic diseases, given  in doses  of hMf a grain,
gradually increased to five grains or more, two or three
limes a day.  For its external application, see Cupri
immoniati liquor.
  Cuprum vitriolatum.  See Cupri sulphas.
  CUPULA.  An  accidental  part of a seed, being a
rough calyculus. surrounding the lower part of a gland
as lhat ut  the oak,  of which it is the cup.
  Cura av waci:a.  A decoction of oats and succory
roots, in  which a  little nitre and  sugar  were dis-
solved, wau  formerly used in fevers,  and  was  thus
named.
  Cu'rcas.  See Jatropha curcas.
  Cv bculio.  (From f.arkarah, Hebrew.)  Thethrost
and the nspern arteria.
  [Also the name of a genus of coleopterous insect,
according to Linnaeus's system.  A.]
  Cv R( I'M.  See Chelediinium majus.
  CURCU'.MA.  (From the Aiabic r.urcumorhcrcum.)
Turmeric.   1.  The name of a genus of plants in the
Linua an system.  Class, Monandria ; Order, Mono-
gynia.
  ■2.  The pharmacopceial name of the  turmeric-tree
See Cm re tint <i longa.
  Curcum* LONoe.   The systematic  name of the
turmeric plant.  Crocus Indicus;  Tcrramarita;  Can-
Hiicorus radice crocro;  Curcuma  rotunda; Mayella;
Kua kaha of the Indians.  Curcuma—foliis lanceola-
tis;  ncrvis  laicralibus  nuirierossiinis  of  Linna-us.
The  Arabians  call  every root of a saffron  colour by
the name  of curcitm.  The root  of  this plant is im-
ported here in its dried slate from the East Indies, in
various forms.   Externally it is of a pale yellow colourj
wrinkled, solid, ponderous, and the inner substance ot
a deep saffron or gold colour: its odour is  somewhat
fragrant; to the  taste it  is bitterish, slightly acrid, ex-
citing a moderate degree of warmth in the mouth, and
on being chewed, il tinges the saliva  yellow.  It is an
ingredient in the composition of Curry  powder, is
valuable as a dying dru  and furnishes a chemical
test of the presence of uncombined alkalies.  It is now
very seldom used medicinally, but retains  a  place in
our pharmacopoeias.
  Ci rcuma rotunda.  Sec  Curcuma longa.
  CURD.  Thecoagulnm, which separates  from mil's.
upon the addition of acid or other substances.
  ["Curette.  (French.)   An  instrument shapjd
like  a minute spoon, or scoop, invented by Daviel, and
used in the extraction of the cataract, for taking away
any  opaque matter, which may remain behind the pu
pil, immediately after  the crystalline has been taken
out."—Cooper's Surg. Diet.   A.]
  Curled leaf.  See Leaf.
  CU'RMI.  (From xtpato, to mix.)   Ale.  A drink
made of barley, according to Dioscorides.
  CURRANT.  See Ribes.
  Cu'rsuma.  Curtuma. The Ranunculusficaria of
Linnaeus.
  Cursu'ta.  (Corrupted from cassuta, kasuth,  Ara-
bian.)  The root of the  Gentiana purpurea  of  Lin-
naeus.
  Curva'tor  coccygis. A  muscle bending  the coc-
cyx.   See Coccygcits.
  CURVATUS.  (From curvus,  a curve.)  Curvate,
bent.  Applied to the form of a pepo or gourd seed-
vessel ; as iu Cucumifiexuosus.
  CUSCUTA.  (According to Linnaeus, a  corruption
from the  Greek Kaovfas, or Ka<Su7afi which is from
the Arabic Chessuth, or  Chasuth.)   Dodder.  1.  The
name of a genus of plants in the Liunaeaii  system.
Class, Tetrandria ; Order, Digynia.
  2.  The pharniaco[>ceial name  of dodder of thyme.
See Cuscuta epithymum.
  Cuscuta  epithymum.  The systematic name  ol
dodder of thyme.  Epythymum.   Cuscuta—foliis ses-
siltbus,  quinquifidis, bracteis obvallaiis. A parasiti-
cal plant, possessing a strong disagreeable  smell, and
a pungent taste, very durable  in the  mouth.  Recom-
mended in melancholia, as cathartics.
  Cuscuta  europ.ea.   The  systematic name of a
species of dodder of thyme.  Cuscuta—fioribus sessi-
libus, of Linnaeus.
  CUSPA'RIA.  The  name  given by  Messrs. Hum-
boldt and Bonpland to a genus of plants in which Is
the tree we obtain the Angustura bark from.
  Cusparia febrifuga.  This  is  the tree  said to
yield the bark called  Angustura.—Cortex  cusparia,
and imported from  Angustura in South America.  lis
external appearances vary considerably. The best its
not fibrous,  but hard,  compact,  and of a yellowish-
brown colour, and externally  of a whitish hue. When
                                        277 
CYC
CYN
 •reduced into powder, it resembles that of Indian rhu-
 barb.  It  is very generally employed as a febrifuge,
 tonic, and adstringent.   While some deny iu virtue in
 curing intennittents, by many it is  preferred  to  the
 Peruvian bark;  and it  has been found useful in diar-
 rhoea, dyspepsia, and scrofula.   It was thought to be
 the bark of the Brucea antidysenterica, or ferruginea.
 Wildeiiow  suspected it to be the Magnolia plumieri;
 but Humboldt and Ronpland, the celebrated travellers
 in South America, have ascertained  it to belong to a
 tree not before known,  and which they promise to de-
 scribe by the name of Cuspariafebrifuga.
  CUSPIDA'TUS.   (From cuspis, a point.)  1. Four
 of the teeth tire called cuspidati, from their form.  See
 Teeth.
  2. Sharp-pointed.   Applied  to leaves  which  are
 tipped with a spine,  as in thistles.  See Leaf.
  CUSPIS.  (From cuspa, Chaldean, a shell, or bone,
 with wliich spears  were formerly pointed.)   1. The
 glans penis was so called, from its likeness to the point
 of a spear.
  2. The name of a bandage.
  Cu'stos  oculi.   An instrument to fix the eye dur-
ing an operation.
  Cuta'mbulus.  (From cutis, the skin,  and ambulo,
 to walk.)  1. A cutaneous worm.
  2. Scorbutic itching.
  CUTANEOUS.   (Cutaneus; from cutis, the skin.)
 Belonging to the skin.
  Cuta'neus musculus.  See Platysma myoides.
  CUTICLE.   Cuticula.  (A diminutive of cult's, the
skin.)   Epidermis.  Scarf-skin.   A  thin, pellucid,
 insensible  membrane, of a white colour, that  covers
 and defends the true skin, with which it  is connected
 by  the hairs, exhaling  and inhaling vessels, and  the
 rete mucosum.
  CUTICULA.  See Cuticle.
  CUTIS.   (Cutis,  tis. faem.;   See Skin.
  Cutis anserina.  The rough state the skin is some-
 times thrown into from  the action of cold, or other
 cause, in which it looks like the skin of the goose.
  Cutis vera.   The true skin under the cuticle.
  CYANIA.  The  trivial name in  Good's arrange-
 ment of diseases of  a species called  Exangia cyania,
 or blue skin.  Class, Hmmatica; Order, Struma.
  CYANIC ACID.   Acidum cyanicum.  See Prussic
 add.
  CYANITE.  Kyanite.  Disthene of Hauy.  A mi-
 neral of a Berlin Hue colour, found in India and Eu-
 rope.
  CYANOGEN.  (From xvavos, blue, and yivopai, to
 form )  Production of blue.  See Prussine.'
  CY'ANUS.   (Kuavos, caerulean,  or sky-blue;  so
 called from its colour.)  Blue-bottle.  See Ccntauria
 cyanus.
  CY'AR.  (From xtui, to pour out.)   1. The lip of a
 vessel.
  2. The eye of a needle.
  3. The orifice of the internal ear, from its likeness
 to the eye of a needle.
  Cya'sma. Spots on the skin of pregnant women.
  Cyatiu'scus.  (From kvoOos, a cup.)  The hollow
 part of u probe, formed  in the shape of a small spoon,
 as an ear-picker.
  Cy'bitos.  See Cubitus.
  Cy'bitiim.  See Cubitus.
  Cy'bitus.  See Cubitus.
  Cyboi'des.  See Cuboidcs.
  CYCAS.  (Kvkus, of  Thoophrastus. The nnmc of a
 palm, said to grow in Ethiopia.)  The name of a genus
 of plums, one  of the  Palma  pinnatifolia, of Lin-
 iK'tus; but afterward removed  by him to the felices.
  Cyuas circinalis.   The  systematic  name of a
 palm-tree  which affords a sago, called also Sagus;
 Sagu :—a dry fecula, obtained  from  the  pith  ot this
 palm, in the islands of Java, Molucca, and the  Philip-
 pines.  The same substance is also brought front  the
 West Indies, but it is inferior to that brought from the
 East.   Sago becomes soft and transparent by  boiling
 in water, and forms  a light and agreeable liquid, much
 re; ommended in febrile, phlhisical and calculous dis-
 arders, Sec.   To  make it palatable, it is customary to
 ndd to it, when  boiled or softened with  water, some
 lemon juice, sugar and  wine.
  Cy'ceum.  (From xvxau),  to mix.)   Cyceon.   A
 mixture of  the consistence of pap.
  Cy'cima.  (From  tcvxaui, to mix.)  So called from
      978
the mixture of the ore with lead, by which litharge li
made.
  CY'CLAMEN-  (From kvkXos, circular; either on
account of the round form of the leaves, or of the
roots.)  Cyclamen.
  1. The  name  of a genus of plants in the Linnaean
system.  Class, Pentandria ; Order, Monogynia.
  2. 'The pharmacopceial name of the sow-bread. Set
Cyclamen Europaum.
  Cyclamen europium.   The  systematic name ol
the sow-bread.  Arthanita  of  the pharmacopoeias.
The root is a drastic  purge and  errhine ;  and by the
common people  it  has been used to procure abortion.
  Cycli'scus.   (From xvxXos, a circle.)  An instru-
ment  in the form of a half-moon, formerly used for
scraping the rotten bones.
  Cycli'smus.   (From xvxXos, a circle.)  A lozenge.
  Cyclopho'ria. (From kvkXos, a circle, and cbepu,
to bear.)   The  circulation of the  blood,  or other
fluids.
  Cyclo'pion.  (From xvxXoto, to surround, and u^,
the eye.)  The white of  the eye.
  CY'CLOS.  Cyclus.  A circle.   Hippocrates  uses
this word to signify the  cheeks, and the orbits of the
eyes.
  Cyclus  metasyncriticus.   A  long  protracted
course of remedies, persisted in with a view of restor-
ing the particles ofthe body to such a state as is neces-
sary to health.
  C YDO'NIA.   (From Cydon, a town in Crete, where
the tree grows wild.)  The  quince-tiee.   See Pyrus
cydonia.
  Cydonium malum.  The  quince.   See Pyrus cy-
donia.
  CYE'MA.  (From xvu, to bring forth.)   Parturition
  Cyli'chms.  (From kuAi|,  a  cup.)  A gallipot or
vessel to hold medicines.
  Cylindrical Leaf.  See Leaf.
  OYLl'NDRUS.  (From xvXtio,  to roll round.)   A
cylinder.  A tent for a wound, equal at  the  top and
bottom.
  Cyllo'sis. (From xvXXoui, to make lame.)  A tibia
or leg  bending outwards.
  Cy'lus.  (From  kvXXoio,  to make lame.)  In Hip-
pocrates, it is one affected with a kind of luxation,
which bends outwards, and is hollowed inward. Such
a defect in the tibia is called Cyllosis, and the person
to whom it  belongs, is  called by the  Latins Varus,
which term is opposed to Valgus.
  CYMA.  A cyme.  A species  of inflorescence of
plants, consisting of several flower-stalks, al spring-
ing from one centraor point, but each stalk is variously
subdivided; and in this last  respect, a cyme differs
essentially from an umbel, the subdivisions of the lat-
ter being formed  like its  primary divisions, of several
stalks springing from one point..  This difference is of
great  importance in nature.  The mode  of inflores-
cence agrees also with a  corymbus in general aspect;
but in the latter the primary stalks have no common
centre, though the partial ones may sometimes be um-
bellate, which last case  is precisely the reverse of a
cyme.
  From its division into  primary stalks or branches, it
is distinguished into,
  1.  Trifid ; as in Sedum acre.
  2.  Quadrifid;  as in Crassula rubens.
  3. Tripartite,  having  three  less cymes;  as  io
Sambucus ebulus.
  4. Quinquipartitc;  as in Sambucus nigra.
  5. Sessile, or without stalk; as in Gnaphalium fru-
tescens.
  Cornus sanguinea and sericca afford examples of the
Cyma nuda.
  Cvmato'des.  Is applied by Galen and others to an
unequal fluctuating pulse.
  Cy  mba.  (From/cvufioj, hollow.) A  boat,  pinnace,
or skirl".  A bone of tlie wrist is  so called,  from its
supposed likeness io a skiff.  See Naviculare os.
  CYMBIFORMIS.   (From cymba, a  boat  or skiff.
and forma, likeness.)  Skiff or boat-like.  Applied to
the seeds of the Calendula officinalis.
  CY'MINUM.  See Cuminum.
  CYMOPHANE.   Sec Chrysoberyl.
  Cymosus.  Having the character of a cyme.  Ap-
plied to aggregate flowers.
  CYNA'NCHE.  (From kvuv,  a dog,  and ayxto, to
suffocate, or strangle;  so called from dogs being said to 
CVN                                             CYN
 be subject to it.1  Sore throat.  A genus of disease In
 the class  Pyrexia, and  order Phlegmasia of Cullen.
 It is known by pain and redness of the throat, attend-
 ed with a difficulty of swallow ing and breathing.
   The species of this disease are:—
   1. Cynanche trachcalis ; Cynanche laryvgea; Svffo-
 catio stridula ; Angina pcmiciosa; Asthma infant-
 um;  Cynanche  stridula;  Morbus strangulmorius;
 Catarrhus suffocatius; Barbadensis ; Angina poly-
 posa sive membranacca.  The croup.  A  disease that
 mostly attacks  infants, who arc suddenly seized with
 a difficulty of breathing and a crouping noise:  it is an
 inflammation of the mucous membrane of the trachea
 that induces the secretion of a very tenacious  coagu-
 lable lymph, which  lines the trachea and bronchia,
 and  impedes respiration.  The croup does not  appear
 to be contagious, whatever some physicians may think
 to the contrary ;  but it sometimes prevails epidemi-
 cally.  It seems, however, peculiar to some families ;
 and a child having once been attacked, is very liable
 to its returns.  It is  likewise peculiar to  young chil-
 dren, and has never been known  to  attack  a  person
 arrived at the age of puberty.
  The application of cold  seems to  be  the general
 cause which  produces this  disorder, and  therefore it
occurs more frequently in the winter and  spring, than
in the other seasons.  It has been  said, that it is most
 prevalent near the sea-coast; but  it is frequently met
 with in inland situations, and particularly  those which
 are marshy.
  Some days previous to an attack of the  disease, the
 child appears drowsy, inactive,  and fretful;  the eyes
 are somewhat suffused  and  heavy;  and there is a
 cough, which,  from  the first,  has a peculiar shrill
 Mund; this, in the course of two days, becomes more
 violent  and troublesome,  and  likewise  more  shrill.
 Every fit of coughing agitates the patient  very  much;
 the face is flushed and swelled, the eyes  are protube-
 rant, a general tremor takes place, and there  is  a kind
 Df convulsive endeavour to renew respiration  at  the
 riose of each fit.  As the disease advances, a constant
 difficulty of  breathing  prevails, accompanied  some-
 limes with a swelling and inflammation in the  tonsils,
 uvula, and velum pendulum palati; and  the head is
 throwu back, in the agony nf attempting to escape suf-
 focation.  There is not only an unusual sound  pro-
 duced by the cough,  (something between  the yelping
 and barking of a dot:,  but respiration is performed
 with a hissing noise,  as if the trachea w as closed up
 by some slight spongy substance.  The cough is gene-
 rally dry; but if any thing is spit up, it  has either a
 purulent appearance, or seems to  consist  of  films  re-
 sembling portions of a membrane.   Where great nau-
 sea and frequent retchings prevail, coagulated matter
 of the same nature is brought up.  With these  symp-
 toms, there is much  thirst-, an uneasy sense of heat
 over the whole body, a continual inclination lo change
from place to place, greal restlessness, and frequency
of the pulse.
  In  an advanced stage of the disease, respiration be-
comes more stridulous,  and is  performed with still
greater difficulty, being repeated at longer periods, and
with greater exertions, until at last it ceases entirely.
  The croup generally proves fatal by suffocation, in-
 duced either  by spasm affecting the glottis, or by a
 quantity of matter blocking  up by the trachea or bron-
 chia ; but when it terminates in health, it is by a reso-
 lution of the inflammation, by a ceasing of the spasms,
 and by a free expectoration of the mailer exuding from
 the trachea, or of the crusts formed there.
  The disease  has,  in  a few instances,  terminated
 fatally within twenly-four hours after  its  attack ;  but
 it more  usually happens, that where it proves fatal, it
 runs on to the fourth  or fifth day. Where consider-
 able  portions of the membranous films, formed on the
 surface of the trachea, are thrown  up, life is sometimes
 protracted for a day or-two  longer than would  other-
 wise have happened.
  Dissections of children who have died of the  croup,
have mostly shown a preternatural membrane, lining
the whole internal sua face of the upper  part  of the
trachea, which  may always be easily separated from
the proper membrane. There is likewise usually found
a good deal of mucus, with  a mixture of pus,  in the
 rachea and its ramifications.
  The treatment of this disease must be conducted on
 he strictly antiphlogistic plan. It will commonly be
  roper, where the patient  is not very young, to begin
  y taking  blood  from the  arm, or the jugular  vein;
several leeches should be applied nlongthe forepart of
the neck.  It will ihen  be  right to give a nauseating
emetic, ipecacuanha with tartari/.ed antimony, or with
squill in divided doses; this may be- followed up by ca-
thartics, diaphoretics,  digitalis, Sec    Large blisters
ought to be applied near the-  aflected  part, ond  a dis
charge kept up by savine  cerate, or  other stimulant
dressing.   Mercury, carried speedily to f alivation, has
in several  instances arrested  the progress of the (lis
ease, when it appeared  proceeding to  a fatal termina-
tion.  As the inflammation  is declining, it is veiy im
portanl that free expectoration should  lake plan-; this
may be promoted  by nauseating medicines, by inhalinc
strain, and by stimulating gaitbs; for wliich the de-
coction of senna is particularly recommended.  Where
there is much wheezing, on  occasional emetic may
relieve the patient consideiably, and  under symptoms
of threatening suffocation, the operation of bioncho-
tomy has some-times saved life.—Should fits of spas-
modic  difficulty of breathing occur in the latter pe-
riods of tlie disease, opium joined with diaphoretics
would be most likely to  do good.
  2. Cynanche tonsillaris.  The inflammatory quinsy.
called also  angina mfiammatoria.  In  this complaint,
the inflammation  principally occupies  the tonsils; but
often extends through the whole mucous membrane of
the fauces, so as  essentially to interrupt the speech,
respiration, and deglutition ofthe patient.
  The causes  which usually give rise to it are, expo
sure to  cold, either from sudden vicissitudes of wea-
ther, from  being  placed  iu a partial current  of air,
wearing damp linen, sitting in wet rooms, or getting
wet in the  feet; all of which may teive a sudden  check
to perspiration.   It  principally attacks those of a full
and plethoric  habit, and is chiefly confined  to ccld
climates, occurring usually in the spring and autumn ;
whereas the ulcerated sore throat chiefly attacks those
of a weak irritable habit, and is  most pievalent  in
warm  climates.  The former differs  from the latter
likewise in not  being  contagious.   In many people
there seems to be a particular tendency to this dis
ease; as from every considerable application of cold it
is readily induced.
   An inflammatory sore throat discovers itself by a
difficulty of swallowing ond breathing,  accompanied by
a redness and tumour in one or both tonsils, drynessof
the throat,  foulness of the tongue, lancinating pains in
the parts affected, a frequent but difficult excretion of
mucus, and some small degree of fever.  As the dis-
ease advances, the difficulty of swallow ing aud breath-
ing becomes greater, the  speech is very indistinct, the
dryness of  the throat and thirst increases, the tongue
swells and  is incrusted with a daik fur, and the pulse
is full and  frequent.  In some  cases, a few white,
sloughy spots are  to be observed on the tonsils.   If the
inflammation proceeds lo such a height as  to  put a
total stop to icspiration, the face will become livid, the
pulse will sink, and the patient will  quickly  be de-
stroyed.
  The chief danger arising from this species of quin-
sy is, the inflammation  occupying both tonsils, and
proceeding  to such a degree as to prevent a suflicient
quantity of nourishment for the support of nature from
being taken, or to occasion suffocation ; but this seldom
happens, and its usual termination is either in resolu-
tion or suppuration.  When  proper steps are adopted,
it will in general readily  go off by the former.
  Where the disease has proved fatal  by suffocation,
little more than a  highly  inflamed state ofthe parts af-
fected, with some morbid phenomena in the head, have
been observed on dissection.
  This is usually a complaint not requiring very active
treatment.  If, however, the  inflammation run high,
in a tolerably strong and plethoric adult, a moderate
quantity of blood should be drawn from the arm, or
the jugular vein:  but  still  more frequently leeches
will be required;  or scarifying the tonsils  may afford
more effectual relief.  An emetic will often be very
beneficial, sometimes apparently check the progress ol
the complaint: likewise cathartics must be employee..
diaphoretics, and the general  antiphlogistic regimen,
A blister to the throat, or behinJ the neck, sometimes
has a very excellent effect: but in milder cases, the lim-
mentum ammoniae-, or other  rubefacient application,
applied every six or eight hours, and wearing flannel
                                          879 
CYN                                           CPi
 round the thoat, may produce  a sufficient determina-
 tion from the part affected.  The use of propergargles
 generally contributes materially to the cure.  If there
 be much tension and pain  in the fauces, a solution of
 nitrate of potassa will be best;  otherwise dilute acids,
 a weak solution of alum, &c.  Should the disease pro-
 coed to suppuration, warm emollient gargles ought to
 be employed, and perhaps similar external applications
 may be of some service: but it is particularly impor-
 tant to make an early opening into the abscess for the
 discharge of the pus.  When deglutition is prevented
 by the tumefaction of the  tonsils, it is recommended
 to exhibit nutritious clysters; and  when suffocation is
 threatened, an emetic or inhaling aether may cause a
 rupture of the abscess, or this may be opened ; but if
 relief be  not thereby obtained,  bronchotomy will be-
 come necessary.
  3.  Cynanche pharyngea.  This species is so called
 when the pharynx is chiefly affected.   Dr Wilson, in
 his Treatise on Febrile Diseases, includes in  his defi-
 nition of cynanche tonsillaris, that of cynanche pha-
 ryngea.   Those varieties of cynanche diftiir consider-
 ably when they are  exquisitely formed.  But the  one
 is seldom present  in any considerable degree, without
 being attended with  more or less  of  the otlier.  Dr.
 Cullen declares, indeed, that he never saw a case of
 true cynanche  pharyngea;  that is, a case in which the
 inflammation was confined to the pharynx;  it con-
 stantly spread  in a greater or less degree to the tonsils
 and  neighbouring parts.  Besides, the mode of treat-
 ment is,  in  almost every instance, the same in both
 cases.  And if we admit the cynanche pharyngea to
 be a distinct variety, we must  admit another, the cy-
 nanche eesophagea;  for inflammation frequently at-
 tacks the oesophagus, and is sometimes even confined
 to it.
  4.  Cynanche parotidea.  The mumps. A swelling
 on the cheek and under the jaw, extending over the
 nock, from inflammation of the parotid and other sali-
 vary glands, rendering deglutition, or even respiration,
 sometimes difficult, declining the fourth day.  Epide-
 mic and contagious.
  The disease  is subject to a metastasis occasionally,
 in females to the mammae, in males to the testes;  and
 in a few  instances,  repelled from  these  parts,  it has
 affected the  brain, and even proved fatal.  In general,
 however, the disease is without danger, and scarcely
 calls for medical aid.  Keeping a flannel over the part,
 and  the antiphlogistic regimen, with mild laxatives,
 will  be sufficient.  Should  the  mammae, or the testes,
 be affected, more active evacuations may be necessary
 to prevent the destruction of those organs, bleeding
 general and topical, &c. but avoiding cold applications,
 lest it should be driven to the brain.   And where  this
 part is unfortunately attacked, besides the means ex-
 plained under Phrcnitis, it  may be useful to endeavour
 to recall the  inflammation to its former seat by warm
 fomentations, stimulant liniments,  &c.
  5.  Cynanche maligna.   The malignant,  putrid, or
 ulcerous  sore  throat. Called also Cynanche gangre-
 nosa ; Angina ulcerosa ; Febris epidemic a cum angina
 ulcusculosa; Angina epidemica; Angina gangra-
 nosa; Angina suffocativa ; Angina maligna.  This
 disease is  readily to be distinguished from the inflam-
 matory quincy, by the soreness and specks  which -ip-
 pear in the fauces, together with tlie great debility of
 the system, and small fluttering pulse, which are not
 to be observed in the former.   In the inflammatory
sore throat there is always great difficulty of swallow-
 ing, a considerable degree of tumour, with a tendency
 in  the  parts affected to suppurate, nnd a hard, full
 pulse.  Moreover in  the former affection the disease is
seated principally in the mucous  membrane of  the
mouth and throat; whereas in  the latter the inflam-
mation chiefly  occupies the glandular parts.
  The putrid sore throat often arises from  a peculiar
state of the atmosphere, and so  becomes epidemical;
making its attacks chiefly on children, and  those of a
weak rclaxe'' habit.   It is  produced  likewise by con-
tagion, as it  is found lo run through a whole family,
when it has once seized any person in it; and it proves
aftcn fatal, particularly to those in au infantile state.
  It appears, however, that under this head two differ-
ent complaints  have been included ; the one, especially
liital to children, is an aggravated fonn of scarlatina ;
 'he otlier, a combination of inflammation of ihe fauces
 with typhus  fever ; the  former is perhaps always, the
     '280
 latter certainly often, contagious.  See Scarlatina ana
 Typhus.
   CYNA'NCHICA.   (Cinanchic-is; from  xwayvit,
 the quincy.)   Medicines which relieve a quincy.
   Cynanthro'pia. (From xvtov, a dog, and avdputros,
 a man.)  It  is used by Bellini, De Morbis Capitas, to
 express a particular  k'nd of melancholy, when men
 fancy themselve* changed into dogs, and imitate theii
 actions.
   Cy'nara.   See Cinara.
   Cynarocephalus.  (From xivapa,  the artichoke
 and xttbaXv, a head.)  Having a head like the Cinara',
 or artichoke; as the thistle, globe thistle, burdock, blue
 bottle.
   Cy'nchnis.  Kuyxvic.  A  vessel  of any kind  tc
 hold medicines in.
   CYNOCRA'MBE.  (From xvtov, a dog, and xpap6n,
 cabbage ; an  herb of the cabbage tribe, with which dogs
 are  6a:d to physic themselves.)  See Mercurialis pc-
 rennis.
   Cyno'ctanum.  (From xvtov, a dog, and xfetvu,  to
 kill.)  A species of aconitum, said.to destroy  dogs.
 See Aconitum napellus.
   Cynocy'tisis.   (From kviov, a dog, and  xvfioos,
 the cytisis: so named because it was said  to cure the
 distemper of dogs.)  The dog-rose.  See Rosa canina.
   CYNODE'CTOS.  (From <cutiv, a dog, and rWw.
 to bite.)  So  Dioscorides  calls  a person bit by a mad
 dog.
   Cynom'smion.   (From xvtov,  a  do::,  and cun, to
 hind;  so named because in dogs it is very discernible
 and strong.)  A  ligature  by which the  prepuce  is
 bound to the glands.  See Franum.
   CYNODO'N'TES.  (Kvvoiovres '■ from xvtov, a dog,
 and oeJouc, a  tooth.)   The canine teeth. See Teeth.
   CYNOGLO'SSUM.   (From kvuv, a dog, and
 yXuiaoa, a tongue; so  named from its supposed re-
 semblance.)   Hound's tongue.
   1. The name of a genus of plants in the Linnaean
 system.  Class,  Pentandria; Order, Monogunia.
   2. The pharmacopceial name of the hound's tongue
 See Cynoglossum officinale.
   Cynoglossum  officinale.  The  systematic name
 for hound's tongue.   Cynoglossum;  Lingua canina;
 Cynoglossum—staminibus corolla brevioribus; foliis
 lato lanceolatis  tomentosis, sessilibus, of Linnaeus
 It possesses narcotic  powers, but  is seldom employed
 medicinally.  Acids  are said to counteract the  ill
 effects of an over-dose more speedily than any thing
 else, after clearing the stomach.
   Cyno'lophus.  (From  xvtov, a dog, nnd  XoQos, a
 protuberance: so called because in dogs they are pecu
 liarly eminent.)   The asperities and prominences of
 the  vertebra-.
   CYNOLY SSA.   (From kvuv,  a dog, and Avova,
 madness.)   Canine madness.
   CYNOMO'RIUM.   The name of a genus of plants
 in the  Linnaean system.   Class, Mouxcta; Order
 Monandria.
   Cynomorium  coccineum.  The systematic name of
 the Fungus mclitensis ; improperly called a fungus
 It is a small plant which grows only- on a little rock ad
 joining Malta. A drachm  of the  powder is given for
 a dose in  dysenteries  and haemorrhages, and wilh
 remarkable success.
   CYNORE'XIA.  (From  xvi»v, a  dog, and oost-ic,
 appetite.)  A voracious or canine appetite.  See Bu
 liiimi.
   CYNOSUATOS,  See Cynosbatus.
   CYNO'SBATUS.  (From xvtov, a dog, and Baloi,
 a thorn: so called because dogs are said to be  attracted
 by ils smell.)  The dog-rose.  See Rosa canina.
   Cvnospa'stu.m.   (From  xvtov, a dog, and onau, to
 attract.)  See Rosa canina.
   CYOPHO'RIA.  (From uruoc, a foetus, and q)epu, to
 bear.)  Pregnancy.
   Cypari'ssus.  See  Cupressus.
   CYPERUS.  (From A-uirapoc, a little round vessel,
 which its roots are said to resemble.)  Cvperus.  The
 name of a genus of plants  in  the Linnaean system.
 Class, Triandria; Order, Monogynia.
  Cyperus esculentus.  The rush-nut.   This plant
 is a  native of Italy, where the  fruit  is collected nnd
 eaten,  and said to be  a greater delicacy than tlie
chesnut.
  Cyperus lonoi/s.   The systematic and phannaco-
paeial name ofthe English grriangalc. Cyperus—culms 
DAC
DAC
vnquetro folioso, umbella foliosa supra dccomposita :
pedunculis  nudis, spicis alternis, of Linnaeus.  1 he
smell ofthe root of this plant is aromatic, and its taste
warm, and  sometimes bitter.   It is now totally fallen
into disuse.
  Cyperus rotundus.  This species, the round cype-
rus, Cyperus—culmo  triquctro subnudo, umbella dc-
composita ;  spicis alternis linearibus, of Linnaeus, is
generally preferred lo the former, being a more grate-
fully aromatic bitter.  It is chiefly used as a stomachic.
  CYPHELLA.   A peculiar sort of pit or pore on the
under side  of  the  frond, in  that section  of  lichens
called strirta.
  CYPHO'MA. (From Kinflu, to bend.)  A gibbosity,
or curvature of the spine.
  CYPHO SIS. An incurvation of the spine,
  CYPRESS.  See Cyprus.
  Cypress spurge.  See Esula minor.
  Cv prini  m  oleum.  Flowers of cypress, calamus,
cardamoms, Sec boiled in olive oil, now  fallen into
disuse.
  Cy'prium.  (From murpoc, Cyprus, an island where
it is said formerly to have abounded.)  Copper.
  CYPRUS.   (So called from the island  of Cyprus,
where  it grew abundantly.)   The cypress-tree,  or
Eastern privet.
  [CYPR02ITE.  Petrifaction of a Cyprcea or Cow-
rey.  See Organic relics.  A.]
  CY'PSELIS.  (From KviptXr/, a beehive.)  The
aperture of  the car, also the wax of the ear.
  Cyrcne'sis.  (From xvpxvau, to mix.)  A mixture,
or composition.
  Cyrto'ma.   (From xvplos,  curved.)   1. An unna-
tural convex tumour.
  2.  Tympanites.
  Cvrtono'sus.   (From Arup7oj, curved, and  vooos,i
disease.) 1. The  rickets.
  ■2.  Curved spine.
  CY RTOSIS. (Oyrtosis, is. f.; from xvpros,  curvus,
incurvus, gibbosus, and among the ancients  particu-
larly imputed  recurvation of the spine, or posterior
crookedness, as Xopians, imputed procurvalion of  the
head and shoulders, or anterior crookedness.)  The
name  of a genus of diseases  in Good's Nosology.
Class, Eccritioa ;  Order, Mesotica.  Contortion of the
bones; defined, head bulky, especially anteriorly; sta-
ture short  and incurvated;  flesh  flabby, pale, and
wrinkled.  It  has  two species, Cyrtosis rhachia, and
 C. crctenismus, cretenism.
   Cy'ssarus.  (From xvaos, the anas.)   The  intes-
tinum rectum is so  called, because it readies to  the
anus.
   Cysso'tis.   (From xvoos, the anus.) An inflamma-
tion of the  anus.
   C YSTEOLl'THUS.   (Prom xvs-ts, tlie bladder, and
Xidos. a stone.)  A stone in tlie bladder, either  urinary
or gall-bladder.
  Cy strt-s.  KvoBos-  The anus.
  CYSTIC.  (Cysticus; from ku$-is, a bag.)   Belong-
ing to the urinary or gall-bladder.
  Cystic duct.  See Ductus cysticus.
  Cystio oxide.   A peculiar animal product disco-
vered by Dr. Wollaston.  See  Calculus, urinary.
  Cy'stica.  (Cysticus;  from  xvs-is, the bladder.)
Remedies for diseases of the bladder.
  CY'STIDES.  (Cystis, idis.f.; from icus-ic, a bag.)
Encysted tumours.
  CYSTIPHLO'GIA.  (From /cnj-ic, the bladder, and
tbXcyu, to burn.)  An inflammation In the bladder
See Cystitis.
  CYSTIRRH A'GIA.  (From kv<th, the bladder, and
priyvvut, to burst forth.)  A discharge from the bladder.
  CYSTIS.  (Kwj-ic, a bag.)  1. Cyst or bladder,
  2. The urinary bladder.
  3. The membranous or cyst surrounding or contain
ing any morbid substance.
  Cystis choledocha.   See Gall-bladder
  Cystis fkllea.  See Gallbladder.
  Cystis litis .vine.  See  Urinary bladder.
  CYSTITIS.   Ironi xv?is,  the  bladder)  Inflam-
mation of the hladdi r.  A genus of disease arranged
by Cullen in the class Pyrexar, and older Phlegmasia.
It is known by great pain  in the region of the bladder.
attended with fever and hard pulse, a frequent nntl
painful discharge of urine, or a suppression, and gene-
rally tenesmus.   This is rarely a primary disease, and
when it occurs, the above character of it will readily
point it out.   There also is frequently nausea and
vomiting,  and, in  some  cases, delirium.   It  most
generally arises in consequence of inflammation of the
adjacent parts, or from calculi in  the bladder.   The
treatment is very similar to that of Nephritis,- wliich
see.  When suppression of urine attends, the catheter
must be occasionally introduced.
  C'YSTOCE'LE.   (From Kofic,  the bladder, and
KrjXn, a tumour.)   A  hernia formed by the prolusion
of tlie uriuarv bladder.
  CYSTOLl'THICUS.  (From icur'f.tlie Madder, and
XtOos, a stone.)  Having a stone in tlie bladder.
  CYSTOPHLE'GICUS.  (From xvs-ts, the bladder,
and qtXtyu, to burn.) An inflammation of the bladder.
  CYSTOPHLEGMA'TICUS. (From *i>s-is,Uie blad-
der, and qiXcypa, phlegm.)  Having matter or mucus
iu the bladder.
  CYSTOPRO'CTICUS.   (From xvs-ts, the bladder,
and opiu(c7oji the anus, or rectum.)  A disease of the
bladder and rectum.
   CYSTOPTO SIS.  (From kv?is, the bladder, and
tziirlw, to full.)   A protrusion of the inner membrane
of the bladder, through the urelhra.
   CYSTOSPA'STICUS.  (From <n>ric, the bladder,
and airaapa, a spasm.)   A spasm in the sphincter of
the bladder.
   CY'STOSPYTCUS.  (From xvs-ts, the bladder, and
tzvov, pus.)  Purulent matter in the bladder.
   CYSTOTHROMBOl'DES.   (From xvyic, the biad
dcr, and Opopbos, a coagulation of blood.)   A concre-
tion of grumous  blood in tbe bladder.
  CYSTOTO'MIA.  (From ictj-is, tlie bladder, nnd
Itpvu, to cut.)   The operation of cutting or piercing
ihe bladder.
  Cy'thion.  An eye-wash.
  CY'TINUS.   (Perhaps, as  Martyn suggests, from
kvIivoi, a name given  by Theophrastus  to the blos-
soms of the pomegranate, the calyx of which the flower
in question resembles in shape.)  The name of a genua
uf plants.  Class,  Gynandria; Order, Octandria "Of
Linnaeus.
  Cytinus hypocistis.  Rape of Cystus.  A fleshy
pale-yellowish plant, parasitical on the roots of several
species of cystus in the south of Europe, from which
the succus hypocistidus is obtained.
  Cytiso-genista. Common broom.  See Spartium
scoparium.
  Cyzemer.  A swelling of the wrists.
  Cyzice'mus.   A plaster for wounds of the nerves
D
    OACNE'RUS.  (From Saxvu, to bite.) Biting. Pun-
    gent.  An epithet for a sharp eye-wash, composed
3f burnt copper, pepper, cadniia, myrrh, and opium.
  Dacry'dium.  (From  iaxpv, a tear.)   The inspis-
sated juice of scammony, in  small drops, and there-
fore called a tear.
  DACRYGELO SIS.   (From iaxpvu, to weep,  and
ytXau, to laugh.)  A species of insanity, in which the
patient weep3 and laughs at the same time.
  Dacryo'des.   (From iaxpvu, to weep.) Asanious,
or weeping ulcer.
  DACRYO'MA. (From iaxpvu, to weep.)  A closing
of one or more of the puncta lachrymalia, causing an
effusion of tears.
  Dactyle'thra   (From  iax'JvXos, a  finger.)  A
species of  bougies  shaped like  a finger,  to  excite
vomiting.
  Dactyle'tus.  (From iax'jvXos, the date.)  The
hermodactyl.  See Hcrmodactylus.
  Da'ctylius.  (From iax'/vXos,  a finger.)   A round
pastil, troche, or lozenge, shaped like a finger.
 ' DA'CTYLUS.  (From iaK]vXos, a finger: so called
                                       2.91 
DAP                                           DAP
from the likeness of its fruit to a finger.)  1. A finger.
See Digitus.            .
  2. The date.  See Phanix dactyltfera.
  D-rE'DIUM.   (From iais,  a torch.  A smali torch or
candle.   A bougie.
  11/EMONOMA'NTA.   (From iaipuv, a  daemon,
and pavia, madness.)  That species of melancholy
when; the patient supposes himself to be possessed by
devils.
  DAISY.  See Bellis perennis.
  Daisy, ox-eye.  See Chrysanthemum leucanthemum.
  DALE, Samuel, was born in 1659.  After practising
as an apothecary,  he  became a licentiate of  the col-
lege of physicians, and settled  at Booking, where he
continued till his death in 1739.   He was also chosen a
fellow  of the Royal  Society.   In  1693, he published
ins  " Pharmacologia," an Introduction to the Materia
Medica, which he afterward much enlarged and im-
proved ; the work was well  received,  and passed
through many editions.  He also gave a good account
of the natural productions about Harwich and Dover
Court.
  Damask rose.  See Rosa centifolia.
  Damna'tus.   (From damno, to condemn.)  The
dry useless faeces, left  in a vessel after the moisture has
been distilled from it,  is called terra damnata, or caput
mortuum.
  DAMSON.  The fruit of a variety of the  Prunus
domestica.
  [DANA, James Freeman, M. D., was the oldest
son of  Luther Dana,  Esq., and  was born in Amherst,
in the  state of New-Hampshire, in  September  1793.
After his graduation, he commenced  the study of me-
dicine under Dr. John Gorham, at that time Professor
of Chemistry in Harvard University.   In  the  year
1815, before he had completed his professional  studies,
he had become so well known as a practical chemist,
that he was selected by the University to go to London,
as an agent, for the purpose  of procuring a new appa-
ratus for the chemical department.  While in  Eng-
land, where he remained several months, he prose-
cuted the study of chemistry  in the Laboratory of
Accum, a celebrated operative chemist.
  With Dartmouth College he remained connected, in
the  capacity of Lecturer on  Chemistry, until the year
1820, when he  received the  appointment of Professor
of Chemistry and  Mineralogy in the same institution.
This office tie held until the year 1826; and those who
enjoyed the privilege of hearing  his admirable lectures,
will long remember with what ability and success he
discharged  ils duties.  In 1826  he was appointed one
of the  Board of Visiters of  the Military Academy at
West Point; and, immediately  after  his  return  from
the  discharge of this duty, he was appointed  Professor
of Chemistry in the University of New-York.  This
appointment, which opened a wide  field for  the ex-
ertion of hi? talents, he readily accepted, and removed
with his family to the city, in the autumn ofthe same
year.  About six months  after  his removal to New-
York, he sunk under an attack of erysipelas, at the
early age of 33, and  when just entering upon an ex-
tended sphere of usefulness and  honour.
  His principal publications were the following, viz.
"Outlines of the Mineralogy and Geology of  Boston
and  its Vicinity:" " Epitome  of Chemical Philoso-
phy :" " Report on a singular Disease of  homed Cat-
tle, in the Town of Burton, New-Hampshire."  Besides
these publications, he contributed several papers to the
American Journal of  Science,  the New-England
Journal of Medicine, and the Annalsof the Lyceum of
Natural History of New-York, some of them of very
considerable merit, and some of which have been re-
prinled in Europe."— Thatch. Med. Biog.  A.]
  DANDELION.   See Leontodon  Taraxacum.
  DANDR1F.   See Pityriasis.
  DANK WORT.  See Sambucus Ebnlus.
  DAOURITE.  A variety of red schorl from Siberia.
  DAPHNE.   (Daphne, iaqivn; fr°m  iau, to burn,
dud  ibuvn,  a  noise:  because ofthe  noise it  makes
when burnt.)  The name of a genus  of plants in the
Linnuan system.   Class, Octandria; C der,  Mono-
gynia.   The laurel, or bay-tree.
  Daphne  alpina.   Chamalea; Chamelaa,   This
species of dwarf olive-tree is said  to be purgative in
the  dose of 3jj, and  is sometimes given  by  country
people.  The French  chemists have lately  examined it
chemically.  See Daphnin.
     282
  2. The mezereon  is also so called, because it has
leaves like the olive-tree.  See Daphne mezereum.
  Daphne, flax-leaved.   See Daphne gnidium.
  Daphne gnidium.  Tne systematic  name of the
tree which affords the Garou bark.   Daphne:—pani-
culaterminali foliis lineari-lanceolatis acuminatis ot
Linnaeus.  Thymclaa; Oneoron.  Spurge-flax;  Flax-
leaved Daphne.   Garou bark, which very much re-
sembles that of our  mezereum, is to be immersed in
vinegar for about an hour before it is wanted; a small
piece, the size of a  sixpence, thus steeped, is applied
to the arm or any other part, and renewed  once a day
iu winter  and twice in summer.   It produces  a serous
exudation from the skin without irritating or blistering.
It is recommended,  and is in  frequent use in France
and Russia, against  some diseases of the eyes.
  Daphne lalreola.   The systematic name of the
spurge-laurel.  Laureola daphnoides.  The bark of
this plant  is  recommended to excite a discharge from
the skin, in the same way as that of the Daphne gni-
dium.
  Daphne mezereum.  The systematic name of the
mezereon.  Spurge-olive; Widow-waiL   Mezereum.
Daphne—fioribus scssilibus lernis caulinis, foliis lan-
ceolatis deciduis, of  Linnaeus.  This plant  is extreme-
ly acrid, especially when fresh, and, if retained in the
mouth, excites great and long-continued heat and in-
flammation, particularly ofthe mouth and  fauces; the
berries, grana cnidii of old  writers, also have the
same effects, and, when swallowed, prove  a powerful
corrosive poison, not only to man, but to dogs, wolves,
and foxes. The bark of the root is the part employed
medicinally in the decoctum sarsaparilla compositum,
intended to assist mercury in resolving nodes and other
obstinate  symptoms of syphilis.   The  antisyphihtic
virtues of mezereum, however,  have been by many
writers very justly doubted.  " The result  of my own
experience (says Mr. Pearson, of the Lock Hospital)
by no means accords wilh the representation given of
this root by former writers.  From all that I have been
able to  collect, in the course of many years' observa-
tion, I feel myself authorized to assert, unequivocally,
that the mezereum  has not the power of curing the
venereal disease in  any one stage,  or under  any one
form.  If  a decoction of this root should ever reduce
a venereal node, where no mercury has been  previ-
ously given, yet the  patient will by no  means be ex
empted  from tlie necessity of employing mercury for
as long a space of time, and in as large a quantity, as
if no mezereum had been taken.  With respeel  to the
power it is said to possess, of alleviating the pain, and
diminishing the bulk of membraneous nodes, nothing
peculiar and appropriate can be ascribed to the meze-
reum on these accounts, since we obtain the  same
good effects from sarsaparilla, guaiacum, volatile alkali,
blistering plasters, &c.  Nevertheless, venereal nodes.
which have  subsided under the use of any of these
articles of the materia medica, will appear again, and
often with additional symptoms, if a full  and effica-
cious course of mercury be not submitted  to.  It has,
indeed, been  alleged, that mezereum always alleviates
the pain occasioned  by a venereal node, and, generally
reduces it, where the periosteum only is affected; and
that it seldom fails of removing those enlargements of
the periosteum which have not yielded during the ad-
ministration of mercury.
  That some instances of success, in cases like these,
may have  fallen to tlie  share of those who made tne
assertion, it would not become me to deny; but I have
met with few such agreeable evidences of the efficacy
of this medicine.  I  have given  the mezereum in the
form of a simple decoction, and also as an ingredient
in compound decoctions cf the woods, in many cases,
where no  mercury had been previously employed, but
never with advantage to a single patient.  I have also
tried it, in  numerous instances, after the completion of
a course of mercury; yet, with  the exception of two
coses, where the thickened state of the periosteum was
removed during the  exhibition of it, I never saw the
least benefit derived from taking this medicine   In a
tew cases of anomalous pains, wliich I supposed were
derived from irregularities  during a mercurial course,
the mezereum was  of service, after I had tried the
common decoction of the woods without success; but
even in this description of cases, I have always  found
it a very uncertain remedy.  I  have made  trial ot this.
vegetable in a great number of scrofulous cases, where 
DAR
DAT
 the membranes covering the bones were in a diseased
 state, ami I am not sure that one single pa»ient obtain-
 ed any evident and material benefit ironi il.
  The late Dr. Cullen, whose reports may justly claim
 attention fioin all  medical men, when treating of the
 mezereum, in his  Materia Medica, says, "I have fre-
 quently employed  it in several cutaneous affections,
 and sometiiuee with  success."  It  were to have been
 wished,  that th<e professor of medicine had  specified
 what those diseases  of the skin were, in wliich the
 ■nczereuni  was sometimes employed with success; for,
 •f I except an instance or two of lepra, in which the
 decoction of" ibis plant conferred a temporary benefit,
 I have  very  seldom  found it possessed of medicinal
 virtue, either in syphilis, or in the sequelie of that dis-
 ease, iu scrofula or in cutaneous affections.  Indeed
 the mezereum is of so acrimonious a nature, often pro-
 ducing heat and otlier disagreeable sensations in the
 fauces, and, on many occasions, disordering the prima;
 viae, that I  do not often subject my patients, to the cer-
 tain inconveniences which are connected with the pri-
 mary effects of this medicine, as they are rarely com-
 pensated bv any other important and useful qualities."
  DAPHNEL.E ON.   (From Aaqtvn, the laurel,  and
 tXaiov, oil.)  The oil of  bay-berries.
  DAPHNIN.  The  bitter principle of the  Daphne
 alpina, discovered  by Vauquelin.  From tbe alkoholic
 infusion of this bark, the resin  was separated  by ils
 concentration.  On diluting  the tincture with water,
 filtering and adding acetate of lead, a yellow daphnate
 of lead fell, from which sulphuretted hydrogen sepa-
 rated the lead, and left  Ihe  daphniu iu small trans-
 parent crystals.  They are hard, of a grayish colour,
 a  bitter  taste when healed, evaporate in acrid acid
 vapours, sparingly  soluble in cold, but  moderately in
 boiling water.  It is stated, that its solution is not pre-
 cipitated by acetate of lead :  yet acetate of lead is em-
 pluved in the first process to throw it down.
   LUpuni'tis. (From  6.i0n7, the laurel.)  A sort of
 cassia resembling the laurel.
  DAPHNOl'DES. (From iatbvn, the laurel, and ctios,
 a likeness.)  The  herb  spurge  laurel.  See Daphne
 laureola.
   Da'rsin.  (From darzin, Arabian.)  The grosser
 sort of cinnamon.
   DA'RSIS.  (From lepu, to excoriate.)  An excoria-
 tion.
   DA'RTOS.  (From  lepu, to excoriate: so called
 from iu raw  and  excoriated appearance.)  The part
 so called, under the  skin ofthe scrotum, is by  some
 anatomists considered as a muscle, although it appears
 to be no more than a condensation of the cellular mem-
 brane lining the scrotum.   It is by means of the dar-
 tos that the skin of the  scrotum is corrugated and re-
 laxed.
  DARWIN, Erasmus, was born at  Ellon, in  Not-
 tinghamshire, In 1731.  After studying  at Cambridge
 and Edinburgh, and becoming doctor of medicine, he
 went to  settle at Litchfield.  He had soon after the
 good fortune to succeed  in the cure of  a gentleman in
 the neighbourhood, who was so ill of a fever, as to
 have been given over  by Ihe physician previously in
 attendance: this speedily procured him very extensive
 practice.  He soon after married, and by his first wife
 had three sons, of whom only one survived him.  At
 the age of 50, he married  again, and removed to Derby,
 where he continued till his death in 1802, leaving six
 children by his second wife.  The active life he  led,
 and his very temperate habits, preserved his health and
 faculties in a great  degree  unimpaired.   He distin-
 guished himself more  as a poet, th».n  by professional
 improvements: though he certainly suggested some in-
 genious  methods of practice; but,  warned by prece-
 ding examples, he avoided  publishing any material
 poem, till his medical fame was thoroughly established.
 His  " Botanic Garden," and " Zoonomia,"  are well
 known, but they have long ceased to be popular: and
 the philosophy of  the latter work, which advocates
 materialism, is justly censured.   He communicated to
 the Colleue of Physicians an account of his successful
 use of digitalis in  dropsy,  and some  other diseases,
which was published in their Transactions.  His son
 Charles,  who died while studying at  Edinburgh, ob-
.aiiied a  gold medal by an Essay on the distinction of
Pus and  Mucus; and  left another unfinished on the
Retrograde Action of the Absorbents:  which were
published after his  death by his father.
   Dasy'mna.   (From daavs, rough.)  A scabby rough-
 ness of the eyelids.
   Da'sys.   (Aaous, rough.)  1. A dry, parched tongue,
   ■2. Difficult respiration.
   DATE.  See lutetylus.
   Date plum, In linn.  Sec Dyospyrus lotus.     •
   DATOLYTE.  Datholit of Werner.  A species oi
 silicious ore divided into common dalolyte and bolroi-
 dal datolytc.
   [This  is the  silicious bornte of lime,  called Datho
 (if, by Werner  nnd Brogninrt.  It was discovered  ty
 I'sinai k.  " It is sometimes in prismatic crystals, with
 n-u sides, having  two opposite solid miKles on  each
 base truncated.  The pinuitivc form is  a lirehl prism.
 whose bases are rhombs, with angles of ltKP2ti'nna
 70° 32'.  It also appears in large granular concretions,
 whicli frequently discover Indications of a prismatic
 form; also in grains or amorphous.  The surface of
 Ihe concretions is rough and glimmering.
   Its hardness enables it to scratch fluate of lime, nnd
 Us specific gravity  is 2.98.  Its fracture is imperfectly
 conchoidal, shining, and nearly vitreous.   Its colour
 Is white, shaded wilh  gray or green, often very de-
 licately.
   When exposed to the flame of a candle, it assumes a
 dull white colour,  and  becomes very brittle, even "ie-
 twecn the fingers.  Before the blowpipe  it  swel'a into
 a milk-white mass, and then nielu  into a  pale  rose
 coloured glass.   It is composed of
      Lime.............................35.5
      Silex ............................36..r)
      Boracic acid......................21.')
      Water...........................  4.0
                                       ----100
                                Clcav. Min.  A.]
   DATU'RA.   (Blanchard sr.ys, it is derived from the
 Indian word datiro, of  which he knows not the mean-
 ing.)   The name of a genus of plants in the Linnaean
 system.  Class, Pentandria; Order,  Monogynia.
   Datura stramonium.   The  systematic name  ol
 ihe thorn-apple.  Stramonium;  Dutray ; Barryococ
 colon;  Solanum maniacum  of Dioscorides.  Stramo
 nium spinosum of  Gerard.  Solanum fatidum of  Bau
 hin.  Stramonium  majus album. Common thorn-apple
 Datura—pericarpiis spinosis erectis ovatis, foliis ov a ■
 tis glabris, of Linnaeus.  This  plant has  been  long
 known as a powerful narcotic poison.   In  its recent
 state it has a bitterish taste, and a smell somewhat re-
 sembling that of poppies, especially if the leaves be
 rubbed between the fingers.  Instances  of  the delete-
 rious effects of  the plant are numerous, more particu-
 larly of the seed.   An extract prepared from the seeds
 is recommended by Baron Stoerck in maniacal, epilep-
 tic, and convulsive affections; and is said  by some to
 succcpd,  while,  in the  hands of others, it has failed.
 In this  country, says Dr. Woodville, we  arc unac-
quainted  with   any practitioners whose  experience
tends  to throw light on the medical character of this
plant.  It appears to us, continues Dr. Woodville, that
its effects as a medicine are to be referred to no other
power than  that  of a narcotic.   And Dr. Cullen,
speaking on this subject, says, "I have no doubt  that
narcotics may be u remedy in certain cases of" mania
and epilepsy; but I have not, and I doubt if any other
person has, learned to distinguish the cases to which
such remedies are properly  adapted. It is therefore
that we find the other narcotics, os well as the stramo-
nium, to fail in the same hands in which they had in
other cases seemed  to succeed.  It is this consideration
that has occasioned my neglecting the use of stramo-
nium, and therefore prevented me from speaking more
precisely from my own  experience on this subject."
  The extract of this plant has been the preparation
usually employed from  one to ten grains  and upwards
a day; but the  pow-dered leaves, prepared after the
manner of tliose of hemlock, would seem to be more
certain and convenient.   Greding found the strength ol
the extract to vary exceedingly ; that which he obtain-
tained from Ludwig was much more powerful than
that which he had  of Sloerck.  Externally, the leaves
of stramonium have been applied to  inflammatory tu-
mours and burns, and it is said  with success, and ol
late, the dried leaves have been  smoked us a remedy
in asthma; but it does not appear that the y have been
more efficacious in  this way than  tobacco,
  [The Stramonium is known in  different parts of the
United States, bv Ihe name of Thorn-apple. Jamcst.icn-
                                        •283 
DEC
DEC
*eci .Stint weed, Sec  All parts of the plant appear
io be poisonous.  Some soldiers died, during the revo-
lutionary war, by eating the young plants, for greens,
early in the spring.  I have seen children labouring
under the effects ofthe poison from having swallowed
tlfle seeds, and from drinking a decoction of  herbs in
which some  of the young  seed-vessels, and  small
leaves, ofthe stramonium had been accidentally mixed.
  The poison of the stramonium produces, iu children,
a peculiar  spasmodic delirium, attended with dilata-
tion of the pupils of the eyes, heat ofthe skin,  and a
flush  of the face.  The ripe or unripe seeds, or the
leaves, produce the same effect, and the only remedy
is to discharge them from the stomach by emetics, as
toon a» possible. A.]
  DAUBENTON,  Lewis  Mary, was born  in Bur-
gundy, 1716.  Having become doctor  in  medicine at
the age Of 24, he went to Paris, and being very zealous
iu tlie study of comparative anatomy, the  office of
keeper of Ihe royal cabinet of natural history was pro-
cured  for  him  by the celebrated  Buffon. He contri-
buted materially to enrich the splendid work of that
eminent naturalist, by furnishing the anatomy both of
man and animals.   He was a member of several dis-
tinguished  societies, among others of the Royal Aca-
demy of Sciences at Paris, to whicli he made some use-
ful communications.  Having escaped the revolution-
ary horrors in France, he was chosen,  in 1799, a mem-
ber of the Conservative Senate: but he died towards
the end of the same year.
  Dauc'ites vinum.  Wild-carrot seeds, steeped in
must.
  DAU'CUS.  Airou tou iavctv, from its relieving the
colic, and  discussing flatulencies.)   The carrot.  1.
The  name of a genus of plants in the Linnaean system.
Class, Pentandria; Order,  Digynia.
  2.  The pharniacopoeial name of the garden carrot.
See Daucus carota.
  Daucus  alsaticus.  The Oreoselinum pratense,
of Linnaeus.
  Daucus annuus minor.   The Caucalis anlhriscus,
of Linnaeus.
  Daucus  carota. The systematic name of the car-
rot plant.  Daucus;  Daucus sylvestris; Pastinaca
sylvestris  tenuifolia offtcinarum; Daucus—seminibus
hispidis, petiolis subtus nervosis, of  Linnaeus.  The
cultivated root, scraped, and applied  in the form of a
poultice, is a useful application  to phagedenic ulcers,
and  to cancers and putrid sores.  The seeds, which
obtain a place in the materia  medica,  have a light
aromatic  smell, and a warm  acrid  taste,  and are
esteemed for their diuretic qualities, and for their
utility in calculous and nephritic complaints, in which
an infusion of three spoonfuls ofthe seeds, in a pint of
boiling water, has been recommended;  or the seeds
may be fermented in malt liquor, which receives from
them an agreeable flavour, resembling that of lemon-
peel.   The boiled root is said by many to be difficult oS
digestion; but this is the case only when the stomach
is weak.  It contains a considerable quantity  of the
saccharine principle, and is very nutritious.
  Daucus  creticus.  See Athamanta cretensis.
  Daucus  sativus.  A variety ofthe Daucus carol a,
the seeds of wliich are preferred by some practitioners,
  Daucus  seprinius.  Common chervil.
  Daucus  sylvestris.  Wild  carrot, or bird's nest.
The seeds of the wild plant are said to be more effica-
cious than tliose of the garden carrot; they possess de-
mulcent and aromatic qualities, and  are given, in in-
fusion, or decoction, in calculous complaints.
   DAY-MARE. See Ephialtes.
   DAY-SIGHT.  See Paropsis noctifuga.
  Dead nettle. See Lamium album.
   Deadlq nightshade.  See Atropa belladonna.
  DEAFNESS.  Surditas.  See Paracusis.
   Deaf-dumbness.  Speechlessness, from deafness.
   Dearticula'tio. (Fromdc, and articulus, a joint.)
Articulation admitting evident motion.
  Deascta'tio.  (From de, and ascio, to chip, as with
a hatchet.)  A bone splintered on its side.
  DECAGY'NIA.   (From iexa, ten, and yvvn, a wo-
man.) The name of an order of the clas-i Decandria,
of the sexual system of plants.  See Plants.
  Decamy'ron. (From itxa, ten, and pvoov, an oint-
ment.)  An aromatic ointment, mentioned by Onba-
sius, containing ten ingredients.
  DECA'N DRIA.  (From erica, ten, and avnp, a man.)
       '284
The name of a class, and also of an order of plants In
the sexual system.  See Plants.
  Decide'ntia.  (From decide, lo fall,down.)   Any
change prolonging acute diseases.
  DECTDUA.  (Deciduus; from decido, to fall off)
Membrana decidua.  A very thin and delicate mem-
brane or tunic, which adheres to the gravid uterus, and
is said to be a reflection of the chorion, and, on that
account, is called deciduarefiexa.  The tunica decidua
comes away after delivery, in small pieces, mixed with
the lochia.
  DECTDUUS.  (From decido, to fall off, or down
to die.)  Deciduous; falling off.  Applied to trees and
shrubs, wliich, in most European countries, lose their
leaves as winter approaches, and to the perianthium
of Tilia curopaa, which does not fall off until after
the flower is expanded.
  This term is expressive of the second stage of dura
tion,  and, like caducous, has a different  application
according to the  particular part to which it refers:
thus leaves are deciduous which drop off in the au-
tumn, petals whicli  fall off with the stamina and pis-
tils ; and calyces are deciduous which fall off after the
the expansion, and before the dropping of the flower.
  DECLMA'NUS.   (From decern, ten, and mane, the
morning.)  Returning  every tenth day,  applied  to
some erratic fevers.
  DECLI'VIS.  (From de, and clivis, a hill.)  De
dining, descending.  A name of an abdominal muscle,
because of its posture.
  DECOCTUM.  (From decoquo, to boil.)  A decoc
tion.  Any medicine made by boiling in a watery fluid.
In a chemical point of view,  it is a continued ebullition
with  water, to separate such parts of bodies as  are
only soluble at that degree of heat.  The following are
among the most approved decoctions.
  Decoctum album.   See Mistura cornu usti.
  Dbcoctum  aloes  compositum.   Compound  de
coction of aloes.  Take of extract of liquorice, half an
ounce; subcarbonate of potassa, two scruples; extract
of spiked aloe powdered, myrrh powdered, saffron stig
mata, of each a drachm;  water, a pint.  Boil down to
twelve fluid ounces, and strain ; then  add compound
tincture of cardamoms, four fluid ounces.  This decoc-
tion, now first introduced into the London Pharmaco-
poeia, is analogous  to an article in very frequent use,
invented by the late  Dr. Devalingin, and sold under the
name of Beaume de  vie.  By the proportion of tincture
which is added, it will keep unchanged for any length
of time.
  Decoctum ALTn.ic.E.  D< c. ction of marsh mallows.
Take of dried marsh-mallow roots, j iv; raisins of
the sun, stoned, 3 ij; water Ibvij.  Boil to five pounds;
place apart the strained liquor, till the faeces have sub-
sided, then pour off  the clear part.  This preparation,
directed in the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia, may be ex-
hibited as a common drink  in  nephralgia, and  many
diseases of the urinary passages, with advantage.
  Decoctum anthemidis.  See Decoctum chama
meli.
  Decoctum astrauali.   Take of the  root  of the
astragalus escapus, 3 j; distilled water, tbiij.  These are
to he boiled, till only a quart  of fluid remain.  The
whole is to be taken, a little warmed, in the course of
24 hours.  This remedy was tried very extensively in
Germany,  nnd said to evince very powerful effects, as
an antisyphilitic.
  Decoctum bardan.-s.  Take of bardanu root, 3 vj;
of distilled water, Ibvj.  Those are to be boiled till
only two quarts remain.  From n pint  to a quart in a
day is given, in  those cases where sarsaparilla and
other remedies, that are called alterative, are supposed
to be requisite.
  Decoctum  < iiam.-emeli.  Chamomile  decoction.
Take of chamomile  flowers, "jj; caraway seeds,  "§ss;
water, Ibv.  Boil fifteen minutes, and strain.  A very
common and excellent vehicle for tonic powders, pills,
&c.   It is also in very frequent use for fomentation,
and clysters.
  Decoctum  cinciione.   Decoction  of cinchona,
commonly called  decoction  of Peruvian bark.   Take
of lance-leaved cinchona bark bruised, an ounce ; wa-
ter, a pint.  Boil for ten minutes, in a vessel slightly
covered, and strain the decoction whi"- hot.  Accord-
ing to the option ofthe practitioner, the nark of either
ofthe other specios of cinchona, the cordlfolia, or vol-
low, or the oblongifolia. or red,  may be substituted foi 
DEC
DEC
the lancifolia, or  quilled;  whicli  is  herb directed.
This way of administering the bark is very general, as
all the other preparations may be mixed wilh it, as ne-
cessity requires.  It is a very proper fomentation for
prolapsus ofthe uterus and rectum.
  Decoctum cornu.   See Mistura cornuusti.
  Decoctum cydoni.e.   Mucilago  ssminis cydonii
malii.   Mucilago  seminum cydoniorum.   Decoction
of quince seeds.  Take of quince seeds, two drachms;
water, a pint.  Boil over a gentle fire for leu minutes,
then strain.  This decoction, in the new London Phar-
tnaccpieia, has  been removed from among the muci-
lages, as being less  dense than either of the others, and
as being employed  in  larger doses, like other mucila-
ginous decoctions.   In  addition to gum, it contains
other constituent parts of the seeds, and  is, therefore,
more apt  to spoil than common  mucilage, over wliich
it possesses no other advantages, than that it  is more
grateful, aud sufficiently thin, without  further dilution,
to form the bulk of any liquid  medicine.  Its virtues
are demulcent.  Joined with syrup of mulberry nnd a
little borax, it is useful against apnthie of the mouth and
"auces.
  Decoctum daphnes mezerei.   Decoction  of me-
zereon.   Take of  tlie  bark of  mezereon  root,  ; ij;
liquorice root, bruised, 3 ss;  water, Ibiij.  Boil il, wilh
a gentle heat, down  to two pounds, and strain  it.
From four to eight ounces of this decoction  may  be
given four times a day, in some obstinate venereal and
rheumatic affections.    It  operates chiefly  by  per-
spiration.
  Decoctum dulcamara.  Decoction of woody night-
shade.  Take of woody nightshade stalks, newly ga-
thered,  5J;  distilled  water, tbiss.  These are to  be
boiled away to a pint,  and strained.  The dose is half
an ounce to  two ounces, mixed with an equal quantity
of milk.  This remedy is employed in  inveterate cases
of scrofula; in cancer and  phagedena; in lepra, and
oilier cutaneous affections; and iu anomalous  local
diseases, originating in venereal lues.
  Decoctum oeoffr£.e inermis.  Decoctionof cab-
bage-tree plant. Take of  bark of the cabbage-tree,
powdered, sj; water, ibij.  Boil it, with a gentle fire,
down to one pound, and strain. This is a powerful
anthelmintic.  It may be given  in doses of one table-
spoonful to  children, and four to adults.  If disagreea-
 ble symptoms should arise from an over-dose, or from
drinking cold water during its action, we  must imme-
diately purge with castor oil, and  dilute with acidu-
lated drinks.
   Decoctum   guaiaoi  officinalis   compositum.
 Decoctum lignor-u.ni.  Compound decoction of guaia-
cum, commonly called decoction of the woods.  Take
of guaiacum raspings, § iij; taisins, stoned, 3 ij; sas-
safras root,  liquorice,  each, 1 j;  water, Ibx.  Boil the
guaiacum and raisins  with the  water, over a gentle
fire, to the consumption  of one half; adding, towards
the end, the  sassafras and liquorice.  Strain the liquor
without expression. This decoction possesses stimu-
lant and diaphoretic qualities, and is generally exhibit-
ed in rheumatic and cutaneous diseases, which are de-
pendent on a vitiated state of the humours.  It  may
be taken by itself, to the quantity  of a  quarter of a
pint, twice or thrice a day, or used as an assistant in a
course of mercurial or antimonial alteratives; the pa-
tient, in either case, keeping warm, in order to promote
the operation ofthe medicine.
  Decoctum hellebori albi.  Decoction of white
hellebore.  Take of the root of white hellebore, pow-
dered, by weight, |j;  water, two pints;  rectified spi-
rits  of wine, ? ij,  by measure.  Boil  the  water, with
the roof, to  one pint;  and the liquor being cold and
strained,  add'to it the spirit.  This decoction, in the
last  London Pharmacopoeia, is called decoctum vera-
tri.  It is a very efficacious application, externally, as
a wash, in tinea capitis, lepra, psora, &c.  Yvhen the
skin is very  tender and  irritable, it should be diluted
with an equal quantity of water.
  Decoctum  iiordei.   Decoctum  hordei  distichi.
Aqua hordeata.  Take of pearl barley,  ?ij; water,
four pints and a half.   First wash away any adhering
extraneous substances with cold water;  next, having
pouted upon the barley half a pint of water, boil for a
f»w minutes.  Let this water  be thrown away, and
add the  remainder of the  water boiling; then boil
down to two pints, and strain.  Barley-water is a nu-
tritive and softening drink, and the most proper of all
llquois >ii inflammatory diseases.  It is an cxoellcrit
gargle in inflammatory sore throats, mixed with a little
nitre.
  Decoctum ihirkki  compositum.   Decoctum pcr-
torale. Compound decoction of barley.  Take ol de-
coctionof barley, two pints; figs, sliced, ""eij; liquorice
root, sliced and bruised, *4s; raisins, stoned, ? ij; wa
ter, a pint.   Boil down to two pints and strain.  From
the pectoral and demulcent qualities of this decoction,
it  may be administered us a common drink in fevers
and other acute disorders, m catarrh, and several affec-
tions of the chest.
  Decoctum hordei  cum gummi.  Barley-water,
Ibij; gum arab., jj.  The gum is to be dissolved in the
barley decoction, while warm.  It then forms a suita-
ble diluent  In strangury,  dysury, &c. for the gum,
finding n passage into the bladder, in an unaltered
state, inixos with the urine, and prevents the notion of
its neutral salts on the urinary canal.
   Decoctum lichems.  Decoction of Iceland moss or
liverwort.  Take of liverwort, one ounce ; water, a
pint and a half.  Boil down to a pint, and strain.  The
dose is from 3 j to *"", iv.
  [The Ice-laud moss was once  in great repute as a
remedy  in consumption, the decoction being made
with milk, but it is no longer in repute, being consider
ed  a  weak  niucilagious bitter  of  little  or no  etii
cacy.  A.]
  Decoctum lobkli/k.   Take a handful of the roots
of the Lobelia syphilitica; distilled water, Ibxij. These
are to be  boiled in the usual way, till only four quarts
remain.  The very desirable property of curing the
venereal disease has been attributed  to this medicine,
but it is  not more lo be depended on than guaiacum,
or other vegetable substances, of which the same thing
has been alleged.  The  effects of this decoction are
purgative, and the manner of taking il, as described
by Swediaur, is as follows:—The patient is  to begin
with  half a pint, twice a day.  The same quantity is
then  to be taken, four limes a day, and continued so
long as  its purgative  effect is not too considerable.
When the case is otherwise, it is to be discontinued for
three or four days, and then had  recourse to again till
the cure is completed.  As this is  a remedy on the old
system, and not admitted into our  pharmacopoeias,
little confidence ought to be placed in it.
   Decoctum lusitanicum. Take of sliced sarsapa
rilla, lignum sassafras, lignum santalum rubrum, ofli
cinal lignum guaiacum, of each one ounce and a half;
ofthe root of mezereon, coriander seed, of each half an
ounce ; distilled water, ten  pounds.  These are to be
boiled till only half the fluid remains.  The dose is a
quart or more in a day.
   Take of sliced sarsaparilla, lignum santalum ru-
brum, lignum santalum citrinum, of each, ; tss; ofthe
root of glycirrhiza and mezereon, of each, 3 ij; of lig-
num rhudii, officinal  lignum  guaiacum, and  lignum
sassafras, of each,  "fss; of antimony, "f'j ;  distilled
water, tbv.   These ingredients are to be macerated for
twenty-four hours, and afterward boiled, till the fluid
is reduced to half its original quantity.  From one to
four pints are given daily.
  The late  Mr. Hunter notices this, and also the fol-
lowing formula, in  his Treatise on the Venereal  Dis-
ease.
  Take of sliced sarsaparilla, ofthe root of China, of
each  $j;  walnut peels dried, xx;  antimony,  5 ij,
pumice-stone, powdered, 5J; distilled water, Ibx.  The
powdered antimony and pumice-stone aie to be  lied
in separate pieces of rag, and boiled, along with the
other ingredients.  This last decoction is reckoned to
be the genuine Lisbon  diet drink,  the qualities of
which have  been the subject of so much encomium.
  Decoctum malv* compositum.   Decoctum pro
enemate.   Decoctum commune pro  clystere.   Com-
pound decoction of mallows.  Take of mallows dried,
an ounce; chamomile flowers dried, half an ounce;
water, a  pint.   Boil for a quarter  of" an  hour,  and
strain. A very excellent form for au emollient clyster.
A  variety of medicines may be added to answer  par-
ticular indications.
   Decoctum mezerei.  See Decoctum dapkitts me-
zerei.
   Decoctum papaveris.   Decoctum Hro fomento
Fotus  communis.   Decoction of poppy.   Take of
white poppy capsules bruised, I iv ;  water, four piu-a
Boil for a quarter of an hour, and strain.  This  pre
                                        285 
DEC                                            DEG
nitration possesses sedative and antiseptic properties,
and may be directed with advantage in sphacelus. Sec.
  Decoctum pro enematk.  See  Decoctum malva
compositum.
  Dkcoctum pro fomknto. bee Decoctumpapavens.
  Decoctum quercus. Decoctionof oak bark.  Take
of oak bark,  § j; water, two pints.  Boil down to a
pint, and strain.  This astringent decoction has lately
been added to the Lond. Pharm., and is chiefly used
for external purposes.  It is a good remedy in prolap-
sus ani, and may be used also in some cases as an  in-
jection.
  Decoctum sarsaparilla.  Decoction of  sarsapa-
rilla.  'Take of sarsaparilla root, sliced, 3'v> boiling
water, four pints. Macerale for tour hours, in a ves-
sel lightly covered, near the fire;  then  lake out the
sarsaparilla and  bruise it.  After it is bruised, put it
again into the liquor, and macerate it in a similar
manner for two hours  more; then boil it down to two
pints, and strain.
  This decoction is much extolled by some practition-
ers, in phthisis, and to restore the strength alter along
course of mercury.
  Decoctum sarsaparilla  compositum.   Com-
pound decoction of sarsaparilla.  Take of decoction
of sarsaparilla  boiling, four  pints;  sassafras  root
sliced,guaiacum wood shavings, liquorice root bruised,
of each an ounce; mezereon root bark,  3iij.  Boil
for a quarter of an hour, and strain.  The alterative
property of the compound is very great; it is generally
ijiven after a course ol" mercury, where there  have
been nodes and indolent ulcerations, and  with great
benefit.  The dose is  from  half a  pint to a pint in
twenty-four hours.
  Decoctum senega. Decoction of senega.  Take
of senega root, |j ; water, two pints.   Boil  down to
a pint, and strain.  This is now first introduced  into
tlie Loud. Pharm. as being a  useful medicine, espe-
cially in affections ofthe lungs, attended with debility
and inordinate secretion.
  Decoctum ulmi.  Decoction of elm bark.  Take
of fresh elm  bark bruised, four ounces; water, tour
pints.  Boil down to two pints, and strain.  This may
be employed with great advantage as  a collyrium in
chronic ophthalmia.   It is given internally  in some
cutaneous eruptions.
  Decoctum veratri. See Decoctum hclltborialbi.
  [The Pharmacopoeia of the United States  contains
the following decoctions.
  Dkcoctum arali^e nudicaulis.    Decoction   of
false sarsaparilla.
  Decoctum cinchonj:.   Decoction   of  Peruvian
bark.
  Dkcoctum Colombo compositum.   Compound de-
coction of Columbo.
  Dkcoctum dulcamar.e.  Decoctionof bitter-sweet.
  Decoctum guaiaci. Decoctionof guaiacum.
  Dkcoctum hordei.  Decoction of barley.
  Decoctum hordei  compositum.  Compound  de-
coction of barley.
  Decoctum liciienis.  Decoction of Iceland moss.
  Decoctum mezerei.  Decoction of mezereon.
  Decoctum sarsaparill.e.  Decoctionof sarsapa-
rilla.
  Decoctum  sarsaparill.e  compositum.  Com-
vound decoction of sarsaparilla.
  Dkcoctum scill*.  Decoction of squill.
  Decoctum sknkci*. Decoction of sencca snake root.
  Dkcoctum veratri.  Decoction of white  helle-
bore.   A.l
  DECOLLA'TIO.  (From deeollo, to behead.)   The
loss of a part of the skull.
   Dkcomposit*.  The name of a class in Sauvage's
Methodus Foliorum, consisting of" such as have twice
compounded leaves;  lhat is, have a  common fool-
stalk supporting ft number of less leaves,  each of
wliich is compounded; as in Fumaria, and many un-
bellifeious plants.
   DECOMPOSITION.  Decomposilio.  The separa-
tion of the  component parts or principles of  bodies
from each other.   The decomposition of bodies forms a
very large part of chemical science.  It seems proba-
 ble, from itie operations we lire acquainted with, that
 It seldom lakes place but in consequence of some com-
 binations or composition  having  been effected.   It
 would be difficult to point out an instance of  the sepa-
 intuii of any of the  principles  of bodies which bus |
 been effected, unless in  consequence of some  new
 combination.  The only exceptions seem to consist ill
 those separations which are made by heat, and voltaic
 electricity.
   DECOMPOSITUS.  A term applied  to leaves, and
 means doubly compound.  Sir James Smith observes,
 that Linnaeus, in his Philosophia Botanica, gives an
 erroneous definition of this term which does not agree
 with his own use of it. The JEgopodium podagraria
 and Fulmaria claviculata, afford examples of the de-
 composite leaves.  Supra decompositum, means thrice
 compound, or more;  as in Caucalis anthriscus.  The
 decomposite flowers are such as contain  within a coin
 mon calyx a number of less or partial flower-cups,
 each of which is composed of many florets.
   DECORTICATION. (Decorticatio ;  from de, from,
 and cortex, bark.)  The stripping of any thing of its
 bark, husk, or shell;  thus almonds, and the like, arc
 decorticated, that is, deprived of their pellicle, when
 ordered for medicinal purposes.
   [There is a natural and artificial decortication per
 formed on certain trees.  The shag-bark liickory-tree
 (juglans alba) throws off its bark by a natural and
 spontaneous decortication.  So does the button-wood
 (platanus occidentalis) or plane-tree.  The cork-tree
 is deprived of its bark artificially every few years, and
 lives longer than those trees which are suffered to grow
 without molestation.  Tliose not decorticated become
 shaggy and  hide-bound, while Ihe others form a  new
 bark and  improve in appearance and vigour.  'These
 facts suggested the idea of improving fruit-trees that
 had become hide-bound nnd shaggy, and appeared to
 be iu a state of decay.  Dr. Mitchill first tried the ex-
 periment  on an old  apple-tree,  and by removing the
 old bark,  in the warm season, from ihe body of  the
 tree, and protecting it from external injury for a time,
 he succeeded in producing a new bark and in regene-
 rating a tree wliich  was  considered us  past bearing.
 The tree became vigorous, again put forth blofsoms
 and bore fruit.  Since that experiment, it has become
 common in  apple  orchards to improve  old trees  by a
 similar process.  A.]
   DECREPITATION.  (Dccrepitatio ; from decrepo,
 to crackle.)  A kind of crackling noise, which takes
 place in some bodies, when heated: it  is  peculiar to
 some kinds of salts, as muriate of soda, sulphate of
 barytes, Sec
   DECUMBENS.    (From  deeumbo, to lie  down.)
 Dropping: a term applied to flowers which incline to
 one  side and downwards.
   DECURRENS.   Dccurrent.   A term  applied by
 botanists to leaves which  run down the  stem or leafy
 border or wing; as  iu Onopordium  acanthium, and
 many thistles, great mullein, and couifrey:  and to leaf-
 stalks ; as in Pisum ochrus.
   DECURSIVE".   Decurrently.  Applied  to leaflets
 that run down the stem ; as in Eryngium campestre.
   DECUSSATION.   (Decussatio;  from decutio, to
 divide.)  When nerves, or muscular  fibres cross  one
 another, they are said to decussate each other.
   DECUSSATUS.   Decussated.  Applied to leaves
 and  spines wliich are in pairs, alternately crossing each
 other; as in Veronica decussata, aud Genista  luci
 tanica.
   DECUSSO'RIUM.  (From  decusso, to  divide.)
 An instrument  to  depress the dura mater, after tre
 panning.
   Defknsi'va.   (From defendo, to preserve.)  Coidial
 medicines, or such as resist infection.
   DE'FERENS.  (From defcro, to convey; because
 it conveys the semen to the vesicuUe seminales.)   See
 Vas deferens.
   DEFLAGRATION.   (Defiagratio ; From defia-
 gro, to burn.)  A chemical  term, chiefly employed to
 express the burning or setting fire to any substance; as
 nitre, sulphur, &c.
   DEFLUXION.  (Defluxio; fiom defluo, to run off.)
 A falling down of  humours from a superior lo an in-
 ferior part.  Many writers  mean nothing  more by it
 than inflammation.
   DEFOLIATIO.   (Frome!c,and/o/iKm,ak«af.) The
 fall of the leaf.  A term opposed to frondesccnuu, 01
 the  renovation of the leaf.
   DEGLUTITION.   (Deglutitio; from deglutio,  to
 swallow down.)   A natural action.   " It is under-
 stood to be  the  passage  of a substance, either  solid,
I liquid, or gaseous, from  the  mouth to the stomach 
DEG
DEO
Though deglutition is very simple in appearance, it Is
nevertheless the most complicated of all the muscular
actions that serve for digestion.  Il is produced by the
contraction of a great number of muscles, and requires
the concurrence of many important organs.
  All the muscles of the tongue, those ofthe velum of
the palate, ofthe pharynx, ofthe larynx, and the mus-
cular layer of the oesophagus, are employed in deglu-
tition.
  The velum  is a sort of valve attached to the poste-
rior edge of the roof of the  palate; its form is nearly
quadrilateral; Us free or inferior edge is pointed, and
forms the uvula.  Like the other valves of the intes-
tinal canal, the velum is essentially formed by a dn-
plicature of the digestive mucous  membrane; there
are many mucous follicles that enter into its composi-
tion, particularly iu the uvula.  Eight muscles move
it; it is raised by the two internal pterygoid:  the ex-
ternal plirygoid hold it transversely ;  Ihe two palato-
pharyngei, and  the two constrictores isthmi faucium
carry it downwards.  These lour  are seen al the bot-
tom of the throat, a here they raise the mucous mem-
brane, and form the pillars os ofthe return of  the pa-
late, between  wliich are situated the amygdala, a mass
of mucous folliclts.   The opening  between the  buse
of the tongue below, the velum of the palate above,
and the pillars  laterally, is called the isthmus of the
throat.  By means of its  muscular apparatus, the t-e-
lum of the" palate  may have many changes of posi-
tion.  In the most common state it is placed vertically,
one of its laces is anterior, the- other posterior ;  in cer-
tain cases it becomes horizontal: il has ihen a supe-
rior and inferior aspect, and  its free edge  corresponds
to the concavity of  the pharynx.  This  last posi-
tion is determined by the contraction of the elevating
muscles.
  The pharynx is a vestibule into which open the nos-
trils, the Eustachian tubes, the mouth, the larynx, and
the oesophagus, and which  perforins  very  important
functions in  the  production of voice, in respiration,
hearing, and  digestion.
  The pharynx extends from top  to bottom, from the
basilar  process of the occipital bone, to  which  it
is  attached,  to the  level of the  middle  part of the
 neck.
   Its transverse dimensions  are determined by the os
 hyoides, the  larynx, and the pterygo-maxillary  apo-
neurosis, lo whicli  it is fixed.  The mucous membrane
which covers it interiorly is remarkable for the deve-
lopement of its veins,  which form a very apparent
plexus.  Round this membrane is the muscular layer.
the circular fibres of which  form Ihe three constrictor
muscles  of  the pharynx, the longitudinal fibres of
jvhich are represented by the stylo-pharyngeus and
constrictores  isthmi  faucium.  The contractions of
these different muscles are not generally subject to the
will.
  The esophagus is the imm-diate continuation ofthe
pharynx, and is prolonged as far as the stomach, where
it terminates.   Its form is cylindrical;  it is  united to
the surroupdiug parts by a slack aud extending cellu-
lar tissue, whicli gives way to its dilatation  and its
motions.   To penetrate into the abdomen the oesopha-
gus passes between the pillais of the diaphragm, with
which it is closely united.  The mucous membrane of
the oesophagus  is while, thin, and smooth ; it forms
longitudinal folds very proper for fuvoiiriiig the dilata-
tion of the canal.  Above it is confounded wilh  that
of the pharynx.
  There are found in it a great number of mucous fol-
licles, and at  iu surface there are perceived the orifices
of many excretive canals of  the mucous glands.
  The muscular layer of the oesophagus is thick, its
tissue is denser  than that of the pharynx ;  the longitu-
dinal fibres are the most external and the least nume-
rous; the circular arc placed in the interior and are
very numerous.
  Round the  pectoral and inferior portion of the oeso-
phagus, the two nerves of the eighth pair form a plexus
which embraces the canal, and sends many filaments
into it.
  The contraction of the oesophagus takes place with-
out the participation of the will.
  Mechanism of Deglutition.   Deglutition is  divided
into three periods.  In the first, the food  passes from
Ihe mouth to  the pharynx; in the second,  it passes the
opening of the  glottis, that  of the nasal  canals, and
arrives at the oesophagus; In the the third It passe*
through this tube and enters the stomach.
  Let us  suppose the most common  case,  that  ill
which we swallow at si veral  times the food wliich is
in the mouth, and  according  as  mastication  takes
place.
  As soon ns a certain quantity of food is sufficiently
chewed, it  is placed, by the effects of the motions of
mastication, in part upon the superior  face of  tho
tongue, without  the necessity, as  some  think, of ils
being collected by the point of the tongue  from ihe dif-
ferent pnrts ofthe  mouth.  Mastication then stops,
the tongue- is  raised and  npplied  to the roof of Ihe
palate, in succession, from the point towards the base.
The portion of food, or the alimentary bolus placed
upon  its superior surface, having io other way to es-
cape from the force that presses, is directed  towards
the pharynx; il soon meets  the velum of ihe palate
applied  lo  the base of the tongue and rnises it; tho
velum becomes horizontal, so us to make n continua-
tion ofthe  palate.  The tongue, continuing  topresn
the food, would  carry il towards the nasal canals, if
the velum  did not  piewiil this by the  tension that i
receives from tlie external peristaphyline muscles, aw'
particularly by the contraction  of  its pillars; ii ilnii
becomes capable of  resisting the action  of the tongue
and of contributing to  the  direction of  the food to-
wards ihe pharynx.
  The muscles which determine more particularly th«
application of the tongue to the top of ihe palate, am
lothe velum of the palate, arc the proper muscles of
the organ, aided by the mylo-hyoideus.   Here the first
time of deglutition terminates.   Its  motions ai e volun
tary, except those of the  velum of the palate.  The
phenomena happen slowly  and in succession;  the}
are few and easily noticed.
  The second period is not the same; in  it the pheno
menu are simultaneous, multiplied, and are produced
with  such promptitude,  that  Boerhaave considered
them as a sort of convulsion.
  The space that the alimentary bolus passes througl
in  this  time is very short, for it passes only from the
middle to the inferior part of the pharynx ; but it was
necessary to avoid the  opening of the glottis and thai
of the nasal canals, where its presence  would be inju-
rious.   Besides, its passage ought to  be sufficiently
rapid, in order that the  communication  between the
larynx and  the external  air may not be interrupted,
except for an instant.
  Let us see how nature has arrived at  this important
result. The alimentary  bole no sooner  touch-;  the
pharynx  than every thing is  in motion.  First, the
pharynx contracts, embraces and retains the bole; the
velum of the palate, drawn down by its  pillars, acts in
the same way.  On the other  hand,  and in the same
instant,  the base of the tongue, the  os hyoides,  the
larynx, are raised and  carried  forward  to meet the
bole, in order to render its passage more rapid over the
opening of the glottis.  While tiieos  hyoides, and the
larynx are  raised, they approach each  other, that is,
the superior edge of the thyroid cartilage engages it-
self behind the body of the os hyoides:  the epiglottic
gland is pushed back; the epiglottis descends, inclines
downwards  and backwards, so as to  cover  ihe en-
trance of the larynx.  The cricoid cartilage- makes a
motion of rotation upon ihe inferior horns of  the thy-
roid, whence it results that the entrance of ihe larynx
becomes oblique downwards  and backwards.  Tbe
bole slides along its surface, and being always pressed
by the contraction of the pharynx and of  the velum of
the palate, it arrives at the oesophagus.
  It is not long since the  position that the epiglottis
takes in this place was considered as  the only obstacle
opposed to Ihe entrance of the food into the larynx, at
the instant of deglutition; but  Dr. Magendie  has
shown,  by a series  of experiments,  that this  cause
ought to be considered as only accessary.   In  fact, the
epiglottis may be entirely taken away from an animal
without deglutition suffering any injury from it.  What
is the reason, then, that  no part of the food  is intro-
duced into the larynx the insiant  that we swallow ?
The reason  is this.   In the instant lhat the larynx is
raised and engaged behind  the os hyoides, the glottis
shuts with the greatest closeness.  This motion is pro-
duced by the same muscles that press the glottis in the
production of the voice; so that if an animal has the
recurrent;! and nerver of the larynx divided, while'tha
                                       'JW7 
DEI
DEL
epiglottis is untouched, its deglutition is rendered very
difficult, because the principal cause is removed which
cpposos the introduction of food into the glottis.
  Immediately after the alimentary bole  has passed
the glottis, the larynx descends, the epiglottis is raised,
And "he glottis is opened to give passage to  the air.
  After what has teen said, it is easy to conceive why
the food reaches the oesophagus without entering any
of the openings which end in the pharynx.  The velum
of the palate, which, in contracting, embraces the pha-
rynx, protects the posterior nostrils, and the orifices of
the Eustachian tubes; the epiglottis, and  particularly
the motion by which  the glottis shuts, preserves the
larynx.
  Thus, the second period  of deglutition is accom-
plished; by the effects of which the alimentary bole
passes the pharynx, and is engaged in the superior part
of the oesophagus.  All the phenomena which concur
in it take place simultaneously, and with great prompti-
tude:  they are not subject to the will; they are then
differeut in many  respects from  the phenomena that
belong to the first period.
  The  third period of deglutition is that which has
been studied with the least care,  probably on account
of tho situation of  the oesophagus, which is difficult to
be observed except iu its cervical portion.
  The phenomena which are connected with it are not
complicated.  The pharynx, by its contraction, presses
the alimentary bole into the oesophagus with sufficient
force to give a suitable  dilatation to the superior part
of this organ.  Excited by the presence of the bolus,
its superior circular  fibres very  soon contract, and
press the food towards the stomach, thereby producing
the distension of those  more inferior.   These contract
in their turn, and the same thing continues in succes
sion  until the bolus arrives at the stomach.  In the
upper two-thirds of the oesophagus, the relaxation of
the circular fibres follows immediately  the contraction
by which  they displaced  the alimentary bolus.  It is
not the same with the inferior third; this remains some
moments contracted after the introduction of food into
the stomach.
  All  the  extent of the mucous surface that the ali-
mentary bolus passes in the three periods of degluti-
tion is lubricated by an abundant mucosity.  In the
way that the  bolus passes, it presses more or less the
follicles that it meets in its passage, it empties them of
the fluid that they contain, and slides more easily upon
the mucous membrane.  We remark that in those
places  where the  bolus passes  more  rapidly, and is
pressed with greater force, the organs for secreting mu-
cus are much more abundant.   For example, iu the
narrow space where the second period  of deglutition
takes place, there  are  found the tonsils,  the fungous
papillae of the base of the  tongue, the follicles of the
velum  of the  palate, and the uvula, those of the epi-
glottis, and the arytenoid glands.  In  this case the
saliva and the mucosity fulfil uses analogous to those
of the synovia.
  The  mechanism by which we  swallow the succeed-
ing mouthfuls of food does not differ from that which
we have explained.
  Nothing is more easy than the  performance of deglu-
tition, and, nevertheless,  all the acts of which  it is
composed  are beyond the influence of  the will and of
instinct.   Wecannot make an empty motion of deglu-
tition.   If the substance contained in the mouth is not
sufficiently chewed, if  it has not the form, the consist-
ence,  and the dimensions of the alimentary bolus, if
the motions of mastication  which immediately pre-
cede deglutition  have  not  been  made, we will fre-
quently find  it impossible  to swallow it, whatever
efforts  we make.   How many people do we not find
who cannot swallow a pill, or  medicinal bolus, and
who are obliged  to fall upon other methods to intro-
duce it into the oesophagus T—Magendie.
  DEGMUS.  (From laxvu, to  bite.)   Abiting  pain
in the orifice of the stomach.
  DEH1SCENTIA.   (From dcltisco, to gape wide.)
V spitting, or  bursting open.   Applied to  capsules,
anthers, &c.of plants.
  DEIDIER,  Anthony,  was son of  a  surgeon  of
Montpelier.  Having graduated in medicine in 1611, he
was six years  after made professor of  chemist!/.  In
1732, being appointed physician to the galleys, he went
to Marseilles, where he died in  1746.  He published,
among many otlier worfci on dift'orent branches of mc-
      263
dicine, " Experiments on  the  Bile, and the Bodies of
tliose who died of the Plague," which occurred while
be was at Marseilles.   He states that he tried mercu-
rial inunctions, but they had no effect on the disease.
There are three volumes of consultations and obser-
vations by "him deserving of perusal.  The rest of his
works are scarcely now referred to.
  Deino'sis.  (From iuvo-n,  to exaggerate.)  An en-
largement of the supercilia.
  DEJE'CTIO.  A discharge of any excrementilious
matter; generally applied to the faeces: hence dejretio
alvina.
  DEJECTO'RIA.  (From dejicio,  to cast out.;
Purging medicines.
  Delachrymati'va.  (From  de, and lachryma,  a
tear.)   Medicines wliich dry the  eyes, first purging
them of tears.
  DELATSIO.  (From delabor, to slip down.)  A
falling down of any part, as the anus, uterus, or intes-
tines.
  DELETERIOUS.  (Deleterius;  from  irfXtu, to
hurl or injure.)  Of a poisonous nature; as opium,
hemlock, henbane, &c.
  [Deliquesce.   To deliquesce  is that  action by
which certain bodies become liquid by absorbing mois-
ture from  the atmosphere.  Potash for instance by ex-
posure to the,air  will absorb so much water as to
change from a solid to a fluid state.   This is common
to many saline bodies.  A.l
  DELIQUESCENCE.  Deliquation,  or  the spon
taneous assumption of the fluid state of certain saline
bodies, when left exposed to the air, in consequence
of their attracting water from it.
  DELI O.UIUM.   (Deliquiwn;  from delinquo, to
leave.) A fainting.  See Syncope.
  DELI'RIUM.    (From deliro, to rave.)  A  febrile
symptom, consisting in the person's acting or talking
unreasonably.  It is to be carefully distinguished from
an alienation of the mind, without fever.
  DELIVERY.   See Parturition.
  Deloca'tio.  (From de, from, and locus, a place.1
A dislocation.
  DELPHIA.   See Delphinia.
  DELPHINE.  See Delphinia.
  DELPHINIA.   Delphia.  Delphine.  A new vege-
table alkali, recently discovered  by  Lasseigne and
Feneulle,  in Stavesacre.  See DUphinium  slaphysa
grin.
  DELPHINIC  ACID   Acidum  delphintcum.   The
name of an acid, extracted from the oil of the dolphin.
It resembles a volatile oil; has  a light  lemon colour.
and a strong aromatic odour, analogous to that of ran-
cid butter.  Its taste is pungent, and  its vapour has a
sweetened taste of aether.  It is slightly soluble  in wa-
ter, and very soluble in alkohol.  The latter solution
strongly reddens litmus.   100 parts of delphinic  acid
neutralize a quantity of base,  which  contains 9 of
oxvgen, whence its prime  equivalent  appears to be
11.11.
  DELPHINITE.   See Epidote.
  DKLPHINIUM   (From itXibivos,  the dolphin.)
Larkspur; so called from the likeness of its flower to
the dolphin's head.   The name of a eenusof plants in
the Linnaean system.  Class, Polyandna; Order,  Tri
gynia.
  ["Delphinium or  Larkspur.   The botanical al-
liance of  the larkspur of our gardens with aconite
and some other poisonous plants, would justify, a pri-
ori, a belief, that it possesses active properties.  This
is found on  experiment to  be the case.  A tincture
formed by infusing an ounce of the bruised seeds in
a pound of spirit hns been found an antispasmodic in
asthma, and an active diuretic in dropsy.  The  dese is
from ten to twenty drops.  Larger doses are liable to
nauseate,  and would, not improbably, produce  narco-
tic symptoms."—ifi'^. j\fat. Med.  A.]
  Delphinium consolida.  The systematic name of
the Consolida  regalis.   Calcatrippa.   Delphinium—
nectariis  monophyllis, caule  snbdiviso, of Li mucus.
Many virtues have been attributed to this plant.  The
flowers are bitter, nnd a water distilled from them is
recommended  in ophthalmia.   The herb has been ad
ministered in calculous cases, obstructed menses, and
visceral diseases.
  Delphinium staphisaoria.  The svsteniatic name
ofslavesacie.   staphisagria;  Stupkis; Pcdictilaria,
Delphinium—nectariis tctraphullis petalohrcvioribus 
DEL
DEN
 fotus palmatis, lobis obtusis, of Linnaeus.  The seeds,
 which are the only parts directed for medicinal  use,
 are usually imported here from Italy; Ihey are large,
 rough, of an iiregular triangular figure, aud of a black-
 ish colour on the outside, but yellowish within; their
 smell is disagreeable, and somewhat foetid; to the taste
 they are very bitter, acrid, and  nauseous.  It was for-
 merly employed as a  masticatory, but is now con-
 fined to external use, in some kinds of cutaneous erup-
 tions, but mere especially for destroying lice and othei
 insects:  hence, by the vulgar, it is called louse-wort.
  A new vegetable alkali has  lately  been discovered
 in this  plant by Losseigne and Feneulle.  It is thus
 obtained:
  The seeds, deprived of their husks,  and ground, are
 :o be boilbl iu a small quantity of distilled water,  and
 then pressed in a cloth.   The decoction is to be filter-
 ed,  and  boiled for a few minutes with pure magnesia.
 It must Uien be-refiltered, and the residuum left on the
 filter is to be well washed, and then boiled with highly
 ■eciihed alkohol, which dissolves out the alkali.   By
 iraporation, a white pulverulent substance, presenting
 a lew crystalline points, is obtained.
  It may also be procured by the  action of dilute sul-
 shuric acid, on the bruised but unshelled seeds.  The
 lolution of  sulphate thus formed, is  precipitated by
 subcarbonate of potassa.   Alkohol  separates from
 ihis precipitate the vegetable alkali in an impure stale.
  Pure delphinia obtained by  the first process, is crys-
 ta.line while wet, but becomes  ocake on exposure to
 air.   lis taste is bitter and acrid.  When heated il
 melts; and on cooling  becomes bard  and brittle like
 resia.  If more highly  heated, it blackens and is  de-
 composed.   Water  dissolves  a  very small portion of
 it.  Alkohol and aether dissolve it very readily.  The
 alkohol ic solution renders syrup of violets green, and
 restores the blue tint of  litmus reddened  by an acid.
 It forms soluble neutral salts wilh acids.   Alkalies
 precipitate the delphinia in a While gelatinous state,
 like alumina.
  Sulphate of delphinia evaporates in the air, does not
 crystallize,  but becomes a transparent mass like gum.
 Il dissolves in alkohol and water, and its solution has
 a bitter acrid taste.  In  the voltaic  circuit it is  de-
 composed, giving up its alkali at the negative pole.
   Nitiate^if delphinia, when evaporated to dryness, is
 a yellow crystalline mass.  If treated with excess of
 nitric acid,  it becomes converted into a yellow matter,
 little soluble in water, but soluble in  boiling alkohol,
 This solution  is bitter, is not precipitated by potassa,
 ammonia, or lime-water, and appears to  contain no
 nitric acid, though itself  is not  alkaline,  it is not de-
 stroyed by further quantities of acid, nor does it form
 oxalic acid.  Strychnia and morphia take a red colour
 from nitric acid, but delphinia never does.  The muri-
 ate is very soluble in water.
  The acetate of delphinia does not  crystallize,  but
 forms a hard transparent mass, bitter  and acrid, and
 readily decomposed by cold sulphuric acid.  The oxa-
 late forms small while plates, resembling in tosie  the
 preceding sails.
  Delphinia, calcined wilh oxide  of copper, gave  no
 other gas than caibonic acid.  It exists iu the seeds of
 the siavesacre, in combination  with  malic acid, and
 associated with the  following principles:  1. A brown
 bitter principle,  precipitable  by acetate  of lead.   2.
 Volatile oil.  3. Fixed oil. 4. Albumen.  5. Annual-
 ized matter.  6. Mucus. 7.  Saccharine mucus.   8.
 Yellow  bitter principle, not precipitable by acetate of
 ead.  9. Mineral salts.—Annates de Chimic et de Pliy-
 sique, vol. xii. p. 358.
  DE'LPHYS.  AtXe/iiij.  The uterus, or pudendum
 muliebre.
  DELTA.  (The  Greek letter, A.)  The external
 pudendum  muliebre is so called, from the triangular
 shape of its hair.
  DELTOI DES.   (From IcXra,  the Greek letter A,
 and eiios, a  likeness; shaped like the Greek delta)   1.
A muscle of the superior extremity, situated on  the
shoulder.  Sous-acromio-clavi-humcral of Dumas.   It
arises exactly opposite to  ihe trapezius, from one-third
part of the clavicle, from the acromion and spine of
the scapula, and is inserted, tendinous, into the middle
of the os humeri, which  bone it lifts up directly; and
it assists with the supraspinatus and coracobrachialis
 n all tho actions of the  humerus, except the depres-
sion;  it being convenient that the  arm should  be
i raised and sustained, in order to its moving on any
 side.
   2. A leaf is so called, folium  delloides, which Ii
 trowel shaped, or like the letter delta, having three an
 gles. of which the terminal one is much further from
 the base than the lateral ones;  as in Chenopodium bo-
 nus-henricus.
   DEME'NTIA.  (From de, and mens, without mind.)
 Absence of intellect; madness; fatuity.
   DEMERSUS.   A leaf which is naturally under wa-
 ter, and different from those above, is so called; folia
 immcrsa, and suiii.-«o, are the .same- as demcrsa.  See
 „Y<iMn.*.
   DEMULCENT.   (Dcmulcens ; from demuhco, to
 soften.)   Medicines suited to obviate and prevent the
 action nf acrid and stimulant matters; and lhat not by
 correcting or changing their acrimony, but by involving
 it in a mild and vi-cid matter, which prevents it from
 acting ui>oii the sensible pans of our bodies, or by cover
 ing Hie surface exposed lo llieir action.
   Where these substances are directly applied to the
 parts affected, it is easy to perceive how benefit may
 be derived from  their application.  But where  they
 are received by the medium of the stomach, into the
 circulating system, it has been supposed that they can be
 of no utility, as they must lose that viscidity on which
 their lubricating  quality depends.  Hence it has been
 concluded that they can be of no service in gonorrhoea,
 and some similar afl'ections.  It is certain, however,
 says J. Murray,  iu his Elements  of Materia  Medica
 and Pharmacy, that many substances which undergo
 the process of  digestion are afterward separated, in
 their entire state, from the blood, by particular secret-
 ing organs, especially by the kidneys;  and il is possi-
 ble, that mucilaginous substances, which are the prin-
 cipal demulcents, may be separated  in  this manner.
 There can be no doubt, however, but that a greal share
 of the relief demulcents afford, in irritation or inflam-
 mation of the urinary passages, is owing to the large
 quantities of water  in which they are diffused, by
 wliich the urine is rendered less stimulating from dilu-
 tion.  In general, demulcents may be consideredinerely
 as substances less stimulating than tbe fluids usually
 applied.
   Catarrh, diarrhoea, dysentery, calculus, and gonor-
 rhoea, arc the diseases in which demulcents  are- em
 ployed.   As  Ihey are medicines  of no great power,
 they may be taken in as large quantities as the stomach
 can bear.
   The particular  demulcents may be reduced to the
 two divisions of mucilages and expressed oils.   The
 principal demulcents are, the acacia vera, astragalus.
 tragacanthe, linum  usiiatissimum, althaea officinalis,
 malva, sylvestris, glycyrrhiza glabra, cycas circinalis,
 orchis mascula, maranta arundinacea, iriticum hyber-
 num, ichthyocolla, olea Europoea, amygdalus commu-
 nis, cetaceum, and cera.
   [Dendritic.  (From levipov, a tree.)  A term used
 in  mineralogy to designate those appearances fre-
 quently found in  minerals resembling trees or clusters
 of trees.  A.]
   DENDROLl'BANUS.   (From iaiipov, a tree, and
 oXiSavos, frankincense.) Frankincense-tree.  See Mas
 marinus officinalis.
   DENS.  (Dens, tie. in.;  quasi  edens; from edo, to
 eat, or from oiavs, oiovjos-)
   1. A tooth.  See 7'ccfA.
   2. Many herbs have this specific name, from llieir
 fancied  resemblance lo the tooth of some  animal,
 as Dens leonis, the dandelion;  Dens  canis,  dog's
 tooth, &c.
   Dens canincs.  See Teeth.
   Dens cuspidatus.  Sec  7'ccfA.
   Dens incisor.  See Teeth.
   Dens lacteus.  See Teeth, and Dentition
   Dens leonis.   See Leontodon Taraxacum.
   Lcns moi.aris.  See 7'eefA.
   DENTA'GRA.  (Dentagra, oiovraypa; from oiovs,
 a tooth, and aypa, a seizure.)  1. The toothache.
   2. An instrument for drawing the teeth.
   DENTA'RIA.   (Dentaria; from dens, a tooth, so
 called because its root is denticulated.)  See Plumbago
 europaa.
   DENTARPA'GA.   (From   ocouc, a  tooth,  and
 apnwiu, to fasten upon.)   An instrument for drawing
 of teeth.
   Dentata.  See Dentatus.
                                         -339 
DEP
DES
  DENTA'TUS  (From dens, a tooth; from its tooth-
 ike  process.)   1. The second vertebra of the neck.
 Dentata; Epistrcphaus.   It differs from the other
 cervical vetebrae, by having a tooth-like process at the
 upper part of the body.  See Vertebra.
  •2. Toothed: applied to roots, leaves, petals, &c. which
 are beset with  projecting, horizontal,  rather distant
 teeth of its own substance;  as in the leaf of Atriplex
 lacinata, and the perianthium of Marrubium vulgare,
 and Ereca  denticulata, and the petals of the Silene
 lucitanica.   The Ophris corallorhiza has  a  toothed
 root.
  Dkntella'ria.  (From dcntella, a little tooth; so
 called because its root is denticulated.)    The  herb
 tooth-wort.  See Plumbago  europaa.
  DENTIDU'CUM.  (From dens, a tooth, and duco,
 to draw.)   An instrument for drawing of teeth.
  DENTIFRICE.  (Dentifriciui;  from dens, a tooth,
 and frin-o, to rub/)  A medicine to clean the teeth.
  DENTISCA'LPIUM.   (From dens, a  tooth,  and
 scalpo, to scrape.)  An instrument for scaling teeth.
  DENTITION.   (Dentitio;  from denlio, to breed
 teeth.)  Odontiasis; Odontophica.  The breeding or
 cutting of the teeth.  The first dentition begins about
 ihe sixlh or seventh month, and the teeth are termed
 theprimary or milk teeth.   About the seventh year,
 these fall out, and are succeeded by others, which re-
 main during life, and are called the secondary or pe-
 rennial teeth.  The last dentition takes place between
 the ages of twenty and five-and-twenty, when the four
 last grinders appear; they are called dentes sapientia.
 See also Teeth.
  Dentodu'ccm. See Dentiducum.
  Denudatje pi.ant.c. The name of an order of  Lin-
 naeus's Fragments of a  Natural Method, embracing
 those plants, the flowers of which  are naked,  or with-
 out a flower-cup.
  DENUDA'TIO.   (From  denudo, to make bare.)
 The  laying bare any part; usually  applied  to  a
 Done.
  DENUDATUS.   (From  denudo, to strip  naked.)
 Denude; naked.
  DEOBSTRUENT.  (Dcobstruens;  from  de,  and
 obslruo, to obstruct.)  A medicine that  is exhibited
 with a view of removing any obstruction.
  DEOPPILA'NTIA.   (From de, andoppi!o,to stop.)
 Dcoppilativa.  Medicines which remove obstructions.
  Departi'tio.   (From de, and partior, to  divide.)
 Separating metals.
  Dspzrdi'tio.  (From  deperdo, to lose.)   Abortion,
or the undue loss of the foetus.
  Dkpeti'oo.  (From de, and petigo, a running scab.)
 A ringworm, tetter,  scurf, or itch,  where the  skin is
 rough.
  DEPHLEGMA'TION.  (Dcphlegmatio; from de,
 and phlegma, phlegm.)  The operation of  rectifying
or freeing spirits from their  watery parts, or any  me-
 thod by which bodies are deprived of their water.
  DEPHLOGISTICATED.   A term of the old che-
 mistry, implying deprived of phlogiston or the inflam-
 mable principle.
  Dephlogisticated air.  See Oxygen gas.
  Dephlogisticatedmuriatic  acid.  See Chlorine.
  DEPILATORY.  (Dcpilatorius; from de, of,  and
pilus, the hair.)  Any application which removes the
 hairs from  any part of the  body;  thus, a  pitch  cap
 pulls the hairs ofthe head out by the roots.
  [A depilatory ointment is sometimes used to  remove
 hairs from  inconvenient places. The  French call it
 Pate depilatoire, a depilatory paste.  It is made with
 quick lime, lapis calaniinaris, and arsenic, intimately
 united and made into  a thin paste with a little water,
 and  a thin coat snread upon the surface.  The hairs
 are removed by the action of tlie arsenic as a  caustic,
 but  its  action  is modified by  the  other ingredi-
 ents.  A.l
  Deplu'matio.  (Fromde,  and pluma, a feather.) A
 disease ofthe eyelids, which causes the hair to fall off.
  DEPREHE'NSIO.  (From deprehendo, to catch un-
 awares.)  The epilepsy is so called, from  the sudden-
 ness with which persons are  seized  with it.
  DEPRESSION.   (Deprcssio;   from  deprimo, to
 press down.)  When the bones of the skull are forced
 Inwards by fracture, they are said to be depressed.
  DEPRE SSOR.  (From deprimo, to press  down.)
 A muscle is so  termed, which depresses the  part on
 Which it acts.
  Depressor al.e  nasi.  Sec Depressor labii tr.pe
rioris alaque nasi.
  Depressor anguli oris.  A muscle of the mouth
and lip, situated below the under lip.  Triangularis,
of Winslow.   Depressor labiorumcommutiis, of Doug-
las.  Depressor labiorum, of Cowper.  Sous-maxillo-
labial of Dumas.  It arises broad and fleshy, from the
lower edge ofthe lower jaw, near the chin; and is in
serted  into the  angle of the mouth, which it pulls
downwards.
  Depressor labii inferioris.   A muscle  of the
mouth and lip.  Quadralus, of Winslow.  Depressor
labii  inferioris  proprius, of Douglas and  Cowper.
Mentonier labial, of Dumas.  It  pulls the under lip
and skin  of  the side of the chin downwards, and  a
little outwards.
  Depressor  labii  superioris al.*quk nasi.   A
muscle of the mouth and lip.  Depressor ala nasi, of
Albinus.  Incisivus medius, of Winslow.  Depressor
labii superioris proprius, of Douglas.  Constrictores
alarum nasi,  ac deprcssores labii supcriores, of Cow-
per.  Maxillo-alveoli nasal, of Dumas.  It is situated
above the mouth, draws the upper lip and ala  nasi
downwards and backwards.  It arises, thin and fleshy,
from the superior maxillary bono, immediately above
the joining of the gums, with the two incisor  teeth and
cuspidatus; from thence it  runs upwards, nnd is in-
serted  into the upper  lip and root  of the ala  of  tlie
nose.
  Dfpressor labii superioris proprius.  See De-
pressor labii superioris alaque nasi.
  Depressor labiorum communis.  See Depressor
anguli oris.
  Depressor oculi.  See Rectus inferior oculi.
  DEPRESSUS.  Depressed; flattened  vertically, as
the leaves of the  Mcsembryanlhemum  linguiformc.
Folia depressa is applied also to radical leaves which
are pressed close to the ground, as is seen in Plantago
media; but when  applied to stem  leaves, it regards
their  shape only, as being vertically flattened  in op-
position to compressa.
  DE'PRI.M ENS.  See Rectus inferior oculi.
  DEPURA'NTIA.   (Depurans;  from  depuro,  to
make clean.)   Medicines which evacuate impurities.
  DEPURATION  Depuratio.  The freeing a liquor
or solid from its foulness.
  DEPURATO'RIUS.  (From de,  and pnrus, pure.)
Depuritory:  applied to  fevers, which  terminate  in
perspiration.
  DERBYSHIRE SPAR.   A mineral formed of cal-
careous earth with fluoric acid.
  DE RIS  (Atpts ;  from ispu, to excoriate.)  The
skin.
  DERIVATION.   (Derivatio; from derm,,, to drain
off; The doctrines of derivation and revulsion talked
of by the ancients, are now, in their sense of the terms,
wholly  exploded.   Derivation means  the  drawing
away any disease from  its original seat  to another
part.
  DERMA.  Atppa.  The skin.  See Skin.
  DERMATOMES.  (From ieppa, skin, and uim, a
likeness.)   Resembling skin, or leather; applied to the
dura mater.
  DERMATOLO'GIA.  (From ieppa, the skin, and
Xoyos, a discourse.)  A  discourse or treatise  on  the
skin.
  De'rtron.   (From  itpts, skin.)   The omentum,
and peritonaeum, are so  named, from their  skin-like
consistence.
  DE9AULT, Pktkr, was a native  of Bordeaux,
where he graduated, and became distinguished as  a
practitioner in medicine about the beginning of the
last century.   He was author of some popular and
useful dissertations on medical subjects   Iu syphilis
he maintained that a cure could be effected without
salivation; and in calculous complaints, by ihe patient
drinking the  Bareges water, this being  slso injected
into the bladder; but it  probably inerelv palliated the
symptoms.  He exposed also some of the prevailing
errors concerning hydrophobia; as thai ihe pal lent
barked like a dog, nnd had a propensity to bin  his
attendants.  The precise period of his death U  not
mentioned.
  DF.SAULT, Peter Joseph, was chief surgeon In
Ihe Hdtel-Dieu at Paris.  He published several num-
bers of a surgical journal, in  17511,  &c.; also,  jointly
with Chopart, In 1704,  "A Treatise on Cnirurgical 
DEli
DIA
 Diseases, and the Operations required in their Cure;
 which is  allowed to  have considerable merit.   Ho
 attended the young King of France, Lewis XVII., in
 the temple;  and died under suspicious circumstances,
 shortly before his roysl patient, in 1795
   DESCENSO  RIUM.   (From descend*,  to move
 downwards.)  A  vessel  in  which tlie distillation by
 descent is performed.
   DESCE NSUS.   (From descendo, to  move down-
 wards.) The same cliemists call it a distillation per
 descensum, by descent, when the fire is applied at the
 top and round the vessel, the orifice of which is at the
 bottom.
   DESICCATTVE.  (Desicativus ; from desicco, to
 dry up.)  An application to dry up the humours  and
 moisture running from a wound or ulcer.
   DESIPIE'NTIA.  (From desipie, to  dote.)  A de-*
 fcet of reason.
   DESIRE.  Will.  We give the name of will to that
 modification  of the faculty of perception by wliich we
 form desires.  It  is generally tlie effect of our judgment;
 but what is remarkable, our happiness or our misery
 are  necessarily connected wilh it.   When we satisfy
 our desires we are happy; but we arc miserable if our
 desires be  not fulfilled;  it is then necessary to give
 such a direction to our desires that we may be enabled
 to obtain happiness.   We  ought not to desire tilings
 wliich cannot be obtained; we ought to avoid, even
 with greater  care, those things wliich are hurtful; for
 in such cases we must be unhappy, whether our de-
 sires are satisfied or not.   Morality is a science which
 (ends  to give the best possible direction to our desires.
   De'sme.   (From itu, to  bind up.)  A bandage, or
 ligature.
   Dssmi'dion.   (From ctcrpti, a handful.)   A small
 bundle, or  little bandage.
   D*'skos  (From icie, to bind up.)  1. A bandage.
   2. An inflammatory stricture of  a joint, after luxa-
 tion.
   DE'SPUMATION.  (Despumatio; from despumo,
 to clarify.)   The clarifying a fluid, or  separating its
 foul parts from it.
   DESaUAM ATION.  (Desquamatio ; from desqua-
 mo, to scale off.)  The separating of lamina*, or scales,
 from  a bone. Exfoliation.
   Descjuamato'fium.   (From desquamo, to scale off)
 A trepan,  or instrument to take a piece out of the
 skull.
   DESTILLA'TION.   See Distillation.
   DFSUDA'TIO.   (From desudo, to sweat much.)
 An unnatural and morbid sweating.
   Dete'ntio.   (From detineo, to  stop, or   hinder.)
 Epilepsy is so called, from the suddenness with which
 the patient is seized.
   DETERGENT.  (From detergo, to  wipe away.)
 1. A medicine which cleanses and  removes such vis-
 cid humours as adhere to and obstruct the vessels.
   2. An application  that clears away foulness from
 ulcers.
   DETERMINATE"*. Applied by botanists to branches
 and stems:  determinati ramosus is abruptly branched,
 when each branch, after terminating in flowers, pro-
 duces a number  of fresh shoots, in a circular order,
 from just below the origin of those flowers.  The term
 occurs frequently in the latter publication of Linnaeus,
 particularly the  second Mantissa; but  be  does  not
 appear lo have any  where explained its meaning.—
 Smith.
   DETONATION.  (Detonatio;   from detono,  to
 make a noise )   A sudden combustion and explosion.
   DETRACTOR.   (From detrako, to  draw.)  Ap-
 plied to a muscle, the office of wliich is to draw the
 part to which it Is attached.
   DE'TRAHENS.   (From detraho, to  draw.) The
 name of a muscle, the office of which is to draw the
 part it  is attached to.
  Detrahens quadratus.  See Platysma my aides.
  DETRU'SOR  URINjE.  (From  detrudo, to thrust
out.)   1. The name of  a muscle, the office of which is
to  squeeze out the urine.
 2. The muscular  coat  of the urinary  bladder was
formerly so called.
 Dku'teri.  (From Scv]epos, second:  because it is
discharged next after the foetus.)  The sec undines, or
after-birth.
  DEUTEROPA'THIA.  (Frome5cu7£poc, second,and
ma&«<,  a suffering )  Au affection or suffering by con-
 sent, where a second part suffers, from consent, wllla
 the part originally affected, as where the stomach kt
 disturbed through a wound in the head.
   DEUTOXIDE. See  Oxide.
   Deutoxide of azot.  See Nitrogen.
   DEVENTER,  Henry, was born in Holland, toward
 the end of the 17th century.  He took a degree in me-
 dicine, but his practice was principally in surgery, and
 at last almost confined  to  midwifery.   He dktin-
 guished lumself  much  by his  improvements in this
 art, as well as by his mechanical inventions for obvi-
 ating deformities  in children. He published some  oh
 stetrical works several years prior to his death, whicn
 occurred in 1739; after wliich appeared a Treatise on
 the Rickets in his native  language, of which Hallar
 makes favourable mention.
   Devil's dung.  See Firula assafatida.
   Dcvbcrry.  See Blackberry.
   DIA.  A<a.  Many terms in medicine, surgery, and
 pharmacy, commence with ihis word, when  ihey sig-
 nify composition and mixture ; as Diacassia, Diacas
 toreum, Sec.
   [Diabase.  The Diabnse of some French mineralo-
 gists  is  the  greenstone  of Werner and  Jameson.
 Greenstone abounds in the United States.  There is: a
 king ridge of this kind of rock in Connecticut running
 northward  from  New-Haven.   There are  several
 ridges of this formation of superincumbent  rocks  in
 New-Jersey.  The most remarkable is the ridge bor
 dering tlie Hudson river on the west side, running
 north  from New-York city to the extent of thirty or
 forty miles, and known by the common appellation of
 the Palisado Rocks.  There is a sublime show of this
 kind of rock on the south side of Lake Superior.
   Diabase ot " Greenstone is c»s'-ntially composed of
 hornblende and felspar, in the state of grains, or some-
 times of small crystals. The proportions are somewhat
 various; but  the hornblende predominates, and very
 frequently  gives to this  aggregate more or  less of a
 greenish tinge, especially when it is moistened. Hence
 the name of this rock (Greenstone).  Sometimes the
 tinge of green is considerably lively, and may arise
 either from tlie hornblende, or  from Epidote dissemi-
 nated through the mass.   Sometimes also its colour fe
 dark gray, or grayish black.  In tine,  its colour, espe-
 cially at tlie surface, is often modified by the presence
 of oxide of iron.
   " This  rock presents  a considerable variety of a*
 poet, depending  on the general structure, or on the
 size, proportion, disposition, and moreor less intimate
 mixture of its constituent parts.
   " In some of tlie more common varieties, the two
 ingredients are in distinct grains of considerable size,
 like those of granite; nnd the foliated structure both
 of the  hornblende and  felspar  is  often distinctly
 visibls. The proportion of felspar is sometimes very
 small.
   " From Greenstone with a coarse granular structure.
 to those varieties whose texture is so finely granular
 that the  two ingredients can scarcely be  perceived,
 there is a gradual passage, exhibiting  every interme-
 diate step.  Indeed the giains are sometimes so mi-
 nute, and so uniformly and intimately mingled, that
 the mass is altogether homogeneous, and the different
 ingredients a.e hardly perceptible, even with a glass.
 Hence the texture of this rock is sometimes distinctly
 crystalline,  and   sometimes  almost  compact  and
 earthy.
   " Greenstone, like basalt, sometimes presents itself
 in prisms, or columns of various sizes.  These prisms
 may have from three to seven sides, and arc sometimes
 as regular as those of basalt.
   " The general aspect of Greenstone is sometimes
 much diversified  by the  foreign ingredients, which it
 admits into its composition.  Among these are quui tn,
 epidote, mica, talc, carbonate  of lime, and  almost
 always sulphuret of iron, wliich  is sometimes mag-
 netic—The quartz is,  in some cases, abundant, and
seems almost to take Ihe  place  of felspar.  Iron fre-
quently enters into the composition of this rock. Hence
 by exposure  lo  the weather,  its exterior becomes
 brownish or reddish brown; and sometimes  Green
stones are gradually decomposed.
  " Many Greenstones are susceptible of a polish ;—
and that variety which admits epidote into its compo-
sition, often forms a very beautiful mineral, when po-
lished,  especially  if it ue  porphyritic.   Its colour is 
DTA
DIA
dftmi a fine dark  green, resembling serpentine-.  The
epiifote. either crystallized or compact, is sometimes in
very narrow veins; and sometimes it is uniformly dis-
s-einiiiated in very minute grains.   In other cases, the
epidote  and felspar form a kind of base, containing
scicular  crystals of hornblende; or the three ingre-
dients are distinct, as in granite."—Clcavcland's Mi-
neral.  A.)
  Diaije'cus.   (From  iia6t6aiou, to strengthen ;  so
called, as affording tbe chief support to the foot.)  The
ankle-hone.
  DI Y1SETES.  (From ita, through, and Batvu,  to
j-a-s..  Au immoderate flow of urine.  A genusof dis-
ease in the class Neuroses, and order Spasmi of Cullen.
  There are two species in this complaint:
  1.  Diabetes insipidus, in which  there is a supera-
bundant discharge of limpid urine, of its usual urinary
tasle.
  2.  Diabetes  mcllitus, in  which  the urine  ia  very
c- wet, and contains a great quantity of sugar.
  Great  thirst, with  :i voracious  appetite, gradual
emaciation of the whole body, and  a  frequent dis-
charge of urine, containing a large proportion of sac-
charine and other matter, which is voided ih a quan-
tity oven exceeding that of the aliment or  fluid intro-
duced, are the characteristics of this disease.  Those
of" a shattered constitution, and those who arc in the
decline of life, are most subject to its attacks.  It not
unfrequently  attends on hysteria, hypochondriasis,
dyspepsia, and asthma: but it is always much milder
when symptomatic, than when it appears as a primary
affection.
  Diabetes may be occasioned by the u*e of strong di-
uretic medicines, intemperance of life, and hard drink-
ing, excess in venery, severe  evacuations, or  by any
Ihing that tends to produce an  impoverished state of
Ihe blood, or general debility.  It has, however, token
place, in many instances, without any obviou3 cause.
  That  which immediately gives rise to the disease,
lias ever been considered as obscure, and various the-
ories have been advanced on the occasion.  It has been
usual to consider diabetes as the effect of relaxation  of
Ihe kidneys, or as depending on a general colliquation
ofthe fluids.  Dr.  Richter, professor of medicine  in
tbe university of Gottingen, supposes the disease  to  be
generally of a spasmodic nature, occasioned by a sti-
mulus acting  on the kidneys;  hence a stcretio aitcta
v.rina, and sometimes  pen-versa, is the  consequence.
Dr. Darwin thinks that it is owing to an inverted ac-
tion of the urinary branch  of the lymphatics; which
doctrine, although it did not escape the censure of tlie
best anatomists and experienced physiologists,  met,
nevertheless, with a very favourable Tcception on  its
being first announced.  The late Dr. Cullen offered  it
as his opinion, that the  proximate cause of this disease
might be some fault in  the assimilatory powers, or  in
those employed in converting alimentary matters into
the proper animal fluids, which theory has since  been
adopted  by Dr. Dobsnn, and still later by Dr. Rolla,
surgeon-general to the  royal artillery.  The liver has
been thought, by some, to be the chief source of the
disease;  but diabetes is hardly ever attended with any
affection of this organ, as has been proved by frequent
dissections; and when observed, it  is to be considered
as accidental.
  The primary seat of the disease  is,  however, far
from being absolutely  determined in favour of any
hypothesis yet advanced; and, from the most atten-
tive consideration of all the circumstances, the weight
(.(* evidence appears to induce  the majority of practi-
t.i iners to consider diabetes as depending on a primary
affection of the kidneys.
  Diabetes sometimes comes on slowly and impercep-
tibly, without any previous disorder; and it now and
ihen arises to a considerable degree, and  subsists long
without being accompanied wilh evident  disorder  in
«'iv paiticulnr part of the system;  the great thirst
which always, and the  voracious appetite wliich fre-
quently occur in  it, being otten the onlv remarkable
symptoms; but it more generally happens, that a con-
siderable affection of the stomach precedes the coming
tin of the disease; nnd that, in its progress, besides the
symptoms already mentioned, there is  a  great dryness
 fu the skin, with a sense of weight in the kidneys, and
a pain in the ureters, and the other urinary passages.
  Under a long continuance of the disease, the  body
becomes much emaciated, the  feet oedematous,  gretii
debility arises, the pulse is frequent and small, ami se
obscure fever, with all the appearance of hectic,  pr*
vails.
  'The urine  in diabetes mellitus, from being at  firs!
insipid, clear, and colourless, soon acquires a sweetisil
or saccharine taste, its leading  characteristic;  and.
when subjected lo experiment, a considerable quantity
of saccharine matter is to be extracted from it.  Some
times it is so  loaded with sugar, as to be capable of
being fermented  into  a vinous liquor   Upwards of
one-twelfth of its weight of sugar was extracted from
some diabetic urine, hy Cruicks-hank, which was a:
the rate of twenty-nine ounces troy a day, from  one
patient.
  In some instances, the quantity of urine in diabetes
is much greater than can be accounted for from all the
sources united.   Cases are  recorded,  in which  25 to
30 pints were discharged in the space of a natural day,
for many successive weeks, and even  months; and in
which the whole  ingesta, as was said, did not amount
to half the weight of  the urine.   To account for  thi*
overplus, it  has been  alleged that water  is absorbed
from  the air  by the surface of the body;  as also  that
a quantity of water is compounded in the lungs them
selves.
  Dissections of diabetes have usually shown the  kid-
neys  to be  much affected.   In  some instances, they
have  been found in  a loose flabby state, much enlarged
in size, nnd of a pale ash colour; in others, they have
been discovered much more vascular than in a healthy
state, approaching a good deal to what takes place iu
inflammation, and containing, in their mfundibula, a
quantity of whitish fluid, somewhat  resembling pus-,
but without any sign of ulceration whatever.  At Ihe
same time that these appearances have been observed
in their interior, the veins on iheir surface were found
lo be mueh fuller of blood than usual, forming a most
beautiful net-work  of vessels, the larger  branches of
which exhibited an absorbent appearance.  In  many
cases of dissection, the whole of the mesentery has
been discovered to be much diseased, and its glands re-
markably enlarged; some of thein being very hart),
and of an irregular texture; others softer, and of  a
uniform spherical shape.  Many of the lacteals have
likewise been seen considerably enlarged.  The liver,
pancreas, spleen, and stomach, are in general perceived
lo be  in a natural state; when they are not so, the oc-
currence is to be considered as accidental.  The blad-
der, in many cases, is found  lo contain a considerable
quantity of muddy  urine.
  A great variety of remedies has been  proposed for
this disease ; but  their success is generally precarious,
or only temporary, at least in the mellitic form  of the
complaint.    The treatment  has  been generally con-
ducted on the principles of determining the fluids to
other outlets, particularly the skin, and of increasing
the lone  of  the kidneys.  Diaphoretics are ceriainly
very proper remedies, especially  the  combination ot
opium with  ipecacuanha, or antimonials, assisted by
the warm bath, suitable clothing, and perhaps removal
to a milder climate: in the  insipid form of diabetes
this plan has sometimes effected a cure; audit appeals
that the large use  of  opium has  even the  power of
correcting, for the time, the saccharine quality  of tlie
urine. Cathartics are hardly of service,  farther than
to keep the bowels regular.  Tonics are generally indi-
cated by obvious  marks of debility; and if the patient
be troubled with  acidity in  the prima; viae, alkaline
medicines will be properly joined with them, prefer-
ring those which have no diuretic power.   Asirin»onts
have  been highly extolled by some practitioners", but
do  not appear likely  to prevail, except those  which
pass off by the urine, as uva ursi; or the  milder sti-
mulants, which can be directed to the kidneys,  as co
paiba, &c. may correct the  laxity of  tliose organs, if
the disease depend  on this cause.  The tinctura lytta-
must be used with great caution, and its efficacy is not
well established:  and bli>ters lo  the loins can only bv
usetul as  counter-irritants, though not the most suit-
able.   Irequent  friction, especially over  the kidnevs,
wearing a tight belt, and gentle exercise, mav assisl the
recovery of  the patient; nnd when the function of the
skin is restored, usimt the bath  gradually of a lowee
temperature, will tend greatly to obviate its snppres
sion  afterward.   It is likewise highly important to
regulate  the diet, especially  in the mellitic diabetes
Dr Kolla first ponueil out the advantage derived from 
I
                       DIA

 •Kesmctrag the patient to a diet principally of animal
 food, avoiding especially tliose vegetables which might
 affoid saccharine matter, the urine becoming thereby
 ol'a more healthy quality, and diminishing  iu quan-
 tity: but unfortunately the benefit appears biu tempo-
 rary, and ihe plan is not persevered in without distress
 to  the patient.  The same gentleman recommended
 also  the sulphuret of potassa, and still more tlie hy-
 drosulphuret of ammonia; but they are very nau-
 seous medicines, and of doubtful efficacy.   Another
 plan of  treating the disease has been more recently
 proposed, namely, by bleeding, and otlier antiphlogistic
 measures; and some cases of its success  have been
 recorded: but farther experience is certainly required,
 •et'ore we should be justified in relying much upon it.
  Die BOLUS METAM.ORUM. Tin.
  Diabo'tanum.   (From Sia, and Boravrj, an herb.)
 A piaster made of herbs.
  Diaca'dmias. (FroiiKfua, and xaipta, cadmia.) The
 name of a plaster, the basis of which is cadmia.
  Diacalami ntues.  (From ita,andxaXaptvOti,cola-
 mint.)  The name of an antidote, the chief ingredient
 m which is calamine,
  Djaca'rcinum.   (From  Iia,  and xapxtvos,  a crab.)
 The name of au antidote  prepared from the flesh of
 crabs and cray-fish.
  Diaca'rvon. (Froni<5ja, and xapvov, a nut.)  Rob
 of nuts, or walnuts.
  Diaca ssia.   (From <5iu, and xaoeta,  cassia.)  Elec-
 tuary of cassia.
  Diacasto'rium.   (From iia,  and  xa^up, castor.)
 An antidote, the basis of which is castor.
  Diacatho'licon.  (From ita, and  xaOoXixos, uni-
 versal.)  The name of a  purge, so called from its
 general usefulness.
  Diacentau'rium.   (Fromoia, and Kcvjavpiov, cen-
 taury.)  The  Duke of Portland's powder is so called,
 Kecause its chief ingredient is centaury.
  Diacentro tum. (From ita, and xaflpou, to prick.)
 *l collyrium, so called from ils pungency and  stnnula-
 ing qualities.
   Diachalci'tis.  (From ita, and xaXxiJis, chalci-
 is.) A plaster, the chief ingredient in which is chalcitis.
   Diacha'lsis.  (From iiaxaXu, to  be relaxed.)   1.
 1 relaxation.
   2. The opening of tlie sutures of the head.
   Diacheiri'smus.  (From ita, and %up, the hand.)
 Any operation performed by the hand.
   Diachelldo'nium.   (From  iia,  and  xc^timvtov,
 eelandine.)   A plaster, the chief ingredient in which
 was the herb celandine.
   Diachore'ma.   (From icaxupeu, lo separate from.)
 Diachoresis.  Any excretion, or excrement, but chiefly
 ■hat oy stnnt.
  Diachore'sis.   See Diachorema.
  Diachri'sta. (From iia,  and XS*1*, to anoint.)
 Medicines to anoint parts.
  Diachrv'sum.   (Froin&a,  and XP""0S,  6°'"-)   A
plaster for fractured limbs; so named from ils yellow
colour.
  DIACHYLUM.  (From&a,and  xuXoc, juice.)  A
plaster formerly made of certain juices, but it now
means an emollient digestive plaster.
  Dia'ciiysis.   (From ita, and xvu, t0 Pour out-)
 Fusion or melting.
  Diachy'tica.  (From iiaxvu, to dissolve.)  Medi-
 cines which discuss tumours.
  Diacine'ma. (From ita, and  xtveu, to move.)   A
 slight dislocation.
  Diaci'ssum. (From ita, and xtoaos, ivy.)  An ap-
 plication composed of ivy leaves.
  Dia'clasis.   (From ita,  and  x^aa>, l0 break.)   A
 small fracture.
  Diacly'sma. (From iiaxXv£u,  to wash out.)   A
gargle or wash for the mouth.
  Diacoccyme'lon.   (From e*ta, and  xoxxvpnXov,  a
 plum.)  An electuary made of prunes.
  Diaco'dium. (From ita, and xwita,  a poppy head.)
A composition mode of the heads oi' poppies.
  Diacolocy'nthis.  (From ita, and «co"\o*vi/0i£,  the
colocynth.)  A preparation, the chief ingredient of
which is colocynth.
  Diaco'mma.   (From Staxoitlu, to  cut through.)
Diacope.   A deep cut or wound.
  Dla'cope.  See Diacomma.
  Diacopr/e'gia.   (From iia, Koirpos, dung, and ail, a
goai.;  A prenaratiou Willi goat's dung.             |
                     DIA

   Ducora'llcm.  vFromf5ia, and xoiaXXtov,  coral)
 A preparation in which coial is a chief ingredient.
   DIA CRISIS.  (From Siaxotvu, to distinguish.)  The
 distinguishing  diseases  one from another by their
 symptoms.
   DiAcno'ciuM.  (From ita, and xpoxos, saffron.)  A
 collyrium in which is saffron.
   Diacurcu'ma.  (From ita, and xvpxovpa, turmeric.;
 An antidote in which is turmeric or saffron.
   Diacydo nu M.  (From r)ia, and  irurlaii'ia, a quince.;
 Marmalade ot quinces.
   Dial-aphni'dion. (Fromiia, andiatpvts, tlie Inu.el
 tree.)  A drawing plaster in  whicli were bay-berries.
   DIADE'LPHIA.  (From its, twice, and accXqjts, a
 brotherhood;  two  brotherhoods.)   The name of a
 class in  the sexual system of plants, embracing those
 the flowers of which are hermaphrodites, and have tlie
 male organs united below in two sets of cylindrical fila-
 ments.
   DIADF. MA.  (From itaitw,  to surround.)  I. A
 diadem or crown.
   2. A bandage to put round Ihe head.
   Diade'xis.  (From itaitxopai, lo transfer.)  Dta
 doche.  A transposition of humours from one place tn
 another.
  Dia DOCHE.  See Dituirxis.
   Dia'dosis.  (From iiaiiiup.1,  to distribute.)  The
 remission of a disoider.
  DLE RESIS.  (From itatneu, to divide orsopnrate.)
 A solution of continuity of tlie soft parts of thehumuu
 body.
   D'i-ere'tica.   (Froni&aipcio, to divide.)  Corrosive
 medicines.
  DL-ETA.  (From itarfau, to nourish.) Diet; food
 It means also the whole of  the non-naturals.  Set
 Diet.
  Diaclau'cium.  (From ita, and  yXavxtov, the blue
 juice, of an herb.) An eye-water made of the purging
 thistle.
   DIAGNO'SIS.  (From iiaytiwaxoi, to  discern  or
 distinguish.)  'The science which delivers the signs by
 which a disease may be distinguished from another
 disease:  hence those symptoms which distinguish sue.';
 affections are termed diagnostic.
   Diagry'dium.  Corrupted fronidacrydium or sraui-
 mony.
   Diahermoda'ctylun. (Fromiia,andippoiaK]vXos,
 theherniodaclyl.)  A  purging medicine, the basis of
 which is the hennodactyl.
  Diai'reon.  (From iia, and iptc, the lily.)   An an-
 tidote in  which is the root of the lily.
  Diai'um.  (From ita, and jov, a violet.)  A paslil,
 the chief ingredient of whicli is violets.
  Diala'cca.  (From ita, and Xaxxa.)   An antidote
 in which is thclacca.
  Dialaoo'um.  (From  iia,  and Xayaij, a hare.)   A
medicine in which is the dung of a hare.
  Dialb'mma. (From itaXapBavu,  to interrupt.) The
remission of a disease.
  Diale'psis.   (From itaXapBavto,  to interrupt.)   1
An intermission.
  2.  A space left between a bandage.
  Diali'banum.   (From oia, and  XtGavov, fraiikni
cense.) A medicine in which frankincense is  a chie-i
 ingredient.
  DIALLAGE.  Suiaragdilc of Saussure.   Verde  th
 Corsica duro of artists.   A species of the genus Schil-
 ler spar.   It  is a mineral of a greenish colour, com-
 posed of silica, alumina, magnesia, lime, oxide of iron,
oxide of  copper, and oxide of chrome. It is found
principally in Corsica.
  Dia'loes.   (From iia, and oXoij, the aloe.)  A me
dicine chiefly composed of aloes,
  DuLTUiG'A.  (From iia, and aXQaia, the mallow
 An ointment composed chiefly of marsh-mallows.
  DIA'LYSIS.   (From fJiaXuii), to dissolve.)   A solu-
 tion of continuity, or a destruction of parts.
  Dia'lyses.   The plural of dialysis.  The name  ol
 an order in the class locales of Cullen's Nosology.
  Dialy'tica.   (From oiaAixo,  to  dissolve.)   Medi-
cines whicli heal wounds and fractures.
  Diamaruari'to.v.   (From ita,  and  papyaptTn,
 pearl.)  An antidote in wliich pearls are the chief in-
gredient.
  DIAMASSE'MA.  (From  iia, and  paaaopai,  to
chew.)  A masticatory, or substance  put  into  the
mouth, and chewed to excite a discharge of the saliva.
                                         2!>*i 
DIA                                             DIA
   Dia'mbra.  (From ita,  and apSpa, amber.)  An
 Bromaticcomposition in which was ambergris.
   Diame'lon.  (From r5ia, and /iijAov, a quince.)  A
 composition of quinces.
   DIAMOND.  The diamond, wliich was well known
 to the ancients, is principally found in  the  western
 peninsula of India, on the coast of Coromandcl, in the
 kingdoms of Golconda and Visapour, in the island of
 Borneo, and in the Brazils   It is the most valued of
 all minerals.
  Diamonds  are  generally  found bedded  in yellow
 ochre or in rocks of freestone, or quartz, and sometimes
 in the beds of running waters.  When taken out of
 the earth, they are incrusted with au exterior earthly
 covering, under which is another, consisting of carbo-
 nate of lime.
  In the Brazils. It is supposed that diamonds might he
 obtained in greater quantities than at present,  if tho
 sufficient working of the diamond-mines was not pro-
 hibited, in order lo prevent  that diminution of their
 commercial value, which a greater abundance of them
 might occasion.
  Brazilian diamonds are, in commercial estimation,
 inferior to the oriental ones.
  In the rough, diamonds are worth two pounds ster-
 ling the carat, or four grains, provided they are without
 blemish.   The expense  of cutting  and  polishing
 amounts to about  four pounds more.  The value how-
 ever is far above what is  now stated when  they be-
 come considerable in size.  The greatest sum  that has
 been given for a  single diamond is one  hundred and
 fifty  thousand pounds.
  The usual method of calculating the value of dia-
 iieonds is by squaring tlie number of carats, and then
 multiplying the amount by the price of a single carat:
 thus supposing one carat tobe2l. a diamond of 8 carats
 is worth 1281. being 8x8x2.
  The famous Pigot diamond weighs 188 l-8th grains.
          Physical Properties of Diamond.
  Diamond  is always crystallized, but sometimes so
 imperfectly, that, at first sight, it might appear amor-
 phous.  The figure of diamond, when perfect,  is an
 eight-sided prism.  There are also  cubical, flat, and
 round  diamonds.  It is the oriental diamond which
 crystallizes inlo octohedra, and  exhibits all the varie-
 ties of this primitive figure.  The diamond of Brazil
 crystallizes into dodecahedra.
  The texture of the diamond is lamcllaled, for it may
 be split or cleft with au instrument of well-tempered
steel, by a swift blow in a particular direction.  There
 are however some diamonds wliich  do not appear to
be formed of lamina, but of twisted and interwoven
iibres, like those of knots in wood.  These exceed the
others greatly in hardness, they cannot be cut or po-
lished, and are therefore called  by the lapidaries dia-
 monds of nature.
  The diamond is one of the hardest bodies known.
 It resists the most highly-tempered steel file, which cir-
cumstance renders it necessary to attack  it with dia-
 mond powder. It takes an exquisite and lasting polish.
 It has a great refractive power, and  hence  its lustre,
 when cut  into the form of a regular solid, is uncom-
 monly great.  The usual colour of diamonds is a light
gray, often inclining to yellow, at times  lemon colour,
violet, or black, stldomer rose-red, and still more rarely
green or blue, but  more frequently pale brown.  The
 purest diamonds are perfectly ttansparent.  The colour-
 less diamond has a specific gravity which is in propor-
tion to that  of water as 3.512 to 1.000, according to
 [frisson.  This varies however considerably.  When
 rubbed it becomes positively electric, even before it has
 been cut by the lapidary.
  Diamond is not acted  upon by acids, or  by any
chemical agent, oxygen excepted; and this requires a
 very great increase  of temperature  to produce  any
effect.
  The diamond burns by a strong heat, with a sensible
flame, like other combustible bodies, attracting oxy-
gen,  and  becoming  wholly  converted  into carbonic
acid  gas during that process.
  It combines with iron by fusion, and converts it, like
common charcoal, into steel; but diamond requires a
 much higher temperature for its combustion than com-
mon  charcoal does, and  even then  it  consumes bul
slowly, and ceases to burn the instant its temperature
U lowered.
  "From  the high refractive power of the diamond»
      2"4
 Bigot and Arago supposed that it might contain hydro-
 gen.  Sir H. Davy, from the action of potassium on it,
 and its  non-conduction of electricity, suggested in hia
 third Bakerian lecture, that a minute  portion of oxy-
 gen might  exist in it; and in his new experiments on
 the fluoric  compounds, he threw out the idea, that it
 might be the  carbonaceous principle, combined with
 some new, light, and subtle element of the oxygenous
 and chlorine class
   This unrivalled chemist,  during  his  residence at
 Florence in March 1814, made several experiments on
 the combustion of the diamond  and of  plumbago, by
 means of the greal lens in the cabinet of natural his-
 tory ; the same instrument as that employed in the first
 trials on the action of the solar heat on  the diamond,
 instituted in 1694 by Cosmo III. Grand Duke of Tus-
 cany.   He subsequently made a series of researches
 on the combustion of different kinds of charcoal at
 Rome.   His mode of investigation was peculiarly ele-
 gant, and led to the most decisive results.
   He found that diamond, when strongly ignited by the
 lens, in  a thin capsule of platinum, perforated with
 many orifices, so  as  to admit a free  circulation of  air,
 continued  to  burn with  a  steady brilliant red  light,
 visible  in  the  brightest  sunshine, after il was w  Un-
 drawn from the focus.  Some time after  the diamonds
 were removed out of the focus, indeed, a wire of pla-
 tina that attached them 'o the tray was fused, though
 their weight was wny 1.84 grains.  His apparatus
 consisted of clear i,l-iss itlobrs of the capacity of from
 14 to 40 cubic inches, having single apertures to which
 stop-cocks were attached.  A small hollow cylinder of
 platinum was  attached to one end  of the stop-cock,
 and was mounted with the little perforated capsule for
 containing  the diamond-   When the experiment was
 to be made, the globe containing the capsule and  the
 substance to be burned was exhausted by an excellent
 air-pump, and  pure oxygen,  from chlorate of potassa,
 was then introduced.  The  change  of volume in  the
 gas after combustion  was estimated by means of a fine
 tube connected with a stop-cock, adapted by a proper
 screw to ihe stop-cock of the globe, and the absorption
 was judged of by the  quantity of mercury that entered
 the lube which afforded a measure  so exact, that no
 alteration however minute could be overlooked.   He
 had previously satisfied  himself that a  quantity  of
 moisture, less than 1-lOOth of a grain, is rendered evi-
 dent by deposition on a polished surface of gloss ; for
 a piece of paper weighing one grain was introduced
 into a tube of about four cubic inches' capacity, whose
 exterior was slightly heated by a candle.  A dew was
 immediately perceptible on  the  inside of the glass,
 though the  paper, when weighed  in  a balance turning
 with 1-100th  of a  grain, indicated no "appreciable
 diminution.
  The diamonds were  also heated  to redness before
 they were introduced into  the capsule.   During  their
 combustion, the glass globe was kept cool bv ihe appli-
 cation of water to that part of it immediately above
 the capsule, and where the heat was greatest.
  From the results of his different experiments, con-
 ducted with the most unexceptionable precision, it is
demonstrated, that diamond affords no other substance
 by its combustion than pure  carbonic acid cas ; and
 that the  process is merely a  solution of diamond in
oxygen, without any change in the volume of the gas.
 It likewise appears, that in the combustion of the dif-
 ferent kinds of chaitoal, water is produced ;  and that
from the diminution of the  volume of  the oxygen,
there  is  every  reason to  believe that the  water is
formed  by  the  combustion of hydrogen existing in
strongly ignited  charcoal.   As the charcoal from oil of
turpentine left no residuum, no  other cause  but the
 presence of hydrogen can be assigned for the diminu-
 tion occasioned in the volume of the gas during  its
combustion.
  The only chemical difference  perceptible  between
diamond and the purest charcoal is, lhat the last con
tains a minute portion of hydrogen; but can a quan-
 tity or an element, less in  some cases than l-50,0tH)tli
 pari of the weight of  the substance,  occasion so great
a difference in physical  and chemical  characters?
 1 he opinions of Teunant, that the difference depends
on crystallization, seems to be correct.   Transparent
solid bodies are in general non-conductors of electri-
 city ; and it is probable  that the same  ccrpusculai
 arrangements which (rive to matter the power of trail* 
DIA
DIA
muting and polarizing light, are  likewise connected
with its relations to electricity.  Thus water, the hy-
drates of tlie alkalies, and a number of other bodies
Which are conductors of electricity when fluid, become
non-conductors in their crystallized form.
  That charcoal is more  inflammable  than the dia-
mond, may be explained from the looseness of its tex-
ture,  and from Ihe hydrogen  it contains.  But the
diamoi d appears to burn in oxygen with as much
facility as plumbago, so that at least one  distinction
supposed to exist between the diamond and common
carbonaceous substances is done away by these re-
searches.  The power possessed  by certain carbon-
aceous substances of absorbing gases, and  separating
colouring matters from fluids, is probably mechanical
and dependent on  their porous organic  structure; for
it belongs  in  the highest degree to vegetable and ani-
mal charcoal, and it does not exist in plumbago, coke,
or anthracite.
  The nature of Ihe chemical difference between the
diamond and othei  carbonaceous substances, may be
demonstrated by igniting them  in chlorine,  when mu-
riatic acid is produced from the latter, but not from the
former.  The visible  acid vapour is owing to the moist-
ure present in the chlorine uniting to the dry muriatic
gas.  But  charcoal, after  being  intensely  ignited  in
chlorine, is not altered in its conducting powerof colour.
This circumstance is in favour of the opinion, that the
minute quantity of hydrogen  is not ihe cause of the
great  difference between  the physical  properties of
the diamond and charcoal."  See Carbon.
  Diamond-shaped.  See Leaf.
  Diamo'ron.  i.Fromc'ta, and pupov, a  mulberry.)  A
preparation of mulberries.
  Diamo'schum.  (From ita, and poexps, musk.) An
antidote in which musk is a chief ingredient.
  Diamoto'sis.  (From iia,  and polos, lint.)  The
introduction of lint into an ulcer or wound.
  DIANA.   1. The moon.
  2. The chemical  name  for silver from  its white
shining appearance.
  Diananca smus.   (From  iia, and  avayxalfo, to
force.)  1. The forcible restoration of a luxated part
into its proper place.
  2. An instrument to reduce a distorted spine.
   DIA'NDRIA.  (From c"is twice, and avyp, a man.)
The name of a class in the sexual system, consisting of
hermaphrodite plants which have flowers  with two
stamine.
  DIANTHUS.   (From A«c, itos, Jove, and avdos,
a flower: so called from  tbe elegance  and fragrance
of  its flower.)   The name of a genus of plants in
the Linnaean system.  Class, Decandria; Order, Di-
gynia.
  Dianthus caryophyllus.  The systematic name
of the clove-pink.   CaryophyUum rubrum ; Tunica ;
Vetontca; Betonica; Coronaria; Caryophyllus kor-
tensis.  Clove gilliflower. Clove July  flower.  This
fragrant plant, Dianthus—fioribus solitariis, squamis
ealycinus subovatis, brevissimus, corollis erenatis, of
Linnaeus, grows wild in several parts of  England; but
the flowers, which  are pharmaceutitally  employed,
are usually produced in gardens:  they have a pleasant
aromatic smell, somewhat allied  to that of clove-
spice;  their  taste  is bitterish and sub-adstringent.
These flowers were formerly  in extensive use, but are
now merely employed in  form of syrup, as a useful
and pleasant vehicle for other medicines.
  Diapa'sma.   (From ita-xaaou, to sprinkle.)  A me-
dicine reduced to powder and sprinkled over the body,
or any part.
  DIAPEDE'SIS.   (From itairniaw, to leap through.)
The transudation or escape of blood through the coats
of an artery.
  Diape'gma.  (From itairrryvvu, to close together.)
A surgical  instrument for  closing together  broken
bones.
  Diape'nte.  (From iia, and nevre, five.)  A medi-
cine composed of five ingredients.
  DIAPHANOUS.  (Diaphannsus ; from ita, through,
and q)atvu, to shine.)  A term applied to any substance
which is  transparent; as  the   hyaioid  membrane
covering the vitreous humour of the eye, which is as
transparent as glass.
  DuPitfENieuM.   From wa, and 0oivi!;, a date.)  A
medicine made of dates.
  DIAPHORA. (From StaQcpu, to distinguish.) 'Hie
distinction  of diseases by their characteristic marxx
and symptoms.
  DI APHORE'SIS  (From itatpoptu, to carry through.j
Perspiration.
  DIAPHORETIC.  (Diaphoreticus;  ftomiiatpoptu,
to carry through.)  That which, from being tnke-u in-
ternally, increases the discharge  by the skin.  When
this is carried so far as to be condensed on the surface,
it forms sweat: and the medicine producing  it is named
sudorific.  Between diaphoretic and sudorific, there Is
no distinction ; the operation is in both cases the suine,
and differs only in ilcitrce from augmentation of dose,
or employment of assistant means.  This class of me-
dicines comprehends five orders.
  1. Pungent diaphoretics, as the  volatile salts, and
essential oils, which are well  adapted  for Ihe-n-ed;
those iu whose system there is little sensibility ; those
who are difficultly affected by other diaphoretics ; and
those- whose stomachs  will not bear large do^e.s of me-
dicines.
  2. Calefacient diaphoretics, such as serpentaria con-
trayerva,  and guaiacum:  these are given  in cases
where the circulation is low and languid.
  3. Stimulant diaphoretics, as unlimouial and mercu-
rial preparations, which are best lilted lor the  vigorous
and plethoric.
  4. Antispasmodic diaphoretics, as opium, musk, and
camphire, which are given  to produce  a diaphoresis,
when the momentum of Ihe blood is increased.
  5. Diluent diaphoretics, as water, whey.  etc.  which
are best calculated  for that habit  in whicli a pi edispo
sition lo sweating is wanted,and  iu wliich  no diupjio
resis takes  place, although there  be evident causes to
produce it.
  DIAPHRA'GMA.   (Diaphragma, matis.n.; from
ita, and 0par7u, to divide.)   Septum  transversum.
The midrif, or diaphragm.   A muscle that  divides ihe
thorax from the abdomen.  If is composed of two mus-
cles; the first and superior of these arises from the
sternum, and the ends of the last ribs on each side.  Its
fibres, from this semicircular origination, lend r.wards
their centre, and terminate in a tendon, or aponeurosis,
whicli is  termed the  centrum tendinosum.  The  se-
cond and inferior muscle comes  from the vertebiae of
the loins by  two productions, of  which that on the
right side comes from the first, second, and third ver-
tebrae of the  loins; that on the left side is somewhat
shorter, and  both  these portions join  and make the
lower part  of the diaphragm, which joins  its tendons
with the tendon of the otlier, so that they make but one
muscular partition.  It is covered by the- pleura on its
upper side, and by the peritonaeum  on the  lower side.
It is pierced in the middle for the passage of the vena
cava; in its  lower  part for the  oesophagus,  and the
nerves, which go to the upper orifice of the stomach,
and between the productions  of  the inferior muscle,
passes the aorta, the thoracic duct,  and  the vena azy-
gos.  It receives arteries and veins called phrenic ot
diaphragmatic, from the cava and  aorta:  and  some
times on its  lower part two branches  from the vena
adiposa, and two arteries from the lumbares.  It has
two nerves which come  from the third vertebra of ihe
neck, which pass through the cavity of the thorax, and
are lost in its substance. In its natural situation, the dia-
phragm is convex on the upper side  towards the breast,
and concave on its lower side  towards  the  belly;
tlierefoie, when its fibres swell and contract, il must
become plain on each side, and consequently the cavity
of the breast is enlarged to give liberty to the lungs to
receive air in inspiration; and the stomach and intes-
tines are pressed for the distribution of their contents;
hence the use of this muscle is very considerable ; it is
the principal  agent in respiration,  particularly in  in-
spiration ; for when it is  in action the cavity of the
thorax is enlarged, particularly at the sides, where the
lungs  are chiefly situated ; and as  the  lungs must
always be  contiguous to the inside of the  thorax and
upper side of the diaphragm,  the air rushes into them,
in order to fill up the increased space.  In expiration it
is relaxed and pushed up by the  pressure of the abdo-
minal muscles upon the viscera of  the abdomen;  and
at the same time that they press it  upwards, they pul'
down the ribs, by which the cavity  of the thorax isdi
minished, and the air suddenly pushed ouiof the lungs.
  DIAPHRAGMATITIS. (Fromiiatppaypa,thediu
phragin.)  Inflammation of the diaphragm.  See Pa
raphren His.
                                        5W5
V. 
DIA
DtA
  Dia phthora.  (From iiatbOcipu to corrupt.)  An
abortion where the icotiis is corrupted in the womb.
  Diaphyla'ctica.   (From itaqjvXaaau, to preserve.)
Medicines which resist putrefaction or prevent infec-
tion.
  Dia'physis.  (From dtaqtvu, to divide.)  An inter-
stice or partition between the joints.
  Diapisselje'um.   (From iia,  and 7r!u<7iXaioi', the
oil of pitch, or liquid pitch.)  A composition in which
rs liquid pitch.
  Dia'plasis.  (From itmrXxacu,  to put together.)
The replacing a luxated or fractured bone in its proper
situation.
  Diapla'sma.   CFroin ItairXaoo-u, to anoint.)   An
unction or fomentation applied to the whole  body or
any part.
  Dia'pne.  (From  iiarvtu, to blow through, or pass
gently as the  breath does.)   An  insensible discharge
of the urine.
  Dl.VPNOE.  (From Stairrno, to breathe through.)
The transpiration of vapour through the pores of the
skin.
  DIAPNO'ICA.  (From itairvcu, to transpire.)  Dia-
phoretics or medicines wliich promote perspiration.
  Diapore'ma.   (From iiairopeu,  to be in  doubt.)
Nervous anxiety.
  Diaporon.   (From iia, and 07rwpti, autumnal fruits.)
A composition in  which are several autumnal fruits,
as quinces, medlars, and services.
  Diapra'ssium. (From ita,and irpaocrtov, hoarhound.)
A composition in which  hoarhound is the principal
ingredient.
  Diapru'num.  (From <5ia, and izpovwi, a prune.) An
electuary of prunes.
  Diapso'ricum.   (From ita, and ipupa, the itch or
scurvy.)   A medicine for the itch or scurvy.
  Diapte'rnes.   (From ita, and if]tpva, the heel.)
A composition of cow heel and cheese.
  Diaptero'sis.  (From r5ta, and  irlepov, a  feather.)
The cleaning the ears with a feather.
  Diapye'ma.  (From ita, and irvov, pus.)  A suppu-
ration or abscess.
  Diapye'mata.  (From iiaitvrtpa, a suppuration.)
Suppurating medicines.
  Diapye'tica.   (From iiairvrjpa,  a  suppuration.)
Suppurating applications.
  Diarho'cha.  (From <5ia, and pnxos, a space.) The
space between the foldings of a bandage.
  DIA'RIUS. (From dies, a day.)  A term applied to
fevers which last but one day.
  Diaroma'ticum.   (From ita, and apopultKov,  an
aromatic.) A composition of spices.
  Dia'rrhage.   (From iiapfmyvvpt, to break asun-
der.)  A fracture.
  Diarrhodo'meli. (From ita, poiov, a rose, and
pcXt, honey.)   Scammony, agaric, pepper, and honey.
  Dia'rrhodon.  (From ita, and poiov, a rose.)  A
composition of roses.
  DIARRHCE'A.  (From iiapptu, to flow through.)
A purging.  It is distinguished by frequent stools with
the natural excrement, not contagious, and seldom at-
tended with pyrexia.  It is a  genus of disease in the
class Neuroses, and order Spasmi of Cullen, contain-
ing the following species:
  1. Diarrhaa crapulosa.   The  feculent diarrhoea,
from crapulus, one who overloads his stomach.
  2. Diarrhaa biliosa.  The bilious, from an increased
secretion of bile.
  3. Diarrhaa mucosa.  The mucous, from a  quantity
af slime being voided.
  4. Diarrhaa kepatirrhaa.  The  hepatic, in which
there is a quantity of serous matter, somewhat resem-
bling the washings  of flesh, voided; the liver being
primarily affected.
  5. Diarrhaa lienterica.   The lientery; when the
food passes unchanged.
  6. Diarrhaa cwliaca.   The coeliac passion: the
food passes off in this affection in a white liquid state
like chyle.
  7. Diarrhaa vcrminosa.  Arising from worms.
  Diarrhoea seems evidently to depend on an increase
of the peristaltic motion, or of the secretion of the in-
testines;  and besides the  causes already  noticed, it
may arise from many others, influencing the system
generally, or the  particular  seat of the disease.  Of
the former kind nre cold, checking perspiration, cer-
tain passions of the  mind, and other disorders  • as den-
      296
tition, gout, fever, &c.   To the latter belong various
acrid ingesta, drastic cathartics, spontaneous acidity,
Sec  In this complaint each discharge is usually pre-
ceded by a murmuring noise, with a sense of weight
and uneasiness in the hypogastrium.   When it is pro-
tracted, the stomach  usually becomes affected with
sicknevs, or  sometimes  vomiting, the  countenance
grows  pale or sallow, and the skin generally dry and
rigid.   Ultimately great debility and emaciation, with
diopsy of the lower extremities, often supervene.  Dis
sections of diarrhoea, where it terminated fatally, have
shown ulcerations of the internal surface of the intcs
tines,  sometimes to a considerable extent, especially
about the follicular glands; in which occasionally  a
cancerous character has  been observable.  'The treat-
ment of this complaint must vary greatly according lo
circumstances: sometimes we  can only hope  to palli-
ate, as when it occurs in the advanced period of phthi-
sis  pulmonalis ; sometimes it  is rather to be encour-
aged,  relieving more  serious symptoms, as a bilious
diarrhoea coming on in fever, though still some limits
must  be put  to the discharge,   Where, however, we
are warranted in using the most speedy means of stop-
ping it, the objects  are, 1. To obviate  the several
causes.  2. To |pssen the inordinate action, and  give
tone to the intestine.
  I. Emetics may sometimes be useful, clearing out
the stomach, and  liver, as well  as determining to the
skin.   Cathartics also, expelling worms, or indurated
faeces; but any acrimony in the intestine wonld  pro-
bably  cause its own discharge, and  where there is
much irritability, they might aggravate the disease:
however,  in  protracted  cases,  the  alvine  contents
speedily become vitiated, and  renew tlie irritation;
which may be best  obviated by an  occasional mild
aperient, particularly rhubarb.   If, however, the liver
do not perform its office, the intestine will hardly re-
cover its healthy condition: and that may most proba-
bly be effected by the cautious use of mercury.  Like-
wise articles which  determine the fluids to other out-
lets, diuretics, and  particularly diaphoretics, in many
cases contribute materially to recovery; the latter per-
haps assisted by bathing, warm clothing, gentle exer-
cise, Sec.    Diluent, demulcent, antacid,  and other
chemical remedies, may be employed to correct acri-
mony, according to ils particular nature.   In children
teething, the gums should be lanced; and if the bowels
have been attacked on the repulsion of some other dis-
ease, it may often be proper to endeavour to restore
this.   But a matter of the greatest importance is the
due regulation of the diet, carefully avoiding those ar-
ticles, whicli are likely to disagree, or irritate the bow-
els, and preferring such as have a mild astringent effect.
Fish, milk, and vegetables, little acescent, as rice, bread,
&c. are best; and for the drink, madeira or  brandy,
sufficiently diluted, rather than malt liquors.
  II. Some of the means already noticed  will help to
fulfil the second indication also, as a  w holesome diet,
exercke, diaphoretics, &c:  but  there are others of
more power, which must be resorted lo in urgent cases.
At the head  of these is opium, a full dose of which
frequently at  once effects a cure; but where.there is
some more fixed cause, and the complaint of any stand-
ing, moderate quantities  repeated at  proper intervals
will answer better, and other subsidiary means ought
not to  be neglected ; aromatics may prevent  its disor-
dering the  stomach, rhubarb obviate  its causing per-
manent constipation, &c.  Tonics  are generally pro-
per, the discharge itself inducing debility, and where
there  is a deficiency of bile particularly,  the lighter
forms ofthe aromatic hitlers, as the infusum calumbae.
&c. will materially assist; and mild  chalybeates  are
sometimes serviceable.  In protracted cases astringents
come in aid of the general plan, and where opium dis-
agrees, they may be more necessary:  but the milder
ones should be employed at first, the more powerful
only where the patient appears sinking.   Chalk and
lime-water answer best where there is acidity; other-
wise Ihe pomegranate rind, logwood extract, catechu,
kino, tormentil, &x. may be given: where these  fail,
alum, sulphate of zinc, galls, or snpe-racetate of lead.
  DIARTHRO SIS.    (From itapOpnu, to articulate.)
A moveable connexion of bones.  This genus has live
species, viz. enarthrosis, arthrodia, ginglymus, trochoi
des, and atnphiarthrosis.
  Diasapo'nium.  (From Sta, and aairuv, soap.)   As
ointment of soap. 
DIA                                             DIE
   Diasaty'rium.    (From  ita,  and  cof]vptov, the
 orchis.)  Au ointment of the orchis-root.
   Diasci'llium.  (From iia, and axiXXa, the squill.)
 Oxymel and vinegar of squills.
   DiAseincus.  (From  ita, and cKtyKos, the croco-
 dile.)   A name for the mithridate, in tlie composition
 of whicli there was a part of the crocodile.
   Diasco rdium.   (From <5<a, and oxopiiov, the walcr
 germander.)  Electuary of scordium.
   Diask'na.  (From ita, and sena.)  A medicine in
 which is senna.
   Diasmy'rnum.   (From ita,  and apvpvtj, myrrh.)
 Diasmyrucs.   A wash  for  tlie eyes, composed of
 myrrb.
   Diaso'sticus. (From itaaugu, to preserve.)  That
 whicli preserves health.
   Diaspe'rmatum.   (From ita, and c-i^ta, seed.)
 A medicine composed chiefly of seeds.
   Dia'sphaoe.  (From rJiao^a^u), to separate.)  Dias-
 phaxis.  The  interstice between two veins.
   Diasphy'xis. (From  iia, and ocivyo, to  strike.)
 The pulsation of an artery.
   [Diaspore, of Haiiy,  Brogniart,  Cleaveland, &c.
 "This mineral is hut little known.  It is composed of
 laminae, somewhat curved, easily separable from each
 other,  and possessing a pearly gray colour, with consi-
 derable lustre.   These laminae according to tine natural
 joints, which they present, when examined by a light,
 seem to have separated in the direction of the smaller
 diagonals of the bases of a  rhomboidal  prism.  The
 edges or angles of its fragments are capable of scratch-
 ing glass.  Its specific gravity is 3.43.
   "A  small fragment, placed in the flame of a candle,
 almost instantly decrepitates, and is dispersed in nu-
 merous little  spangles.  Hence  its  name from the
 Greek  e\taiirttpu.   It i-> composed of alumine 80,
 water 17, iron 3.  Nothinj  is known of its geological
 situation.  Itsgangue, is a rock,  both argillaceous and
 ferruginous."—Cleav. JI  n.  A.]
   DIASTASIS. (From iiiorvpi, to separate.)  Dias-
 tema.   A separation.  A separation of the ends of the
 bones;  as  that which occasionally happens lo the
 bones ofthe cranium, in some cases of hydrocephalus.
   Diaste'aton.  (From ita, and yeap, lat.)   An oint-
 ment of the fat of animals.
   Diaste'ma.   See Diastasis.
   DIASTOLE. (From  ita, and artXXu, to stretch.)
 The dilatation of the heart  and arteries. See Circu-
 lation.
   Diastomo'sis.  (From iias-opou, to dilate.)  Any
 dilatation, or dilating instrument.
   Diastre'mma.   (From iias-pctpu, to  turn  aside.)
 Diastrophe.  A distortion of any limb or part.
   Dia'strophe.  See Diastremma.
   Dia'tasis.  (From liarctvu, to distend.)  The ex-
 tension of a fractured limb, in order to reduce it.
  Diatecoli'thum.   (From ita, and  'jtjKoXiOos, the
 Jew's stone.)  An antidote containing lapis judaicus.
  DIATERESIS.   (From ita,  and ^eptu, to perfo-
 rate.)  A perforation or aperture.
  Diatere'tica. (From ita and Itpcu, to preserve.)
 Medicines which preserve health and prevent disease.
  Diatk'ssaron. (From r*)ia, and Ttaoapts, four.)  A
 medicine compounded of four simple ingredients.
  Diate'ttiuum.  (From ita, and lerjtyuv, a grass-
 hopper.) A medicine  iu the composition of which
 were grasshoppers,  given as an antidote to some ne-
 phritic complaints, bv jEginetus.
  DIA'THESIS.  (From  o«m&Vi, to dispose.)  Any
 particular state of the body: thus, in inflammatory
 fever,  there is  an inflammatory diathesis, and, during
 putrid fever, a  putrid diathesis.
  Diathe'smus.  (From iiadeu, to run through.)  A
 rupture through which some  fluid escapes.
  Diatragaca'nthum.  From ita,  and rpayaxavQa.
 tragacanth.)    A medicine composed  of gum-traga-
canth.
  Dia'trium.   (From  iia, and Iptis, three.)  A me-
dicine composed of three simple ingredients.
  Diaxyla loes. (From iia, and IvXaXotj, the lignum
aloes.)   A medicine in which is  lignum aloes.
  Diazo'ma.   (From ctal'ovvvpt, to surround;  be-
cause it surrounds the cavity of the thorax.)  The dia-
phragm
  Dia2o'ster.   (From italuvwpt, to surround; he-
cause, when the body is  girded, the belt usually lies
upon it)  A name of the twelfth vertebra of tlie back.
   Dicente'tum.  (From <5ia. and «»7«o,  to stirmi
 late.)  A pungent or stimulating wash tor the eyes.
   Dichaste'res.  (From itxa^u, to divide, because
 they divide the food.)  A name of the foreteeth.
   Dkhophy'ia.   (From itxa, double,  and ibvu,  to
 grow.)   A disteni[>e-r of the hairs, in which they splil
 and grow forked.
   D1CHOTOMUS.  (From its,  twice, and rtpvu,  to
 cut; that  is, cut into two.)  Dichotomous  or bifur-
 cated.  Applied to stems, styles, &c which are forked
 or divided into two.
   DICHROTTE.   A species of iolito.
   DICOTYLEDON ES.  Two cotyledons.   Sec Co-
 tyledon.
   DICROTIC.    (Dicroticus; from  its, twice,  and
 icpoixo, to strike.)  A term given  to a  pulse  in which
 the artery rebounds after striking, so as to convey the
 sensation of a double pulsation.
   Dictamni'tes.  (From oix'Japvos, dittany ) A wine
 mt-dicated with dittany.
   DICTA'MNT S.   (From Dictamnus, a city   in
 Crele, on whose mountains it grows)  The  name ol*
 a genus of plants in the Linnaean system.  Class, Do
 candria ; Order, Monogynia.  Dittany.
   Dictamnus albus.  White fraxinella, or bastard
 dittany.   Fraxinella.   Dictamnus albus—foliis pin-
 natis, caule simpliei, of  Linnaeus.  The root of this
 plant is  the part directed  for medicinal use;  when
 fresh, it  has a  moderately  strong, not  disagreeable
 smell.  Formerly it was  much used as  a stomachic,
 Ionic, and alexipharmic, and  was supposed lo  be a
 medicine of much efficacy in removing uterine obstruc-
 tions, and destroying worms; but its medicinal  pow
 ers became so little regarded by modern physicians,
 that it had fallen almost entirely into disuse, till Baron
 Stoerck  brought  it into notice, by publishing several
 cases of  its success, viz.  in tertian  intermittents,
 worms,  (lumbrici)  and menstrual suppressions.   Iu
 all these cases, he employed the  powdered root to the
 extent of a scruple twice a day.  He also made use of
 a tincture, prepared of two ounces ofthe fresh root di-
 gested in  14 ounces of spirit of wine; of this 'JO to 50
 drops, two or three times  a day, were successfully em-
 ployed in epilepsies, and, when joined with steel, this
 root, we are told, was of great service to chlorotic pa-
 tients.  The dictamnus undoubtedly, says Dr. Wood-
 ville, is  a medicine of considerable power;  but not-
 withstanding the account of it given by Stoerck, who
 seems to have  paid little attention to its modus ope-
 randi, we  may still say with Haller, "nonduni autcm
 vires pro dignitate exploratus est," and it is  now
 fallen into disuse.
   Dictamnus creticus.  See Origanum dictamnus.
   Didym j:'a.  (From itivpos, double.)  A cataplasm;
 so called by Galen, from  the double use  to which  he
 puts it.
  DIDYMI. (From iiivpos, double.)   Twins.  An
 old name of tlie  testicles, and two eminences of the
 brain, from their double protuberance.
   DIDYNAMIA.   (From  its, twice, and  ivvapts,
 power, two powers.)   The name  of  a  class in  the
 sexual system of  plants, consisting of those with her
 maphrodile flowers, which have four stamina, two of
 which are long, and two short.
  Diecbo'lium.  (From iia, and cxBaXXu, to cast out.)
 A medicine causing an abortion.
  Diele'ctron.  (From  ita, and  tXtxfpov,  amber.;
 A name of a troche, in which amber is an ingredient.
  DIEMERBROECK, Iserand, was bom  near
 Utrecht.in  1609.   After graduating at Angers, he went
 to Nimeguen in 1636, and for some years continued
 freely attending those who were ill ofthe plague, which
 raged with great violence,,  and of which he subse-
 quently  published an account.   This obtained him
 much credit: and, in 1642, he was made  professor ex-
 traordinary in medicine  at  Utrecht; when  he gave
 lectures on that subject, as well as on anatomy, which
 rendered  him very popular.  He received also other
 distinctions at that university, and continued in  high
 esteem till his death, in 1674.  He was author, besides,
 of a system of anatomy, and several otlier works in
 medicine and surgery; part of which were published
 after his  death by his son, especially his treatise on
 the measles and smallpox.
  DIERVTLLA. 'Named in honour of Mi. Dierville.
 who first brought il from Arcadia.)   See Lonicert
diervilla. 
DIG
DIG
  DIET.  Diata.  The dietetic part of medicine is
no  inconsiderable branch, and seems to  require a
much greater share of regard than it commonly meets
with.  A great variety  of diseases might be removed
by tlie observance of a proper diet and regimen, with-
out the assistance of medicine, were it not for the im-
patience ofthe sufferers.  However, it may on all oc-
casions come  in as a  proper assistant to the cure,
which sometimes cannot be performed without a due
observance of the non-naturals.  That food is, in ge-
neral, thought the best and most conducive to long life-,
which is most simple,  pure, and free from irritating
qualities, and such as approaches nearest to the nature
of our own bodies in a  healthy state, or is capable of
being easiest converted  into their substance by the vis
vitre,  after it has been duly prepared  by the art of
cookery; but the nature, composition, virtues, and uses
of particular aliments, can never be learnt to satisfac-
tion, without the assistance of practical chemistry.
  Diet drink.  An alterative decoction employed
daily in considerable quantities, at least from a pint to
a quart.  The decoction of sarsaparilla and mezereon,
Ihe Lisbon diet drink, is the most common and  most
useful.
  DIETETIC.  Dieteticus.  That part of medicine
wliich considers the  way of living with relation to
"bod, or diet, suitable to any particular case.
  Die'xodos.  (From iia, and t\oios, a way to pass
out.)   Diodos.  In Hippocrates it means evacuation
by steol.
  Diffla'tio.   (From  diffio, to  blow away.)  Per-
spiration.
  DIFFUSUS.  Diffused; spreading.  Applied to pa-
nicles and steins.  Panicula diffusa, that is, lax and
spreading; as in Saxifraga umbrosa;  the  London
pride, so common in  our gardens; and many grasses,
especially the  common cultivated  oat.  The Bunias
kakile, or sea rocket, has the caulis diffusus.
   DIGA STRICUS.  (From its, twice, and yacrnp, a
belly so called from its having two bellies.)  Biventer
maxilla  of  Albinus.  Mastoidohygenien of Dumas.
A muscle situated externally between the  lower jaw
and os hyoides.  It arises, by a fleshy belly, from the
upper part of the processus mastoideus,  and descend-
ing, it contracts into a round tendon, which passes
through  the stylohyoideus, and an annular ligament
which  is fastened to the os hyoides: then it grows
fleshy again, and ascends towards the middle of the
edge of the lower jaw, where it is inserted.  Its use is
to  open  the mouth by pulling the lower jaw down-
wards and backwards; and when the jaws are shut,
to raise the larynx, and consequently the pharynx, up-
wards, as in deglutition.
   Dioerk'ntia.  (From  digero, to digest.)   Medi-
cines which promote  the secretion  of proper pus in
wounds and ulcers.
   DIGESTER.  A strong and tight iron kettle or cop-
per, furnished with a valve of safety, in which bodies
may be subjected to the vapour of water, alkohol, or
aether, at a pressure above that of the atmosphere.
   DIGESTION.  (Digcstio; from  digero, to dis-
solve.)
   1.  An  operation in  chemistry  and  pharmacy, in
 which such matters as are intended to act slow ly on
 each other, are exposed to a heat, continued for some
 time.
   2. In physiology, the change that the food under-
 goes in the stomach,  by  which it is converted  into
 clivme.
   '"' The immediate object  of digestion is the forma-
 tion of chyle, a matter destined for the  reparation of
 Ihe continual  waste of the animal economy.  The di-
 gest ivf-organs contribute alijo in  many other ways to
 nutrition.
   If we judge of the importance of a function by the
 number and variety of its organs, digestion ought to
 be placed in the first rank; no otlier function  of the
 animal  economy presents such a complicated appa-
 ratus.
   There always exists an evident relation between the
 sort of aliment proper for an animal and  the disposi-
 tion of its digestive  organs.  If, by  their nature,  the
 aliments are  very different from  the elements which
 compose the animal: if, for  example,  it is gramini-
 vorous, the dimensions of the apparatus will be more
 complicated,  and more considerable; if, on  the, con-
 trary, the animal feeds on flesh, the digestive  organs
       293
will be fewer and more simple, as is seen in the earn/
vorous animals.  Man, called to use equally  anima.
and vegetable aliments, keeps  a mean between  ihe
graminivorous and carnivorous animals, as to the dis-
position and complication of his digestive apparatus,
without deserving, on that account, lo be called omni-
vorous.
  We may represent the digestive apparatus us a long
canal differently twisted upon  itself, wide  in  certain
points, narrow in others, susceptible  of contracting or
enlarging its dimensions, nnd into which a great quan-
tity of fluids are poured  by means of different ducts.
The canal is divided  into  many parts by anatomists:
  1. The mouth.
  2. The pharynx.
  3. The oesophagus.
  4. The stomach.
  5. The small inlrestines.
  6. The great intestines.
  7. The anus.
  Two membranous layers form the sides of the dlzes
live canal in its whole length. The inner layer, wliich
is intended to be in contact with the  aliments, consists
of a mucous membrane, the appearance and structure
of which  vary  in  every  one of the portions of the
canal,  so that it is not the same  in the pharynx as in
the mouih, nor is it in the stomach like what it is in
the oesophagus, &.c.   In the lips and the anus this mem-
brane becomes confounded with the skin. The second
layer of the sides of the digestive canal is  muscular;
it is composed of two layers of fibres, one longitudinal,
the other circular.  The arrangement, tlie  thickness,
the nature of the fibres which enter  into the composi-
tion of these strata are different, according as ihey are
observed in the  mouth, in the  oesophagus, or in the
large intestine, Sec   A great number of blood-vessels
go to, or come from the digestive canal; but tlie abdo-
minal portion of this canal receives a quantity incom-
parably greater than the superior parts.  This presents
only what are  necessary  for its nutrition, and the in-
considerable secretion, of which it is the seat; while
the number and the volume of the vessels that belong
to the abdominal portion show  that  it must be  the
agent  of a considerable  secretion.  The chyliferoua
vessels arise exclusively from the small intestine.
   As to the nerves, they are distributed to the diges-
tive canal in an order inverse to that of the vessels;
that is, the cephalic parts, cervical and pectoral, receive
a great deal more  than  the abdominal portion,  the
stomach excepted, where the two nerves of the eighth
pair terminate.  The other parts of  the canal scarcely
 receive any branch of the cerebral nerves.  The only
 nerves that are observed,  proceed from  the subdia-
phragmatic ganglions of the great sympathetic.  We
 will soe, farther on, the relation that  exists between the
 mode of distribution of the  nerves,  and the functions
 of the superior  and inferior portions of the digestive
 canal.
   Tho bodies that pour fluids into the digestive canal,
 are,
   1. The digestive mucous membrane.
   2.  Isolated follicles that are spread in great numbers
  in the whole length of this membrane.
   3.  The agglomerated follicles which are found at
  the isthmus of the throat, between Uie pillars of  tlie
  velum of the  palate, and sometimes at the junction of
  the oesophagus and the stomach.
   4. The mucous  glands which exist in  a greater or
  less number in the sides of the cheeks, in  the roof of
  the palate, around tho oesophagus.
   5. The parotid, the submaxillary, nnd  sublingual
  glands, which secrete the saliva  of tlie mouth, the
  liver, and  the pancreas; the first of which pours  tlie
  bile, the second the pancreatic juice, by distinct canals,
  into the superior  part of the small  intestine,  called
  duodenum.
    All the digestive organs contained in the abdominal
  cavity are immediately covered, more or less com
  pletely, by the serous membrane called the peritonaeum.
  This membrane, by the manner in whicli it is disposed,
  and by its physical and vital  properties, is very useful
  in the act of digestion,  by preserving to the  organs
  tneir respective'relations,  by favouring their changes
  of volume, by rendering  easy  the  sliding motion;
  which they perform upon each  other, and  upon the
  adjoining parts.
    The surface of the mucous digestive membrane is 
DIG                                             DIG
 always lubrificd by a glutinous adhesive matter, more
 Dr less abundant,  than is seen in greatest quantity
 where there exist no follicles,—a circumstance which
 seems to indicate that these are not the onty secreting
 organs.   A part of  this matter,  to  which is given
 generally tlie name of mucus,  continually  evaporates,
 so that there  exists habitually a  certain  quantity of
 vapours in all 'he points of the digestive canal.  The
 chemical  nature of  this substance, as taken at  the
 intestinal surface,  is still very little  known.  It is
 transparent, with a light gray tint; it  adheres to the
 membrane whicli forms it; its taste is salt, and  its
 acidity is shown by  there-agents: its formation still
 continues some time  after  death.   That which is
 formed in the  mouth, in the pharynx, and in the oeso-
 phagus, goes into the  stomach mixed with the saliva,
 and ihe fluids of the mucous glands, by movements of
 deglutition, which succeed each other at  near inter-
 vals.   Accordiug to this detail, it  would appear that
 the stomach ought to contain, after it has been some
 time empty of aliments, a considerable quantity of a
 mixture of mucus, of saliva, and follicular fluid. This
 observation is  not proved, at least in the greatest num-
 ber of individuals.   However, in a number of persons,
 who are evidently in a particular state, there exist, in
 the morning,  in the stomach, many ounces of this
 mixture. In  certain cases it is foamy, slightly troubled,
 very little viscous, holding suspended some flakes of
 mucus; its taste is quite acid, not disagreeable, very
 sersible in tlie throat, acting upon the teeth, so as to
 diminish the polish of  their  surface, and  rendering
 their motion upon  each oilier more difficult.   This
 liquid reddens paper stained with turnsol.
   In the same individual, in otlier circumstances, and
 with the same appearances as n colour, transparency,
 and consistency, tlie liquid of the stomach  had no
 savour, nor  any acid property; it  is  a little salt:  the
 solution of potassa, as well as the nitric and sulphuric
 acids, produced iu il no  apparent change.
   When we examine the dead bodies of persons killed
 by accident, the stomach not having received any ali-
 ments nor drink for some time, this organ contains only
 a very few acid mucosiiies adhering to the coats of the
 stomach,  pnrt of which, in the pyloric  portion of that
 viscus, appears reduced to chyme.  It is, then, very
 probable, that the liquid which ought to be in the
 stomach  is digested  by this viscus  as an alimentary
 substance, t»nd that this is the reason why it does not
 accumulate there.
   In aninia.s the organization of wliich approaches to
 that of man, such  as dogs and cats, there is no liquid
 found  in the stomach after one, or many days of com-
 plete abstinence; there is seen only a small quantity
 of viscous mucosity adhering to the sides of the organ,
 towards its splenic extremity. This matter has the
 greatest analogy, both  chemical and  physical, with
 that which is found in the stomach of man.  But, if
 we make  these animals  swallow a body which is not
 susceptible of  being digested, as a pebble for example,
 there forms, after some time, in the cavity of the sto-
 mach, a certain quantity of an acid liquid mucus of
 a grayish colour, sensibly salt, which, in its composi-
 tion, is nearly the same as that found sometimes in
 man.
  This liquid, resulting from the mixture of the muco-
 siiies of the mouth, of the pharynx, of the oesophagus
 and the stomach, with the liquid secreted by the folli-
 cles of the same parts and with the saliva, has been
 called by physiologists the gastric juice, and to which
 they have atlributed particular properties.
  In the  small intestine there is also formed a great
 quantity of mucous matter,  which rests habitually
 attached to the sides of the intestine;  it differs little
 from that of which  we  have spoken above ; it is vis-
 cid, tough, and has a salt and acid savour; it is renew-
 ed with great rapidity.   If the  mucous membrane of
 this intestine is laid bare, in a dog, and the layer of
 mucus absorbed by a sponge, it will appear again In a
 minute.  This observation may be repealed as often as
we please, until the intestine becomes inflamed by tlie
contact of the air, and foreign bodies.
  The mucus of the stomach penetrates into trie cavity
of the small intestine only under the'form of a pulpous
matter, grayish and opaque, which  has all the appear-
ance of a particular chyme.
  It is at the surface of this same portion of the diges-
tive canal that the bile is delivered as well as the liquid
secreted by the  pancreas.  In animals, such ns dogn,
the flowing of these liquids takes place at intervals;
that is, about twice in a minute, there is seen to spring
from the orifice of ihe ductus choledoclius, or biliary
canal, a drop of bile, which immediately spreads itself
uniformly in a sheet upon the surrounding parts, which
are already impregnated wilh  it; there is, also, con-
stantly found  a certain quantity  of bile in the small
intestine.
   The flowing of the liquid formed  by the pancreas
takes place much in the same manner, but it is much
slower; sometimes a quarter of an hour passes before
a drop of this  fluid springs from the orifice of the canal
which pours it into the intestine
   The ditleient fluids deposited in the small intestine,
whicli are, the ohymous matter that comes from ihe
stomach, the  mucus, the follicular fluid, the bile, and
the pancreatic liquid, all mix together; but, on account
of its  properties, and perhaps of its proportions, the
bile  predominates, and  gives to the mixture- its pro|ier
taste aud  colour.  A great part of this mixture de-
scends towards the large intestine, and passes inlo it;
in this  passage, it becomes more consistent, and the
clear yellow colour which it had before becomes dark,
and  afterward greenish.  There are,  however, in thH
respect, strong individual differences.
  In the large  intestine, the mucous and follicular se-
cretion appears less active than in the small intestine ;
the mixture of fluids which conies from the small in-
testine acquires in it more consistence; it contracts a
foetid odour, analogous to that of ordinary excrements:
it has,  besides, the  appearance of it, by its colour,
odour, &c.
  The knowledge of these facts enables us to under
stand how a person who uses no aliments can continue
to produce excrements, and how, in certain diseases,
their quantity is very considerable,  though the sick
person  has been long deprived of every alimentary
substance, even of a liquid kind.  Round  the anus
exist follicles,  which secrete a fatty matter of a singu-
larly powerful odour.
   We find gas almost always in  the intestinal canal;
the stomach contains only very little.  Tlie chemical
nature of these gases has not yet  been examined wilh
care;  but  as  the saliva that we swallow is always
more or less impregnated with atmospheric air,  it  is
probably the  atmospheric air, more  or less changed,
which  is found in the stomach.   Al least, it contains
carbonic acid.  The small intestine contains only  t
small quantity of gas; it is a mixture of carbonic acid,
of azote and hydrogen.   The large intestine contains
carbonic acid, azote, and hydrogen, sonietimes carbu-
retted,  sometimes sulphuretted.   Twenty-three  per
cent, of this gas was found in the rectum of an in-
dividual, whose large  intestine contained no excre-
ment.
  The muscular layer of the digestive canal deserves
to be remarked, in respect to the different modes o
contraction it  presents.  The lips, the jaws, in mos
casies the tongue, Ihe cheeks, are moved by a contrac
tton, entirely like that of the muscles of locomotion.
The  roof of the palate, the pharynx, the oesophagus,
and  the tongue in certain particular circumstances,
oiler many motions,  which have  a manifest analogy
with muscular contraction, but which are very differ-
ent from it, because they take place without the parti
cipation of the will.
  This docs not imply that the motions of the parts
just named are beyond  the influence of the nerves ;
experience proves directly the contiary.  If, for exam-
ple, the nerves that come to the iPMiphagus are cut,
this tube is deprived of its contractile faculty.
  The muscles of the velum of the palate, tliose ofthe
pharynx, the  superior  two-thirds of the oesophagus,
scarcely contract like digestive organs, but when they
act in permitting  substances to  pass  from the mouth
into the stomach.  The inferior third ofthe oesophagus
presents a phenomenon which  is important to be
known: this is an alternate motion of contraction and
relaxation wliich  exists  in a constant manner.  The
contraction commences  at tne union ot tne superior
two-thirds of the canal with the inferior third; it is
continued, with a certain rapidity, lo the insertion of
the oesophagus into the stomach:  when it is once pro-
duced, it continues for  a time, wliich  is variable; its
mean duration  is, at least, thirty  seconds.  Being so
contracted in its inferior third, the oesophagus is hard
                                        299 
DIG
DIG
and elastic, like  a cord strongly stretched.   The le-
laxation which succeeds the contraction  happens all
at once, and simultaneously in all the contracted fibres;
in certain cases, however, it seems to take place from
the superior to the inferior fibres.  In the  state of re-
laxation, the  oesophagus presents a remarkable flac-
cidity, which  makes a singular contrast with its state
of contraction.
  This motion of the tesophagus depends on the nerves
of the eighth pair. When these nerves of an animal are
cut, the resophagus  no  longer contracts, but neither  is
it in the relaxed state that we have described; its fibres
being separated from nervous influence, shorten them-
selves with a certain force, and the canal is found  in
an intermediate state between contraction and relaxa-
tion.  The vacuity, or distention of Ihe stomach, has
an influence  upon the duration  and intensity of the
contraction of the oesophagus.
  From the inferior extremity of the  stomach to the
end of the intestine rectum, the  intestinal canal pre-
sents a mode of contraction which  differs, in almost
every respect, from the contraction ofthe sub-diaphrag-
matic portion of  the canal.  This contraction always
takes place slowly, and in an irregular manner; some-
times an hour passes before any trace of it can be per-
ceived ; at other times many intestinal portions contract
at once.  It appears to be very little influenced by the
nervous system: for example,—it continues in the sto-
mach after the section of" the nerves of the eighth pair;
it becomes more active by the weakness of  animals,
and  even by  their death; in some, by this cause it be-
comes considerably accelerated; it continues though
the intestinal canal is entirely separated from the body.
The pyloric portion of the stomach, the  small  intes-
tine, are the points of the inlesiinal canal where it  is
presented oftenest, and most constantly. This motion,
wliich arises from the successive or simultaneous con-
traction of the longitudinal or circular fibres of the in-
testinal canal, has been differently denominated  by
authors: some have named it vermicular, others peris-
taltic, others  again, sensible organic contractility, Sec.
Whatever it  is,  the will appears to exert no sensible
influence upon it.
  The muscles of the anus contract voluntarily.
  The supra-diaphragmatic portion  of the digestive
canal is not susceptible of undergoing any considerable
dilatation; we may easily see, by its structure, and the
mode of contraction of its muscular coat, that it is not
intended to allow the aliments to remain in ils cavity,
but that it is rather formed to carry these substances
from the mouth  into the stomach: this last organ, and
the large intestine,  are evidently prepared to undergo
a very great distention; substances, also, which are
introduced into the  alimentary canal, accumulate, and
remain for a time, more or less, in their interior.
  The diaphragm,  and the abdominal muscles, pro-
duce a sort of perpetual agitation of the digestive or-
gans contained in  the abdominal cavity; ihey exert,
upon them, a continual pressure, which becomes some-
times very considerable.
  The digestive  actions wliich by their union consti-
tute digestion, are—
  1. The apprehension of aliments.
  2. Mastication.
  3. Insalivation.
  4. Deglutition.
  5. The action of the stomach.
   6. The action of the small intestines.
   7. The action of the large intestines.
   S. The expulsion of the (cecal matter.
   All the digestive actions do not equally contribute
 to the production of chyle; the action of  the stomach
 and that of the small intestines, are alone absolutely

   The digestion of solid  food requires generally the
 eight digestive actions; thit of drinks is much more
 dimple;  it comprehends only apprehension,  degluti-
 tion, the action of the  stomach, and that of the small
 intestine.
   The mastication and deglutition or the food being
 effected, we  have now to notice  the action of the sto-
 mach on the aliment: chemical alterations will now
 presen:  'huiiinelvea to our  examination.  In the sto-
 mach the food is transformed  into a matter proper  to
 animals, which is named chyme.
   Before showing the changes that the food undergoes
 m tlie stomach, it is necessary to know the phenomena
       300
 of their accumulation  in this viscus,  as  well as tag
 local and general effects that result from it.
   The  first moulhfuls of food swallowed are easily
 lodged  in the stomach.  This organ is not much com
 pressed by the surrounding viscera;  its sides separate
 easily, and give way to the force which presses the ali-
 mentary bole;  but ils distention becomes more difficult
 in proportion as new food arrives, for  this is accom-
 panied by the  pressing together  of the abdominal vis-
 cera, and the extension of the sides of the abdomen
 This accumulation  takes place particularly towards
 the right extremity and the  middle  part: the pyloric
I half eives way with more difficulty.
   While the stomach  is distended, its  form, its rela-
 tions, and even Its  positions, undergo alterations: in
 place of being flattened on  its  aspects, of occupying
 only the epigastrium and a part of the left hypochondri-
 um, it  assumes a round form;  its great cut  de sac is
 thrust into this hypochondrium, and fills it almost com
 pletely; the greater curvature descends towards the
 umbilicus, particularly on the left side; ihe pylorus,
 alone,  fixed by a fold of the peritonaum, pieserves its
 motion and  its relations with the surrounding parts.
 On account of the resistance  that the vertebial column
 presents behind, the posterior surface of the stomach
 cannot distend itself on that side: for that reason this
 viscus  is wholly carried forward, and  as the pylorus
 and the oesophagus cannot be displaced in this direc-
 tion, it makes a motion of rotation, by which ils great
 curve is directed a little forward; its posterior aspect
 inclines downwards, and its superior upwards.
   Though it undergoes these changes of position and
 relation, it, nevertheless, preserves the recurved conoid
 form whicli is  proper lo it. This effect depends on the
 manner in which the three tunics contribute lo its dila-
 tation.  The two plates of the serous membrane sepa-
 rate and give  place to the  stomach.   The muscular
 layer suffers a real distention ; its fibres are prolonged,
 but so as to preserve the particular form of the stomach,
 Lastly, the mucous membrane gives way, particularly
 in the points where the folds are multiplied.  It will
 be noticed that these are found particularly along the
 larger curve, as well as at the splenic extremity.
   The dilatation of the stomach  alone produces very
 important changes in the abdomen.  The total volume
| of this cavity augments; the belly  juts out; the ab-
 dominal viscera are compressed  wilh greater force;
 often the necessity of passing urine, or faeces, is felt.
 The diaphragm  is" pressed towards  the breast, it de-
 scends with some difficulty;  thei:ce  the motions of re-
 spiration, and the  phenomena which depend  on  it,
 are more incommoded, such as speech, singing, &c.
   In certain cases, the dilatation of the stomach may
 he  carried so  far that  the sides of the abdomen are
 painfully distended, and respiration becomes difficult.
   To produce such effects, the contraction of the oeso-
 phagus, which presses the food in the  stomach, must
 be very energetic.  We have remarked above the con
 siderable thickness ofthe muscular layer of this canal,
 and the great number of nerves which go to it; nothing
 less than this disposition is necessary to account for the
 force with which the food distends tlie stomach. For
 more certainty, the linger has  only to be introduced
 into the oesophagus of an animal by  the cardiac ori-
 fice, and the force of  the contraction will  be found
 striking.
    But  if the food exerts so marked  an influence upon
 the sides of the stomach and the  abdomen, they ought
 themselves  to suffer  a  proportionate reaction, and
 tend to  escape  by the two openings  of ihe stomach
 Why does this effect not take  place ?  It is generally
 said that the cardia and pylorus shut; but this pheno
 menon has not been  submitted  to any particular  re
 searches.  Here is what Dr. Magendiee's experiment)
 have produced in this respect.
    The alternate motion ofthe oesophagus prevents ties
 return of" the food into this cavity.  The more the s'o
 niach  is distended, contraction becomes the more in
 tense  and  prolonged,  and  the relaxation of shortei
 duration.  Its contraction generally coincides with the
 instant of inspiration, when the stomach  is mo.-t forci
 bly compressed.  Its  relaxation ordinarily happens al
 llio instant of expiration.
    We may have an icica of this mechanism by laving
 bare the stomach of a dore-, and cndeavounng in maKe
 the food pass into the n-sophagus by compressing the
 stomach with both hands It will be nearly impossible 
DIG
DIG
 to succeed, whatever force is used, if it is done at the
 instant when the oesophagus is  contracted: but the
 passage will take place, in a certain degree, of itself;
 If the stomach is compressed at the instant of relaxa-
 tion.
  The resistance that the pylorus presents to the pas-
 sage of the aliments is  of another kind.   In living
 animals, whether the stomach is emply or full, this
 opening  is habitually shut, by the constriction of its
 fibrous i ing, and the  contraction of its circular fibres.
 There is  frequently  seen  another constriction in  the
 stomach, at the distance of one or two inches, which
 appears intended to prevent the food from reaching the
 pylorus;  we perceive, also, irregular  and  peristaltic
 contractions, whicli commence at the duodenum, and
 are continued into the pyloric portion of the stomach,
 the etiect of whicli  is to press ihe  food towards Ihe
splenic part.  Besides, should the pylorus not be natu-
rally shut, the food would have little tendency to enter
it, for it only endeavours to escape into a place where
the pressure is less; and this would be equally great in
the small intestine as in the stomach, since it is nearly
equally distributed overall the abdominal cavity.
  Among  the number of phenomena produced  by the
 food in tlie stomach,  there are several,  the existence
of which, though  generally admitted, do not appear
sufficiently demonstrated;  such is the diminution of
tlie volume of th«' spleen, and that of the blood-vessels
of the liver, or the omenta, tec; such is  also a motion
of the stomach, wliich should preside over the  recep-
tion of ihe food, distribute it equally by exerting upon
 It a gentle pressure, so that its dilatation, far from being
 a passive phenomenon, must be essentially active.  Dr.
 Magendie has frequently opened animals the stomachs
 of which were filled with food ; he has  examined the
 bodies of executed persons, a short time after death,
 and has seen nothing favourable to these assertions.
  The accumulation of food in the stomach is accom-
 panied by  many sensations, of wliich it is necessary to
 take account:—at first, it is an agreeable feeling, or the
 pleasure of a want satisfied.  Hunger is appeased by
 degrees; the general weakness that accompanied it is
 replaced by an active state, and a feeling of new force.
 If the introduction of food is continued, we experience
 a sensation of fulness and satiety which  indicates that
 the stomach is sufficiently replenished; and if, con-
 trary to this instinctive information, we still persist lo
 make use of food, disgust and nausea soon arrive, and
 they are very soon followed by vomiting.  These dil-
 fcrent impressions must not be attributed to the volume
 of the aliments alone.  Every thing being equal  in
 a sweetish taste, insipid, slightly acid, and preserving
 some of the Lioperties of ihe food.  This description
 leaves much to be explained.
   The result of Dr. Magcndie's experiments are as fol-
 lows :
   A. There  are as many sorts of chyme  as there arc
 different sorts of food, if we judge by the colour, con-
 sistence, appearance, &c.; as we may easily ascertain,
 by giving different simple  alimentary subsluuce* to
 dogs to eat, nnd killing them during the  operation of
 digestion.  He frequently found tile same result in
 man, iu the dead bodies of criminals, or persons dead
 by accident.
   B. Animal substances ure generally more easily anil
 completely changed limn vegetable substances.   It fro
 quently happens that tliose last traverse the whole in-
 testinal canal without changing their appaie-ut  proper-
 ties.  He has frequently seen in the reciuin, and in the
 small intestine, tlie vegetables which are used in soup,
 spinagc, sorrel, &c, which  had  pnserved the most
 part of their  properties:  their colour alone appeared
 sensibly changed by the contact of the bile.
  Chyme is formed particularly in the pyloric portion.
 The i'ood appears to be introduced slowly into  it, and
 during the time they remain they undergo transforma-
 tion.  The Doctor believes, however, that he has ob-
 served frequently chymoiis  matter at tho surface of
 the mass of aliments  which fill the splenic portion;
 but the aliments in general preserve their properties iu
 this part of the stomach.
  It would be difficult to tell why the pyloric portion is
 belter adapted to the'formalion of chyme than the rest
 of the stomach; perhaps the great number of follicles
 that are seen  in it modify the  quantity or the  nature
 of the fluid that is there secreted.   The  transforma-
 tion of alimentary substances into chyme takes place
 generally from the superficies to the centre.  On the
 surface of portions of food swallowed, there is formed
 a soft layer easy to be detached.  The substances seem
 lo be attacked and  corroded by a reagent capable of
 dissolving them.   The white of a  hard  egg,  for  in
 stance, becomes in a little time as if plunged in v inegar,
 or iu a solution of potassa.
  C. Whatever is the alimentary substance employed,
 the chyme has always  a sharp odour and taste, and
 reddens paper coloured with tumsol.
  D^ There is only a small quantity of gas found in
the stomach  during the formation of chyme;  some
times there exists none.  Generally, it forms a  small
bubble at the superior part of the  splenic  portion
Once only in ihe body of a criminal a short time aftct
 otlier respects,  food  very  nutritive  occasions, more  death he gathered with proper precautions a quantity
 promptly,  the feeling of satiety.   A substance wliich  -
 is not very nourishing does  not  easily calm hunger,
 though It is taken in great quantity.
   The mucous membrane of the stomach, then, is en-
 dowed wilh  considerable sensibility, since it distin-
 guishes the nature of substances which come in con-
 tact with iu  This property is very strongly marked if
 911 irritating poisonous substance is swallowed: intole-
 rable pain is then felt.  We also know lhat the stomach
 s sensible to the temperature of food.
   We cannot doubt that the presence of the ailments
 )f the stomach causes a great excitement, from the
 redness of  the mucous membrane, from the quantity
 if fluid it secretes, and the volume of vessels directed
 there; but  this is favourable lo chymificntion.   This
 excitement of the stomach influences the general state
 of the functions.
   The time that  the aliments remain in the stomach is
 considerable, generally several hours; it is during this
 slay that they are transformed into chyme.
   Changes of the aliments in the stomach:—
  It is more than an hour before the food suffers any
 apparent change in the stomach,  more  than what re-
 sults  from  the perspiratory and mucous fluids  with
 which they are mixed, and which are continually re-
 newed.
  The stomach  is uniformly distended during this
time ; but the whole extent of the pyloric portion af-
terward contracts, particularly that nearest the splenic
portion, Into which the food is pressed.   Afterward
there is  nothing found  in  the pyloric portion but
thyme, mixed with a small  quantity of unchanged
food.
  The best  authors have agreed to consider the chyme
as a homogeneous substance, pultaceous, grayish, of
 sufficient to be  analyzed.  " Chevreuil found "it com
 posed of:
         Oxygen,..................... 11.00
         Carbonic acid,............... 14.00
         Pure hydrogen,...............  3.55
         Azote,...  ................... 71.45

          Total,.....................100.00

  There is rarely any gas found in the stomach ol  i
dog.  We cannot then believe, with Professor Chaus
sier, that we swallow a bubble of air at every motion
of deglutition, which  is pressed  into the stomach b)
the alimentary bole.   Were it so,  there ought to be
found a considerable quantity of air iu this organ aftei
a meal:  now the contrary is to be seen.
  E. There is never a great quantity of chyme accu
mulated in the pyloric portion: the  most that the Doc
tor ever saw in it was scarcely equal in volume lo two
or three ounces ot water.   The contraction of the
stomach appears to have  an influence upon the  pro.
duction of chyme.  The following is what he observed
in this  respect.   After  having been  some  time im.
moveable, the  extremity of the duodenum  contracts
the pylorus and the pyloric portion  contract also; this
motion presses the chyme towards the splenic portion
but it afterward presses it in a  contrary direction, thai
is, after  being distended, and having permitted the
chyme to enter again  into its cavity, the  pyloric  por-
tion'contracts from left to right, and directs the chyme
towards the duodenum, which  immediately pastes the
pylorus and enters the intestine.
  The same phenomenon is repeated a certain ntimbc«
of times, but it stops  to begin again, after  a certain
time.  When the stomach  contains much food,  this
                                        301 
DIG
DIG
 motion is limited to the parts of the organ nearest the
 pylorus; but in  proportion ns  it becomes empty, the
 notion extends farther, and is seen even in the splenic
 portion when the  stomach is  almost entirely empty.
 Ft becomes generally more strong about ihe end  of
 chymification.  Some persons  have a distinct feeling
 »f it at this moment.
  The pylorus has been made lo play a very important
 part in the passage of the  chyme from the stomach to
 the intestine.  It judges, they say, of the chymification
 of the food; it opens to those  that have the required
 qualities, and shuts against those that have not.  How-
 ever, as we daily observe substances not digestible tra-
 verse it easily, such as stones of cherries, it  is added,
 that becoming accustomed to a substance not chymi-
 fied, which presents itself repeatedly, it at last opens
 a passage.   These considerations, consecrated  in  a
 certain degree  by the word pylorus,  a  porter, may
 please the fancy, but they are purely hypothetical.
  F. All the alimentary substances are not transform-
 ed into chyme with the same promptitude.
  Generally the  fat substances, the tendons, the car-
 tilages, the concrete albumen,  the mucilaginous and
 sweet vegetables, resist more the action ofthe stomach
 than the caseous, fibrinous, and glutinous substances.
 Even some substances appear refractory: such as the
 bones, the epidermis of fruits, their stones, and whole
 seeds, &c.
  In determining the digestibility of food, the volume
 of the portions swallowed ought to be taken into ac-
 count. The  largest pieces, of whatever nature, re-
 main longest in the stomach ;  on the contrary, a sub-
 stance which is not digestible, if it is very small, such
 us grape stones, does not rest in  the stomach, but passes
 quickly with the chyme into the intestine.
  In respect of the  facility and quickness of the forma-
 tion of chyme, it is different in every different  indi-
 vidual.  It is evident, after what has been said, that to
 fix the necessary time for the chymificution of all tlie
 food contained in the stomach, we ought to take into
 account their quantity, their chemical nature, the man-
 ner in wliich  the mastication acts upon them, and the
 individual disposition.  However, in four  or five hours
after au ordinary meal, the transformation of the whole
ofthe food into chyme is generally ellected.
  The nature of tlie chemical  changes that tlie  food
 undergoes in the stomach is unknown.  It is not be-
cause there have been no attempts at different periods
to give explanations of them more or less plausible.
The ancient  philosophers said  that the food became
putnfied  in the  stomach;  Hippocrates attributed the
digestive process to coction; Galen assigned  ihe sto-
 mach attractive, retentive,  concoctive, expulsive fa-
culties, and by their help he attempted to explain di-
gestion.  The doctrine of Galen reigned in the schools
until the middle of the seventeenth century, when it
 was attacked and  overturned by the fermenting che-
mists, who established in the stomach an effervescence,
 n particular fermentation, by means of which the food
was macerated, dissolved, precipitated, Sec
  This system was not long in repute;  it was replaced
by ideas much less reasonable.  Digestion was sup-
posed to be only a trituration, a  bruising performed by
the stomach;  an innumerable quantity of little worms
was sup|Kised to attack  and divide ihe food.  Boer-
haave thought he had found the truth, by combining
the  different  opinions that  had reigned  before hiin.
Haller did not follow the ideas of his master; he con-
sidered digestion a simple maceration.   He knew that
vegetable and animal matters, plunged into water, are
soon covered with a soft homogeneous layer; he be-
lieved that the food underwent a like change, by ma-
cerating  in  the saliva  and fluids secreted  by the
stomach.
  Reaumur and  Spallanzani made experiments on
animals, and  demonstrated  the falsity of the ancient
systems;  they showed that food, contained in hollow
 metallic balls pierced with small holes, was digested the
Bnme  tis if it was  free in the cavity of the stomach.
They proved  that the stomach  contains a particular
fluid, which they call gastric juice,  and that this fluid
 was the principal  agent of digestion; but they much
exaggerated  its properties, nnd they were  mistaken
 when they thought to have explained digestion in con-
sidering it :is a solution: because,  in not explaining
 ihis solution, they did not explain the changes of food
 In the stomach.
      303
   Iu the formation of chyme, It is necessary to consi
 der, 1st, The circumstances in which the food is found
 in the stomach.  2dly, The chemical nature of ii.
   The circumstances affecting the food in the stomach,
 during its stay there, are not numerous: 1st, it suffers a
 pressure more or less strong, either from the sides of
 the abdomen, or from those of the stomach; 2dly, the
 whole is entirely moved by the motions of respiration;
 3dly, it is exposed to a temperature of thirty to thirty-
 two degrees of Reaumur; 4thly, it is exposed to the
 action ofthe saliva, ofthe mucosities proceeding from
 the  mouth  and the oesophagus, as well as the fluid
 secreted by the mucous membrane of the stomach.
   It will  be remembered that this fluid is slightly vis
 cons, that it contains much water, mucus, salts, with  ?
 base of soda and  ammonia, and lactic acid  of Bcr
 zelius.
   With  regard to  the nature of the  food, we have
 already seen how variable it is, since all  the  imme-
 diate  principles,  animal o; vegetable, may be carried
 into the stomach, in different forms and proportions,
 and serve usefully  in the formation of chyme.  Now,
 making allowance  for the nature of the food, and  the
 circumstances  in which it is placed in  the stomaen,
 shall we be able to cccount for the known phenomena
 of the formation of chyme*!  The temperature of thirty
 to thirty-two degrees, R. = 100 to 104 F.; the pressure,
 and the tossing that the food sustains, cannot be con-
"sidered as the principal cause of its transformation inlo
 chyme; it is probable that ihey only co-operate in this;
 the action of the saliva and that  of the fluid secreted in
 the stomach remain;  but alter the known composition
 of tlie saliva, it  is  hardly possible that it can  attack
 and change the nature  of the  food ;  at most, it can
 only serve to divide, to imbibe it in such a manner as
 to separate  its particles:  i  must then be tbe action c-f
 the fluid formed by the internal membrane of the sto-
 mach.  It appears certain that this fluid, in  acting die
 mieally upon  the  alimentary  substances, dissolves
 them from  the surface towards the centte.
   To produce a palpable pi oof of it, with this fluid of
 which we speak, there  have been  attempts made to
 produce  what  is called  in physiology,  artificial  di-
 gestions, that is, after having  macerated  food, it is
 mixed with gastric  juice, and then exposed in a tube,
 or any other vase, to  a temperature equal to  that or
 the stomach.  Spallanzani advanced, that these di-
 gestions succeeded, and that Ihe food was reduced to
 chyme; but. according to the researches of  de Monte-
 gre, it appears that they are not; and that, on the con-
 trary, the substances employed  undergo  no alteration
 analogous to chymification; this is agreeable to expe-
 riments made by Reaumur.  But because the gaslric
juice does not dissolve the food when put with  it  into
 a tube, we ought not to conclude that the  same fluid
cannot dissolve the food when It is introduced into the
stomach; the circumstances are indeed far from being
the same: in the stomach, the temperntui e is constant,
the food is pressed  and  agitated,  nnd the saliva  and
gastric juice are constantly renewed;  as soon as the
chyme is formed, it  is carried away nnd pressed in the
duodenum.  Nothing of this takes place in tlie lube or
vase which contains the  food  mixed with  gastric
juice; therefore, the want of success in  artificial  di-
geslions, proves nothing which  tends  to explain the
formation  of chyme.
   But how does it happen that the same fluid can act
in a manner similar  upon the great variety of aliment-
ary substances, animal and vegetable?  The  acidity
which characterizes it, though  fit to dissolve  ceriain
matters, as albumen, for example, would  not be suita
ble for dissolving fat.
  To this it may be  answered, that nothing prove* the
gastric juice to continue  always the tame;  the small
number of analyses that have been made of it demon
strate, on  the contrary, that it  presents  considerable
varieties in  its  properties.  The contact of different
sorts of food upon the mucous membrane of the slo
mach, may possibly  influence its composition ,  it is at
least certain, that this varies in  the different animals
For example, that of man  is incapable  of  acting on
bones; it is well known that tlie dog digests these sub-
stances perfectly.
  Generally  speaking, the action by which the chyme
is  formed  prevents  the  reaction of the  constituent
elements of  the food upon each other: but this effort
takes place only In  good digestions; in bad  digestion 
DIG
DIG
■"ermcmation, and even putrefaction may take place:
Ihis may be suspected by the great quantity of inodor-
ous gases that are developed in certain cases, and Ihe
sulphuretted hydrogen which is disengaged in others.
  The nerves of the eighth pair have long been consi-
dered to direct the acl of chymification:  in  fact, if
these nerves are cut, or tied in the neck, the  matters
introduced into the stomach uudei^o  no  alteration.
But  the consequence, (says Dr.  Magcndie) that is de-
duced from this fact, does not appear to me to be rigor-
ous.  Is not the effect produced  upon the stomach by
the injiiiy done to  respitotion, confounded here with
the direct influence of thp section of the nerves of tlie
eighth pair upon this organ 1  I am inclined to believe
it: for, as I have  many times dime, if" the two eighth
pairs be cut in the breast below the branches which go
to the lun::s, the food  which is introduced  afterward
into the stomach is transformed into chyme, and ulti-
mately furnishes nu abundant chyle.
  Some persons imagine that electricity may have an
•nflueuce- iu the produciion of  chyme, and that the
nerves we mention may be the conductors: there is no
established fact to justify this conjecture.  The  most
probable use ofthe nerves of the eighth pair is,  to esta-
blish intimate relations between the stoiniich aud Ihe
brain, to gi-re notice whether any noxious substances
have entered along with the (bod-, and whether they
■re capable of  being digested.
  In a strong person, the operation of the formation of
chyme takes place without his knowledge; it is merely
perceived that  the  sensation of  fulness, and thedilfi
cully of respiration produced by the distention of the
stomach, disappear by degrees;  but frequently,  wilh
people of a delicate temperament, digestion is  accom-
panied wilh feebleness in the action ofthe senses, with
a general coldness, and slight shiverins.-.; the activity
of the mind diminishes, and seems to become drowsy,
and there is a disposition  to sleep.  The vital powers
arc then said lo be concentrated in the organ lhat acts,
and to abandon for an instant the othns.  To thrjse
general effects are joined the production nf the gas that
escapes by the mouth, a leeling of weight, nf  heat, of
giddiness, and  sometimes of burning, followed by an
 analogous sensation along the oesophagus, Sec  These
 effects  are fell particularly towards the end of the
 chymification.   It does uot appear, however, that these
 laborious digestions are much less beneficial than the
 others.
   From the stomach, the fond  is received into  the
 small intestine, wliich is the longest portion of the di-
 gestive canal; il establishes a communication between
 the stomach and  the  large intestine.  Not  being sus-
ceptible of much distention, il is twisted a great many
times upon itself,  being much longer  than the place
in whicli il is  contained.  Il is  fixed to the vertebral
column by a fold ofthe peritonaeum, which limits, yet
aids  its motions;  ils  longitudinal and circular fibres
are nol separated us iu the stomach; its mucous mem-
brane, wliich presents many villi, and a great number
of mucous follicles, forois  irregular circular folds, the
number of which are greater in proportion as the intes-
tine is examined nearer Ihe pyloric orifice:  these folds
are called valnula connivrntes.
  The small intestine receives many blood-vessels; its
nerves come fiom the ganglions of the great sympa-
thetic.  Al its  internal surface, the numerous orifices
ofthe chyliferons  vessels open.
   This intestine i> divided into  three parts, called the
 duodenum, jejunum, and ileum.   The  mucous mem-
 brane of the small intestine, like that of the stomach,
secretes abundance of mucus; viscous, thready,  of a
salt taste, and reddens stronely turnsol paper; all which
 properties are  also in the liquid secreted by the sto-
 mach.  Haller gave  this  fluid Ihe name of intestinal
juice; the quantity that is formed in twenty-four hours
 lie estimated at eight pounds.
   Not far from the gastric extremity of this intestine
is  the  common orifice of the  biliary and  pancreatic
canals, by which  ihe fluid secreted  by the liver  and
the pancreas flow into the intestinal  cavity.  If the
formation ofthe chyme is still a mystery, the nature of
the phenomena lhat take place in the small  intestine
are little better known.
   In the experiments which have been made on dogs
and rabbits, the chyme is seen to pass from the stomach
into the duodenum.  The phenomena are these.   At
  ntervals,  more or less distant, a contractile motion
commences towards the middle of the duodenum; II
is propagated rapidly to the site of ihe pylorus,  ihl*
ring  contrails itself, as also  the  pyloric  part of tin
stomach ; by this motion, the mailers contained in ilk.
duodenum are pressed back towards the pylorus, where
they are stopped by ihe valve, nnd those lhat are found
in the pyloric part, are partly pressed  towards the
splenic part;  but this motion, directed from the intes
line  towards the  stomach. Is very soon replaced bj
another in a contrary direction, that is, which propa-
gates itself from the stomach  towards Ihe duodenum.
the result of which is to make n considerable quantity
of chyme puss the pylorus
  This fact  seems lo Indicate thnt Ihe  valve of the
pyiorus serves as much lo prevent the  malteis con-
tained in the small intestine from flowing back into the
stomach, ns to retain the chyme and the food in the
cavity of this organ.
  The motion that we have described, is generally re
pented many times following, and modified as to the
rapidity, the intensity of ihe contraction, &c.; it then
ceases to begin ngain after some lime.  It is not very
marked in the first moments of the formation of the
chyme; the extremity only of the pyloric part partici-
pates in II.   It augments in pro|x>rlion as die stomach
becomes empty; and, towards ihe end of chymifica-
tion, it often takes place over the whole stomach.   It
is not suspended by the section of tlie nerves of the
eighth pair.
  Thus the entrance of chyme into the small intestine
is nol perpetual. According as it is repeated, the chyme
accumulates iu the first portion ol'Cie intestine, it dis-
tends its sides a little, and presses into the intervals of
the valves; its presence  very soon excites the orvtan
to contract, and by this means one part advances into
the intestine; the other  remains attached  to the sur-
face of its membrane, and afterward lakes the- same
direction.   The same phenomenon continues down lo
the large intestine; but, nsthe duodenum receives new
portions ofthe chyme, it happens at last that the small
intestine is filled in its whole length with  this matter.
It is observed only to be much less abundant near the
cacum than at the pyloric extremity.
  The motion  that determines the  projress of  the
chyme through the small intestine, has a great analogy
with that of the pylorus:  it is irresulnr, returns at pe-
riods which are variable, is sometimes in one direc-
tion, sometimes in another, takes place sometimes in
many parts at once;  it is always slow, more or less;
it  causes  relative changes among the intestinal cir-
cumvolutions.  It is beyond the influence ofthe will.
  \Ve should form a false idea of il were we merely
lo examine the intestine of an  animal recently dead ;
it has then  a much greater activity jluin during life.
Nevertheless, in weak digestions it a'vears io acquire
more than ordinary energy and  vi-tm-ry
  In whatever manner this moiion ta!."s place, the
chyme appears to move very slowly in the small intes-
tine: the numerous valves that il contains, the multi-
tude of as|icrities  that  cover the  mucous  membrane
the many bendines of the canal, are so many circum-
stances that ought  to contribute to retard its progress,
but which ought to favour its mixture with the fluids
contained in the  intestine, nnd the production of the
chyle which results from it.
  Cltangcs that the chyme undergoes in the small in
lesline.—Il is only aliout  the height of file orifice of
the choledochus and pancreatic canal that the chyme
begins to change  ils  properties.   Beflire  this, It pre-
serves its colour, its semi-fluid consistence, its sharp
odour, its slightly acid savour;  but, in mixing wii>> the
bile and the pancreatic juice, il assumes newqual ties:
lis colour becomes yellowish, its taste bitter, and  its
sharpodiMir diminishes much.   If it proceeds from ani-
mal or vegetable  mutters, whicli  contained grease  or
oil, irregular filaments are seen to  form here and theie
upon its surface; they  are sometimes  f i,  nt other
times rounded, attach themselves quickly to the surface
of the valve, and  appear to consist of crude chyle
This matter is not seen when the chyme proceeds from
 matter that  contained no fat:  it is a grayish layer,
 more or less thick, which adheres lo the mucous mem-
 brane, and appears to contain the elements of chyle.
 The same phenomena are observed in the- two superior
 thirds of the small intestine: but in the inferior third
 the chymous matter is more consistent;  its yellow co-
1 lour becomes more deep; it ends someetimes by beeom-
                                         Mi 
DIG
DIG
 Ing cf n greenish  brown, which pierces through the
 intestinal parietes, and gives an  appearance to the
 ileum, distinct from that of the duodenum and jejunum.
 When it is examined near the cacum, there are few or
 no whitish chylous striae seen; it seems, in this place,
 to  be  only the remainder of the matter which has
 served in the formation of the chyle.
  After what has been said above, upon the varieties
 that the chyme present', we may understand that the
 changes it undergoes in the small intestine are variable
 occording to its properties;  in fact, the phenomena of
 digestion in the small intestine, vary according to the
 nature of the  food.  The chyme, however, preserves
 its acid property; and  if it  contains  small quantities
 of food or other bodies that have resisted the action of
 the stomach, they traverse the small intestine without
 undergoing any alteration.  The same phenomena ap-
 pear when the same substances have  been used.  Dr.
 Magendie has ascertained this fact upon the bodies of
 two criminals, who, two hours before death, had taken
 an  ordinary meal, in whicli they had  eaten the same
 food nearly in equal quantity ; the  matters contained
 in  the stomach, the chyme  in  the  pyloric portion
 and in the small intestine, appeared to him exactly
 the same as to consistence, colour, taste, odour, &c.
  There is generally gas found in  the small intestine
 during the formation of chyle.   Drs. Magendie and
 Chevreuil have made experiments upon the bodies of
 criminals opened shortly after death, and  who, being
 young and vigorous, presented the most favourable con-
 ditions for such researches.  In a subject of twenty-
 four years, who had eaten, two hours before his death,
 bread, and some Swiss cheese, and drank water red-
 dened with wine, they found in the small intestine:
        Oxygen......................  0.00
        Carbonic acid................24.39
        Pure hydrogen................55.53
        Azote.......................20.08

          Total.....................100.00

  In a  second  subject, aged  twenty-three year's, who
had  eaten of the same food at the same hour, and
 whose  punishment took place at the same time:
        Oxygen......................  0.00
        Carbonic acid................ 4O.C0
        Pure hydrogen...............51.15
        Azote.......................  6.85

          Total......................100.00

  In a third experiment, made upon a young man of
twenty-eight years, who, four hours before death had
eaten bread, beef, lentilcs, and drank red wine, they
found in the sanfe intestine:
        Oxygen...................... 0.00
        Carbonic acid............•••• 25.00
        Pure hydrogen............... 8 40
        Azote.......................60.60

          Total......................100.00

  They never observed any otlier gases in the small in-
testine.   These gases  might  have different origins.
They might possibly come from the  stomach w ith the
chyme; or  they were, perhaps, secreted by the intes-
tinal mucous membrane; they might  arise from the
reciprocal action of the  matters contained in the intes-
tine ; or perhaps they might come from all these sources
at once.
  However, the stomach contains oxygen,  and very
little hydrogen, while they have almost always found
much hydrogen in the small intestine,  and  never  any
oxygen.  Besides, it is  a daily observation, that the
little gas that the stomach contoins is generally passed
by the mouth towards the end of chymification, pro-
bably, because at  this instant it can more easily ad-
vance into the oesophagus.
  The  probability of the formation of gases by the
secretion of the mucous membrane could not be at all
admissible, except for carbonic acid, which seems to
be formed in Ihis manner in respiration. With regard
to the action of matters contained in the intestine, Dr.
Magendie says he has  many times seen the chymous
mailer  let bubbles of gas escape very rapidly.  This
took place from the orifice of the ductus choledochus
to the commencement of the  ileum • there wasno trace
      1104
 of it perceived in this last intestine, nor in the superior
 part of the duodenum, nor  the  stomach.   He made
 ihis observation again upon the body of a criminal
 four hours after death; it presented no traces of putre-
 faction.
   The alteration which chyme undergoes in the sina'l
 intestine is unknown; it is easily seen to be the result
 of the action  of the bile, of  the  pancreatic juice, and
 of the fluid Becreted by the  mucous membrane, upon
 the chyme.  But what is the play of the affinities in
 this real chemical operation, and why is the chyle pre-
 cipitated against the surface of the valvula connivm
 les, while  the rest remains in the intestine to be after-
 ward expelled 1  This is completely unknown.
   We have learned something more of the lime that
 is  necessary for this alteration  of the chyme.  The
 phenomenon does not take place quickly: in animals,
 it often happens that we do not find any chyle formed
 three or four hours  after the  meal.
   After what has been said, we see that in the small
 intestine, the chyme is divided into two parts: the one
 which attaches  itself to the sides, and which is the
 chyle still impure;  the other the true refuse, which is
 destined to be thrown into the large intestine, and af-
 terward entirely carried out  of the body.
   The manner in which drinks accumulate in the sto
 mnch differs little from that ofthe aliments; it is gene-
 rally quicker,  more  equal, and more easy; probably
 because the liquids spread, and  distend the stomach
 more uniformly. In the same  manner as the food,
 they occupy more particularly its left and middle por-
 tion ; the pyloric, or right extremity, contains always
 much less.
   The distention of the stomach must not, however, be
 carried to a great degree, for the liquid would be ex-
 pelled by vomiting.   This frequently happens to per-
 sons that swallow a great quantity of drink quickly.
 When we wish to excite vomiting in  persons who
 have taken an  emetic, one of the  best means is to
 make tfiem drink a number of glasses of liquid quickly.
   The presence of drinks in the stomach produces
 local phenomena like those which take place from ihe
 accumulation of the  aliments; the same changes in the
 form and position of the organ, the same distention of
 the abdomen, the same contraction of the pylorus and
 the oesophagus, &c.
   The general phenomena  are different from those
 produced by the aliments: this depends on the-action
 of the liquids upon the sides of the stomach,  and
 the quickness with  which they  are carried into the
 blood.
  Potations, in passing rapidly through the mouth and
 the oesophagus, preserve more than the food llieir pro-
 per temperature until they arrive  in the stomach.  We
 therefore prefer them to those, when we wish to expe-
 rience in this organ a feeling of heat or of cold: hence
 arises the  preference that we give to  hoi drinks in
 winter, and cold drinks in summer.
  Every one knows that the drinks remain a much
 shorter time in the stomach than the aliments;  but the
 manner of  their passage out of this viscus is still very
 little known.   It is  generally supposed  that they tra-
 verse the pylorus and pass  into tlie small intestine,
 where they are absorbed with the chyle; nevertheless
a ligature applied round the pylorus in such a manner
as to hinder it from penetrating  into Ihe duodenum,
does not much retard its disappearance from the cavity
of the stomach.
  Alteration  of drinks  in  the  stomach.—Fluids, in
respect of the alterations that they prove in the sto-
mach, may be divided into two classes: the one sort
do not form any  chyme, and  Ihe  other are chymified
wholly or in part.
  To the first class belong pure water, alkohol, suffi-
ciently weak to be considered as a drink, the vegetable
acids, &c.   During  its  stay in  the stomach, water
assumes an  equilibrium ol* temperature w ith the sides
ot this viscus: it mixes at the same time with mucus,
the gastric juice,  and the saliva which are found in it;
it becomes  muddy, and afterward disappears- slowly
without suffering any other transformation.   One part
passes into tlie small intestine; the other ap|iears to be
directly absorbed. There remains after its disappear-
ance e certain quantity of mucus, which is very soon
reduced to chyme like the aliments.  By observation
we know that water deprived of atmospheric air, as
distilled water, or water charged with a great quantity 
DIG                                             DIG
 of salts, as well-water, remain long iu the stomach
 and produca a feeling of weight.
   Alkohol acts quite in a different manner. We know
 the impression of burning heat that itcauses at first in
 its passage through the  mouth, the pharynx, the oeso-
 phagus ; and that  which it excites when it enters the
 stomach: the elfects of  this action determine the con-
 traction of this organ, irritate the mucous membrane,
 and augment  the secretion of wliich it is the seat; it
 coagulates at the same time  all the albuminous parts
 with which it is in contact; and as the different liquids
 in the stomach contain a considerable proportion of
 this matter, it  happens that a short time after alkohol
 hue been swallowed, there is in  this viscus a certain
 quantity of concrete albumen.  The mucus undergoes
 a modification analogous to  that of the albumen; it
 becomes hard, forms irregular elastic filaments,  which
 preserve a certain transparency.
  In producing these phenomena, the alkohol  mixes
 with the water that the saliva and the gastric juice
contain ; probably it dissolves a part  of  tlie elements
 that enter into their composition, so that it ought to bo
much weakened by its stay  iu ihe stomach.   It dis-
appears  very quickly; its general effects are also very
rapid, and drunkenness or death follow almost imme-
 diately the iutroduc'ionof too great a quantity of alko-
 hol into  the stomach.
  The matters coagulated by the action of the alkohol
 are, alter  its  disappearance, digested like solid ali-
 ments.
  Among the drinks that are reduced  to chyme, some
 are reduced in part and some wholly.
  Oil  is in this lost case; it is  transformed, in the
 pyloric part, into a matter analogous in appearance
 with that which is drawn from the purification of oils
 by sulphuric acid ;  this matter is evidently the chyme
 of* oil.   On account of this transformation, oil is per-
 haps the liquid lhat remains longest in the stomach.
  Every one  knows  that milk curdles soon after it is
 swallowed; this curd then becomes a M>iut aliment,
 which is digested in the ordinary manner. Wbey only
 can be considered as drink
   The greatest number of drinks that  we  use   are
 formed of water, or of alkohol, in  wliich are in sus-
 pension or dissolution, immediate animal or vegetable
 principles, such as gelatine, albumen, osmazome, sugar,
 gum, fecula,  colouring   or  astringent  matters, Sec.
 These  drinks  contain salts of lime, of soda,  of  po-
 tassa, &c.
   The result of several  experiments  that have been
 made upon animals, aud some observation- that have
 been made on  man, is, that there is a separation ofthe
 water and  the alkohol in the stomach from the mat-
 ters that these liquids hold in suspension or solution.
 These- matters remain in the stomach, where they are
 transformed into chyme, like the aliments; while the
 liquids with which they w ere united are  absorbed, or
 pass into the small intestine; lastly, they are conduct-
 ed, as we have just now seen, iu treating of water and
 alkohol.
  Salts that are in solution in water do  nut abandon
 this liquid, and are absorbed  with it.  Red wine, for
 example, becomes muddy at first by its mixture with
 juices that are  formed in, or carried into the stomach;
 it very soon coagulates  the albumen of these fluids, |
 and liecomes flaky; afterward, its colouring matter,
 carried perhaps by tlie mucus and the albumen, is de-
 posited upon the mucous membrane:  there is a cer-
 tain quantity of it seen  at least in  the pyloric por-
 tion ; the watery and alkoholic parts disappear v/itli
 rapidity.
  The broth  of meat undergoes the same  changes.
 The water that it contains is absorbed;  tlie gelatine,
 the albumen,  tlie  fat, and probably the osmazome,
 remain in the  stomach, where  they are  reduced into
 chyme.
  Action of the small intestine upon drinks.—After
 what has been read, it is clear lhat fluids penetrate,
 under two forms, into the small intestine: 1st,  under
 that of liquid ; 2dly, under that of chyme.
  The  liquids that pass from the stomach into the  in-
testine remain but a short time, except under particular
circumstances; they  do  not  appear to undergo any
other alteration than  their mixture with the intestinal
juice, tlie chyme, the pancreatic liquid, and  the bile;
they do not form any sort of chyle; they are gene-rally
 absorbed in the duodenum, and the commencement of
                                          U
 the jejunum; they are rarely  seen in the ilium, and
 still more rarely in the large intestine.  Il appears ilia'
 tliis last  cose  does not happen  except  in  the suite
 of sickness; for example, during the action  of a pur-
 gative.
   The chyme that proceeds  from drinks follows the
 same rule, and appears to undergo the same changes as
 that of  the food ; it therefore produces chyle.
   Such are the principal phenomena of the digestion
 of drinks: we see how necessary it was to distinguish
 them from tliose  that belong io  the  digestion of lie
 aliments.
   But we do not always digest  the aliments and  the
 drinks  separately, as  we have supposed;  very fre-
 quently the two  digestions  take  place at the same
 time.
   Drink favours  the digestion  of the aliments ; this
 effect is probably produced in various manners. Those
 that are watery, soften, divide,  dissolve even certain
 foods; they aid in this manner their chymification and
 their passage through the pylorus.
   Wine fulfils  analogous uses, but only  for the sub-
 stances  that it is cupable of dissolving; besides, it ex-
 cites by  its contact the  mucous  membrane of tho sto-
 mach, and causes a  greater secretion of the gastric
juice. Alkohol acts much in  the same  manner  as
 wine, only  it is  more intense.  It is thus that tliose
 liquors which aie used after meals, are useful in ex
citing tlie action of the stomach."—Magendie''» Phy
 siolooi/.
  DIGESTIVE.  Digestwus;  from  digero, to dis
 solve.)  A  term applied by surgeons to those sub-
 stances  wliich, when applied to au ulcer or wound,
 promote suppuration: such are tlie ceratum resina,
 unguentum elemi, warm poultices,  fomentations, Sec
  J)igcstive salt.   The muriate of  potassa.
  Digestive salt  of Sylvius.   The muriate of po
 tassa.
   Digesti'vum sal. ' See Potassa murias.
   DIGITA'LIS.  (From digitus, a finger; because its
 flower represents a finger.)
   1. The name of a genus of plants  in the  Linnaean
 system.   Class, Didynamia;  Order,  Angiospennia.
 Fox-glove.
   2. The  pharmacopceial name of the common fox
 glove.  See Digitalis purpurea.
   Digitalis purpurea.  The systematic name of the
 fox-glove.  Digitalis—calycinis foliolis  o vat is acu-
 tis, corollis obtusis, lubio superiore integro, of Liu-
 na-us.  'The leaves of this plant have a bitter nauseous
 taste, but no remarkable smell; they  have been long
 used externally to  ulcers and  scrofulous  tumours
 with considerable advantage.  When  properly dried,
their colour is a lively green.   They ought to be col-
lected when the plant  begins to blossom, to  be  dried
quickly  before the fire, and preserved unpowdered.
  Of all the narcotics, digitalis  is  that which dimi
nishes most powerfully the actions of the system; and
it does so without occasioning  any previous excite
ment.  Even in the most moderate dose, it diminishes
the force and frequency of the pulse, and, in a large
dose, reduces it to  a great extent,  as from 70 beats to
40 or 35 in a minute, occasioning, at  the  same  lime,
vertigo,  indistinct vision, violent and durable sickness.
with vomiting.  In a  still larger quantity, it induces
convulsions, coldness ofthe body, and insensibility;
symptoms which have  sometimes terminated fatally.
As a narcotic, fox-glove has been recommended in epi-
lepsy, insanity, and in some acute  infiammatoiy dis-
eases.  Lately it has been  very  extensively employed
in phthisis, and the beneficial  effects which it pro-
duces in that disease, are  probably owing to its nar-
cotic power, by  which it reduces the force of the cir-
culation through the lungs and general system.  It  is
administered so as to produce this effect.  One grain
of the powdered leaves, or ten drops of Ihe saturated
tincture, may be given night and morning. This dose
is increased one-half every second day, till ils action
on the system becomes apparent. As soon as the pulse
begins to be diminished, the increase of dose  must be
made with more  caution: and, whenever nausea  is
induced, it ought rather to be reduced, or, if necessary,
 intermitted for a short time.   If the sickness become
urgent, it is best relieved by stimulants,  particularly
large doses of brandy, with aromatics. The tincture
has been supposed to be the best form of administering
 digitalis, when the remedy is designed to act as a nar
                                        303 
DIS
DIO
re  less leaf, like two tongues.)
        is also more manageable in itsdose, and more  less Ie»'                  ■>  l- The Laurus a/c^a,,
uniform in its strength, thani thedried leaves.          dnna.            mentioa 0f a man born with twe
  Besides its  narcotic effects, digitalis acts as one of i   a.  uatcn manes mu"«
the most certain diuretics in dropsy, apparently from i tongues.
its power of promoting absorption.  It has frequently
(From dignosco, to distinguish.)  See
succeeded where the other diuretics have failed.  Dr
Withering has an undoubted claim to this discovery ;
and the numerous cases of dropsy related by him, and
other practitioners of established reputation, afford in-
contestable evidence of its diuretic powers, and of its
practical  importance  in the cure of those disorders.
From  Dr. Wilhering's extensive experience of the use
of the digitalis in dropsies, he has been able to judgeof
its success by the following circumstances;—"It sel-
dom succeeds in men of great natural strength, of
tense fibre, of warm skin, of florid complexion, or in
those with a light and cordy pulse.  If the belly in as-
cites be tense, hard, and circumscribed, or the limb3 in
anasarca solid and resisting, we have but little hope.
On the contrary, if the pulse be feeble, or intermitting,
the countenance pale, the lips livid, the skin cold, the
swollen belly soft and fluctuating, the  anasarcous
limbs  readily pitting under the pressure of the finger,
we may expect the diuretic effects to follow in a kindly
manner."  Of the inferences which he deduces, the
fourth is, " that  if it .digitalis) fails, there is but little
chance of any other medicine succeeding."   Although
the digitalis  is  now generally admitted to  be a very
powerful diuretic, yet it is but justice to acknowledge
that this medicine has more frequently failed than
could have been reasonably expected, from a compari-
son of the facts stated by Dr. Withering. The dose of
the dried leaves  in powder is from one to three grains,
twice a day.  But if a liquid medicine be preferred, a
drachm of the dried  leaves is  to be infused for four
hours, in half a pint of boiling water, adding lo the
strained liquor an ounce of any spirituous water.  One
ounce of this infusion, given twice a day, is a medium
dose.   It is to be continued in these doses till it either
acts upon the kidneys, the stomach, the pulse (which,
as has been  said, it has a remarkable power of lower-
ing,)  or the bowels.
  The administration of this  remedy requires to be
conducted with  much caution.  Its effects do not im-
mediately appear; and when the doses are too fre-
quent, or too quickly augmented, its action is concen-
trated so as to  produce frequently  the most violent
symptoms.  The general  rules are, to begin with a
small  dose, to increase it gradually, till the action is
apparent on the kidneys, stomach, intestines, or vas-
cular system; and immediately suspending  ils exhibi-
tion,  when its  effects on any of these  parts  take
place.
   The symptoms arising from too large a dose of  digi-
talis  are, extreme sickness, vertigo, indistinct  vision,
incessant vomiting, and a great reduction of the force
of the circulation, terminating sometimes in syncope,
or convulsions.  They are relieved by frequent and
small doses of opium, brandy, aromatics, and  strong
bitters, and by a blister applied to the region of the
 stomach.                   „         .  ,  ..
   DIGITATUS. Digitate or fingered.  A leal  is call-
 ed folium  digitatum, when  several leaflets proceed
 •>oni the summit of a common footstalk, as in Poten-
 tillaverna; and rcptant.          ....
   DIGITIFORMIS.  Finger-like.  Applied to the rc-
  eptacle of  the Arum maculatum,  and Callaathio-
 vica.                 ,.  .      „     .
   Dioi'TidM.  (From digitus, a finger.)
   1.  A contraction ofthe finger-joini.
   2  A whitlow, or other sore upon the finger.
   DIGITUS.    (From digero, to direct.)  A finger.
  Digitus manus, is the finger, properly so called; and
  digitus pedis, the toe.
   Wires mam's.  A finger.  The fingers and thumb
  in each hand consist of fourteen bones, there being
  three to each finger, and two to the thumb; they are a
  httle convex and round towards the back ofthe hand,
  but  hollow and plain towards  the palm,  except the
  last, where the  nails are. The order of their disposi-
  tion  is called first,  second, and third phalanx.  1 he
  fire*  is longer than the second, and the second longer
  than the third.   What has been said of the fingers, ap-
  plies lo the toes also.             .
   Digitus i-edis.   Aloe.  See■Digitus Martus.
    DIGLO SSUM.   (From its, double, and yXumra, a
  Ungue: so called because above its leaf Iheie grows a
       300
  DlGNO TIO.
Diagnosis.
  DiGY'NIA.  (From in, twice, and  yvvn, a  wo-
man )   The name of an order of several classes of flue
sexual system of plants, embracing those plants which
to the character of the class, whatever t  <ixy be, add
the circumstance of having two styles.
  Dihje'maton.   (From ita and aipa.  Wood.)   An
antidote in which  is the blood of many animals.
  Diha'lon.  (From ita  and  aAc, sain  A  piaster
prepared with salt and nitre, adapted to foul ulcers.
  DiTpetes.  (From Ztei, itos heaven, and  ans'Jio,
to full:  i.e.  falling as rain.)   An epithet applied by
Hippocrates to  semen, when it  is discharged  like a
shower of rain.
  DILATA'TIO.  (From dilato, to enlarge.)
  1. Dilatation, or enlargement.
  2. The diastole ofthe heart.
  DILA'TOR.  (From dilato, toenjarge.)  The name
of some muscles, the office  of which is to open and
enlarge parts.
  Dilator  al.c  nasi.  See Levator labn superioris.
  DILATO'RIUM.   (From  dilato,  to  enlarge.)   A
surgical instrument for enlarging any part.
  DILL.  See Anethum.
  DILUEN T.  (Diluens ; from diluo, to wash away.)
Those substances which  increase the  proportion of
fluid in the blood.  It"s evident that this must be done
by  watery liquors.  Water is, indeed, properly speak-
ing, the only diluent.  Various additions arc made  to
it, to render it pleasant, and frequently to give  it a
slightly demulcent quality.  But these are not suffi-
ciently  important to require to be noticed, or to  be
classed as medicines.
  Diluents are merely secondary remedies.  They arc
given in acute inflammatory diseases, lo lessen the sti-
mulant quality of the blood.  They are used to pro-
mote the action of diuretics in dropsy, and to lavoui
Ihe operation of sweating.
   Di'kica.  (From onof, giddiness.)  Medicines which
relieve a giddiness.
  Di'nos.  See Dinus.
   DI'NUS.   (From itvtu,  to torn  round.)   Dmos.
Dizziness.  The  name of a genus of disease in Good's
Nosology.  Class, Neurotica; Order,  Systptica.  Il
has only one species.  Dinus vertigo.  Vertigo, oi
giddiness.
   Dio'cres. The name of a lozenge.
   Di'odos.   (From  ita, and oios, tlie way through.j
Evacuation by stool.
   DICE CIA. (From its, double, and oi«m, a house.)
The name of a class of plants in the sexual system of
Linnaeus, containing such as have barren, or male,
 flowers on one individual, and fertile, or female, ones
on another ofthe same species.
   Dicena'nthes.   (From e5iu, and oivavdrj, the flower
ofthe vine.)  A  remedy  said lobe  goo J for cholera,
 in  whicli was the flower of tlie vine-tree.
   DIO GMUS.   (From ituxu, to persecute.)  A dis-
tressing palpitation of the heart.
   DlOTCL'd.  (From its, double, and oim<:, a house.)
 Dioecious.  Plants and flowers are so called when  ihe
 barren and  fertile flowers grow from two  separate
 roots.
   DIONIS, Peter, was born  about the middle of flu
 17th century, and educated to Ihe practice of surgery-
 He was appointed to read the lectures iu anatomy, Sec
 in the royal gardens at Paris,  instituted by  Lewii
 XIV., and after  this, surgeon to the queen, and othei
 branches of the  royal family, which offices  he held
 with great credit, till his death, in 1718.   His first pub-
 lication gave an account of a woman who died iu  ths
 sixth month of pregnancy, of what he considered to be
 a ruptured uterus; but as he states that I here were two
 uteri, it is suspected that the ruptured part was one ol*
 the Fallopian tubes much enlarged.   He afterward
 gave a useful epitome of anatomy, wliich was very fa-
 vourably received,  passed  through several  editions,
  and was even translated into the Tartar language, by
  order  of the emperor of China.   His  next work, a
  course of surieic.nl operations, obtained still more cele-
  brity, which il even now in some- degree retains, espe
  dally as commented upon by Hoisler.   Besides tiiesa 
DIO
DIS
 a dissertation on sudden death, and a treatise on mid-
 wifery, were published by this author.
   DloNYsi'scrs.  (From Atowcts, Bacchus, who was
 of ohl  represented as having horns.)  Certain  bony
 excrescences, near the temples, were called dionysisci.
   Dionysonv mphas.  <From Aiowoos, Bacchus, and
 vvjtiba, a nymph.)   An herb which, if bruised,smells
 of wine, and yet resists drunkenness.
   Dtoeo'RUM. (Fromita, and oizupa,autumnal fruits.)
 A medicine composed of ripe fruits for quinsy.
  DIOPSIDE.  A  subspecies of oblique-edged augite,
 found near Piedmont.
  DIOPTASE.  Emerald, copper ore.
  Dio'i-tra.  (From StonTopat, to see through.) Di-
 tptron.   1. Speculum ani, oris, or uteri.
  2. The lapis spixularis.
  DIOPTRICS.   (Dioptricus;  from o<»ir7»n.ai,  to
 see through.)  The doctrine of the refraction of light.
  Dioptri'smus.   (From ittf'Jopat, to see through.)
 Dilatation of any natural passage.
  Dio'robu.m.  (From iia, and opoSas, a vetch.)  A
 medicine,  in tho  composition oi" which  there are
 vetches,
  Diorrho'sis.  (From Ma, and oppoj,  tlie serum.)
 Diorosis.   1. A dissolved state ofthe blood.
  2. A conversion  of tlie  humours  into scrum  and
 water.
  Diorthro'sis.   (From itopOpou, to direct.)   The
 reduction of a fracture.
  DIOSCO'REA.  (Named in honour of Dioscorides.)
 The name of a genus of plants in the Linnaean system.
 Class, Diaxia; Order, Hexandria.
  Dioscorea alata.  The name of the  plant which
 affords the esculent root, called the yam.  It is obtain-
 ed, however, from  three  species;  the alata, bulbifcra,
 and sati'co. They grow spontaneously in both Indies,
 and their roots are  promiscuously eaten, as the potato
 is with us.  There is great variety in the colour, size,
 and shape of yams; soine are generally blue or brown,
 round or oblong, and weigh from one pound to two.
 They are esteemed, when dressed, as being nutritious
 and easy of digestion, and are preferred lo wheaten
 bread.  Their taste is somewhat like the potato, but
 more luscious.  The negroes, whose common food is
 yams, boil and mash them.   They are also ground
 and made  into bread and puddings.
   When they are  to  be kept for some time, they are
 exposed upon the ground to the sun, as we do onions,
 and when  sufficiently withered, they are  put into dry
 sand in casks, and placed in a dry garret, where they
 remain often for many seasons without losing any of
 their primitive goodness.
  Dioscorea bulbifera.  See Dioscorea alata.
  DiosroREA sativa.  See Dioscorea alata.
  DIOSCORI'DES, Pedacius, or Pedamus, a cele-
 brated Greek physician and botanist of Anazarba, in
 Cilicia, now Caramania, who is supposed to have lived
 in the time of Nero. He is said to  have  been origin-
 ally a soldier, but soon became eminent as a physician,
 and travelled much to improve his knowledge.  He
 paid particular attention to the materia medica, and
 especially  to botany, as  subservient to medicine
 He profited much  by the  writings of Theophrastns,
 who appears to have  been a more philosophical bo-
 tanist.  Dioscorides has left a treatise on  the materia
 medica, in five books, chiefly considering  plants;  also
 two brioks on the composition  and  application of
 medicines,  an essay on antidotes, and another  on ve-
 nomous animals. His works have  been often printed in
 modern limes, and commented  upon, especially by
 Matthiolus.  He notices about 600 plants, but his de-
 scriptions are often so slight and superficial, as to leave
 their identity a matter of conjecture; which is perhaps
 of no very great  medical importance;  though their
 virtues being generally handed down from the Greeks,
 it might be useful to ascertain which particular plants
 they meant
  Dwscu'ri.  (i. e. Atos, Kovpot,  the sons of Jupiter,
or Castor and Pollux.)  The  parotid glands wore so
named from their twin-like equality in shape and po-
sition.
  [" DtosrYROs.   Persimmon.   The  persimmon-tree
is very common in  the middle and western states, and
grows also in the southern  iierts of our country.  The
bark is bitter, and  has been added to our  numerous
Tist of native  tonics.  It  is recommended in intermit-
 ents and ulcerated  sore throats, and may De exhibited
 In the same manner as cinchona."—BigeloK's  Mat
 Med.  A.]
  Diospv ros lotus.  The Indian date plum.  The
 fruit, when ripe,  has  an agreeable taste, and  Is very
 nutritious.
  Dioxel-e'um.  (From ita, ot-vj, acid, and  tXatcv,
 oil.)  A medicine composed of oil and vinegar
  Dio'xos.  (From eta, and o^uy, acid.)  A collyri.u;.
 composed chiefly of vinegar.
  DIPHYLLl'S.   (From its, double, and QuXXov, ■
 leaf.)  Diphyllous, or two-leaved.   Applied to the
 pcrianthium of flowers, when there are two calyces;
 as in Papaver rhaas.
  Diplasia'smi s.   (From  darXou, to double.)  The
 re-exacerbation of a disease.
  DI'PLOE. (From iiirXou, to double.)  The spongy
 substance between the two tables ofthe skull.
  DIPLO'PIA.  (From oWAooc, double, nnd onrop,.:,
 to see.)  Visus duplicatus.   A disease of the eye, in
 which the person sees nn object double or triple.  Dr.
 Cullen makes it  a variety of tire second  species of
 pseudoblepsis, which  he calls mutatis, in  which ob-
 jects appear changed from what they really arc; ...il
 the disease varies according to the variety of the ie-
 mote causes.
  Di'i-noos.  (From its, twice, nnd itvcu, to breath-.)
 A wound  which is perforated quite through, and ;-'t
 mils the air at both ends.
  Hippie's animal oil.   See Animal oil.
  DI'Ps*.\CCS.  (From i\\f/a, thirst; so called from
 Ihe concave situation of its  leaves, wliich hold water,
 by wliich  the thirst of the traveller may be  relieved.)
 Dipsacum.
  I. The name of a genus of plants in the Linnaean
 system.  Class, Syngcncsia; Order, Polygamia.  The
 teasel.
  2. A diabetes,  from the  continual thirst  attend-
 ing it.
  DIPSOSIS.  (From Stdia, thirst.)  The  name of »
 eenus of diseases in Good's Nosology, known by the
 de-sire for drinking being excessive or impaired.   It
 has two species, Dipsosis avens, and Dipsesis exptrs.
  DIPVRE.  Schmolstoin.   A mineral found in white
 or reddish steatite in the Western Pyrenees, composed
 of silica, alumina, and lime.
  Dipvre'num.   (From its, twice, and ttvprjv, a bcr
 ry.)  1. A berry,  or kernel.
  2. A probe wilh two Imttons.
  Dipyri'tes.  (From its, twice, and mip, fire.)   Di-
 pyros.   An epithet given  by Hippocrates to bread
 twice baked, and  which lie recommended in dropsies
  DIRECTOR.  (From dingo, to direct.)
  1. A lrollow instrument lor  guiding  an Incisor
 knife.
  2. The name of a muscle.
  Director  pcnis.   (From  dirigo, to direct.)  The
 same as erector penis.
  Diri'noa.  A name, in  the isle of Java,  for the
 Calamus arematicus.  S<ee Acorus calamus.
  Disce'ssus.  (From discedo, to depart.)  The sepa-
 ration of any two bodies, before united, by chemical
 op ration.
  DISCIFO'RMIS.  (From discus, a quoit, and forma,
 likeness.)  Resembling a disk, or quoit, in  shape.   It
 is applied lo the knee-pan.
  DISCOI DES.  (From iiaxos,  a quoit,  and  ctios,
 resemblance.)  Resembling a disk, or quoit, in shape
 It is applied to the crystalline humour ofthe eye
  Discri'men.  1. A small roller.
  2. The diaphragm.
  DISCUS.   (From cWoc, a quoit and disk, and from
its flat and round  appeaiance like the circumference
 of the sun.)  The disk, or central part of a leaf, and
 of a compound flower.   In the common  daisy, the
 white leaflets of the flower 6iirround the disk.
  The disk of a leaf is the whole flat surface within
 the margin.
  DISCU'TIENT.  (Disculiens; from discuho, to
 shake  in  pieces.)  Discusorius; Diachyticus.  A
 term in surgery, applleB to those substances which
 possess a power of repelling or resolving tumours.
  DISEASE.  Morbus. Any alteration from a per-
 fect state of health.  A disease  is variously termed:
 when it pervades the whole system, as fever does, it is
 called a general disease, to distinguish it from  inflam-
 mation of the eye, or any other viscus, which is n
 partial, or local one.  When it  does not depend on 
DIS
DXtJ
another disease, it is termed idiopathic, which may be I
either "f-neral or partia'  to distinguish it from a symp- j
fn   -co-Ae, whicli depends upon another disease.  See1
•ilso Endemic, Epidemic, Sporadic, Sec.
  l*Di--integration.   This is a geological term, and
means  the crumbling  down  of  rock  by their de-
composition, and the consequent formation of alluvial
soil.  A.]
  DISK.   See Discus.
  DISLOCATION.   (Dislocatio;  from disleco,  to
put out of place.)   Luxation.  The secession  of a
bone of a  moveable articulation from its natural ca-

vity-                                ,     i     i
  DISPE'NSARY.   (Dis-pcnsarium; from dtspendo,
to distribute.)  I. The shop or place in which medi-
cines are prepared.
  •2.  The name of an institution,  in whicli the  poor
ate supplied with medicines and advice.
  DISPENSATORY.  (Dispensatorium; from dis-
■pcndo, to distribute.)' Antidotarium. A book Which
lieats ofthe composition of medicines.
   DISSECTION   (Dissectio;  from disscco, to cut
 jsunder.)  The cutting to pieces  of any part of an
 animal, or vegetable, for the purpose of examining its
 s,li.:cture.  See Anatomy.
   DTiSECTUS.  Cut.   A term used by botanists  sy-
 nonymously  with incised and  lar.iniatcd,  to leaves
 which  are cut, as  it were,  into numerous  Irregular
 portions.   See Leaf.                  .
   DISSEPIMENTUM.  (From dissepio, to separate.)
  A partition.   Applied by botanists to partitions whicli
 L-eMiar'Ut the cells of a capsule. See Capsula.
   Dr^Ei-ru.M.   (From dissepio, to enclose round.)
 Tlie diaphragm, or membrane, which divides the  ca-
  viiy of ihe thorax from the abdomen.
   Dissolventia.   (From dissolvo, to loosen.)
   1. Medicines which loosen and dissolve morbid con-
  cretions in the body.
   ■2. In chemistry, it means menstrua.
   Dissolu'tus.  (From dissolvo, to loosen.) Loose,
  t.irrbas dissolutus.  An epithet applied to dysentery.
   1USTANS.  Distant.  Applied to petals iroin their
  direction; as in Cucubalus baccifcrus.
   Diste'ntio.  (From distendo, to stretch out.)  1.
  Distention, or dilatation.
   2. A convulsion.
   D1STHENE. See Cyanile.
   Disti'chia.  See Distichiasis.
    DISTICHI'ASIS.   (From itarixia: from die, dou-
  ble, and ctxoSi a row.)  Districhiasis ; Distuhia.  A
  disease of the eyelash, in which theie is a double row
  of hairs, the one row growing outwards, the otlier in-
  wards towards the eye.
    DISTICHUS.   Two-ranked.    Applied  to  stems,
  leave*  &c. when they spread in two horizontal direc-
  tions • as the branches of the Pinus picea, or silver
  fur and Ihe leaves ofthe Taxus baccata, or yew.
    DISTILLATION.   (Dislillatio; from  distillo, to
   drop little by little.)  Alsacta;  Catustagmos.  A  che-
   mical process, very similar to evaporation, instituted
   to separate  the volatile from the  fixed principles, by
   means of heat.  Distillatory vessels are either alem-
   bics or retortB; the  former  consist ot an interior  ves-
   sel called a cucurbit designed to contain the matter to
   be examined, and having an upper part fixed to it,
   called the capital, or  head.  In this last, the vapours
   are condensed by the  contact of the surrounding air,
   or, in other cases, by  the assistance of cold wator sur-
   rounding the head, and contained id a vessel called the
   refr 'oratory.   From  the lower  part of  the  capital
   iiroceeds a tube called the nose, beak, or spout, through
   which the vapours, alter condensation, are, by a  pro-
   per  figure of the capital, made  to flow into a vessel
   called the receiver, which is usually spherical  These
   receivers have  different  names,  according  to  their
   rUMire  bein" called mattresses, balloons, Sec  Retorts
   ate a kind of bottle of glass, pottery, or metal, the bot-
   tom being spherical, and the Tipper part gradually di-
   minishing into a neck, which is turned on one side.
     Distilled vinegar.   See Acfturn.
     11ISTORT10N.   (Distortio;  from distsrquco, to
   „.", ,.;,!„ i  A term applied to the eyes, when a per-
   £   cci fto turn "hem from the object he would  look
   "ana is then called squinting, or strabismus.   It also
   ^mlcstlie bending of a bone preiernaturnlly to one
   *u   as distortion of the spine, or vertebrae.
     DiSTt) RTOR.  (From distorqueo, to wrest aside.)
          ;i<>a
A muscle, the office of which is to  draw the moatfl
aWry.
  Distortop. oris.  See Zygomatics minor.
  Distiucih'asis.  See Distichiasis.
  DI'STRIX.  (From ore, double, and Apt*;, the hair.)
A disease of the hair, when it splits and divides at tl«
end.
  DITTANDER. See Lepiaium sativum.
  DITTANY.   See Dictamnus.
  Dittany, bastard.  See Dictamnus albas.
  Dittany of Crete.  See Origanum dictamnus.
  Dittany, while. See Dictamnus albus.
  D1URE SIS.   (From ita, through, and ovpcu, tn
make water.)  An increased secretion of ui ine.  It is
also applied to  a diabetes.
  DIURETIC.  (Diureticus.  Acovpryrtxos*, from dtov
onats, a discharge of urine.)  That which, when taken
internally, augments the flow of urine from the kid-
neys  It is obvious that such an effect will be produced
 by any substance capable of stimulating the secreting
 vessels of the  kidneys.  All the saline diuretics seem
 to act in this manner.  They are received into the cir-
 culation ; and passing off with the urine, stimulate Ihe
 vessels, and increase the quantity secreted.
   There  are otlier diuretics, the effect of which  ap-
 pears not to arise from direct application, but from an
 action  excited  in the  stomach, and propagated by
 nervous  communication  to the  secreting  urinary
 vessels.                   „    ...    ,  ..
   The  diuretic operation of squill, and other vegeta-
 bles, appears to be of this kind.
   The-Te  is still, perhaps, another mode in Which  cer-
 tain substances produce a diuretic effect; that is, by
 promoting absorption.  When a large quantity of wa-
 tery fluid is introduced into the  circulating mass, it
 stimulates the secreting vessels of  the kidneys, and is
 carried off by urine.  If, therefore, absorption  be  pro-
  moted, and if a portion of serous fluid, perhaps previ-
  ously effused, be taken up, the quantity of fluid secret-
  ed by the kidneys will be increased.  In this way digi-
  talis seems to act:  its diuretic effect, it has been said,
  is  greater when exhibited in dropsy than it is in
  health.                      „     ■ ■   ,
    On the same principle (the effect arising from stimu
  lating the absorbent system) may probably be explained
  the utility of mercury in promoting the action of seve-
  ral diuretics.                   .                .
    The action of these remedies is promoted by drink-
  ing freely of  mild  diluents.  It is also influenced by
  the state of the surface of the body.  If external heal
  be applied, diuresis is frequently prevented, and din
  phoresis produced.  Hence the doses of  them should
  be given in the course of the day, and the patient, if
  possible, be kept out of bed.
    The  direct effects of  diuretics are sufficiently evl
  dent.  They discharge the  watery part of the blood;
  and, by that  discharge,  they indirectly promote ab-
  sorption over tlie whole system.
    Dropsy is the disease in which they are principally
  employed; and when they can be brought to aet, the
  disease is removed with less injury to the patient than
  it can be  by  exciting any other evacuation.  Theii
  success is  very  precarious, the  most powerful  often
  failing; and, as the disease is so frequently connected
  with organic  affection, even the removal ofthe effused
  fluid, when it takes place, only palliates without effect-
  ing a cure.
     Diuretics have been likewise occasionally used in
  calculous affections, in gonorrhoea, and with a view of
  diminishing plethora, or checking profuse perspiration.
     Murray, in his Elements of Materia Medica, classei
  the supertartrate of potassa, or  cream of tartar, and
  nitrate of potassa, or nitre, the muriate of ammonia, or
   crude  sal-ammoniac, potassa, and the acetate of po-
   tassa, or kali  acetatuin, among  the saline diuretics;
   and selects the following from ihe vegetable kingdom-
   —scilla maritiiiia, digitalis purpurea, nicotiaua laba
   cum, solanum  dulcamara,  lacluca  virosa, colchicum
   autuiiinule,  gratiola  officinalis,  sparlium scoparium
   juniperis  communis, copaifera officinalis,, pinus bal
   samea, and pinus larix;  and the lytta vesicatoria from
   the animal kingdom.
     Iu speaking of  particular diuretics, Dr. Cullen says,
    the diuretic vegetables, mentioned by writers,  are of
    very little power, and  are employed with very littl*
    success.   Of ihe  umbellaue, the medicinal power  re-
    sides especially in their seeds; but he never found ani 
DOG
DOR
»f them very efficacious.  The semen dauci sylvestris
lias been commended  as a diurelic; but its powers as
such aie uot very remarkable.   In like  manner, some
of Hie plaula sielLuta have been commended as diu-
retics;  but none of them deserve our  notice, except
the rubia tmctorium, the root of wliich passes so much
by  tlie kidneys as to give  ils  colour to the urine.
Hence it may fairly be supposed 10 stimulate the se-
cretoin >, but Dr. Cullen found  its diuretic powers did
not always appear, and never to any considerable de-
gree ; and as, in brute  animals, it has always appeared
hurtful to the system,  he does not think it fit to be em-
ployed  io any extent  in  human diseases.  The bar-
daua, lilhospermuin, ononis,  asparagus, euulu caiupa-
na, are all substances whicli seem to  pass,  in some
measure, by tlie kidneys; but  their  diuretic powers
are hardly worth notice.
  The principal articles included by Dr. Cullen, in his
catalogue of diuretics, are dulcamara, digitalis, scilla:
some of llie alliaceae and siliquosae; the balsams and
resius; cantharides, and the diuretic salts.
  Divapora rio.   Evaporation.
  DIVARICATION.  The crossing of any two things:
thus when the muscular or tendinous fibres intersect
each other at  different angles, ihey are said  to diva-
ricate.
  Dtaellcnt affinity.  See Affinity quiescent,
  Diverso rii'm.   (From dtversor, to resort to.) The
recejuaculuni chyli.
  DIVERTICULUM.  A malformation  or diseased
appearance of a part, in which a portion goes out of
the regular course; ami thereby  forms adiveiliculum,
er deviation from  the  usual course.   It  is generally
applied to the alimentary canal.
  Diverticulum nucku.  The opening through which
the round ligaments of the uterus pass.  Nuck assert-
ed that it remained open a  long lime after  birth; to
these openings he gave the name of diverticula.
  DIVINES.   A pompous epithet of many composi-
tions, from their supposed excellence.
  Divu lsio.  (From divello, to  pull asunder.)  Urine
with uneven sediment.
   DOCIMASTIC.  Ars docimastica.  The art of ex-
amining fossils, in order to discover what metals, Sec.
they contain.
   DOCK.  See Rumex.
   Dock-cresses.  Sec Lapsana.
   Dock, sour.  See Rumex acetas a.
   Dock, water.  See Rumex hydrolapathum.
   DODDER.  See Cuscutaepilliymuin.
   Dodecada'cti-los.    (From  iuiexa,  twelve, and
iaxfvXos, a finger; so  named  because its  length is
about the breadth of twelve fingers.)   The duodenum,
an  intestine so called.  It must  be observed, that at
the time this  name was given, anatomy consisted in
the dissection of brutes; and the length  was therefore
probably adjudged  from tlie gut  of some animal, and
not of man.
  DODECA'NDRIA.   (From  iuiexa,  twelve,  and
avnp, a man.)  The name of a  class  of plants in the
sexual system, embracing those with hermaphrodite
flowers, and twelve stamina.
  Dodecapha'rmacum.  (From iuiexa, twelve, and
tbappaxov, a medicine.)   An ointment  consisting of
twelve ingredients, for which reason  it was called the
ointment of the twelve apostles.
  Dodeca'theon.  (From iuiexa, twelve, and ItQtjpt,
to put.)  An antidote consisting  of twelve simples.
  DODON/EUS, Rembertus,   (or  Doooens,)  was
born  at Mechlin, in  1517.  He  became physician  to
two succeeding emperors, and, in 1582, was appointed
professor of physic in the newly-founded University
of Leyden, the duties of which he performed with cre-
dit, till his death, three years after.  His fame at pre-
sent chiefly rests on his botanical publications, parti-
cularly his " Pemptades," or 30 books of the history
of plants.  The " Frugum  Historia,"  " Herbarium
Belgicum," &c. are of much inferior merit.
  DOG.  See  Canis.
  Dog's-bane, Syrian.  See Asclepias tyriaca.
  Dog's-grass.  See  Triticum repens.
  Dog's-mercury.  See Mercurialis perennis.
  Dog-rose.  See Rosa canina.
  Dog-stones.  See Orchis mascula.
  [Dogwood.  See Cornus Florida.   A.]
  DO'G.M A.  (From icxcu, to be of opinion.)  A dog-
ma, or opinion, founded on reason and experience.
  DOLERITE.  When volcanic masses are composed
of grains distinct from each other,  ami contain lie-
sides felspar, much pyroxene, black ovule ol iron, tuu
pibole, &ei-.,  they are called, by the French geologist,
dolcritc.
  DOLICHOS.  (Ft om ioXt\os, long: so called from
its long shape.)  1. The nauie-Mf a genus of plants in
the Luiiiu-an system.  Class, Diatlelphia ; Order, De-
candria.
  ii. The pharmncopa-inl name of the com huge.  See
Dolichos pruricus.
  Douriios pri-riek9.  The systematic name of the
cowhaiee.   Dolichos; Dolichos—volubili*, legum-titi-
bus racemosis, vuloulis suhcarinalis  hirtis. /<• «\. not
lis terms, ol Liniiiius.  The pods of this plant are-co-
vered with sharp hairs, which are the pails employed
medicinally in form  of eleciiian, as anthelmintics.
The manner in wliich  these hairy spicula act, seems
to be purely mechanical:  for neither the  tincture, nor
the docoction, possess the least  anthelmintic power
  Doucuos siue.   Tlie plant which  affords  the soy.
It is much cultivated in Japan, where it  is called da
idsu: and where Ihe pods supply llieir kitchens with
various productions;  hut  Ihe two principal are, a sort
of butter, termed uu.-n, and a pickle called sooju. »
  DOLABRIFOU.MIS.  (.From  dalabetla, :i 'hatel "' l,
and forma, resemblance.)   Hatchet-shaped.  A teim
applied to a leaf, which is compressed with a very pro-
minent dilated  keel,  and a cylindrical base;  as iu
Misembnjanthem tan dolubriformc.
  DOLOMITE.  A calcareo-magnesian eaibonate
  DO'LOR.  (Dolor, oris, f.)  Pain.
  Dolor faciei.  See  Tic douloureux.
  DORONICUM.  (From dorangi, Arab.)  Leopard's
bane.  See Arnica monlana.
  Doronicum geiimamcum.  See Arnica montanu.
  Doronicum romam'm.   The pharmacopoeia! name
nf the  Roman leopard's  bane.  See Doronicum pa.--
daliunckes.
  Doronicum pardalianohes.  The systematic name
ofthe Roman leopard's bane.  Doronicum romanuut;
Doronicum—foliis cordatis, obtucis, ilenticulali.-; ra
dicalibus  pettotatis;   caulinis  amplexicaulibus,  of
Linnieus.   The root of this plant, if given in a ful1
dose,  possesses poisonous properties;  but instances
are related  of  its efficacy in  epileptical  and  other
nervous diseases.
  DORSAL.  (Dorsalis;  from dorsum, the back ;
Belonging to the back.
  Dorsalis nervus.  The nerve which passes out
from the vertebrae of the back.
  [DORSEV, John Syno, M.D.,Professnrof anatomy
in the university of Pennsylvania, was born in ihe city
of Philadelphia, in  December, 1783.   In  early life he
received an excellent elementary  and classical educa
tion at a school in  Philadelphia, of the  society  of
Friends, then in high repute, and here manifested" the
same vivacity of genius and quickness in learnim.-, with
the mild and gracious dispositions, for wliich he was
subsequently so conspicuous.  At the age of IS yearn,
he entered the office of his relation, the celebrated D:.
Physick.
  Not long after receiving his degree,  the yellow fever
reappeared in tne city, and prevailed so widely that an
hospital was opened for  the accommodation  exclr
sively of the sick wilh this  disease, to which  he w»-
appointed resident physician.  So great was the value
attached to his services, that it is difficult to spenk to>j
highly of the manner in which he discharged tine iti
ties of his office of hazardous benevolence.   At the
close of the same season, he proceeded to Europe, fo.
the purpose of improving  his medical knowledge.  In
December, 1804, he returned home, and  immediately
entered on the practice of his profession.  The rejti.-
tatipn he brought with  him, his amiable temper, a in'
popular manners, his  fidelity and attention,  spndily
introduced him into a large share of business   Fiom
this period professional honours were heaped on bin,
with profusion.   He was appointed surgeon  to in-
dispensary, the alms-house,  and  hospitals,  and in
all our medical associations he held some  elevated
office.  But there was reserved for him  a still  huiliP!
and more dignified station.  In  1807 he was elected
adjunct professor of surgery, in which offic-e he con-
tinued till he was raised to the chair of anatomy, by
the lamented death ofthe venerable Dr. Wistar
  " Considering himself now placed for the fust time
                                        2uy 
DOU
DRA
In the proper sphere for the exercise of his talents and
the gratification of a  generous ambition, the appoint-
ment gave him  much delight; and with ample prepa-
ration, he opened the session by one of the finest exhi-
bi'iuns of eloquence ever heard within the walls of the
college.  But here his bright and prosperous career
ended, and the expectations  of success thus created
were not permitted to be realized.  Elevated to a po-
sir-in above which he could  hardly ascend, and sur-
rounded by all that we most value, Providence seems
to have selected him as an instance to teach a salutary
lesson  of the shortness of life, the insignificance of
tilings transitory, and the importance of that eternity
which absorbs all  being and all time.  On the evening
of the same day that  he pronounced  his introductory
I. oture, and while the praises of it still resounded, he
was attacked with a fever of such vehemence, that in
one  short week it closed his  existance, leaving to us
only his enviable name and inestimable example.  He
died in  November,  1818,  aged 35 years."—Thach.
Med. Biog.  A.l
  DORSTE'NIA.  (Named  in honour of Dr. Dors-
ten.)  The  name of a genus of plains in the Linnaean
system.  Class, Telrandria;  Order, Monogynia.
  Dorstenia braziliensis.   The root of this plant
is used by the natives of Brazil, internally and exter-
nally.  They call  il Caa apia.  When chewed, it has
the same effects as ipecacuanha.  The wounds from
poisoned darts are said to  be cured with the juice of
the root,  which they pour into the wound.
  Dorstenia contrayerva.  The systematic name
ofthe plant which affords the contrayerva root; Con-
trayerva; Drakena: Cyperus longus, odorus, pcrua-
nus; Bezoardica  radix.  The contrayerva root was
first brought into Europe about the year 1581, by Sir
Francis Drake, whence its name Drakena.  It is the
root of a small plant found iu Peru, and other parts of
the Spanish West Indies.   Dr. Houston observes, that
the roots of different species of dorstenia are promis-
cuously gathered and exported for those ofthe contra-
yerva, and, as all the  species bear a great resemblance
to each other, they are generally used for medical pur-
poses in  this country.  The tuberous  parts of these
roots are the strongest, and should be chosen  for use.
They have  au agreeable aromatic smell; a rough, bit-
t:er, penetrating taste; and, when  chewed, they give
out a sweetish kind of acrimony.
  It is  diaphoretic and antiseptic ; and was formerly
used in  low nervous fevers, and those of the malig-
nant kind;  but its use is superseded by the cinchona.
  Dr. Cullen observes, that this and serpentaria are
powerful stimulants;  and both have been employed in
fevers  in whicli  debility  prevailed.   However,  he
thinks, wine may always supersede  the  stimulant
powers of these medicines ; and that debility is better
remedied by the tonic and antiseptic powers of cold
and Peruvian bark, than by any stimulants.
  By the assistance of heat, both spirit and water ex-
tract all its  virtues; but they carry little or nothing in
distillation; extracts made  by inspissating the decoc-
tion, retain all the virtues of the root.
  The  London College forms the compound powder of
contrayerva, by combining  five ounces of contrayerva
root with a pound and a half of prepared shells. This
powder was formerly made  up in balls, and called
lapis contrayerva, employed in the decline of ardent
fevers, and  through the whole course of low and ner-
vous ones.  The radix serpentaria; virginiensis, in all
cases, may  be substituted for the contrayerva.
  Dorstenia drakena. The systematic name for one
wort of the contrayerva.
  -Dorstenia houstonii.   See Dorstenia  contra-
yerva.
  Do'tiuen.  A name for the furunculus.
  DOUGLAS, James, M. D. was born in Scotland in
1C75.  After completing  his  education, he  came to
London,  and applied  himself diligently to the study of
h atomy and 6urgcry, which he both taught and prac-
ticed several years with success.  Haller has spoken
very highly of his  preparations, to show the motion of
tie joints, and the structure of the bones.  He patron-
ised  ihe  celebrated William  Hunter;  who  assisted
him shortly before his death  in 174-2.   He was reader
of Anatomy lo the Company of Surgeons, and a Fel-
low of the Royal Society, to which he  made several
communications.  He published, In 1707, a more cor-
rect description of the muscles than had before uppenr-
      310
ed; eight years after, a tolerable account of preceding
anatomical writers;  in 1726, a History of the lateral
Operation for the Stone; and in 1730, a very accurate
Description of the Peritonaeum, &c.
  DOUGLAS, John, brother  of the preceding, was
surgeon to the Westminster Infirmary, and author of
several controversial pieces.   In one of them, called
" Remarks on  a late pompous Work," he censures,
with no small degree of severity, Cheselden's Anatomy
of the Bones; in another, he criticises, with equal
asperity, the works of Chamberlen and Chapman; and
in a third, he decries the new forceps of Dr. Slnellio.
He also  wrote a work on the high operation for the
stone, wliich he practised ; a Dissertation on the Vene-
real Disease ; and an Account of the Efficacy of Bark
in stopping Gangrene.
  DOVE'S FOOT.  See Geranium rotundifolium.
  Dover's powder.  See Pulvis ipecacuanha  cuuipo
situs.
  Down of seed. See Pappus.
  DRA'BA.  (From ipaaau, to seize; so called from
its sudden effect upon  the nose of those who eat it.)
The name of a genus of plants in  the  Linnaean sys-
tem.  Class, Tctradynamia; Order, Siliculosa.
  Draba verna.  A common plant on most  walls.
The seed is hot and stimulating, and might be used for
pepper.
  DRA'CO.  (Draco, onis. m. Apaxuv, the dragon.)
The dragon.
  Draco mitigatus.  The submuriate of  nieicury.
  Draco sylvestris.  See Achillea Ptarmicu.
  DRACOCE'PHALUM.   (From ipaxuv, a dragon,
aud KtebaXn, a head.)  The name of a genus of plants
in the Linnxan system.   Class, Didynamia; Order,
Gymnospermia.
  Dracocephalvm  canariense.   The  systematic
name of the balm of Gilead.  Turkey-balsam;  Cana-
ry balsam ; Balsam of Gilead.  Moldavica;  Melissa
Turcica. Dracoccphalum moldavica—fioribus verti-
ccllatis, braeteis lanceolatis, serraturis capillaccis ot
Linnaeus. This plant affords a fragrant essential oil,
by distillation, known  in Germany by  the name of
oleum syria.  The whole  herb abounds with an aro-
matic smell, and  an  agreeable taste, joined with an
aromatic flavour; it  is recommended to give tone tc
the stomach and nervous system.
  Draconis sanguis.  Dragon's blood.   See Calamus
rolling.
  Drai ontia.  The dracontiaof the Greeks, accord-
ing to Pliny, was the Guinea-worm, or  dracuncuius.
See .Mcdinensis vena,
  Draco'ntu'.m.  (From ipaxuv, a dragon; so called
because its roots resemble n dragon's tail.) See Arum
draeunculus.
  [" Dracontium.   Skunk  Cabbage.   The skunk
cabbage is an indigenous  plant, very common in  wet
meadows throughout the  United  States, and well
known for its offensive odour, perfectly  resembling
that of the animal whose name  it bears.  Ils odour
resides in a volatile  substance not easily obtained in
a separate state, and soon  dissipated by heat or by
drying.  Itcontains likew ise an acrid principle like thai
of the genus arum;  also a portion  ol" resin and mu
cilase.
  " This plant in small doses is n stimulant and nnti
spasmodic, and in large  doses a  narcotic.   'Thirty
grains of the  powdered root, if freshly prepared, will
bring  on vertigo, nausea, and fieqiienlly vomiting
Age and exposure,  however,  diminish  its activity.
In medicine  this vegetable has been found of impor-
tant use  in certain forms of asthma, mid  in chronic
catarrh, in whicli diseases it has succeeded, even when
the cases had previously been of great obstinacy.  Ii
has also been recommended in rheumatism, in hysteria,
and in dropsy.
  " A  popular form of using this medicine is that of a
syrup.  This is an uncertain preparation, owing to the
volatility of the active ingredients.  It is better given
in powder made from the dried root a short time be
fore it is wanted.  Ten grains may be taken at a dose,
in  honey or treacle,  and the  quantity gradually in-
creased as long as Ihe stomach aud head remain unaf-
fected."— Big. Mat. Med.  A.)
  DRACU NCULl'S.  (From ipaxuv, a serpent)
Carditis  mcdinensis ;  Vermis mcdinensis ; Vena m$-
dinensis ; Vcrmiculus capillaris.  The Guinea worm
This  animalcule is  common in both Indies, in most 
DRO
DUC
parts of Africa, occasionally at Genoa, and  other hot
countries.  It resembles the common worm, but is
much larger; is commonly found in the legs, but some-
times in the muscular part of the arms.  It principally
affects children, and its generation is not unlike that
Dt"  the broad worms oi* the belly.  While  it moves
under  the skin, it creates no trouble; but, in length of
time, the place near ihe dracunculus suppurates, and
"he animal puts forth its head.   If it be drawn, it ex-
cites considerable uneasiness, especially if drawn so
forcibly as to break it; for the part left within creates
intolerable   pain.   These  worms   are  of different
lengths.  In the  Edin. Med. Essays, mention is made
of one that was three yards and a half in length.
  Dracunculus pratensis.  See Achillea ptarmica.
  Dragaca'ntha   See Astragalus.
  Dragant gum.   See Astragalus.
  DRAGON.  Sec Draco.
  Dragon's blood.   See Calamus rotang.
  Dragon's wort.  See Arum dracunculus.
  DRAKE,  James, M.D. Fellow of the College  of
Physicians, and of the Royal Society,  published,  in
1707, "A New System of Anatomy," which, though
taken principally' fiom Cowper, being on a reduced
plan, and  more within  the reach  of students, was
pretty  favourably received.  In ihe third edition, it
was styled  " Anthropologia  Nova."   In abscesses  of
the antrum maxillare, he advised drawing one of the
molar teeth, to let out the matter.  The descriplion of
the internal nostrils, and of the cavities entering them,
is  new;  as  are  ako the plates  of the  abominal
viscera.
  Drake'na.  Sef Dorstenia contraycirva.
  DRA'STIC.  (l)rasticits. Apatmxos, active, brisk ;
from ipiu,  to effect.)  A term generally applied  to
those medicines which are very  violent in their action;
thus, drastic purges, emetics, Sec
  Drawmer slate.  See Chalk, black.
  DRELINGCOURT, Charles, was born at Paris in
1633; and  after studying some years at Sauinur, he
went to graduate at Montpeher.  He soon after attend-
ed  the celebrated Turenne in his campaigns, and was
by him made physician  lo the army.  He was also
appointed one of the  physicians to Lewis XIV. But
 in  1688 he was chosen to succeed Vander Linden, as
 professor of medicine at Leyden ; and iwo years alter
 he was advanced to the chair of anatomy.  He was
 also  made physician to  William, then  Prince of
Orange, and his consort; and on their accession to the
throne of England, he spoke the congratulatory ora-
tion to them, as rector of tbe  university.  He conti-
nued in his professorship, giving general satisfaction, to
the period of his death in 1697.  He was a voluminous
and learned, but  hardly  an original writer; yet his
works were very much read al the time.  In one of
his orations, he exculpates  medical men  from the
charge of impiety, observing that the contemplation of
the works of God tends to blind them more to religion.
In his " Apologia Medica," he refutes the notion, that
physicians were excluded  from  Rome for six hundred
years.  He  strenuously opposed Ihe introduction of
chemical preparations into medicine, which was then
very prevalent.  His son, Ckarles,  succeeded him in
practice, but has left no publication, except  his thesis
" De Lienosis."
  Dro'ma.   The  name  of a  plaster described by
Myrepsus.
  Dropaci'smus.  ( From Iptiru, to  remove.)   Dro-
pax.  A stimulant plaster of pitch, wax, &c. to take
off hair.
  Dro'fax.   See Dropaeismus.
  DROPSY.  Hydrops.   A collection  of  a  serous
fluid in the cellular membrane; in the viscera and the
circumscribed cavities of the  body. See  Hydrops,
Ascites, Anasarca, Hydrocephalus, Hydrothorax, Hy-
drocele.          <
  Dropsy of the belly.  Seie Ascites.
  Dropsy of the brain.  See Hydrocephalus.
  Dropsy of the chest.  See Hydrothorax.
  Dropsy of the ovary.  See Ascites.
  Dropsy of the skin. See Anasarca.
  Dropsy <>f the testicle.  See Hydrocele.
  DROPWORT.  See (Enanthe, and Spiraa.
  Dropwort, hemlock.  See  (Enanthe.
  Dropwort, water.  See (Enanthe.
  DRO'SERA.  (From ipontpa, dewy; which is from
toooos, dew; drops hanging on the leaves like dew.)
The name of a genus of plants.  Class.  Pentandria,
Order, Hecagijnm.   Sun-dew.
  Droskra  kotundifolia.  The sytematic name of
the sun-dew.  Ros  soils;  Rosella.  Sun-dew.  Dro-
sera rotundifolia—scapis radicatis ; foliis orbiculatis
of Linnaeus.  This elegant little plant is said to bo so
acrid as to ulcerate  the skin, and remove warts and
corns; and to excite a fatal coughing and delirium in
sheep who cat it. I  is  seldom given medicinally in
this country but by the  lower oiders, who  est'-eni
a  decoction of  it  as serviceable  in  asthmas and
coughs.
  Drosobo'tvnum.   (Fromipoaos, dew, and Bolarri,
an  herb: so called from ils being covered with an aro
matic dew.)  The herb betony.  See Betonica.
  Drosso meli.  (From e5po<roj,  dew, and ptXt, honey..
Honey-dew.  Manna.
  DRl'PA.  (Drupa, unripe olives.)  A  stone fruit
formed of a fleshy or coriaceous seed-vessel, enclosing
a nut.
  Il is distinguished  into,
  1. Drupa succosa, when of a succulent fleshy con-
sistence ; as the cherry, plum, peach, and nectarine.
  2. D.fibrosa, tlie  nut beeing fibrose; as in Cocus nu-
cifera.
  3. D. exsicca, dry  and subcoriaceous;  as the almond
and horse-chesnut.
  4. D. dchiscens, opening; as in Juglans rcgia, and
Myristica moschata.
  From the number of nuts  it  contains, the drupa is
said to be monosperma, when there is but one, as in the
olive  and pistachia;  and dtspcrma when  there are two,
as in  Styrax.
  DRUPACEUS.  Drupaceous; resembling a drupe,
or stone fruit.   Applied lo the pod of  Erugago and
Li ut lias.
  DUCT.  See Ductus.
  Duct, bilianj.   See Biliary duct.
  DUCTILITY.  Ductilitas.   A property by which
bodies are elongated by repeated or continued pres
sure.  It is peculiar to metals.  Most authors confound
the words malleability, laminability, and ductility, to-
gether, and  use  them in a loose indiscriminate way;
but Ihey are very different.  Malleability is the pro-
perty of a body wliich enlarges one or two of its three
dimensions, by a blow or  pressure very suddenly ap-
plied. Laminability belongs lo bodies  extensible  in
dimension by a gradually applied pressure ;  and duc-
tility  is properly to be attributed to such  bodies as can
be  rendered longer  and thinner  by drawing ihem
through a hole of less area than the transverse section
ofthe body so drawn.
  DU'CTUS.  A canal or  duct.
  Ductus arteriosus.   A great artery-like  canal
found only in the foetus,  and very young children, be-
tween the pulmonary artery and the aorta.   In adults
it is closed up.
  Ductus auris palatinus.  The Eustachian tube.
  Ductus bilivris.  See Choledochus ductus.
  Ductus communis ciioledocuus.   See  Choledo-
chus ductus.
  Ductus cysticus.  The trunk of the biliary duels
in the liver which carries the bile from  them into the
gall-bladder.
  Ductus iiepaticus.  See Hepatic duct.
  Ductus laciirymalis.  See  Lachrymal ducts.
  Ductus lactiperus.  Ductus galactophorus. The
excretory ducts of the glandular substance composing
the  female breast. The milk passes along these duels
to the nipple.
  Ductus ad nasum  See Canalis nasalis.
  Ductus pancreaticus.  The pancreatic  duct.  It
is white and small, and arises from the sharp extremity
of the pancreas,  runs through the middle of the gland
towards the duodenum, into which it pours its contents
by an opening common to il and the ductus communis
choledochus.
  Ductus salivales.   The excretory  ducts  of the
salivary glands,  which  convey tho saliva  into the
mouth.
  Ductus stenonis.  The  Stenonian  duct,  which
was so called after  its  discoverer^  Steno.  It  arises
from all the small excretory duels of the  parotid gland,
and passes  transversely over  the  niasseter muscle,
penetrates the buccinator, and opens into the mouth.
  Ductus tiioracicus.  See Thoracic  duct.
  Ductus venosus.  When the vena cave passes th
                                       311 
DUR
DxS
               iiver  in  ihe foetus,  it sends off the ductus venosus.
               whicli c jmmunicates with the sinus of the vena portae;
               but, in adults, it becomes a flat ligament.
                Ductus  wartiionianus.  The excretory duct of
               Ihe maxillary glands; so named after its discoverer.
                Dulca cidum.  (From dulcis,  sweet,  and acidus,
               sour.) A medicine  composed of  a sweet and sour in-
               gredient.
                DULCAMA'RA.   (From  dulcis,  sweet, and ama-
               rus, bitter.)   Bitter-sweet.  See Solanum dulcamara.
                Dumbness.  See Aphonia and Paracusis.
                DUMOSUS.  (From dumus a bush.)   Bushy.  •
                Dumos^e.  The name of an order of plants in Lin-
               naeus's Fragments of a Natural Method, consisting of
               shrubby  plants, which are thick set with irregular
               branches, and bushy.
                DUNCAN, Daniel, was  born at Montaubon, in
               Languedoc, in  1649, son of a professor of physic in
               that city, but of a  family originally Scotch.  Having
               lost both his parents in early infancy, he  was taken
               under the protection of" his maternal uncle, and al  a
               proper age sent to study medicine  at Montpelier, where
               he look his degree.  He afterward resided seven years
               at Paris, where he  published his first work, upon the
               principle of motion in animal bodies.  He then visiled
               London, partly  to arrange some family affairs, partly
               to obtain information concerning Ihe plague, and in-
               tended to have settled there; but after  two years he
               was summoned to attend his patron,  the great Colbert.
               lie soon after made  public two works, in which he at-
               tempted to explain the Annual Functions on Chemical
               and Mechanical Principles.   On the death of Colbert,
               he  resided for some years in his native city; but the
               persecution  of the Protestants in 16U0 drove  him to
               Switzerland, and he was appointed Professor of Ana-
               tomy and Chemistry at Berne, where he got into con-
               siderable practice.   In 1690 he was  sent for to attend
0             the Princess of Hesse-Cassel, who had  symptoms of
               threatening  consumption, induced  by the excessive
               use of tea, and  otlier hot liquors; which led him to
               write a Treatise against that practice, published sub-
               sequently by the persuasion of his friend, Boerhaave.
               He remained there  three years, affording meanwhile
               much relief to the French refugees;  and the fame of
               his liberality procured his invitation to the court of
               Berlin : but a regard to his health and to economy soon  i
               obliged him to remove to the Hague.  In 1714 he ac-  !
               coinplished his favourite object of settling in London,  |
               and when he reached his 70th year, put in practice his
               previous resolution  of giving his professional services
               only gratuitously:   in which he  steadily persevered
               during the remaining sixteen years of his life, though,
               in 1721, he lost the  third part of his property by the
               South-sea scheme.
                DUNG.  See Fax.
                Dung, devil's.  See Ferula assafatida.
                DUO.  (Avu, two.)  Some compositions consisting
               of two ingredients,  are distinguished by this term; as
               pilul.-e ex duobus.
                DUODE'NUM.   (From  duodenus, consisting of
               twelve; so called because it was supposed  not to  ex-
               ceed the breadth of twelve fingers: but as the ancients
               dissected only animals, this does not hold good in ihe
               human subject.)  The first portion of the small intes-
               tines.  See Intestines.
                DUPLEX  (From duo, two,  and plico, to fold.)
               Double or two-fold.  In botany applied  to leaves,
               petals, perianths, fee.  The perianthum duplex is seen
               In Malva althaa and Hibiscus.
                Duplioa'na.  (From duplex, double.)   A name of
               the double tertian fever.
                DUPLICATUS.   (From  duplex, double.)   This
               term  is applied to a flower which  has  two series or
               rows of petals.
                DU'RA MATER. (From durus, hard, and mater, a
               mother:  called  dura, from its  comparative hardness
               with  the pia mater; and mater, from its being sup-
               posed to be the source of all the otlier membranes.
               Other parts have received the trivial name of dura,
               from  their comparative hardness;  as portio dura,  a
               branch of the seventh pair of nerves.) Dura meninx,
               Dermatodcs. A thick and somewhat opaque and in-
               sensible  membrane, formed  of two  layers, that sur-
               rounds and defends the brain, nnd adheres  strongly to
               the internal surface of the cranium.  It has ihree con-
               siderable processes, the falciform, the tentorium, and
               the septum cerebelli; nnd several sinuses, of which
                    312
the longitudinal, lateral, and inferior longitudinal, are
the principal.  Upon ihe external surface of tho dura
mater, there are little holes, from which emerge fleBhy-
colourcd papillae,  and which, upon  examining the
skull-cap, will be found to have corresponding foveas
These are the external glandulae Pacchioni.  They are
in number  from ten  to fifteen on each side, and are
chiefly lateral  to Ihe course of the longitudinal sinus
The  arteries which supply this membrane with vessels
for its own nourishment,  for that of the contiguous
bone, and for the perpetual exudation of the fluid, or
halitus rather, which moistens or bedews  its internal
surface, may be divided into anterior, middle, and pos-
terior.  The first  proceeds from  the ophthalmic and
ethmoidal  branches; the  second from the internal
maxillary and superior pharyngeal; the posterior from
the occipital and vertebral  arteries.
  The principal artery of the dura mater, named, by
way of distinction, the gieat artery of the dura mater,
is derived from the internal maxillary  artery, a branch
of the external carotid.   It is called  the spinalis, or
spheno-spinalis, from ils passim: into the head through
the spinous hole of" the sphenoid bone, or meuinga me-
dia,  from its relative situation, as it rises in the great
middle fossa of the skull.   This artery,  though it
sometimes enters the skull in two branches, usually
enters in one  considerable branch, and divides, soon
after it reaches ihe  dura mater, into ihree or  four
branches, of whicli the anterior is  the  lamest; and
these spread their  ramifications beautifully upon the
dura muter, over all that pan  which is opposite to the
anterior, middle, and  posterior lobes of ihe bruin.   Its
larger trunks run upon the internal surface of the pa-
rietal bone, and are sometimes for a considerable space
buried in its substance.   The extreme branches of this
artery extend so as to inosculate with the anterior and
posterior arteries of the dura  mater; and through the
bones (chiefly parietal and  temporal bones), ihey inos
culate with the temporal and occipital arteries.  The
meningeal artery has been  known to become aneuris-
ma!, and  distended at intervals ; it  has formed  an
aneurism, destroying  the bones nnd causing epilepsy.
  Dura meninx.   See rfura mater.
  DWALE.   See Atropa  belladonna.
  Dwarf elder.  See Sambucus ebulus.
  Dyo'ta.  (From  r!iiu>, two, and ovs, u]os, an ear.) A
chemical instrument with two ears, or handles.
  DYSESTHESIA.  (From ivs, difficulty, and cio-
davopat, to feel or perceive.)  lmpaiied feeiing.
  Dysesthesia   (The plural of Dysasthesia )  The
name of an order in  the class Locales of Dr. Cullen's
Nosology, containing those  diseases, in which the
senses are depraved, or destroyed, from a defect of the
external organs.
  Dysanago'gus.  (From ivs,  with difficulty, and
avayu, to subdue.)  Viscid expectoration.
  DYSCATAPO'TIA.  (From ivs, and xalamvu, to
drink.)  A difficulty of swallowing liquids, which Dr.
Mead thinks a more  proper term than that generally
used  for canine madness,  viz. hydrophobia; as it is
more particularly  descriptive of the  affection under
which the  unhappy  patients  labour;  for, in  reality,
they  dread water from the  difficulty of swallow ing it.
  DYSCINESIA.    (From ivs,  bad, and  xivtu, to
move.)  Bad or imperfect motion.
  Dyscinesle. (The plural of dyscinesia.) Applied
to an order in the class Locales of Cullen's Nosology;
embracing diseases in wliich the motion is impeded, or
depraved, from an imperfection of the organ.
  DYSCOPHO'SIS.   (From ivs, with difficulty, nnd
xutbou, to he deaf)  A defect in the sense of hearing.
  DYSCR.VSIA.   (From ivs, with  difficulty  and
KrpaiTi'iei, to mix.)  A bad habit of body.
  DYSECCB'A.  (From o*ec, difficulty, and aKorj,hear-
ing).   Cophosis.  Deafness.   Hearing  diminished, oi
destroyed.  A genus  of disease ill the class Locales
and order Dysasthesia- of  Cullen,containing two spe-
cies : Dysecaa organica, which arises from wax in the
meatus, injuries of the membrane, or inflammation
ana obstruction ofthe  tube:  Dysecaa atonica, when
without any discernible injury ofthe organ.
  Dyse'lcia.  (From ivs, with difficultv, and tXicoc
an ulcer.) An inveterate ulcer, or one difficult lo heal-
  Dyse'metus.  (From ivs, wilh difficulty, and epcu
to vomit.)  A person not e-asi'y niadp to vomit
  HYsi-INTE'RIA.  Sec Dysentery
  DYSENTERY.  (Dyscnteria; from ins, di:Hrullv 
1)YS
DYS
and t*7tpa, the bowels.)  Dissolutus morbus.  Diar-
rhaa canwsa.  The flux.  A genus of disease in the
class Pyrexia, and order Profluvia of Cullen's Nosolo-
gy.  It is  known by contagious  pyrexia; frequent
gaping stools; tenesmus; stools,chiefly mucous, some-
times mixed with  blood, the natural faeces being re-
tained or voided in small, compact, hard substances.
known by the name  of scybata, loss of appetite, and
nausea.  It occurs chiefly in summer and  autumn, and
is  often  occasioned  by much moisture succeeding
quickly intense heat, or great  drought;  whereby the
perspiration is suddenly checked, and a determination
made lo tlie intestines.   It  is likewise occasioned by
the use  of unwholesome and putrid food, and by
noxious exhalations  and vapours; hence it appears
often  in  armies encamped in the  neighbourhood of
low marshy ground, and proves highly destructive; but
the cause which most usually gives rise lo it, is a spe-
cific contagion; and when it once makes its appear-
ance, where numbers of  people are collected together,
it not unfrequently spreads with great rapidity. A pe-
culiar disposition in the aunosphere seems often to pre-
dispose, or give rise to the dysentery, in which case it
prevails epidemically.
  It frequently occurs about the same time with au-
tumnal intermittent and remittent fevers, and with
these, it is often complicated.
  The  disease,  however, is much more prevalent in
warm climates than in cold ones; and in the months
of August, September, and October, which is the rainy
season of the year in the West  Indies, it is very apt to
break  out and to  become  very general  among the
negroes on the different plantations  in Ihe colonies.
The body having been rendered irritable  by the greal
heat of the summer, and being exposed suddenly to
much moisture with open  pores, the blood is thereby
thrown from the exterior vessels upon the interior, so
as to give rise to dysenteries.
  An attack of dysentery is sometimes  preceded by
loss of appetile, costiveness,  flatulency, sickness at the
stomach, and a slight  vomiting, and conies on  with
chills, succeeded by heat in the skin, and  frequency of
the pulse.  These symptoms are in general the  lore-
runners of the griping and increased evacuations which
afterward occur.
   When tlie inflammation begins to occupy the lower
part of the intestinal tube, the stools become more fre-
quent, and less abundant;  and, in passing through the
inflamed parts, they occasion great pain, so that every
evacuation is preceded by  a severe griping, as also  a
rumbling noise.
   The motions vary both  in colour and consistence,
being sometimes composed of frothy mucus, streaked
with blood, and at other times of an acrid watery hu-
mour, like the washings of meat, and with a very foetid
smell.  Sometimes pure blood is voided ; now and then
lumps of coagulated mucus, resembling bits of cheese,
are to be observed in  the evacuations, and in some in-
stances a quantity of purulent matter is passed.
  Sometimes what is voided  consists merely of a
mucous matter, without any appearance of blood, exhi-
biting that disease which is known by the name of dy-
senteria alba, or morbus  mucosus.
  While the  stools consist of these various matters,
and are voided frequently, it is seldom that we can
perceive  any natural faeces among them, and when we
do, they appear in small hard balls, called scybala,
which being  passed, the patient is sure to experience
some temporary relief from the griping and tenesmus.
   It frequently happens, from the violent  efforts which
are made to discharge the irritating matters, that a por-
tion of the  gut is forced  beyond the verge of the
anus, which, in the progress of the disease, proves n
troublesome  and distressing symptom; as does  like-
wise  the tenesmus, there being a constant inclination
to go to stool, without the ability of voiding any thing,
except perhaps a little mucus.
  More or less pyrexia usually attends with the symp-
toms whicli have been described, throughout the whole
ofthe disease, where it is inclined to terminate fatally;
and is either of an inflammatory or putrid tendency.
In other cases, the  febrile state wholly disappears after
a time, while the proper dysenteric symptoms probably
will be of long continuance.  Hence the  distinction
into acute and chronic dysentery.
  When  tbe symptoms run high, produce great loss of
Strength  and are accompanied with a putrid tendency
ani a foetid and involuntary discharge, the disease often
terminates fatally in the course of a few days; but
when they are more moderate, it is often protracted io
a considerable length of time, and so goes off at last by
a gentle perspiration, diffused equally over the whole
body; the fever, thirst, and griping then ceasing, and
the stools becoming of a natural colour and consist-
ence.  When the disease is of long standing, and has
become habitual, it  seldom  admits of any euro ;  ano
when it attacks a person labouring under an advanced
stage of scurvy, or pulmonary consumption, or whose
constitution has been much impaired by  any other dis-
order, it is sure to prove fatal.  It sometimes appears
at the same lime with  autumnal intermittent and re-
mittent fevers, as has been observed, and is then more
complicated aud difficult to remove.
  Upon opening the bodies of t*ose who die of dysen
tery, the internal coat of the intestines (but more parti
cularly ofthe colon and rectum)  appears to be alfectcc
with inflammation and its consequences,  such as ul-
ceration, gangrene,  and  contractions.   The perito
na-uin, and other coverings ofthe abdomen, seem lika
w ise, in many instances, to be affected by  inflammation
  In the treatment of the acule dysentery, when nol
arising from contagion, but attended by considerable
pyrexia and pain, in persons of a strong  and full habit,
it will  be right to commence by a moderate veiuescc-
tion ; bul in general, leeches lo the abdomen will ab-
stract a sufficient quantity  of blood followed by fo-
mentations, or the warm bath, which may produce  a
powerful determination to the surface as well as coun-
teract spasm ; also blisters or mbefacients should no
be neglected.  With regard  to  internal remedies,  a
brisk emetic will often be advisable, particularly where
the tongue is very foul, the stomach loaded, or marks
of congestion in the liver appear:  it may also, by in
ducing diaphoresis,  materially check the  violence ot
the symptoms,  nay sometimes  cut short  the  disease
at once.  The next object is effectually to clear out the
bowels: for wliich purpose calomel, joined with opium
in quantity suflicient to relieve the pain  may be given,
and followed up by castor oil,  neutral  salts,  &c. till
they operate. In the mean time, mucilaginous demul
cents may help to moderate the  irritation.   When Ihe
bowels have been thoroughly evacuated, it will be im-
portant to procure a steady determination to the sur-
face, and Ihe compound powder  of ipecacuanha  is
perhaps the best medicine; assisted by warm clothing,
friction, exercise, Sec.  Should the liver not perform its
office properly, the  continncd use of mercury may be
necessary;  to restore the strength, and relieve dyspep-
tic symptoms, tonics and antacids will be useful, wilh
a mild nutritious diet; and great care must be taken to
obviate accumulation  of fa-ces.   In the chronic form
of the disease, demulcents and sedatives may be freely
employed by the mouth, or in the form of clyster; the
bowels may be occasionally relieved by rhubarb, or
other mild aperients;  mercury  should  be cautiously
employed, where the discharge of bile is indicated, or
if that cannot be borne, nitric acid may  be tried ;  and
besides great attention to regimen, as in  the decline of
acute dysentery, mild astringents, with tonics, &c. may
contribute materially to the recovery of the patient.
  DYSEruLo'Ticus.   (From ivs, with  difficulty, and
tirvXou, to cicatrize.)   Dysepulotus. An inveterate
ulcer difficult to be healed.
  Dyshjemorrho'is.  (From ivs, with  difficulty, and
muoppois, the piles.)  Suppression of the bleeding from
piles.
  DYSLO'CHIA.   (From ivs, difficulty,  and Xoxta,
the lochia.)  A suppression ofthe lochia.
  DYSMENORRHEA.  (From  ivs, with difficulty,
and  prjvoppota,  the  menses.) A  difficult or  painful
menstruation, accompanied with severe pains in the
back, loins, and bottom ofthe belly.
  Dyso'des.   (From  ivs,  '>*d, and o&u, to smell.)
1. A bad smell.   Foetid.
  2. Hippocrates applies it to a foetid disorder of Ihe
small intestines.
  3. The name of a malagma  and acopon in Galen
and Paulus iEgineta.
  DYSO'PIA.   (From  ivs, bod, and  wp, an eye.,
Parorasis.  Difficult sight.  Sight depraved, requiring
one certain quantity of light one particular distance,
or one position.  A  genus of disease in the class Loca-
les, and order Dysasthesia of Cullen, containing th<
five following species: 
DYS
DYS
   1  Dysopia tencbrarum, called also Amblyopia ere-
  fuscularis, requiring objects to be placed iu a strong
  iS'it.             .  .   ...
   2. Dysopia luminis,  likewise  termed  Amblyopia
 meridiana, objects only discernible in a weak light.
   3. Dysopia dissitorum, in which distant objects are
 not perceived.
   4. Dysopia proximorum, or Dysopia amblyopia, in
 which .ibjects too near are not perceived.
   5. Dysopia lateralis, called also Amblyopia lusco-
 rum, in which objects are not seen, unless placed in an
 oblique position.
   Di'SORE XIA.  (From  ivs, bad, and  optlts, appe-
 tite.)   A depraved appetite.
  Dysore.vi.«.   (The  plural of Dysorexia.)   The
 name of an order in the class Locales of Cullen's No-
 sology, which he divides into two suctions, appetitus
 erruuci and deficientes.
  DYSPEPSIA.  (From ivs, bad, anu" tseirfu, to con-
 coct.)   Apcpsia.  Indigestion.  Dr. Cullou arranges
 this genus of disease in the class Neuroses, and order
 Adynamia.  It chiefly arises in persons botween thirty
 and forty years of age, and is principally lo be met
 with in those who devote much time lo study, or who
 lead either a very sedentary or irregular life.  A great
singularity attendant on it  is, that it may and often
does continue a  great length of time, without any ag-
gravation or emission of ihe symptoms.
  Great grief and uneasiness of mind, intense study,
 profuse evacuations, excess in venery, hard drinking,
 particularly of spirituous liquors, and of tea, tobacco,
 opium, and other narcotics, immoderate repletion, and
 over distention of the stomach, a deficiency in the se-
 cretion of the bile, or gastric juice, and the being much
 exposed to moist and cold air, when without exercise,
 are the causes which usually occasion dyspepsia.
  A long tiain of nervous symptoms generally attend
 on this disease, such as a loss of appetite,  nausea,
 heart-burn, flatulency, acid, foetid, or indorous eructa-
tionH, a  gnawing in the stomach when empty, a sense
of constriction and uneasiness in the throat, with pain
in the side, or sternum, so that the  patient at times can
only lie on his right side; great costiveness, habitual
 chilliness, paleness of the  countenance,  languor, un-
willingness to  move about, lowness of spirits, palpita-
tions, and disturbed sleep.
  The number of these symptoms varies in different
 cases, with some, being felt only  iu part; in others,
 being accompanied even with additional ones, equally
unpleasant, such as severe transient paius in the head
and breast, and various affections of  the sight, as
 blindness, double vision, Sec.
  Dyspepsia never  proves  fatal, unless  when, by a
very long  continuance, it produces great general de-
 bility aud weakness; and so  passes into  some other
 disease, such as dropsy;  but it is at all times very diffi-
cult to remove, but more particularly so in warm cli-
mates.
  The morbid appearances to be  observed on dissec-
tions of this disease, are principally confined to  that
part of the stomach which is called the pylorus; whicli
is often found either in  a contracted, scirrhous, or ul-
 cerated state.  In every instance,  the stomach is per-
ceived to be considerably distended with air.
  The treatment of dyspepsia consists, 1.  In obviating
the several exciting  causes.   2.  In relieving urgent
symptoms, some of which may lend to prolong the dis-
 ease.  3. In restoring the tone of the stomach, or of
the general system, and thus getting rid of the liability
 lo relapse.
  I. In fulfilling the first  indication, we are often much
circumscribed by the  circumstances or habits of the
 patient; and  particularly when they have been accus-
 tomed  to  drink  spirits,  which thsy can hardly relin-
quish,  or only in  a  very gradual manner.  The diet
 must be regulated by flic particular form of the disease;
in those who are liable to acidity, it should be chiefly
of an animal nature, with the least acescent vegetable
substances, and  for drink,  toast and water, or soda
water, adding  a little  brandy, if really necessary;
 where  the opposite, or septic tendency appears, which
 happens especially in persons of u florid complexion, it
 •hould consist principally of vegetable matter, particu-
 larly the ripe subacid fruits, with  the meat of young
 animalsoccasionallv.andif plain water be not agreea-
 ble, table-beer, cider, Sec. may be  allowed for drink;
 and in those of the phlegmatic temperament the most
      314
nutritious  and digestible articles must be selected,
mostly of an animal nature, assisted by the warmer
condiments, and the more generous fermented liquors
in moderation.  It will be generally better to take food
oftener, rather than to load  the stomach too much at
once ;  but  more than four  meals a day can hardly be
requisite; if" at any other time a craving should occur
a crust of bread or a piece of biscuit may be eaten.
   II. Among the symptoms requiring palliation, heart
burn is  frequent,  resulting from acrimony hi the 6to
mach,  and to  be  relieved by  antacid,  or antiseptic
remedies, according to circumstances, or  diluents and
demulcents may answer the purpose.   A  sense of
weight at the stomach, with nausea, may occasionally
indicate  a gentle emetic; but will be less likely to occur
if the bowels are kept regular.  Flatulence may be re-
lieved by aromatics, aether, Sec.;  and these will be  pro-
per for spasmodic, or nervous pains; but if ineffectual,
opium should be  had recourse  to. Vomiting is gene-
rally best checked  by carbonic acid.  When diarrhoea
occurs, the aromatic confection  is mostly proper, some-
times with a little opium.  But  the bowels are much
more commonly confined, and mild cathai tics should
be frequently exhibited, as castor oil. rhubarb, aloes,
&c.; sometimes the more active, wheie  these do not
answer.  In those of a  florid  complexion a laxative
diet, with the supertartrate of potassa, or other saline
cathartic occasionally, may  agree  better: and where
the liver  is  torpid, mercurials should be resorted to.
   III. The third object is to be attempted by tonics,
particularly ihe aromatic bitters, ihe mineral acids, or
the preparations of iron; by the cold bath prudently
regulated;  by gentle exercise steadily persevered in,
particularly walk ing or riding on horseback ; by a care-
ful attention to the diet; by seeking a pure mild air,
keeping regular hours, wilh relaxation and amusement
of the  mind, &c.
   DYSPERMATISMUS. (FromrJoc, bad, and tnreppa,
seed.)  Agenesia.  Slow, or impeded emission of se-
men, during coition, insufficient for the purpose of
generation.  A genus  of  disease in the class Locales,
and order Epischcscs of Cullen. The species are:
   1.  Dyspermatismus  urethralis, when tlie  obstruc-
tion is in the urethra.
  2.  Dyspermatismus  nodosus, when a tumour is
formed in either corpus cavernosum penis.
  3.  Dyspermatismus praputialis, when the iinpedi
ment is from a straightness of  the orifice of the prae-
puce.
  4.  Dyspermatismus  mucosus, when the  urethra it
obstructed by a viscid mucus.
  4.  Dyspermatismus hypertonicus,  when there is an
excess of erection of the penis.
  6.  Dyspermatismus epilepticus, from epileptic fits
coming on during coition.
  7.  Dyspermatist..*.s apractodes, from a want of vi
gour in the genitals.
  8.  Dyspermatismus refiuus, in which  the semen is
thrown back into the urinary bladder.
  DYSPHA'GIA.   (From ivs, with difficulty,  ane"
q)ayu, to eat.)   A difficulty of  deglutition.  A genus
of disease in Good's Nosology, embracing five species
Dysphagia  constricta; atonica; globosa;  uvulosa;
liriguosa,
  DYSPHONIA.   (From  £vS, nnd, and  cbuvri, the
voice.)   A  difficulty of speaking.  Dissonant  voice
The sound  of the voice imperfect or depraved.  A ge
nus of disease  in  Good's Nosology, embracing tliree
species Dysphonia susurro-is, pubcrans, and  immo
dulata.
  DYSPHORIA.    (From  ivs, and qyopeu,  gesto.)
Restlessness.  A genus of disease in  Good's Nosology
it has two species, Dysphorea simplex and anxietas.
  DYSPNCE'A.  (From  ivs, difficult, and xveu, to
breathe.)  Dyspnoon.  Difficult respiration, without
sense of stricture,  and  accompanied  wilh cougt
through  the whole course of the disease.   A genus ol*
disease in  the class Neuroses, and  order Spasmi of
Cullen.   He distinguishes eight species.
  1. Dyspnaa catarrhalis, when with a cough there
are copious discharges of viscid mucus, called  also
asthma  catarrhale, pneumodes, pneumonicum,  and
pituitosum.
  2. Dyspnaa sicca, when there is a cough without
any considerable discharge.
  3. Dyspncra atrca,  when the disease  is much iu
creased by slight changes of the weather 
EAR
EAR
  4.  Dyspnaa tcrrca, when earthy or calculous mat-
ters are spit up.
  5.  Dyspnaa aquosa,  when there  is  a scarcity of
urine and oedematous feet, without the otlier symptoms
of a dropsy in the chest.
  6.  Dyspnaa pinguedinosa, from corpulency.
  7.  Dyspnaa thoraciea, when parts surrounding the
chest are injured, or deformed.
  8.  Dyspnaa.  extrinseca,  from   manifest  external
causes.
  Dyspnoon.  See Dyspnaa.
  DYSTHETICA.   (Avcdirtxa,  an ill-conditioned
state of the body.)  The name of the fourth order of
the class Hamatica in Good's Nosology.  Cachexies.
Its genera are Plethora ; Hamorrhagia ;  Marasmus ;
Struma; Carcinus ;  Lues; Elephant! us ; Bucnemia;
Cataeausis; Porphyra; Exangia; Gamrrcna; Ulcus.
  DV'STHY MIA.  (From ivs, bail, andOvpos, mind.)
Insanity.
  DYSTO'CIUA.   (From  ivs, "ith difficulty,  and
n<c7(0, to bring forth.)  Difficult labour.
  DYSTCECHPAS1S. (From ivs, bad, and r^xo?, or-
der.) An irregular disposition of the baits  in the eyelids.
  DYSURIA   (Fromouc, difficulty, and  ovpoy, urine.)
Stillicidium ; Ardor urina ;  Culbicio. A suppression
or difficulty in discharging the urine.  A total suppres-
sion is called ischuria; a partial suppression, dysuria :
and this may be with  or without Ineat.   When there
are frequent, painful, or uneasy nrgings to discharge the
urine, and it passes off only by drops, or in very small
quantities, the disease is called strangury.  When a
sense of pain, or heat, attends the discharge, it passes
with difficulty, and is styled ardor urina, heat of the
urine.   The dysuria  is acute, or chronic.  Dr. Cullen
places this disease in  the class Locales, and order Epis-
chescs, containing six species:
  1. Dysuria ardens, with a  sense  of heat, without
any manifest disorder of the bladder.
  2. Dysuria spasmodica, from spasm
  3. Dysuria  comprcssionis, from a compression of
the neighbouring parts.
  4. Dysuria phlogistica, from violent inflammation.
  5. Dysuria calculosa, from stone in the bladder.
  6. Dysuria mucosa, from  an abundant secretion ol
mucus.
  The causes which give rise to those diseases are, an
inflammation of the urethra, occasioned either by ve-
nereal sores, or by the use of acrid injections, tumour,
ulcer of the prostate gland,  inflammation of the kid
neys, or  bladder, considerable enlargements of the
haemorrhoidal veins, a lodgment of indurated faeces  in
the rectum, spasm  at the neck of the bladder, the
absorption of cantharides, applied externally or taken
internally, and excess  in drinking either spirituous or
vinous liquors ; but particles of gravel, sticking at the
neck of the bladder,  or lodging in tlie urethra, nnd
thereby producing iiritation,  prove the most frequent
cause.  Gouiy matter fulling on the  neck of the blad-
der, will sometimes occasion these com plaints.
  Indysury, there is a frequent inclination lo make wa-
ter, wilh  a smarting pain, heat, and difficulty in void-
ing it, together with a sense of fulness iu the region of
the bladder.   The symptoms often vary, however, ac-
cording to the cause  which has given  rise to it.  If it
proceeds  from a calculus in the kidney or ureter, be-
sides the affections mentioned, it will be accompanied
with nausea, vomiting, and acute pains in the loins and
region of the ureter and  kidney of the side affected.
When a stone in the bladder, or gravel in the urethra,
is  tlie cause, an acute pain  will be felt at the end of
the penis, particularly on voiding the last drops of
urine, and the stream of  water will either be divided
into two, or be discharged in  a  twisted manner, not
unlike  a corkscrew.   If a  scirrhus  of the  prostate
gland has occasioned the suppression or difficulty of
urine, a hard  indolent tumour, unattended with any
acute pain, may readily be felt in the perinittim, or  by
introducing the finger into the rectum
_ff!i
 "jC' AGLE STONE.  An argillaceous iron stone.
 *-*  fEAR.  Auris.  The ear is the organ of hearing.
 It is situated at the side of tlie head, and is divided into
 external  and internal ear.  The auricula, or pinna,
 commonly called tlie ear, constitutes the external part.
 It is of a greater or less size, according to the  indi-
 vidual.  Its external face, which,  in  a well-formed
 ear, is a  little  anterior,  presents five eminences, the
 helix,  anti-helix,  tragus, anti-tragus, lobula; and
 tliree cavities, those of tlie helix, fossa naviculars,
concha.
  The  pinna is formed of a fibrous cartilage, elastic
and pliant; the skin whicli covers  it is thin and dry;
adheres to the fibro-cartilage by a cellular tissue, which
is compact, and contains very little adipose substance:
the lobule alone contains  it  in considerable  quantity.
There  are seen under the skin a number of sebaceous
 follicles,  which  furnish a micaceous  white  matter,
 that produces the polish and suppleness of the  skin.
  There are also seen, upon  the different projections
 of the cartilaginous ear, certain muscular fibres, to
 which the name of muscles have been given, but which
 are only vestigia.  The pinna, receiving many vessels
 and nerves, is very sensible, and easily becomes red.
 It is fixed to the  head by tlie cellular tissue,  and by
 muscles,  which are called according to their position,
 anterior, superior, and posterior.   These muscles are
 much developed  in  many animals:  in  man  they may
 be considered as simple vestiges.
  The meatus auditorius extends from the concha to
the membrane of the  tympanum; its length, variable
according to  age, is from ten to twelve lines in the
adult;  it'is narrower in the middle than at the ends;
it presents a slight curve above,  and in front.  Its ex-
ternal orifice is commonly covered with hairs, like the
entrance  to the other cavities.  It  is  composed of an
osseous part, of a fibrocartilaginous substance, which
is confounded with that of the pinna, of a fibrous part,
which  completes it above.  The skin sinks into it, be-
coming thinner, and terminates  in  covering the exter-
 nal surface of the membrane of the tympanum.   Bo
 low this skin exist a great number of sebaceous fol-
 licles,  which  furnish the cerumen, a yellow, bitter
 matter.
  The middle ear comprehends the  cavity of the
 tympanum, the little bones  wliich  are contained in
 this cavity, the mastoid cells, the Eustachian tube, &.c.
  The tympanum is a cavity which separates the ex-
 ternal from the internal ear.  Its form is lhat of a por-
 tion of a cylinder, but a little irregular.  Its external
 partition presents, on the upper part, the/encsrra ovalis,
 which communicates with the vestibule, and which
 is formed by a membrane; immediately below, a pro-
jection which is called promontory;  below this projec-
 tion, a little groove, which lodges a  small nerve; still
 lower, an opening called the fenestra  rotunda, which
 corresponds to tlie  external  winding of the cochlea:
 and which is also Bhut by a membrane.  The externa!
 side presents the membrana tympani. This membrane
 is directed obliquely downward and inward: it is  bent,
 very slender and  transparent, covered on the outside
 by a  continuation of the skin, on the inside  by the
 narrow membrane whicli covers the tympanum;  it ia
 also covered on this side by the nerve called chorda
 tympani: its centre serves as a point of fixation foi
 the extremity  of the handle of the malleus; its  cir-
 cumference is fixed to Ihe bony extremity of the mca
 tus auditorius: it adheres equally in every  point, and
 presents no opening that might admit a coinmunica
 tion between the external and  middle ear.  Its tissue
 is dry, brittle, and has nothing analogous in the animal
 economy; there are neither li'-ires, vessels, nor nerves,
 found in it.  The circumference of the tympanum pin.
 sents, in the forepart, 1st, The opening of the Eusta-
 chian tube, by whicli the cavity communicates  with
 the superior part of the pharynx; 2dly, The  opening
 by which the  tendon of the  internal  muscle of the
 malleus enters.  Behind are seen, 1st, The opening of
 the mastoid cells,—irregular winding cavities, wliich
 are formed iu  the mastoid process, and which are il-
                                         315 
EAR                                            EAU
ways tilled with air; 2dly, The pyramid, a little hollow
projection, which lodges the muscle of the stapes;
■Idly The opening by which the chorda tympani enters
into'the hollow of the tympanum.  Below, the tympa-
num presents a slit, called glenoid, by which the ten-
don of the anterior muscle of the  malleus enters, and
the cliorda tympani passes out, and goes to unite itself
with the lingual nerve ofthe fifth pair.
  Above, the circumference presents only a few small
openings, by which blood-vessels pass.  The cavity of
the tympanum, and all the canals which end there, are
covered with a very slender  mucous  membrane: this
cavity, which is always full of air, contains besides
four small bones, (the malleus, incus, os orbiculare,
and stapes,) which form a chain from the membrana
tympani to the fenestra ovalis, where the base of" the
stapes  is fixed.   There are some little muscles for the
purpose of moving  this osseous chain, of stretching
and slackening  the membranes to which they are at-
tached : thus, the internal muscle of the malleus draws
it  forward,  bends the chain in this direction, and
stretches the membranes; the  anterior muscle pro-
duces tlie contrary effect: it is  also supposed lhat the
small muscle which is placed  in the  pyramid, and
which  is attached to the meek of the stapes, may give
a slight tension  to  the chain, in  drawing it towards
itself.
  The internal ear, or labyrinth, is  composed of the
cochlea, of the semicircular  canals, and of the ves-
tibule.
  The cochlea is a  bony cavity, in form of a spiral,
from wliich it has taken its name.  This cavity  is  di-
vided into two others, called the gyri of the cochlea,
and which are distinguished into external and internal.
The partition whicli separates them is a plate set edge-
ways, and which in its whole length is partly bony,
and partly membranous.  The external  gyration  com-
municates by the fenestra rotunda with the cavity  of
the tympanum; the internal gyration ends in the ves-
t'bule.
  The semicircular canals are, three cylindrical  cavi-
ties, bent  in a  semicircular form, two of" wliich are
disposed horizontally, and the others vertically. These
canals terminate by their extremities  in the vestibule.
They contain bodies of a  gray colour, the extremities
of which  are terminated by swellings.
  The vestibule is the central cavity, the point of union
of all the others.  It communicates with the tympa-
num by the fenestra ovalis, with the internal gyration
of the cochlea, with the semicircular canals, and with
the internal meatus auditorius, by a great number of
little openings.
  The whole of the cavities of the  internal  ear are
hollowed out of the hardest part of the petrous portion
of the temporal  bone: they are covered wilh an ex-
tremely thin membrane, and are full of a very thin and
limpid fluid, called Liquor  of Cotunnius, which can
flow out by two narrow apertures, known by the name
of the aquaducts of the cochlea, and of the vestibule:
they contain, besides, the acoustic nerve.
  The acoustic nerve proceeds from the fourth ventri-
cle ; it enters into the labyrinth by the holes that the
internal auditory meatus presents in its bottom.  Hav-
ing entered into the vestibule, it separates itself into a
number of branches, one of which remains in the ves-
tibule, another enters into the cochlea, and  two  go to
tne semicircular  canals.   Scarpa has  very minutely
described the distribution of these different branches
in the cavities of the internal ear.
  In terminating this short description, we  remark
that the internal and middle ear are  trave/sed  by
several nervous threads, the  presence of which is, per-
haps, useful to hearing.  It  is known that  the  facial
nerve proceeds a  considerable space in a canal of  the
petrous portion.  In  this canal  it  receives a  small
thread of the vidian  nerve; it furnishes the chorda
tympani,  which  attaches itself  to  this membrane.
There are two other nervous inosculations in the ear;
to one of which  Ribes called the attention of anato-
mists not long since; the other was recently discovered
by Jucobson.
  Ear-wax.  See Cerumen aurium.
  Eari'tes. Haematites, or blood-stone.
  EARTH.  Terra.  Although there seems to be an
almost infinite  variety of earthy substances scattered
on the surface of this globe, yet  when we examine
them wilh a chemical eye,  we find,  not without sur-
      316
prise, that all the earth and stones which -.ve tread un-
der our feet, and which compose the largest rocks, as
well  as the numerous different specimens whicli adorn
the cabinets of the  curious, are composed of a very
few  simple  or elementary earths.   " Analysis has
shown, that the various stony or pulverulent masses,
which form our mountains, valleys, and plains, might
be considered as resulting from the combination oi in-
termixture,  iu  various numbers and proportions, of
nine primitive earths, to which  the following names
were given:
  1.  Barytes.  2. Strontites. 3. Lime.   4. Magnesia.
5. Alumina, or clay.  6. Silica.  7.  Gluciua.  8. Zir-
conia. 9. Yttria.
  Alkalies,  acids, metallic ores, and  native  metals,
were supposed to be of an entirely dissimilar consti-
tution.
  The brilliant discovery by Sir II.  Davy, in 1(508, of
the metallic bases of potassa, soda, barytes, strontites,
and  lime, subverted the  ancient ideas  regarding the
earths, aud taught us to regard them as  all belonging,
by most probable analogies, to the metallic class.
  To the above nine earthy substances,  Berzelius has
lately added a tenth, which he calls thorina.  What-
ever may be the revolutions of chemical nomenclature,
mankind will never cease to consider as earths,  tliose
solid bodies composing the mineral strata, which are
incombustible, colourless, not convertible into metals
by all the ordinary methods of reduction, or when re-
duced by scientific refinements, possessing  but  an
evanescent metallic existence, and which either alone,
or at least when combined wilh carbonic acid, are in-
sipid and insoluble iu water.
  Earth, absorbent.  See Absorbent.
  Earth, aluminous. See Alumina.
  Earth, animal calcareous.  This term is applied  tc
erah's-claws, &c. which contain calcareous earth, and
are obtained from the animal kingdom.
  Earth, argillaceous.  See Alumina.
  Earth-bath.  A  remedy recommended  by  some
writers on the continent, as a specific in consumption.
  Earth, bolar.  See Bole.
  Earth, fullers'.  Cimoliapurpurescens.  A compact
bolar earth, commonly of a grayish colour.  It is some-
times applied  by the  common people  to inflamed
bre-asts, legs, &c. with a view of cooling them.
  Earth, heavy.  See Barytes.
  Earth, Japan.  See Acacia catechu.
  Earth, mineral calcareous.  Those calcareous earths
wliich are obtained from the  mineral kingdom.   The
term is applied in opposition to tliose  obtained from
animals.
  Earth-nut.  See Bunium bulbocastanum.
  Earth, scaled.  Terra  sigillata.  Little cakes of
earths, which  are stamped with impressions.   They
were formerly in high estimation as absorbents, but
now fallen into disuse.
  Earth-worm.  See Lumbricus terrestris.
  Eaton's  styptic.   French  brandy highly impreg-
nated with  calcined  green  vitriol.  A" remedy for
checking haemorrhages.
  [EATON, Amos,  professor in the Rensselaer school,
at Troy, in  the state of  New-York.  Although Pro-
lessor Eaton is still  living, we deem it but justice to
say,  that he is one of the most industrious and inde-
fatigable votaries of natural science in  the slate.  He
has lectured a number of years at Albany and  Troy,
on botany, mineralogy, and geology.  He has publish-
ed a valuable Manual  of Botany  for  the Northern
States, a Geological Section of the Country from Bos-
ton to Lake Erie, and a pamphlet, containing a" Ge-
ological Nomenclature for  North America."  He has
been employed for seven  years  past, under the  direc-
tion  of the Hon. Stephen Van Rensselaer, in travelling
over  different  parts of  Ihe state of New-York, and
those adjoining, and in making geological surveys and
examinations of strata.   He has probably done more
in this  way than any geologist in the  country.  He
promises to publish a System of American Geology, in
which will  be displayed some peculiarities of the for-
maiions in  this country, and show how they differ
from those of the Eastern continent.  A.]
   Eau-de-luce.  See Spiritus ammonite succinates.
   Eau-de-rabcl.  This  is  composed of one part  of
sulphurous acid to three of rectified spirit of wine.   Il
s much used  in France,  when diluted, in the cure of
■gonorrhoeas, leucorrhoea, Sec. 
ECH                                            ECP
  Ebi'scts.   Sec Hibiscus abelmoschits
  EBULLITION.   (Ebullitio.   From  ebullio, lo
bubble up.)   Boiling.  This  consists in the change
which a fluid undergoes from a state of liquidity to
that of an elastic fluid,  in  consequence  of the ap-
plication of heat, which  dilates and converts ll into
vapour.
  E'BULUS.  (From ebullio, to make boil:  so called
because of its supposed use in purifying the  humours
of the body.) See Sambucus ebulus.
  Ecbo'lica.  (From ex6aXXu, to cast out.)  Medi-
cines which cause abortion.
  EcboMos.  (From tAda.XAu, to cast out.)   Miscar-
riage.
  Ecbra smata.  (From cxSpagu, to be  very hot.)
Ecchymata.   Painful fiery pimples in the face, or sur-
face of the bodj
  Ecbra  s.mus.   (From txSpa^u, to become hot.) Fer-
mentation.
  Ecbyrso'.mata.   (Prom tic, and Bvpsu, tlie skin )
Protuberances of the bones at the joints, which appear
through the skin.
  Ecchylo ma.    (Fiom  «,  and xuXos, juice.)  An
extract.
  Ecchy'mata.    (From  nrxvu,  to pour  out.)  See
Ecbrasmatii.
  ECCHYMO MA.    (EKXvpupa ; from  ckxuui, lo
pour out.)  Ecchymosis;  Crustula; Sugillatio.  Ex-
travasation.   A black and blue swelling, either from a
bruise or  spontaneous extravasation of blood.  A ge-
nus of disease iuthe class Locales, and order  Tumores
of Cullen.
  Ecchymoma arteriosum.   The false aneurism.
  ECCHYMO SIS.   S-e Ecchymoma.
  E'CCLISIS.   (From ckkXivu,  to  turn  aside.)  A
luxation or dislocation.
  E CCOPE.  (From tKxoir'Ju, to cut off.)   The cut-
ting off any part.
   Ecco pecs.  (From «kot7u, to cut off.)   An an-
cient instrument, the raspatory, used in trepanning.
   ECCOPRO'TIO.   (Eccoproticus; from  «, and ko-
irpoc, dung.)  An opening medicine, the operation of
Which is very gentle ; such as manna, senna, &.C.
   ECCRINOCRI'TICA.   (From eicicpivw, to secrete,
and xpivu, to judge.)  Judgments formed from the se-
cretions.
   ECCRINOLO'GIA. (From txxptvu, to secrete, and
Xoyos, a discourse.)   Eccrinologica.  The doctrine of
secretions.
   E'CCRISIS.   (From exxpivu, to secrete.)  A secre-
tion of anv  kind.
   ECCRTTICA.  (From  exxptvu, to  secern, or strain
off)  Dr. Good applies this name to a class of diseases
ofthe excement system.  It has three orders, viz. Me-
sotica, Catotica, Acrotica.
   ECCYESIS.   (From or, and  xvnats, gravidity.)
Extra-uteiine fotetation. The name of a genus of dis-
eases in Good's Nosology.  It  has three species: Ec-
cyesis ovaria, tubalis, abdominatis.
  ECCYMO'SIS. See Ecchymoma.
  E CDORA.   (From cxitpu, to excoriate.)   An exco-
riation : and particularly  used for  an excoriation of
the urethra.
  Ecoo'ria.  (From txitpu, to excoriate.)  Medicines
which excoriate and burn through the skin.
  Echeco'llon.  (From  txu, to have, and  icoXXa,
glue.) Echecollum.   Any topical glutinous remedy.
  Echetro'sis.  So Hippocrates calls  the white
briony.
   ECHiNATUS. Bristly.  Applied in botany to any
thing beset  wilh bristles, as the pod of Glycyrrhiza
echinata, and to the gourd seed-vessel, or pepo.
   Echini'des.  In Hippocrates it is mentioned as what
be used for purging the womb with.
  ECHINOPHTHA'LMIA.   (From  r^ivoc, a hedge-
hog, and otpdaXpta, an inflammation ot the eye.)  An
inflammation of that part of the eyelids,  where the
hairs bristle out like the quills of an echinus,  or hedge-
hog.
  ECHINOPO'DIUM.   (From txtvos, a  hedge-hog,
9nd irovs, a foot; so named because its flowers resem-
Ole ihe foot of an urchin.)   A species of  broom or
genista.
  ECHTNOPS. (From extvos, as beset with  prickles.)
The name of a genus ol plants.   Class, Syngenesia;
Order, Polygamia segregata.
   .Viiixops 8PH.tp.ocKruAi.us. The systematic name
of the  giobe thistle.   Crocodilian;  AcanthairUCU'
Seabiosa curduifolia ;  Spharocephala clatis ; Echino-
pus.   It is raised in our gardens.  The rool and seed.
are moderately diuretic, but not used.
  Eciii'nopus.  See Echinops.
  ECHINI'S.  1. The hedgehog, or Frinaceus Eu-
ropaus of Linnaus.
  2.  A genus in  the Linnaean s> stem, ii eluded in the
molusca order of vermes.
  3.  The calcnreous petrifaction of the sen hedge-hog.
  4.  The prominent points on the surface of the pdcus,
or upper part ofthe mushroom lube, are culled echini.
See Fungus.
  ECHIOIDES.   (From  t^ij,  a  viper, and ttios, re-
semblance.)   The trivial iiainie of  some plants, from
their supposed resemblance to Ihe Echium.
  E'CHH'M.  (From  txts, a viper ;  so called because
it was said to heal the slings of \ ipers.)  The name of
a genus of plants in the Linna-an system.  Class, / en-
taiidria ; Order, Monogynia.  Vijier's bugloss.
  Echii.m Atovp-riACUM.   Wall bugloss.  The Aspe-
ntgo agyptiaca, the root of which is sudorific, and is
used with oil nsadressina for wounds.
  E'CIIOS.  Hxof.  Sound.  Iu Hippocrates, it signi-
fies the same as the tinnitus  aurium, or  noise in tbe
ears.
  E'CHYSIS.  (From tx.ua>, to pour out.)  A fainting
or Fwooninc.
  ECLAMPSIA.   (From (xXauirj, to  shine.   See
Eclampsia.
  ECLA MPSIS.  (From cxXapnu, tp shine.  Eel-imp
sia.  It signifies a  splendour,  brightness, effulgence
flashing of light, scintillation.  It is  a flashing huht, or
those sparklings which strike the eyes of epileptic pa-
tients.  Coelius  Aurelianus calls  them circuit  ignci,
scintillations, or fieiy circles.  Though only a  symp-
tom  of the epilepsy, Hippocrates puts it for epilepsy
itself.
  ECLE'CTIC.   (Eclccticus ;  from txXiyu, to select.)
Archigenes  and some others selected from all  othei
sects what appeared  to them to be the best and mosl
rational; hence they were called Eclectics, and theii
medicine Eclectic medicine.
   ECLE'CTOS.  (From eKXeixu, to lick up.   A line-
tus, or soft medicine, like an electuary, to be licked up
   ECLE'GMA.  (From t/cAtix<iJi  to lick.)  A  hnctus,
or form of medicine made by ihe incorporation of oils
with syrups, and which is to be taken upon a  liquor-
ice stick.
   E'CLYSIS.  (From ckXvu.  to  dissolve.)   A uni
versa! faintness.
  ECMA'G.MA.   (From expacou,  to form together.'
A mass of substances kneaded together.
  ECPEPIE'MENOS.  (From  tKiritgu, to press out.)
An ulcer with protuberating lips.
  F.CPHLYSIS.  (KKtpXvois; from ckQXvZu, to boil, ot
bubble up, or over.)  A blain, or vesicular eruption.
The  name of a genus  of disease in Good's Nosology.
It has four species, viz. Ecphltjsis pompholex,  herpes,
rhvpia, and eczema.
  ECPHRA'CTIC.  (From txtbpaoou, to remove ob-
structions   That which attenuates tough humours, sc
as to promote their discharge.
  ECPHRA'XIS.   (From txejipaaau, to remove ob
strucliou.)   A perspiration, an  opening of obstructed
pores-.
  ECPHRONIA.   CE.Ktf>puvt, or cKitpoovvn, from tx-
qipuv, extra mentem, out of one's mind.)  The name
of a  genus in Good's  Nosology.  Insanity and crazi-
ness.  It  has  two species:  Ecpkronia  melancholia,
and Ecphronia mania.
  E'CPHYAS.   (From tx, and 0uo, to produce.)  1.
An appendix, or excrescence.
  9.  The appendicula caeci vermiformis.
  ECPHYMA.   (From txQvu, cdiicn, egero.)   A cu
taneous excrescence.  The name of a genus of diseases
in Good's Nosology.  Class, Eccritica; Order, Aero-
tia.  Il has four species, viz.  Ecphyina caruneula, ver
ruca, clavus, and callus.
  E'cpiiyse.  (From  txcbvoau, to blow out.)  Fidtu«
from the bladder through the urethra, and from the
wound through the vagina.
  Ecphyse'sis.  (From eKtpvcau, to breathe through.)
A quick expulsion ofthe air  from the lungs.
  E'CPHYSIS.  (From txcpvu, to produce.)
  1.  An apophysis, or appendix.
  2.  A process.
                                        317 
ECT
ECT
  EcKE'sma.  (From exirtcZ,u, to press out.)   A frac-
ture of Ihe skull, in which the bones press inwardly.
  Ecpik'smos.  (From eKttcgu, to press out.)   A dis-
order of the eye, in which the globe is  almost  pressed
out of the socket by an afflux of humours.
  Ecplero'ma.  (From eicrtXnpou, to fill.)  In Hippo-
crates they  are  hard balls of leather, or other sub-
stances, adapted  to fill the arm-pits, while by the help
of the heels, placed against the  balls, and repressing
the same, the  luxated 03 humeri is reduced  into its
place.
  ECPLE'XIS. (From txirXticroi, to terrify or astonish.)
A stupor, or astonishment, from sudden external acci-
dents.
  E'cpnoe.  (From txrcvcu, to breathe.)  Expiration;
that partof respiration in whicli the air is expelled from
the lungs.
  ECPT'O'MA.  (From  cxmnfu, to fall out.)  1. A
luxation of a bone.
  l2.  The expulsion of the secundines.
  3.  The falling off of gangrenous parts.
  4.  A hernia  in the scrotum.
  .">.  A falling down of the womb.
  Eci-y'ctica. (From exirvxa^u, to condense.)  Medi-
cines that render the fluids more solid.
  ECPYE'MA.  (From  tx, and itvov, pus.)  A collec-
tion of pus, from the suppuration of a tumour.
  ECPYESIS.   (From  cxnvu, to suppurate.)  The
name of  a  genus  of diseases  in Good's Nosology.
Class, Eccritica ; Order, Acrotica.  Humid scalp.  It
has four species, Ecpyesis impetigo, porrigo, ecthyma,
scabies.
  Ecrk'gma.  (From txpiryvvpi,  to break.)   A rup-
ture.
  Ecre'xis.  (From exprjyvvpt, to break )  A rupture.
Hippocrates  expresses by it  a rupture  or laceration
of the womb.
  Echry'thmos.  (From t/c,  and pvBpos,  harmony.)
A term applied to the pulse, and signifies  that it is irre-
gular.
  Ecroe.   (From expeu, to flow out.)   An efflux, or
the course  by which any humour which  requires
purging is evacuated.
  Eerueles.  The French for scrofula.
  E'crysis.   (From exptu, to flow out.)  In Hippo-
crates it is an efflux of the semen  before it receives  the
conformation of  a  foetus, and therefore is called an
efflux, to distinguish it from abortion.
  ECSARCO'MA.   (From  ex, and aapl,  flesh.)   A
fleshy excrescence.
  E'CSTASIS. (Ecstasis, eos.t. Kxsaais; from tlts-a-
 fni, to be out of one's senses.)  An ecstasy, or trance.
 n Hippocrates it signifies a delirium.
  Ecstro'phius.   (From txc/peqiu, to invert.)  An
epithet for any medicine, thai makes  the  blind piles
appear outwardly.
  Ecthely'nsis. (From ckQcXvvu, to re ndcr  effemi-
nate.)  Softness.  It is applied to the skin and flesh,
when lax and sod, and to bandages, when not suffi-
ciently tight.
  Ecthli'mma.  (From ckOXiSu, to press out against.)
An ulceration caused by pressure of the skin.
  Ecthli'psis.   (From cxBytSu, to press out against.)
Elision, or expression.  It is spoken of swelled eyes,
when they dart forth sparks of light.
  E'CTHYMA.  (Ecthyma, atis. n. cxdvetv, to rage, or
break forth with  fury.) A pustule or cutaneous erup-
tion.
  Ectillo'tica.   (From  txltXXu, to pull out.)   Medi-
cines which eradicate tubercles or corns, or destroy
superfluous hair.
  ECTOPIA.   (From ckjo-xos, out of  place   Dis
placed.
  Ectopic    (The  plural of  ectopia.")   Parts dis-
placed.   An order in the class locales ot  Cullen's No-
sology.  See Nosology.
  F.vTAt c*loga'stros.   (From txlptvopat, to degene-
rate, and yacijp, a belly.)  One who has  a  monstrous
belly, or whose appetite is voraciously large.
  Ectri'mma.  (From txIptGu, to rub off)  An exco-
riation.   In  Hippocrates  it is an  exulceration  of  the
skin about the os sacrum.
  E'ctuope.  (From txlpeitu, to divert, pervert, or  in-
vert.) It is any duct by which the humours arediverled
and drawn off.  In P. .rEgineta it is the same as Ectro-
pium
  ECTROPIUM.   (From txlwj, to  evert.)   An
      311ft
everslon of the eyelids, so that their  internal surfjea
is outermost.
  There are two species of this disease: one produced
by an unnatural swelling  of the lining of the eyelids,
which not only pushes their edges from the eyeball, but
also presses them so forcibly, that they become everted;
the otlier arising from a contraction of the skin cover-
ing  the eyelid, or of that in  the  vicinity,  by which
means the edge of the eyelid is first removed for some
distance from  the eye, and afterward  turned com-
pletely outward, together wilh the whole of the affect
ed eyelid.
  The morbid swelling of the lining of the eyelids,
which causes the first species of  cctropium,  arises
mostly from a congenital laxity of this. membrane,
afterward  increased by chronic ophthahiiies. particu-
larly of  a scrofulous  nature,  in  relaxed,  unhealthy
subjects; or else the  disease originates from  the small-
pox affecting the eyes.
  While the disease is confined to the lower eyelid, aa
it most commonly is, the lining of this part may be ob-
served rising in the form of a senulunarfold, oi' a pale
red colour  like the fungous granulations of wounds,
and intervening between the eye and eyelid, whicli lat-
ter it in some measure everts.  When the swelling is
afterward  occasioned by  the  lining of both the eye-
lids, the disease assumes an annular shape, in the cen-
tre  of which the eyeball seems sunk, while the circum-
ference of the ring presses and everts the edges of the
two eyelids, so as to cause both great uneasiness and
deformity.   In each of the above cases, on piesting the
skin of the eyelids with the point of the finger, it. be-
comes manifest that Ihey are  very capable of being
elongated, and would readily yield, so as entirely to
cover the eyeball, were they not prevented by the in-
tervening swelling of their membranous lining.
  Besides  the very considerable deformity which the
disease produces, it occasions a continual discharge of
tears over the cheek, and, what is worse, a dryness of
the  eyeball, frequent exasperated attacks of chronic
ophthalmy, incapacity  to  bear the  light, and, lastly
opacity and ulceration of the cornea.
  The second species  of  ectropium,  or that arising
from a contraction of the integuments of the eyelids,
or  neighbouring  pails, is not unfrequently a conse-
quence of  puckered  scars, produced  by a confluent
sinall-pox,  deep burns, or the  excision of cancerous 01
encysted tumours, without saving a sufficient quantity
of skin; or, lastly, the disorder is the effect of malig-
nant carbuncles, or any kind of wound attended with
much loss of substance.  Each of these causes is quite
enough to bring on such a contraction of the skin of
the eyelids  as lo draw the parts towards the arches of
the orbits, so as to remove them from the eyeball, and
turn their edges outward.  No sooner has this circum-
stance happened, than it is often followed by another
one equally unpleasant, namely, a  swelling of the in-
ternal membrane of the affected eyelids, which after-
ward has a great share in  completing the eversion.
The lining of the eyelids, though trivially everted,
being continually exposed  lo the air, nnd irritation of
extraneous  substances,  soon swells, and rises up like
fungus.  One side of this fungous-like tumour covers a
part of the eyeball; the other pushes the evelid so con-
siderably outwards, that its edge is not  unfrequently in
contact with the margin of the orbit.  The complaints
induced by this seecoiid species of ectropium arc the
same as those brought on by the first; it being noticed,
however, that in  both cases, whenever the disease is
very inveterate, the fungous swelling of Ihe inside of
tlie  eyelids  becomes hard, and as it were callous.
  Although, in both species of ectropium, the lining of
the  eyelids  seems equally swollen, vet the surgeon can
easily distinguish to wliich of the "two species the dis-
ease belongs.   For, in the first, the skin of the eyelids,
and adjoining parts, is not deformed with scars; and
hy pressing the everted  eyelid with the point of the
finger, the part would with ease cover the eye, were it
not  for the  intervening fungous swelling.  But in the
second species of ectropium, besides the obvious cica-
trix and contraction of the skin of the eyelids, or adja-
cent parts, when an effort is  made to cover the eye
with the everted eyelid, by pressing upon the latter part
with the point of the finger, It does not give way so aa
completely  to  cover  the globe, as it ought to do, only
yielding for a certain extent: or it does not move in tho
least from its unnnatural  position, by reason of tin 
E1S
ELA
 integuments of the eyelids hiving been so extensively
 destroyed, that their  margin has become adherent tu
 the arch of  theorbil.
   ECTRO'SIS.  (Kx-rpuots: from cxjilpuaxu, to mis-
 carry.)  A miscarriage.
   Ectro'tu-a.  (From cx'JtJpuoKu, to miscarry.)  Ec-
 tyrottca; Ectylotica.   Medicines  which cause abor-
 tion.
   Eutylo tic a.  See Ectillotica.
   Ectyi-.o n, a.  See Ectrotica.
   ECZEMA.  (From e/cgtio, to boil out.)  Eciesma. A
 hot, painful eruption, or pustule.
   Ede lpiius.  The prognosis of a disease from the
 nature of elements.
   EDULCURA NTIA.  (From edulco, to make sweet.)
 Edulcorants. Medicines which  purify tlie fluids, by
 depriving them  of their acrimony.
   EFFERVESCENCE.  (Effer'vescentia; from effcr-
 vesco, to grow  hot.)  1.  That agitation which is pro-
 duced by mixing substances together, which cause the
 evolution of a i;as.
  2. A small degree of ebullition.
   E fula.   Freckles.
   EFFLORESCENCE.   (Effiorescentia;  from effio-
 rcsco, lo blow as a flower.)   1. In pathology, il is used
 to express a  morbid redness of Ihe skin, and is gene-
 rally synonymous with exanthema.
  2. In chemistry, it means thai effect  which takes
 place  when  bodies  spontaneously  become  converted
 into a dry powder.  It is almost always  occasioned
 by the loss of the  water of crystallization in saline
 bodies.
   3. In botany, it is applied to express the blooming of
 flowers, and the- 'hue of flowering.
   EFFLUVIUM.   (From effiuo, to spread abroad.)
 See Contagion.
   Effiuc tc ra.  (From effringo, to break down.; A
 fracture, in which  the bone is much depressed by tho
 blow.
   EFFUSION.  (Effusio ; from effundo, to pour out.)
 In pathology ji  means the escape of any fluid ouiol
 the vessel, or viscus, naturally containing it, and its
 lodgment in  another cavity, in the cellular substance,
 or iu the substance of parts.  Effusion also sometimes
 signifies the  morbid secretion  of fluids from  the ves
 sels ; thus physicians frequently speak of coagulable
 lymph bi'ing ert'used on different surfaces.
   EGE It A N.  A sub-species of pyramidal garnet of a
 reddish-brown colour.
   Eue'ries. (From  egero, to carry out.)  Egestio.
 Au excretion, or evacuation.
   EGG.  Ovum.  The eggs of hens, and  of birds in
 general, are  composed of several distinct substances.
 1. The shell or external coaling, which is composed of
 carbonate of lime  ."--*, phosphate of lime .2, gelatine
 .3. The remaining .23 are perhaps water.   2. A thin
 white and strong membrane, possessing the usual cha-
 racters of animal substances.   3. The white of the
 egg, for whicli, see Albumen.  4. The yelk, which ap-
 pears  to consist of  an oil  of the  nature of fat oils,
 united with   a portion of serous matter, sufficient to
 render it diffusible in cold water, in the form of an
 emulsion, and coucrecible by heat.   Yelk of egg L
 used as the medium for tendering resins aud oils diffu-
 sible in water.  The eggs of poultry are chiefly used as
 food, the dilferent parts .ire likewise employed in phar-
 macy and iu medicine. The calcined shell is esteemed
 as an absorbent. The oil is  softening, and is used ex-
 ternally to bums and chaps.  The yelk renders oil mis-
 cible with water, and is triturated with the same view
 with resinous and  other  substances. Raw eggs have
 been  much  recommended  as  a  popular remedy  for
 [auudice.
   Egreoo'rsis.  (From  typnyopeu,  to watch.)  A
 watchfulness, or want of sleep.
  Ei'lamis   (From ctXtu, to involve.)  A membrane
 involving the brain.
  Eile'ma.   (From ctXtu, to form convolutions.)  In
Hippocrates,  il signifies painful convolutions ofthe in-
testines from flatulence.  Sometimes it signifies a co-
vering.  Vogel says, it is a fixed pain in the bowels, as
if a nail was driven in.
  Ei'leon.  (From etXtu, to wind.)   Gonaeus says it
is a name of the intestiuuiii ileum.
  Ei'leos.  (From etXeu, to form convolutions.) The
iliac passion.
  Ei'sbole.   (From hj,  into, and BaXXu, to cast.)  It
i signifies strictly an injection, but is used to express tlis
 access of ;i distemper, or of a particular paroxysm.
   Ei si-noe.  (From «$, into, and  mini, to breathe./
 Inspiration of air.
   l'.IA'  ULA NTIA.   (From ejaculo, to cast out.)
| Ejaculatoria.  The vessels which convey the seminal
 matter secreted in the testicles to  the  penis.   These
 are Ihe epididymis, and the vusa de-ferenlia; the vesi-
 cul;e seminales are the receptacles of ihe semen.
   EJE'CTIO.   (From ejicio, to cast  out.)  Ejection,
! or the discharging of any thing from the body.
   Ei.aca'lli.  The Indian name of n cathartic shrub,
 Ihe Euphorbia nervifolia, of Linnu-us.
   El.va'gnon.  (From cXatov, oil, and ayvos, chaste.)
 See Vitex agnus castus.
   El.co'meli.   (From  iXatov,  oil,  and pcXt, honey.)
 A sweet 'mrsing oil, like honev.
   ELjEOS.Y'CCHARUM.  (From  tXcitov, oil,  and
 ocxxapw, sugar.)   A mixture of an essential oil with
 smear.
   El.soseli'num.  See Elcosclinum.
   ELA1N. The oily principle of solid fats, so named
 by ils discoverer,  Chevreuil, who dissolves tallow in
 very  pure hot alkohol, separates the stearin  by crys-
 tallization, and ihen procures the elain by evapoiation
 of the spirit.  Brncoiuiot  has adopted a simpler, and
 probably a more exact method.  By squeezing tallow
 between the folds of porous paper, ihe elain soaks into
 it, while the stearin remains.  The paper being then
 soaked in water,  and pressed, yields up ils oily im-
 pregnation.  Elain has very much the appearance and
 properties of vegetable oil.  It is liquid at the tempera-
 ture of G0°.  Its smell  and colour are  derived from
 ihe solid fats from wliich it is extracted.
   [" Mr. Pictet's method of procuring elaine, consists
 in pouring upon oil a concentrated solution of caustic
 soda, stirring the mixture, heating it slightly to sepa-
 rate the ciaine from the soap of the stearine,  pouring
 il on a cloth, and  then separating by  decantalion the
 elfline from the excess of alkaline solution.— Webster's
 Man. of Chemistry.  A.l
   Elais guinbk'nsis.  A species of palm which grows
 spontaneously on the coast of Guinea, but is much cul-
 tivated in the West Indies.  It  is from this tree  that
 the oil, called in the West Indies Mackaw fat, is ob-
 tained : and, according to some, the palm-oil, which is
 considered as  an emollient and strengthencr  of all
 kinds of weakness of  the limbs.  It also is recom-
 mended against bruisc3, strains, cramps, pains, swell-
 ings, Sec.
   Elambica'tio,   A method of  analyzing mineral
 waters.
   ELAOLITE.  A subspecies  of pyramidal  felspar.
   ELAPHOBO'SCUM.   (From tXn$ot, a stag,  and
 Boaxu, to eat: so called, because deer eat Ihcm greedi
 ly.)  See  Pcstinaca.
   ELAPHOSCO'UODON.  (From  tXaq>os, the stag,
 and oxopJiov, e.arlic.)  Stag's or viper's garlic.
   Ela'sma.  (From tXavvu, to  drive.)  A lamina of
 any kind.  A clyster-pipe.
   ELASTIC.  (Elasltcus; from tXasvS, impulsor, or
 of cXnvvttv, to impel, to push.)   Springy ; having the
 power of returning to the form from which it has been
 forced to deviate, or from which it is withheld; thus,
 a  blade of steel is said to be elastic,  because if it is
 bent to a certain degree, and thou let go, il will of it-
 self rel'irn to its former situation; the  same will hap-
 pen to the branch of a tree, a piece of Indian rubber
 Sec  See  Elasticity.
   Elastic fluid.  See  Gas.
   Elastic gum.  See Caoutchouc.
   ELASTICITY.   Elastizitas.  A force in bodies, by
 which they endeavour  lo restore themselves to the
 posture from whence  ihey were  displaced by  any ex
 temal force.  To solve this property,  many have re
 course to  the universal  law of nature, attraction, by
 which the parts of solid and firm bodies are caused to
 cohere together:   whereby, when  hard bodies  arc
 struck or bent, so that the component parts are a  little
 moved from  one another, but not quite disjoined or
 broken oft', nor separated so far as to  be out of ihe
 power -of the attracting force, by which Ihey cohere
 together;  ihey certainly must, on the cessation of the
 external violence, spring back with n very great velo-
 city to their former state.   But in  this circumstance,
 the atmospherical pressure will account for it as well -
 because such a violence, if it be not great enough to
                                        3)9 
ELA
ELE
 separate the constituent particles of a body far enough
 to let in any foreign iratter, must occasion many va-
 cuole between the separated surfaces, so that upon the
 removal of the external force, they will close again by
 the pressure of the aerial fluid upon the external parts,
 i. e. the body will come again into iu natural posture.
 The included  air, likewise, in most  bodies, gives that
 power of resilition upon their percussion.
  If two bodies  perfectly elastic strike, one against
 Rnother, there will be or remain in each the same rela-
 tive  velocity as before, i. e. they will recede with the
 same velocity as they met together.   For the compress-
 ive force, or the magnitude of the stroke in any given
 bodies, arises from the relative velocity of tliose bodies,
 and is proportional  to  it, and bodies perfectly elastic
 will  restore themselves completely to the  figure they
 had  before the shock; or, in otlier words, the resti-
 tutive force is equal to the compressive, and therefore
 must be equal  to the force with which they came to
 gether, and consequently they must, by elasticity, re-
 code again from  each  other  with the same velocity.
 Hence, taking equal times before and after the shock,
 the distances between  the bodies will  be equal:  and
 therefore the distances of them from the common cen-
 tre of gravity will, in the same  times, be equal.  And
 her.ce the laws of percussion of bodies perfectly elastic
 are easily deduced.
  ELATE'RIUM.   (From  cXavvu, to stimulate or
 agitate:  so named from its great purgative qualities.)
 See Momordica elaterium.
  ["The Momordica elaterium is a perennial plant,
 growing spontaneously  in the south  of  Europe.  Tlie
 fruit, which is botanioally allied to the  cucumber and
 melon, has ihe curious property of separating itself,
 when ripe, from its stalk,  and ejecting its  seeds with
 great force through an opening in the base, where the
stalk was attached.  The medicinal property  resides
chiefly in the juice at the centre of the fruit, and about
 the seeds. The drug called Elaterium in our  Phar-
macopoeia, and which Ihe London College have, with
some latitude of application, called an  extract, is the
sediment which subsides from  the  juice of the fruit
after it has been drawn out.  The quantity of genuine
elaterium contained in a single fruit is extremely small,
as it appears that only six grains were obtained by
 Dr. Clutterbuck from forty of the cucumbers.   The
plant might be raised in this country.
  " Elaterium is sold in small, thin cakes, or fragments,
of a greenish colour, and a bitter and somewhat acrid
taste.  It is liable to vary in strength, according to the
mode of its  preparation.   If the juice has been  ex-
tracted  with much  pressure, ihe sediment contains
portions  of the fruit which are comparatively inac-
tive, and which, of course, lend to lessen its activity.
 In selecting elaterium, those specimens which have a
very dark colour,  are compact and  heavy, and break
 with a shining resinous fracture, are to be rejected as
 bad.
  "This drug is  one of the most violent cathartics.
 It was employed by the ancients as  a hydrugogue in
dropsy, in a form not dissimilar to  that used  at  the
 present  day.   It was also used  by the Arabians, and
 in more modern times  by Boerhaave, Sydenham, and
 Lister    Q.uite recently  it has been highly recom-
 mended in dropsy by some distinguished English phy-
 sicians, and  their practice has been  successfully imi-
 tated in this country; although the great uncertainty
 of its operation has  repeatedly caused it to be aban-
 (oned.  It has  the peculiar property of not only pur-
 ging, but at  the same time exciting  a febrile  notion,
 whicli Lister describes as attended with a  throbbing
 that  is felt to the fingers' ends.  Orfila found  that u
 large dose, given to a dog, brought on inflammation of
 the stomach, bul when  injected in two cases into  the
 cellular texture of the thigh, the rectum was the only
 part of the canal whicli became inflamed.   Hence he-
 concludes, that the medicine has some peculiar action
 on that organ.
  " The uncertainty  arising from the different  prepa-
 rations of this medicine may be inferred from the cir-
 cumstance, that Fallopius gave it in doses of" a drachm,
 while Dr. CIutlefbttck found one-eighth  of a grain to
 purge violently.   The strength of any particular par-
 cel ought always to  be tested by small doses, be-fore it
 Is ventured on in any considerable quantity.  Ofthe ar-
 ticle imported into this country, I have given from one
 to two grains iu a pill three limes a  day, without any
excessive operation resulting  from  it."—Big. Mat
Med.  A.l
   ELATHE'RIA.  A name for the  cascarilla  bark
   ELAT1N.  The active principle of elaterium.  See
Momordica elaterium.
   ELATTNE.   (From  iXofJTuv, smaller, being the
smaller species.)  See Antirrhinum elaline.
   ELATIO.  Elevated, exalted.   This term  is ap-
plied in Good's Nosology,  to a  species of the  genua
Alusio, to designate mental extravagance.
   Elati'tks.  Bloodstone.
   ELCO'SIS.  (From tXxos, an ulcer.)  A disease at-
tended with foetid, carious, and chronic ulcers.   The
term is seldom used.
   E L D ER.   See Sambucus.
   Elder, dwarf.  See Sambucus Ebulus.
   ELECAMPANE.  See Inula  helcnium.
   ELECTIVE.   That which is done, or passes, by
election.
   Elective affinity, double.  See Affinity double.
   Elective attraction.  See Affinity.
   Elective attraction, double.  See Affinity double
   ELECTRICITY.  (Electricitas;  from  electrum,
rjXtKTpov, from rfXcK]up, the sun, because of its  bright
shining colour; or from cXxu, to draw, because of its
magnetic power.)  A property which certain bodies
possess  when rubbed, heated, or otherwise excited,
whereby they attract remote bodies,  and frequently
emit sparks or streams of light.  The ancients first ob-
served this property in amber, whicli they called Elec-
trum, and hence arose the word electricity.
  " If a piece of sealing-wax and of dry warm flannel
be rubbed against each other, they both become  capa-
ble of attracting and repelling light bodies. A dry and
warm sheet of writing-paper, rubbed with India rub-
ber, or a tube of glass  rubbed upon silk, exhibit the
same phenomena.  In these cases, the bodies are said
to be electrically  excited; and when in a dark  room,
they always  appear luminous.   If two  pith-balls be
electrified by touching them with the  sealing-wax, or
with the flannel, they repel each other; but if one
pith-ball be electrified by the wax, and  the other by the
flannel,  they attract each other.  The same applies to
the glass and silk: it shows a difference in the electri-
cities of the different bodies, and  the experiment  leads
to the conclusion, that bodies similarly electrified rcprl
each other ; but that when dissimilarly electrified, they
attract each other.
  The term  electrical repulsion is here used merely to
denote the appearance ofthe phenomenon, the separa-
tion being probably referrible lo the   new attractive
power whicli they acquire, when electrified, for the air
and oilier surrounding bodies.
  If one ball be electrified  by sealing  wax rubbed by
flannel,  and another by silk rubbed with glass, those
balls will repel each other;  which proves that the
electricity of the silk is the same as that of the sealing-
wax.  But if one  ball be electrified by  the sealing-wax
and  the other by ihe glass,  they then  attract  each
other, showing that they are oppositely electrified.
  These experiments are most conveniently performed
with a large downy feather, suspended  by a silken
thread.  If an excited glass tube  be brought near it,  i
will receive and  retain its electricity; it will be firs
attracted and then repelled ; and upon re-exciting tin
tube, and again approaching it, it will not again  be at-
tracted,  but retain its state  of repulsion; but upon ap-
proaching it  with  excited sealing-wax, it will instantly
be attracted, and  remain in contact with the wax till
it has acquired its electricity, when it will be repelled,
and in that  state of repulsion it w ill be attracted by
the glass.  In  these experiments, care  must be  taken
that the feather remains freely suspended in the air,
and  touches  nothing capable of  carrying  off its elec-
tricity.
  The terms  vitreous nnd resinous electricity  were
applied  to these two phenomena; but Franklin, ob-
serving that  ihe  same electricity was  not inherent in
the same body, but that glass sometimes exhibited tlie
same phenomena as wax, and rice versa, adopted ano-
ther term, and instead of regarding the phenomena as
dependent upon two electric fluids, referred them to
the presence of one fluid, in excess in some cases, and
in deficiency in others.   To represent  these stales, he
used the terms plus and minus, positive and negative.
When glass is rubbed with silk, a portion of electri-
city U aves the silk and enters the glass; it becomes vo 
ELE
ELE
sttive, therefore, and the silk negative: but when seal-
Ing-wax is rubbed with flannel, the wax loses, and the
flannel gains;  the former, therefore, is negative, and
the latter positive.  All bodies in nature are thus re-
garded as containing the electric  fluid, and when its
equilibrium is  disturbed, they exhibit the  phenomena
just described.   The substances enumerated in the fol-
lowing tat Ic become positively electrified when rubbed
with  tln.se which follow them in  the list; but with
those  which precede  them they become  negatively
olectricU.— Riot, Traiti de Physique, torn ii. p. 220.
       Cat's-skin.               Paper.
       Polished glass.            Silk.
       Woolen cloth.            Gum lac.
       Feathers.                Rough glass.
  Very delicate pith-balls,  or strips of gold  leaf, are
usually employed in ascertaining the presence of elec-
tricity : and by tho way in which their divergence is
effected by glass or sealing-wax, the kind or state of
electricity is judged of.  When properly suspended or
mounted for delicate experiments,  they form an elec-
trometer or electroscope.  For this purpose, the slips of
gold leaf are suspended  by a brass cap and wire in a
glass  cylinder: they hang in contact when unelec-
trified, but when electrifii d they diverge.
  When  this  instrument,  as usually constructed,
becomes in a small degree damp, its delicacy is much
diminished, and it is rendered nearly uscle-s.
  The kind of electricity by which the gold leaves are
diverged may be judged of by approaching the cap of
the instrument with a stick of excited sealing-wax;  if
it be negative, tlie divergence will increase ; if positive,
tlie leaves will collapse, upon the principle of the mu-
tual annihilation of the opposite  electricities, or that
bodies similarly electrified  repel each  otlier, but that
when dissimilarly electrified, they become mutually
attractive.
  Some bodies suffer electricity to  pass through their
substance, and are called conductors. Others only
receive it upon the spot touched, and are called non-
conductors. The  former do not, in general, become
electrified by  friction, and  are called  non-electrics:
the latter, on the contrary, are electrics, or acquire elec-
 tricity by friction.  They are also  called insulators.
 The  metals are all conductors; dry air, glass, sulphur,
 and resins, are non-conductors.  Water, damp wood,
 spirit of wine, damp air, and some oils, are imperfect
conductors.
  Rarified air admits of the passage of electricity; so
does  the Jarricellian vacuum ; hence, if an electrified
body be placed under the receiver of the air-pump, it
loses  ils electricity during exhaustion. So that  the
air, independent of* its non-conducting power, appears
to influence the retentive properties of bodies, in re-
spect  to electricity, by its pressure.
  There appears to be no constant relation between the
state of bodies  and their conducting powers: among
solids, metals are conductors ; but gums and resins are
non-conductors: among liquids, strong alkaline acid,
and saline solutions, are good conductors;  pure water
is an iniperfectconductor, and oils are non-conductors ;
solid wax is almost a non-conductor ; but when melted
a good one.
  Conducting powers  belong to bodies in the most op-
posite stales; thus,  the  flame of alkohol and  ice  are
equally good conductors.  Glass  is  a  non-conductor
when cold, but conducts when red-hot: the diamond
is a non-conductor; but pure and well-burned char-
coal is among the best conductors.
  There are many mineral substances which show
signs  of electricity  when heated,  as the  tourmalin,
topaz, diamond, boracite, &c, and in these bodies the
different surfaces exhibit different electrical states.
  Whenever one part of a body, or system of bodies,
is positive, another part is  invariably negative;  and
these  opposite electrical states are always such as ex-
actly  to neutralize each other.  Thus, in the common
electrical machine, one conductor receives tlie eleclri-
city of the glass-cylinder, and the  other  that of the
silk-rubber, and the former  conductor is positive,  and
the litter negative; but, if they be connected, all elec-
trical phenomena cease.
  Electricians generally employ the term quantity to
Indicate the absolute quantity of electric power in  any
body,  and  the  term intensity, to signify its power of
passing through a certain stratum of air, or other ill-
conducting medium.
                                          X
  If we suppose a charged Leyden phial to furnish a
spark, when discharged,  of one  inch in length, we
should find  that another uncharged Leyden phial, the
inner and outer coating of whicli were communicated
with tliose of the former, would, upon the smne auan
tity of electricity being thrown in, reduce the length of
the spark  to half an  inch;  here the quantity of elec-
tricity remaining the  same, its intensity is diminished
by one-half, by its distribution over the larger surface
  It isobvious that the extension of surface >.lluiled to
in the last paragraph  will  be attended with  » greatei
superficial exposure to the unclcctrifled air; and'hence
it might be expected  that a similar diminution of in
tensity would result from the vicinity of the electrified
surface to the ground, or to any otlier body of sufficient
magnitude in its ordinary Mate.  That this is the-aasc,
may be shown by diverging the leaves of the gold leaf
electrometer, and iu that state approaching the instru-
ment with an uninsulated plate, wliich, w hen within
half an inch of the electrometer plate, will cause the
leaves tp collapse, but, on  removing  the uninsulated
plate, they will again  diverge, in consequence  of the
electricity regaining its former intensity.  The same
fact is shown by the condensing electrometer.
  The power of the Leyden jar is proportioned to its
surface; but a very large jar Is inconvenient and diffi-
cult to procure ; the same ead is attained by arranging
several jars, so that by a communication existing be-
tween all their interior coatings, their exterior being
also united,  they may  be charged  and discharged as
one jar.  Such  a combination is  called an  electrical
battery, and is useful for exhibiting the effect of accu
mulatcd electricity.
  The discharge of the battery is attended by a consi-
derablc report, and if it be passed through small  ani-
mals, it instantly kills  them; if through fine metallic
wires, they  are ignited, melted, and burned; and gun
powder, cotton sprinkled with powdered resin, and a
variety of other combustibles, may be inflamed by the
same means.
  There  are many other  sources of electricity than
those just noticed.  When glass is rubbed by mercury,
it becomes  electrified; and  this is  the cause of the
luminous appearance  observed when a barometer is
agitated in a dark room, in whicli case flashes of light
are seen to traverse the empty part of" the tube.  Even
the friction of air upon glass is attended by electrical
excitation :  for Wilson found, that by blowing upon a
dry plate of glass with a pair of bellows, it acquired a
positive electricity.  Whenever  bodies  change thuir
forms, their  electrical states  are also altered.   Thus,
the conversion of water into vapour, and the conge-la
tion of melted  resins  and sulphur are processes in
which electricity is also rendered sensible.
  When an insulated plate of zinc  is brought  into
contact with one of copper or silver,  it is found, after
removal, to  be positively electrical, and Ihe silver or
copper is left in the opposite state.
  The most oxidisable metal is always positive, In
relation lo the least oxidisable metal, which is nega-
tive, and the more opposite the metals in these respects
the greater the electrical excitation ; and if the metals
be placed  in the following order,  each will become
positive by the contact ol' that which precedes it, and
negative by the contact of that whicli follows it;  and
the greatest  efl'ect will result from the contact of the
most distant metals.
      Platinum.      Mercury.       Tin.
      Gold.           Copper.        Lead.
      Silver.         Iron.           Zinc.
  If the nerve of a recently killed  frog be attached to
a silver probe, and a piece of zinc be brought into the
contact of the  muscular parts of the animal, violent
convulsions  are  produced every time the metals thus
connected are made to touch each other.  Exactly the
same effect is produced by an electric spark, or the dis
charge of a very small Leyden-phial.
  If a piece of zinc be placed upon the tongue, and a
piece  of silver under  it, a peculiar sensation will bo
perceived every time the two metals are made to touch.
  In these cases the chemical properties of the metals
are observed to be effected.   If a silver and zinc wire
be put into a wine glass full  of dilute sulphuric acid,
the zinc wire will only evolve gas; but upon bringing
the two wires in contact with each  other, the silver
will also copiously produce air bubbles.
  If a number of alterations be made of copper or sil
                                         321 
ELE
ELE
vei leaf zinc leaf, and thin paper, the electricity ex-
cited by the contact of the metals will be rendered evi-
dent to the common electrometer.
  If the same arrangement  be made with the paper
moistened with brine, or a weak acid, it will be found,
on bringing a wire communicating with the last copper
plate into contact with the first zinc plate, that a spark
is  perceptible, and also a slight shock,  provided the
number of alternations be sufficiently numerous. This
is the voltaic apparatus.
  Several modes of constructing this apparatus have
been adopted with a view to render it  more conve-
nient or active.  Sometimes  double  plates of copper
and zinc soldered together, are cemented into wooden
troughs in regular order, the intervening cells  being
filled with water, or saline, or acid solutions.
  Another form consists in arranging a row of glasses,
containing dilute sulphuric acid, in each of which is
placed a wire, or plate of silver, or copper, and one of
zinc, not touching each other, but  so connected by
metallic wires, that the zinc of the first cup may com-
municate with the copper of the second ; the zinc of
the second  with the copper of the third ; and  so on
throughout the series.
  When the poles of the  Voltaic apparatus are con-
nected by a steel wire, it requires magnetic properties,
and if by a platinum, or other metallic wire, that wire
exhibits numerous magnetic poles, whiih attract and
repel the common magnetic needle. This very rurious
fact was first observed by Professor Oersted, of Copen-
hagen.
  On immersing the wires from the extremes of this
apparatus into water, it is found that the fluid suffers
decomposition, and that oxygen gas is liberated at the
positive wire or pole, and hydrogen gas at the negative
pole.
  All other  substances are decomposed with similar
phenomena, the inflammable element being disengaged
at the  negatively electrical  surface; hence it would
appear, upon the principle of similarly electrified
bodies  repelling each other, and dissimilarly electrified
bodies attracting each other, that the inherent or  natu-
ral electrical stale of the inflammable substances is
positive, for they are attracted by the negative or op-
positely electrified pole; while the bodies, called sup-
porters  of combustion,  or acidifying principles, are
attiacted by the positive pole, and, therefore, may be
considered as possessed of the negative power.
  When bodies  are thus under the  influence of elec-
trical decomposition, their usual chemical energies arc
suspended, and some very curious phenomena are ob-
served.
  The  most difficult decomposable compounds may be
thus resolved into their component parts by the elec-
trical  agency; by a weak power the proximate ele-
ments  are separated, and by a stronger power  these
are resolved into their ultimate constituents.
  All  bodies which exert powerful chemical agencies
upon each other when freedom of motion is given to
their particles, render each other oppositely electrical
when acting as masses.  Hence Sir H. Davy, the great
and successful investigator of this branch of chemical
philosophy,  has supposed that electrical and chemical
phenomena, though in themselves quite  distinct, may
be dependent on one and the same power, acting iu the
former case upon masses of  matter,  in the other upon
its particles.
  The power of the Voltaic apparatus to communicate
divergence to the electrometer, is most observed when
it is well insulated, and filled with pure water; but ils
power of producing ignition and of giving shocks, and
of producing the other effects observed when its poles
are connected, are much augmented by the interpo-
sition of dilute acids, which act chemically upon one
of the plates: here the insulation is interfered with by
the production of vapour, but  the quantity of elec-
tricity  is much increased, a circumstance which  may,
perhaps, be referred to the increase of the positive
energy of  the most oxidisable metal  by the contact of
the acid  In experiments made with the great battery
of the  Royal Institution, it has been found  that 120
plates rendered active by a mixture of one part of ni-
tric acid, and tliree of water, produces effects equal to
*80 plates rendered active by one part of nitric acid,
and fifteen of water.
  In the Voltaic pile, the intensity of the electricity
increases with the  number  of alternations  but the
      •Jiti
quantity is Increased by extending the surface of (he
plates.  Thus, if a  bafUery, composed of thirty pairs
of plates, two inches square, be compared w ith another
battery of thirty pairs of twelve inches square charged
in the same way, no difference will  be perceived in
their effects upon bad or imperfect conductors; their
powers of decomposing water,  and of giving shocks,
will be similar; but upon good conductors the effects
of the large plates will be considerably greater than
those of tlie small: they will  ignite and fuse large
quantities of platinum  wire, and produce a very br
liant spark between charcoal points.   The following
experiment well illustra. es  the  different  effects of
quantity and intensity in l'ie Voltaic apparatus
  Immerse the platinum wires connected with the ex
tremity of a charged battery composed of twelve-inch
plates into water, and it will be found lhat the evolu-
tion of gas is nearly the same as that occasioned by a
similar number of two-inch plates.  Apply the moist-
ened fingers to the wires, and the shock will be  the
same as if there were  no connexion by  the waler
While the circuit exists through the human body and
the  waler, let a wire attached to a thin slip of char-
coal be made to connect the poles of the battery, and
the charcoal will become vividly ignited.  The  watei
and  the animal substance discharge the electricity of a
surface, probably, not superior to their own surface of
contact with the metals ; tlie wires discharge all  tbe
residual electricity of the  plates; and if a similar ex-
periment be made on plates of an inch square, there
will scarcely be any sensation  when the- hands  are
made to connect  the ends  of  the battery, a circuit
being previously made through water; and no spark,
when charcoal Is made the medium of connexion, im-
perfect conductors  having been  previously  applied,
These  relative effects of quantity and intensity were
admirably illustrated by the experiments instituted by
Children,  who constructed  a battery, the plates of
which were two feet eight inches wide, and  six feet
high.  They were fastened to a beam, suspended by
counterpoises, from the  ceiling of his laboratory, so as
to be easily immersed into, or withdrawn from  the
cells of acid.   The  effects ujion metallic  wires, and
perfect conductors, were extremely intense-, but upon
imperfect conductors, such as  the human body, and
water, they were feeble.—Phil.  Trans. 1815, p. 363.
  When the extremes of a battery composed  of large
plates are  united by wires of different metals, it is
found that some are more easily ignited than others,
a circumstance which has been referred to iheir con-
ducting powers: thus platinum is more easily ignited
than silver, nnd silver than  zinc.  If the  ignition  be
supposed to result from the resistance to the  passage
of electricity, we should say that the zinc conducted
better than silver, and the silver than platinum.
  An important improvement has been suggested  in
the construction of the Voltaic apparatus, by Dr. Wol
laston, (Annals of Philosophy,  SepL 1815,; by which
great increase of quantity is obtained, without incon-
venient augmentation ofthe size of line plates; it con
sists in extending  the copper plate, so as to oppose  il
to every surface of the zinc.
  Willi the single pair of plates, of very small dimen
sions, constructed upon this  principle," Dr. Wollaston
succeeded in fusing aud  igniting a fine platinum wire.
This is the most economical and useful  form of the
Voltaic apparatus; certainly, at least, it is so for all
those researches in which there is an occasional  de
mand for quantity ns well as intensity of electricity.
  The theory of the  Voltaic pile is involved in many
difficulties.   The original source of electricity  appears
to depend upon the contact of the metals, for we  know
that  a plate of silver and  a plate of zinc, or of any othei
difficultly and easily oxidisable metals, become neg*
live  and positive on contact.   The accumulation musl
be referred  to induction, which  takes place in the elec-
trical column, through the very thin stratum of air, oi
paper, and through water, when that fluid is interposed
between the plates.   Accordingly,  we observe, thai
the apparatus  is in the condition of the series of con
ductors, with interposed air, and ofthe Leyden phials.
When the electric column is insulated, the extiemities
exhibit feeble negative  and  positive powens, but i,
either extremity be connected  with  the  ground,  tho
electricity of its polos or extremities isgreatly increased
as may be shown by the increased  divergence of the
leaves of the electrometer which then ensues 
ELE
ELE
  As general changes in  the form and constitution -of
matter are connected with its electrical states, it is ob-
rious that electricity must be continually active in na-
ture.   Its effects are exhitti led on  a magnificent scale
iu the  thunder-storm, which results from the accumu-
lation of electricity in tlie clouds, as was tirsl experi-
mentally demonstrated by Dr. Franklin, who also first
showed the advantage of pointed  conductors as safe-
guards to buildings.  In these cases, the conducting
red, or rods, should be of copper, or iron, and from liall
to three-fourths of an inch diameter.  Its upper end
should be elevated three or four feet hdovc- the highest
[tart of the building, and  all die  metallic parts of the
roof should be connected wilh the rod, whicli should
be perfectly continuous throughout, anil passing down
the side of "the building, penetrate several feet below its
foundation, so as always to  be immersed in u moist
stratum of soil, or if possible, into water.  The- leaden
water pipes  altaehed to houses, often might be made
to answer tlie purpose of conductors, especially when
thick enough to resist fusion.
  During a thunder-storm the safest situation is in the
middle of a room, at a distance from the chimney, and
standing upon a  woollen rug, which is a nonconductor.
Blankets and feathers  being nonconductors, bed is a
(Jttce of comparative safety, provided tin- bell-wues
are not too near,  which are  almost  always  melted in
houses struck by lightning.   When out of doors, it is
dangerous to take shelter under trees: the safest situ-
ation is  within  some yards of tliein, and  upon  the
dryest spot that can be selected.
  The discharge of electricity in  a lliunder-storni is
sometimes only  from cloud to cloud; sometimes from
the earth to the clouds; and sometimes from tlie clouds
to the earth; as  one or the otlier may be positive or
uniative.  When aqueous vapour is condensed,  the
clouds formed are usually more or less electrical; and
the earth below  them being brought into  an opposite
slate, by induction, a discharge takes  place when the
clouds approach within a certain distance, constituting
lightning; and the indulatton of the air, produced by
the discharge, is the cause of thunder, which is more
or less intense, and of longer or  shorter duration, ac-
cording to the quantity of air acted upon, and the dis-
 tance of  the place, where the report is heard from the
 point of the discharge.  It may not be uninteresting to
 give a further  illustration  of  this idea.   Electrical
effects take place in  no sensible time.  It lias  been
 found that a discharge through a circuit of four miles
 is instantaneous; but sound moves at tbe rate of about
 twelve miles a minute.  Now, suppose the lightning to
{lass through a space of some miles, 'be explosion will
 be first heard from the point of the ail  agitated nearest
lo  tlie spectator: it will gradually coin.- from the more
distant parts of the  course  of electricity, and last of
all, will be heard from the remote extremity, and the
different  degrees of the agitation of the air, and like-
wise the difference of tbe distance, will account fur
the different intensities of the sound, and  its apparent
reverberations and changes.
   In a violent thunder-storm, when the sound instantly
succeeds the flash, the persons who witness the  cir-
cumstance are in some danger; when the interval is a
quarter of a minute, they are secure.
   A variety of electrical apparatus  has been devised
 to illustrate the  operation of conductors for lightning,
 and the advantage of points over balls; the simplest
 consists of a model of a house having a conductor wilh
 a  break in it, in which some  inflammable matter
 should be  placed; the lower end of the  conductor
 should be communicated with the exterior of a charged
 Leyden  phial,  the  knob of which, brought over its
 upper end,  will  then represent a thunder cloud.  If the
 conductor  be pointed, it  will be slowly discharged, if
 surrounded by a ball, there will be an explosion, and
 the combustibles probably inflamed.
   The coruscations of the Aurora borealis are  also
 probably electrical, and much resemble flashes of elec-
 tric light traversing rarefied air.  The water-spout may
 be referred to the same source, and is probably the re-
 sult of the operation of a weakly electrical cloud, at
 in inconsiderable elevation above the sea, brought
 into an opposite electrical state:  and the attraction of
 the lower  part of the cloud,  for the surface of the
 ivater, may be the immediate cause of this extraordi-
 iiary phenomenon.
   In tlie gymnotus, or electric eel, and in the torpedo,
or electric ray, are arrangements  given lo those it
tnarkable  animals foi the purpose of defence, whic'i
certain forms of tlie Voltaic apparatus must icsemblo;
for they consist of many alternations of different su'i-
stnnces.   These  electrical  organs are  much more
abundantly supplied wilh nerves than  any other part
of the animal,  and the loo frequent use of  them is
succeeded by debility and death.
  That  arrangements of different organic substances
are  capable of producing electrical effects, has  bei.i
shown by various experimentalists. If the hind-legs of
a frog be placed upon a glass plate, and thccrural nerve1
dissected out of one made to communicate with  ano-
ther, it will  be found on making occasional contact*
with the remaining crural nerve, that the limbs of U.e
animal will be agitated at each contact.  These cir-
cumstances  have induced some physiologists to sup-
pose, thut electricity may be concerned in some of tl ••
most recondite  phenomena of  vitality, and Dr. Wol-
laston, Sir E. Home, and myself, have made some ex
periments tending to confer  probability on this idea.
  We have as yel no plausible hypothesis conccrnii,;'
Ihe cause of electrical phenomena, though the subject
has engaged the attention of the most eminent phil■; ■
sophers of Europe. They have been, by some, ret'errrl
to tlie presence of a peculiar fluid existing in all  mat-
ter, and exhibiting itself by the appearances whic'i
have been described wherever  its equilibrium is dis-
turbed, presenting nesative and positive electricity,
when deficient, and  when redundant.  Others  have
plausibly argued for the presence of two fluids, distitret
from each other.  Others have considered the effect:*
as rcferritale  to peculiar  exertions of  the attractiv.r
powers of matter, arid have regarded the existence el"
any distinct fluid, or form of matter, to be as unneces-
sary to the explanation of the phenomena, as it is i I
the question concerning ihe cause of gravitation.
  When the flame of a candle is placed between ;i
positive and negative surface, it is urged towards the
latter; a circumstance which has been explained upo:i
the supposition of a current of electrical matter pass-
ing from the positive to the negative pole; indeed, it
has been considered as demonstrating the existence cf
such a cerrent of matter.  But if the flame  of phos-
phorus be substituted  for that of a candle, it takes an
opposite direction; and instead of being attracted to-
wards the negative, it bends to the positive surface.   It
has been  shown  that inflammable bodies are aliva, s
attracted  by negative surfaces; and acid bodies, an I
those in  whicli the supporters of combustion prevail,
are attracted by positive surfaces.  Hence the flame
of Ihe caudle throwing oft" carbon, is directed to the
negative pole, while that of phosphorus forming aci f
matter goes to (he positive, consistently with the ordi
nary laws of electro-chemical attraction.
  There are other experiments opposed to the idea tha'
electricity is a material substance.  If we discharge a
Leyden phial through a quire of paper, the perforation
is equally burred upon both sides, and not upon the
negative side only, as would  have been  the case if
any material body had gone through  in that direction.
The power seems to have come from the centre office
paper, as if one half of the quife had been attracted by
the positive, and the other by the negative surface.
  When a pointed metallic wire is presented toward**
the conductor of the electrical machine, in a darkened?
room, a star of light is observed when the conductor is
positive, but a brush of light when it is negative; :t
circumstance which has been referred to the reception-
of the electric fluid in the  one case, and its escape  "i
the other.   In  the Voltaic discharge  the same appear
ances are evident upon the charcoal point; riys ap>
pearing to diverge from the negative conductor, while
from the  positive a spot of bright light is perceptible
But these affections of light can scarcely be considerec*
as indicating the omission, or reception of any specific
 form of matter.
   The efficacy of electricity iffthc cure of several dis
 eases has been supported by  many very respectable
 authorities,  especially in paralytic diseases. It con-
siderably augments the circulation of  the blood, and
 excites the  action of the absorbents."—Brande's Che
 mistry.
   ELECTRO-MAGNETISM.  The name given to ;r
 class of very interesting phenomena, first observed  by
 Oersted, of Copenhagen, in the winter of 1819-20, end
 whicli have since received gieat illustration from the
                                          ?23 
ELE
ELE
 Riuours of Ampere, Arago, Sir II. Davy, Wollaston,
 Faraday, de la Rive, and  several'other philosophers.
 The following is a short outline  of the fundamental
 r.e.-ts.
  Let the  opposite poles of a voltaic battery be con-
 nected by  a metallic wire, which may be left of such
 length as to suffer its being bent or turned in various
 directions. This is the conjunctive wire of Oersted.
 Let us suppose that the rectilinear portion of this wire
 is extended horizontally in the line  of the magnetic
 >>>"Kidiau.   If a freely suspended compass-needle  be
 now introduced, with its centre under the conjunctive
 wire, the  needle will instantly deviate from Ihe mag-
 netic  meridian;  and it will decline  towards tho west,
 under that part of the conjunctive wire which is near-
 i -t the negative  electric pole, or the copper end of the
 \ It,'lie apparatus.  The  amount  of this declination
 depends on the strength of tlie electricity, and the sen-
 sibility of  the  needle.  Ils maximum is 90°.
  We  may change the direction of the conjunctive
 wire, out of the  magnetic meridian,  towards the east
 ve the west, provided it remains above the needle, and
 parallel to its piano, without any change  in the above
 result, except that of its amount.  Wires  of platinum,
 gwld, silver, brass, and iron, maybe equally employed;
 nor does the effect cease, though the electric circuit be
 partially formed by water.   'The effect  of  the  con-
junctive wire takes place across plates of glass, metal,
 wood, water, resin, pottery, and stone.
  If the conjunctive wire be disposed horizontally be-
 r.cath the needle, the effects are of the same nature as
 those which occur when it is above il; but they operate
 in an inverse direction ;  that  is to say, the pole of the
 Let-die under wliich is placed the  portion of the  con-
junctive wire  which receives the negative  electricity
cl' the apparatus, declines in that ease  towards the
 cost.
  To remember  these results more  readily, we  may
 employ the following proposition:   The pole, above
 vhich the  negative electricity enters, declines towards
 the west ; but if it enters  beneath it, the  needle de-
 clines towards the east.
  If the conjunctive wire (always supposed horizon-
 tal) is slowly turned about, so as to form a gradually
 increasing angle with the magnetic  meridian, the de-
 clination of ihe  needle increases, if the movement of
 tlie wire be towards the line of position of the dis-
 turbed needle; it diminishes,  on the contrary, if it re-
 cede from its position.
  When the  conjunctive wire  is stretched alongside
 cf the needle in the same horizontal plane, it occasions
 no declination either lo the east or west;  but it causes
 ■t merely to incline in a vertical line, so that the pole
 adjoining  the negative  influence of the pile  on the
 wire dips when  the wire is on its west side, and rises
 when it is on  the east.
  If we stretch  the conjunctive wire, either above or
 f oneath the  needle, in  a  plane  perpendicular to the
 i:iasnctic  meridian, it remains at  rest, unless the wire
 he very near  the pole of the  needle ; for, in this case,
 it rises when the entrance takes place by the west part
 of the wire, and sinks when it takes place by the east
 part.
  When we dispose the conjunctive wire in a vertical
 I'ne opposite  the pole of  the needle,  and make the
 upper extremity of the wire receive the  electricity of
 the negative end of the battery, the pole of  Ihe needle
 moves towards  the east; but if we place the wire op-
 posite a point between the pole and  the middle of the
 i eedle, it moves to the west.  The phenomena are
 j 'resented in an inverse order, when the  upper extre-
 mity of the conjunctive wire receives the  electricity
 c!' the positive side of the apparatus.
   It  appears  from the preceding  facts, says Oersted,
 that the electric conflict (action) is not enclosed within
 Ihe conducting wire, but that it has a pretty extensive
 sphere of activity round  it.  We may also conclude
 f.om tho  observations, ll*t this  conflict acts by revo-
 lution ; for without this supposition we could notcoin-
 r.elieud  how the  same  portion of the conjunctive
 wire, wliich,  placed 6enea(A the magnetic pole,carries
 l':t- in-,'die towards the east, when it is  placed above
 i us pole, should carry it towards the west.   But such
 i i the nature of the circulnr action, that  the move-
 ments which it produces take place  in directions pre-
 cisely contrary  to the two extremities of tine same  di-
 i-meter.  It appears also, that the circular movement.
combined with  n progressive movement  in the dtrec
tion  of the length of the conjunctive wire, ou^ht to
form a kind of action, which operates spirally around
this wire as an axis.  For further information, Fara-
day's able and  original  paper, in the  Journal of Sci-
ence, may be  consulted; as also Ampere's several in-
genious memoirs in thee Annates de Chimie et de Phy-
sique.
  ELECTRODES.   (From rfXtxlpov,  amber.)   K\\
epithet for intestinal fiecies which shine like amber
  ELECTROMETER.   (From rfXcxJoov, and ptrpnv,
a measure.)  See Electricity.
  ELECTROSCOPE.  (From eXtxJpov, ind cxontus
to see.)  See  Electricit i/.
  ELECTRUM.  F.Xix^pov.  Amber.
  Electrum minerals.  The tincture of metals.  It
is made of tin and copper, to which some add gold, and
double  ils  quantity of  martial regulus of antimony
melted  together; from  these there results a metallic
mass, to which i-onie cliemists have given the name of
electrum miner ale.  This mass is powdered and deto-
nated with nitre and charcoal to a kind  of scoria ; it
is powdered  again while hoi,  and then  digesied in
spirit of wine, whence a tincture is obtained of a fine
red colour.
  ELECTUA'RICM.  An electuary.   The London
Pharmacopoeia refers  those articles wliich  were for
merly called electuaries to confections.  See Confectio.
  Electuarium  antimonii.   ft. Electuarii senna-,
 3J ; guaiaci  gummi,  hydrargyri  cum sulphure, anli-
monii ppti. sing. *? ss ;  syrupi simplicis q. s. misce.  Of
this electuary, from a drachm to about two drachms is
given twice a day, in  tliose cutaneous diseases wliich
go under the general name of scorbutic.   Il is usually
accompanied with the decoctions of elm bark or sar-
saparilla.
  Electuarium  cassi*.  Sec Confectio cassia.
  Electuarium   catechu.   Confectio  Japonica.
Electuary of  caiechu, commonly called Japonic con-
lection.  Take of mimosa catechu, four ounces; kino,
three ounces;  cinnamon, nutmeg, each one ounce;
opium diffused in a sufficient quantity of Spanish white
wine one drachm and a  half; syrup of red roM-s boiled
to the consistence of honey, two pounds and a quarter.
Reduce the solids to powder, and, having mixed them
wilh ihe opium and syrup, make them into an  electu-
ary.  A very useful astringent, and perhaps the most
efficacious  way of giving ihe catechu to advantage.
Ten scruples of  this  electuary contain one grain of
opium.
  r.LKCTU.UUUM  C1NCBON*  CUM  NATRO.  ft. Iiatti
ppti. 3 ij.; puis oris cinchonae unc.: mucilaginis gummi
arabici q. s. misce.  In this composition, mucilage is
preferred to syrup on account of its covering the taste
of the bark much more advantageously.  It should,
for  this purpose, however, be made thin, otherwise it
will increase  the  bulk of the electuary too much.
  This remedy will be  found an excel lent substitute
for the burnt  sponge, the powers of which, as a remedy
in scrofula, are  known  solely to depend on the pro-
portion of natron contained in  it.  The dose is  two
drachms, twice or thrice a day.
  Electuarium  opiatu.m.  See Confectio opii.
  Eleli'sphacos.   (From cAeAiyd,  to  distort,  and
atbaxos, sage: so named from the spiral coiling of ils
leaves and  branches.)   A species of sage.
  ELEMENT.   Radical.   First  principles. A sub
stance which can no further be divided or decomposed
by chemical analysis.
  E'LEMI.  (Il  is said this  is the Ethiopian  name.)
Gum elemi.   The (Kirent plant of this  resin is sup-
posed to be an amyris.  See Amyris elemifcra.
  ElenHi.  A  tree of Malabar, which  is said to pos-
sess cordial and carminative properties.
  ELCOCIIRY'SUM.   (From  ijXtot, the  sun,  and
Xpvsos, gold; so called  from its gold-like, or shining
yellow appearance.)  Goldilocks.   See  Gnaphalium
stachas.
  ELEOSELI'NUM    (From cAos, a lake, and ccXi-
vov, parsley.*)  See Apium.
  ELEPHANTIA.  (From tXttbas,  an ""elephant: so
called from the great eiilargcmenl of the body in this
disorder.)  See Elephantiasis.
  Elepiiantia arabum.   In Dr. Cullen's Nosology ii
is synonymous with elephantiasis.  The term is, how
ever, occasionally confined  to this  disease when il
affects the feet. 
ELE
ELM
  CLEPHANTPASIS.  (From eXttpas, an elephant.
90 named from the legs of people affected wilh this
disorder growing scaly", rough, and wonderfully large,
at an advanced period, like the legs of an elephant.)
F.lrphas;  Elephantia:  l.azari morbus net malum;
Phanicrus morbus.  A disease that attacks the whole
body, but mostly affects the feet, which -appear some-
what like those of the elephant.  It  is known by the
skin being thick, rough, wrinkjy, unctuous, and  void
of hair, ami mostly without the sense of feeling.  It is 1
said to be contagious.  Cullen makes it a genus of dis- 1
ease iu the class Cachexia, and order  Impetigines.
  Elephantiasis has generally been supposed  to arise
in consequence of some  slight attack of fever, on the
cessation of whicli ihe morbid  matter falls on the leg,
and  occasions a distention and tumefaction  of the
limb, which  is afterward overspread with  uneven
lumps, ami deep fissures.  By some authors it has been
considered as a species of leprosy; but if often  subsists
for many years without  being accompanied with any
of the symptoms which characterize that disease.
  It sometimes comes on gradually, without much pre-
vious indisposition: but more generally, the person is
seized with  a coldness  and  shivering, pains  in the
head, back, and loins, and some degree of nausea.  A
■light fever then ensues, and a  severe pain is felt  in
one of the inguinal elands, which, after a short time,
becomes hard, swelled,  and  inflamed.  No suppura-
tion, however, ensues; but a red streak may be ob-
served running down the thigh from the swelled gland
to the b-q.  As the inflammation increases in  all the
parts, the fever gradually abates; and, perhaps,  after
two or tliree days' continuance, goe6 off.  It, however,
returns again at uncertain periods, leaving  the leg
greatly swelled with varicose  turgid veins, the skin
rough and  rugged, and a thickened membrana cellu-
losa. Scales appear also 011 the surface, which do not
fall off, bul arte enlarged by the  increasing thickness of
the membranes; uneven lumps, with deep fissures, are
 formed, and  the leg and foot  become at last of  an
 enormous size.
   A person may labour under this disease many years
 without finding much alteration in the general health,
 except during the  continuance of the attacks; and
 perhaps the chief inconvenience he will experience is
 the enormous bulky leg which he drags about with
 him.  The  incumbrance has,  indeed, induced many
 who have laboured under this disease to submit to an
 amputation;  but the operation  seldom proves a radi-
 cal cure, as the oilier leg frequently  becomes  affected.
   Hilary observes, that he never saw both legs swelled
 at the samf  time.  Instances  where they have  alike
 acquired a frightful and prodigious  size, have,  how-
ever, frequently fallen under the observation of other
 physicians.
   Elephanti'num emplastrum.  A plaster described
by Oribarius.  Celsas describes one ofthe same name,
but very different in qualities.
   E'LEPHAS.  (EXeqias, the elephant.)
   I. The name of an animal.
   2. The name of a  disease of the skin. See Ele-
phantiasis.
   3. Aqua fortis was so called  in some old chemical
books.
   Ele'ttari  prijium.   The  true  amomum.  See
 Elettaria cardamomum.
   ELETTARIA.  (From elettari.)  The name of a
 new genus of plants formed  by Dr. Maton, to which
 Ihe less  card-tmom is referred. Class,  Monandria;
 Order, Monogynia.
   Elettaria cardamomum.   Cardamomum minus.
 Less or officinal cardamom.   Amomum repens; or It
 cardamome de la cite de Malabar, of Sonnerat.   Elet-
taria cardamomum, of Maton, in Act. Soc. Lin.  The
seeds of this plant are imported in their capsules or
husks, by which they are preserved,  for they soon lose
a part of their flavour when freed from this covering.
On  being chewed, they impart a glowing  aromatic
warmlh, and grateful pungency  they are supposed
gently to stimulate the stomach, and prove cordial,
carminative, and antispasmodic, but without that irri-
tation and heat which many  of the other spicy aroma-
tics are apt to produce. Simple and compound spi-
rituous tinctures are prepared from them, and they are
ordered as a spicy ingredient in many of the officinal
compositions.
   ELEUTHE RIA.  See Croton cascarUla,
  Eleva no.  (From elevo, to  lift up.*)  Elevation
Sublimation.
  ELEVA TOR.  (From elevo, to lift up.)
  1. A muscle is so called, the office of which is to lifl
up the part to which ii is attached.
  2.  A  chirurgical   instrument,  elevatorium, witn
Which surgeons raise any depressed  portion of b"ii<>,
but chiefly those of the cranium.
  Elevator  labii inferioris proprius.   See  Le-
vator  labii inferioris.
  Elkvator  labii superioris  proprius.  See Ac
vator  labii superioris alaque nasi.
  Elevator  labiorum    See Levator anguli oris
  Elevator  nasi alarum.  See Levator labii supo
rioris alaque  nasi.
  El«vaTOR  oculi.  Sec Rectus superior oculi.
  Elevator  Palpebre  superioris.  See Levator
palpebra superioris.
  Elevator  scAri'LJS.  fin1 Levator scapula.
  ELEVATO'RIUM.  (From rlcvo, to lift up.)  A.i
instrument to raise a depression in the skull.
  Eli'banum. See Juiiiperu.i lycia.
  ELICHRY'SC.M.   (From  nXios, the sun, and  x<v
aos, gold;  so  called from its gold-like, or shining y.l
low appearance.)  See Gnaphalium stachus.
  Eli'drion.   Mastich.   A mixture of brass.
  ELI GMA.   A linctus.
  ELIOSELTNUM.   See F.luselinum.
  ELIPTICL'S.  l'.liptic.   Applied to leaves and ic
ceptacles, whicli are of a somewhat oval form, but
broader at each end; as  in the leaf of the Convall.i
riu majalis,  and  the  receptacle of the Dorstcni.i
drakenia.
  ELIUUATION.  An operation, by means of which
a  more fusible substance is separated  from anothcij
which is less  fusible.   It consists in Ihe application of
a degree of heat, sufficient to fuse the former, bul not
the latter.
  [" If lead be heated so as to boil and smoke,  it  soo:i
dissolves pieces of copper thrown into it; Ihe amnio:
when cold is brittle.  The union of these two metals
is remarkably slight; for  upon exposing the mass to il
heat no greater than that in which lead melts, the lead
almost  entirely runs off by itself.  This process  i.
called eliquation.  The coarser sorts  of lead, whicti
owe their brillleness  and granulated texture to an ad-
mixture of copper, throw il up to the surface on be-in.i
melted by a small heat."— Web. Man. of Cheat.  A.]
  ELTPHROI'DES.  The vaginal coat of the testicle
See Elythroides and  Testis.
   Elixa'tio.   (From  elixo,  to  boil.)   The  act of
seething or boiling.
  ELI'XIR.  (From  elekser, an Arabic word, signify-
ing quintessence.)  A term formerly applied to many
preparations similar to compound tinctures.  It is now
very little employed.
  Elixir of health.  Elixir salutis.  A term formerly
applied to tincture of senna.
  Elixir paregoricum.  See  Tinctura camphoric
composita.
  Elixir  proprietatis.  A preparation  like  ti.'i
compound tincture of aloes.
  Elixir sacrum.  A tincture of rhubarb and aloes.
  Elixir salutis.   See  Tinctura senna.
  Elixir  stomachicum.  See  Tinctura  gentiaiuc
composita.
  Elixiva'tio.  (From elixo, to boil, or from lixivium,
lye.)  The extraction of  a fixed salt from vegetables,
by an affusion of water.   See Lixiviation
  ELLAGIC ACID.  (Acidum ellagicum; so naui-d
by Braconnot, by reversing the word galle.)  The de-
posite which forms  in  infusion of nut-galls, left \\.
itself, is not composed solely of gallic acid and .1 111a-
ler which colours it.   It contains, besides, a lilllo gal-
late and sulphate of lime, and a new acid, which w.;s
pointed out for the first time by Chevreuil, in 18'5. an
acid on which Braconnot made observations, in  18H,
and which he propo.sed to call acid ellagic, from l.'ie
word galle reversed.  Probably  this acid  does 11,,!
exist  ready formed in nut-galls.   It is insoluble; ani,
carrying down with it the greater part of the gait ic
acid,  forms  the yellowish crystalline deposite.  B:;!
boiling water removes the gallic acid from the  ellagic
whence the means of separating them from one ac->
tlier.  Ann. de Chim. el de Phys. ix. 181
  Elleborum.  See Hclleborus and Veratrum.
  ELM. See Llmus.
                                        325 
EMU
EME
  Elm-leaved sumach.   See Rhus cor'iaria.
  ELMI'NTHES.  (From ttXeu, to involve, from its
contortions.)  A worm.
  ELO'DES.  (From cXos, a swamp.)  A term given
to a sweating fever, from its great moisture.
  Elonoa'tio.  (From elongo, to lengthen out.)  An
Imperfect luxation, where the ligament is only length-
ened, and the bone not put out of its socket.
  ELOY,  Nicholas  Francis Joseph,  was born at
Dions, iu 1714, and died in 1788, having practised as a
physician  with great ability and humanity.   He had
ihe  honour of attending Prince  Charles  of Lorraine.
He was a  man of extensive learning, and, notwith-
standing his  professional avocations, was author of
f-everal publications.   The principal of these, an His-
torical Medical D ic-tionnry, was originally in two octavo
volumes; but in 1788, it  appeared greatly improved
nnd enlarged in four volumes quarto.  An Introduction
to Midwifery; a Memoir on Dysentery; Reflections on
the Use of Tea; and a Medico-Political Tract on Cof-
fee ; were  likewise written by this author.  The latter
work procured him the reward  of a superb snuff-box
from ihe  estates  of  Haiuault,  inscribed  " Ex dono
Patriie."
  ELUTRIATION.   (Elutriatio; from  elulrio, to
cleanse.)  Washing.   It is the pouring a liquor out of
one vessel  into another, in order to separate the lighter
earthy parts, which are carried away while the heavier
metallic parts subside to the bottom.
  ELU' VIES.  (From eluo, to wash out.)  The efflu-
viumfrom a swampy  place.  Also  the humour dis-
charged in fluor albus.
  Eluxa'tio.  (From eluxo, to  put out of joint.) A
luxation, or dislocation.
  ELYMAGRO'STIS.  (From £*\v/ioc,the herbpanic,
?nd ayous-ts,  wild.)  Wild panic.
  ELYmOs.  KAv/iof.   The herb panic, or panicum
cf Dio;corides, but now the name of a new genus of
grasses, in the Linnaean system.
  ELYOT, Sir Thomas,  was born of a good family
in Suffolk, about  the beginning of the sixteenth cen-
tury.   Afterstudying at Oxford, and improving himself
hy travelling, he was introduced at court; and Henry
VIII. conferred upon him the honour of knighthood,
nnd employed him in several embassies.   He distin-
guished himself in various branches of learning, as
well as by patronising learned men; and was generally
*f eloved by his contemporaries for his virtues and ac-
complishments.   He died in 1546, and was buried in
Cambridgeshire, of wliich he had been sheriff.  Among
other studies, he  was  partial to medicine, and  made
himself master of the ancient authors on that subject,
though he never  exercised the  profession.  He pub-
lished a work about tlie year 1541, called  " The Castell
of Health," which was much admired, even by some
cf the faculty: in this he  is a strong advocate for tem-
perance, especially in sexual pleasures.   He also no-
tices, that  catarrhs  were much more common  than
they had been forty years before; which  he ascribes
chiefly to  free living, and keeping the head too  much
covered.  He also wrote  and translated several other
works, but not on medical subjects.
  ELYTROCE'LE.   (From tXvTpov, the vagina, and
1:^X17, a tumour.)  A hernia in the vagina.  See Hernia
vaginalis.
  ELYTROI'DES.    (Elytroides; from  eXvrpov, a
sheath, and ctios, form.)  Like a sheath.  The tunica
\ iginalis is so called by  some writers, because it in-
cludes the testis like a sheath
   ELYTRON.  (From  tXuu, to involve.)   The va-
fiina.  A sheath.  The membranes whicli involve the
itpinal marrow ure called cXu?pa.
  EMACIATION.  See  Atrophia and Marasmus.
  Emargina'tio.  (From  emargino, to cleanse the
t^ges.)  The cleansing of the edges of wounds from
curf and filth.
  EMARG1NATUS.   Emnrginate, nicked,  that is,
 having a small acute notch at the summit; as the leaf
 of the  bladder senna, Colutca arborcsccns, the petals
 of the Allium roseum, and Agrostema flos jovis.
   EMASCULA'TUS.   (From emasculo, to render im-
 potent.)   Having the testicles  in the belly,  and not
 1: lien into the scrotum.
   Emba'mma.  (From etiBairlu, to emerge in.)  A
 medicated pickle  to dip tlie food in.
   E'mbole.  (From tpSaXXu, to put in.)   The setting
 cf a dislocated bone
       321*
  E'MBOLCM.   (From  epBaXXu,  to  cast ouv  ej
named because it ejects the semen.)  The penis.
  Embre'oma.   (From £p6pex">>  t0 make wet.)   A
fluid application to any pari of the body.
  EMBROCATIO.   (From tp6pi\u, to  moisten ol
soak in.)  Embrochc.   An embrocation.  A fluid ap-
plication to rub any part of the body with.  Many ust
the term, however, as synonymous with liniment
The following embrocations are in general use.
  Embrocatio aluminis.  ft. Aluminis 3 ij.  Aceli,
spiritus vinosi tenuloris, sing. Ibss.  For chilblains and
diseased joints.
   Embrocatio ammonije.   ft. Embrocalionis am
moniae acetatis 5 ij.  Aquue ainmoniue purse  3 ij  Foi
sprains and bruises.
  Embrocatio ammoni.e acetatis.   ft. Aquae ain-
moniae acelatae.   Solutionis saponis sing. Ij Si.  For
bruises with inflammation.
  Embrocatio ammonia acetatis camphorata. ft
Solutionis saponis cum  camphora, aquae ammonia
acetatae sing. *§j.   Aquae ammonix purse |ss.  For
sprains and bruises.  It  is also frequently applied to
disperse chilblains which have not suppurated.  It is
said to be the same as  Steer's opodeldoc.
  Embrocatio cantharidis cum  camphora   ft
Tinct. cantharidis.   Spiritus camphors sing,  "jj M.
This may be  used in  any case in 'which the object is
to stimulate the skin.  The absorption of cantharides,
however, may bring on a stranguary.
  E'mbroche.  See Embrocatio.
  EMBRYO.  (From tuSpvu, to bud forth.)  1. The
germ of  a plant; called by Linnaeus the corculum.
See Corculum and Cotyledon.
  2. The falit in utero  is so called before the fifth
month of pregnancy, because its growth resembles that
of the budding of a plant.
  Embryothlastes.  (From tpBpvov, the foetus, and
9\au, to break.)   Embryorecles.  A crotchet or instru-
-liient for breaking the bones of a dead foetus to pro-
mote its delivery.
   EMBRYOTOMY.   (Embryotomia ; from tpSpvov,
a foetus, and rtpvu, to cut.)   The separating ot any
part of the foetus  while in utero, to extract it.
  Embrvu'lcus.   (From epdpvov, a fietus, and eXxu,
to draw.;  A blunt hook or torceps, for drawing the
child from the womb.
  EMERALD.  A beautiful genus of minerals, which
contains two species.
  1. The prismatic emerald, Euclase of Haiiy.   This
is of a green and sky-blue colour, and is found in Peru
and Brazil.
  2. Rhomboidal emerald,x>f which there are two sub
species, the precious emerald and the beryl.  The first
is well known by  its emerald green colour.  The most
beautiful emeralds come  from Peru.   As a gem, it is
valued next to ruby.
  [" This mineral is by no means uncommon in the
United States.  It occurs iu the primitive range, and
particularly iu granite, in wliich  it is imbedded.   In
the  State of Maine,  it has been found  remarkably
clear and transparent, and in every respect resembling
the SiberianBcryl, particularly that discovered at Tops-
ham by Professor Cleveland, of Brunswick College
The crystals are well defined hexaadral prisms, and are
often imbedded in the smoky quartz which abound in
the large-grained granite.  In some instances, in point
of colour, it equals tlie finest Peruvian emerald.
  " At Chesterfield, in Massachusetts, it occurs in great
abundance.   Dr. J. F. Waterhouse, who has carefully
examined this locality, informs us that  crystals, in
hexangular prisms, from  an ounce and under to 61b.
in weight, are found singly disseminated  through the
granite.  They are of various dimensions, from a tmali
size to that of a foot In diameter;  their  colour light
green.   The Chesterfield emerald greatly resembles
that lately discovered in France.   If the new earth
glucine should be required for the  arts or manufac-
tures, this emerald would furnish  il in  abundance; as
such is the quantity occurring at this place, that Dr.
Waterhouse  obtained upwards of 701b. within a very
small space.  T'le emerald occurs in ether parts of
Massachusetts".  To the politeness of Dr. David Hunt,
we are indebted for several specimens found  by that
indefatigable mineralogist, in the vicinity of North-
ampton and Goshen.
   " At Ilnddam, in Connecticut, this mineral occurs ia
abundance; the crystals are from a very small size  to 
EME
EMP
 leveral inches in length; they are generally of a light
 yellowish-green, and sometimes of an amber colour,
 resembling topaz.  Co!. Gibbs has  in  his possession
 a crystal of a deep green  an inch in  diameter, and
 several iu length, it bears a strong resemblance to the
 Peruvian emerald.  Mr. Mather, a young mineralogist
 of great promise, discovered one seven inches in length,
 by nine inches in the diagonal diameter: it is in the
 cabinet of Professor Sillimau.
   '•New-York affords but few instances ofthe pro-
 duction of emerald.  It now and then, though rarely,
 occurs in the granite veins which traverse the gneiss
 on the island, about four miles from the city.
   '■ The emerald is found in the vicinity of Philadelphia,
 and  at Chester.  These arc the principal localities of
 this mineral in the United States, which have as yet
 come to our knowledge.  As others occur, we shall
 with pleasure notice them."—Bruce's  Mm. Journal.
 A.l
   EMERSLS.   (From em ergo, to rise up or appear
 out of the water.)   Raised above the waler, as the
 upper leaves accompanying the flowers of the Merio-
 phyllum verticillatum, while its lower ones  are de-
 mersa.
  E'merus.  Scorpion senna.  A laxative.
  EMERY.  A sub-species of rhomboidal corundum,
 found in quantities in the isle of Naxor, and at Smyr-
 na.  Its fine powder, which is used for polishing hard
 minerals and metals, is made by trituration and elu-
 triation.
   EMESIA.   (From  tutu,  to  vomit.)  Emcsma;
 Emesis.  The  act  of vomiting.   Medicines which
 cause vomiting.
   EME TIC. "(Enuticus; from cutu, to vomit.)  That
 which is capable of exciting vomiting,  independently
 of any effect arising from the mere quantity of matter
 introduced into the stomach, or of any nauseous taste
 or flavour.
   The  susceptibility of vomiting is very different in
 different individuals, and is often considerably varied
 by disease.
   Emetics are employed in many diseases.
   When any morbid affection depends upon, or is con-
 nected  with, over-distention  of  the stomach, or the
 presence of acrid, indigestible matters,  vomiting gives
 speedy relief.   Hence its  utility in impaired appetite,
 acidity in the stomach, in intoxication, and where poi-
 sons have been swallowed.
   From the pressure of the abdominal  viscera in vo-
 miting, emetics have been considered as serviceable in
 jaundice, arising from biliary calculi obstructing the
 ducts.
   The expectorant power of emetics, and their utility
 in catarrh and phthisis, have been ascribed to a similar
 pressure extended to the thoracic viscera.
   In the different varieties of febrile affections, much
 advantage is derived from exciting vomiting, especially
 in tbe very commencement of the disease.  In high
 inflammatory fever it is considered as dangerous, and
 in the advanced stage of typhus it is prejudicial.
  Emetics  given  in such  doses,  as only  to  excite
 nausea, have been found useful in restraining hemor-
 rhage.
   Different speciesof dropsy have been cured by vomit-
 ing, from its having excited absorption.   To the same
 effect, perhaps, is owing the dispersion of swelled tes-
 ticle, bubo, and otlier swellings, which  has  occasion-
 ally  resulted from this operation.
   The operation of  Vomiting is dangerous, or hurtful,
 in the  following cases: where there is  determination
 of the blood to the  head, especially in plethoric ha-
 bits- in  visceral inflammation; in the advanced stage
 of pregnancy;  in hernia  and prolapsus uteri; and
 wherever there exists extreme general debility.  The
 frequent use of emetics weakens the tone ofthe sto-
 mach.   An emetic should always be administered in
 the fluid form.   Its operation may be promoted by
 drinking any tepid diluent, or bitter infusion.
  The individual emetics may be arranged under two
 heads,  those derived from the vegetable,  and those
from the mineral kingdom.  From the vegetable king-
dom  are numbered  ipecacuanha, scilla  marilima, an-
themis nobilis, sinapis alba, asarum  Europaeum, nico-
tiana tabacum.  From the mineral kingdom, antimony,
the sulphates of zinc and copper, and the subacetate
of copper.  To these may be added ammonia and its
hydro-sulphuret.
  EMET1N.   Emetine.   Digest ipecacuan root, first
in tether and then in alkohol. "Evaporate the alkoholic
infusion to  dryness,  redissolve in water, and  drop  in
acetate of lead.   Wash the precipitate, and then dif
fusing it in water, decompose by a current of sulphu
retted  hydrogen gas.   Sulphuret of lead falls to the
bottom, and the eimi in remains in solution.   By eva-
porating the water, this substance is obtained  pure.
  Emelin forms  transparent brownish-red scales.  It
has no smell, bul a bitter acrid taste.   At •* heat some-
what above that of boiling water, it is resolved inlo
carbonic acid, oil,  and vinegar.   It affords no ammo-
nia.   It is soluble both in  water and alkohol, but nol
ina-ther; and uncryslallizable.   It is precipitated  by
protonitrate of mercury aud corrosive sublimate, but
not by tartar emetic.   Half a grain of emelin  acts  as
a powerful emetic, followed by sleep ; six grains vomit
violently, and produce stupor and death.   The  lungs
aud  intestines are  Inflamed."—Pelletier and  Ma
gendie.
  Emetine.  See Emelin.
  EMETOCATHA'RTICCS.  (From ep'cu, to vomit,
and  xadaipu,  to purge.)   Purging both by vomit and
Btool.
  EMINE'NTLE  QUADRIGEMIN.E.   See Tuber-
cula quadrigemina.
  ENMENAGOGUE.  (Emmenagogus,- ftonirWii;via,
the menses, and ayu, to move.)   Whatever possesses
the power of promoting that monthly discharge by the
uterus,  which, from  a law of the  animal economy,
should take  place  in, certain conditions of the female
system.  The articles belonging  to this class may  be
referred to four ordres: —
  1.  Stimulating emmenagogucs, as hydrargyrine and
antimonial preparations, which are principally adapted
for the young, and those with peculiar insensibility of
the uterus.
  2. Irritating emmenagogucs,  as aloes,  savine, and
 Spanish flies: these are to be preferred  in  torpid and
chlwrotic habits.       *
  3. Tonic  emmenagogucs, as ferruginous prepara
 tions, cold  bath, and  exercise, which  are advanta-
geously selected for the lax and phlegmatic.
  4. Antispasmodic emmenagogues,as asafatida, cas
lor, and pcdiluvia :  the constitutions to which these
 are more especially suited are the delicate, the weak,
and the irritable.
  EMME'NIA.   (From cv, In,  and pip/, a  month.'
The menstrual flux.
  EMOLLIENT.  (Emolliens; from emollio, to soft-
en.)   Possessing the  power of relaxing the living and
animal fibre, without producing  that effect from any
mechanical  action.  The  different articles belonging
to this class of medicines may be comprehended under
the following orders:—
  1.  Humer.tant emollients, as warm water, and tepid
vapours, which are fitted for the  robust and  those  in
the prime of life.
  2.  Relaxing emollients, as althaa, malva, Sec. These
may be employed in  all constitutions, while at the
same lime they  do not claim a  preference to others
from any particular habit of body.
  3.  Lubricating emollients, as  bland oils, fat, and
lard.  The same observation will hold of this order  as
was made of the last mentioned.
  4. Atonic emollients, as opium andpediluvia. These
are applicable to  any constitution, but  are to be pre
ferred in habits where the effects of this class are re-
quired over the system in general.
  EMPATHEMA.  ('Ep-naQqs; from ira&ijpa, passio.
affeelio.)  Ungovernable passion.  A genus of disease
in  Good's  Nosology.  Class,   Neurotica;  Order,
Phrenica.
  It has three  species,  Empathema  entonicum, atoni
cum, insane, and innumerable varieties.
  Empei'ria.  (From ev,  and tsctpw, to endeavour.)
Professional  experience.
  Emphero'menus.  (From cptbtcu, to bear.)  Urinr
or other substances which have a sediment.
  EMPHLYSIS.   (From cp, in, and tbXvots, a vesicu
lar  tumour  or eruption.)   The name of a genus,
ichorous exanthem, of Good's Nosology, whicli include*
six species:  Emphlysismiliaria ; Aphtha ; Vaccinia;
Varicella; Pemphigus ; Erysipelas.
  Emphra'ctica.   (From  tp4>par"]u,  to obstruct.)
Medicines which, applied  to the skin, shut up the
pores.
                                        327 
EMP
EMP
  EMPHS'MA   This term, applied by Good to a
genus of disease, Class,  Eccritica; Order,  Mesotica,
of his arrangement,  imports (in contradiction to Phy-
mo, whicli, in his system, is limited to cutaneous tu-
mours, accompanied with inflammation,)  a  tumour
originating below the integuments, aud unaccompanied
with inflammation, at least in its  commencement.  It
embraces three species, viz. Emphyma sarcoma; En-
cystis; Exostosis.
  EMPHYSEMA.   (Emphysema,  alis,  n.;  from
tptpvoau, to inflate.)  See Pneumatosis.
  EMPIRIC.   (Empiricus.  Epirctpixos;  from cv, in,
and rsttpa, experience.)   One who practises the heal-
ing art upon experience, and not theory.  This is the
true meaning of the  word empiric; but it is now ap-
plied, in  a very opposite sense, to those who deviate
from the line of conduct pursued by scientific and re-
gular practitioners, and vend nostrums, or sound their
own praise in the public papers.
  Empla'stica.  (From tpitXaotru, to obstruct.)  Me-
dicines which, spread upon the skin, stop the pores.
  EMPLA'STRUM.   (Emplastrum,  i.  n.; from
rpirXaaou, to spread upon.)  A plaster.   Plasters are
composed of  unctuous substances,  united either to
powders or metallic oxides, Sec.   They ought to be of
such a consistence as not to stick to the fingers when
cold, but  to become soft, so as to  be  spread out  in a
moderate degree of  heat, and in  that of the human
body, to continue tenacious enough to adhere to the
skin.  They owe their consistence either to metallic
oxides, especially tliose of lead, or to wax, resin, &c.
They are usually kept in rolls w rapped in paper, and
spread, when  wanted for use, upon thin leather; if the
plaster be not of itself sufficiently adhesive, it is to
be surrounded at ils margin by a boundary of resin
plaster.
  Emplastrum ammoniaci.  Take  of purified aui-
moniacum, five ounces; acetic acid, half a pint.  Dis-
solve the amnioniacum in the acid, then "evaporate the
liquor in  an  iron vessel, by queans of a  water-bath,
constantly stirring it, until it acquires a proper con-
sistence.   This plaster is now first introduced into the
London Pharmacopoeia;  it adheres well  to the skin,
without irritating it, and without producing inconve-
nience by its smell.
  Emplastrum ammoniaci cum iiydraroyro.  Take
of purified ammoniacum, a pound; purified mercury,
three ounces;  sulphuretted oil, a fluid diachm.  Rub
the mercury  with the sulphurated oil until  the glo-
bules disappear; then add by degrees the ammonia-
cum, pi eviously melted, and mix the whole together.
This composition is said to  possess  resolvent vir-
tues; and the plaster is  recommended with  this view
to be applied to  nodes, tophs, indurated glands, and
tumours.
  Emplastrum asafcetid.e.  Emplastrum antihys-
tericum.   Plaster of asafoetida.  'Take of plaster of
semi-vitrified  oxide of lead, asafoetida, each two parts:
galbanum, yellow wax, each one  part. 'This plaster
is said to possess anodyne and antispasmodic  virtues.
It is, therefore, occasionally directed to be applied to
the umbilical region  in hysterical cases.
  Emplastrum cantharidis.  Blistering-fly  plaster.
Emplastrum  vesicatorium.  Take of blistering flies,
In very fine powder, a pound;  wax  plaster, a pound
and  a half; prepared fat, a pound.  Having  melted
the plaster and fat together, and  removed them from
the fire, a little before they become solid sprinkle in the
blistering flies, nnd mix the whole  together.  See Blis-
ter and Cantharis.
  Emplastrum cer*.   Wax plaster. Emplastrum
ctlrahtms.  Take of yellow wax, prepared suet, of
each three pounds; yellow resin, a pound.  Melt them
together and strain.   This is a gently-drawing  prepa-
ration, calculated to promote a  moderate  discharge
from the blistered surface, with which intention it is
mostly used.  Where the stronger preparations  irri-
tate, this will be found in general to agree.
  Emplastrum cumini.   Cumin plaster.   Take of
cumin-seeds, caraway-seeds, bay-berries, of each tliree
ounces;  dried pilch, three pounds ; yellow wax, three
ounces.  Having melted the dry  pitch and wax toge-
ther, add the remaining articles previously powdered,
and mix.  A warm stomachic plaster, which, when ap-
plied to the stomach, expels flatulency.  To indolent
scrofulous tumours, where Ihe object is  to promote
suppuration, this is an efficacious  plaster.
      3-26
  Emplastrum oalbani compositum.  Compound
Galbanum plaster, formerly called emplastrum lithar-
gyri compositum and diachylon magnum cum gummi.
Take of galbanum gum  resin purified,  eight ounces,
lead plaster, three  pounds;  common turpentine, ten
drachms ; resin of the spruce fir, tliree ounces.  Hav-
ing melted the galbanum gum resin with the turpen-
tine, mix in  first the powdered resin of the spruce fir,
and then the lead plaster, previously melted by a slow
fire, and mix the whole.  This plaster is used as a
warm digestive and suppurative,  calculated to pro
mote maturation of indolent  or  scirrhous  tumours,
and to allay the pains of sciatica, arlhiodynia, Sec.
  Emplastrum  hydrargyri.    Mercurial  plaster
Emplastrum lithargyri  cum hydrargyro.   Take of
purified mercury, three ounces; sulphurated oil, a fluid
drachm; lead plaster, a  pound. Rub the mercury with
the sulphurated oil, until the globules disappear; then
add by degrees the lead  plaster, melted, and  mix the
whole.
  Emplastp.i m  ladani  compositum.   Take of soft
labdanum, three ounces; of frankincense, one ounce;
cinnamon and expressed  oil of mace, each half an
ounce;  essential oil of mint, one drachm: add to the
frankincense, melted first, the labdanum a little heat-
ed, till it becomes soft, and then the oil of mace; after-
ward mix in the cinnamon  with the oil of mint, and
beat them together into a mass, in a warm mortar, and
keep it in a vessel well closed.  This may be used wilh
the same  intentions as  the  cumin-plaster, to which
it is in no way superior,  though  composed  of more
expensive materials.   Formerly,  it was considered
as  a very elegant stomach  plaster, but is now dis-
used.
  Emplastrum   lithargyri.    See   Emplastrum
plumbi.
  Emplastrum  lithargyri compositum.   See Em
plastrum  Galbani compositum.
  Emplastrum lithargyri  cum resina.  See Em
plastrum  resina.
  Emplastrum  lytt.e.  See Emplastrum,  ccnthn
ridis.
  Emplastrum  opii. Plaster of opium.  Take of
hard  opium, powdered, half an ounce; resin of the
spruce  fir, powdered, three  ounces; lead plaster,  a
pound.  Having melted  the plaster, mix in the resin of
the spruce fir, aud opium, and mix the whole.  Opium
is said to produce somewhat, though in a smaller de-
gree, its specific effect when applied externally.
  Emplastrum picis compositum.  Compound pitch
plaster.  Emplastrum picis  Burgundica.  Take  of
dried pitch, two pounds; resin of spruce fir, a pound;
yellow resin, yellow wax, of each four ounces; ex
pressed oil of nutmegs,  an ounce.   Having melted to
gether the pitch, resin, and wax, add first the resin of
the spruce fir, then the  oil of nutmegs, and  mix the
whole together.   From  the  slight  degree of redness
this stimulating application produces, it is adapted to
gently  irritate the skin,  and thus relieve rheumatic
pains.   Applied to the temples, it is sometimes of use
in pains of the head.
  Emplastrum plumbi.  Lead plaster.  Emplastrum
lithargyri;  Emplastrum  commune; Diachylon sim-
plex.  Take of semi-vitreous oxideof lead, in  very fine
powder, five pounds; olive oil, a  gallon; water, two
pints.  Boil  them with a slow fire, constantly stirring
until the oil and litharge  unite, so as to form  a plaster.
Excoriations of the skin,  slight burns, and  the like,
may be covered with this plaster: bur is in more gene-
ral  use, as a defensive, where the skin becomes red
from lying a long time on the part.   This plaster is also
of great importance, as forming the basis, by addition
to whicli many other plasters ure prepared.
  Emplastrum resin.e. Resin plaster.  Emplastrum
adha'siviim;  Emplastrum lithargyri cum resina. Take
of  yellow resin,  half a pound;  lead plaster, three
pounds.  Having  melted the  lead plaster over a slow
fire, add the resin in powder, and mix.  The adhe-
sive, or sticking plaster,  is chiefly  used for keeping on
otlier dressings, and for  retaining  the edges of recen
wounds together.
  Emplastrum  saponis.   Soap  plaster.   Take of
hard  soap sliced,  half  a  pound;  lead  planter, three
pounds.  Having  melted the plaster, mix in the soap;
then boil it down to a proper consistence.  Discutient
properties are attributed to  this elegant plaster, with
which view, it is applied to lymphatic and other indo 
EMU
ENC
 ent tumours.  It  forms  an admirable defensive and
soft application, spread  on linen, to surround a frac-
tured limb.
  Emplastrum  thuris  compositum.   Compound
frankincense plaster.  Take of frankincense, half a
pound;  dragon's blood, three ounces;  litharge plaster,
two pounds.  To the melted lead plaster, add the rest
powdered.   This plaster is said to possess strengthen-
ing, as well as adhesive powers.  By keeping the skin
firm, it  may give tone to the  relaxed muscles it sur-
rounds,  but cannot, in  any way, impart more strength
than the common adhesive plaster.
  [The pharmacopoeia of the United States admits the
following plasters:
    Emplastrum ammoniaci.
        Do.     asafoetidue.
        Do.     ferri.
        Do.     hydrargyri.
        Do.     plumbi.
        Do.    plumbi subcarbonatis compositum.
        Do.     resinosum.
        Do.     resinosum cantharidum.  A.]
  "Eupnkumato'sis.  From cv, in, and avtu, to blow.)
An inflation of the stomach, or any other viscus.
  EMPO'RIUM.  (From tpiroptu,  to  negotiate.)   A
mart. The bi ain is so  called, as being ihe place where
all rational and sensitive transactions are collected.
  EMPRESMA.  Good revives this term (used  in its
simple form both by Hippocrates and Galen, to express
internal  inflammation) to designate a genus of disease
in his Class, Hamatica;  Order, Phlogotica.  Visceral
inflammation.   It embraces  inflammation of all  tile
 ciscera: hence Emprcsma  cephalitis;  otitis; paroti-
 tis ;  paristhmitis ;  laryngitis; bronchitis ; pntumo-
 nitis; pleuritis;  carditis;  peritonitis; gastritis;
 enteritis;  hepatitis; splen/tis; nephritis; cystitis;
 iysteritis; orchitis.
   E'mprion.  (From cv, and zzptuv, a saw.)  Serrated.
 Formerly applied lo a pulse, in which the artery at dif
 ferent times is unequally distended.
   EMPROSTHO TONOS.  (From tpnpooOcv, before
 ar forwards, and tcivu, to  draw.)  A clonic spasm of
 several  muscles, so as  lo keep the body in a fixed posi-
 tion and bent forward.  Cullen considers it as  a spe-
 cies of  tetanus.  See Tetanus.
   E'MPTYSIS.  (From tprfvu, to spit  out.)  A dis-
 cbarge of blood from the mouth.
   EMPYEMA.  (From cv,  within, and  zzvov, pus.)
 A collection of pus  in the cavity of the thorax.  It is
 one of the terminations of pleuritis.  There is reason
 for believing that matter is contained in the cavity of
 the chest,  when, after  a pleurisy, or inflammation in
 the thorax, the  patient has a difficulty of breathing,
 particularly on lying on  the side opposite the affected
 one; and when au  (edematous swelling is externally
 perceptible.
  EMPYE'MATA.  (From cv, and tzvov, pus.)  Sup-
 purating medicines.
  EMPYESIS.  (From epirvou, or epirvtu, suppuro.)
 Good has  given this term (found in the fifth book of
 Hippocrates's aphorisms) to a genus of disease,  class,
 Hamatica;  order,  Exanthematica, characterized by
 phlegmonous pimples,  which gradually fill with  a  pu-
 rulent   fluid.  It  has  only one species,  small-pox—
 Empyesis variola.
   Empyreal air.  Scheele  gave this name to oxygen
 gas.
   EMPYREU'MA.  (From epirvptvu, to  kindle, from
 imp, fire.)  A peculiar and offensive smell  that distilled
 waters  and other substances  receive from being ex-
 posed to heat in closed vessels, or when burned  under
 circumstances which prevent the accession of air to a
 considerable part of the mass.
   EMPYREUMATIC.  Empyreumaticus; from tp-
 rmptvu, to kindle.)  Smelling as it were  burnt; ihus
 empyreumatic oils are those distilled with a great heat,
 anil impregnated with a  smell of the fire.
   EMU'LGENT.   (Emulgens;  from  emulgeo,  to
 melt out;  applied  to  the  artery and  vein wliich  go
 from the aorta and vena cava to tbe kidneys, because
 the ancients supposed they strained, and, as il were,
 milked ihe serum through the kidneys.)   The vessels
 of the kidneys are so termed. The emulgent artery is
 a branch of the aorta.  The emulgent vein evacuates
 its blood into the ascending cava.
  "EMU'LSIO.  (Emulsio, onis.f.; from emulgeo, to
 milk )   An emulsion.  A soft and somewhat oily me-
dicine resembling milk.  An imperfect combination (n
oil and water, by the intervention of some other sub
stance  capable  of  combining with  both  these  sub-
stances.
  Emulsio acacia.  This is made in the tame man-
ner as the almond emulsion, only adding while beating
the almonds, two ounces ot gum arabic.  This cooling
and demulcent  emulsion, ordered in the  Edinburgh
Pharmacopoeia,  may  be  drank ad libitum to mitigate
ardor urina-, whether from the venereal virus or liny
other cause.  In difficult and painful micturition, and
strangury, it is of infinite service.
  Emulsio amygdala.  Almond emulsion.  Take of
almonds, one ounce;  water, two pounds and a half.
Beat the blanched almonds in a stone mortar, gra-
dually pouring on them the water; then strain off' the
liquor.  It possesses cooling and demulcent properties.
  Emulsio  camphorata.  Take of  camphor, one
scruple; sweet almonds, blanched, two drachms; dou-
ble refined sugar,  one drachm; water, six ounces
This is to be made in the same manner as the common
emulsion.  It is calculated for the stomachs of those
who can only bear small quantities of camphire.
  EMULSION.  See Emulsio.
  Emulsion, almond.   See Emulsio amygdala.
  Emulsion, Arabic.   See Emulsio acacia.
  Emulsion of  asafatida.  See Mistura asafatida
  Emulsion, camphorated.  See Emulsio camphorata.
  Emulsion of gum-ammoniac.  See Mistura ammo-
niaci.
  EMU'NCTORY.   (Emunetorium;  from emvvgo,
to drain off.)  The excretory ducts of Ihe body are so
termed; thus the exhaling arteries of the skin consti-
tute the great emunotory of the body.
  F.N.e'MA.   (From  tv, and atpa, blood.)   Enamos.
So Hippocrates and Galen call such topical medicines
as are appropriated lo bleeding wounds.
  En.eore'ma.  (From tv, and atupeu, to lifl up.) The
pendulous substance which floats in  the middle of the
urine.
  ENAMEL.  See Teeth.
  ENANTHE'SIS.  1. (From tv, in, intra, and avdt*
florco; efflorescence  from within, or from internal af-
fection.)  A genus of disease, Class, Hamatica; Order,
Exanthematica, in Good's Nosology.   Rash exanthem.
It comprehends tliree species: viz. Enanthesis rosalia;
rubeola ; urticuria.
  2. (From tv, and  avlau, to  meet.)  The near ap-
proach of ascending and descending vessels.
  ENARTHRO'SIS.   (From  tv, in,  and  apQpov, a
joint.)   The ball and socket-joint.  A species of diar-
throsis, or moveable connexion of bones, in which the
round  head of one is  received into the deeper cavity
of another, so as to admit of motion in every direction;
as the head of the os  femoris with the acetabulum of
the os innominatum.   See Articulation.
  ENCANTHIS.  (From tv, and xavBos, the angle of
the eye.)  A disease of the caruneula lachrymalis, of
which  there  are two species.   Encanthis benigna,
and Encanthis  maligna seu inveterata. The encan-
this, at its commencement,  is nothing more  than a
small, soft, red, and sometimes rather livid excrescence
which  grows from  the caruneula lachrymalis, and  at
the same time from the neighbouring semilunar fold of
the conjunctiva. This excrescence on its first appear-
ance is commonly granulated, like a mulberry, or is of
a ragged and fringe d structure. Afterward, when il
has acquired a certain size, one part of it represents a
granulated tumour,  while the rest  appears  like  a
smooth, whitish, or ash-coloured substance, streaked
with varicose vessels, sometimes advancing as far over
the conjunctiva, covering  the side of the eye next  to
the nose, as where the cornea and sclerotica unite.
  The encanthis keeps  up a chronic ophthalmy, im-
pedes the action of the eyelids, and prevents, in parti-
cular, the complete closure of the eye.  Besides, partly
by compressing and partly by displ icing the orifices of
the puncta lachrvmalia,  it obstructs the free passage
of the tears into the  nose.  The inveterate  encanlhia
is ordinarily of a very considerable magnitude; its roots
extend beyond the caruneula lachrymalis  and semi-
lunar fold to the membraneous lining of one or both
eyelids.  The patient experiences very serious  incon
venience from its origin and interposition between the
commissure of the eyelids, which it necessarily keep*
asunder on the  side towards the nose.  Sometimes the
disease assumes a  cancerous malignancy.   This cha-
                                         32a 
END
ENN
racier is evincea by the dull red, and, as it were, leaden
colour of the excrescence;  by its exceeding hardness,
and  the lancinating pains  wliich occur in it, and ex-
tend to the forehead, the whole eyeball and the temple,
especially when the tumour has  been, though slightly,
touched.  It is  also shown,  by  the propensity of the
excrescence to bleed, by the partial ulcerations on its
surface, which emit a fungous substance, nnd a thin
and exceedingly acrid discharge.
  ENCATALE'PSIS.  (From ».», and xafaXap3avu,
to seize.)  A catalepsy.
  ENCATHTSMA.  (From  tv, and xadt^u, to sit in.-)
A semicupium, or bath for half the body.
  ENCAU'MA.  (From n, in., and xatu, to burn.)  A
burn.  See Burn.
  ENCAU'SIS.  (From iv,  and xatu, to burn.)  A
burn.  See  Burn.
  ENCEPHALOCE'LE.  (From tvKttbaXov, the brain,
and 107X1;, a tumour.)  A rupture of the brain.
  ENCE PHALON.  (From  tv, in, and  xtqjaXn, the
bead.^  Encephalum. liy some writers the cerebrum
only is so called; and others  express by this term tlie
contents of the cranium.
  Ence'ris.  (From cv, and  xnpos, wax.)  A roll of
wax for making plasters.
  Encero'sis.  (From  cv, and xtpou, to wax.)  The
covering of a plaster with wax.
  ENCHARA'XIS.  (From tv, and xaPaa<"*> to sca-
rify.) A scarification.
  ENCHE1RES1S.  (From  tv, and x«Pi the hand.)
Enchcira.   Galen uses this word as a part of the title
to one of his works, whicli treats of dissection.  The
word imports the manual treatment of any subject.
  Enchei'ria.  See Encheiresis.
  Enchilo'ma.  See Enchyloma.
  Encho'ndrus.  (From tv, and xovipos, a cartilage.)
A cartilage.
  Enchris'ta.   (From eyxpt»>, to anoint.)   Oint-
ments.
  Enchtlo'ma.  (From tv,  and %uXoc, juice.)  An
inspissated juice.  An elixir, according io Lemery.
  E'NCHYMA.  (From tv, and  x*&", to infuse.)  En-
chysis.  1. An infusion.
  2.  A sanguineous plethora.
  Enchy'mata.  (From cyxuo,i t0 infuse.)  Injec-
tions for the eyes and ears.
  Enchymo'ma.  (From tv, and xyu,t0 Pour '"•)  Iu
the writings of the ancient physicians, it is a word by
which they express that sudden effusion of blood into
the cutaneous vessels, which arises from joy, anger, or
shame; and, in  the last instance, is what we usually
call blushing.
  Enchymo'sis.  Eyxupuats- L Blushing.
  2.  An extravasation of blood, wliich makes tlie part
appear livid.
  E'nchysis.  See Enchyma.
  Encly'sma.   (From tv, and xXvlu, to cleanse out.)
A clyster.
  ENCXE'LIA.   (From tv, within, and  xotXia, the
belly.)  The abdominal viscera.
  Encolpi'smus.  (From cyxoXirtu, to insinuate.)  A
uterine injection.
  ENCRA'NIUM.  (From tv, within, and Kpavtov, the
ekull.)  The cerebrum and the whole contents of the
skull.
  Encrasi'cholus.  (Fiom cv, in, xtpas, the head, and
 JroXn, bile;  because it  is said to have the gall iu its
 lead.)  The anchovy.   See Clupea.
  E'ncris.   Ryxpis-  A cake of meal, oil, and honey.
  E'ncymon'   (From  tv,  and xvu, to  conceive.)
Pregnancy.
  E'NCVSIS.   (From tv, and xvu, to bring forth.)
Parturition.                         '  ,.  .
  ENCYSTED.  Saccatus.   A term applied to those
tumours w'lich consist of a fluid or other  matter, en-
closed in a sac or cyst.                             -
  ENCY'STIS.  (From tv, in, and kus-ic, a bag.)  An
encysted tumour.
  ENDEMIC.  (Endemicus, sc. morbus;  from tv, in,
and inpos, people.)  A disease is so termed that is pe-
culiar to a certain class of persons, or country:  thus
struma is endemial to the inhabitants of Derbyshire
and  the Alps; scurvy to seafaring people; and the
plica polonica is met with in Poland.
  E'ndbsis.  (From tv,  audi**), to tie up.)  A ligature.
& bandage.
  ENDIVE.  See Cichorium.
      330
  ENDTVIA.  (Quasi eundo via, quia passim naset
lur; named from the quickness of its growth.)  Se«
Cichorium.
  E'ndosis.  (From tv, and itiupt,  to give.)  A re-
mission, disorder.
  ENECIA.  (From Hvexvs, continued.)  A genus of
disease in Good's Nosology.  Class,  Hamatica; Or
der, Pyretica: continued fever.  It comprehends three
species, Enecia cauma;  typhus ; synochns.
  Enella'gmenus.    (From  tvaXXarfu,  to  inter-
change.)   An  epithet applied to tlie  union of the
joints of the vertebrae.
  ENEMA.  (Enema, matis. neut.;  from tvirptt, to
inject.) A clyster.  A well-known form of conveying
both nourishment and medicine to the system, under
certain morbid  circumstances.  The  former  takes
place where obstruction of the passage to the stomach
is so great as to  render access to that organ impossible,
such as occurs  in lockjaw, diseased  oesophagus, Sec.
By these  means the body can be supported for  a few
weeks, while an attempt is made at effecting a cure.
It is composed, in such cases, of animal broths, gruels
made of farinaceous seeds, mucilages, Sec.  As a form
of medicine, clysters are no less useful; and, accord-
ing to the intention with which they are prescribed,
they are either of an emollient, anodyne, or purgative
nature.  The following forms are in general use.
  Enema anodynum.  Take of starch jelly, half a
pint;  tincture of opium, forty to  sixty drops.  Mix.
The whole to be injected by means of a clyster-syringe,
in cases of dysentery or violent purging, and  pain in
the bowels.
  Enema  antispasmodicum.  Take of tincture of
asafoetida, half an ounce;  tincture  of opium, forty
drops;  gruel, half a pint.  Mix.  For spasmodic affec-
tions of the bowels.
  Enema laxativum.  Take of sulphate of  magnc
sia, two ounces; dissolve in three quarters of a pint
of warm gruel, or broth, with an ounce of fresh butter,
or sweet oil.
  Enema nicotian*.  Take of the  infusion of to
bacco from a half to a whole pint   Employed in cases
of strangulated  hernia.
  Enema nutriens.  Take of strong beef tea, twelve
ounces; thicken with hartshorn shavings,  or arrow-
root.
  Enema terebinthin*. Take of common turpen
line, half an ounce; the yelk of one  egg, and  half a
pint of gruel.  The turpentine being first incorporated
with the egg, add to them the gruel.  This clyster is
generally used, and with great good effect, in violent
fits of the stone.
  Enerei'sis.   (From tvtptiiu, to adhere to  a com-
pression.)  A tight ligature.
  E'NERGY.  (Energia; from tvtpytto, to act.) The
degree  of force exercised by any power:  thus, nervous
energy, muscular energy, &c.
  ENERVATING.   The act of destroying the  force,
use, or office of the nerves, either by cutting them, or
breaking  them  by violence or abuse  of the nou-na
tur-als.
  Eneure'sis.  See Enuresis.
  ENERVIS.  Ribless:  applied to leaves which  are
without lines or ribs.
  Enoala'ctum.   (From  tv,  and ya>o,  milk; so
called,  because it is eaten by nurses  to increase tceir
milk.)  The herb saltwort.  See Salsola.
  ENGASTRIMY'THUS.  (From tv, in, yapjo, the
belly,  and pvOcopat, to discourse.)  A ventriloquist;
one who appears to speak from his belly.
  Engiso'ma.  (From tyyt£u, lo approach.)
  1. An instrument  for making the parts of a broken
clavicle meet.
  2. A fracture of me cranium.
  English Mercury.  See Mercurialis.
  Enqlotto-gastor.  (From tv, yXurfr/, the tongue,
ana yasnp, the belly.)  A ventriloquist.
  ENGOMPHO'SIS.  (From cv, and  yopebos, a  nail..
That species of articulation  which resembles a nail
driven  into wood, as a tooth in its socket.
  Engo'nios. (From cv, and yuvta, an angle.)  The
flexure, or angle made by the bending of a joint.
  Eni'xum paracelsi.  The caput mortuum ofthe
distillation of nitric acid, which is a super-sulphate of
potassa.
  ENNEANDRIA.   (From tvvca, nine, and dvw, a
man.)  The name of a  class of plants  iu the sexual 
ENT
ENT
 system, containing such as have hermaphrodite flow-
 ers with nine stamina.
   Enneapha'rmacum.  (From cvvta, nine, and ij>ap-
 uaxov, a medicine.)   A  medicine composed of nine
 simple ingredients.
   ENNEAPHY'LLUM.    (From trvea,  nine,  and
 i>vXXov,  a  leaf; because *.ts  flower  consists  of nine
 leaves.)  A name for helleboraster, or bear's-foot.
   ENODIS.  Without knots:  applied  to stems of
 plants, as Culmus enodis; that is, a smooth culm, as
 iu our common rushes.
   Enry'tiimus.  (From tv, and pvdpos, number.)  A
 pulse in some respect regular.
   ENS.  This word denoted in ancient chemistry the
 most efficacious part ol" any natural mixed body, whe-
 ther animal, vegetable, or fossil, w herein all the qua-
 lities or virtues of the ingredients of the  mixed arc
 comprehended in a small compass.
   ENSAT.cE.   (From cnsis, a sword.)  The name of
 a natural order of plants, consisting of such as  have
 sword-shaped leaves.
   E'NSIFORM.  (Ensiformis: from ensis, a sword,
 and forma, resemblance.)  Sword-like.   1. A  term
 applied to some parts from their resemblance'; as ihe
 ensiform cartilage.
   2. In botany, a leaf is called folium cnsiformc, which
 has  two edges,  and tapers  to  a point, like a sword.
 See  Leaf.
   Ensta'ctum.  (From cv, and j-n^w, to instil.)  A
 liquid medicine, whicli is  applied instillatim, or  drqp
 by drop.
   ENTASIA.   (From  tvreiots, intentio vehementia.)
 A name of a genus of diseases in Good's  Nosology.
 Class,  Neurotica;  Order,  Cincttea.  Constrictive
 spasm.  It has  eight  species, viz.  Entasia priapis-
 mus; loxia ; articularis;  systremma; trismus;  teta-
 nus; lyssa; acrotismus.
   Enta'tica.  (From ci'7£ivu), to  strain.)   Provoca-
 tives, or whatever excites  venereal inclination.
   E'NTERA.   (From cv7o$, within.)
   1.  The bowels.
   2.  Hippocrates calls by this name the bags in which
 medicines for fomentations were formerly enclosed.
   ENTERADE'NES.  (From  cv7cpov, an intestine,
 and  ac"irv, a gland.)  The intestinal  glands.
   Entere'nchyta.   (From tvjcpa, the bowels, and
 tyx»u, to infuse into.)  An instrument for adminis-
 tering clysters.  A clyster-pipe.
   ENTERICA.  (From evrtpov, intcstinum, alvus.)
 The name of the first order, class  Cxliaca, of Good's
 Nosology.   Diseases affecting the alimentary canal.
 Its genera are,  Odontia; Ptyalismus; Dysphagia;
 Dipsosis;  Limosis;   Colica;  Coprostasis;  iJiar-
 rhaa; Cholera; Enterolithus; Helminthia; Proctica.
  ENTERITIS. (From  tvftpov, an  intestine.)  In-
 flammation of the intestines.  It is a genus of disease
 in the class Pyrexia, and order Phlegmasia of Cullen,
 and  is known by the  presence of pyrexia, fixed pain
 in the  abdomen, costiveness,  and vomiting.    The
 causes of enteritis are much the same as those of gas-
 tritis, being occasioned by  acrid substances, indurated
 faeces, long-continued  and obstinate costiveness, spas-
 modic colic, and a strangulation of any part  ofthe in-
 testinal canal; but another very general cause  is the
 application of cold to the lower extremities, or  to the
 belly itself.  It is a disease which is most apt to occur
 at an advanced  period of life, and is  very liable to a
 relapse.
  It  comes on with an acute pain, extending in general
 over the whole of the abdomen; but more especially
 round the navel, accompanied  with eructations, sick-
 ness  at the stomach, a vomiting of  bilious matter, ob-
 stinate costiveness, thirst,  heat, great  anxiety, and  a
 quick and hard small pulse.  After a short time the
 pain becomes more severe, tho bowels seem drawn to-
 gether by a kind of spasm, the whole region  of the
 abdomen  is highly  painful to the  touch, and  seems
 drawn together inlumpy contractions; invincible cos-
 tiveness prevails, and the  urine is  voided with great
 difficulty and pain.'
  The inflammation continuing to proceed with vi-
olence,  terminates  at lost in gangrene; or abating
gradually, it goes off by resolution.
  Enteritis is always attended with considerable dan-
ger, as it often terminates in gangrene  in the space of
a few hour3  from its commencement;  which event is
 marked by the sudden remission of pain, sinking of
i the pulse, shrinking of the features, nnd distention ol
 the belly, and it frequently proves fatal likewise, du
 ring the inflammatory stage.  If the pains abate gra-
 dually, if natural stools be passed, if a universal sweat,
 attended with a firm equal pulse, comes on, or if a
 copious discharge of loaded urine, with the same kind
 of pulse, takes place, a resolution and favourable ter-
 mination may be expected.
   Dissections of this disease show, that the inflamma-
 tion pervades the intestinal tube to a veiy considerable
 extent;  that adhesions of the diseased portion to con-
 tiguous parts are formed ;  and that, in some cases, the
 intestines are in a gangrenous state, or that ulcerations
 have formed.  They likewise show, that, besides ob-
 stinate obstructions, introsusception,constrictions, and
 twisting*, are often to be met wilh; and that, in most
 cases, the peritonaeum is more  or less affected, and is
 perceived, nt times, to be covered with a  layer ol"
 coagulable lymph.  The treatment must be  begun by
 taking blood freely from the arm, as far as the strength
 of the patient will allow; but  the disease occurring
 more frequently in persons rather advanced in  years,
 and of a constitution somewhat impaired, it becomes
 more  important to limit this evacuation and rely in a
 great measure on the effects of  a number of leeches,
 applied to the abdomen.  Another very useful step is
 to put the patient into a hot bath, which may presently
 induce faintness; or where  this cannot be procured,
 fomenting the abdomen assiduously.  When the  symp-
 toms are thus materially relieved, an ample blister
 should be applied.  It becomes also ofthe first import-
 ance to clear out the bowels: a copious laxative clyster
 will evacuate the inferior part of the canal, and  solicit
 the  peristaltic motion downwards;  and  the milder
 cathartics, as castor oil, neutral salts, Sec in divided
 doses, may gradually procure a  passage.   But where
 Ihe  disease has been preceded  by costiveness,  more
 active articles will probably be necessary, as calomel,
 compound extract  of colocynth, infusion  of senna,
 with salts, &.c.   If the stomach  be irritable, the  effer-
 vescing saline draught may enable it lo retain the re-
 quisite cathartics.  Another plan, often very success-
 ful, is  giving opium in  a full dose, particularly in con-
junction with calomel, taking care to follow it  up by
some of  the remedies above mentioned, till the bowel*
 are relieved; which effect it appears to promote by its
soothing artispasmodic power. Afterward we may en-
deavour to keep up diaphoresis, and recruit the strength
of the patient by a mild nourishing diet; taking care
to guard against accumulation  of faces, exposure to
cold, or any thing else likely to occasion a relapse.
  ENTERO'.  (From vfltpov, an intestine.)  Names
compounded of this word belong to things wliich re-
semble an  intestine;  or to parts connected with, or
diseases of some part of the intestine.
  ENTEROCE'LE. (From £v7<"pov, an intestine, and
KvXr\, a tumour.)  An intestinal rupture or hernia.
Every  hernia may be so culled that is  produced by tho
protrusion of a portion of intestine, whether it is iu the
groin, navel, or elsewhere.
  Entero-epiplocele.  (From tvlzpov, an intestine,
cirirrXoov, the epiploon, and xnXr), a lumour.)  A rup-
ture  formed by Ihe protrusion of part of an intestine,
with a portion of the epiploon.
  Entero-hydrocele.  (From  tvrtpov, an intestine,
viup, water, and KnXn, a tumour.) This must mean a
common scrotal hernia, with a good deal of water in
the hernial sac ; or else a hernia congenita, (in which
the bowels descend into the tunica  vaginalis testis,)
attended with a collection of fluid in the cavity of this
membrane.
  ENTEROLITHUS.  (From tvrtpov, an  intestine,
and XtOos, a stone.)  The name of a genus of disease,
Class, Caliaca; Order, Enterica, in Good's Nosology
Intestinal concretion.  It embraces three species, viz
Enterolithus bezoar ; calculus ;  scybalum
  ENTERO'MPHALUS.   (From tvrtpov, an intes
tine,  and  oucbaXos, the navel.)  An  umbilical hernia,
produced by the protrusion of a portion of intestine.
  ENTERO'PHYTUM. (From tvftpov, an intestine,
and «3u7ov, a plant)  A plant which grows in the  form
of a cut,  the sea-chitterling.
  ENTERORA'PHIA.  (From  tvrtpov, an  intestine,
and pacbn, a suture.)  A suture of the intestines, or the
sewing toeether the divided edges of an intestine.
  ENTEROSCHEOCE'LE. (From tvrtpov, an intes-
tine,  ooxtov, the scrotum,  and xnXrj,  a rupture.)  A 
F.PH
EPI
 scrotal hernia, or rupture of the intestines into the
 scrotum.
  Enthe'mata. (Irom tv/idript, to put in.) Anti-ni-
 flammatory styptic*
  E'nthlasis.  A contusion with the impression of
 tlie instrument  by which it happened.
  Entire Leaf. See Intcgerrimus.
  ENTROCH1. A genus of extraneous fossils, made
 up of round joints, which, when separate and loose,
 are called trochita.
  ENTRO'PIUM  (Entropium, i.  n.; from cv, and
 rpsiru, to turn.)  A disease of the eyelids, occasioned
 by the eyelashes and eyelid being inverted towards the
 bulb ofthe eye.
  Entypo'sis.  (From tvfvirou, to make an impres-
 sion.)  1. The acetabulum.
  2.  The scapula, or concave bone of the shoulder.
  E'NULA.  (A corruption of henula, or Helenium,
 from  Hcleue, the island where  it grew.)  See Inula
 helenium.
  Eni la campana.  See Inula helenium.
  Enu lon.  (From tv, and ovXov, the gums.)  The
 internal flesh ofthe gums, or thai part of them which
 is within the mouth.
  ENURE'SIS.  (Eneurcsis, is. f. ; from tvovptu, to
 make w ater.) An inoontinoncy, or involuntary flow of
 urine.  This  disease usually proceeds either Horn re
 taxation or a paralytic affection of the sphincter of the
 bladder, induced by various debilitating causes, as too
 free a use of spirituous liquors, manustupration, and
 excess in  venery ; or it arises from compression  on the
 bladder, from the diseased state of the organ, or from
 some  irritating substance contained  iu its cavity.  It
 is arranged in the class Locales, and order Apocenoses
of Cullen, and contains two species : 1. Enuresis ato-
nica, the  sphincter of the bladder having lost its tone
 from some previous disease.   2. Enuresis  ub  irrita-
tione, vel compressione vesica, from an irritation or
compression ofthe bladder.
  Epacma'sticus. (From cm,  and aKpaQu,  to  in-
crease.)   A fever which is increasing in malignity.
  Epa'cme. (From tiraKpa^u, to increase.)  The in-
crease, or exacerbation of a disease.
  Epago'gium.  (From tirayu, to draw over.) The
praepuce,  or that part of the penis which is drawn over
the glans, according to Dioscorides.
  Epanadido'ntes. (From ETravar5ir5(o/ii,to increase.)
A term applied  to fevers whicli continue to increase
In their degree of heat.
  Epanadiplo'sis.  (From eiravafJiTrXou,  to redupli-
cate.) 'The reduplication of a fit of a semitertian fever;
that is, the return  of  the cold fit before the hot fit is
ended.
  Epana'stasis.  (From tm, and avtsvpt, to excite.)
A tubercle, or small pustule upon the skin.
  Epancylo'tus.   (From tirt, and ayKvXos, crooked.)
A sort of crooked bandage in Oribasius.
  EPANETUS. (From 'Eiravctpi, to return.) The
name of a genus,  Class Hamatica; Order, Pyretica,
in  Good's Nosology.   Remittent fever.  It has three
species, viz. Epanctus nutis; malignus;  hectica.
  Epa'rma.  (From  tiratpu, to elevate.)  Eparsis.
Any kind of tumour,  but frequently applied to  one of
the parotid gland.
  Epa'rsis.  See Eparma.
  Kfasma'stiga febris.  A fever is so called by Bel-
lini, and others, while it is in its increase.  See Epac-
masttcus.
  Epe'ncranis.  (From «ri, cv, in, and  «paviov,  the
skull.) The name ofthe cerebellum.
  Ei-hebje'um.  (From tirt, and ijiSrj, the groin.)  The
hair upon the pubes.
  Ephedra. (From c<ptX,opai, to sit upon.) Epheirana.
 1. The buttocks.
 2. A species of horse-tail.
  Ephe'drana.  See Ephedra.
  Epiie'lcis.  (From  cm, upon, and iXkos, an  ulcer.)
1. The crust of an ulcer.
 2. Hardened purulent expectoration.
  EPHELIS.   (Ephelis;  from tm, and ijAioc, the
sun.)  A sun spot. A solitary, or aggregated spot, at-
tacking most commonly the face, hack of the hand, and
t.renst, from exposure to the sun.
  EPHEMERA.  (From titi, upon, nnd npcpa, a day.)
 A disease of a day's duration.
 2. A fever  whicli begins, is perfectly formed, and
 >ins through its course in the space of twelve hours.
      332
  EPHEME RIDES.    (Ephcmeris,  idis   t ;  from
 etbnptpts,  an  almanac: so  called because, like the
 moon s age, they may be foretold by the almanac.
 Diseases which return at particular times of tlie moon.
  EPHIA LTES.  (From tipaXXopat, to  leap  upon:
 so called because it was thought a daemon leaped upon
 the breast.) Incubus, or nightmare.  See Oneirodynia.
  Ephia'ltia.   (From ephialtcs, the nightmare; so
 called  because it was said  to cure the nightmare.)
 Tne herb  peony
  EPHIDRO'SIS.   (From tqitipou, to perspire.)  Su
 datio.   Mador.  A  violent and morbid peispiration.
 A genus of disease in the class Locales,  and order
 Apocenoses of Cullen.
  EPHTPPIUM. A saddle,  whicli it is thought to re
 semble.  See Sella turcica.
  E'phodos.   (From cm and oios, a way.)  In Hip-
 pocrates it hath three significations:
  1. The ducts or passages, by which the excrements
 of the body are evacuated.
  2. The periodical attack of a fever, from  Hie com-
 mon use ol" it to express the attack of thieves.
  3. The access of similar or dissimilar things, which
 may be useful or hurtful to the body.
  Epia'ltes.  See Ephialles.
  Epi'alus.   (From rjmov,  gently,  and aXxa^u, to
 heat.)  Epialos. An ardent fever, in which  both heat
 and cold arc felt in the same part at the same time.
 Galen defines it to be a fever in which the patient
 labours under a preternatural heat and a coldness at
 the same time.  The ancient  Latins call it Qucrccra.
  Epi'bole.  (From trrtdaXXu, to press  upon.)   The
 nightmare, or ephialles.
  Epica'ntiiis.  (From tm, and kovBos, the angle of
 the eye.)  The angle of the eye.
  Fpica'rpium.  (From tm,  upon,  and  Kapiros,  the
 wrist.)  A medicine applied to the wrist.
  Epiia'uma.   (From ctti,  and Kami, to  burn.)   A
 burn.
  Epicau'sis.   A bum.
  Epi'ceras.  (From tirt, and Ktpas, a horn: so called
 because its pods are shaped like a horn.)  See Trigo-
 nella fanum gracum.
  Epicera'stica.  (From t-rri, and Ktpavwpi, lo mix.)
 Medicines which, by mixing with acrimonious juices,
 temper  them and render them loss  troublesome; as
 emollients.
  Epk heire'sis.  (From  t-i, and  xaP> tne hand.)
 A manual operation.
  Epi'cholus.   (From cm, and  x°^1,  the  bile.)
 Bilious.
  Epicho'rdis.  (From art, upon, and x°pil, a gut.)
 The mesentery.
  Epicho'rios.  (From cm, upon, and x°P<*, a region.)
The same as epidermis.
  EPICHROS1S.   (From tirtxpuots, a  coloured or
 spotted  surface.)  The name of a genus of" disease,
 Class, Eccritica ; Order, Acrotica, in Good's Nosology.
 Macular skin, or simple discoloration of the surface
 It embraces seven species, viz. Epichrosis leucasmus,
 spilus ;  lenticula; ephelis ; aurigo ; pacilia ; alphosis.
  Epiocelis.  (From tirt, upon, and KotXis, the eyelid.)
 The upper eyelid.
  EPICO'LIC.   (Epicolicus; from  tirt,  upon,  nnd
 xuXov, the colon.) That part of the abdomen which
 lies over the head of the eeecuni and the sigmoid flex-
 ure of the colon, is called the epicolic legion.
  Epicopho'sis.  (From tirt, and Kuq>os, deaf.)   A
 total deafness.
  EPICRA'NTUM.   (From   c-i,  and  xpavtov,  the
 cranium.)   The common  integuments, aponeurosis,
 and muscular expansion which lie upon the cranium.
  Epicra'nius.  See Occipito frontalis.
  EITCRAS1S.  (From tm, and xcpawvpt, to tem-
 per.)  A critical evacuation of bad humours, an at-
 temperation of bad ones.   When a cure is performed
 in the alterative way, it is called per  Epicrasin.
  EPICRIS1S.  (From tm, and xoivu, to judge from.)
 A judgment of the termination of a disease from pre-
sent symptoms.
  Epicte'nium.   (From tm, about, and xftit.  tlie
 pubes.)  The parts above and about the pubes.
  Epicye'ma.   (From ciri, upon, and kvu, to conceive.)
 Epicyesis.  Supcrfaetation.
  Epicvie'sis.   See Epicycma.
  EPIDE'MIC.  (Epidemicvs; from tirt,  upon, aim
rSrj/ioc, the  people.)  A contagious disease is so termed, 
EP1
EPI
that attacks many people  at the same season, and in
the same place; thus, putrid  fever, plague, dysentery,
Sec are often epidemic.
  EPIDE'NDRUM.  (From tin, upon, and itvipov, a
'tee; because all this  genus of plants  grow parasiti-
cally on the trunks or branches of trees.)   The name
ff a genus of plants in the Liriuaeau system.   Class,
Gynandria; Order, Moniindria.
  Epioendrum vanilla.   The systematic name of
the vanelloe plant.  Vanilla ; Banlia; Banilas ; Ara-
cus aromaticus; Epidendrum—scandens, foliis ovato
iblongis nervosis sessilibus caulinis, cirrhis spiralibus
of Linnaeus.  The vanelloe is a long, flatfish pod, con-
taining, under a wrinkled brittle shell, a  reddish brown
Dulp, with small shining black  seeds, which have nn
unctuous aromatic taste, and a fragrant smell like that
of some of the  finer balsams heightened w ith musk.
Although chiefly used  as  perfumes, they are  said to
possess aphrodisiac virtues.
  Epi'deris.  (From t-t, and itpas, the skin.)  The
clitoris.
  EPIDERMIS,   (From  e-i, upon, and isppa, the
true skin.)  The scarf-skin.   See Cuticle.
  Epi'oesis.  (From cm, upon, and ieu, to bind.)  A
bandage to stop a discharge of blood.
  Epide'smus.   (From m, upon, and  icu, to bind.)
A bandage by which splints, bolsters, Sec are secured.
  EPIDIDYMIS.   (From cm, upon, and iiivpos,  a
testicle.)   A hard, vascular, oblong substance, that lies
upon the testicle, formed of a convolution of the vas
deferens.   It has a thick end, which is convex, and
situated iiosteriorly: and a thin end, which is rather
flat, and situated inferiorly.  The epididymis adheres
to the testicle by ils two extremities only, for its middle
part is  free, forming a bog, to whicli  the tunica vagi-
nalis of the testicle is attached.
  Epi'dosis.  (From eirtii&upt, to grow upon.)   A pre-
ternatural enlargement  of any part.
  EPIDOTE.  Pistacite of Werner.  Acanticone from
Norway.   A sub-species of prismatoidal augite.  A
compounded ore, containing silica, alumina, lime, ox-
ide  of  iron, oxide of manganese, found in  primitive
beds and veins, along with augite, hornblende, calca-
reous spar, &c.
  Epi drome.   (From  t-tiptpu, to  run upon.)  An
afflux of humours.
  EPIGASTRIC.   (Epigastricus; from  cir«, upon,
or above, and yasvp, the stomach.)  That part ftf the
abdomen lhat lies over  the stomach, is called the epi-
gastric region; it reaches from the pit of the stomach
to an imaginary line above the navel, supposed to be
drawn  from one extremity of  the last of the false ribs
to the other.  Its sides  are called hypochondria, and
are covered by the false ribs,  between wliich lies the
epigastrium.
  EPIGA STRIUM.  (From cin, upon,  or above, and
yasvp,  the belly.)   The  part immediately over the
stomach.
  EPIGENESIS.  A name given by the ancients, to
that theory of generation which consists in regarding
the foetus as the joint production of matter afforded by
both sexes.
  EPIGENNEMA.  (From  tmytvapat, to generate
upon.;   1. The fur on the tongue.
  2. An accessory symptom.
  EPIGENNE'SIS.  See Epigennema.
  EPIGINO'MENA.   (From cmyiyojuu, to succeed
or supervene.)   Galen says, they  are  those symp-
toms wliich naturally  succeed, or may lie expected
in the  progress of a disease; but Foesius says, they
are  accessions  of some otlier  affection to diseases,
which  never happen but  in stubborn and malignant
diseases.
  EPIGLO'SSUM.   (From cm, upon, and yXutraa,
the tongue: so called because a less leaf grows above
the larger in the shape of a tongue.)  The Alexandrian
laurel,  a species of Ruscus.
  EPIGLOTTIS.   (From tm, upon, and yXur'/ts, the
tongue.)   The cartilage at the root of the tongue that
falls upon the glottis or  superior opening ofthe  larynx.
It-i figure is nearly oval; it is concave posteriorly, and
convex anteriorly.   Its  apex  or superior extremity is
loose, and is always elevated  upwards by its own
elasticity.  While the  back of the tongue  is drawn
backwards in swallowing, the epiglottis is put over the
aperture of the  larynx, hence it shuts up the passage
from the mouth into the larynx.   The base of the epi-
glottis is fixed to the thyroid cartilage, Ihe os hyoides,
and the base of the tongue, by a strong ligament.
  Epigi.o'ttum.   (From tmyXurfis, the epiglottis,
whicli it  resembles in shape.)  An instrument men
tioneil by  Paracelsus for elevating the eyelids.
  EFIGLOI-'TIS.  (From C7ri, upon, and yXov]os, the
buttocks.)  The superior parts of the buttocks.
  Epigo'natis.   (From tm, upon, and yovv, ihe knee.)
The patella or knee-pan.
  Epigo'muks.  (From tpt, and yovv, the knee.)  Th«
muscles inserted into the  knees.
  Epi'gonum.   (From tmyivouat,  to proceed  upon.)
A superfuetation.
  Epile'mfsis.  See Epilepsy.
  Epile'ntia.  Corrupted from epilepsia.
  EPILEPSY.  (Epilepsia, a, I'.; from tmXapBavu,
to seize upon: so called, from the suddenness of its
attack.)   It is also called falling sickness, from the
patient suddenly falling to the ground on an attack of
this disease.   By the  ancients it was termed, from its
affecting the mind, the most noble  part of the rational
creature,  the sacred  disease.  It  consists of convul-
sions with sleep, and  usually froth issuing from the
mouth.   It is a genus of disease  in  the (lass .V'.u-
roses, and order Spasmi,  of Cullen, and contains three
species:
  1. Epilepsia ccrebralis; attacking suddenly without
manifest cause, and not  preceded  by any  unpleasant
sensation,  unless perhaps  some giddiness or dimness of
sight.
  -. Epilepsia sympathica;  without manifest cause,
but preceded by a sensation of au aura ascending from
some part  of the body to  the head.
  3. Epilepsio occasionalis; arising  from manifest
irritation,  and ceasing  on  the removal of this.   It com-
prehends several varieties:—a. Epilepsia traumatica,
arising from an injury of  the head: b. Epilepsia a do-
lore, from pain: c. Epilepsia verminosa, from the irri-
tation of worms: d. Epilepsia a veneno, from poisons:
e. Epilepsia exanthematica, from the repulsion of cuta-
neous eruptions: f. Epilepsia  d cruditale  ventriculi,
from crudities of the stomach: g. Epilepsia ab inani
tione, from debility: h. Epilepsia uterina, from  hys-
terical affections: i.  Epilepsia  ex  onanismo,  from
onanism, &c.
  Epilepsy attacks by  fits, and after a certain duration
goes off, leaving the  person most commonly  in his
usual state; but sometimes  a  considerable degree of
stupor and weakness remain behind, particularly where
the disease has frequent recurrences.  It is oftoner met
with among children  than grown  persons, and boys
seem more subject to its attacks than girls.  Its returns
are periodical,  and its paroxysms commence more
frequently in the night than in the day, being some-
what connected  with  sleep.   It is sometimes coun-
terfeited, in order to  extort charity or excite com-
passion.
  Epilepsy is properly distinguished into sympathetic
and idiopathic, being considered as sympathetic, when
produced by an  affection in some  other part of the
body, such as acidities in the stomach, worms, teeth-
ing, Sec. as idiopathic when it is  a primary disease,
neither dependent on nor  proceeding from any oilier.
  The causes which give rise  lo epilepsy are blows,
wounds, fractures, and other injuries, done to the head
by external violence, together with  lodgments of water
in the brain, tumours, concretions, and polypi.  Violent
affections ofthe nervous system, sudden frights, fits of
passion, great  emotions of the mind, acute pains in
any part, worms in the stomach or intestines, teething,
the  suppression of long-accustomed evacuations, too
great emptiness or repletion, and poisons received into
the  body, are causes which likewise produce epilepsy
Sometimes it is hereditary, and at others it depends on
a predisposition arising  from  mobility of the seuso
rium, which is occasioned cither by plethora, or a state
of debility.
  An attack of epilepsy is now and then preceded by
a heavy pain in  the head, dimness of sight, noise in
the  ears, palpitations, flatulency in the stomach  and
intestines,  weariness,  and a small  degree of  stupor,
and in some cases, there prevails a sense of something
like a cold vapour or aura arising up to the  head ;  but
it more generally happens that the patient falls down
suddenly without much previous notice;  his eyes are
distorted, or turns so that  only the whites of" them can
be seen; hi j fingers are closely clenched, and the trunk 
EPI
EP1
 of his body, particularly on one side, is much agitated;
 he foams at the mouth, and thrusts out his  tongue,
 which often suffers great injury from  ihe muscles of
 the  lower  jaw being affected; he loses all sense of
 feeling, and not  unfrequently voids both  urine and
 faeces involuntarily.
  The spasms abating, he  recovers gradually;  but on
 coming to  himself feels languid  and  exhausted, and
 retains not the smallest recollection of what has pasesed
 during the lit.
  When the disease arises from an hereditary disposi-
 tion, or comes on  after the age of puberty, or where
 the fi'.3 recur frequently, and are of long duration, it
 Will be very difficult to effect a cure: but when its at-
 tacks are at an early age,  and occasioned  by  worms,
 or any accidental cause, it may in  general be removed
 with ease.   In some coses, it has been entirely carried
 off by the occurrence of a fever, or by  the appearance
 of a cutaneous eruption.   It hns been  known to ter-
 minate in apoplexy, and in some instances to produce
 a loss of the powers  of the mind, and to bring on
 idiolism.
  The appearances usually to be  observed  on  dissec-
 tion, are serous and .sanguineous effusion, a turgid tense
 state of tlie vessels of the  brain without, any effusion,
 a dilatation  of some particular part of the brain, ex-
 crescences, polypi, and hydatids,  adhering to  it, and
 obstructing ils functions, and likewise ulcerations.
  During the epileptic paroxysm  in general, little or
 nothing is to be done, except using precautions, that
 the patient  may not injure  himself; and it will  be pru-
 dent to remove  any thing which may compress the
 veins of the neck,  to obviate congestion in  the head.
 Should there be a  considerable determination of blood
 to this  part, or  the patient very plethoric,  it may be
 proper, if you can  keep him steady, to open a vein, or
 Ihe temporal artery ; and in weakly constitutions the
 most powerful antispasmodics may be tried in the form
 of clyster, as they could  hardly be swallowed : but
 there is very seldom time  for such iiR-asures.   In the
 intervals, the treatment consists:  1. In obviating the
 te-veral exciting causes.  2. In  correcting any  observ-
 able predisposition.  3. In the use of those  means,
 which are most likely to break through the habit of re-
 currence.
  I.  The manner of fulfilling the first indication re-
 luires little explanation; after an injury to  the head,
 »r where there is disease of the bone, an operation may
 tie necessary, to remove irritation from the  brain ; in
 children teething, the gums ought to be lanced:  where
 Ihe bowels are foul, or worms suspected, active purga-
 tives should be exhibited, Sec.  In those instances in
 ivhich the aura epileptica is perceived, it has been re-
 commended to destroy the  part, where it originates, or
 Divide the nerve going to it, or correct the morbid ac-
 lion  by a blister, Sec;  such means would certainly be
 proper when there is  any disease discoverable in it.
 Making a tight ligature on the limb above has  some-
 times prevented a  fit;  but, perhaps, only through the
 medium of the imagination.
  II. Where a plethoric state appears to lay tho foun-
 dation of" the disease, which is often the case, the pa-
 lient must be restricted to a low diet, frequent  purges
 exhibited, and the  otlier excretions kept up, and he
 should take regular moderate exercise, avoiding what-
 ever may determine  the blood to  the head; and to
 counteract  such a  tendency, occasional cupping, blis-
 ters, issues, &c. may be useful, as well as the shower-
 bath ; but in urgent circumstances, the lancet ought to
 he freely used.  If, on  the  contrary, there are  marks
 of inanition and debility, a generous diet, with tonic
 medicines, and other means of strengthening the sys-
 tem, will be proper. The  vegetable tonics  have not
 been so successful in this disease  as the metallic pre-
 parations, particularly the sulphate of zinc, the nitrate
of silver, and the ammoniated copper, but this cannot
 perhaps be  so safely persevered in : where the patient
Is remarkably exsanguineous, chalybeates may answer
better, and, in obstinate cases, the arsenical solution
might have a cautious trial.  In irritable constitutions,
sedatives are indicated, as digitalis, opium,  &c.: but
the  free use of opium  is restricted by a tendency to
congestion in the head.  Where syphilis appears to be
concerned, a course of mercury is proper; in scrofu-
lous hnb'ts, bark, or steel, with  iodine, soda, and sea-
bathing; and so on.
  HI. The  third division of remedies conies especially
     334
 in use, Where the fits are frequent, or where then -re-
 currence can  be anticipated;  emetics will often pre-
 vent them, or a full dose of opium ; also other power-
 ful antispasmodics, as aether, musk, valerian, Sec: or
 strong odours, and in short any thing producing a con-
 siderable impression on the system. Bark, taken large*
 ly, might perhaps be more successful on this principle
 The disease  has .sometimes  been cured, especially
 when originating from sympathy, by inspiring fear or
 horror;  and many  frivolous charms may, no doubt
 have taken effect through the medium of the imagina-
 tion.  Also long voyngej have removed it, which might
 especially be hoped for at the age of puberty, particu-
 larly if a considerable chance in the mode of lite were
 made in other respects; those who had  lived indo-
 lently being obliged to exert themselves, the diet pro-
 perly adapted to the stale of tlie system, &c.
   EPILO BIUM.   (From tm  Xotiov  lov,  a violet or
 beautiful flower, growing on apod.)   Tlie  name of a
 genus of plants in the Linnaean system.   Class, Oc-
 tandria; Order, Monogynia.
   Epilobiu.h anoustifolium. Rose -bay-willow herb.
 The young tender shoots cut in the spring, and dressed
 as asparagus, are little inferior to it.
   Epime'dium.  The plant barren-wort.
   Epimo'rius.  (Fro cm, and pttpu, to divide.)  An
 obsolete term, formerly applied to an unequal pulse.
   Epimy'lis.   (From cm, and ptiAi/, the knee.)  The
 patella or knee-bone.
   Epineneu'cus.   (From tirtvtvu, to nod or incline.)
 An unequal pulse.
   Epi.no tium.  (From  car,  upon,  and  vujos,  the
 back.)   The shoulder-blade.
   EPINY'CTIS.   (From cm, and vel-, night.)   A pus-
 tule, which rises in tlie night, forming au angry tumour
 on the skin of the arms, hands, and thighs, of the size
 of a lupine, of a dusky red,  and sometimes of a livid
 and pale colour, with great inflammation and pain.   In
 a few days it breaks, and sloughs away.
   Epipa'otts.  (From t-t-ax^oa,  to  coagulate.)  A
 plant  mentioned  by Dioscorides;  and so  named be-
 cause its juice was said to coagulate milk.
   Epiparoxy'smus.  (From crj, upon,  and irapolva-
 pos, a paroxysm.)    An  unusual  frequency of febrile
 exacerbation.
   Epipa'stum.  (From  tm,  upon, and   ira<rtr<o,  to
 sprinkle.)  Any powdered drug sprinkled on the body.
   Ei'ipk'chys. (From cirt, above, and inrxvs, the cu-
 biL)  That pnrt of the arm above the cubit.
   Emphlogi'sma.   (From tm, upon, and tpXoytgu, to
 inflame.)  1. Violent inflammation, or burning heat in
 any part, attended with pain, tumour, and redness.
   2. A name given by Hippocrates to the shingles.
   EPTPHORA. (From  tvtcbcpu,  to carry forcibly.;
 The watery eye. An involuntary flow of tears.  A su-
 perabundant flowing of a serous or aqueous humour
 from theeyes.  A genus of disease in the class Locales,
 and order Apocenoses, of Cullen.  The humour which
 flows very copiously from the eye in epiphora, appears
 to be furnished, not  only by  the lachrymal  gland, but
 from tlie  whole surface of the conjunctive membrane,
 Meibomius's glands, and  the caruneula lachrymalis;
 which increased and morbid secretion may  be induced
 from any stimulus seated between the globe of the eye
 and  lids, as sand, acrid fumes, and the like; or it may
 arise from the stimulus of active inflammation; or from
 the acrimony* of scrofula, measles, small-pox, &c, or
 from general relaxation.  The  disease may also arise
 from a more copious secretion of tears, than'the puncta
 lachrymalia can absorb, or, as is most common, from
 an obstruction in the lachrymal canal, m consequence
of which the tears are prevented from  pussing'freely
 from the eye into the nose.
  EPIPHRAGMA.   The slender  membrane  whicli
sometimes shuts the peristoma of  mosses, as is seen
in Polijtricum.
  EPIPHYSIS. (From cm, upon, and q\vu, to grow.)
Any portion of bone growing upon another, but sepa-
rated from it by a cartilage.
  Epipla'sma.   (From cm, upon, and ltXaeoau, to
spread.)  1.  A poultice.
  2.  A name for an application of wheat meal, boiled
in hydrelaeum, io wounds.
  EPIPLO.   (From crrtirXeov, the omentum.)  Name*
 compounded of this word belong  to parts  connected
 with, or disease of, the epiploon.
  EPIPI.OCE'LE.    (From  cmirXoov, the  omentum, 
EPl                                               EPS
 and w.-.V,, a tumour.)  An omental hernia.  A rupture
 produced by the protrusion of a portion of the omen-
 tum   i~ce Hernia omenlalis.
   Epiplocomi'stis.   (From smirXoov, the omentum,
 and Kopi'^ui, to carry.)  One who has the omentum
 morbidly large.
   Epiploic appendages.  See Appendicular cpiploicw.
   EP1PLOI 1'iS.   (From rxiirAouv, the  omeiiluui.)
 An  inflammation of  the process of the  peritonaeum,
 that forms the epiploon or omentum.  See Peritonitis.
   EPIPLOO MPHALON. (From ciriirAoov, thcomeii-
 tum, and optpaXos,  the navel.)   Au omental  heiuia
 protruding at the navel.
   EPIPLOON.  (From cmirXou, to sail over, because
 it is mostly found floating, as it were, upon the intes-
 tines.)  See Omentum.
   EPIP L OS C H L* O C E * L E.   (From cmrrXoov, the
 omentum, oaxtov, the scrotum, and xnXii, a tumour or
 hernia.)  A rupture of the omentum into the scrotum,
 orn scrotal hernia containing omentum.
  Enpo  Lasis.  (From tmrroXa^u, to sw un on the top.)
 I  A fluctuation of humours.
  2. A species of chemical sublimation.
  Epipo'ma.   (From cin, upon, and  mopa, a lid.)   An
 instrument to cover the shoulder  in a luxation.
  Eph-oro'ma.  (From cTiirwpcui, to harden.)  A hard
 Iuiiiout about tlie joints.
  Epipty'xis.  (From tmirfvoou, to  close  up.)   A
 spasmodic closing of the lips.
  Epii'YRK xis.  (.From c-t, and  irvatrlu, to be fever-
 ish.)   A  rapid exacerbation in a fever.
  EpiRiok sis.  (From cm, andcxycu, to become cold.)
 An unusual decree of cold, or repetition of rigois.
  Epi'rrhoe.   (From c-t, upon, and pcu, lo flow )
 An influx or afflux of humours to any pari.
  EP1SARCID1UM.  (From tm, upon, and cup""", the
 flesh.)  An anasarca,  cr dropsy, spread between  the
 skin and  flesh.
  EP1SCHE SES.  (From cticxcco, to  restrain.)  A
 suppression of excretions.  It is an  order in the class
 Locales of Cullen's Nosology.
  EP1SCHIUM.  (From  cm, upon, and tax1™,  tne
 hip-bone.)   Thn os pubis.
  EPISCOPAL.  (From  episcopus, a bishop, or  mi-
 tred diunitary.)  Of, or belonging to a bishop: applied
 to a valve at the orifice  between the left auricle and
 ventricle of the heart.  See Mitral valve.
  Epispa'smus.  (From tmenrau, to draw  together.)
 A quick  inspiration.
  EPl SPA STIC.  (F.pispasticus; from  cmcrrau,  to
 draw together.)  Those substances which are capable,
 when applied to the surface of the body, of producing
 a serous or purilorm discharge, by exciting a previous
 state of  inflammation.  The terra, though compre-
 hending likewise issues nnd selons, is more commonly
 restricted to  blisters—those applications which,  ex-
citing inflammation on the skin, occasion a thin serous
 fluid to be poured from the exhalanis, raise the cuticle,
 and  form the appearance of a  vc-icle.  This effect
 arises from their strong stimulating power, and to this
 stimulant operation and the pain  they excite, are to be
 ascribed  the advantages  derived from  them  in  the
 treatment of disease.  The evacuation they occasion
 is too inconsiderable to have any  material effect.  See
 Blister.
   Episph.c'ria.  (From tm, and atbatpa, a sphere: so
 called  from the  spherical  shape  of the  brain.)  The
 windings of the  exterior surface  of the  brain;  or  the
 winding  vessels upon it.
  Epista'hmus.    (From  tm, and ya^io,  to  trickle
 down.)  A catarrh.
  Epietaphyli'nus.  (From tin, and  $-aqmXq,  tlie
 uvula.)  See Uvula.
  EPISTA'XIS.   (From eirts-o.su, to  distil  from.)
 Bleeding at the nose, wilh  pain or fulness of the head.
A genus of disease arranged by CulJen in the class
J*yi exia, and order Hamorrhagia.
  Persons of a sanguine aud plethoric habit, and not
yet advanced to manhood, are  very liable to be at-
 tacked with this complaint: females being much less
 subject to it than males, particularly after menstruation.
  Epistaxis  comes on at times without  any previous
 warning; but  at others, it is preceded  by a pain and
 heaviness in the head, flushing in the face, heat and
 itching in the nostrils, a throbbing of the temporal ar-
 teries,  and  a  quickness  of tlie  pulse.  In some in-
 rtances a coldness of the feet, and shivering over the
whole body, together with a costive belly, are observed
to (irecedo an attack of this haemorrhage.
  This complaint is  to be considered as of little con
sequence,  when  occurring in  young  persons, being
never attended with any danger, but when it arises
iu those who are advanced in life, flows profusely, and
returns  frequently, it indicntes too great fulness of the
vessels of ihe  head,  and  not unfrequently precedes
apoplexy, palsy, &c. and, therefore, in such coses, is to
bee  regarded  as  a dangerous disease.  When this
haemorrhage arises in any putrid disorder, it is to be
considered as a latal symptom.
  In general, we need not  be very anxious lo «top
a  discharge of  blood from the nose, particularly
where there arc murks of fulness of the vessels of
the head:  but if  it occurs under a debilitated state of
tlie system, or becomes very profuse, means must be
employed to suppress it.  These arc chiefly of a loco1
nuttire; applying pressure to the blcedim; vessels, In-
troducing  astringents into the nostrils, as solutions of
alum, sulphate of zinc, sulphate of copper, &c. apply-
ing cold to the head, or to some very sensible part of
the skin, as in the course of  the spine, Sec.   At th;
same time the patient should be kept iu the erect posi-
tion.  If the htriuorrhagc be of an active  character,
the antiphlogistic  regimen should  be  carefully ob-
scr\cd:  the patient kept  cool and quiet;  the saline
cathartics, refrigerants, as  nitrate of potassa and the
acids, digitalis,  diaphoretics, Sec  administered inter-
nally ; and blood may be taken from the temples by
leeches, or  even  from the arm, if the patient be very
plethoric.  Sometimes, after the failure of other means,
closing the posterior as well as anterior outlets from the
nose, and preventing the escape of tbe blood  for some
time  mechanically,  has   been successful; and  this
might be particularly proper, where it was  discharged
copiously into the fauces, so as to endanger suffocation,
on the patient falling asleep.
  EPISTHO TONOS.  (From tmoQtv, forwards, and
retvu, to extend.)  A spasmodic  affection of muscle:
drawing the body forwards.  See Tetanus.
  Episto'mion.  (From cm, upon,and $-opa, a mouth.)
  1. A stopper for a bottle.
  2. A venthole of a furnace, called the register.
  Epistro'phalus.  (From «ri, upon, and rpttpu, to
turnabout.) Epislrophia, and Epistrophis.  Applied
to the first vertebra ofthe neck, because il turns about
upon the second as upon an axis.
  En'sTROPHE.   (From tms-pt<pu, to invert.)  1. An
inversion  of any part, as when the neck  is  turned
round.
  2. A return of a disotder which  has ceased.
  EPTSTROPHECS.   (From  C7ris-po<Z>uw,  to turn
round, because the head  is turned upon it.)  The se-
cond cervical vertebra.  See Dentatus.
  Epi'stropiiis.   See Epistrophatus.
  Epi'tasis.  (From tm, and rcivio, lo extend.)  The
beginning and increase of a paroxysm or disease.
  ElTTHE i.U'M.  The  cuticle on the red part of the
lips.
  Epitiie'ma.   (From cm, upon, and rtOnpt, to apply.)
A term  formerly applied to a lotion, fomentation, or
any external application.
  Epithema'tium.  The same.
  Epi'thesis.   (From tm, and riOript, lo cover, or lay
upon.) The rectification of crooked limbs by means of
instruments.
  EKITHV'MUM.  (From cm, upon,  and 617105, the
herb thyme.)  See Cuscuta epithymum.
  Epo'oe.  (From cm, over, and uin, a song.)  Epo-
dos. The method of curing distempers by incantation.
  Epom'is.  (From ejr«, upon, and upos, the shoulder )
The acromion, or upper part of the shoulder.
  Epompha'lium.  (From en, upon, and optpaXos, the
navel.)  An application to the navel.
  EPSOM.  The name of a village in Surrey, about
eighteen miles  from London, in the neighbourhood of
wliich is a considerable mineral spring, called Epsom
waler.   Aqua Epromensis. This water evapoiated to
dryness  leaves  a   esiduum, the quantity of which has
been estimated from an ounce and a halt in the gallon,
to five drachms  and one  scruple. Ol  the total resi-
duum, by far the greater part, about four or five-sixths,
is sulphate of magnesia mixed with a very  few muri-
ates, such  as that of lime, and  probably  magnesia,
wliich  render  it  verv deliquescent, and increase the
bitterness of taste, tili purified by repeated cryrtallizii 
ERE
ERR
Otons.  There is nothing sulphurous or metallic ever
found in this spring.  The diseases in which it is em-
ployed are similar to those in which we use Seidlitz
water. There are many other of the  simple saline
springs that might be enumerated, all of which agree
with that of Epsom, in containing  a notable propor-
tion of some purging  salt, which, for the most part, is
either sulphate of magnesia, or sulphate  of soda, or
often a mixture of both, such as Acton, Kilburne, Bag-
uigge  Wells, Dog and Duck, St. George's Fields, &c.
  Epsom salt.  A purging salt formerly obtained by
boiling down  the  mineral water found in the vicinity
of Epiom  in Surrey.   It is at present prepared  from
sea water, wliich, after being  boiled down, and the
muriate of" soda separated, depositcs numerous crystals,
that consist chiefly of sulphate of magnesia, and sold
in the shops under the name of sal catharticus amarus,
01 litter purging salt.   See Magnesia sulphas.
  EPU'LIS.   (From  cm,  and ovXa, the  gums.)  A
small  tubercle on the gums.  It is said sometimes to
become cancerous.
  EPULO'TIC.   (Epuloticus; from tirovXou, to cica-
trize.)  A  term given by  surgeons to  those applica-
tions which promote the formation of skin.
  EQUISE'TUM. (From equus, a horse, and seta, a
bristle: so named from  ils  resemblance to a horse's
tail.)   1. The  name of a genus of plants  in the Lin-
naean system.  Class, Cryptogamia; Older, Filices.
  2. The  pharmacopceial name of the Cauda equina.
See Hippuris vulgaris.
  Equisetum arvense.  See Hippuris ulgaris.
  EU.UITANS.   Equitant.  This term is applied to
leaves, which are disposed in two opposite rows, and
clasp each other by their compressed base;  as in  Nar-
thccium ossijragiim.
  EaUIVALENTS.  A term introduced into chemis-
try by Dr.  Wollaston, to express the system of definite
ratios, in which the corpuscular objects of this science
reciprocally combine, referred  to a common standard,
reckoned unity.   See Atomic system.
  EQUUS.  1. The horse.
  2.  The  name of a genus  of animals of the  order
Bellua.
  Equus  asixus.  The  systematic  name  of the ani-
mal called an ass; the female affords a light and nutri-
tious  milk.  See Milk, asses'.
   Era'nthemus.  (From rip, the spring, and avQepos,
a flower:  so called because it flowers in the spring.)
A sort of  chamomile.
   ERASIS'TRATUS.  A  celebrated  Greek  physi-
cian, said to have been born in the island of Ceos, and
to have been the  most distinguished pupil of Chrysip-
pus, of the Cnidian school.   He was the first, in con-
junction with Herophilus, to  dissect human bodies,
anatomy having  been before studied only in brutes;
but the Ptolemies having allowed  them  to  examine
malefactors, they were enabled to make many impor-
tant discoveries.  Celsus notices a very improbable re-
port,  that they opened the  bodies of those persons
alive, to  observe the internal motions ;   ihey  could
hardly then have maintained, that the arteries and left
ventricle, do nol  naturally contain blood, but air only.
The works of Erasislralus, which were numerous, are
lost;  but,  from the account  of Galen,  he  appears to
have very accurately described the brain, which he
considered as the common sensorium ; also the heart
and large vessels; and pointed out the office  of the
liver and  kidneys; but he supposed digestion perform-
ed by trituration.  He imagined  inflammation and fe-
 ver to arise from the blood being forced through the
minute veins into the corresponding arteries,  lie was
 averse to blood-letting, or the use of active  medi-
cines, but sometimes employed mild clysters; trusting,
 however, principally to abstinence, and proper exer-
cise.  Being tormented with an ulcer in the foot, at an
 extreme old age, he is said to have terminated his ex-
 istence by poison.
   Erate'va marmclos.   This plant,  a  native of
 several parts of India, affords a fruit about the size of
 an orange, and covered with a hard bony shell, con-
 taining a  yellow viscus  pulp, of a most agreeable fla-
 vour;  wliich, when scooped out, and  mixed  with
 sugar and  orange, is brought to  the tables of the
 grandees  in India, who eat  it as a greal  delicacy.
 It is also esteemed  as  a  sovereign  remedy against
 dysentery.
   Ep.kbi'ntiius.   EpcStvths-  The vetch.
       3ati
  ERECTOR.   The  name of several muscles,  the
office of which is to raise up the part to which they are
inserted.
  Erector  clitoridis.  First muscle of the  clitoris
of Douglas.   Ischio-cavcrnosus of Winslow, and Is-
chio-clitortdien of Dumas.  A  muscle of the  clitoris
that draws it downwards and  backwards, and serves
to maKe the  body of the clitoris more tense, by squeez-
ing the  blood into it from its crus.   It arises from
the tuberosity of the ischium, and is inserted into the
clitoris.
  Erector  penis.  Ischio-cavcrnosus  of Winslow,
and Ischio-cavcrneux  of Dumas.  A muscle of the
penis thai drives the urine or semen forwards, and, by
grasping the bulb of Ihe urethra,  pushes the blood to-
wards the corpus cavernosum and the glans, and thus
distends  them.   It arises from the tuberosity of the
ischium, and is inserted into the sides of the cavernous
substance of the penis.
  ERECTUS.  Upright.   Botanists  use  this to ex-
press the direction of the stem, branches, leaves, petals,
stamens, pistils, &c.;  as Caulis  crectus, an upright
stein,  as  in  Lysimachia vulgaris; folium ereclum,
forming an  acute angle with the  stem, as in  J uncus
articulatus,   Sec.   The  petals  of  the ,Brassica
ereeta.
  ERETHTSMUS.   (From tptOtfa, to excite or irri
tate.)   Increased sensibility and  irritability.   It is
variously  applied by modern  writers.   Mr. Pearson
has described a state of the constitution produced by
mercury acting on it as a poison.   He calls il the mer-
curial erithismus, and mentions that it is characterized
by  great  depression  of strength, anxiety  about  the
precordia, irregular action of the heart, frequent sigh-
ing, trembling, a small, quick,  sonietimes  intermitting
pulse, occasional vomiting, a pale, contracted counte-
nance, a  sense of coldness; but  the tongue is seldom
furred, nor  are the vital and  natural functions much
disturbed.  In this state, any sudden exertion will
sometimes prove fatal.
  Ergaste'rium.  (From  tpyov, work.)   A  labora-
tory : that part of" the furnace  in  which is contained
the matter to be acted upon.
  ERICA.   (From tpttxu, to  break;  so  named from
its  fragility, or because it is broken into rods to make
besoms of.)  The name of a  genus of plants in the
Linnaean  system.  Class, Octandria; Order, Monogy-
nia.  Heath.
  Erice'rum.   (From tptiKtq,  heath.)   A medicine in
which heath is an ingredient.
  EIUGERON.  (llptytpuv, of  the ancient Greeks;
from tip the  spring, and ytpuv,  au old man, because, in
the spring,  it has a  white, hoary blossom, like the
hair of an  old man.)  1. The name of a genus of
plants.   Class,  Syngenesia;  Order,  Polygamia su
perfl.ua.
  2. The common chick-weed  is so called  in old books.
See Senecio  vulgaris.
   Erioeri m.  See Senecio vulgaris.
  EROSION.   (Erosio; from crodo,  to enaw  off.)
This word is very often used in the same sense as til
ceralion,  viz. the  formation of a breach  or chasm
in the substance of parts, by the  action of the absor-
bents.
   EROSUS.  Jagged.  A leaf is called folium crosnm,
the margin  of which  is irregularly  cut  or notched,
especially when otherwise divided besides; as in .S.~
7iec»o squalidus.
   EROTIANUS, the author of a Glossary, contain-
ing an explanation of the terms  In Hippocrates, lived
in  the reign of Nero.   The work was printed at Ve-
nice, in 15GG; and also annexed to Foesius's Edition
of Hi|»pocrates.
   EROTOMANIA.   (From  tpus, love, and pavia,
 madness.)  That melancholy, or madness, which  is
 the effect of love.
   E'rpes.  (From tpmo, to creep:  so named In>ui their
 gradually increasing in size.  See Herpes.
   ERRATIC.  (Erraticus ;  from crro, to wander.)
 Wandering; irregular.  A  term occasionally applied
 to  pains,  or any disease which is not fixed, but moves
 from one part to another, as gout, rheumatism, &c.
   ERRH1NE.  (Errhinus; ippiva, from cv,  in, and
piv, the nose.)   By errhines are to be understood tliose
 medicines which, when  topically applied  to ihe inter
 nnl membrane of the  nose, excite sneezing,  and in-
 crease  the secretion,  independent of any mechanical 
ERY
ERY
irritation.  The articles belonging to this clas3 may be
referred to two orders.
   I  Sternutatory crrhines; as  nicotiana,  hclleborus,
euphorbium,  which are selected  for the torpid,  the
vigorous, but not plethoric, and those  to whom any
degn e of c\ acuation would nol be hurtful.
  2. Evacuating errhines; as asarum, Sec which are
calculated lor the phlegmatic and infirm.
  E RROR LOCI.  Boerhaave is said  to have intro-
duced tins term, from the opinion that the vessels were
of different sizes, for the circulation of blood, lymph,
and serum, and that when  the larger  sized globules
were forced  into the less vessels, they became  ob-
structed, by an error of place.  But this opinion does
not appear to be well-grounded.
  Eruca.  (From erugo, to make smooth; so named
from tlie smoothness of its leaves, or from  liro, to
burn, because of its  biting quality.)  See Brassica
eruca.
  Erica sylvestris.  The-wild rocket.  See Bras-
sica eruca.
  ERUCTATION.  Belchi:.-.
  ERUPTION.  Eruptio.  A discoloration, or  spots
on the  skin: as the eruption of small-pox, measles,
nettle-rash, &r.
  Eruthema.  (From cpvQu, to make red.)  A fiery
red tumour, or pustules on the skin.
  E'RVIM.  (Quasi arvum, a field, because it grows
wild in tlie  fields; or from eruo, to pluck out, because
it is diligently plucked  from corn.)  The tare.  1.  The
name of a  genus of plants in the Linna-an  system.
Class, Diadclphia; Order, Dccandria.
  2.  The pharniacopoeial  name of tare.  Sec Ervum
ervilia.
  Ervcm ervilia.  Grobus. The seeds of this plant,
Ervum  ervilia—gcrmimbus  undatoplicatis, foliis im-
paripinnatts of Linnaeus, have  been  made into bread
in times of scarcity, which is not the most salubrious.
The meal was formerly among the resolvent remedies
by way of poullici.
  Ervum lens. The systematic name of the lentil.
Lens, iaxos  of the Greeks.  Ervum—pedunculis sub-
bifioris ; semiuibus comprcssis, convexis, of Linnaeus.
There are two varieties ; ihe one wilh large, the other
with small seeds.   They are eaten in many places as
we eat  pease, than whicli  Ihey are more flatulent, and
more difficult to digest.  A decoction of these seeds is
used as a lotion lo ihe ulcerations after small-pox  and,
it is said, w ith success.
  ERY'NGIUM.   (From rpuyyavw,  to   eructate.)
Eryiigo, or sea-holly.   1. The  name- of a genus of
plants  in  the Linnaean system.  Class Pentandria;
Order, Digynia.
  ■2. The pharmacopceial name of the sea-holly.  See
Eryngium mantimum.
  ["Eryngium aqiaticum.  Button snake-root.  The
Eryngium aquaticum is a native ofthe southern stales.
We are told in Mr. Elliott's botany, lhat the root is of
a pungent, bitter, and aromatic taste.  When chewed,
it very seiiribly excites a flow of saliva.  A decoction
of it is diaphoretic and expectorant, and  sometimes
proves  emetic.  It is preferred  by some physicians to
the Seneca snake-root, which it much resembles in its
effects."  A.]
   Eryngium campestre.  The root  of  this plant,
Eryngium—foliis  radicalibus,  amplexicaulibus, pin-
nato-lanceolatis, of Linnaeus, is u=ed in many places
for that ol" the sea-eryngo.  See Eryngium.
   Eryngium maritimum.  The systematic name of
the sea-holly or eryiigo.  Eryngium—foliis radicalibus
subrotundis, plicatis spinosis, capilulis pedunculatis,
palcis  tricuspidatis,  of Linnaeus.  The root of this
plant is directed for medical use.  It has no particular
smell, but  to the taste  it manifests a  grateful sweet-
ness ; and, on being fchewed for some time, it discovers
a light  aromatic warmth or pungency.  It was former-
ly celebrated for its supposed aphrodisiac powers, but
it is now very rarely employed.
   ERYNGO.  See Eryngium.
   Eryngo.sea. See  Eryngium.
   Erynao-lcavcd lichen.  See Lichen islandicus.
   ERxSIMUAL  (from tpvu, to draw, so called from
Its power of  drawing  and producing blisters.  Others
derive  it from arro  rov tptiKttv, because the leaves are
much  cut; otheis  from  tpirtpov, precious.)  1. The
name of a genus  of plants  in the Linnaean system.
 Class,  Tetradynamia; Order, Siliquosa.
  2. The pharmacopceial name of the hedge-mustard
See Erysimum officinale.
  Erysimum alliaria.  The systematic name  of
Jack in-the-hedge.  Alliaria; Chamaplion of Oiiba-
sius.  Sauce alone, or  stinking hedge-mustard.  The
plant to which this  name is given, is  the Erysimum
jfoliis cordatis, of Linnaeus; it is sometimes exhibited
iu humid asthma and dyspnoea, wilh success.   Its
virtues are powerfully diuphoietic, diuietic, and anti-
scorbutic.
  Erysimum barbarka.   The  systematic name of
the barbarca of Ihe shops.  'The leaves of this plant,
Erysimum—foliis lyratis, extimo subrotundo of Lin
na-us, may be ranked among the antiscorbutics. They
are seldom used in practice.
  Erysimum officinale.  The  systematic name of
the hedge mustard.   Erysimum—siliquis spica ad-
prcssis, joins runcinatis, of Linnaeus.  It was former-
ly much'used for its expectorant and eliuiolicqualities,
which ate now forgotten.  The seeds  are warm and
pungent, and very similar to thoso of mustard in their
sensible effects.
  ERVSI PELAS.  (From tpvu, to draw, and  zstXac-
adjoining: named from the neighbouring parts being
affected  by  the eiuption.)  Ignis sacer.   The rose, oi
St. Anthony's fire.  A genus of disease  in the class
Pyrexia,  and order Exanthemata of Cullen.  It  is
known by synocha of two or throe days' continuance,
with drowsiness, mid sometimes with delirium; pulse
commonly full and hard ; llie-u erythema of the lace,
or some other part, with  continuance  of synocha,
tending either to  abscess or gangrene.  There are two
speciesof this disease, according to Cullen: 1.  Erysi-
pelas vcsiculosum,  with  large blisters: 2. Erysipelas
p/tlyctanodes, the shingles oran erysipelas with phlyc-
laenae, or small blisters.
  This  disease  is  an  inflammatory affection,  pirinci
pally of the skin, when it  makes  its  appearance ex-
ternally, and of  the  mucous  membrane when  it is
seated internally; and is more liable to attack women
and children, and  those of an  irritable  habit, than
those of a plethoric and robust constitution.
  It is remarkable that erysipelas sometimes  returns
periodically, attacking the patient once or twice a year.
or even once every month, and  then  by its repeated
attacks it often gradually exhausts the strength, espe-
cially if he be old and of a bad habit.
  When the inflammation is principally confined  to
the skin, and is unattended  by any affection of the sys-
tem, it is then called erythema; but when the system
is affected, it is named erysipelas.
  Kcciy part of the body is equally liable to it, but it
more frequently  appears on the face, legs, and  feet,
than any where else, when seated externally;  and it
occurs ofjtener  in warm  climates than  phlegmonous
inflammation
  It is brought on by all the causes that are apt to ex-
cite inflammation,  such  as injuries of all kinds, the
external  application of stimulants, exposure to cold,
and obstructed  perspiration; and it may likewise be
occasioned  by a certain matter generated within the
body, and thrown out on its surface.  A particular
stale of the atmosphere seems sometimes to render il
epidemical.
  Ii, slight  cases, where  it attacks the extremities, it
makes its appearance with a roughness, heat, pain, and
redness of the skin,  wliich becomes pale when the fin-
ger is pressed upon it, and  again returns lo its former
colour, when it is removed. There prevails likewise
a small febrile disposition, and the patient is rather hot
and thirsty. If the attack is mild, these symptoms
will continue only for  a  lew days, the surface  of" the
part affected will'become yellow, the cuticle or scarf-
skin will fall off in scales, and  no further inconve-
nience will  perhaps be ex|>erienced; but if Ihe attack
has been severe, and the inflammatory symptoms have
run high, then there will ensue pains in the head and
back,  great heat, thirst, and restlessness; the  part
aflected will slightly swell:  the pulse  will become
small and frequent; and about the fourth day, a num
ber of little  vesicles, containing a limpid, and, in some
cases, a yellowish fluid, will arise.  In some instances,
the fluid is viscid, and  instead of running out, as gene
rally happens when the blister is broken, it adheres tc
and dries upon the skin.
   In unfavourable cases, these blisters sometimes de-
generate  into obstinate ulcers, which now and then
                                        337 
ERY
ESS
 oecome gangrenous.  This, however, does not happen
 frequently; for although it is not uncommon for the
 surface ofthe skin and the blistered places lo appear
 livid, or even blackish, yet this usually disappears with
 the other symptoms.
  The period at which the vesicles show themselves is
 very uncertain.  The same may be said of the dura-
 tion of the eruption.  In mild cases, it often disappears
 gradually, or is carried oft" by spontaneous sweating.
 In some cases  it continues, without  showing any dis-
 position to decline, for  twelve or  fourteen days, or
 longer.
  The trunk of the body is sometimes attacked with
 erysipelatous inflammation, but less frequently so than
 the extremities.  It  is not uncommon, however,  for
 infants to be attacked in this  manner a few days after
 birth ;  and in these it makes  its appearance about the
 genitals. The inflamed skin is hard, and apparently
 very painful to the touch.  The belly often becomes
 u.iiformly tense, and sphacelated spots sometimes are
 to be observed.  From dissections made by Dr. Un-
 derwood, it appears, that in  this form of the disease
 the inflammation frequently  spreads lo the abdominal
 viscera.
  Another  species  of  erysipelatous inflammation,
 which most usually attacks  the trunk of the body, is
 that vulgarly known by the name of shingles, being a
 corruption of the French word ceingle, which implies
 a belt.   Instead  of appearing a  uniform  inflamed
surface, it consists of  a number of little pimples ex-
 tending round  the body a  little above the umbilicus,
which have vesicles formed on them in a short time.
 Little or no danger ever attends this species of  erysi-
 pelas.
  When erysipelas attacks the face, it comes on with
chilliness, succeeded by heat, restlessness, thirst,  and
othe'r febrile symptoms, with a drowsiness or tendency
 to coma or  delirium, and  the pulse is very frequent
 and full. At the end of two or three days, a fiery red-
ness appears on some part of the face, and this extends
 at length to the scalp, and then  gradually down the
 neck, leaving a tumefaction in every part  Ihe redness
lias occupied.  The whole face at length becomes tur-
gid, and the eyelids are so much swelled as to deprive
the patient of sight.   When  the redness and swelling
 have continued  for some time,  blisters of different
sizes, containing a thin colourless acrid liquor, arise on
 different parts of the face, and the skin puts on a livid
 appearance in  the blistered  places; but in those not
 affected with blisters, the cuticle, towards the close of
 the disease, falls off in scales.
  No remission of the fever takes place on the appear-
 ance ofthe inflammation on the face; but, on the con-
 trary, it is  increased as the  latter extends, and both
 will continue probably for the space of eight or ten
 days.  In the course of* the inflammation, the disposi-
 tion to coma and delirium are sometimes so increased
 as to destroy the patient  between the seventh and
 eleventh days of the disease.   When the complaint is
 mild, and not leading ton  fatal event, the inflamma-
 tion and fever generally cease gradually without any
 evident crisis.
  If the disease arises in a bad habit of body, occupies
 a part possessed of great sensibility, is accompanied
 wilh much  Inflammation, fever, and delirium, and
 these take place at an early  period, we may suppose
 the patient exposed  to  imminent  danger.   Where
 translations of  the morbid matter take place, and  the
 inflammation falls on either the brain, lungs, or  abdo-
 minal viscera, we may entertain Ihe same unfavoura-
 ble opinion.  Erysipelas never terminates in suppura-
 tion, unless combined with a considerable degree of
 phlegmonous inflammation, which is, however, some-
 times the case;  but in a  bad  habit, it is apt to termi-
 nate in gangrene, in which  case  there will  be also
great danger.  When the febrile symptoms are  mild,
and unaccompanied  by delirium or coma, and the in-
flammation does not run high, we need not be appre-
hensive of danger.
  Where the disease has occupied the face, and proves
fatal, inflammation ofthe brain, and its consequences,
ore in some cases met with on dissection.
  The  treatment of erysipelas must proceed on the
antiphlogistic plan, varied  however in its activity ac-
coiding to the type of Hie disease.  When it occurs  in
 robust plethoric constitutions, partaking of the phleg-
monous character, with severe synochul fever, it will
      338
 be proper to begin by taking a moderate quantity 01
 blood, then direct cooling saline purgatives, nntimoiiiai
 diaphoretics, a  light vegetable diet, Sec  When the
 disorder attacks the face, it mt.y be better to use cup-
 ping behind the neck, and  keep ihe head  somewhat
 raised.  But if the disease exhibits rather the typhoid
 type, and particularly where  there is a tendency tc
 gangrene, the patient's strength must be supported:
 after clearing out the primae viae, and endeavouring to
 promote the other secretions by mild evacuants, when
 the pulse begins to fail, a more nutritious diet, with a
 moderate quantity of wine, and the decoction of bark
 with sulphuric acid, or other tonic medicine, may be
 resorted to; nay, even the bark in substance, and the
 more powerful stimulants, as ammonia, Sec. ought to
 be tried, if the preceding fail.  Should  the inflamma-
 tion, quitting the skin, attack an internal part, a blis-
 ter, or some rubefacient, may help to relieve Ihe pa
 tient; and  stimulants to the  lower  extremities will
 likewise he proper, where the head is severely affected.
 To the inflamed part of the skin, applications must not
 be too freely made:  where there  is much pain and
 heat, cooling it occasionally, with plain water, is per-
 haps best; and where an acrid discharge occurs, wash-
 ing it away from time to time with warm  milk and
 water.   Should  suppuration happen, it is  important
 to make an  early opening for the escape ofthe matter,
 to  obviate the extensive sloughings otherwise apt to
 follow, and where gangrene occurs, the fermenting ca
 taplasm may be  applied.
   ERYTHEMA.  (From  cpvQpos, red.)  Inflamma
 tory  blush.   A jnorbid redness of ihe  skin, as  is ob
 served upon the  cheeks of hectic patients after eating,
 and the skin cove-ring bubo, phlegmon, Sec
   Erythro'danum.   (From cpu(9pos,  red:  so called
 from the colour of its juice.)  See Rubia tinctorum.
   Erythroei'des.  (From tpvdpos, red, and ttios, a
 likeness: so called from ils colour.)  A name given to
 the tunica vaginalis testis.
   Erythro'nium.  (From tpvdpos, red : so called from
 the red colour of its juice.)  A species of satyrion.
   ["Erythronium Americanum.  The Erylhroniuni
 Americanum is an emetic in its recent state,  producing
 vomiting in the  dose of thirty or forty grains.   This
 property is impaired by drying.   The  affinity of the
 plant to Colchicum, and some others of known activity,
 renders it deserving of  further investigation.   The
 bulbs should be  dug when the leaves first appear, lic-
 fore flowering.   A pure fecula may be obtained from
 them."—Big. Mat. Med.  A.J
   Erythro xylum.   (From  tpvdpos, red, and "-t*to»,
 wood:  so named  from its colour.)  Logwood.   See
 Hamatoxylum.
   E'rytiirus.   (From tpvdpos, red: so named from
 the red colour of its juice.)  The sumach.  See Rhus
 coriaria.
  E'saphe.   (From taaQau, to feel.)  The  touch ; or
 feeling  the  mouth of tlie womb, to ascertain ils con-
 dition.
  ESCHAR.  (Ecxapa; from terxupou, to scab over.)
 Eschara. The  portion of flesh that is destroyed  by
 the application of a caustic, and which sloushs awav
  ESCHARO-TIC.  (Esckaroticus ; from rovapoi* to
 scab over.)   Caustic; corrosive.  A  term given  by
 surgeons to those substances wliich possess a power of
 destroying the texture ofthe various solid pa; ts of the
 animal  body to which they are directly applied.   The
 articles of this class of substances may be  arranged
 under two orders:
  1.  Eroding escharotics;  as blue vitriol,  alumen
 ustum, Sec.
  2. Caustic escharotics; as lapis infernalis, argent*
 nitras, acidum sulphuricum, nitricum, tec
  ESCULENT.   Esculcntus.  An appellation gives
to such animals, fishes, and plants, or any part  of
them, that may be eaten for food.
  E'SOX.   The name of a genus of fishes.  Class,
 Pisces; Order, Abdominales.
  Esox lucius.   The  systematic name of the piKo
fish, from the liver of wliich an oil is separated spon-
taneously, which is termed, in some pharmacopoeias,
oleum lucii  piscis.  It  is used in some countries, by
surgeons, to  destroy spots of the transparent cornea.
  E'SSENCE.   Several of the volatile or  cs«c-niia|
oils are called by this name.
  ESSENTIAL.  Essentialis.  Something that is ne-
cessary to constitute a tiling, or thai has such a con 
ETfl
ETM
ncxton with the nature of a thing, that is found whet-
cver Hie thing itself is; thus the heart, brain, spinal
inan.i-.v, lungs, stomach, &c. are parts essential to life.
  1:: natural history, it is applied  to those circum-
stances which mark or distinguish an animal or plant
from all others in the s?me order or genus.
  I'sst vciaL (ML.   See OH.
  E'SSI'KA.  J'.ssa-a,  from Esl-rm,  an  Arabian
w-ord literally meaning papula.)  A species of cuta-
neous  eruption,  distinguished  by   broad,  shining,
smooth, red spots, mostly without fever, mid differing
from tht; neitle cash iu not being elevated.  It generally
attacks the face and hands.
  Esihiomknos.  (From rstftu, to eat.)  A term for-
merly applied to any disease which rapidly destroyed,
or, us ii weic, ate- away the flesh, as some forms of
herpes, lupus, cancer.
  E'Sl'LA.  (From  esus, eaten, because it  is eaten
t»y some as a medicine.)   Spurge.
  Esu la major.   S.-e Euphorbia palustris.
  Fsjtla minor.  See Euphorbia cypansstas.
  E THER.  Sec .E'ter.
  Ether, acetic Acetir naphtha. Au ethereal fluid,
drawn  over from  au equal admixture of alkohol and
Bee-tic acid, distilled  with  a gentle best from  a glass
retort in a sand-bath  It  has a grateful smell, is ex-
tremely light, volatile, and inflammable.
  Ether muriatic.   Marine aether.  Muriatic aether
is obtained  by fixing and distilling alkohol with ex-
tremely concentrated muriate of tin.   It is stimulant,
antiseptic, and diureii-'.                            '
  Ether, nitrous.   Nitric naphtha.  This is only a
stronger preparation than the spiritus u-theris nitrici of
the Loudon Pharmacopeia ,  n is produced by the dis-
tillation of two parts of alkoh <1 to one part and a half
ef fuming nitric aciet.
  Ether, sulphuric.  See JStker sulphuricus.
  Ether, vitriolic  See Atlther sulphuricus.
  ETHEREAL.  A  term applied to any highly rec-
tified essential oil, or spirit.  See Oleum athereum.
  Etkiops, antimonta.  See JElhiops antimonialis.
  Etkiops, martial.   The black oxide of iron.
  Ethnips viineral.   See Hydrargyri sulphuretum ni-
grum.                                    v
  Etkiops perse.  See; Hydrargyri oxydum emcreum.
  ETHMOID.  (Ethmoides; froin t<pp.os, a sieve, and
titie, form : "Secausc it is perforated like a sieve.)
Sieve-like.
  Etiimoio bonk. Os cthmoideum ; osathmoidss.  Cri-
briform bone.  A bone ofthe head.  This is, perhaps,
oneofthemostcurious bones ofthe human body. Itap-
pears almost a cube, not of solid bone, but exceedingly
liiilit, sponey, nndconsislingof manyconvoluted plates,
winch  form a net-work, like honey-comb.  It is cu-
riously enclosed in the os froutis, between the orbitary
processes of that bone. One horizontal plate receives
the olfactory nerves, which  perforate that plate with
sueh a number of small holes, that it resembles a sieve;
whence the bone is named cribriform, or  ethmoid
bone.  Other plates dropping perpendicularly from this
one, receive the divided nerves, and gave them an op-
portunity of expanding into the organ of smelling; and
these bones, upon  which  the olfactory nerves are
spread out, are  so much convoluted as to extend the
surface of this sense very  greatly,  and are named
spongy bones.  Another  flat plate lies in the orbit of
the eye; and being  very smooth, by the rolling of the
eye,  it  is named Ihe os planum, or smooth bone.  So
that theethmoid bone supports the forepart ofthe brain,
receives the olfactory nerves, forms the organ of emell-
ine, and makes the chief part of the orbit of the eye;
and  the spongy bones, aud the os planum, arc neither
of them distinct bones, but parts of this ethmoid bone.
  The  cribriform plate  is  exceedingly delicate and
thin; lies horizontally over the root of the nose; and
tills  up neatly the space between the  two orbitary
plates  of the frontal-bone.  Tlie olfactory nerves, like
iwo  small flat  lobes, lie out upon this plate, and, ad-
hering to it, shoot down like p.iany roots through this
bone,°so as to perforate it with numerous small holes,
as if it had been dotted with the point of a pin, or like
a nutmeg-grater.  This  plate is  horizontal; but its
processes are perpendicular,  one above, and three
below.                             .    .  .     „ ,
  1.  The first perpendicular process is  what is called
crista  <ralli; a small perpendicular  projection, some-
what like a cock's comb, but exceedingly amalLstand-
                                        Y "
Inp directly upw ards from the middle of the cribriform
plate, and dividing that plate Into two; so thai one ol-
factory nerve  lies  upon each side of the crista galli;
and the root of the falx, or septum, between the two
hemispheres of the  brain, begins from  this process.
The foramen ciee-iim, or blind hole of the frontal bone,
is formed partly by the root of" the crista galli, which
is very smooth, and  sometimes, it is said, hollow, or
cellular.
   3. Exactly opposite this, and In the same direction
with it, i.e. perpendicular to the ethmoid plate,stands
out  the nasal plate of the ethmoid  bone.  It is some-
times called azygous, or single process of the ethmoid,
and forms the beginning of that septum, or partition,
which divides the two nostrils.  This process is thin
but firm, and composed of solid bone;  it is commonly
inclined a little to one side, so as to make the nostrils
of unequal size.  The azygous process is united with
the vomer, which forms the chief part of the partition;
so that the septum, or partition of the nose, consists of
the a*yg«us process ofthe ethmoid bone above, ofthe
vomer below,  nnd of the cartilage in the fore or pro-
 jecting part of the nose;  but the cartilage rots away,
so that whatever is «cen of the septum in  Ihe skull
must be part either of the ethmoid bone or vomer.
   2. Upon cither side of the septum, there hangs down
a spongy bone, one hanging in each nostril.  'They are
each rolled up like a scroll of parchment; they are
very spongy;  ere covered with a delicate and sensible
membrane; and when thee olfactory nerves depart
1 from the  clibrifonn  plate of the ethmoid bone, they
attach themselves to the  septum, and to these upper
spongy bones, and expand upon them so that the con-
volutions of these bones are of material use in expand-
ing the organ of swelling, and detaining the odorous
effluvia till tine impression be perfect.  Their convolu-
tions are more numerous in the lower animals, in pro-
portion as they need a more  acute  sense.  They are
named spongy or turbinated bones, from their convolu-
tions resembling the many folds of a turban.
   The spongy bones have a great many honey-comb-
like cells connected with them, which belong also to
the organ of smell, and which are  useful perhaps by
detaining the effluvia of odorous bodies, and also by
 reverberating  the voice.   Thus, in  a common  cold,
 while the voice is hurt by an affection of these cells,
 the  sense of smelling is almost tost.
   4. The orbitary plate, of  the ethmoid  bone,  is .1
large surface; consisting of a very firm plate of bone,
of a regular square form: exceedingly smooth  and
polished; it forms a great part of the socket for the
eye, lying on its  inner side. • When we see it iu the
detached  bone, we know it to be just the flat side of
ihe ethmoid bone; butwhile it is incased in the socket
of the eye, we should believe it to be a small square
bone: and from this, and from its smoothness, it has
got the distinct name of os planum.
   The cells ofthe ethmoid bone, which form so im-
portant a share of the organ of smell,  are arranged
 in great numbers along the spongy bone.  They are
small  neat cells, much like a honey-comb, and regu-
larly arranged in two rows, parted from each other by
a thin partition; so that the os planum seems to have
one set of cells attached to it, while another regular sci
of cells belongs in like manner to  the spongy bones.
There are thus twelve in number opening into each
other, and into the nose.
   These cells are frequently the seat of venereal ulcers,;
 and the spongy bones are the surface where  polypi
often sprout up. And from the general connexions ana
 forms of the bone, we can easily understand how tlfte
 venereal ulcer, when deep in the nose,  having got to
these cells, cannot be cured, but undermines all the
 face; how the venereal disease, having affected thte
nose, soon spreads to the eye: and how even the brain
 itself is not safe.  We see the danger of a blow upon
the nose, which, by a force upon the septum, or middle
 partition, may depress the delicate cribriform plate, so
as to oppress the brain with all the effects of a frac-
tured  skull, and without any operation which  cad
give relief. And  we also see  the danger of pulling
 away polypi, which  are  firmly attached to the upper
spongy bone.
   ETHMOI DBS.  See Ethmoid bone.
   ETMULLER, Michael, was born  at Leipsic, lit
 1644.  He graduated there at the age of twenty-four,
after going through the requisite studies, atm much im-
                                        33fl
\ 
BUD
EUI>
 erovmg himself by travelling through different parts of
1 -nope.  Eight years after lie was appointed professoi-
 >1 bourns' in thai University, as well as extraordinary
ijiot'i-T.:.or of surgery and anatomy.   He fulfilled those
offices wiih gieat applause, and ins death, wlrch hap-
 uiic-d in lli.-1'!, was generally regretted by the faculty
if Leipsic.   He was a-very voluminous writer, and
liis works were considered lo have sufficient merit to
be translated into most European languages.
  i> tron.  (From  tiu, to  eat, as  containing the re-
-0,'lacles ofthe food.)   The hypogastrium.
  Eua'ntiiemum.   (From  tv, well, aud avQtuos,  a
i:.,-,i m :  so  named  from  the beauty of its flowers.)
The chamomile.
  Eua ruiu.M.  (From tv, well, and a#>j,  the touch, so
tailed because its  touch was supposed to give ease.)
A medicine for the piles.
  EUCHLORINE. Sec Chlorous oxide.
  Euclase.  The prismatic emerald.
  Euuialite.  A brownish rod-coloured mineral, be-
longing to the te.-sular system of Molis.
  EUDIOMETER.  An instrument by which the
i;u:nui:y  of oxygen and nitrogen in  atmospherical air
o .:u he ascertained. Several methods have been em-
ployed, all  founded upon the principle of decomposing
common air by means of a body which  has a greater
affinity for  the oxygen.   See Eudiometry.
  ELDIOMETHY.  The method of ascertaining the
purity of atmospheric air.
  No sooner was  the composition of the atmosphere
known, than it  became an inquiry  of importance  tog
find out a method of  ascertaining, with facility and
 piecision, the relative quantity of oxygen gas confined
 ii a given bulk of atmospheric  air.
  The instruments in which the oxygen gas of a de-
 termined quantity of air was ascertained, received the
 : ..me of Eudiometers, bccau>e they weie considered
 as measures of the purity of air.  They are, however,
 more properly called Oximeters.
   The eudiometers proposed by different chemists, are
 the following
   1. Priestley's Eudiometer.—The first eudiometer was
 made in consequence of Dr. Priestley's discovery, that
 when nitrous gas is mixed with atmospheric air over
 water, the bulk of  the  mixture diminishes rapidly, in
 consequence of  the combination of the gas with the
 oxygen ofthe air, and the absorption of tlie nitric acid
 thus formed by the water.
   When nitrous  gas is mixed with nitrogen gas,  no
 diminution takes  place; but when  it is mixed with
 oxygen  gas, in proper proportions, the  absorption  is
 c uuplete.  Hence it i$ evident, that in all cu>es of a
 uuxture of these two gases, the diminution will be pro-
 portional to the quantity of the oxygen.  Of cour.^e it
 will indicate the proportion of oxygen in air; and,  by
 i- ixing it with different portions of air, it will indicate
 the different quantities of oxygen wliich they contain,
 provided the component parts  of air be susceptible  of
 variation.
   Dr. Priestley's  method was to mix together equal
 bulks of air and nitrous gas  in a low jar, and then
 transfer the mixture into a narrow graduated glass tube
 about three feet long, in order  to measure the diminu-
 tion of bulk.   He expressed  this  diminution by the
 number of hundredth parts  remaining.  Thus, suppose
  jie had  mixed together equal parts of nitrous gas and
  Rir, and that the sum total was 300 (or 2.00): suppose
  the residuum, when measured in the graduated tube,
 t ■ amount to 104 (or 1.04), and of course that 9b* parts
 i f the whole had  disappeared, he denoted the purity
  cf the air thus tried by 104.
   'This  method of analyzing  air by means of nitrous
  gas is liable to many errors. For the water over which
  tlie experiment is made may contain more or less car-
  Lonic acid,  atmospheric air,  or other  heterogeneous
  *■ instance. The nitrous gas is not always of the same
  i irity,  and is  partly absorbed by the nitrous acid
  v liich is  formed; the figure of the vessel, and many
  ctlier circumstunccs are capable of occasioning con-
  s'derabie  differences in the results.
    Foiitana, Cavendish, Ladriani, Magellan, \ on Huin-
  ■joldt, and Dr. Falconer, have made series of laborious
  experiments  to bring the test of nitrous gas to a stale
  of complete accuracy; but, notwithstanding the exer-
  tions of these philosophers,  the methods of analyz-
  ing air by means of nitrous gas  are liable to so many
  anomalies, that it is unnecessary lo give a particu-
        310
lar  description of the different instruments  ftiTWlWtf
by them.                      .  .
  2. Scheele's Eudiometer.—This is merely  a gradn
ated glass cylinder, containing a given quantity ot air,
exposed to a mixture of iron filings and sulphur, lormeii
into a paste with water. The substances may be iiiade
use of iu the following manner:
  Make a quantity of sulphur in powder,  and iron
filings, into a paste with water, and place the mixture
in a saucer, or  plate,over water, on  a stand raises
above  the fluid; then invert over it a graduated bell-
glass, and allow this to stand  for a few days.   Tlie
air  contained in  the bell-glass will gradually diminish,
as will appear from the ascent of the water.
  When no further diminution takes place, the ves-
sel  containing the sulphuret must be removed, and tbe
remaining air will be found to be nitrogen gas, which
was contained in that quantity of atmospheric air.
  In this process, the moistened sulphuret of iron lira
a great affinity to oxygen; il attracts and separates  it
from the atmospheric air, and the nitrogen gas is left
behind; the sulphur, during  the experiment, is con-
verted into sulphuric acid, and  the iron  oxidized, and
sulphate of iron results.
  The air which is exposed to moistened iron and sul
phur, gradually becomes diminished, on  account of ils
oxygen combining wilh a portion of the sulphur and
iron, while its nitrogen remains behind.  The quantity
of oxygen contained in the air examined becomes thus-,
obvious, by the diminution of bulk, which the volume
of  air submitted to examination has undergone.
  A material error  to which this method is liable,  is
lhat the sulphuric acid which is formed, acts partly on
the iron, and produces  hydrogen gas, wliich joins to
some of the nitrogen forming ammonia; and hence it
is that the absorption amounts in general to 0.27 parts,
althouch the true quantity of oxygen  is no more than
from 0721 to 0.22.
  3. De Marti's Eudiometer.—He Marti obviated the
errors to wliich the method of Scheele was liable.  He
availed himself, for thai purpose, of an  hydroguretted
sulphuret, formed by boiling sulphur and  liquid potassa,
or  lime water,  together.   These substances,  when
 newly prepared, have the property of absorbing a mi-
 nute portion of nitrogen gas;  but they lose this  pro-
 perty  when saturated  with  that  gas, which is easily
 effected by agitating thein for a few minutes in contact
 with a small portion of atmospheric air.
   The apparatus is merely a  glass  tube, ten  inches
 long, and rather less  than hail" an inch in  diameter.
 open al one end, and hermetically sealed at ihe otlier.
 The close end is divided into one hundred equal parts
 having an interval of one line between each division
 The use of this tube is lo measure the portion of ait
 to  be employed  in the experiment.  The lube is filled
 with  water; and by  allowing the waler to run out
 gradually, while the tube is inverted, and the open end
 kepi shut with the finger, the graduated part is exactly
 filled with air.   These  hundredth parts of air are in-
 troduced into a  glass bottle, filled with liquid sulphuret
 of lime  previously saturated wilh nitrogen gas, and
 capable of holding  from two to four times the bulk  of
 the air introduced.   The  bottle is then to be closed
 with a ground  glass stopper, and agitated for five mi-
 nutes.  After tliis^ the stopper  is to be withdiawn,
 while the mouth ot the phial is under water; and, for
 the greater accuracy, it may be closed and agitated
 again.  Lastly, the air is to be again transferred to the
 graduated glass tube, in order to ascertain tlie diminu
 tion of its bulk.
    4. Humboldt's Eudiometer  consists in  decompos-
  ing a definite quantity of atmospheric air, by memu
 of the combustion of phosphorus, af'.er which, the por-
  tion of gas which remains must be measured.
    Take a glass cylinder, closed at the top, and whose
  capacity must be measured into sufficiently small por-
  tions by  a graduated scale fixed  on it.   If  the iiistru-
  ment be destined solely for examining atmospheric air,
  it  will be sufficient to apply the scale from the orifice
  of the cylinder down  to about  half its length, or to
  sketch that scale on a slip of paper pasted on the out-
  side of the tube, and  to varnish it over with a trans-
  parent varnish.
    This half of the eudiometrical tube is divided into
  fifty equidistant parts, wliich in this case indicate
  hundredth parts of" the whole capacity of the iiistru
  ment. 
EUD
EUG
     InmtTus vessel, full of atmospheric air, put a piece
   at" div phosphorus  (one  grain to every  twelve cubic
   incite.;;, close it air-tight, and heat it gradually, first the
   sides near ihe bottom, and afterward the bottom itself.
   Tin: phosphorus will take tire and bum rapidly.  After
   everything is cold, invert the mouth of the eudiometer-
   lube  into a basin ot' water, and  withdraw the cotk.
   The  water will ascend  in  proportion  to the loss of
   owgen gas the air has sustained, and thus its quantity
   tiiaj be ascertained.
      Analogous to this is,
     3. Seguin's Eudiometer, which consists  of n glass
   tube, of about one inch in diameter, and eight or ten
   inches high, closed at the upper extremity.  "It is filled
   with mercury, and  kept  inverted in this fluid in the
   iiieiciirial  trough.   A  small bit of phosphorus is in-
   ti oduced into it, which, on account ofits specific gravity
   being less ihan that of mercury, will rise up in  it to
   the top.  The phosphorus is then  melted by means of
   a red-hot poker, or burning coal applied  to the outside
   of the tube.  Win n the phosphorus is liquefied, small
   portions of air destined  to he examined, and which
   have been  previously measured in a vessel  graduated
   to the cubic inch, or into grains,  are introduced info
   the tube.   As soon as the air which is sent up reaches
   the phosphorus, a com bust ion will take place, and the
   mercuiy will rise again.   The combustion  continues
   rill ihe end of the operation;  but, for the greater exact-
   ness, Seguin directs the residuum to be heated strongly.
   When cold, it is introduced into the- graduated vessel
   to ascertain ils volume.   The  difference ol" the two
   volumes gives the quantity ol" the oxygen gas contained
   in the air subjected to examination.
     G. Bertkollet's Eudiometer.—Instead  of  the  rapid
   combustion of phosphorus, Berthollet has substituted
   Its spontaneous combustion, wliich absorbs the oxygen
   of atmospheric air completely:  and, when the quan-
   tity of air operated  on is small, tlie process  is accom-
   plished in a short time.
     Berthollet's apparatus consists of a narrow graduated
   glass tube, containing the air  to  be examined, into
   which is introduced a cylinder, or stick of phosphorus,
   supported upon a class rod,  while the tube stands in-
   verted in water. The phosphorus should be nearly as
   long as ihe tube.  Immediately after the introduction
   of the phosphorus,  while vapours are  formed which
   fill the tube;  these vapours gradually descend, and be-
   come absorbed by the water.  When no more white
   vapours appear, the process is at an end, for all the
   oxygen gas which was present in the confined quantity
   of air, has united with  the phosphorus: the  residuum
   is the quantity of nitrogen of the  air submitted to ex-
   amination.
     This eudiometer, though excellent of the kind, is
   nevertheless not absolutely to be depended upon ; for,
   is soon as the absorption of oxygen is completed, the
   nitrogen eas exercises an action upon the phosphorus,
   and tlnis its bulk becomes  increased.  It has been as-
   certained, that the volume of nitrogen gas is inrreascd
   by I-40th part; consequently the bulk ofthe residuum,
   diminished by l-40th, gives us the bulk of the nitrogen
   gas of the air examined ;  which bulk, subtracted from
   the original mass of air, gives  us the proportion of
   oxygen gas contained in it. The same allowance must
■*>  oe made in the eudiometer of Seguin.
     7. Davy's Eudiometer.—Until very lately, the pre-
   ceding processes were the methods of determining the
   relative proportions of the two gases which compose
   our atmosphere.
     Some of" these methods, though very ingenious, arc
   so extremely slow in  their action, that it is difficult
   to ascertain the precise time at which  the  operation
   leases.   Others have  frequently involved  inaccura-
   cies, not easily removed.
     The eudiometer of Davy is not only free from these
   objections, but the result il offers  is always constant;
   it requires  little address, and is very expeditious; the
   apparatus is portable, simple, and convenient.
     Take a small glass lube, graduated into one hundred
   equidistant parts; fill this tube with the air to be ex-
   amined, and plunge it into a bottle, or any other con-
   venient vessel, containing a concentrated solution of
   green muriate or sulphate of iron, strongly impreg-
   nated with nitrous  gas.   All that is necessary to be
   dene, is to move the tube in the solution a little back-
   wards and forwards; under these circumstances, the
   oxygen i>z contained in the ai'  will be rapidly ab-
sorbed, and condensed by the nitrous gas in the solu
tion, in the form of nitrous acid.
  N. B. The state of the greatest absorption should
be marked, as the mixture afterward emits a little gas
whicli would alter ihe result.
  This cnciinistance depends upon ihe slow decompri-
sition ot' ihe  nitrous acid (formed during the experi-
ment,) by the  oxide of iron, and Ihe consequent pro-
duction of a small quantity of aeriform fluid (chiefly
nitrous gas) ; which,  having no affinity with the red
muriate, or sulphate of  iron, produced by the combi-
nation of oxygen, is  gindually evolved and mingle!
with the residual nitrogen gas.  However, the nitron*
gas evolvid might be abstracted by exposing the resi
duuin to a fresh solution of gieen sulphate or muriate
of iron.
  The impregnated  solution with  green  muriate, Is
more  rapid in its  operation than the solution  with
green sulphate.  In eases when these salts cannot  to
obtained in a state of absolute purity, the common sul-
phate of iron of commerce  may  be employed.  One
cubic  inch of modc-iately  impregnated  solution,  w
capable of absorbing five or six cubic inches of oxy-
gen, in  common processes ; but the same  quantity
must  never be employed for more than one experi-
ment.
  Iu all these different methods of analyzing air, it is
necessary to operate on air of a determinate density,
and to take- care  that the residuum  be neither more
condensed nor dilated than ihe air was when first ope-
rated  on.  If these things are not attended to, no de-
pendence whatever can  be  placed  upon the icsult < f
the experiments, how carefully soever ihey may ha\e
been performed.  It  is,  therefore, necessaiy to place
Ihe air,  before and  after the examination, into water
of the same  temperature.   If this, and several other
little circumstances,  have been attended to, for in-
stance, a change  in  the height  of the barometer, &.c
we find  that air is composed of about 0.21 of oxygon
gas, and 0.7.) of nitrogen gas by bulk.   Rut  as thn
weight of these two gases is not exactly the same, 11,e
proportion of  the component parts by weight w ill dif-
fer a little; for as ihe specific gravity of oxygen gas is
to that of nitrogen gas as 8 to 7 nearly, it follows" tint
100 parts of air are composed  by  weight of about 7li
nitrogen  gas, and 24 oxygen gas.
  Tlie air of this metropolis, examined by means of
Davy's eudiometer, was found,  in all ihe different sca-
sonsof the year, to contain 0.21 of oxygen : and the
same  was the case with air taken at Islington :.: d
Highgatc;  in the solitary cells inCold-Bath-Fieids pri-
son, and  on the river Thames.  But the quantity of
water  contained  in  a given bulk of air  from  tiieee
places, differed considerably.
  Ft GALENUS, Severinus, a physician of Doccum,
in Friesland, known chiefly as  the author of a Trea
fise on the Scurvy, in 1C04, which once maintained a
considerable character:  but the publication  of Dr.
Liud, pointing out his numerous errors, has entiir'y
superseded it.
  El'GE NIA.  (So named by Micheli, in compli-
ment to  Prince Eugene of Savoy, who sent him fic'i
Germany almost all the  plants described by Clusiua.)
The name of a genus of plants in  the  Linnaean  sys-
tem.  Class, Icosandria; Order, Monogynia.
  Eugenia caryophyllata.  The  systematic name
of the  tree which affords the  clove.  Caryophyllus
aromaticus. It grows in the East Indies, the Moluc-
cas, &c.   The clove is the unexpanded  flower, or
rather the calyx; it  has  a strong agreeable smell, a.;d
a bitterish, hot, not very pungent, taste.  The  oil el
cloves, commonly met with in the shops, and icceivi J
from the  Dutch,  is highly acrimonious and sophitti
cated.  Clove is accounted the hottest and most acr::l
of the aromatics; and, by acting as a powerful stimu-
lant to the  muscular fibres, may, in some cases ol at.-
nic gout, paralysis, &c. supersede most others of t.'-e
aromatic class; and the foreign oil, by itsgrc.it acn
mony, is  also  well adapted  for scveial external pur
poses ;  it is directed by several pharmacopoeias, ated
the clove itself enters many officinal preparations.
  Eugenia jambos.   The systematic  name of  the
Malabar plum-tree.  The fruit smells, when ripe, like
roses.   On the coast of Malabar, where the trees grow
plentifully, these  plums  are in great  esteem.  They
are nol only eaten fresh off the trees, but are preserved
in Etitnr,  in order to have them eatable all the year.
                                        341 
em-
eu r
     Of the flowers, a conserve is prepared, which hi used
     medicinally as a mild adstringent.
       Euge'us'.  (From  tv, well, and yq, the earth: so
     tailed because of its fertility.)  The uterus.
       EL'KAIRITE. A new mineral, composed of silver,
     selenium, cop) er, and alumina, found in the copper
     Biine nf Shrif korum, in Switzerland.
       Eu'i k.   (From iv)>u*,u>, to putrefy.)   A worm bred
     in foul and putrid ulcers.
       Eunu'chiim.  (From cui'uu^oc, a eunuch :  so  call-
     ed because  it was formerly said lo  lender those who
     tat it impotent, like a  eunuch.)   The lettuce.   See
     Lactuca.
       LuPATORioriiA'LACRON    (From tvira'Jupiov,  agri-
     mony,  and tjiaXaxpos, bald.)  A species of agrimony
     with naked heads.
       EUPATO'RIUM.  (From Eupator,  its discoverer :
     ler quasi hrpatorium, from rjxap, the liver ; because it
     was said to be useful in disease-s of the liver.)   1. The
     i.ame of a  genus of plants in the Linnaean system.
     Class, Syngcncsia; Order, Polygamia aqualis.
      2. The pharmacopceial name of the Eupatorium.
     See Eupatorium cannabinum.
      Euivatorium arabicum.  See Eupatorium canna-
     binum.
       Eupatorium cannabinum.  The systematic name
     nf the  hemp  agrimony.   Eupatorium;  Eupatorium
     arabicum.  The juice of this very bitter and  strong-
»   smelling  plant,  Eupatorium—foliis digitalis of Lin-
     naeus, proves violently emetic and purgative, if taken
     in sufficient  quantity,  and promotes  the  secretions
     generally.  It is  recommended in dropsies, jaundices,
     agues, &c. and is in common use in Holland among
     the lower orders, as a purifier of the blood in old ul-
     I'-rs, scurvy, and anasarca.
       Eupatorium mesues.  See Achillea agcralvm.
      [" Eupatorium perfoliatum. Thoroughwort. The
     Eupatorium perfoliatum is an indigenous vegetable,
     growing in wet meadows throughout the United States.
     The whole plant is  medicinal, but the  leaves and
     flowers are most active.   The taste is intensely bit-
     ter, accompanied by a  flavour peculiar to the plant,
     but without astrfngency or acrimony.  A kind of ex-
     tractive matter appeals to  contain its sensible and
     medicinal properties, and of this water is an adequate
     solvent.
       "The medicinal powers of this  plant are,  such as
     i'.s sensible  qualities would seem to indicate, those of
     a tonic stimulant. Given in moderate quantities,either
     in substance, in cold infusion or decoction, it promotes
     digestion, strengthens the viscera, nnd restores tone to
     tjie system.   Like other vegetable bitters, if given in
     large quantities, especially in warm infusion or decoc-
     l on, it proves emetic, cathartic, and sudorific.  Even
     in cold infusion, it brings on diaphoresis more  readily
     fian most  tonics.  It is an efficacious article in the
     cure of intermittents, and is much employed for this
     lsc in districts where fever and ague prevail.   Cures
     effected by  it appear to have  been  as speedy as those
     from any ofthe medicines in common use.  Thorough-
     v/ort has been employed  in small doses  with benefit in
     other febrile complaints  attended with  prostration of
     b'rength in  their advanced stages.  Its action upon the
     skin has acquired for it some confidence in the treat-
     i.ient of cutaneous diseases.
       "As a tonic, twenty or thirty grains of the powder
     may be given in milk or wine, or two fluid ounces of
     ihe infusion.   When intended to act as  an emetic, a
     strong  decoction may be made from an ounce of the,
     I 'ant in a quart of water boiled to a pint.   The decoc-
     tion is a disagreeable, but popular and effectual medi-
     cine in catarrhs, rheumatism, and  febrile attacks.  It
     ii powerfully emetic, cathartic, and sudorific."—Big.
     Mat. Med.   A.)
       [" Eupatorium purpurkum.  Gravtl root.  This is
     r taller plant than the species already cited.  Its taste
     is bitter, astringent, and aromatic.  I am informed that
     it operates  as a diuretic, and is employed by different
     rountry physicians as a palliative in dysury and calcu-
     I. us diseases."—Big. Mat. Med.   A.]
       '"Eupatorium teucrium.  Wild hoarhound. Many
     i-f the species ot Eupatorium, which nearly resemble
     Eupatorium perfoliatum, in botanical habit, are  like-
     wise similar to it in medicinal properties.  The present
     species is one of this kind.    It is  tonic, diaphoretic,
     and cathart'c, and in small doses sits well on the slo
     njdch.   It is extensively  used in the southern states in
          34i
 the cure of fever and ague."—Bigclon's Materia At*
 dica.   A.]
   ["Euphorbia ipecacuanha.  Ipecacuanha spurge.
 This is a low tufted plant, growing native in sandy
 soils in the middle and  southern parts of the United
 States.   It was at one lime supposed to be the planl
 from which the officinal ipecacuanha is derived.
   " The root is very large  in proportion to the plant,
 fleshy, irregular, and branched.  When dried, it is of
 a grayish colour outside, and white within.  It is light
 arid brittle, without a ligneous centre, aud has about
 the hardness of cork.  To  the taste it is sweetish, and
 not particularly unpleasant.  It contains a substance
 of the nature of caoutchouc, which is soluble in ether,
 aud precipitated  by  alkohol; likewise resin, mucus,
 and probably fiecula.
   '  Most ofthe species ofthe extensive  genus Euphor-
 bia, are violent emetics and cathartics.   The lactescent
 juice, wliich they exude when wounded, is acrid and
 virulent, so as to blister and ulcerate  the skin when
 externally applied.  Taken internally in large doses,
 they produce the violent symptoms which are common
 to other acrid narcotics.  The Euphorbia ipecacuanha
 is milder inrits operation than many of the other spe-
 cies, and has  lately been  revived in practice as  an
 effectual emetic.   Willi a view of becoming acquaint-
 ed with the mode of operation of this plant, I perform-
 ed a series of experiments on its  action,  assisted  by
 some medical gentlemen of the Boston Dispensary and
 Alms-house.  These trials  have  led to the  conclusion,
 that this root, in doses of from ten to twenty grains, is
 both an emetic and cathartic; that it is more active
 than ipecacuanha, in proportion to the  number  of
 grains  administered; that  in small doses it operates
 with as much case as most emetics in a majority  of
 instances. If it fails, however, at first, it is not so safely
 repeated as many of the emetics in common use.  If
 accumulated in the stomach  to the amount of two or
 three scruples, it finally excites  active  and long  con-
 tinued vomiting, attended with a  sense of beat, vertigo,
 indistinct vision,  and great prostration of strength.
 Its operation seems exactly proportionate to the quan
 tity taken, and vomiting is  not checked by the powder
 being thrown off in the first efforts of the stomach.
   " From ten  to twenty grains  constitute an emetic,
 to be given at once.  If this quantity fails to vomit, it
 generally purges.  It may be quickened by a little tar-
 tarized antimony, bul ought not  to be repealed to the
 amount of more than twenty-five or thirty grains."—
 Big. Mat. Med.   A.]
   EUPE'PSIA.  (From tv,  well, and zmfu, to con-
 coct.)  A good digestion.
   EUPEPTIC.   (Eupcpticus;  from  tv, good,  and
 ■trtirlu, to digest.)   That which is of easy digestion.
   EUPHODITE.   A species of rock, composed  of
 felspar and dial I age.
   EUPHO RB1A.  The name of a genus of plants in
 the  Linnx-an  system.   Class, Dodecandria;  Order,
 Trigynia.
   Euphorbia antiquorum.  The systematic name
 of a plant supposed to produce the Euphorbium.
   Euphorbia canariensis.  In the Canary islands
 this species of spurge affbids the gum euphorbium.
   Euphorbia cyparissias.  The systematic name of
 the  cypress spurge.   Esula minor; Tithymalus  cy-
 parissius.  This, like most ofthe spurges, isveiy acri-
 monious,  inflaming  the eyes and oesophagus  after
 touching them.  It is now fallen into disuse, whale vei
 were its virtues  formerly, which, no doubt, among
 some others, was  that  of opening the bowels,  for
 among rustics,  it was called poor man's rhubarb.
   ["Euphorbia corollata.  Large flowering spurge.
 The Euphorbia corollata is a tall spec>«, with a five-
 rayed umbel, and white flowers.   It  grows sponla
 neously in dry fields from Pennsylvania to  Carolina.
   " The soft brittle texture  ofthe root, and its sweetish
 taste, are similar to those of Euphorbia ipecacuanha
 Its  chemical constitution  is nearly the same, except
 that the quantity  of  resin  is  apparently somewhat
 greater.
   "This is a verv active medicine.of the  evacualinc
 class, operating m small doses  as a cathartic, and in
 large ones as an emetic.  It has  been thought to pos-
 sess about twice the strength of jalap.  It exerts  it*
 cathartic efficacy  in doses  of less than ten grains, and
 if given to the amount of fifteen or twenty, it is as sure
' to vomit as other common emetics iu their propeej 
EUS
EVA
quantities.  The only inconveniences attending these
doses, whicli have  come to my knowledge, are, that
when given in  small quantities, for a cathartic, it is
liable to produce nausea ; and in large ones, suitable
for an emetic, it has sonietimes induced a degree of
hypercatharsis.  But similar inconveniences may oc-
cur from jalap and  tartarized antimony.  The effects
Which large doses of this root may produce on the ner-
vous system, I have not had occasion to witness.   'The
Euphorbia corollata, like many others of its genus, if
applied in a contused state to the skin, excites inflam-
mation and vesication.   Its volatile particles possess n
certain degree of virulence,  so that inflammation of
the lace has been brought on by handling the root.  It
remains  to  he  ascertained whether the  vesicating
powers of this and  the otlier species are equally defi-
nite and manageable, with those of the mote common
epispastic  substances."—Big. Mat. Med.   A.]
  Euphorbia lathyris.   The systematic name of
the plant which affords the less  oataputia seeds.  Cu
taputia minor;  Euphorbia—umbella quadrifida, di-
chotoma, folns oppositis  integerrimis  of Limiaus.
The seeds  possess  purgative properties;  but if exhi-
bited  iu an over do=-e, prove drastic  and  poisonous: a
quality peculiar lo all the Euphorbia.
  Euphorbia offk in vrum.  The systematic name
of the plant whicli affords the euphoibium in the
greatest abundance.   Eupliorbium is an  inodorous
gum-resin, in yellow- tears, which  have  the appear-
ance of being worm-eaten; said to be obtained from
several species of euphotbue, but principally from the
Euphorbia officinarum; aculatea uuda multaugularis,
nculeis gcrnnnatis of Liiinic-us:  it is  imported from
Ethiopia,  Libya, and  Mauritania.  It  contains an
active resin, and is  very seldom employted internally,
but, as an ingredient, it  enters into many resolvent and
discutienl  plasters.
  Euphorbia i alustris.   The systematic name  of
the greater spurge.  The officinal plant ordered by the
name, Ksula major, in some pharmacopoeias, is the
Euphorbia palustris;  umbella multifidu, bifida, invo-
lucellis  ovatis, foliis lanceolatis, ramis  sterilibus  of
Linnaeus   The juice is exhibited in Russia a?  a com-
mon puige; and the plant is given, in some places, in
the cure of intermittents.
  Euphorbia paralias.  fTithymalusparalios.  Sea-
purge.   Every part of this plant is violently cathartic
and irritating, inflaming the mouth and  fauces.  It is
seldom employed in the practice of this country ; but
where it is used, vinegar is re-commended to correct its
irritating power.
  EIPIIO RBUM   (From  F.uphorbus, the physician
nf king Juba, in honour  of whom  it was named.)
See Euphorbia  officinarum.
  EUPHRA'SIA.    (Corrupted  from   Euphrosyne,
txqipoavvn,, from tvqbpuv, joyful: so called because il
exhilarates the spirits.)
  1. The  name of a genus of plants in  the Linnaean
system.  Class, Dr-Iynturia; Order, Angiospermia.
  2. The  pharmacoi cial name  of eye-bright.  See
Euphrasia officinalis.
  Euphrasia ohicivalis.  The systematic name of
the eye-bright.  This beautiful little plant, Euphrasia
—foliis ovatis, Itneatis, argute  dentatis  of Linnaeus,
has been greatly esteemed by tbe common people, as a
remedy for all diseases of the eyes; yet, notwithstand-
ing this, and the encomiums of some medical writers,
it is now wholly fallen into disuse.  It is  an ingredient
in the British herb-tobacco.
  Eustachian tube.   'Tuba eusluchinna.  The tube
BO called was discovered by the great Euslachius.  It
begins, one in each ear, from the anterior extremity of
the tympanum, and  runs forwards and  inwards in a
bony canal, which terminates with the petrous portion
of the tcnipoiai bone.   It then goes on, partly cartila-
ginous, and  partly  membranous, gradually becoming
larger,  and at  length  ends  behind  the  soft palate.
Through this tube the air passes to the tympanum.
  Eustachian valve. See Valvula Eustachii.
   EUSTACHIl'S,  Bartholomew, one of the most
celebrated anatomists of the IGth century, was born at
San Seve-rino,  in  Italy.  He studied at  Rome, and
made himself such  a  proficient in anatomy, that  he
was chosen  professor of  that  branch   of medicine
there,  where he died  iu  1574.  He  was  author  of
wev.-ral works, many of which are lost, especially his
tie-a'.ise "De Controversiis Anatomicorum," which is
much regretted.  He made several discoveries in ana-
tomy ; having first  desciibed the renal capsules, and
the thoracic duct; also the passage from the throat te
the internal ear, named alter him the Eustachian tube.
A  series of copperplates, to  which he  alludes  in his
" Opuscule," were recoviered by Lancisi, and pub-
lished  in  the  beginning  of  ihe 18th century.   He
edited the Lexicon m"  Hrotian with a commentary.
  Euthypo'ria.  (From Evdvs, straight, and iropos, a
passage.)   Euthiporos.  An extension made  in  a
straight line, to put in place a fracture, or dislocation.
  EVAPORATION.   A chemical operation usually
performed by applying heat to  any  compound sub-
stance, in order to dispel the volatile  parts.   "  Il dif-
fers from distillation in its object, which chiefly con
sists  in  preserving ihe more fixed matters, while the
volatile substances are dissipated and lost.  And the
vessels  aie  accordingly different; evaporation  being
commonly made in open shallow vessels, and distilla-
tion in on nppaiutus nearly  closed from the  external
air.
  The degree of heat must be duly regulated in eva-
poration.  When the fixed and more  volatile matters
do not grently differ in their tendency  to fly oft', the
heat  must be very carefully adjusted;  but in  other
cases this is  less necessary.
  As  evaporation consists in the assumption  of the
elastic form, its  rapidity will be  iu proportion  lo the
degree of heat, and the diminution of the pressure of
the atmosphere.  A  current of air is  likewise of ser-
vice in this process.
  Barry has lately obtained a patent for an apparatus,
by which vegetable extracts for  the  apothecary may
be made at  a very gentle heal, and in  vacuo.  From
these two circumstances, extracts thus prepared differ
from those in common use, not only in  their physical,
but medicinal properties.  The taste aud smell  of the
extract of hemlock made in this way are remarkably
different, as  is ihe colour both of the soluble and lecu-
lent parts.  The form of apparatus is  as follows:—
  The evaporatiiig-pan, or still, is a hemispherical dish
of cast-iron, polished  on ils inner surface, and fur-
nished wilh  an air-tight flat lid.  From the centre of'
this a pipe rises, and bending like the  neck of a  retort,
it forms a declining tube, which terminates in a  copper
sphere of a capacity three (four 1) times greater than
lhat of the still.  There is a stop-cock on that pipe,
midway between the still and the globe, and another
at the under side ofthe latter.
  The manner of setting it to work is this:—The juice,
or infusion, is introduced  through a large opening into
the polished iron still, which is then closed, made afr-
tight,  and aovered with water.   The  stop-cock  which
leads to the sphere  is also shut.  In order to produce
the vacuum, steam from a separate apparatus is made
to  rush by a  pipe through the sphere, till  it has expelled
all the air, for which five  minutes are commonly suffi-
cient.  This  is known to be  effected, by the steam
issuing  uncondensed.   At that instant, the copper
sphere is closed, the steam shut off, and  cold water ad-
mitted on its external surface.  The vacuum thus pro-
duced in the copper  sphere, which contains four-fifths
ofthe air ofthe whole  apparatus, is  now  partially
Iraosferred to the still, by opening the intermediate
stop-cock.  'Thus,  four-fifths of the  air  in  the still
rush  into the sphere, and  the  stop-cock being shut
again, a second exhaustion is effected by steam  in
the same manner as the first was; after which  a mo-
mentary communication is again allowed between the
iron still and the receiver;  by this means, four-fifths
of the air remaining alter the former exhaustion, are
expelled.  These exhaustions, repeated five or six times,
are usually found sufficient to raise the mercurial co-
lumn to the  height of 28 inches.  The  water-bath,  in
which the iron still  is immersed, is now to be heated,
until the fluid that is to be inspissated  begins to boil
which is known by inspection through a window  in
the apparatus, made by fastening on,  air-tight, a piece
of very strong glass;  and the temperature at whicli
the boiling point is kept up, is determined by  a ther-
mometer.  Ebullition is  continued until the fluid  is
inspissated to the proper degree of consistence, which
also is tolerably judged of by its appearance through
the glass window.  The  temperature  of the  boiling
fluid is usually about 100° F., but it might be reduced
to nearly 90°.
   In  the Medico-chirurgicol Transactions  for 1819,
                                        343 
EXA
EXL
 (vol. x.-1 theie is a paper by J. T. Barry on a new me-
 thod of preparing  Pharmaceutical Extracts.  It con-
 sists in performing the evaporation in vacuo.  For this
 purpose he employed apparatus which was  found to
 answer so well, lhat, contemplating  its application to
 jther manufacturers, he was  induced to take  out a
 patent for it,  that is to say, for  the apparatus.  As  it
 has  been erroneously supposed that the patent is for
 preparing /extracts in vacuo, it may nol be improper to
 correct the  statement  by a short quotation  from the
 above  paper.  ' On that account, I have been induced
 lo take out a  patent for it (the apparatus).  It is, how-
 ever, to be recollected  by this society, that I have de-
 clined  having n patent for its pharmaceutical products
 Chemists, desirous of inspissating extracts in vacuo,
 are therefore at liberty to do it iu any apparatus dif-
 fering from that which has been made the subject of
 my patent; and thus these substances may continue
 the object of  fair competition as to quality and price.'
  The apparatus combines two striking improvements.
 The first consists in producing a vacuum by the agency
 of steam.only, so that the use  of air-pumps and the
 machinery requisite for working them, is superseded.
  The otlier  improvement is a contrivance for  super-
 ceding the injection of water during the process of eva-
 poration in vacuo."
  Evergreen leaf.   See Sempervirens.
  Everriculum.  (From everro, to sweep away.)  A
 sort of spoon, used to clear the bladder from gravel.
  EXACERBATION.   (Exacerbatio ; from exacerbo,
 lo become violent.)  An increase of the force  or vio-
 lence of the symptoms of a disease.  The term is ge-
 nerally applied to an increase of febrile symptoms.
  EX./E RESIS.  (From t\aiptu, to remove.)  One
 of the divisions of surgery adopted  by the  old sur-
 geons ; the term implies the removal of parts.
  Exa'l.ma.   (From t\aXXopat, to leap out.)  Hippo-
 crates applies it to the starting  of the vertebrae out of
 their places.
  EXAMBLO MA.  (From t\ap6Xou,  to miscarry.)
 An abortion.
  EXAMBLO'SIS.  An abortion.
  Exanastomo'sis.  (From clavaolopou, to  relax, or
 open.)   The opening of the mouths of vessels, to dis-
 charge their contents.
  EXANG1A.   (Exangia; from t\,  and avyttov, a
 resscl.) The name ol" a genus; class,  Hamatica;
 ardor, Dysthetica, in Good's Nosology.  It embraces
 three species, Exangia uneurisma, varix, cyania.
  EXANTHE'MA.  (Exanthema, atis.n.; from rt;-
 avQcu, rfflorcsco, to effloresce, or break forth on  a sur-
 face.)  Exanthisma. An eruption of the skin, called
 a rash.  It consists of red patches on the skin, vari-
 ously figured; in general confluent, and diffused irre-
 gularly over the body, leaving interstices of a natural
 colour.  Portions of the cuticle are often  elevated in
 a rash, but the  elevations are not acuminated.  The
 eruption is usually accompanied with a general disor-
 der of the constitution, and terminates in a few days
 by cuticular exfoliations.
  EXANTHE'MATA.  (The  plural of exanthema.)
 The name of an order of diseases ofthe class Pyrexia
 n Cullen's Nosology.  It includes diseases, beginning
 with fever, and  followed by au eruption on the skin.
  EXANTHEMATICA. The  name of an order of
 diseases, class, Hamatica, in Good's Nosology.   Erup-
 tive fevers.  It  comprehends four genera, viz. Exan-
 thesis,  Emphlyis, Empycsis, Anthracia.
  EXANTHESIS.  (From t\, ei tra, and avOtu,fioreo.)
The  name of  a  genus of disease, class, Eccritica ; or-
der, Acrotica\ in Good's Nosology.  Cutaneous blush.
 It affords only one species, Exanthcsis roseola.
  Exanthi'sma.  See Exanthema.
  Exanthro'pia.   (From ci-, without, and aiOpuiros,
 a man, i. e. having lost the faculties of a man.)   A spe-
cies of melancholy, in wliich the patient fancies hiin-
tclf some kind of brute.
  ExaRa'oma.  (From tiflparju, to break.) A fracture.
  Exa'rma.   (From ci-aipu, to lift up.)  A tumour or
swelling.
  Exarte'ma.   (From t\ap"]au,  to  suspend.)  A
charm, hung round the neck.
  Exartiire'ma.    (From t\apBpou,  to put out of
joint.1   Exarthroma; Exarthrosis.  A dislocation, or
luxation.
  Exarthro'ma.   Sec F.xarthrcma.
  Exakthro'sis.   See Exarthrema.
      '144
   EXARTICULA TIO.  (From ex, out of, and arti-
 culus, a joint.)  A luxation, or dislocation of a bone
 from its socket.
   Exci'pulum.  (From excipio, to  receive.)   A che-
 mical receiver.
   EXCITABTLIT Y.  That condition of living bodies
 wherein they can be made to exhibit the functions and
 phenomena which distinguish them  from inanimate
 matter, or the capacity of" organized beings to be af-
 fected by various agents called exciting powers.
   Much confusion seems lo have arisen  in  medical
 controversies from the application ofthe word stimuli,
 to denote the  means necessary to the  support  of life:
 and particularly by Brown, in  his celebrated  attempt
 to reduce the varied and complicated states of the sys-
 tem to the reciprocal  action of the exciting   powers
 upon the excitability.  By this hypothesis,  instead of
 regarding life as a continued series of" actions, which
 cannot go on without certain agents constantly minis-
 tering to them, we are to suppose  a  substance or
 quality, called excitability, which is sujieradded or as-
 signed to  every being upon the commencement of its
 living state.  The  founder of  the  Brunonian  school
 considers  that this substance or quality is expanded
 by the incessant action of the exciting powers.   These
 are;—air, food, and drink, the blood and the secretions,
 as well as muscular exertion, sensation,  thought, and
 passions, or emotion, or other functions of  the system
 itself"; and these powers, which exhaust the excitabi-
 lity or produce excitement  (according to ihe language
 of the school), are strangely enough  called stimuli.
 We are told, that it is in the due balance between the
 exciting powers and  the  excitability lhat health  con-
 sists : lor if the exciting powers be in excess, indirec
 debility is produced; and where, on the other hand
 the stimuli are deficient and the excitability accuinu
 latcd, there ensues  a state of direct debility.
   EXCITATION.  (Excitatio; from ezci'to,  to ex-
 cite.)  The act of awakening, rousing, or producing
 some power or action:  thus we say, tlie excitation of
 motion, excitation of heat, excitation of the passions,
 Sec   In natural philosophy, it is principally used in
 the subjects of action of living parts, and in  electri
 city and heat.
   EXCITEMENT.   According to  the opinion of
 Brown, excilemeqt is the continual exhaustion of tlie
 matter of life, or excitability by certain agents, which
 have received the name of stimuli or exciting powers
 The due degree of this  expension or excitement is the
 condition necessary to health: the excessive action of
 stimuli causing indirect debility and generating  sthenic
 diseases, while the opposite state of deficient  excite-
 ment produces direct debility, and gives birth to asthe-
 nic diseases: and death is said to result equally from
 complete exhaustion of tlie excitability, and from total
 absence of the exciting pow ers.  Excitement is  in this
 view equivalent to that forced state which is supposed
 by the Brunonian school to constitute life.
  It has been  objected to this hypothesis, that by sim
 plilying loo much the varied phenomena  of healthy
 functions and of diseases, it necessarily classed toge
ther conditions of the system which iiave been consi
dered as widely different, and of opposite tendencies,
 by the more  patient observer.   And though  gladly
caught at by  many, as pointing out  in a few general
 rules  the mode of cure in all diseases, namely, by re-
storing  the proper equilibrium between excitability
nnd the action of stimuli, the Brunonian theories seem
 now to be considered, by those who are suspicious of
 bold classifications, as an example of the observation,
 " that the most ingenious way of becoming foolish is
 by a system ;  and tlie surest way to prevent truth, is
 to set up something in the room of it."
  EXCITING.  That  which has the power  of im-
 pressing the solids,  so as io alter their action, and thus
 produce disease.
  Exciting cause.  That whicli,  when  applied to
 the body, excites a  disease.
  EXCORIATION.   (Exeoriatio; from  excorio, to
take off the skin.)  An abrasion of the skin.
  E'XCREMENT.  (Excrementum ; from execrno, to
separate from.)  The alvine faeces.
  EXCRESCENCE.   (Excrescentla; fromexcresco,
to grow from.)  Any preternatural formation of flesli,
or anv part of the body, as wens, warts, tec
  EXCRE TION.  (Excretio;  from excerno, to sepa-
rate from.) This term  is applied to tlie separation of 
exp
EXP
 those fluids from the blood of an animal, that are sup-
 posed  lo be  usel-ss,  as tlie urine, perspiration, and
 alvine faeces.  The process is the same with that of
 secretion, except with the  alvine faeces; but the term
 excretion is applied to those substances which, when
 separated from the blood, are not applied to wiy useful
 purposes in the animal economy.
   EXCRETORY.   (Excrctonu,■;  from  ncrrnc, to
 purge, sift,  &c )  This name is applied to certain little
 ducLs or vessels in the fabric of glands;  thus the lubes
 wliich convey the secretion out of the testicle into the
 vesiculae seiuinales are called (he excretory ducts.
   EXERCISE  See„"£orfi
   EXFOLIATION.  (Exjohatio;  from exfolio, lo
 cast the leaf.)  The separation of a dead piece of bone
 from the living.
   Exfoliati'vum.   kFiom exfolio, to shed the leaf.)
 A  raspatoiy,  or  instrument for scraping exfoliating
 portions ot  bone.
   Exi'scuios. (From t\, out  of, and tox'ov, the is-
 chmm.)  A luxation ofthe thigh-bone.
   Exitu'ra.   (From eno, to come from.)  A running
 abscess.
   E xitus.  (From exco, to come out.)  A prolapsus,
 or falling down of a part of the womb or bowel.
   E'xoiiias.   (From t\u. without, and tx<*,to have.)
 Eioche. A tubercle on the outside of the anus.
   E'xoche   See Eiochas.
   Exocy'ste.  See Eroiystis.
   Exocy'stis.  (From r^j,  without, and  xvs-ts, the
 bladder.) Exocy-te.   A prolapsus of the inner mem-
 brane of the bladder.
   EXO MPHAH'S.   (From cit;, out, and opd>aXos, the
 navel.)  Fn\niphalos.  .\n  umbilical  hernia.  See
 Hernia umbilicalis.
  Exoncho'ma.  (.From r!;, and oyxof, a tumour.)  A
 large prominent tumour.
  EXOPHTHA LMIA.  (From t\, out,and otpOaXpos,
 the eye.)  A swelling or protrusion of the bulb of the
 eye, to such a deeiee that the eyelids cannot cover it.
 It may be cau-c-d  by inflammation, when il is termed
 exophthiilmia  inflammutoria; or  from a collection of
 pus iu the globe of the eye, when it  is termed the ex-
 ophthalmia purulcnta; or from a congestion of blood
 within the globe of Ihe eye, exophthalmia sanguinea.
   EXORMIA.  iE\oppta; from  i\oppau, to break
 out.)  The  name of a genus of disease, class, Eccri-
 tica; order, Acrotica, in Good's  Nosology.  Papulous
 skin.  It has four species,  mz.  Exormia strophulus,
 lichen,prnriao. milium.
  EXOSTOSIS.    (From  t%, and oaftov, a  bone.)
 Hyperostosis.  A  morbid enlargement, or hard tumour
 of a bone.   A  genus of disease arranged by Cullen in
 the class Lochs, and order  Tumores.  The bones
 most frequently affected with exostosis, are  those of
 the cranium, the lower jaw, sternum, humerus, rteiiius,
 ulna, bones  ofthe carpus, the femur, and tibia.  There
 is, however, no bone of the body which may not be-
 come the seal of this disease.   It is not uncommon to
 find the bones of  the cranium affected w ith exostosis,
 in their whole extent.   The ossa parietalia sometimes
 become an inch thick.
  The exostosis, however, mostly rises from the sur-
 face of the bone, in the form of a hard round tumour ;
 and venerea! exostoses, or nodes, are observed to arise
 chiefly on compact  bones,  and  such of these as nre
 only superficially covered with soft parts; as, for  in-
 stance, the bones of the cranium, and the front surface
 of the tibia.
  EXPANSION.   The inci ease of surface, or of bulk,
 to which natural bodies are susceptible.
  EXPECTORANT.   (Expectorans;  from  expec-
 toro, to discharge  from the  breast.)  Those medicines
 which increase the discharge of mucus from the lungs.
 The different articles referred to this class may be di-
 vided into the following orders:
  1. Nauseating  expectorants ;  as squill, ammonia-
cum,  and garlic, which are to be preferred for the aged
and phlegmatic.
  2.  Stimulating expectorants; as marrubium, which
is adapted to the young and irritable, and those easily
affected by expectorants.
  3. Antispasmodic expectorants; as vesicatories, pe-
diluvium, and watery vapours : these are best calcu-
lated for the plethoric and irritable, and tliose liable to
spasmodic affections.
  1  Irritating expectorants;  as fumes of tobacco and
 acid vapours.  The constitutions to which these ar«
 chiefly adapted, arc those past the period of youth,
 and those in whom there are evident marks of torpor,
 either in the system generally, or in the lungs in par-
 ticular.
   [These are remedies which promote, or are adniinls-
 teied to facilitate the discharge from the lungs both by
 secretion or expectoration.
   This secretion is of two kinds, first the  Halitus or
 watery vapour, and secondly the Muscus or slime.  In
 cases  of  disease there are  other secretions, or rathci
 fluids  to be  excreted ; such as,
   1. Blood or sanguineous mixtures.
   2. Pus or purulent mixtures.
   3. Lymphatic or coagulated films, as in croup
   4. Stonv or calculous concretions.
   5. Hydatids.
   There may be too little vascular or grandulnr action
 in consequence of which theoigan of respiration may
 be too dry, or secrete less than it ought; and also there
 may be too  little power to throw oui the secreted mat-
 ters.  Coder the title  therefore of Expectorants, are
 comprehended all the remedies which promote secre-
 tion or excretion in the lungs.
   Respiration  may  be considered  as a perspiratory
 function, and acting in conjunction with,or vicarious to,
 ihe skin, and  as leaving  also a somewhat to perform
 analogous to  the alimentary canal.   For which  pur-
 pose the lungs and intestines may be strictly and pro-
 perly considered as external surfaces.
   When tlie pulmonary and bronchial vessels are con-
 sidered as to the amount of bleyid they convey, the im-
 portance of the function, the proximity of  the heart,
 the frequency and seriousness of the diseases to which
 the lungs are subjected, it will be evident that this class
 of remedies is worthy of being well understood.
   The function of respiration in my view has an ana-
 logy to respiration.
   Remedies therefore  which determine the fluids to
 the  skin, or excite the cuticular surface to secretory
 action, may be considered as almost pari  passu en
 couraging pulmonary exhalation.  This argument de-
 rives force from the common remark of the suppressed
 perspiration falling upon the lungs.   There is no doubt
 that the  pulmonic surface  and the  cuticular  surface
 (both of which are to be considered as external) are
 frequently both disordered at once. But Ihe true in-
 terpretation probably is, that the lungs do not suffer in
 consequence of the fluids repelled from  the skin, but
 from the  same cause  which disturbs the  skin:  the
 cold, for example, which acts injuriously upon   the
 former, produces a like mischief in  the latter.  They
 are cutaneous disorders,  and are to  be removed as far
 as the restoration of their  respective secretions are
 concerned by corresponding means.
  I theiefore class Sudorifics among the expectorants.
  Emetics are to be placed in the same class, and for a
 very good  reason.  Their action in  inverting the mo-
 tion of the stomach  is favourable to the excretion of
 flinds from the trachea and  branchiae, as well as from
 the stomach and fauces.  This may be explained from
 the action of ihe belly, the diaphragm, and intercos-
 tals, and the compression they make upon  the chest,
 and forcing out its contents.   The same solution seems
 to apply, at least as far as secretion goes, to the opera-
 tion  of nauseating doses.  Upon  the same principle
 that  they  relax the skin, they relax the pulmonary
 surfaces.
  Some expectorants are directly applied to the lungs;
 among which are,
  1.  Warm air, of a thermomelric temperature to suit
 the patient's case.
  2. Respirable air, medicated by carbonic acid to dimi-
 nish  its too stimulant quality.
  3.  Respirable air, quickened by a mixture of oxyge-
 nous gas to excite the branchiae and  rouse them from
 torpor.   The same may be done by ether.
  4. Air qualified and tempered by the vapour of water
 and infused herbs, as in Mudges inhaler.
  5. Teas  and medicated drinks, sipped slowly, and
swallowed gradually, so that a portion of their vapour
 may enter the trachea with the breath.
  6. Dry fumes, as  tliose of tobacco, stramonium,
tc, a part of which  undoubtedly  enters the trachea,
and cannot be excluded, as of cinnabar, frankincense,
&c.
  7. A  medicated atmosphere, into which the odours
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o  plants and  flowers, as of geraniums and oranges,
or of gums and drugs, such as camphor and musk, may
be set loose and mingled.
  either expectorants act  upon the mouth and fauces
by virtue of the sympathy between those parts and the
lungs;  such as,
  J Saccharine  substances,  as  honey,  syrups, dry
sugars  and their lozenges, liquorice, &c.
  2. Mucilaginous substances, as gum arabic, gum tra-
gacanth, &c.
  Others again act  through  the medium  of the sto-
mach, as any of the before-mentioned  substances when
they are swallowed, and others bringing the lungs by
consent into a relaxed and expectorating state.
  The  rules recommended in the administration of
expectorants may be reduced to two.
  1. To keep the patient  in a w arm  and  comfortable
temperature.
  2. To avoid the administration of such cathartics as
seem to act contrariwise  lo expectorants.  Can they
not however he so employed as to supersede expecto-
rants to a certain degree ?
  Excessive expectoration  will  frequently require
your interposition, as,
  1. In catarrhal affectionsof the chronic kind, where
the secreted mucus must be evacuated by  hawking or
coughing; and the quantity of slime in chronic cases
is very considerable.  The disease is  troublesome, and
sometimes ends in hemoptysis or phthisis.
  2. In phthisis puhnonalis;  in whicli the excretion
of mucus, pus, &c.  is one of the  most  distressing
symptoms,  and thus often without vomica or  ulcera-
tion.
  3. In occasional rushes or  determination of fluids
to the trachea  and bronchia, where  prodigious quan-
tities of slime are effused  and excreted, with great ex-
ertion and straining.
  The course of proceeding in each  case  will depend
upon the particular state  of the constitution, the idio-
syncrasy of the patient,  the acquired habits of living
and physicking; and the  connexion  ol" this particular
symptom, with the  other symptoms of the dominant
malady.
  The following are the principal of  the expectorants :
1. Lichen  islandicus, Iceland moss. 2.  Gtycyi rhiza
glabra, Liquorice.  3. Mimosa nilotica,  Gum arabic.
I. Ulums aspera,  Slippery elm.  5.  ilcracleuin gum-i
niosiferum, Gum ammoniac.  6. Scilla maritima, the
Squill.  7.  Allium sativum, Garlic.  8. Ferula, Assa-
faelida. 9. Aruin try phillum, March turnip.  10. Poly-
gala Senega, Seneca  snakeroot.  11. Carbonate  of
ammonia.  12. Carbonate of potash.  13.  Carbonate
of soda.  14. Colcliicum-autumnalc  or meadow saf-
fron.   15. Balsams of Tolu, Capivi,  &c.   IC. Inhala-
tions of waler, vinegar, medicated infusions.  17. Sy-
rups and saccharine compositions, as honey and vine-
gar, molasses and   vinegar, &c.—Notes from Dr.
Mitchtll's I.ect. on Mat. Med.  A ]
   EXPERIENCE.  A kind of knowledge acquired by
long use. without any teacher.  Experience consists in
the ideas of things we have 6een or read, wliich the
judgment has reflected on, to form for itself a  rule or
method.
   EXPERS.   Wanting;  destitute.   The trivial name
of some diseases; as dipsosis expers, in  which the
thirst is wanting.
   EXPIRA'TION.  (Expiratio; from expiro,  to
breathe.)   That part of respiration in which the air is
thrust out from the lungs.  See Respiration.
   Expressed oil.  Such oils as ore obtained by press-
ing the substance containing them;  as olives, wliich
give out olive oil, almonds, Sec.
   Exsucca'tio.  (From  ex, out of,  and  succus, hu-
mour.)  An ecchymosis, or extravasation of humours,
under the integuments.
   EXTENSOR. (From cxtendo, to stretch out.)  A
'trm  given to those  muscles, the  office  of which
is lo  extend any part;  tlie term  is in opposition to
flexor.
   I'.XTl-NSOR  BREVIS DIGITORUM PEDIS.    A  UlUSCle
of the toes, situated on the foot.  Extensor brevis, of
 Dou»las   Calcano phalanginicn commune, of Dumas.
It a; ii s fleshy and tendinous from the fore and upper
pari of the os calcis, and soon forms  a fleshy belly, di-
visible into four portions, wliich send off an equal
 number of tendons that pass over  the upper part ofthe
 loot, under the tendons of the extensor longus digito-
       34G
rum pedis, lo be inserted into its tendinous expansion
Its office is to extend the toes.
  Extensor carpi  radialis brevior.  An extensor
muscle of the wrist, situated on the forearm.  Radialis
externus brevior, of  Albinus.   Radialis secundus, of
Winslow.  It arises tendinous from the external con-
dyle of the humerus, and from the ligament that con-
nects the radius to it, and tuns along the outside of tbe
radius.  It is inserted by a long tendon into the upper
and back part of the metacarpal bone of the  middle
finger.  It assists in extending and bringing tlie hand
backward.
  Extensor carpi  radialis longior.  An extensor
muscle of the carpus, situated on the forearm, that acts
in conjunction  with the former.  Radialis externus
longior, of  Albinus.   Radialis externus primus, of
Winslow.  It arises thin, broad, and fleshy, from the
lower part of the external ridge of the os humeri, above
its external condyle, and is inserted by a round tendon
into the posterior and  upper part of  ihe  metacarpal
bone that sustains the forefingers.
  Extensor carpi  ulnaris.    IHnaris externus, of
Albinus and Winslow.  It arises from the outer con-
dyle of the os humeri, and then  receives an origin  from
the edge of the ulna: its tendon passes in a groove be-
hind the styloid process of the ulna, to be inserted into
the inside of the basis of the metacarpal  bone of the
little finger.
  Extensor digitorum communis.  A  muscle  situ
ated on the forearm, that extends all the joints of the
fingers.   Extensor  digitorum  communis manus, of
Douglas and Winslow.  Extensor digitorum commu-
nis, sen digitorum tensor, of Cowper, and Epichon-
dylo-suspha-langctlicn commune, of Dumas.  Cum ex-
tensore  propria auricularis, of Albinus.  It arises
from the external protuberance of the humerus:  and
at the wrist it divides into three flat tendons, which
pass under the annular ligament, to  be inserted into
all ihe bones of the fore, middle, and ring fingers.
  Extensor digitorum longus.  See Extensor Ion
gus digitorum pedis.
  Extensor indicis.  See Indicator.
  Extensor longus digitorum pedis.   A  muscle
situated  on the leg. that extends all the joints of the
four small toes.  Extensor digitorum longus.  Pero-
neo-tibisus-phalangitlien commune, of  Dumas.   It
arises from tlie upper part of the tibia and fibula, and
the interosseous ligament; its tendon  passes under the
annular  ligament, and then divides into rive,  four of
which are inserted  into the second  and third pha
langes ofthe toes, and tlie fifth goes to the basis ofthe
metatarsal  bone.  This last, VVinslow reckons a dis-
tinct muscle, and calls it Peroneus brevis.
  Extensor longus pollicis pedis.  See Extensor
proprius pollicis pedis.
  Extensor magnus.   See Gastrocnemius internus.
  Extensor major  pollicis manus. See Extensor
secundi internodii.
  Extensor minor pollicis manus. See Extensor
primi internodii.
  Extensor ossis metacarpi pollicim  manus.  An
extensor muscle of the wrist, situated on the forearm.
Abductor longus pollicis manus, of Albinus. Extensor
primi internodii, of Douglas.  Extensor primus polli-
cis, of Winslow.  .Extensor primi internodii pollicis,
of Cowper.  Cubito-radisus metacarpien du police of
Dumas.  It arises fleshy from the middle and posterior
part of the ulna, from the posterior part of the middle
of the radius, and from the interosseous ligament, and
is inserted into the os trapezium, and upper part of tlie
metacarpal bone ofthe thumb.
  Extensor pollicis trimus.  See  Extensor primi
internodii.
  Extensor pollicis  secundus.  See Extensor se
cuntli internodii.
  Extensor trimi internodii.   A  muscle of the
thumb situated on the hand, that extends the first hone
of the thumb obliquely outwaras.   .Extensor minor
pollicis manus of Albinus.  This muscle,  and tlie Ex-
tensor ossis metacarpi pollicis  manus, are called Ex-
tensor pollicis primus by Winslow; Extensor secundi
internodii by Douglas; Extensor secundi internodii os-
sis pollicis of Cowper.  Cubito-susphalangiendupouce
of Dumas.   It nriscs fleshy from the posterior part of
the ulna, and  from the interosseous ligament, and  U
inserted tendinous Into the posterior  part of the first
booe of the thumb. 
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f.xt
  ExTUN.roR propru s pollicis pedis.  An exterior
muscle of the great toe, situated on the foot.   Extensor
ioryjc of Douglas.   Extmsor pollicis longus  of
Winsiow and Cowper.   Pcroneo suspkalangien du
puure of Dumas.  Ii arises by an acute, tendinous, and
fleshy  beginning, some way below the head,  and ante-
rior part of the  fibula, along which it runs to near ils
lower  extremity, connected to it by a number of fleshy
"fores,  which descend  obliquely, and form a tendon,
whicli is inserted into the posterior part of tlie first and
last joint of the  great toe.
  Extensor secundi internodii.   A muscle of the
thumb, siiuatcdon the hand, lhat extends tlie hi.-t joint
of tin:  iliumb obliquely backwards.  Extensor vuijor
polln-js manus of Albinus.   Eilensorpollicis secundus
ot' \Viu.-!ow.   Extensor tertii internodii of Douglas.
Extensor internodii ossis pollicis uf Cowper.  Cubilo
susphalangettien du pouce of Dumas. It arises tendi-
nous and fleshy  from tlie middle part of the ulna, and
interosseous ligament;  it then foims  a tendon, wliich
runs through a small groove at the inner and back part
of the  radius, to  be inserted into the last bone ol" tile
thumb. Its use  is to extend the last phalanx of the
thumb  obliquely  backwards.
  Extcnsor secvnui internodii jsdicis proprius.
See Indicator.
  Extensor tarsi minor.  Sic Plantaris.
  Extensor  tarsi  suk.vlis.   See  (1.1.-: roc nonius
internus.
  Extensor tertii internodii  indicis.  See Prior
indicts.
  Extensor tertii internodii minimi digiti.  See
Abductor minimi digiti manus.
  Ext 1: rms mallei.   See Laxator tympani.
  EXTIPILATUS.   Without stipulte.  A botanical
term.  Applied to stems.
  EXTIRPATION.    (Extirpatio;  from extirpo, to
eradicate.)  The complete removal or destruction of
any part, either by cutting  instruments, or the action of
caustics.
  EXTRACT.  Extractum,  1. When chemists use
Jiis term, they generally mean the product of an aque-
ous decoction.
  2. In pharmacy it includes all those preparations from
vegetables which are separated by the agency of various
liquids, and afterward obtained from such solutions, in
a solid state,  by evaporation of  the  menstruum.   It
also includes those substances which arc held in solution
by the  natural juices  of flesh plants, as well as tliose
to which some menstruum is added :u ihe lime of pre-
paration.   Now, such soluble matters are various, and
mostly complicated; so that chemical accuracy is not
to be looked for  in the application of  the term.  Some
chemists, however, have affixed this name to one pecu-
liar modification  of vegetable matter, which has been
called  extractive, or  extract, or  extractive principle;
and, as this forms one constituent part of common ex-
tracts, and possessi s certain characters, it will be proper
to mention such of them as may influence its  pharma-
ceutical relations.   The extractive  principle  has a
strong taste, differing in different plants: it is soluble in
water,  and its solution speedily runs into a state of pu-
trefaction, by which it is destroyed.   Repeated evapo-
rations and solutions render it at lost insoluble, in con-
sequence of its  combination with oxygen  from the
atmosphere.  It is  soluble in alkohol, but  insoluble in
tether.   It unites with alumine,  and if  boiled wilh
neutral salts thereof, precipitates them.  It precipitates
with strong acids, and  with the oxides from  solutions
of most  metallic salts, especially muriate of tin.   It
readily unites with alkalies, and forms compounds wilh
them,  which are soluble in water.  No part, however,
of this subject has been hitherto sufficiently examined.
  In the preparation of all the extracts, the London
Pharmacopoeia requires that the water be evaporated
as speedily as possible, in a broad, shallow dish, by
means of a water-bath, until they have acquired a con-
sistence proper for making pills:  and, towards the end
ofthe inspissation, that they should be constantly stirred
with a wooden rod.  These general rules require mi-
nute and accurate attention- more narticularlv in the
fmniprfiato evaporation of tne sofufiem, wneiner pre-
pared bv expression or decoction,  in the manner as well
as the degree of  heat by which it  is performed, and the
promotion  of it  by changing the surface by constant
stirring, when the liquor begins to thicken, and even by
directing a strong current  of air over its surface, if it
can conveniently be done.  It is impossit 2 to regnlait
the temperature over a naked lire,or, if it be used, 10
prevent the extract from burning; the use of a water
bath is, therefore, absolutely necessary, and not to  lx
dispensed with, and the beauty and precision of exiraeU
so prepared, will demonstrate their superiority.
  EXTRACTION.   (Extractio;  from  extraho,  lu
draw oul)   The taking extraneous  substances out ol
tlie body.  Thus bullets and splinters are said  to  ba
extracted from wounds; stones from ihe urethra,  or
bladder.   Surgeons also sometimes apply the term
extraction to the removal of tumours out of cavities,
as, for instance, to the taking of cartilaginous tumours
out of the joints.  They seldom speak of extracting
any diseased original pari of the body; though they do
so in one example,  viz. tlie cataract.
  EXTRA CTI V E.    See Extract.
  EXTRA'CTl'M.   (From extraho, to draw out.)
An extract.  See I'.i tract.
  Extractum aconiti.  Extract of aconite.   Take
of aconite loaves,  fresh, a pound;  bruise ihem in  a
stone mortar, sprinkling on a little water; then press
out the juice, and, without any separation of the sedi-
ment, evaporate it  to a proper consistence.  The dose
is from  one grain to five grains.  For its virtues, see
Aconitum.
  Extractum aloes  purificatum.  Purified extract
of aloes.  Take of extract of spike aloe, powdered,
half a pound;  boiling water, four pints.  Macerate for
three days in a gentle heat, then strain the solution, and
set it by, lhat the dregs may subside.  Pour off tlie clear
solution, and evaporate it to a proper consistence.  The
dose, from five to fifteen grains.  See Alois.
  Extractum antiie.midis.  Extract of  chamomile,
formerly called extractum chamaemeli.  Take of cha
momiie flowers, dried, a pound;  water, a gallon; boil
down to four pints, and strain the solution while it is
hot,  then evaporate it to a  proper consistence.  The
dose is ten grains  to a scruple.   For its  virtues, sec
Anthemis nobilis.
  Extractum belladonn.e.  Extract of belladonna.
Take of deadly night-shade leaves, fresh, a pound.
Bruise them in  a stone mortar, sprinkling on a little
water; then press out the juice, and without any pre-
vious separation of the sediment, evaporate it to  a
proper consistence.   The dose is from one to five grains.
For its virtues, see  Atropa belladonna.
  Extractum cinchone.   Extract of bark.  Take of
lance-leaved cinchona bark,  bruised, a pound; water
a gallon; boil down to six pints, and  strain the liquor,
while hot.  In the same manner, with an equal quan-
tity of water, four limes boil down, and strain. Lastly,
consume all the liquors, mixed together,  to  a propei
consistence.   This extract should  be kept  soft,  for
making pills, and hard to be reduced  to powder.
  Extractum cincuon* resinosum.  Resinous ex-
tract of bark.   Take of lance-leaved cinchona  bark,
bruised, a pound; rectified spirit, four pints; macerate
for four days and strain.  Distil the tincture in the heat
of a  water-bath, until the extract has acquired a proper
consistence. This is considered by many as much more
greteful to the stomach, and, at the same time, pro-
ducing all the  effects of bark in substance, and by the
distillation of  it, it  is intended that the spirit which
passes over shall be collected and preserved.  The dose
is from ten grains to half a drachm.  See Cinchona.
  Extractum colocynthidis.  Extract of colocynth.
Take of colocynth pulp, a  pound;  water, a gallon;
boil down to four pints, and strain the solution while it
Is hot, and evaporate it to a proper consistence.  The
dose is from five to thirty grains.  For its virtues, see
Cucumis colocynthis.
  Extractum colocynthidis compositum.    Com-
pound extract of colocynth.   Take of colocynth pulp,
sliced, six drachms; extract  of spike aloe, powdered,
an ounce and  half; scammony gum-resin, powdered,
half an ounce; cardamom seeds, powdered, a drachm;
proof spirit, a pint.   Macerate the colocynth pidp in the
spirit, for four days, in a gentle heat: strain the solu-
tion, and add it to the aloes and scammony;  then, by
means of a water-bath, evarjorate it to a  orooer con-
sistence, constantly stirring, anff about the  end of the
inspissation, mix in the eurdamom-seeds. The dose
from five to thirty grains.
  Extractum conii.   Extract of hemlock,  formerly
called succus cicutae spissatus.  Take of fresh  hem-
lock, a pound.  Bruise it in a stone mortar, sprinkling
                                    .147 
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 on a little water; then press out the juice, and, with-
 out any separation to ihe sediment, evaporate it to a
 proper consistence.   The dose, from five grains to a
 scruple.
   Extractum elaterii.  Extract of elaterium.  Cut
 the ripe, wild cucumbers into slices, and pass the juice,
 very gently expressed, through a  very fine hair sieve,
 Into a glass vessel;  then sot it by for some hours, until
 the thicker part has subsided.  Pour off, and throw away
 the thinner part, which swims at the top.   Dry the
 thicker part which remains-in a gentle heat.  The dose,
 from half a grain to three grains.  For its virtues, see
 Momordica elaterium.
   Extractum okntian.«.  Extract of gentian.  Take
 of gentian root, sliced, a pound; boiling water, a gallon;
 macerate for twenty-four hours, then boil down to four
 pints; strain the hot liquor, and evaporate it to a proper
 consistence.  Dose, from ten to  thirty grains.   See
 Gentiana.
  Extractum olycyrrhtz.e.   Extract of liquorice.
 Take of liquorice root, sliced, a pound; boiling water,
 a gallon; macerate for twenty-four Irouis,  then  boil
 down to lour pints; strain the hot liquor, and evaporate
 it to a proper consistence.  Dose,  from  one drachm to
 half an  ounce.  See Glycyrrhiza.
  Extractum HiE.matoxyli.  Extract  of  logwood,
 formerly called extractum ligni campochensis.  Take
 of logwood,  powdered, a pound;  boiling  water,  a
 gallon;  macerate for twenty-four hours;  then boil
 down to four pints; strain the hot liquor, and evaporate
 it to a proper consistence.  Dose, from ten grains to half
 a drachm.   For  its virtues, see  Hamatoxylon cam-
 pechianum.
  Extractum humuli.  Extract of hops.  Take of
 hops, four ounces; boiling water, a gallon; boil down
 lo four pints; strain the hot liquor, and evaporate it to
 a proper consistence.  This extract is said to  produce
 a ionic and sedative power combined; the dose is from
 five grains to one scruple.  See Hamulus lupulus.
  Extractum  hyoscyami.    Extract  of henbane.
 Take of fresh henbane leaves, a pound ; bruise them
 in a stone  mortar, sprinkling on a little water; then
 press out the juice, and, without separating the faecu-
 lencies,  evaporate it to a proper consistence.  Dose,
 from five to thirty grains.  For ils virtues, see Hyos-
 cyamus.
  Extractum jalap.e.  Extract of jalap.  Take of
jalap-root powdered, a pound; rectified spirit, four
 pints; water, ten pints; macerate the jalap-root in the
 spirits for four days, and pour off the tincture; boil
 the remaining powder in the w ater, until it be reduced
 to two  pints; then  strain the tincture and decoction
 separately, and let the former be distilled and the latter
 evaporated, until each begins to grow thick.   Lastly,
 mix the extract with the resin, and reduce it to a pro-
 per consistence.   Let  this extract be  kept in a soft
 state, fit for forming pills, and in a hard one, so that it
 it  may be reduced  to  powder.  The dose, from  ten
 to twenty grains.   For its virtues, see  Convolvulus
 jalap a.
  Extractum  opii.   Extract of opium,  formerly
 called extraclum thebaicum.  Opium colatum.  Take
 of opium, sliced,  half a  pound;  water,  tliree pints;
 pour a small quantity of the water upon the opium,
 and macerate it for twelve hours, thal.it may become
 soft; then, adding the remaining water gradually, rub
 them together until  the mixture be complete.  Set it
 by, that the fieculencies may subside; then strain the
 liquor, andevaporate it to a proper consistence.  Dose,
 from half agiain to five grains.
  Extractum papaveris.   Extract of white poppy.
 Take of white ponpy capsules bruised, and freed from
 the seeds, a pound; boiling waler a gallon.  Macerate
 for twenty-four hours,  then boil down  to four pints;
 strain the hot liquor, and evaporate it to a proper con-
 sistence.  Six grains nre about equivalent to one of
 opium.  For its virtues, see Papaver album.
  Extractum rhei.  Extract of rhubarb.  Take of
 rhubarb root, powdered, a pourd; proof spirit,a pint;
 water, seven pints.  Maceralefor  four days in a gentle
 heat; then strain and set it by, that the faeculencies may
subside.  Pour off the clear liquor, and evaporate to a
proper consistence.  This extract  possesses the purga-
tive properties of the root, and the fibrous and earthy
parts are separated;  it is then-tore, a useful basis for
pills, as  well as given separately.  Dose, from ten to
thirty grains.  See Rheum.
     348
   Extractum sarsaparillje.   Extract of sarsapa
 rilla.  Take of sarsaparilla root, sliced, a pound; boil
 ing water, a gallon; macerate for twenly-four hours,
 then boil down to four pints; strain the  hot liquor,
 and evaporate it to a proper consistence.  In  practice
 this is much used, to render the common decoction of
 the same root stronger and more efficacious.   Dose,
 from ten grains lo a drachm.  For its virtues, see Smi-
 lax sarsaparilla.
   Extractum saturni.  See Plumbi acetatis liquor
   Extractum taraxaci.   Take of dandelion root,
 fresh and bruised, a pound; boiling  water, a gallon;
 macerate for twenty-four hours; boil  down to foui
 pints, and strain the hot liquor; then  evaporate it to  a
 proper consistence. Dose, from ten grains to a drachm.
 For its virtues, see Leontodon taraxacum.
   [The Pharmacopoeia of  the United  States admits
 the following extracts.
         Extractum aconiti.
                   belladonnae.
                  conii.
                   hyoscyami.
                  stramonii.
                  anthemidis.
                  gentianne.
                  haematoxyli.
                  hellebori nigri.
                  jnglandis.
                  quassiae.
                  cinchonae.
                  colocynthidis compositum.
                  jalapae.
                  podophylli.
                  sambuci.  A.]
   EXTRAFOLIACLL S.   Applied to stipulae, whicn
 are below the  footstalk, and external with respect U
 the leaf; as in Astragalus onobrichis.
   EXTRAVASATION.  (Extravasatio; tromextra,
 without, and vas, a vessel.)  A term applied by sur-
 geons to fluids, which are out  of their proper vessels,
 or receptacles.  Thus, when blood is effused on  the
 surface, or in the ventricles of  the brain, it is said that
 there is an extravasation.   When blood is poured from
 the  vessels  into  the  cavity of  the  peritonaeum, in
 wounds of the abdomen, surgeons call this accident
 extravasation.  The urine  is also said to be extrava
 sated, when, in consequence of a wound, or of slough
 ing, or ulceration, it  makes its way  into the cellular
 substance or among ihe  abdominal  viscera.   When
 the bile spreads among the convolutions of the bowels,
 in wounds of the gall bladder,  it is also a species of
 extravasation.
   EXTREMITIES.  This term is applied to thelimbs,
 as distinguishing them from the otlier divisions of the
 animal, the head and trunk.  The extremities are four
 in number, divided in  man  into upper and lower; in
 otlier animals into anterior and  posterior.   Each ex-
 tremity is divided inlo four parts; the upper into the
 shoulder,  the  arm, the forearm and the  hand-  the
 lower into the hip, the thigh, the leg, and tlie Coot.
   EYE.   Oculus.  The parts which  constitute  the
 eye are divided into external and internal.  The exier.
 nal parts are:
  1.  The eyebrows, or supercilia, which form arches
of hair above the orbit, at the  lower  part of the fore-
head.  Their use is to  prevent the sweat falling into
the eyes, and for moderating the light above.
  2.  The eyelashes, or cilia, are the  short  hairs that
grow on the margin ofthe eyelids; they  keep  ex-
 ternal bodies out of the eyes and moderate the influx
of light.
  3.  The eyelids, or palpebra,  of which, one is supe-
rior or upper, and the other interior, or under;  where
they join outwardly, it is called the external canthus;
inwardly, towards the nose, the internal canthus • they
cover nnd defend the eves.
  The margin of the "eyelids, wliich  is  cartilaginous,
is called tarsus.
  In the tarsus, and internal  surface of the eyelid-*,
small glands arc situated, called glandula -V< ibomiana,
because Meibomius discovered them ; they secrete aa
oily  or mucilaginous  fluid,  which prevents the  at
trition of the  eyes and eyelids, and  facilitates their
motions.
  4.  The lachrymal glands, or  glandula lachrymalet
which are placed near the- external canthus, or comet
of the eyes, in a little depression of the us front is. 
FAB                                            FAB
   From these glands  six or more canals issue, which
 ■re  called  lachrymal ducts, or  ductus lochrymales,
 and they open on the internal  surface of the" upper
 eyelid.
   .">  The lachrymal caruncle, or car«7iciria lachryma-
 lis, wliich is situated in the internal angle, or caulinis
 ol the c.velids.
   6. Puncta lachrymalia, are two callous orifices or
 openings, which  appear  at the internal angle of the
 tarsus ofthe eyelids;  the one iu the superior, the other
 in the inferior eyelid.
   T. The cunali s lachrymales, or lachrymal ducts, are
 two small canals, which proceed from the lachrymal
 points into the lachrymal sac.
   tel The saccits  lachrymalis, or  lachrymal sac, is a
 membraneous sac, which is situated iu the internal can-
 thus of Ihe eye.
   'J. The ductus nasalis, or nasal duct, is  a membra-
 neous canal, which goes from  the inferior part of the
 lachrymal sue through the bony canal  below, and a
 little behind,  into the cavity of the nose, and opens
 under the inferior spongy bone into ihe nostril.
   10. The membrana conjunctiva, or conjunctive mem-
 brane, which, from ils w lute colour is called also albu-
 ginea, or white of the eye, is a membrane which lines
 the internal superficies of the  eyelids, and covers the
 whole forepart of the globe of the eye: it is very vas-
 cular, as may be seen iu inflammations.
   The bulb, or globe of tlie eye, is composed of eight
 membranes, or coverings, two  chambers,  or camera,
 and tliree humours, improperly so called.
   The  membranes of tlie globe ol" the  eye, are, four
 in the hinder or  posterior  part of the bulb, or globe,
 viz.  sclerotica, choroidea,  retina,  and hyaloidea,  or
 arachnoidca ; four iu ihe fore or anterior part of tlie
 bulb, viz. cornea transparens, iris, uvea, and capsule
 of the crystalline lens.
   The membrana sclerotica, or the sclerotic or horny
 membrane, is the  outermost.  It begins from the optic
 nerve, fonns tlie spherical or globular cavity, and ter-
 minates in  the circular  margin  of the  transparent
 cornea.
   The membrana  choroidca,or choroides, is the middle
 tonic of the bulb, of a black colour, beginning  from
 the optic nerve, and covering the internal superficies
 of the sclerotica, lo the margin of the transparent cor-
 nea.  In this  place it secedes from the cornea,  and
 deflects transversely and inwardly, and in the middle
 forms a round foramen.  This circular continuation of
 the choroidea in the anterior surface is called iris,  in
 the posterior superficies, uvea.
   The round rpening  in the centre ie called the pupil,
 or papilla.  This  foramen, or round opening, can be
dilated, or contracted by the moving powers of almost
 invisible muscular fibres.
  The membrana  retina,  is the  innermost tunic of a
white colour, and similar lo mucus, being an expansion
of the optic nerve, chiefly composed of its  medullary
part.  It covers the inward surface of the  choroides,
 to the margin of the crystalline lens, aid there termi-
 nates.
   The chambers, or camera of the eyes are:
   1. Comcro anterior, or foip-chaniber: an open space,
 which is formed anteriorly, by the hollow surface of
 the cornea transparens, and posteriorly, by the surface
 of the iris.
   •2. Camera posterior, that small epace  which  is
 bounded anteriorly by  the tunica uvea, and pupilla,
 or pupil; posteriorly by the anterior  surface of the
 crystalline Iciik.
   Both these chambers are filled with an aqueous hu-
 mour.  The  humours of the eye, as they are called,
 are in number three:
   1. The aqueous humour, which fills both chambers.
   2. The  crystalline lens, or humour, is  a pellu
 cid  body,  about the size  of  a  lentil, which is  in-
 cluded in an exceedingly fine membrane, or  capsula,
 and lodged iu u concave  depression  of the vitreous
 humour.
   3. The vitreous  humour, is  a pellucid, beautifully
 transparent substance, which fills the whole bulb of
 Ihe eye behind the crystalline lens.  Its external  sur-
 face is surrounded with a most pellucid membrane,
 which is called membrana hyaloidea, or aracjinoidca.
 In ihe anterior part is a fovea, or bed, for the crystal-
 line lens.
   The connexion of the bulb  is made anteriorly, by
 means of the conjunctive membrane, w ith the inner
 surface of the eyelids, or palpebra; posteriorly, by the
 adhesion of six muscles ofthe bulb and the optic nerve
 wilh the orbit.
  The optic nerve, or nervus  opticus,  perforates the
 sclerotica and choroides, and Ihen constitutes the re-
 tina, by spreading itself on the whole posterior part of
 the internal globe of the eye.
   The muscles by which the eye is moved in the orbit,
 are six;  much tat  surrounds them, and fills up the
 cavities iu  which the eyes are seated.   The arteries
 are the internal orbital,  the central, and the ciliary ar-
 teries. The veins  empty themselves into the external
jugulars.   The nerves  are the optic,  and branches
 from the third, fourth, fifth, and six pair.
  The use  ol" the eye is lo form the organ of vision
 See Vision.
  Externally, the globe of the eye  and the transparent.
 cornea are moistened with a most limpid fluid, called
 lachryma, or tears; the same pellucid subtile fluid ex-
 actly fills all ihe pores of the transparent cornea ; for,
deprived of this fluid, and being  exposed  to the air,
that coat of  the eye becomes dry, shrivelled,  and
cloudy, impeding the rays of light.
  EYE-BRIGHT.   See Euphrasia.
  EVE-BROW. Superciltum.  Sec Eye.
  EYE-LID.   Palpebra.  See Eye.
  Eye-tooth.  The  fangs of the two upper cuspidatl
are very much larger than those on each side, and ex
tend up near lo the  orbil, on which account they have
have been called eye-teeth.  See Teeth.
F
"""LI   or ft.   In a prescription these letters are abbre-
■*■ • viations of/ar, orfiant,let it,or them, be made;
thus /. bolus, let the substance or substances prescribed
be made into a bolus.
  FABA.   A bean.  See Bean.
  Faba crassa.  See Sedum telcphium.
  Faba .tovi-TiACA.  See Nymphaa nelumbo.
  Faba febrifuga.  See Ignatia amara.
  Faba indica. See Ignatia amara.
  Faba major.  The garden-bean.  See Bean.
  Faba minor.  The horse-bean.  It differs no other-
wise from the garden-bean than in being less.
  Faba peiiiurim.  Faba pichurim;  Faba pechuris.
Brazilian bean.  An  oblong oval,  brown,  and pon-
derous seed, supposed to  be the produce of a Laurus,
brought from the Brazils.  Their smell is like that of
musk, between it and the scent of sassafras.  They are
exhibited as carminatives in flatulent colics, diarrhoeas,
and dysenteries.
  Faba purgatrix.  See Ricinvs.
  Faba sancti ignatii.  See Ignatia amara.
  Faba scilla.  See Hyoscyamus.
  Faba'ria. (From faba, a bean, which it resembles.)
See Sedum telcphium.
  FABRICICS, HieronyMUS, born  at Aquapendcnte
in Italy, 1537.  He studied  at  Padua under Fallopius,
Whom he succeeded as  professor of anatomy and sur-
gery there; which office he held  fcr nearly half a cen-
tury with great credit, and died at the advanced age of
eighty-two,  universally regretted.   The republic  of
Venice also conferred  many honours upon him.  He
is thought to have been the first to notice the valves of
the veins, which  he demonstrated in 1574.  But his
surgical worKs obtained him most reputation ; indeed
he has been called the  father of modern surgery.   His
first publication in 1592 contained five Dissertations on
Tumours, Wounds, Ulcers, Fractures,  and Disloca
lions.  He afterward added another part, treating of
                                        341) 
TAG                                           FAL
ill tin; dise?scc which are curable by manual opera-
tion.   I his work passed through seventeen editions in
■ilierenl languages-
  FARHICi t S, James, wns born at Rostock, in 1577.
After travelling through different parts of Europe, he
graduated at Jenn, and soon gained extensive practice.
He was professor of medicine and the mathematics at
Rostock during forty years, and first physician to the
Duke ot Mecklenbuigh ;  afterward went lo Copen-
hagen, and was made physician to the kings  of Nor-
way and Denmark, and died  there, in luoii.  Ihe  has
left several tificts on medical subjects.
  FABRlCll'S, Philip Conrad, professor of medi-
cine at llc-liiittadt, was author of several useful works
in anatomy and surgery.  His first  treatise, "Idea
Anatuines Practica-," 1741, contained some new di-
rections in the Art of" injection, and described several
branches of the Portio Dura, Sec.  Iu another work he
has some good observations on the Abuse  of Trepan-
ning.
  FABRlCll'S, William, betrcer known by the name
of Hildanus, from Hilelen, in  Switzerland, where  he
was born iu 15150. lie repaired to Lausanne, to complete
his knowledge of surge iv, at the age of twenty-six ; and
distinguished himself ine-ie by his assiduity, anel  the
successtul treatment of  many  difficult cases.   He stu-
died  medicine  also, and went  to practise both arts at
Payenne, in 1G05; but ten years alter was invited to
Berne by the senate, who gianted him a pension.   In
ihe latter part  of his lile, severe illness prevented  his
professional exertions, which had procured him general
esteem and high reputation.  His death occurred in
1(534.   Hi.-works were written in German, but have
been mostly translated into Latin.  He published five
"Centuries of Observations," which  present many
curious facts, as also several instruments invented by
him.
  FACE.  Fades.   The  lower and anterior  part of
the cranium, or skull.
  FA'CIAL.   Facialis.   Belonging to the  face; as
facial neive, &c.
  Facial nerve.   Nervus facialis.  Portio dura of
the auditory nerve.  These nerves ore iwo in number,
and are properly the eighth pair: but are commonly
called ihe seventh, being  reckoned with the auditory,
which is the porlio mollis of" the seventh peir. They
arise  from the fourth  ventricle  of the  brain,  pass
through the petrous portion ofthe temporal bone to the
face, where  they form the pes unserinus,  whicli  sup-
plies the integuments ofthe lace and forehead.
  FA'CIUS.  The face.   See  Face.
  Facies hippocratica.   That particular disposition
ofthe features which immediately precedes the stroke
of death is so called, because il has been so admirably
described by Hippocrates.
  Factes rubra.   See  Gutta rosacea.
  FACTITIOUS. A term applied to any thing which
is made by art, in opposition to thut which is native,
or found already made in nature.
  FACULTY.  Facultas. The power or ability by
which any action is performed.
  F/e'cks.   (The plural  of fax.)  The nlvinc excre-
tions.
  FA-VCULA.  (Diminutive of /Vei.) A substance ob-
tained by bruising or grinding certain vegetables  in
water.  It is that  part wliich,  after n little, fulls to the
bottom.  The  faecula of plants differs principally from
gum or mucus in being  insoluble  in cold water, in
whicli it falls with wonderful quickness.  There  are
few plants which do not contain faecula ; bul the seeds
of gramineous and leguminous vegetables, and all tu-
berose roots contain il most plentifully.
  Fri'.X.  (Feci, «ci's,  f. an excretion.)  The alvine
excretions are called faces.
  FAGARA.  (From fagus, the breech, which it re-
FombleiO   The nume of a genus of plants tn the Lin-
njean system.  Class, Telrandria; Order, Monogynia.
  I'aoara major.   See Fagara plerota.
  Faoara oitandra.  The systematic name of the
plant which affords Tacamahaca, which is a resinous
Biibslance thai exudes bolh spontaneously, and when
incisions arc made into Ihe stem of  this tree:  Fagara
foliolis tomenlosis, of Linnaeus, nnd not, as was for-
merly supposed, from the Populus balsamifera.  Two
kind* of a inrninahacn are met with in the shops.  The
best, called, from lis being collected in a klndol gourd-
shell, tnenmahaca in shells, is somewhat unctuous and
      .150
soft, of a pale yellowish or greenish colour, 9 bltterisfc
nromalic taste, and a flagrant delightful smell, ap-
proaching to thai of lavender  and ambergris.  The
more common sort is in semi-transparent grains, of a
whitish, yellowish, brownish, or greenish colour, and
of a less grateful smell than the former. Tacamahaca
was formerly in  high estimation as nn ingredient in
warm stimulating plasters;  and although seldom used
internally, it may be given with advantage as a corro-
borant and astringent balsamic.
  Fagara  plerota.   Fagara  major; Castana  Lu-
zonis; Cubebis.   This plant  is found in t.ie Philip-
pine islands.  The berries are aromatic, and, accord-
ing to Avicenna, heating, drying, good  for cold, weak
stomachs, and astringent lo the bowels.
  FAGOPYRUM.   (From Qayos,  the  beech,  and
jrupo?, wheat; because its seeds were supposed to re-
semble the mast, i. e. fruit of beech.) See Polygonum
fagopyrum.
  Fagotri'ticum.  See Polygonum fagopyrum.
  FAGUS.  (From tbayu, to eat; its nut bteing one of
the first fruits used by man.)
  1. Thtejiame of a genus of plants in the  Linnaean
system. ""Class, Monacia ; Order, Polyandria.
 " 2. The pharmacopceial  name of the beeeb   See
Fagus sylvatica.
  Faous castanea.  The  systematic  name of the
chesnut-tree.   Castanea;  Lopima;  Mota; Glans
Jovis Theophrasti.  Jupiter's morn; Sardinian acorn;
the common chesnut.  The fruit of this plant, Fagus
—fvlns lanceolatis,  acuminato-serratis, subtus nudis,
of Linnieus, are much esteemed as an Hrticle of luxury
after dinner.  Toasting renders them more easy of di-
gestion ; but, notwithstanding, they must be considered
as improper for weak stomachs.  They are moderately
nourishing, ns containing sugar, and much farinaceous
substance.
  Fagus sylvatica. The systematic name of the
beech-tree.    Fagus;  Oxya ; Balanda ;  Valanida.
The fruil and interior bark of  Ihis tree, Fagus—foliis
ovatis, obsolete serratis, of Linna-us, are occasionally
used medicinally, the former in obstinate hendache, and
the latter in the  cure of hectic fever.  The oil ex-
pressed from beech-nuts is supposed to destroy worms;
a child may take two drachms of it night and  morn-
ing ; an adult an ounce.  The poor people  of Silesia
use Ihis oil instead of butler.
  FAHLUMITE.   A sub-species of octohedral corun-
dum.
  FAINTING.   See Syncope.
  FA1RBURN.  The name of a village in the county
of Ross, in  the north of Britain, where there is n sul-
phureous spring.
  FA'Ll IFORM.  (Falciformis ; from fall, a scythe,
and forma,  resemblance.)  Resembling a scythe.
  Falciform process.  The  falx.   A process of the
dura mater, that arises from the crista gnlli, separates
the hemispheres of the brain, and terminates in the
tentorium.
  Falde'lla.  Lint, used as a compress.
  Falling-sickness.   See Epilepsia.
  Fallopian tube.   See Tuia Fallopiana.
  Fallopian ligament.  See Poupart's ligament.
  FALLOPIUS, Gabriel,  a physician of  Modena,
was born about the year 1523.   He showed early
great eeal in anatomy, botany, chemistry, and otlier
branches of  knowledge; nnd  afier  studying in Italy,
travelled lo other countries for his  improvement.  In
1548, he was uppointed professor of anatomy at Pisa,
and three years after at Pndua;  where he tflso taught
botnny, but with  less celebrity.  His death happened
in  15(53  He distinguished himself, not  only  as an
anatomist, but also in medicine and surgery.   Douglas
has characterized him as highly systematic iu teach-
ing, successful in  treating diseases, and expeditious in
operating.  Some of the discoveries, to which he laid
claim,  appear to  have been  anticipated; as, for in-
stance, the  tubes  proceeding from the uterus, though
generally called after htm Fallopian.   However,  he
has the merit of recovering many of the observations
of the  ancients, which had fallen into oblivion.  Hit
" Observationes Anntomicie," published in  1561, wag
one  ofthe  best works ofthe 16th  century; in  this
some of the  errors, which had escaned  his master,
Vesnlius, are modestly pointed out.  Many other pub-
lications, ascribed to him, were printed alter his death;
some of which arc evidently spurious. 
FAT
FAT
  FALX.  ?ce Falciform process.
  FA MLS.  Hunger.
  Fames canina.  See Bulimia.
  Famioeratissimum emplastrum.   (From  fami-
geratus, renowned;  from fama, fame, and gem, to
bear: so named from its excellence.)  A plaster used
in intermittent fever, made of aromatic, irritating sub-
stances, and applied lo the wrists.
  FAMILY.  Fuinilia.  A term used by naturalists to
express a certain order of" natural productions,  agree-
:ng in line principal  characters, and  containing  iiunne-
rous individuals  not  only distinct  from one another,
but in whole sets, several  members being  to be col-
lected out of the same family, all of which have the
family character,  and all some subordinate distinction
peculiar  to  that  whole number, or, though found in
every individual of it, not found in tliose of any others.
  Il has been too common to confound the words, class,
family, order, Sec. iu natural history; hut the determi-
nate meaning  of the  word  family seems to be that
larger order of creatures under whicli classes and or-
ders are subordinate distinctions.
  FA'RFARA.  (From farfartis, the white poplar:
so called be-cause its leaves resemble those of the white
poplar.)  Sec- Tussilago farfara.
  FARI'.NA.  (From far, corn, of which  it is made.)
Meal, or  flour.  A term given to tlie pulverulent and
glutinous part of wheal, and other seeds, wliich is ob-
tained by grinding and sifting. It is highly nutritious,
and consists of  gluten, starch, and mucilage.    See
Triticvm.
  FAKI.N'A'CEA.   (From farina, flour.)  This term
includes all tho^e  substances, employed  as aliment,
called crrcalia, Icgununa, and nitres oleosa.
  FARINA CEOUS. (Fartnaceus ; from farina,
flour.)  A term given to all articles of food which con-
tain farina.  See  Farina.
  Farina'rium.   Sec Alica.
  Fa'rreus.  (From far, corn.)   Scurfy.  An epithet
of urine, where it de-posiies a branny sediment.
  FA'SC'IA.  (From  fascis, a bundle; because, by
means of a band, materials are collected into a bun-
dle.)  1.  A bandage, fillet, or roller. -
  2. The  tendinous  expansions  of muscles, which
bind parts together, are termed fascia,  zee Aponeu-
rosis.
  Fascia lata.   A thick and strong tendinous expan-
sion, sent off from  the back, and from Ihe tendons of
the glutei  and adjacent muscles, to surround the mus-
cles of the thigh.  Il is the thickest on the outside of
the thigh and leg, but  towards the inside of both he-
comes gradually thinner. A little below the trochanter
major, it  is firmly fixed  to the linea aspc-ru; and, fur-
ther down, to that part of the  head of the tibia that is
next ihe fibula, where  it  sends off the tendinous ex-
pansion along the outside  of the  leg.  It serves to
strengthen the  action of the muscles, by keeping them
firm in their proper places when in action, particularly
the tendons that pass over the joints where this  mem-
brane is thickest.                    <
  FASCIA LIS.  (From/asci'a, a fillet.)  See Tensor
vagina femoris.
  Fascia'tio.  (From fascia, a fillet.)  The binding
up nnv diseased or wounded part with bandages.
  FASCICULARIS.   (From fascis, a  bundle.) Ap-
plied to rout.- which arc sessile at their  base, and con-
sistof bundles of finger-like processes ;  as  the root of
the Ophns nidus avis.
  FASCICULATUS.   Facciculate.  Bundled or clus-
tered.  A pitted to nerves, slem? of plants, leaves,  Sec.
z-ee I.enf  and Caulis.
  FASt'l'CTLUS.   (From fascis, a bundle.  1. In
pharmacy, a handful.
  2. In botany, a fascicule is  applied to flowers on lit-
tle stalks,  variously inserted and subdivided, collected
into a close bundle, level at the top; as in Sweet-wil-
■iam.   ltilitlers from,
  1. A corymb, in thre  little stalks coming only from
about the  apex of the peduncle, and not from its  whole
length.
  2. An  umbel, from  the  stalks not coming from a
common point.
  3. A cyme, in not having its  principal division um-

  FAT.  Adeps.  A concrete oily  matter contained
in the cellular  membrane of animals, of  a white, or
yellowish  colour, with little or no smell, or taste.  It
differs In different anhnnN in solidity, colour, taatc, Ste.
and likewise in the same animal nt different ages.  In
infancy it is white, insipid, und not very solid;  in the
adult it Is firm and yellowish, and in animals of an ad-
vanced  age, its colour is deeper, its consistence various,
nnd its taste in general stronger.
  The fat appears to be useful in the animal economy
principally by its physical properties; It forms a sort of
elastic cushion in the orbit upon which the eye moves
with facility ;  in the soles of the feet, and in  the hips,
it forms a sort of layer, whicli renders the pressure ex-
erted by the body upon the skin and other soft parts lesj
severe ; its presence beneath the skin concurs in round-
ing the  outlines, in diminishing the bony and muscu-
lar projections, and in beautifying the form ; and as all
fat bodies ore bad conductors of caloric, it contributes
to ihe preservation of that of the body.   Full persons
in general suffer little in winter by the cold.
  Age,  and the various modes of life, have much  in
fluence upon  the  developenient  of this fluid:  very
young children are generally fnt.   Fat is rarely abun-
dant in  the young man ; but Ihe quantity of it increases
much towards the nge of  thirty years, particularly if
the  nourishment is succulent, and the life sedentary;
the abdomen projects, the hips increase in size, as well
as the breasts in women.  The fat becomes more yel-
low in proportion as the nge is more advanced.  Fal
meat is nourishing lo tkose that have strong digestive
powers   It is used externally, us a softening remedy,
and enters into the composition of ointments and plas-
ters.
  "Concerning the nature of this important produc*
of nuimalizatlon,  nothing  definite was  known,  till
Chevreuil devoted himself with meritorious  zeal and
perseverance- to ils investigation.  He has  already pub-
lished iu the Annates de Chimie, seven successive me-
moirs on the subject, each of them surpassing its pre-
decessor in  interest.  We shall  in this article give a
brief abstract of the whole.
  By dissolving fal in a large quantity of alkohol, and
observing ihe  manner in wliich its different  portions
were acted upon by this substance, and again separated
from it, it is concluded lhat the fat is composed of an
oily substance, which remains fluid at  the ordinary
temperature of the atmosphere ;  and of another fatty
substance which is  much  less fusible.   Hence it fol-
lows, that fat is not lo be regarded as a simple principle,
bul  as  a combination of  the above two  principles,
which  may be separated without alteration.  One of
these substances melts at about 45°. the otlier at 100°
the same quantity of alkohol which dissolves 3.2 parts
of the oi7y substance, dissolves 1.8 only  of the fatly
substance: the first is separated from the alkohol in
the fonn of an oil; the second in that of small silky
needles.
  Each of the constituents of natural fat was then sa-
ponified by the addition of potassa ;  and  an accurate
description given of the compounds which were  form-
ed, and  of the proportions of their constituents.  The
oily substance became saponified more readily than the
fatty substance; the residual fluids in both cases con-
tained the sweet oily principle: but  the quantity that
proceeded from the soap formed of the oily substance,
was four or five times as much as that from the fatty
substance.   Tlie latter soap was found  lo contain a
much greater proportion of the pearly matter than the
former,  in Ihe proportion ot' 7.5 to 2.9; Ihe proportion
of the fluid fat was the reverse, n greater quantity of
this being found  in the soap formed from Ihe oily sub-
stance of the fat.
  When the principles which constitute fat unite with
potassa, it is probable that they experience a change in
the proportion of their elements.  This change deve-
lopes at least  three bodies, margarine, fluid fat, and
the sweet principle; and it is remarkable,  that il takes
place without the absorption of any foreign substance,
or  the  disengagement of any of  the elements which
are  separated  from  each other.   As this  change ia
effected by  the  intermedium of the alkali, we  may
conclude that the newlv formed principles must have
a strong affinity for salifiable bases, and will  in  many
respects resemble the acids; and, in fact, they exhibit
the leading characters of acids, in reddening litmus, in
decomposing the alkaline carbonates to unite to their
bases, and in neutralizing the specific properties ofthe
alkalies.
  Having already pointed out the analogy between th# 
FAT
FAT
 properties of acids and the principles into which fat is
 converted by niean3 of the  alkalies, tho next object
 was to examine the action  which other liases have
 upon fat, and to observe the effect of water, and of the
 cohesive force of the bases upon the process of saponi-
 fication. The subsetances which the author subjected to
 experiment, were  soda, the four alkaline  earths, alu-
 mina, and the oxides of zinc, copper, and lead.  After
 giving  a  detail  of the processes which he employed
 with these  substances respectively, he draws the fol-
 lowing general conclusions:—Soda, barytes,strontian,
 lime, the oxide of zinc, and the protoxide of lead, con-
 vert fat into margarine, fluid fat, the sweet principle,
 the yellow colouring principle, and the odorous princi-
 ple, precisely in  the same manner as potassa. What-
 ever be the base that has been employed, the products
 of saponification always exist in the same relative pro-
 portion.  As the above  mentioned bases form with
 margarine and  the fluid fat compounds which are  in-
 soluble in water, il  follows, that  the action of this li-
 quid, as a solvent of soap,  is  not essential to the pro-
 cess of saponification.  It is remarkable  that the ox-
 ides of zinc and of lead, which are insoluble in water,
 and which  produce compounds  equally insoluble,
 should give the same results with potassa and soda,—
 a circumstance which proves  that those oxides have a
 strong alkaline power.   Although the analogy of mag-
 nesia to the alkalies is, in other respects, so striking,
 yet we find that it cannot convert fat into soap under
 the same circumstances with the oxides of zinc and
 lead.
   It was  found  that 100 parts  of hog's-lard were re-
 duced  to the completely saponified state by 10.36 parts
 of potassa.
   The properties of spermaceti were next examined :
 It melts at about 112°; it is not much altered by distil-
 lation; it dissolves readily in hot alkohol, but sepaiates
 as the fluid cools ;  the solution  has no effect in chang-
 ing the colour of the tincture-of litmus, a circumstance,
 as it is observed, in which  it  differs from  margarine,
 a substance which, in  many  respects, it resembles.—
 Spermaceti  is capable of" being saponified by potassa,
 with nearly the  same phenomena as when we submit
 hogs-lard to the action of potassa, although the opera-
 tion is effected with  more difficulty
   The author's general conclusion respecting the fatty
 matter of dead bodies is, that even after the lactic acid,
 the lactates, and other ingredients whicli are less es-
 sential, are re-moved from it, it is uot a simple, ammo-
 niacal soap, but a  combination of various fatty sub-
 stances with ammonia, potassa, and lime.  The fatty
 substances whicli  wore separated from alkohol, had
 different molting points,and different sensible properties.
 It follows, from Chevrcuil's experiments, that the sub-
 stance wliich is the least fusible, has more affinity for
 bases than those which  are more so.   It is observed,
 that adipocere possesses the characters of a saponified
 fat;  it is soluble in boiling alkohol  in all proportions,
 reddens litmus,  and unites readily to potassa, not only
 without losing its  weight, but without having its fu-
 sibility or other properties changed.
  Chevreuil has shown, that  hog's-lard, in its natural
 state, has not the properly of combining with alkalies ;
 but that il acquires it by experiencing some change  in
 the proportion of its elements.  This change being in-
 duced by  the action  of the alkali, it follows that the
 bodies  of the new formation  must have a decided af-
 linily for the species of body which has determined  it.
 If we apply this  foundation of the theory of saponifi-
 cation to the change into fat which bodies buried in the
 rm th experience, weshnll find that it explains the pro-
 cess in a very satisfactory manner. In reality, the fatty
 matter  is the combination of the two  adipose sub-
 stances wilh ammonia, lime, and potassa: one of these
 substances litis the same sensible properties with mar-
 garine procured from the soap of hog's-lard; the other,
 the orange-coloured oil, excepting its colour, appears
 to have a strong analogy with the fluid fat.  From
 those circumstances,  it is probable that the formation
of the fatty matter may be the result of a proper sapo-
 nification produced by ammonia, proceeding from the
 jccouipositioii of the muscle, and by the potassa and
 iine, which proceed from the decomposition of certain
 salts.
  The author remarks, that he  has hitherto made use
 of periphrases when  speaking of the diffeient bodies
 that he has been describing,  as supposing that their
 nature was not sufficiently determined. He now, how-
 ever, conceives, that he may apply specific names to
 them, wliich will be more  commodious,  and,  nt the
 same time, by being made appropriate, will point out
 the  relation  which  these bodies bear to  each other.
 The  following is the nomenclature which he after-
 ward  adopted :—The  crystalline  matter  of  human
 biliary calculi is  named cholesterine, from the  Greek
 word  X0A17, bile, and ?cpcos, solid; spermaceti is
 named cettne,  from icijroc,  a whale;  the fatty sub
 stance and the oily substance, are named respectively,
 stearine and elalne, from the words $-tap, and cAatoi-,
 oil; margarine, and the fluid fat obtained  after sapo
 nification,  are named margaric  acid and  oleic acid,
 while the term eerie acid is applied to what was named
 saponified  spermaciti.  The margarates, oleates, and
 cctatcs, will bo the generic names of the soaps or com
 binations which these acids are capable of lorming by
 their union with  salifiable bases.
   Two portions of human  fat were examined, one
 taken from the kidney, the other from the thigh: after
 some time  they both of them manifested a tendency to
 separate into two distinct substances, one  of a solid,
 and the other of a fluid consistence: the two portions
 differed intheir fluidity and their melting point.  These
 variations  depend upon the different proportions of
 stearine and elaine ; for the concrete part of fat is a
 combination of the two wilh  an excess of stearine, and
 the fluid part is a combination with an excess of elalne.
 The fat from the other animals was then  examined,
 principally with  respect to  their melting  point and
 their solubility in alkohol; the melting point was not
 always the same in the fat of the same species of
 animal.
   Chevreuil next  examines  the change which is pro-
 duced in the different kinds of fat respectively by the
 action of potassa.  All the kinds of fat are capable of
 being  perfectly saponified, when excluded from the
 contact ofthe air, in allof them there was the production
 ofthe saponified fat and the sweet principle; no car-
 bonic acid  was produced, and the soaps formed con-
 tained 110 acetic acid, or only slight traces of it.  The
 saponified  fats bad  more tendency to crystallize  in
 needles than the fats in their natural state; Ihey were
 soluble in  all  proportions in  boiling  alkohol of the
 specific gravity of 821.  The solution, like lhat of tlie
 saponified fat of the hog, contained both the margaiic
 and the oleic acids.  They were less fusible than the
 fats from  which  they were formed:  thus,  when
 human fat, after  being saponified, was  melted, the
 thermometer became stationary at 95°, when the fluid
 began to congeal,  111 that of the sheep, the thermometer
 fell to 118.5°, and rose to 122°; in that of the ox it re-
 mained stationary at 118.5°; and iu that of the jaguar
 al %.5°.
  The method of analysis employed was to expose the
 different kinds of  fat to boiling alkohol, and to  suffer
 the mixture to cool: a portion of ihe fat that had been
 dissolved was then separated in iwo states of combi-
 nation ; one with an excess of stearine was deposited,
 theolher with an excess of elalne remained in solution.
 The first was separated by filtration, aud by distilling
 Ihe filtered  fluid, and adding  a little water towaidsthe
 end of the operation, we obtain the second in the re-
 tort, under ihe form of'an alkoholic aqueous fluid.  The
 distilled alkohol which had been employed in the
 analysis of human fat, had no sensible odour; the
 same was the case with thai  which had served for the
 analysis of the fat of the ox, of the hog,  and of the
 goose.  The alkohol whicli had been employed  in the
 analysis of the fat ofthe sheep, had u slight odour of
 candlcgrcase.
  All the soaps of stearine were analyzed by the same
 process as the soap of the fat  from which they had been
 extracted: there was procured from them the pearly
 super-margarute of potassa  and the oleate; bul the
 first was much more abundant than the second.  The
 margaric acid of the stearines had precisely tlie same
 capacity for saturation  as that which was extracted
 from the soaps formed of fat. The margaric acid of
 Ihe stearine of the sheep was fusible at 144°, and that
 of the stearine of the ox at 143.5°; while- Ihe mar-
 garic acids of the hog and  the goose  had nearly the
same fusibility with tlie margaric acid of the fat of
 these animals.
  ('hevreuil technically calls  spermaceti, cetine. In the
fifth  memoir, iu which  we have an account of manv 
FEB
FEU
  of the properties of this substance, it was stated, that it
  is not easily saponified by potassa, but that it is con-
  verted by this reagent into a substance which is soluble
  in water, but has not the saccharine flavour of the sweel
  principle of oils; into an acid analogous to the  mar-
  garic, to which  the name of cetic was applied; and
  into another acid, which was conceived to  be analo-
  gous  to the oleic.  Since he wrotn  the fifth memoir,
  the author has made the following observations on
  this subject.—1.  That the portion ofthe soap of cetine
  wliich is insoluble  in water, or ihe cetate of potassa,
  is in part gelatinous, and in part pearly : 2. The two
  kinds of cnsnJs were produced  from  the  cetate  of
  potassa which had been dissolved iu  alkohol: 3. That
  Ihe cetate of potassa exposed, under a bell gloss, to the
  heal of  a stove, produced a sublimate of a  fatty  mat-
  ter which was not acid. From this circumstance Chev-
  reuil was led to suspect, that the supposed celic acid
  might be a combination, or a mixture of margaric acid,
  and of a fatty body wliich was not acid. He accord-
  ingly treated a small quantity of it  with barytic water,
  and boiled the soap which was formed in alkohol; the
 greatest  part of it was not dissolved, and the alkoholic
 solution, when cooled, filtered, and distilled, produced
  a residuum of fatty matter which was not acid.  The
 suspicion being thus confirmed, Chevreuil determined
 to subject cetine to a new train of experiments.  Be-
 ing treated with  boiling  alkohol, a  cetine  was  pro-
 cured  which was fusible at 120°, and a yellow fatty
 matter which began to become«ilid  at 89.5°, and which
 at 73.5° contained a fluid oil, wliich was separated by
 filtration.— I're's Chem. Die.
   FATUTTAS.  (.From  fatuus, silly.)  Fatuity or
 foolishness.
   FAUCES.  (Faux,  pi. faucms.)   A cavity behind
 the tongue, palatine arch,  uvula,  and tonsils; from
 which the pharynx and larynx  proceed.
   Fau'fel. Terra japonica, or catechu.
   [Fausse avoine.  False oats.   Indian rice.  See
 Zizania  aquatica.  A.]
   FAUX.  (Faux,  cis. f.)  1.  The gorge, or mouth,
 or opening of the gullet.
   2. Applied by botanists to the opening of the tube
 of monopelalous corals.  See Corolla.
   Fava.'go australis.  (From favus, a honey-comb;
 from its resemblance lo a honeycomb.)   A species of
 bastard sponge.
   FAVOSUS.  (From favus, a honeycomb.) Honey-
 comb-like.  1. Applied to some eruptive  diseases; as
 Lichen favosus, the secretion in which is cellular  and
 honey-comb-likc.
   2. To parts of plants, as the  receptacle of the ono-
 pordium  which has cells like a honey-comb.
   FAVUS.  1.  A honey-comb.
   2.  A species of achor, or foul ulcer.
   FEBRES.  (The plural of febris.)   An order in
 the  class  Pyrexia, of  Cullen,   characterized  by
 the  presence  of pyrexia,  without  primary  local
 affection.
   FEIJRI'CULA.  (Dim. of febris, a fever.)  A term
 employed to express a  slight degree of symptomatic
 fever.
   FEBRTFUGA.   (From febrem  fugare,  to  drive
 away a fever.)  The plant feverfew;  less centaury.
   FEBRIFUGE.  (Febrifugus; from febris, a fever,
 and fugo, to drive away.) That whicli possesses the
 property of abating the violence of any fever.
   Febrifugum crenii.  Regulus of antimony.
   Febrifugum oleum.  Febrifuge oil.   The flowers
 of antimony, made with sal-ammoniac and antimony
 sublimed  together, and  exposed to the air, when they
 deliquesce.
   Febrifugus pulvis.  Febrifuge powder.  TheGer-
 mans- give this name to the pulvis stypticus Helvetii.
 In England, a mixture of oculi cancrorum and emetic
 tartar,  in the proportion of  half a drachm  and two
grains, has obtained the  same name; in fevers it is
given  in doses of gr. iii. to iv.
  Febrifugus sal.  Regenerated marine salt.
  FEBRIS.  (Febris, is. f.; from fervco, to burn.)  A
fever.   A disease characterized  by an  incense of heat,
an accelerated  pulse, a  foul tongue, and  an impaired
etateofneveral functions ofthe body.
  Febris  alba.  See Chlorosis.
  Febris  a.mphimerina.  A quotidian fever.
  Febris  anginosa.  See Scarlatina ongiuosa.
  Feuris apethosa.  See Aphtha.
    Febris ardens. Feverattendcdbyaveryhotorbuni
  mg state of the skin. A burning inflammatory fever
    Fbbris assodks.  A  tertian fever, with  extreme
  restlessness.
    Febris bullosa.  See Pemphigus.
    Febris cacatoria.   An intermittent  fever,  with
  diarrhoea.
    Febris carcerum.  The prison fevei.
    Febris casiklnsis.   A  camp  fever, generally
  typhus.
    Febris catarrhalis.   A  fever, either typhoid,
  nervous, or synochul, attended with symptoms of ca-
  tarrh.
    Febris ciioi.erica.  A fever, attended  throughout
  with bilious diarrhoea.
    Febris continua.   Acoivtinucd fever.  A division
 of the order Febres,  in the  class  Pyrexia, of Cullen
 Continued fevers have no Intermission, but exacerba
 lions come on usually twice in one day.  The genera
 of continued fever are:
   1. Synocha, or inflammatory fever, known by in-
 creased heat; pulse frequent, strong,  and hard; urine
 high-coloured; senses not much  impaired.  See Sy-
 nocha.
   2.  Typhus, or putrid-tending fever, which is con-
 tagious, and is characterized  by moderate heat; quick,
 weak,  and small pulse;  senses much impaired, and
 great prostration of  strength.  This genus has  two
 species; Typhus petechialis, attended with petechise;
 and Typhus  icterodes, or yellow fever;  and ofthe
 former there are Iwo varieties;  Typhus  mitior, or
 nervous fever; and Typhus gravior, or putrid fever.
 See Febris nervosa, and Typhus.
   3. Synochus, or mixed fever.  See Synochus.
   Febris elodes.  A fever with  continual and pro
 fuse sweating.
   Febris epiala.  A fever with a continual sense of
 coldness.  See Epialus.
   Febris erysipelatosa.  See Erysipelas.
   Febris exanthematica.  A fever with an crup
 tion.   See Exanthema.
   Febris flava.  See Typhus.
   Febris heotica.  A genus of disease in  the class
 Pyrexia, and order Febris, of Cullen.   It is known by
 exacerbations at noon, but greater in the evening, with
 slight  remissions  in  tlie  morning,   after  nocturnal
 sweats ; the urine depositing a furfuraceo-Ialeritious
 sediment;  appetite good; thirst  moderate.   Hectic
 fever is symptomatic of chlorosis, scrofula, phthisis,
 diseased viscera, &.c.
   Febris uungarica. A species  of  tertian intermit-
 tent fever.
   Febris iiydrodes.   A fever with  profuse sweats.
   Febris inflammatory.  See Synocha.
   Febris intermittens.  An intermittent fever, or
 ague.  A division of  the order Febres, of Cullen, in
 the class Pyrexia.  Intermittent fevers are known by
 cold, hot, and sweating stages, in succession, attending
 each paroxysm,  and  followed  by  an  intermission or
 remission.  There are three genera  of  intermitting
 fevers, and several varieties.
   1. Quotidiana.  A quotidian ague.   The paroxysms
 return in the morning, at an interval of about twenty-
 four hours.
  2. Tcrtiana.  A tertian ague.  The  paroxysms com-
 monly  come on  at mid-day, at an interval of about
 forty-eight hours.
  3. Quarluna.  A  quartan  ague.   The paroxysms
 come  on in the afternoon, with an interval of about
seventy-two hours.  The tertian ague is most  apt to ,
prevail in the spring, and the quartan in autumn.
  Of the quotidian, tertian, and quartan intermittents,
there are several varieties  and forms; as the double
tertian,  having a  paroxysm every day, with  the alter-
nate paroxysms, similar to one another.  The double
tertian,  wilh two paroxysms every other day.  The
triple tertian, with two  paroxysms on one day, and
another on the next.  The double quartan,  w ith two
paroxysms on the first day, none on the  second and
third, and two again on the fourth day.  The double
quartan, with a paroxysm on  the first day, another on
Ihe second, but none on the third.  The triple quartan,
with three  paroxysms every  fourth day.  The triple
quartan, with  a  paroxysm every  day, every fourth
paroxysm being similar.
  When these fevers arise in  the spring of  the year,
they are called vernal; and when in the autumn, they 
FEU
FEB
nre known by the name of autumnal.   Ititcnnittetits
often prove obstinate, and are  of long duration in
warm climates; and they not unfrequently resist every
mode ol cure, so as to become very distressing to the
pali-nt, and by the extreme debility which they there-
by induce, often give rise to other chronic complaints.
  It  seems to be  pretty generally acknowledged, that
marsh miasmata,  or the effluvia arising from stagnant
water, or marshy ground, when  acted upon oy heat,
are the most frequent exciting causes of this fever. In
marshes, the  putrefaction  of both vegetable and ani-
mal  matter is always going forward, it is to be pre-
sumed;  and hence it  has  been generally conjectured,
that  vegetable and animal  putrefaction imparted a pe-
culiar quality to the effluvia arising from thence.  We
are not  yet acquainted with all the  circumstances,
whicli are  requisite  to render  marsh  miasma  pro-
ductive of the intermittents; but it  may be presumed
that  a moist atmosphere has a considerable influence
in promoting its  action.  A watery poor diet, great
fatigue, long watching, grief, much anxiety, exposure
to cold, lying  in damp rooms or beds, w earing damp
linen, the suppression of some long-acchstomed evacua-
tion, or the recession of eruptions, have  been  ranked
among the exciting causes of intermittents; but  it is
more reasonable to suppose that these circumstances
act only by inducing lhat state of the body, which pre-
disposes to these  complaints.   By some it has been
imagined that an intermittent fever may  be communi-
cated by contagion;  but  this supposition  is  by no
moans consistent with general observation.
  One peculiarity of Ihis fever is, its great susceptibi-
lity of a renewal  from very slight causes, as from the
prevalence of an easterly  wind, even without  the re-
petition  of the original exciting cause.   It would ap-
pear that a predisposition  is left in the  habit, which
favours the recurrence of the  complaint.  In this cir-
cumstance, intermittents differ from most other fevers,
as it is well known, that after a continued fever has
once occurred,and been removed, the person so affect-
ed is by no means so liable to a fresh attack ofthe dis-
01 der, as one in whom it had never taken place.
  We have not yet attained  a certain knowledge of
the proximate cause of an  intermittent fever, but a de-
ranged state  of the stomach and  priinae viae is  that
which is most generally ascribed.
  Each paroxysm of an intermittent fever  is  divided
into  three different stages, which are called the cold,
Ihe hot, and the sweating stages or fits.
  The cold stage commences with languor, a sense of
debility and sluggishness in motion, frequent yawning
and stretching, and an aversion to food.   The face and
extremities become pale, the features shrink, the bulk
of every external part is diminished, and  the skin over
the whole body appears constricted, as if cold had been
applied to it.  At length the  patient feels  very cold,
and  universal rigors come  on, with pains in the head,
hack, loins, and joints,  nausea, and vomiting of bilious
matter; the respiration is small, frequent,  and anxious;
the  urine is  almost colourless; sensibility  is  greatly
Impaired; the thoughts are somewhat confused; and
the pulse is small, frequent, and often irregular.  In a
few  instances, drowsiness  and stupour  have prevailed
in so high a degree as to resemble coma  or apoplexy;
bul this is by no means usual.
  These symptoms abating after a short  time, the se-
cond stage commences with an increase  of heat over
the-  whole body,  redness  of the  face, dryness of the
 trill, lliirst, pain in the head, throbbing in the temples,
luxietynnd restlessness; the  respiration is fuller and
more free, but slill frequent; the tongue is furred, and
the  pulse has become regular, hard, and full.   If the
attack has been  very  severe, then  perhaps delirium
will  ai ise.
  When these symptoms  have  continued  for  some
time, a moisture breaks out on the  forehead,  and by
degrees  becomes a eweat,  and this, at  lcnglh,  extends
oyer the whole  body.  As this sweat  continues to
flow, the heat ofthe body abates, the thirst ceases, and
most of tlie  functions are restored to their ordinary
state.  This constitutes the third stage.
  It  must, however, be observed, that In different cases
these phenomena muy prevail in different degrees, and
llieir mode of succession vary; that the series of them
may be more or  less  complete;  and that the  several
Btage-s, in the time they occupy, may be in different
proportions to one another.
      354
   Such a depression of s-.-ength ins  been known U
 take place on the attack  of an  intermittent, as to cut
 off the patient at once; but an occurrence of this kind
 is very uncommon.
   Patients are seldom destroyed in intermittents from
 general inflammation, or from a fulness of Ihe vessels
 either of the brain or of the thoracic viscera, as hap-
 pens sometimes in a continued fever; but when they
 continue for any length of time, they are apt to induce
 other complaints, such as a loss  of appetite, flatulency,
 schirrhus of the liver, dropsical swellings, and general
 debility, wliich in the end now and then prove fatal.
 In warm climates, particularly, intermittents nre very
 apt to terminate in  this manner, if not speedily re-
 moved; and in some cases, they degenerate into con
 tinued fevers.  When the paroxysms are of short du-
 ration, and leave  the intervals quite free, we may ex
 pect a speedy recovery ;  but when they are long, vio-
 lent, and  attended wilh  much  anxiety and delirium,
 the event may be  doubtful.   Relapses are vo/y com-
 mon to this fever at the distance of five or six months,
 or even a year; autumnal intermittents are more diffi-
 cult to remove than  vernal ones, and quartans  more
 so than the other types.
   Dissections of those who have died  of an intermit
 tent, show a morbid state of many of the visieia of the
 thorax and abdomen; but th? liver, and organs  con-
 cerned in the formation of bile, as likewise the mesen-
 tery, are those which are  usually most affected.
   The treatment of an Intermittent fever resolves itself
 into those means, which  may be employed during a
 paroxysm, to  arrest its progress, or to mitigate its vio-
 lence;  and those, which may prevent any return, and
 effect a permanent cure: this forms of course the more
 important part of the rjfhn; but it is sometimes necessary
 to palliate urgent symptoms;  and it is always desirable
 to suspend a paroxysm, if possible, not only to prevcnl
 mischief, but also that there may be more time for the
 use ofthe most effectual remedies.  When therefore a fit
 is commencing, or shortly expected, we may try  to
 obviate it by some of those means, which excite- move-
 ments  of an opposite description in the system; an
 emetic will generally answer the purpose, determining
 the blood  powerfully to the surface of the  body;  or a
 full dose of opium, assisted by  the pediiuvium   Sec;
 aether also, and various stimulant remedies, will  often
 succeed, but these may perhaps aggravate, should they
 not preventthe fit; the cold bath,  violent exercise, strong
 impressions on the mind,  Sec. have likewise been occa-
 sionally employed  with effect.  Should the paroxysm
 have already come on, and the cold siage  be very se-
 vere, the warm bath, and cordial diaphoretics in re-
 peated moderate  doses, may assist in bringing warmth
 to the surface: when, on  the contrary, great heat pre-
 vails, the antiphlogistic plan is to lie pursued, and it
 may be sometimes advisable, when an organ of im-
 portance is  much pressed upon, to take some  blood
 locally, or even from the general system, if the patiet.i
 is plethoric and robust: and where profuse pei spirations
 occur, acidulated drink may be exhibited, with a  little
 wine to support the strength, keeping the surface cool
 at the same time.   In the intermissions, in conjunction
 with a  generous  diet, moderate exercise, and  other
 means calculated to improve the vigour of the »ystem;
 tonics are ihe remedies especially relied upon. "At the
 head of these  we  must certainly place the cinchona,
 which, taken largely  in substance, will seldom fail lo
 cure the disease, where it is not complicated with vis-
 ceral affection: in a quotidian an ounce at least should
i be given between the fits, in a tertian half ns  much
 more, and in a quartan iwo ounces.  It will be gene-
 rally better to clear out  the  prima- via- beiore this re-
 medy is begun with;  nnd various additions may often
 be required, to make It agree better with the stomach
 and bowels, particularly aromatics and other stimulants
 aperients or small doses of opium, according lo circum-
 stances.  We must not be content with the omission
 of a single paroxysm, but continue it till the health ap-
 pears fully established.    In failure of the cinchona
 other vegetable tonics may be tried, as the salix. gen-
 tian, calumba, and other hitters; or the astringents  »s
 tormentil, galls, Sec;  or these variously combined with
 each other^ or with nromatlcs.  The mineirfi acids Are
 often  powerfully tonic, and the  sulphuric has been ol
 late stated to have proved very successful in the rcmovm
 of this disease.  Some metallic  preparations arc alsti
 highly efficacious, particularly the liquor  arsenics*,!!, 
FEM
FEM
TvImcji, however, is too hazardous  a remedy to br
employed indiscriminately; it must be given in  small
dosos two or three times a day, and its effects assidu
ously watched.  The sulphate of sine, and chalybcates,
may b,e us; d more freely alone, or preferably joined with
bitters.   Wlu-re visceral disease attends, we can hardly
succeed in curing the ague, till this be removed; a state
of congestion, or inflammatory tendency, may require
local bleeding, blistering, purging, &c ; and when there
is a mo.-e fixed obstruction, particularly in die liver, the
cautious use of mercury will be most likely to avail.
  Febris lactea.  Milk fever, which is mostly of the
sy nochus-type attended wilh much irregularity of mind,
and  Nervousness.
  Febris lbnta.  See Febris nervosa
  Febris lknticularis.  A fever, either typhus or
synochus, attended by an eruption like small lentils.
  Febris maligna.  See Typhus.
  Febris miharis.  See Mitiirta
  Febris korbillosa.  See Rubeola
  Febris nervosa.  Fi-bris lentil nervosa.  The ner-
vous fever.  A variety of the  typhus miliar of Cullen,
»ut by many considered as a distinct disease.  It mostly
begins with loss of appetite,  increased heat and  ver-
tigo; to which succeed  nausea, vomiting, great ian-
cuor,and pain in the head, which is variously described,
by some like cold water pouring over the top, by others
a sense of weight The pulse,"before little increased,
now becomes quick, febrile, and tremulous; the tongue
is covered with a wiiite crust, and there Is great anxiety
about the praecordia.   Towards the seventh or eighth
day, the  vertigo is Increased, and  tinnitus  aurium,
cophosis, delirium, and a dry and tremulous  tongue,
lake place.   The disease mostly terminates about the
fourteenth or twentieth day.   See Typhus.
  Febris nosocomiori  m.  The  fever of  hospitals,
mostly the typhus gravter.
  Febris palustris. The marsh fever
  Febris pestilkns.  See Pestis.
  Febris rETEcniALis.  See  Typhus.
  Febris putrida.   See Typhus.
  Febris remittees.  A remittent fever: a fever with
strong exacerbations, wliich approach in some cases to
the nature of a paroxysm of an intermittent, and which
follow- each other so closely as to leave very little time
between.  In some, there is a great secretion of bile,
when it is called a bilious remittent; in others, there is
great pntrescency, when it is termed a putrid remittent,
(uid so on.
  Febris scarlatina.  Sec Scarlatina.'
  Febris synocha,  S"e Synocha.
  Febris tyi-hobes.  See Typhus.
  Febris urticaria.  See Urticaria.
  Febris variolosa.  Sec Variola,
  Febris vesiculosa.  Sere Erysipelas.
  FE'CULA.  See Facula.
  FECUNDATION.  See Oeneration.
  FEL.  See Bile.
  Fel nature.  See Aloes.
  FEL-WORT.  So called from its bitter taste, like
bile.  See Gentiana.
  Felli'culcs.  The gall bladder.
  FelliVlua pvssio.  See Cholera.
  Felon. S'-e Paronychia.
  FELSPAR. An important mineral genus, distributed
by Jameson into four species:  prismatic felspar;  pyra-
midal felspar; prismato-pyramidal felspar; rhomboidal
felspar.
  1.  The prismatic felspar has nine sub-species,
  a. Adularia.
  b.  Glassy felspar.
  e.  Ice spar.
  d. Common felspV.
  e.  Labradore felspar.
  f.  Compact felspar.
  g. C!i::!c-stone.
  h.  Earthy common spar.
  i.  Porcelain earth.
  2.  Pyramidal felspar.  This embraces the scapolitc
and elanlitc.
  3.  Prismato-pyramidal felspar.  See Mcionita.
  4.  Rhomboidal felspar.  See Nepheline.  Chiastolite
and mdalite have also been annexed to this species.
  [Fertile.  Blue felspar of Stiria.  A.]
  Fe'men.   (Quasi ferimen; from  fero,  to  bear: so
called because it is tire chief  support of the body.)
The thigh.                               ^ g
  FEMINEUS.  A flower is termed a female, which la
funnslied with the pistillum, and not with the stamina.
the pistil being considered  as the female generative
organ.
  FEMORAL.  (FemoraUs; from femur, the thigh )
Of or belonging to the thigh.
  Fbmora'lis arteria.   A continuation of the ex-
ternal iliac ulong the thigh, from Poupart's ligament  ta
Ihe ham.
  FEMORIS OS.  The thigh-bone.  A long cylindrl
cal bone, situated  between  tlie pelvis and tibia.  Iu
upper extremity uffords three considerable processes;
these are, the head, the trochanter major, and trochan-
ter minor.  The head, wliich forms  about two-thirds
of a sphere, is turned inwards, and is received into the
acetabulum of the os innominatum, with which it  is
articulated by enurthrosis.  It is covered by a cartilage-
which is thick in its middle part, and thin at its edges,
bul which is wanting in Its lower Internal part, where a
round spongy fossa is observable,  to which the strong
ligament, usually, though  improperly, called tho round
one, is attached.  This ligament is about an inch  m
length, flattish, and of a triangular shape, having  its
narrow extremity attached to the fos«a just dc-enbed,
while its broader end is fixed obliquely to the rough
surface near  the inner  and anterior edge of the ace-
tabulum of the  os innominatum, so that it appears
shorter internally and anteriorly, than it does externally
and posteriorly.
  The head of" the os femoris is supported obliquely,
with respect to the rest of the bone, by a smaller part,
called the cervix, ot neck, whicli,  in the generality of
subjects, is about an  inch in length.   At its  basis we
observe two oblique ridges, which extend from the tro-
chanter major to  the trochanter  minor.  Of these
ridges, the posterior one is the most prominent.  Arounfl
this neck is attaclicd the capsular ligament of the joint]
which likewise adheres to the edge of the cotyloid ca-
vity, and  is  strengthened anteriorly by many strong
ligamentous fibres, which  begin from the lower and an-
terior part of the ilium, and spreading broader as tbey
descend,  adhere  to  the  capsular ligament,  and arc
attached to the anterior oblique ridge at the bottom oi
the neck of the femur.  Posteriorly and externally, from
the basis of the neck of the bone, a large unequal pro-
tuberance stands out, which is the trochanter major.
The upper edge of this process is sharp and pointed
posteriorly, but is more obtuse anteriorly.  A  part of it
is rough end unequal, for the insertion of the muscles;;
the rest is smooth, and covered with a thin eartilaginoi.a
crust, between which and the tendon of the gluteus
maximus that slides over  it-  a large  bursa mucosa  is
interposed.   Anteriorly, at the root of Ihis process, and
immediately below the bottom of the neck, is a small
process called trochanter  minor.   Its  basis is nearly
triangular, having its two upper angles turned towards
the head of the femur and the great  trochanter, while
its lower angle is placed towards the body of the bone.
Its summit is rough and  rounded.   These two pnt>
cesses have gotten the  name of trochanters, from the
muscles that arc  Inserted  into them being the principal
instruments of the  rotatory motion of the thigh, lot
mediately below  these two  processes the body of the
bone may be said lo begin.  It is smooth and convex
before, but is  made hollow behind by the action of the
muscles.  In  the middle of this posterior concave sur-
face  is observed a rough ridge, called linea  aspern,
which seems to originate from the trochanters, and ex-
tending downwards, divides at length into two branches,
which terminate in the tuberosities near the condyles.
At the upper part of it, blood-vessels pa?e to the interna
substance of  tlie bone  by a  hole  that runs oblique',?
upwards.
  The lower extremity ofthe os femoris is larger than
the upper one, and somewhat flattened, so as to form
two surfaces, of  which the anterior one is broad and
convex, and tlie posterior one narrower and slightly
concave.  Thisend of the bone terminates in two large
protuberances, called condyles, which nre united be-
fore so as to form a pulley, but are separated behind
by a considerable  cavity, in which the crural vessels
and nerves arc placed secure from  the compression to
whicli they would otherwise be exposed in the action ■
of bending the leg.  Of these  two condyles, the ex-
ternal one is  the largest;  and when the bone is sepa
rated from the rest of the  skeleton, and placed perpen
dicularly, the internal condyle projects less forwards,
                                        'JL'Vi 
feu
FEK
 Rim descends nearly three-tenths of an inch lower
 thar the external one ; but in its natural situation, the
 tone is placed  obliquely, so that  both condyles  are
 then nearly on n level wiih each  otlier. At the side
 of each condyle, externally, there  is a tuberosity, the
 (situation of which  is similar to that of the condyles
 of the os humeri.  The two branches of the  linea as-
 pera terminate in these tuberosities, which are rough,
 nnd serve for attachment of ligaments and muscles.
   I'E'MUR.  (Femur, moris. n.)   The thigh.
   FEN'E'STRA.  (From qntivu, quasi phanestra.) A
 window, entry, or hole.
   Fenestra ovalis.   An oblong or elliptical foramen,
 between the cavity of the tympanum and the vestibu-
 luni of the ear.  It is shut by the stapes.
   Fenestra rotunda.   A round foramen, leading
(from ihe tympanum to the cochlea of the ear.  It is co-
 vered by a membrane in the fresh subject.
   FE'NNEL.  See Anethum faniculum.
   Fennel, hog's.  See Peuccdanum.
   FENUGREEK.  See  Trigonella fantzm gracum.
   FE'RLVE.  (Ferinus,  savage  or brutal.)   A term
 occasionally applied to any malignant or noxious  dis-
 ease.
   FERMENTATION.  (Fcrmenlatio, onis.f.; from
 fermento, to ferment.)  When  aqueous combinations
 of vegetable or animal substances are exposed to ordi-
 nary atmospherical temperatures, they speedily under-
 go spontaneous changes, to which the generic term of
 fermentation has been given.  There are several  cir-
 cumstances required iu order that fermentation  may
 proceed:  such are, 1. A certain  degree of fluidity:
 thus, dry substances do not ferment at all.  2. A  cer
 tain degree of heat.  3. The contact of air.   Chemists,
 Biter Uoerhaave, have distinguished three  kinds of
 fermentation.
   !. The vinous or spirituous, wliich affords ardent
 spirit.
   2. The acetous, which afi'oids vinegar, or acetic acid.
   3. The putrid fermentation, or putrefaction, which
 produces volatile alkali.
   1. The conditions necessary for vinous fermentation
 are: 1. A  saccharine  mucilage.  2. A  degree of flu-
 idity slightly viscid.   3. A degree of heat between 55
 and 05 of Fahrenheit.  4.  A large mass,  in which a
 rapid  commotion may be excited.  When  these  four
 conditions are united, the vinous fermentation takes
 place, and  is known  by the following characteristic
 phenomena: 1.  Au intestine motion takes place. 2.
 The bulk of the mixture then becomes augmented. 3.
 The transparency ofthe fluid is diminished by opaque
 filaments.   4. Heat is generated.  5. The solid parts
 mixed with the liquor rise and float in consequence of
 the  disengagement of  elastic fluid.   6. A large quan
 lily of carbonic acid gas is disengaged in bubbles.  All
 these  phenomena gradually cease in proportion as the
 liquor loses its sweet and  mild tasie, and  il  becomes
 brisk, penetrating, and ca|>able of producing intoxica-
 tion,  in this manner, wine, beer, cider,&e. are made.
 All  bodies whicli  have undergone the spirituous fer-
 mentation are capable of passing on to the acid fer-
 mentation; but although it is probable that the acid
 fermentation never  takes  place before the  body  has
 pone through the spirituous fermentation, yet the du-
 ration of the first is frequently so short and impercep-
 tible, that it cannot be ascertained.   Besides the bodies
 wliich are proper for spirituous fermentation, this class
 includes all sorts of fa-cula boiled in water.
   II. The conditions required for  the acid  fermenta-
 tion are, 1. A heat from  70 to 85  degrees of Fahren-
 heit.  2. A certain degree of liquidity.  3.  The  pre-
 Fence of atmospheric air.  4. A moderate quantity of
 fermentable matter.  The phenomena which accom-
 pany this fermentation, are an intestine motion, and a
 considerable absorption of air.  The transparent liquor
 becomes turbid, but regains its limpidity when fermen-
 tation is over.   'The fermented liquor now consists, in
 a greiil measure, of a peculiar acid, called the acetic
 acid, or vinegar. Not a vestige of spirit remains, it be-
 ing entiiely decomposed, but the  greater the quantity
 dispirit in the liquor, previous to the fermentation,
 the greater will be the quantity of true vinegar ob-
 tained.  As the ultimate constituents of vegetable mat-
 ter  an: oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon;  and  of animal
 matter, the same three principles with azote, we  can
 readily understar.d that  all the- products of fermenta-
 lioii ninsl  be nioicly new compounds of these three or
       350
four ultimate constituents.  According!?, 100 parts eft
real vinegar, or acetic  acid, are resolvable, by  Ga7
Lussac and Thenard's analysis, into 50.224  carbon -f
46.911 hydrogen and oxygen,as they exist in  water,
+ 2.863 oxygen in excess.  In like manner, wines are
all resolvable into  the same ultimate components, in
proportions somewhat diffeicnt.   The aeriform results
af putrefactive fermentation are in like manner found
to be, hydrogen, carbon, oxygen, and azote, varic «s!y
combined, and associated  with  minute  quantities of
sulphur and phosphorus.  The residuary matter  con-
sists of  the same principles, mixed with the saline and
earthy parts of animal bodies.
  Lavoisier was the first philosopher who instituted,
on right principles, a series of experiments to investi-
gate the phenomena of  fermentation, and they were
so judiciously contrived,  and so accurately conducted,
as to give results comparable to those derived from the
more rigid  methods of the present day.  Since then,
Thenard and Gay Lussac have each contributed most
important researches.  By the labours of these three
illustrious chemists, those  material  metamorphoses,
formerly quite mysterious, seem susceptible of a satis-
factory explanation.
  As sugar is a substance of uniform and  determinate
composition, it has been made choice of for determining
the changes wliich arise when its solution is fermented
into wine or alkohol.  Lavoisier justly regarded it as
a true vegetable oxide, and stated its constituents to
be, 8 hydrogen, 28 carbon, and 64 oxygen, in 100 parts.
By two different analyses of Berzelius, we have,
      Hydrogen............  6.802    6.81)1
      Carbon............... 44.115   42.704
      Oxygen............... 49.083   50.405
10U.000  100.000
Gnv Lussac and Thenard's analysis gives,


    Cai'bon..................  42.47  42.47
                              100.00 100.00

  It has been said, that sugar requires to be dissolved
in at least 4 parts of water,and to be mixed with sonu
yest, to cause its fermentation lo commence.  But this
is a mistake.   Syrup stronger than  the above will fer-
ment in warm weather, without addition.  If the tern
perature be low, the  syrup weak, and no yest  added
acetous fermentation alone  will take place.   To de-
termine the vinous, therefore, we must mix certain
proportions of saccharine matter, water,  and yest, and
place them in a proper temperature.
  To  observe tlie chemical changes which occur, we
must dissolve 4 or 5 parts of pure sugar in 20 parts of
water, put the solution into a mairt.-ss, and add  1 part
of yest. Into  the mouth of the matrass a glass tube
must be luted, which is recurved, so as to dip into the
mercury of a  pneumatic trough.  If the  apparatus be
now placed in a temperature of from 70°  to 80°,  we
shall speedily observe the syrup to become muddy, and
a multitude of air bubbles to form  all around the for
ment.   These unite, and  attaching themselves  to par
tides  of the  yest, rise along with it to the surface,
forming a stratum of froth.  The yesty  matter win
then disengage itself from Ihe air, fall to the bottom of
the vessel, to reacquire buoyancy a  second time by at
tached air bubbles, and thus in succession.   If we ope
rate on 3 or 4 ounces of sugar, the fermentation will
be very rapid during  the first ten or twelve houis; it
will then slacken, and terminate in the course of a few
days.   At this period the matter being deposited which
disturbed the transparency ol" the liquor, this will  be
come clear.
  The following  changes have  now taken place:  1.
The sugar is wholly, and the yest partially, decom-
posed.   2. A  quantity of alkohol nnd carbonic acid,
together nearly in weight lo the sugar, is produced
3. A white matter is formed, composed  of hydrogen,
oxygen, and carbon, equivalent to about half the weight
of the de-composed ferment   Thecatbonic acid  passes
over into the pneumatic apparatus ; the alkohol may
be separated fr« tn the vinous liq rid  by distillation, and
the while  mntti.r falls down to the  bottom of ihe ma-
trass with the remainder ofthe yest.
  The quantity of yest decomposed  is very small.  100 
FER
FER
pruts of tMgsr  require,  for  complete  decomposition.
only two and a half of i.iat substance, supposed to be
in * dry state.  Ii is hence wry probable, that the fer-
nii-iit, which  has a strong  nlfinily for oxygen, lakes a
tittle of it from  the saccharine particles, by a part of
it.s hydrogen and carbon, and thus the equilibrium be-
ing  broken between  the constituent principles of the
sugar, these so react on each other, as to he transform-
ed  inlo alkohol and carbonic acid.   If we consider
the composition of alkohol, we shall find no difficulty
in tracing the steps of this transformation.
  Neglecting the minute products which the  vest fur-
nishes, in the- art of  fermentation, lei us regard only
Ihe alkohol  and cat hemic acid.  We shall then see, on
comparing  the composition of sugar to that of alkohol,
thai to transform sugar into alkohol, we  must with-
draw from  il  one  volume  of vapour of carbon, and
©ue vohiine of oxygen, which form by their union one
volumeof caibonic acid gas.  Finally, let  u- reduce
the volumes into weights, we shall find, thai 100 parts
of sugar ought to  be converted, during fermentation
Into 51 55 of alkohol, and 48 45 of cail*nic acid.
  When it is rtequiied lo preM-rve lemteuted liquorsin
the slate produced by  the first stage of fermentation, it
is usual to  put them into casks  before the vinous pro-
cess is completely ended ; and in thesv closed vessels a
change  veiy slowly  continues  to  be made for many
mouths, nnd perhaps for some years.
  But if the feriiieuinlive process be suffered to proceed
in open  vessels, more  especially if thee temperature be
raised to 90 degrees, tlie  acetous  fermentation comes
on.  In this, the oxygen ofthe atmosphere is absorbed;
and tlie more speedily in proportion as the surfaces of
the liquor are often changed by lading it from one ves-
sel to another.  The usual method consists inexposhig
the fermented liquor to the air iu open casks, the bung-
holt of which is covered  with a tile to prevent the en-
trance of ihe rain.   By the absorption of oxygen which
iikes place, tire inflammable spirit becomes converted
into an acid.   If the liquid  be then exposed  to distilla-
tion, pure vinegar comes over instead of ardent spirit.
  III. When the spontaneous decomposition is suffered
to proceed beyond the acetous process, the vinegar be-
comes viscid and foul; air is emitted with an offensive
Einell; volatile alkali flics  off; an earthy sediment is
deposited;  and the remaining  liquid, if any,  is mere
waler.  This  is the  putrefactive process.   See also
Putrefaction.
  FERME'NTUM. (Quasi fervimentttm, from fcrveo,
to work.)   Vest.
  Fermentum CEREVist.E.  Yest; Barm;  tlie scum
which collects on beer while fermenting, and Iras the
property ol" exciting that process in various other sub-
stances.  Medicinally it  is antiseptic and  tonic ;  and
has been found useful internally in the cure  of typhus
fever attendee: with an obvious tendency to putrefac-
tion in the system with petechia1, vibio-s, nnd the like:
the best way to administer it, is to mix a fluid ounce
with steven of strong beer, and give three table spoon-
fuls to an adult every three or four hours.  Externally,
it is u-erl in the fermenting cataplasm.
  FERN.   See Fi'Iii and Poiypodium.
  Fern, male. Pee Polydodium filix mas.
  F-rn, female  See  Pterts aquilina.
  FERN EL, John, was born at Claremont, near the
end of the 15th century.  He went at the age of 19 to
prosecute  his studies at Paris, and distinguished him-
self so much, that, after  taking the dcgTee of master
of arts, he  was  chosen  professor of dialectics in his
college.  His  application then  became intense, till a
quartan ague obliged  him to seek  his native air: and
nn  his return to Paris, he  determined  on the medical
profession,  and taught philosophy for his support, till
in 1530, lite took his doctor's degree.  Soon afler he
married, and speedily got into extensive practice;  and
at  length was made phyrician to the Dauphin, who
afterward  became  Henry II.  He was obliged to ac-
company that monarch in  his campaigns, yet  he still,
though at the  age of sixty, seldom passed a day with-
out writing.  But in  1558,  having lost his  wife of a
(ever, he did not long survive her.  His works are nu-
merous on philosophical, as well as medical subjects:
of the latter, the most esteemed were his " Medicina,"
dedicated  to Heiuy II., and a posthumous treatise on
fevers.
  Fi-.rrame ntvm.   Aii instrument made of iron.
  FEIIRO-CIIYAZIC ACID.  Acidum fcrro-c'itinzi-
cum . chyazietim, from  the initial ietters of carooilj
hydrogen, and azote.)  An acid obtained by Porrelt by
adding  lo a  solution of fcrro-cyauite of baiyies, sul-
phuric acid just enough  to precipitate the barytes.  K
has a pale yellow colour, no smell, and is decomposed
by genile heat or strong tight, iu wliich case hydrocy-
anic acid  is formed, and white hydrocyanite of iron i*
deposited, which becomes blue by exposure.
  FHHKO-l'Y.W ATE.   A compound of furro-pru*
sic acid w ith salifiable bases.
  FF.llRiM'Y.WH'  ACID.   See Ferro-prussic at id.
  FEKUO-I-UUSSIC Af'll).   .ledum frrro-pruisi-
cum.  Acidum fcrro-cyunicum.  Into a solution of the
amber-coloured crystals, usually called prussiaies of
polassa, pour  hydro-sulphurct of barytes, ns  long aa
any precipitate falls.  Throw the whole on  a filter,
anil wash  the precipitate with cold water.  Dry it; and
having dissolved 100 parts in cold water, add gradually
thirty of concentiatcd sulphuric acid ; agitate the mix-
ture, and  sit it aside lo repose.  The supernatant Ii
quid is ferro-prussic ackl, called by Porrett, who ha.I
the nieril of discovering it,  ferrurcttedchyazic  acid.
  It has rt pale leiuou-yellnw colour,  inn  no smell.
Heat and  light decompose if.  Hydrocyanic acid is then
formed, and white ferro-prussrate of iron, wliich sooi
becomes blue.  Its affinity for the bases  enables it f)
displace acetic acid, without lreat, from  the acclaicM,
and to form ferro prussiates.
  FERRUM.  (Ferrum, i. neut.; the etymology un-
certain.)  Iron.  See Iron,
  Ferrum  ammomatum.   Ammoniated iron;  for
merly known by the names of flores martialcs ; fiorcs
snlis ammoniaci martialcs ; ens martis ; ens  veneris
Boylci;  sal martis  muriaticum  sublimatum,  and
lately by  the title  of ferrum ammoniacale.  Take if
subcarbonate of iron, muriate of ammonia, of each a
pound.  Mix them  intimately, and sublime by inline
dinte exposure lo a strong fire; lastly, reduce the sub
limed  ammoniated iron to powder.  This  prepara-
tion is astringent and deobstruent, in dose.-- from throe
to fifteen  grains,"or more, in the form of bolus or pills-,
prepared with some gum.   It is exhibited in mostcases
of debility, in chlorosis, asthenia, monorrhagia, inter-
mittent fevers, Sec   This or some otlier strong piepa
ration of iron, as the Tinct. ferri muriatis, Mr. ( line is
wont to recommend iu schirrhous affections of tl;a
breast.  See Tinctura ferri ammoniali.
  Ferrum t.vrtarizatum.  Tartarized iron.  A tar
trate of potassa and iron; formerly  called  tartarus
chalybeatus ; mars solubilis ; ferrum potabile.  Take
of iron, a pound ; supertartrate of potassa, powdered,
two pounds; water,a pint.  Rub them together; en I
expose them to the air in a broad glass vessel for eig) t
days, then dry the residue in a sand bath, and reduce it
to a very  fine powder.  Add  to Ihis powder a pi .1
more water, and expose  it for eight days longer, then
dry it, and reduce it to a very  fine powder. Its virtu -a
are astringent and tonic, aud  it forms in solution l i
excellent ionic fomentation to contusions, laceratioi. -,
distortions,  Sec   Dose from  ten  grains to  half :i
drachm.
  Ferri alkalim liquor.  Solution of alkaline iron.
Take of iron, two drachms and a half; nitric  t.c.-lj
two fluid ounces; disilled water, six fluid ounces ; so-
lution of subcarbonate  of  potassa,  six  fluid ounces-.
Having mixed the acid and water, pour them upon il.-e
iron, and when the effervescence has ceased, pourc J'
tlie clear acid  solution;  add this gradually, and at in-
tervals, to the solution of subcarbonate  of potass.-!.
occasionally shaking it, until it has assumed  a de-,)
brown red colour, and no further effervescence takes
place.   Lastly, set it by  for six hours, and pour oil* t'.e
clear solution.  This preparation was first describ .1
by Stael, and  called tinctura  martis alkalina, and is
now introduced in the London Pharmacopoeia as afford •
ing a combination of iron distinct from any otiier, on,I
often applicable to  practice.   The dose is from hc!f a
drachm to a drachm.
  Ferri cardonas.  See Ferri subcarbonus.
  Ferri mmatura purificata.  Purified iron filin.s.
These possess tonic, astringent, and deobstruent vir-
tues, and are calculated to  relieve chlorosis arid othei
diseases in which  steel is indicated, where acidity \v>
the prinite viae abounds.
  Ferri rucico.   See Ferri subcarbonas.
  Ferri  suncAimoNAS.   Ferri  carbonas;  Ferrum
pracipitaium, formerly called chalybis rubigo  prapa-
                                        357 
FER
FIB
 rata and ferri rubigo-  Subcarbonate of iron.  Take
 of sulphate of iron, eight ounces; subcarbonate of soda,
 six ounces; boiling water, a gallon.  Dissolve the sul-
 phate  of iron and subcarbonate  of soda separately,
 each in  four pints of water; then mix the solutions
 together and set it by, that the precipitated powder
 may subside ; then having poured off the supernatant
 liquor, wash the subcarbonate of iron with hot water,
 and dry il upon  bibulous paper iu a gentle  heat.  Il
 possesses mild corroborant and stimulating properties,
 and is exhibited with  success in  leucoirlwa, ataxia,
 asthenia, chlorosis, dyspepsia, rachitis,  &c.   Dose
 from two to ten grains.
   Ferri sulphas.  Sulphate of iron; formerly called
 sal martis, vitriolum martis, vitriolum ferri, and fer-
 rum vitriolatum.   Gicen vitriol. Take of iron, sulphu-
 ric acid, of each by weight, eight ounces; water, four
 pints.  Mix together the sulphuric acid and water in a
 glass vessel, and add thereto the iron; then  after the
 effervescence has  ceased, filler the  solution through
 paper, and evaporate it until crystals form as it coots.
 Having poured  away the water, dry these upon bibu-
 lous paper.  This is an excellent  preparation of iron,
 and  is  exhibited, in  mat y diseases, as a styptic, tonic,
 astringent, and anthelmintic.  Dose from one grain lo
 five  grains.
   [Ferrilite.    Common trap of  Kirwan.   Amor-
 phous  basalt of Cleaveland.  The Ferrilite, and per-
 haps the Mulltn stone of Kirwan, may be referred to
 this  variety of basalt.   A.l
   FERRURETTED CHYAZIC ACID.  Sec  Ferro-
 prussic acid.
   Fers.e.  The measles.
   Fertile flower.  See Flos.
   FERULA.  The name of a genus of plants in  the
 Linna-an system.   Class Pentandria ; Order, Digynia.
   Ferula  africana galbanifhra. The galbanum
 plant.  See Bubon galbanum.
   Ferula assafcetida.  The systematic name of the
 Bssafoetida plant.   Assafaiida.  Hingiseh of the Per-
 sians.  Alliht of  the Arabians.  By some thought to
 be the  atXq)tov, vel oiroj otXqitov of Dioscorides, Theo-
 phrastus, and Hippocrates.  Laser ct laserpitium of
 line Latins.  Ferula assafaiida—foliis  altcrnutim si-
 nuatis, oblusis, of Linnaeus. This  plant, which affords
 us the assafoetidaof the shops, grows pleniifully on the
 mountains  in the provinces of Chorassati and Laar, in
 Persia.
   The  process of obtaining it is as follows: the earth
 Is cleared away from the top of tlie roots of the oldest
 plants; the leaves and stalks are then twisted away,
 and  made inlo a covering, to screen the root from  the
 fun; in this state the root is letl for forty days, when
 the covering is removed, and  the top of tlie root cut
 oil* transversely; it is then screened again from the
fcun for forty-eight  hours, when the juice it exudes is
 scraped off, and exposed to the sun to harden.   A se-
 cond transverse section of the root is made, and the
 exudation suffered to continue for  forty-eight  hours,
 Mid then scraped off.  In this manner it is eight times
 i'-puatedly collected in  a period of six  weeks.  The
j lire thus obtained has a bitter, acrid, pungent taste,
nnd  is  well known by its peculiar  nauseous smell, the
strength of whicli  is the  surest test of ils goodness.
This odour is extremely volatile, and of course the
1'rug loses  much  of ils  efficacy  by keeping.   It is
 "brought to us in large  irregular  masses, composed  of
 \ uious little shining lumps, or grains, which are partly
if a  whitish colour, partly reddish, and partly of a
 violet hue. -Those masses are accounted the best which
f-re clear, of a  pale ieddish  colour, and  variegated
 with a groat number of elegant  white tears.   This
i increie juice consists of two-lhirds of gum, and one-
third of resin nnd volatile oil, in whicli  ils taste and
h.nell reside.  It yields nil its  virtues to alkohol.  Tri-
I rated with water, it forms a milk-like mixture, the
 i sin being diffused by the medhun of the gum.  Dis-
 I'.llcd with waler, it affords a small quantity of essen-
I al oil.  It is the most powerful of all the foetid gums,
i id is a most valuable remedy.  It is most commonly
i.uployed in  hysteria, hypochondriasis, some symp-
l .11.9 of dyspepsia, flatulent  colics,  and in most of
t o;e diseases termed nervous, but its chief use is de-
nved from Its antispasmodic effects;  and it is thought
l ■ be the most powerful remedy we- possess, for those
\>  culiar  convulsive and spnsmodic affections, whicli
ortcn recur in the first  of these diseases, both  taken  ,
     rid
 into the stomach and in the way of enema.   It is am
 recommended as an emmenagogue, anthelmintic, anli
 asthmatic, and anodyne.   Dr. Cullen prefers it as as
 expectorant to gum ammoniacuin.  Where we wish il
 to act immediately as an antispasmodic, it should be
 used in a fluid form, as  ibat of tincture, from half a
 drachm to two drachms.  When given in the form of a
 pill, or triturated with water, its usual dose is from five
 to twenty grains.  When in the form of enema, one or
 two drachms are to be diffused in eight ounces of warm
 milk or water.  It is sometimes applied externally as a
 plaster and stimulating remedy, iu hysteria, &.c.
   Ferula minor.   All-heal  of  ^sculupius.  This
 plant is said to be detergent.
   Ferula'cca.  See Bubon galbanum.
   FEVER.  See Febris.
   FEVERFEW.  See Matricaria.
   FI'UER.   (From fiber, extreme, because it resmc-s
 in the extremities of lakes and rivers.)  The beaver.
 See Castor fiber.
   FIBRE.  Fibra.   A very simple  filament.   It is
 owing to the iWTerence in the nature mid arrangements
 of the fibres that the structure of the several  parts of
 animals and vegetables differ: hence the barks, woods.
 leaves, Sec.  of  vegetables, and the cellular structure,
 membranes, muscles, vessels, nerves, and, in short
 every part of the body, has its fibres variously consti-
 tuted and arranged, so as to form these different parts.
   Fibre muscular.  See Muscular fibre.
   FIBRIL.   (Fibrila, diminutive  of fibra.)   A small
 thread-like  fibre: applied to the little roots which are
 given off from radicles.
   FIBRIN.  "A peculiar organic compound  found
 both in vegetables and animals. Vauquelin discovered
 il in the juice of the papaw-tree.   It is a soft solid, of
 a greasy appearance, insoluble in water, which softens
 in ihe air, becoming \ i-cid, brown, and semi-transpa-
 rent.  On hoi coals it melts, throws out greasy drops
 crackles, and evolves the smoke and odour of roasting
 meat.  Fibrin is procured, however, in its meat cha-
 racteristic state from animal matter. It exists in chyle;
 it enters into ihe composition of blood ; of it, the chief
 part of muscular flesh is formed;  and hence it may be
 regarded as the most abundant constituent of ihe soft
 solids of animals.
   To obtain it, we may beat blood as it issues from
 the veins with a  bundle of twigs.  Fibrin soon attaches
 itself to each stem,  under the form of long reddish fila-
 ments, which become colourless by washing them with
 cold waler.   It is solid, white, insipid, without smell,
 denser than water,  and incapable of affecting the hue
 of litmus or violets.  When  moist it  possesses a spe-
 cies of elasticity; by desiccation it becomes yellowish,
 hard, and brittle.  By distillation we can extract from
 il much carbonate of ammonia, some acetate, a foetid
 brown oil, and gaseous products; while there remains
 in the retort a very luminous charcoal, very brilliant,
 difficult of incineration, which leaves, after  combus
 lion, phosphate of lime, a little phosphate  of magnesia,
 cai bouate of lime, and carbonate of soda.
   Cold water has no  action on fibrin.  Treated with
 boiling water, it is so changed as lo lose  the  properly
 of softening and dissolving in acetic acid.  The liquor
 filtered  from it,  yields precipitates with  infusion  of
 galls, and the residue is  white, dry, hard, aud of an
 agreeable taste.
   When kept for some time in alkohol of 0.810, it gives
 rise to an adipoce-rous matter, having a strong and
 disagreeable odour.  This matter remains dissolved in
 the alkohol,  and may be precipitated by water. JSther
 makes it undergo a similar alteration, but more slowly.
 When digested in weak muriatic acid, il evolves a lit-
 tle azote, and a compound is formed, hard, homy, and
 which, washed repeatedly with water, is transformed
 into another gelatinous compound.  This seems to he
 a neutral muriate, soluble in hot water; while the first
 is  an  acid muriate, insoluble even in boiling water.
 Sulphuric acid, diluted with  six times its weight of
 water, has similar effects.  When nol too concentialed,
 nitric  acid has  a very different action on fibrin.  For
example, when its sp.  gr. is  1.C5, thoie  results  from it
at first a disengagement of  azote, while the fibrin be
comes covered w ith fat, and the liquid turns  yellow.
 By digestion of twenty-four hours, the whole  fibrin is
attacked, and converted into n pulverulent mass of
 lemon yellow colour, whicli  seems to be composed of a
 mixture of fat and fibrin, altered and intimately com 
FIB
FIL
bincd wilh the malic and nitric or nitious acids.   In I
fact, if we put this ma-s on a tiller, und wash it copi-
ously wilh water, it  wi.l part  with a portion of  its
acid, will preserve the property of  reddening litmus,
aud  will take an orange hue.  On treating it after-
ward with boiling alkohol, we dissolve the tatty mat-
ter;  and putting ihe remainder in contact with chalk
and water, au effervescence  will be occasioned by ihe
escape of carbonic acid, and malaie or nitrate of lime
will remain in solution.
  Concentrated acetic acid renders fibrin soft at ordi-
nary temperatures, and converts il by ihe aid of heat
into a jelly, which is soluble in hoi water, with the dis
engagement of a small quantity of azote.  This solu-
tion  is colourless, and possesses little taste.  Evapo-
rated to dryness, it leaves a transparent residue, wliich
reddens litmus paper, and wliich cannot be dissolved
even in boiling water, but  by the medium of more
acetic acid. Sulphuric, nitric, aud murialic acids, pre-
cipitate the animal matter,  and form acid conibina
ticuis.  Potassa, soda, ammonia,  effect  likewise  the
precipnatiou of ihis matter, provided we do not use loo
great au  excess of alkali; for then  the  precipitated
matter woud be  rcdissolved.  Aqueous  potassa and
soda gradually dissolve fibrin in tlie cold, without  oc-
casioning any perceptible change iu ils  nature;  but
with heat they decompose it, giving birth to a quautilv
of auniiuiiiacal gas, and oilier usual animal products.
Fibrin does not putrefy speedily when kept in water.
It shrinks on exposure  lo a considerable  heal, and
emits the smell of burning horu.  It is composed, ac-
cording to ihe analysis of Gay Lussac, and Thenard,
of
      Carbon,         53.360
      Azote,            19.9:14
      Oxygen,         lD.li-."> j 22.14 water.
      Hydrogen,         T.o-JI \  4.50 hydrogen.
  FIBROL1TE.  A crystallized mineral harder than
quartz, of a white or gray colour, found in  the Car-
natic, and com posed of alumina, silica, and iron.
  FIBROSIS.  (From fibre, a fibre.)   Fibrous.  A
lerin frequently used in anatomy to express ihe texture
of parts.   In  botany, its  meaning is the same, and is
applied to roots and other parts,  as tliose of grasses,
Sec
  FIBULA.   (Quasi figilula;  from figo, to fasten:
so named because it joins together  the tibia and  the
muscles.) A  long bone of the leg, situated on the outer
side  of the tibia, and which forms, at its lower end,
the outer ankle.  Its upper extremity is formed into an
irregular head, on the inside of which is a slightly con-
cave articulating surface, which, in the recent subjects,
is covered with cartilage,  and receives the circular flat
surface under the edge of the external  cavily of ihe
tibia.   This articulation  is surrounded  by a capsular
ligament, which is farther strengthened by other strong
ligamentous fibres, so as to allow only a small motion
backwards and forwards.—Externally, the head ofthe
fibula is rough and protuberant, serving for the attach-
ment of ligaments, and for the insertion  of the biceps
cruris muscle.—Immediately below it, on its inner side,
is a tubercle,  from wliich a part of the gastrocnemius
internus  has  its origin.  Immediately below this head
the body of the bone begins.  It is of a triangular shape,
and app; ars as if it were slightly twisted al each end,
in a ditffc-ent direction.  It is likewise a  little curved
inwards  and  forwards.   This  curvature is in  part
owing to the  action of muscles; and in part perhaps lo
the carelessness of nurses.—Of the three angles of the
bone, that which is turned towards the tibia is the
most prominent, and serves for tho attachment of the
interosseous ligament, which, in its structure and uses,
resembles that ofthe forearm, and, like that, is a little
Interrupted above and below.  The three surfaces of
the bone are variously impressed by different muscles.
About the middle of the  posterior surface is observed
a passage for the medullary vessels, slanting down-
wards. "The  lower end of the fibula is formed into a
spongy, oblong head, externally rough nnd convex, in-
ternally  smooth ani  covered with  a thin cartilage,
where it is received by the external triangular depres-
sion at Ihe lower end of the tibia.  This articulation,
which resembles that of its upper extremity, is  fur-
nished with a capsular ligament, and farther strength-
ened by ligamentous fibres, which  are  stronger  and
more considerable than those before described.  They
extend from the libia to the fibula, in an oblique direc-
tion, and are more easily discernible before than  ue
hind.  Below this  the fibula is lengthened out, so as
lo form a considerable process, called malleolus extcr
nus, or  the ouier ankle.  It is smooth  and covered
with cartilage on the inside, wheie it is contiguous to
the astingulus, or first bone of the fool.  At the lowet
and inner part of this process, there is a spongy cavity,
filled with fal;  and a liule beyond this, posteriorly, is
a cartilaginous groove, for the tendons ofthe pcroneus
longus and  peroneus  brevis, which are here  bound
down by the ligamentous fibres that are extended ovoi
them.
  The principal uses of  this bone seem to be, t.. afford
origin and insertion to muscles, and to  contribute to
the articulation ofthe leg with the foot.
  FICA'IUA.   (Fiom ficus, a fig; go called from its
likeness.)  See  Ranunculus ficaria.
  Fica'tio.   (From ficus, a fig.)   A tuberculous dis-
ease, near Ihe anus and  pudenda.
  FICOIDE'A.  Ficoides.   Resembling  a  fig.   A
name ol" the house-leek. See *'< mpei victim teetorium.
  Fl'CUS.  1.  A fleshy substance  about Ihe anus, in
figure lesembliiig a fig.
  2. 'The  name of a genus of plants in the Linnaean
system.  Class, Polygamia.; Older, lu.xia.  The fig-
tree.
  Ficus carica.  The  systematic  name  of the  fig-
tree.   Carica;  Ficus:  licus vulgaris;  Ficus com-
munis.  Evxri of the Greeks.  French figs are, when
completely ripe, soft,  succulent,  and  easily digested,
unless eaten in immoderate quantities, when they are
apt to occasion flatulency, pain of the bowels, and
diarrhoea. Th» dried fruit, which is sold iu our shops,
is pleasanter to the taste, and more wholesome and
nutritive. They are directed  in the decoctum hordei
compositum, and in the  confectio senna.  Applied ex-
ternally, they promote  the suppuration of tumours;
hence they have a place in maturating cataplasms;
and are very convenient to apply to  the gums, and,
when boiled wilh milk, to the throat.
  Ficus indica. See Lacca.
  Fiddle-shaped. See Leaf.
  Fidicina'les.   (Fidicinalis, sc.  musculus.)  Sec
Lumbricales.
  FIENUS, Thomas, was son of a physician of Ant-
werp, and bom  in 1507.  After studying at Leyden and
Bologna, he was invited, at the age of 26, to be one of
the medical  professors at Louvaine, where he took hii
degrees. With the exception of one year, din ing which
he  attended  the Dukeol Bavaria, he remained in that
office till his death  in 1631.  Besides his great abilities
in  medicine and surgery, he was distinguished  for his
knowledge of natural history, the learned languages,
and the mathematics.   He has left several works:  the
chief of which  is termed  "Libri  Chirurgici  XII.,"
treating of the principal operations; it passed through
many editions.  His father, Jokn, was author of a well-
received treatise, " De Flatibus."
  FIG. See Ficus carica.
  FIGURESTO.NE.  Bildstein.    Agalmatolit^    A
massive mineral of a gray colour, or  brown flesh-red,
and sometimes  spotted, or with blue veins; unctuous
to the touch, and yielding lo the  nail.  It comes from
China, cut into  grotesque figures.   It differs from stea-
tite in wanting the magnesia.  It is also found in Tran-
sylvania, and in Wales.
  FIGWORT.   See Ranunculus ficaria.
  FILA'GO.  (From filum, a thread, and ago, to pro-
duce or have to do with, in allusion to the cottony web
connected with  every part of the plant.)  Cud or cot-
ton-weed ; formerly used as an astringent.
  FILA'MENT. (Filamcnlum; from filum, a thread.)
1. A term applied  in anatomy to a  small  thread-like
portion adhering to any part, and frequently synony
mous with fibre. See Fibre.
  2. The  stamen of a flower consists of the filament,
anther, and pollen.  The filament is the column which
supports the anther.
  From its figure it is called,
  1. Capillary; as in Plantago.
  2. Filiform ;  as in Scilla maritima.
  3. Flat; as in Allium cepa.
  4. Dilatate, spreading laterally; as in OrnithogalmA
umbellalum.
  5. Pedicellate, affixed  transversrly to a little stalk
as  in Salvia.
  6. Bifid, having  two ; as in Stemodia.
                                        359 
FIL
FIS
  7. Bifurccd; as in Prunella.
  8. Multifid; as in Carolina princcps.
  9. Dentate; as in Rosmarinus officinalis.
  10. Nicked; as in Allium cepa.
  11. lAinceolate; as in Ornithogalum pyrenaicum.
  12  Castrate, the anther  naturally wanting; as in
 Gratiola officinalis.
  13. Subulate; as in Tulipa gcsncriani.
  From the outiescence,
  1. Barbate, bearded; as in Lycium.
  2. Lanate,  woolly ; as in  Verbascum thapsus.
  3. Pilose; aj in Anthcricum frutescens.
  4. Gland-bearing; as in Laurus and Rheum.
  From its direction,
  1. Erect; as in 'Tulipagesneriana.
  2. Incurved; curved inward, and a little bent.
  3. Declinate;  as in Hcmcrocalis fuloa.
  4. Connivenl; as in Physalis alkekengi.
  From its concretion,
  1. Liberate, free,  nowhere adhering; as in Nico-
tiana tabacum.
  2. Connate, adhering at their base; as in Malva syl-
vestris, and Alcca rosea.
  From its insertion,
  J. Reccptaculine, inserted  into the receptaculum; as
in Papaver somniferum.
  2. Corolline, as in Verbascum thapsus, and Nerium
ulcander.
  3. Calicinc; as in Pyrus  malus, and Mcspilus ger-
manica.
  4. Stylinc;  as in the  Orchides.
  5. Nectarine;  as in Pancratium declinatum.
  From its length, it is said to  be  very long; as in
Plantago major: very short in Jasminum and Vinca:
and unequal, some long, some short; as in Cheiranthus
thciri.
  FILARIA.   The name  of  a genus  of intestinal
worms.
  File'llum.   (From  filum, a  thread; because it
resembles  a string.)  The  fiaenum of the  penis  and
t >ngue.
  File ti :i.   (From filum, a thiend; named from its
string-like appearance.)  The fiaenum of the tongue
and penis.
  FIL1CES.   (Filix,  cis. f.; from filum, a  thread.)
Ferns. One of the families, or natural tribe into which
the whole vegetable kingdom is  divided.  'They are
defined plants which bear their flower and fruit on the
back of the leal" or stalk, which is termed frons.
  FlLl'CULA.   (Dim. of filix, fern; a  small sort of
fern: or from filum, a thread, wliich it resembles.)
Common maiden-hair.    See Adianthum capillus ve-
neris.
  FILIFORMIS.  Filiform, thread-like: applied to
many parts of animals  and vegetables from their re-
semblance.
  FILIPE'NDULA.  (From filum, a thread, and pat-
dco, to hang; so named because the numerous bulbs
of its roots hang, as it were, by small threads.)  See
 Spiraa filipcndula.
  Filh-endula  aquatica.   Water-dropwoit;   the
 UZnanthe fislulosa of Linnaeus.
  Filius ante patrem.  Any plant, the  flower of
 wliich tomes out before the leaf; as coltsfoot.
  FILIX.  (From filum, a thread;  so called from ils
 being cut, as it were, in slender portions, like threads.)
 Fern.  See Polypodium.
  Filix aculeata.  See Polypodium aculeatum.
  Fn.ix Florida. See Osmunda regalis.
  Filix fcemina.  See Pteris aquilina.
  Filix Mas.  See Polypodium filix mas.
  FILTRATION.    (Filtratio;  trom filtrum,  a
 strainer.)  Au operation, by means of which a fluid is
 mechanically separated from consistent particles meie-
 ly mixed with it. It does not differ from straining.
  An apparatus fitted up for this purpose is  called a
 filter.  The  form of this  is  various, according to the
 intention of the operator.  A piece  of tow, or wool,
 or cotton, stuffed into the pipe of a lunnel, will prevent
 Ihe nussa-e of grosser particles, and by that means
 render the fluid clearer whicli comes through.  Sponge
 is still more effectual.   A strip of linen rag wetted and
 hung over the side of a vessel containing a fluid, in
 such a manner as that one end of the rag may be un-
 nic.s, d in the fluid, and the other  end may remain
 without, below Ihe surface, will act as a syphon, anil
 carryover the clearer portion.  Linen or woollen studs
       I'-'O
may ellner be fastened over the mouths of proper vea
sels, or fixed to a frame, like a sieve, for the purpose ot
filtering.  All these are more commonly used by cooks
and apothecaries than by philosophical chemists, who;
for the most pari, use the paper called cap paper, made
up without size.
  As  the filtration of considerable quantities of fluid
could not be effected at once without  breaking the
filter of paper, it is found requisite to use a linen cloth,
upon  which the paper is applied and supported.
  Precipitates and other pulverulent matters are col-
lected more speedily by filtration than by subsidence.
But there are many chemists who disclaim the use of
this method,  and  avail themselves of the latter only,
which is certainly more accurate, and liable to no ob-
jection, where  the powders are such  as will admit of
edulcoralion and drying in the open air.
  Some fluids,  as  turbid water, may be purified  by
filtering through sand.  A large earthen funnel, or
stone bottle with the bottom beaten out,  may have its
neck  loosely  stopped wilh small stones,  over which
smaller may be  placed, supporting layers of gravel in-
creasing in fineness, and lastly covered  to the depth
of a few inches with fine sand all thoroughly cleansed
by washing.  This apparatus is superior to a filtering
stone, as it will  cleanse water in large quantities, and
may readily  be renewed  when the  passage is ob-
structed, by taking out and washing the upper stratum
of sand.
  A filter for corrosive liquors may be constructed, on
the same principles, of broken and pounded glass.—
lire's Chem. Diet.
  FTLTRUM.  A filter, straining or filtering instru
ment.
  FILUM.  A  thread or filament.
  Filum arsemcale.  Corrosive sublimate.
  FIMBRIA.  (A fringe,  quasi fimbria; from finit.
the extremity.)  A fringe.  1. A term used  by anato-
mists lo curled  membraneous productions.   See  Fim-
bria.
  2. In botany, it is applied  to the dentate  or fringe-
like ring of the operculum of mosses,  by ihe elastic
power of which the operculum is displaced.  See Pe.
ristomium.
  Fimbria.    (Fimbria, a fringe.    Quasi fimbria;
from finis, the  extremity.)   The extremities of the
Fallopian lubes.  See  Lrcrus.
  FINCKLE.  See Anethum faniculum.
  Fingered leaf.  See Leaf.
  FIOR1TE.  See Pearl sinter.
  FIR.  See  Pinus.
  Fir balsam.  See Pinus balsamea.
  Fir, Canada.  See Pinus balsamea.
  Fir, Norway  spruce.  See Pinus abies.
  Fir, Scotch.  See Pinus sylvestris.
  Fir, silver.   See Pinus picea.
  FIRE.  Ignis.  A very simple and active element,
the principal agent in nature lo balance the power and
natural otic-el of attraction.  The most useful accepta-
tion of the word  lire  comprehends  heat and light
There have been several theories proposed respecting
fire, but no one  as yet is fully established.  See Caloric
and Light.
  [F1TRTH,  Dr. S. of Salem, in  New-Jersey, pub-
lished a dissertation on malignant fever in 1805, with
an  attempt to  prove  that yellow fever is not conta-
gious.  Tlie experiments he tried witl( the matter of
black-vomit are  bold and decisive.   He proves by his
experiments, that  neither the black-vomit, serum, nor
saliva of persons  labouring under  yellow fever, are
capable of communicating that disease. He dropped the
matter of black-vomit  in his  eye, inoculated himself
with, and even  swallowed it.   For the particulars of
these and otlier  experiments, see Black-vomit.  A.]
  FiRMi'sn m mineralium.   Antimony.
  FISCHER, John Andrew, son of an apothecary
nt Erfurt,  was born in  1667.  He graduated there, and
was appointed in succession to several professorships;
but that of pathology and the practice of medicine he
did not receive  till the age of 43.  He acquired con-
siderable reputation in  his profession;  and he had
been ten years physician to the court of Mayence when
he died  in 1729.   Among several minor works he was
author of some  of greater  importance; as tlie "Con-
cilia Medica," in tliree volumes; the "RcsponsaPrac-
licu," and a Synopsis of Medicine, facetiously termed
'-Illias in Nuce." 
FIS
FLE
  (FISHERY, SEAL. Vessels belonging to the United
States, employed in voyages for catching seals, usually
pass round  Cape-Horn, aud visit the islands of Juan
Fernandez and  Massafuero.  At the  latter of these,
seals were formerly very numerous.  They are also
taken at Falkland's Islands, Southern Georgia, Tristan
d'Acunha, St. Paul's, and Amsterdam islands.  But of
lite years they have been found to be much more rate.
Even at  Massafuero, and the islands iu its vicinity,
they aie no longer found in that abundance which pre-
vailed when these voyages were first undertaken.
  The sea-elephant belongs to the same family with
the seal.  He is found  on many of the uninhabited
islands  of the great southern ocean, particularly  at
Kerguelan's Land, which they frequent in great herds.
  They make tittle resistance, and of course are easily
killed.   Several  of our vessels are said to have been
engaged iu their destruction.  Their oil is found to be
of au excellent  quality;  and not only answers for
home  consumption, but  makes a valuable article  of
exportation.   A.]
  [" Fishery, whale. This branch of business seems
to be less inviting and  profitable than it formerly was.
Whether this is  owing  lo a  scarcity of whales, to
greater exertions of other nations, or lo tlie inferiority
of the market at home, and  high duties abroad, we
need not examine  particularly here.  The decline of
the  whale-fishery  among  the people of  the  United
States, is probably to be ascribed to the operation of
all these causes, as well as to bounties and immuniiies
granted by some ofthe European powers so generously
as to tempt many of o.ir most enterprising whalemen
to engage  themselves and their capitals in foreign ser-
vice."—Med. Repos.
  These observations were made in leX)5, since which
there has been a  great  increase in the amount of capi-
tal, number of ships, and seamen engaged in the whale
fishery from the United Stales.  The greatest number
of ships in this business are fitted out at New-Bedford
in Massachusetts, the  island of Nantucket, and Sag-
Harbour, on the cast end of Long Island, of the state
of New-York.  S.uie few are titled out from this city,
an.l some from ports in Connecticut.  Few or none  of
our vessels pursue this business in the Arctic seas.
Some take the right whale on the coast of Brazil, but
most of ihose engaged in this employment from  the
United Slates resort to the Pacific ocean, where they
take both the spermaceti and the right whale.
  Vessels are fitted out on shares; the owners, master,
and seamen, dividing  the proceeds of the  voyage  ac-
cording  to a certain  ratio agreed upon before  the
voyage  commences, and whicli generally lasts about
two years. The success depends upon  the skill and
enterprise of the  officers and crew, which generally
consists of hardy and active youne men.  The  greater
their success tne greater  their share of the  profits.
The spermaceti-whale is the great  object of their
search in  the Pacific, as from this animal is derived
the  pharmacopceial  substance   called spcrma ceti.
Ambergris is also occasionally found in the intestines
of this'whale. A.]
  [Fishery, cod.  " This employment appears to  be
on the increase.  Notwithstanding the abundance  of
business which might be followed on shore, in a coun-
try  having so many millions of unappropriated acres,
there are found plenty of people who prefer the catching
offish along the coasls ofthe United Slates, and on the
Banks  of Newfoundland.   Government allows  a
bounty on the tonnage of the vessels engaged in the cod-
fishery,  in lieu of a drawback upon the salt used  in
curing the fish."—Med. Rep.
  The cod taken along  our shores and on the Banks
of Newfoundland  is the Gadus morhua, though some
of the  other species are  also taken.  On the rocky
jhores of Maine,  the hake  (Gadus  merluccius)  is
abundantly taken.  The  fish is not so good as the
Gadus morhua,  but it has a very large  sound from
which icthvocolla, or fish glue, of a good quality, may
be prepared in any quantity.  A.]
  Fish-glue.  See Ichthyocolla.
  FISSURA.   A  fissure.  1. That species of frac-
ture in which the  bone is slit, but not completely di-

  ■2. A name given to  a deep and long depression in a

'' Fissura magma  svlvii. The anterior and middle
lobes of tlie cerebrum on each side are parted by a I
deep narrow sulcus, which  ascends  obliquely back-
wards  from the temporal ala of the os sphenoides, to
near the middle of the os parietale, and this sulcus i*
thus called.
  FISSl'S.  Cleft, cloven.   Applied  to leaves,  nnd
pods./e/m fissa, that are, as it weie,  cut into fissures
or straight segments.  See Leaf.
  FISTIC-M.'T.   See Pistachia vera.
  FISTULA.  [Quasi fusula: from fundo, to pour
out; or from its similarity to a pipe, or reed.)  Eligii
morbus.  A term in surgery, applied to a long  nnd
sinuous ulcer that has a narrow opening, and which
sometimes leads to a larger cavity, and has no disposi-
tion to heal.
  FISTULA RIA.  (From fistula, a pipe, so called
because its  stock is hollow.)  Stavesacre.  See Del-
phinium staphisagria.
  FIXED.   In chemistry, the term fixed bodies is ap
plied to those substances which cannot be caused to
pass by a  strong rarefaction from the solid or liquid
state of an ela-tic fluid.
  Fixed air.  Sec Carbonic acid.
  FIXITY. The property by which  bodies resist the
action of heat, so as not to rise in vapour.
  FLAG.   See Acorus and Iris.
  [FLAGG, Dr. John, was son of the Rev. Ebenezet
Flagg, the first  minister of Chester,  in  New-Hamp-
shire.  He  was graduated at Harvard  University in
1761, and studied medicine under the direction of Dr.
Osgood, of Andover.  He commenced practice at Wo-
burn, hut in  17C9 removed to Lynn, where he enjoyed
the full confidence of his fellow-citizens, and acquired
a high standing in his profession.
  When, in 1775, the dark cloud overspread our politi-
cal hemisphere, Dr. Flagg was prepared  to unite iu the
strong  measures of resistance against  every encroach-
ment upon the rights and freedom of his country.  He
was an active and useful member of the committee of
safety, and contributed largely to the promotion of the
military  preparations to meet the exigencies which
soon after happened.  From  a native modesty, he de-
clined  any appointment in  the councils of the state,
but was prevailed upon to accept the commission of
lieutenant-colonel of militia, under the venerable Col
Timothy Pickering, which, however,  he soon after re-
signed, that he  might devote his  whole attention tu
the practice of medicine, which  he preferred to milt
tary pursuits.
  He was elected  a member of  the Massachusetts
Medical Society  immediately after its incorporation,
when the number of fellows was restricted to seventy
in the whole commonwealth.  He  held a commission
of justice of the peace before the revolution and aftei
the adoption of our state constitution, till  his death.
The fatigues of  an extensive circle  of practice, and
the exposures incident to a professional life, impaired
his constitution, and  he  fell  a victim to pulmonary
consumption in 1793, in the 50th year of  his age. A.l
  FLAGELLIFORMI8.   Whip-like.  A term  ap-
plied to a stem that is long  and pliant, whip like; aa
that of jasmine and blue boxtliorn.  See Caulis.
  Flake-uhxte.  Oxide of bismuth.
  FLA' MMULA.  (Dim. of fiamma, a fire: named
from the burning pungency of its taste.)  See Ranun-
culus flammula.
  Flammula jovis.  Sec Clematis recta.
  FLATULENT.  Windy.
  FLAX.   See Linum.
  Flax-leaved daphne. See Daphne gnidium.
  Flax, purging.  See Linum catharlicum.
  Flax, spurge.  See Daphne gnidium.
  FLEA-WORT.  See Plantago psyllium.
  Fle'men.  (From flccto, to incline  downwards.)
Flcgma.  A tumour about the ankles.
  Flere'sin. Gout.
  FLESH.   1. The muscles of animals.
  2.  A vulgar term for all the soft parts of an animal
  3. It is also applied to leaves, fruit, &c. which have
the appearance or consistence of flesh.
  FLE'XOR. The name of several muscles, the  of-
fice of which is to bend parts into which they are in-
serted.
  Flexor   accessorius  digitorum  pedis.   See
Fh rur /««</,/.,- digitorum pedis.
  1'lEXOl'.  IJHEV1S DIQiTORUM PEDIS, PERFORATUS
sublimis.   A flexor  muscle of the toes, situated  on
the fool   Flexor brevis digitorumpedis, pcrforatus oj
                                       301 
FLE                                              FLE
Albinus  Flexor brevis of Douglas. Flexor digitorum
brevis, sive perforatum pedis of Winslow. Perforatus,
ecu flexor secundi internodii digitorum pedis of Cow-
per; and Caleano sus-phalangettien commun  of Du-
mas.  It arises by a narrow, tendinous, and fleshy be-
ginning, from the  inferior  protuberance of the os cal-
cis.  It likewise derives many of its fleshy fibres from
the adjacent aponeurosis, and soon forms a thick belly,
which divides into four portions.  Each of these por-
tions terminates in a fiat tendon, the fibres of which
decussate, to afford a passage to a tendon of the long
flexor, and afterwuid reuniting,  are inserted into the
second plialanx of each of the  four less  toes.  This
muscle servos to bend the second joint of the toes.
  Flexor brevis minimi  digiti pedis.  Paratkenar
minor  of Winslow.   This  little muscle  is  situated
along the inferior surface and outer edge of the meta-
tarsal bone of the little toe.  It arises tendinous  from
the basis of  that bone, and  from the  ligaments that
connect it to tlie.es cuboides.  It soon becomes fleshy,
and adheres almost the whole length ofthe metatarsal
bone, at the anterior  extremity of which it forms a
Bmnll tendon,  that  is  inserted into the root of the
first joint of the little toe.   Ils use is to bend the little
toe.
  Flexor bruvis pollicis  manus.  Flexor secundi
internodii of tloilglas.  Thenar of Winslow.   Flexor
primi ct secundi ossis pollicis of Cowper ;  and Carpo-
phalangicn  du  pouce of Dumas.  'This muscle  is di-
vided into  two portions by  the tendon ol" the flexor
longus pollicis.  The outermost portion arises tendi-
nous from the anterior part of the os trapezoides and
internal annular ligament.  The second, or innermost,
and thickest portion, arises from the  same bone, and
likewise from the os  magnum, and os cuneiforme.
Both these portions are inserted tendinous into these
sesamoid bones of the thumb.  The use of this muscle
is to bend the second j-jint of the thumb.
  Flexor brevis  pollicis  pedis.  A muscle of the
great toe, that bonds the first joint of that part. Flexor
brevis of Douglas.   Flexor brevis pollicis of Cowper;
and  Tarsophalangien du pouce of Dumas.  It is situ-
ated upon the metatarsal bone of" the great toe, arises
tendinous from the under and anterior part of the os
calcis, and  from the under part of the os cuneiforme
externum.  It  soon  becomes fleshy and divisible into
two portions, which do not separate  from each other
till they have reached the anterior extremity of the
metatarsal bone of the great  toe, where they become
tendinous, and then the innermost portion unites with
the tendon of the abductor, and the outermost with that
of the abductor pollicis. They adhere to the external
os  sesamoideum,  and are  finally inserted into the
root of the  first joint of the great toe.   These two
portions, by their  separation, form a groove, in which
passes the tendon of  the flexor longus pollicis.
  Flexor carpi  radialis.  A long thin muscle, situ-
ated obliquely at the  inner  and anterior part of the
forearm, between  the palmaris longus and the pro-
nator teres.  Radialis internus of Albinus and Wins-
low ; and Enilrochlo melacarpien of Dumas.  It arises
tendinous from the  inner condyle ofthe os humeri,
and, by many fleshy fibres, from the adjacent tendi-
nous fascia   It descends  along the inferior edge  of
the pronator teres, and terminates in a iong, flat, and
thin tendon, which afterward becomes narrower and
thicker, and, after passing under the internal annular
l.gainent, in a groove distinct  from the other tendons
ofthe wrist, it spreads wider again, and is inserted into
the fore and upper  part of the metacarpal bone that
sustains the forefinger. It serves to bend the  hand,
and ils oblique direction may like-wise enable it to assist
in ils pronation.
   Flexor   carpi  ulnaris.   Vlnnris  tntcrnus  of
Winslow and Albinus.   Epitrochh cubito  carpien of
Dumas.  A muscle situated on the cubit or forearm,
lhat assists iu bending the arm.  It arises tendinous
from the inner condyle of the os humeri, and, by a
small fleshy origin, from the anterior edge of the ole-
cranon.   Between  these  two portions,  we  find the
ulnar nerve passing to the forearm.  Some of  lis
fibres arise likewise from the tendinous fascia that co-
vers ihe muscles of the forearm. In its descent, it
boon becomes  tendinous, but its fleshy fibres do not
entirely disappear till it has reached the  lower extre-
mity of the ulna,  where  its tendon  spreads  a  little,
and after sending oil* a few fibres to the external and
      3C2
internal an<i annular ligaments, is inserted into the os
pisiforme.
  P'lexor   longus   digitorum   pedis profundus
perforans.  A flexor muscle of ihe  toe?, situated
along the posterior pari and inner  side of tlie leg.  Per
foralis seu flexor profundus of Douglas,  flexor digi
torum longus, sive perforans pedis, and perforans seu
flexor tertii internodii digitorum pedis of Cowper; and
Tibio phalangelien of Dumas.  Il arises fleshy from
ihe back part of the tibia, and, after running down to
Che internal ankle, its tendon passes under a kind  of
annular ligament, and then through a sinuosity at the
inside of the os calcis.  Soon  after this it receives a
small tendon from the flexor longus pollicis pedis, and
about the middle of the  foot it divides into four ten-
dons, which pass  through the slits of the flexor brevis
digitorum pedis, and are inserted  into the upper part
of the last bone of all the less toes.  About the mid-
dle of the foot, this  muscle unites with a fleshy por-
tion, which, from the name of its first describer, has
been usually called massa carnea Jacobi Sylvii:  it is
also termed Flexor accessorius digitorum pedis.  This
appendage arises by a thin  fleshy origin, from  most
part of the sinuosity of the os calcis,  and likewise by
a thin tendinous beginning from  the anterior part of
the external tubercle of that bone;  it soon becomes all
fleshy, and unites to the  long flexor just before it di-
vides into its four tendons.  The use of this muscle is
to bend the last joint of the toes.
  Flexor  longus pollicis manus.   Flexor longus
pollicis of Albinus.   Flexor tertii  internodii of Doug-
las; Flexor tertii internodii sive longissimus pollicis
of Cowper; and  radio-phalangelien du pouce of Du-
mas.  A muscle of the thumb placed at the side ofthe
flexor longus digitorum, profundus, perforans, and co-
vered by the extensores carpi radiales.  Itarises fleshy
from  the  anterior surface of the radius, immediately
below the insertion of the biceps, and is continued
down along tlie oblique ridge, which serves for the in-
sertion of the  supinator brevis, as far as the pronator
quadratus.  Some of its fibres spring likewise from the
neighbouring edge of the interosseous ligament.  Its
tendon passes under the internal  annularligament of
the wrist, and, after running along the inner surface of
the first bone of the thumb, between  the two portions
of the flexor brevis pollicis, goes to be inserted into the
last joint of the thumb, being bound  down in its way
by the ligamentous expansion  that is spread over the
second bone.  In  some  subjects we find a tendinous
portion arising  from  the inner condyle of the os hu-
meri, and forming a fleshy slip that commonly termi-
nates near the upper part of the origin of this muscle
from the radius. The use of this muscle is to bend the
last joint of the thumb.
  Flexor  longus pollicis pedis.  A muscle nf the
great toe, situated  along the posterior part of the leg.
It arises tendinous and fleshy  a little below the hea'd
of the fibula, and its fibres  continue to adhere to lhat
bone  almost to  its extremity.  A little above  the  heel
it terminates in a round tendon,  which, after passing
in a groove formed at the  posterior edge of the astra-
galus, and  internal and lateral part of theos calcis, in
which it is secured by an annular  ligament, goes to be
inserted into the last  bone  of  tlie  great toe,  winch  it
serves to bend.
   Flexor  ossis   metacarpi  pollicis.   Opponcus
pollicis of  Innes.   Opponent pollicis  manus of Albi
nus.  Flexor primi internodii of Douglas. Antithcnar
sive semi-interosseus pollicis of Winslow; and Carpo
phalangien du pouce of Dumas.  A  muscle  of the
thumb, situated  under the abductor  brevis pollicis,
which it resembles in its shape.   It  arises tendinous
and fleshy from the os scaphoides, and from the ante-
rior and inner part of the internal annular ligament.
It is inserted tendinous and fleshy into the under and
anterior part of the first bone of the thumb.  It serves
to turn the first bone of the thumb upon its  axis, and
at the same time  to bring it inwards opposite to the
other fingers.
   Flexor parvus minimi digiti. Abductor minimi
digiti, Hypolhenar Riolani of Douglas.  Hypathcnar
minimi digiti of Winslow ; and second carpo-phalan-
gien  du petit doigt of Dumas.   A muscle of ihe  little
ringer, situated along the inner surface of the mela
carpal hone of the little finger.  It arises tendinous anc
fleshy from the honk-like process of tht unciform bone,
and likewise from the anterior surface of the adjacent 
FLO                                             FLO
 part of the annular ligament.  It terminates in a flat
 tendon whicli is connected with that of the abductor
 minimi digiti, and inserted into the inner aud anterior
 part of the upper end of the  first lioue oi' the Utile
 linger.  It serves to bend the little finger, and likewise
 to assist tlie abductor.
   Flexor  profundus  perforans.   Profundus, of
 Albinus.  Perforans, of Douglas.  Perforans vulgo
 profundus, of Winslow; Flexor tertii internodii digi-
 torum manus, vl perforatus manus, of Cowper; and
 Cubito ph.-tlangetien commun,  of  Dumas.  A muscle
 of ihe ringers situated on the  forearm, immediately
 under the perforatus, which  it greatly resembles iu
 its shape.  It arises fleshy from the external side, and
 upper part ofthe ulna, for some way downwards, and
 from a large portion of Llie inlerrosseous ligament.  It
 splits into l'oi-.i tendons a liltle before it passes under
 the annular ligament of the  wrist,  and  these pass
 through the slit  in the tendons of the flexor sublimis,
 to be inserted into the fore and upper part of line third
 or last bone of all the fore-lingers, tike joint of which
 they bend.
  Flexor  sublimis perforatus.   This  muscle,
 which is  the p.rfii-utHs uf I'mvper, Douglas, aud
 Winslow, is, by  Albinus and others, named sublimis.
 It has gotten the  name of perforatus, from its teudons
 being perforated  by those of another flexor muscle of
 the linger, called the perforans.  They  who give it
 the appellation of sublimis, consider its situation with
 respect to the latter, and  wliich, instead of perforans,
 they name profundus.  It is a long muscle, siiuated
 most commonly at the anterior and inner part of the
 forearm, between the palmaris longus and the flexor
 carpi ulnaris; bul, in some subjects, we find il placed
 under the former of these muscles, between tbe flexor
 carpi ulnaris and the flexor carpi  radialis.  It arises,
 tendinous and fleshy, from the inner condyle of tlie os
 humeri, from the inner edge of the coroiuiid process of
 the ulua, aud from the upper and forepart of the radius,
 down lo  near tlie insertion of tlie pronator teres.  A
 little below the middle of the forearm, its fleshy belly
 divides into four portions, which degenerate into as
 many round tendons, that pass all together under the
 internal  annular ligament of the wrist, after which
 they separate from each other, become thinner and
 flatter, and running along the palm ofthe hand, under
 the aponeurosis  palmaris, are inserted into the upper
 part of Ihe second hone  of each finger.  Previous to
 this  insertion, however, the fibres of each tendon de-
 cussate near the extremity of the first bone, so as to
 afford a passage to a tendon of the perforans. Of these
 four tendons, lhat of the middle finger is the largest,
 that of tbe forefinger the next in size, and that of tlie
 little finger the smallest.   The use of this muscle is to
 bend the second  joint ofthe lingers.
  Flexor tertii internodii.  Sec Flexor longus
pollicis manus.
  FLEXUOSUS.   Flexuous;   full  of  turnings  or
 windings.  A stem is so named which is zigzag, form-
 ing angles alternately from right to left, and from left
 to right;  as in Smilax aspera.
  FLINT.  A hard stone, found in beds of chalk, and
 in primitive, transition, secondary, and alluvia) moun-
 tains.  Its constituents arc silica, lime, alumina, and
 oxide of iron.
  FLINTY SLATE. Basanite.  A mineral, of which
 there are two kinds.
  1. Common flinty slate, of an ash-gray colour, with
 other colours, in  flamed, striped, and  spotted delinea-
 tions.  It is found in different parts of the great tract
 of clay-slate and gray-wacke which extends from St.
 Abb's head to Portpairick.
  2  Lydian stone, of a grayish-black and velvet-black
 colour.   It is found frequently along with common
 flinty slate,  in beds of clay-slate.  Il occurs in Bohe-
 mia and  the Pentland  hills, near Edinburgh.  It is
 sometimes used  as a touchstone lor ascertaining the
 purity of gold and silver.
  FLO AT ST ONE.   The spongiform quartz  of
 Jameson.
  FLOCCILATION.  (Floccilalio; from floccus, the
 nap of clothes.)  Picking the bedclothes.  A symptom
 of great danger in acute diseases.
  FLORAL.  (Floralis;  from flos, a flower.)  Be-
 longing to a flower; as floral leaf.  See Bractea.
  [FLORA OF  NORTH AMERICA.  " Before the
 revolutionary struggle began in France. Louis 16th had
patronized a botanical inquiry into the vegetable pro-
ductions  of North America.   In the sixth  volume of
our Medical  Repository, we gave  an accouut of the
establishments formed  lor that purpose, and ol tho
history of the oaks of North America, published  by
Mr. Michaux, the botanist employed by that monarch
Since that work on the  Quercus family was published,
the great performance of Mr. Michaux on the vegeta-
bles of that extensive country generally, has made ita
appearance."
  " The industrious author of this work had spent six
years in  Persia  before  his  mission to America.  He
alterward passed twelve years in exploring the regions
between  Hudson's Bay and  Carolina.  In the course
of the numerous excursions he made during that time
through  the diversified  slates, provinces, and territo-
ries, he collected the materials of this new and  more
complete synopsis of North American plants.  This,
he hopes, will be found lobe the case,  notwithstanding
the prior descriptions of the plants of Canada by Cornu"
ti; of Virginia by Clayton, aided by Gronovius: of Ca-
rolina by Catesby, with plates, as  well as by Walther
and  Barnaul;  and of  the more  northern parts, by
Marshall and Forster.
  "This  work  is published  by the author's son, the
father having left  it in  his bauds  rather  unfinished,
when he set off on Ins voyage  ot di.-co\ei}  to the
islands lying  in  the Great Souih  S<a.  We  mention
with concern the death of this indet'aiigable namralisl
in 1802.  He  fell a  victim to the  zeal with winch he
urged his physical  inquiries  on the  coast of Mada-
gascar.
  "The  author  follows the  Linnaean or sexual sys-
tem.  In  addition to the vegetables, which  are indige-
nous  in  America,  he has also noted the European
plants growing  there.   The generic characters are
chiefly taken from Murray's last edition of the system
of vegetables.   Mr. Michaux seems to have confirmed
as many  of the Linnaean species as he could; though,
for the sake of  perspicuity, he has described some of
them over again.  It is affirmed that the work contains
no species that have not either been seen or gathered by
Michaux himself.  This must give to Ihis Flora great
value, and render it peculiarly interesting to the lovers
of botany in the United  States.  Genuine descriptions
recently made of the plants of the country by an actual
observer, possessing remarkable skill and discernment
in the practical as well  as the theoretical parts of the
science, cannot  fail to  increase  the facility of its ac-
quirement among our studious  youth.  To them, in
particular, it will shorten the way to  knowledge, and
at the same time, render it much  mote easy and de-
lightful.
  " Particular labour has been  bestowed upon the
Cyperacca and  Gramiiieae; and all the Cryptogamia
have  been sedulously attended to, except  the fungi.
As  respects the Filiccs,  he adopts  the arrangement of
J. E. Smith; on  the Musci, the system  of Hod wig;
and he follows the method of Acharius on the Lichens.
Care has  been taken that the genera of the same order
should be assembled under the banner of affinities, and
thrown into sections as far as the  laws of the system
would peimit; so that  they  may be found by the in-
quirer and student with the greater readiness and
ease.
  " We consider this Flora boreali Americana as  a
most desirable addition  to the natural history of our
country.  With  this work  in his  hand, ihe botanist
will be enabled  to pursue his studies on the vegetables
of Fredon (U. S.) and the adjoining regions, with ad-
ditional ease  and success.   Though  we cannot dis-
miss it from our notice, without expressing our regret
that the author  had not enriched his  book with some
of the synonyms from other writers, with some of the
popular and trivial names, and with some little sketch
of the dietetic, medicinal, and economical uses of the
more distinguished species."—Med. Repos.  vol.H  A ]
  Flores benzoes. See Benzoic acid.
  Flores martiales.   See  Ferrum ammoniatum.
  Flores salis ammoniaci.   See  Ammonia  sub-
carbonas.
  Flores sulphuris.   See Sulphur.
  Flores sulphuris loti.   See  Sulphur Ictum.
  FLORESCENTIA.   (From floresco, to  flourish o
bloom.)  The act of flowering, whic'i Linnaeus coin
pares to the act of generation in animals.
  FLORET.   A liltle flower.
                                        363 
FLO                                            FLU
  FLOS.   (Flos,  ns. f.;  a flower.)   1. A flower.
That part of a plant, for the most part beautifully co-
loured, and protecting the internal organs.
  Every flower has parts, which are
  1.  Essential, constituting properly the flower; as the
pistil, stamen, and receptacle.
  2.  Less essential, without which  the  flower is in
some instances formed ;  as the calyx, corolla, and pe-
dunculus
  3.  Accidental, noticed in a few only; as the bractea
and nertarium.
  A flower is said to be,
  1.  Complete, when furnished with enlyx and corolla;
as Nicotiana tabacum.
  2.  Incomplete, when the calyx or corolla is wanting.
  3.  Naked, devoid of the calyx;  us  in Lilium candi-
dum, and Tulipa gesneriana.
  4.  Apetaloid,  without  the  corolla;  as in  Galena
Africanx, and  Saururus ccrnvus.
  When the stamens and pistils are both, as usual, in
one flower, that flower is called perfect, or united;
when they are  situated in different flowers of the same
species, they are called separated flowers ; thai which
has the stamens being named the  barren  flower, as
producing no fruit  in itself,  and that with the pistils
the fertile one, as bearing the seed
  'The flower contains the internal or genital parts of
a plant:
  1. The stamen or male genital organ.
  2. The pistillum or female genital organ.
  From iheir diversity, flowers aie called,
  1.  Male,  which have the stamina only.
  2.  Female, in wliich are the pistils only.
  3.  Hermaphrodite, which contain both stamens and
pistils.
  4. Neuter, naturally deficient of stamens and pistils ;
as the marginal flowers of the Centaurea cyanus, aud
Jacobca.
  5.  Castrate, when the anthers or the pistils are na-
tuially wanting. The pistils, for example, are want-
ing in the Calendula officinalis, and in the Viola mira-
bilis, there  are no anthers.
  0. Abortive, the fecundated gerniens of which wither
before the maturity ofthe fruit;  as happens to Ihe flo-
rets in the radius of the Helianlhus annuus.
  7.  Monstrous, when the internal organs become pe-
tals, as is the case with full or double flowers.
  Besides these distinctions, Linnaeus's favourite divi-
sion is into,
  1. Aggregate.
  2.  Compound.
  3  Amentaceous
  4.  Glumose, or chaffy, peculiar to the grasses.
  5.  The sheathed flower, the common receptacle of
which springs from a sheath; as in Arum.
  0. The Umbellate.
  7.  The Cymose.  See also Inflorescence.
  II. A term used by former chemists to whatever had
a flower-like appearance, especially if obtained by sub-
limation, as flowers of sulphur, benjamin, zinc, Sec.
  Flos ferri.  A radiated variety of carbonate  of
lime.                                      ,.    .
  FLOSCULUS.  A little flower.  A term applied in
botany to the small and numerous florets ol u com-
pound flower, which are all sessile on a common undi
ilded receptacle, and enclosed in one contiguous ca-
lyx, or perianth.
  FLOUR.  The powder ofthe gramineous seeds.
  FLOWI'.R.  See Flos.
  FLOWER-DE-LUCE. Sec Iris germanica.
  Fiovers of benjamin.  See Benzoic, acid.
  FLuVER, Sir John, was bom at Hiniera, in Stai-
lordshiie, about the year ll>49, and graduultd at Ox-
ford.  He then settled at Litchfield, where his alien-
lion and skill procured him extensive reputation, inso-
much that  he  was honoured with  knighthood, as a
icward for  his talents. He strongly advocated the use
ot cold bathing, particularly  in chronic rheumatism,
und nervous disorders: and he ascribed tho increasing
prevalence  of consumption  lo the discontinuance of
the practice of baptizing children by immersion.  He
published several works on  this and other subjects;
particularly an excellent treatise on  the  asthma, un-
der which  he himself laboured from  the time ot pu-
berty, notwithstanding which he lived lobe an  old
man.   He is said to  have been one  ol the first who
reckoned the number ol"pulsations by a time-piece.
     304
  FLUATE.  Fluas.  A compound of the fluoric acid
with salifiable bases: thus, fluate of lime, &.c.
  FLUCTUA'TlON.  Fluctuatio.  A tern: used  by
surgeons, to express  the undulation of a fluid; ihus
when pus is formed in an abscess,  or when water ac-
cumulates in the abdomen, if the abscess or abdomen
be lightly pressed with the  fingers, the motion of flue
tuation may be distinctly felt.
  FLUELLIN.  See Antirrhinum elatine.
  FLUID.   Fluidus.   A fluid is that, the particles of
which so little attract each  other, that when poured
out,  it drops guttalim, and adapts itself in  every
respect to the form ofthe vessel containing it.
  The fluids of animal bodies, and particularly those
of the human body, are something very considerable
in proportion to the solids;  the ratio in the adult being
as nine to  one.  Chaussier  put a  dead ~dy  of 120
pounds into an oven, and found it, after many days'
successive desiccation, reduced lo 12 pounds.  Bodies
found, after being buried for a long time in the burning
sands of the Arabian deserts, present an extraordinary
diminu'ion of weight.
  The animal fluids are sometimes contained in ves-
sels,  wherein they  move with more or less rapidity;
sometimes  in little  areolae or spaces, where they seem
to be kept in reserve; and at other  times  they are
placed in the great cavities where they make  only a
temporary stay of longer or shorter duration.
  The fluids ofthe human body are,
  1.  The blood.
  2.  The lymph.
  3.  The perspiratory or  perspirable  fluids, wliich
comprise the liquids  of cutaneous  transpiration: ihe
transpiration or exhalation of mucous membranes, as
also of the synovial, serous, and cellular; of the adi-
pose cells, the medullary membranes, the thyroid and
thymus glands, &c.
  4.  The follicular fluid; the sebaceous secretion ol
ihe skin, the cerumen, the ropy matter from  the eye-
lids,  the mucus from the  glands and follicles of that
name from the tonsils, the cardiac glands, ihe prostate,
the vicinity of the anus, and some other parts.
  5.  The glandular fluids;  the tears, the saliva, the
pancreatic  fluid,  the bile, the urine, the secretion from
Cowper's glands, the semen, the milk, the liquid con-
tained in the supra-renal capsules, that of the testicles,
and of the  mamma- of new-born infants.
  (i.  The chyme and the chyle.
  The properties of fluids, both chemical and physical,
are exceedingly various. Many have some analogy to
each other  under thpse two relations; but none exhibit
a perfect resemblance.  The writers of all ages have
attached a considerable degree of importance to their
methodical arrangement; and according to the doctrine
thee-ii flourishing in the schools, they have created dif
ferent systems of classification.  Thus, the ancients,
who attributed much importance to the four elements,
said that there were four principal humours, the  blood,
the lymph,  or pituita, the yellow bile, the black bile,
or air a bilis; and  these four humours coriespond to
the four elements, to  the four seasons  of the year, to
Ihe four divisions of the day, and to the four tempera
incuts.  Afterward, at different  periods,  other divi-
sions have  been substituted to ihis classification ofthe
ancients.   Thus, some have  made three classes of
liquids:—1. the chyme and chyle; 2. the- blood;  3. the
humours emanating  from  the  blood.  Some authors
have been content with forming two classes:—1. pri-
mary, alimentary,  or useless fluids; 2. secondary, or
useful.  Consequently, they distinguished them  into—
  I.  Becremcntitious, or humours destined from their
formation to the nourishment of the body.
  2.  Excremcwtitious, or fluids destined to be thrown
off from the system ;
  3.  Humours, which at times participate in the cha-
racters of the two former classes,  and are therefore
named excremento-rccrcmcntitious.
  In  later limes, chemists  have endeavoured to class
the humours according to their intimate or component
natuie, and thus they have established albuminous,
fibrinous, saponaeccus, waterv,&c. fluids.
  FLUOBORATE.   A compound of ihe fluoboric
acid w ith a salifiable basis.
  FLI OBOR1C  ACID. Acidum Jluoboricum.   Pro-
bably n compound of  fluorine with boron.  It is a
gaseous acid, nnd  may be obtained by heating in
glass retort twelve part* of sulphuric acid with a mix 
FLU
FLU
  ture of one part of fused boracic acid, and two of fluor-
  spar, reduced to a  very line  powder.  It must be re-
  ceived  over mercury.   It combines with salifiable
  bases, and forms salts called./"tuoiorifes.
    FLUOR.  Octohedral fluor of Jameson.  It is di-
  vided into  three sub-species, compact  fluor,  foliated
  fluor, and earthy fluor.  This genus of mineral abounds
  In nature, formed  by the  combination of the fluoric
  acid with lime.  It is called  spar, because it  has the
.  sparry form and fracture: fluor, because it melLs  very
  rendily; and vitreous, because it has tlie appearance
  of glass, and may be fused into glass of no contempti-
  ble appearance.
    Flitor albus.  See Leucorrhaa.
    FLUORIC  ACID.    (Acidum fluorieum, because
  obtained from the fluor-spar.)  Hydro-fluoric acid.
    "The fusible spar which is generally distinguished
  by the name of Derbyshire spar, consists of calcareous
  earth in combination with this acid.  If the pure fluor,
  or spar, be placed in a retort of lead or silver, with a
  receiver of the same metal adapted, and its weight of
  sulphuric acid  be then  poured upon it, the fluoric  acid
  will be disengaged by the application of a  moderate
  heat.  This acid gas readily combines with water; for
  whicli purpose it is necessary that the receiver should
  previously be half filled with that fluid.
   If the receiver be cooled with ice, and no water put
  in it, then the  condensed acid  is an intensely active
  liquid.  It has tlie  appearance of sulphuric acid, but
  is much more volatile, and sends off white fumes when
  exposed to air.  Its  specific gravity is only 1.060'.). It
  must be examined  with great taution, for when ap-
  plied to the skin it instantly disorganizes it, and  pro-
  duces very painful wounds.  When potassium is in-
  troduced inlo  it, it acts with  iuttense energy, and  pro-
  duces hydrogen gas and a neutral salt;  when limo is
  made to act upon  it, there is a violent heat excited,
  water is formed, and the same substance as fluor-spar
  is- produced.  With water in a certain proportion, its
  density increases to 1.25.  When it  is dropped  into
  water, a hissing noise is  produced, with much h«at,
  and an acid fluid not disagreeable to the taste is formed
  if the water be in sulficie-nt quantity.  It instantly
  corrodes aud dissolves glass.
    It appears extremely probable, from all  the  facts
  known respecting the fluoric  combinations, that fluor-
  s|iar  contains  a  peculiar acid matter; and that  this
  acid matter is united lo lime in the spar, seems evident
  from the circumstance, that gypsum or sulphate of  lime
  is the residuum of the distillation  of fluor-spar  and
  sulphuric acid.  The results of experiments on fluor-
  spar have been differently stated by chemists.
   Some have considered fluoric acid as a compound of
  fluorine wilh hydrogen, but it seems on the whole to be
  the analogy of chlorine.  But the analogy is incom-
  plete.  Certainly it  is consonant to the true logic of
  chemical science to regard chlorine as a simple body,
  since every attempt lo resolve it into simpler forms of
  matter has failed.  But fluorine has not been exhibited
  in an insulated state like chlorine; and here therefore
  the analogy does not hold.
   Thee marvellous activity of fluoric acid may be in-
  ferred from tho following  remarks  of  fi,r 11. Davy,
  from which also may he estimated  in some measure
  the prodigious difficulty attending refined investigations
  on this extraordinary substance.
    11 undertook the experiment of electrising pure liquid
  fluoric acid with considerable interest, as it seemed to
  offer the most probable method of ascertaining its real
  nature:  but considerable difficulties occurred in  exe-
  cuting the process-. The liquid fluoric acid immediately
  de-s' roys glass, and all animal and vegetable substances;
  it acts on all bodies containing metallic oxides; and I
  know of no substances whicli arc not rapid'-'dissolved
  or decomposed by it, except metals, charcoal, phospho-
  rus, sulphur, and certain combinations of chlorine.  I
  attempted to make  tubes of sulphur, of muriates of
  lead, and of copper containing metallic wires, by which
  it might be electrised,  but without success.  I  suc-
  ceeded, however, in boring a piece of horn silver in
  such a manner that I was able to cement a platina wire
  into it by means of a spirit lamp ;   and by inverting
  thus in a tray of platina, filled with liquid fluoric acid,
  I contrived to submit the fluid to the agency of elec-
  tricity in  such a manner,  that, in  successive experi-
  ments, it was possible to collect any elastic fluid  that
  might be produced.  Operating in this way with a very
weak  voltaic power, and keeping the apparatus corfl
by a freezing mixture, I ascertained thai the plating
wire at the positive pole rapidly corroded, and became
covered with a chocolate powder; gaseous mailer sepa
rated at the negative  pole, wliich I could never obinin
in suflicient quantities to analyze with accuracy, but It
inflamed like hydrogen.  No other inflammable mattei
was produced when the acid was pure.'
  II" instead of being uistillcd in metallic vessels, the
mixture of fluor-spar  and  oil of vitriol be distilled in
glass vessels, little of ihe  corrosive liquid will be ob-
tained; but the glass will be acted upon, and a peculiar
gaseous substance will be produced, which must  be
collected over mercury.   The best  mode of procuring
this gaseous body is lo mix the fluor-spar with pounded
gloss or quartz; and in this case the glass retorl may
be  preserved from corrosion, and the gas obtained in
greater quantities.  This  gas, which is called silicaled
fluoric gas, is jmssessed of  very  extraordinary pro-
perties.
  It is very heavy; about  18 times denser than hydro-
gen.  When brought into contact with water, it  in-
stantly deposites a white gelatinous  substance, which is
hydrate of silica; it  produces white fumes when suf-
fered to  pass into tlie atmosphere.  It  is not affected
by any of the common combustible bodies; bul when
potassium Is strongly heated in it, it  takes tire and burns
with a deep red light; the gas is absorbed, and it lawn-
coloured substance  is formed, which yii Ids  alkali lo
water  with slight effervescence,  and contains  a  com-
bustible body.   The  washings afford  potassa, and a
salt, from  wliich the strong acid  fluid previously
described, may be separated by sulphuric acid.
  If, instead  of glass or silica, the fluor spar  be mixed
wiili dry vitreous boracic acid, and distilled in a glass
vessel  with sulphuric acid, the proportions being one
part boracic acid, two fluor-spar,  and  twelve oil of
vitriol, the gaseous substance formed is of a different
kind, and is railed the fluoboric gas.  It Is colourless;
its sm-ell Is pungent, and  resembles that of muriatic
acid; it cannot be breathed without suffocation;  it ex-
tinguishes combustion ; and reddens strongly the tinc-
ture of turnsol.   It has no manner of action on glass,
but  a very powerful one on vegetable and  animal
matter.  It attacks  them with as  much force as con-
centrated sulphuric acid, and appears lo operate on these
bodies by the production of water; for while it car-
bonizes them, or evolves carbon, they may be touched
without any risk of burning.  Exposed to a high tem-
perature, it is not decomposed ; it is condensed  by cold
without changing its form.  When it is put iu  contact
with oxygen, or air, either at a high or low temperature,
it experiences no change, except seizing, at ordinary
temperatures, the moisture which these gases contain
It becomes in consequence a  liquid which emits ex-
tremely dense vapours.  It operates  in the same way
with all the  gases which  contain hygrometric water.
However little they may contain, It occasions in  them
very perceptible vapours.   It may  hence be employed
wilh advantage to show whether or not a gas contains
moisiure.
  No combustible body, simple or compound,  attacks
fluoboric gas, if we except the alkaline metals.  Potas-
sium and sodium, with the aid  of heat, burn  in ihis
gas, almost  as brilliantly  as in oxygen.   Boron and
fluate of potassa are  the products of ihis decomposi-
tion.  It might hence be inferred, that the metal seizes
the oecygrn of the boracic acid,  sets the boron at liberty,
and is itself oxidized and combined with the fluoric
acid.   According to Sir H. Davy's views, the fluoboric
gas being a compound of fluorine and boron, tho potas-
sium unites to the former, giving rise to the fluoride of
potassium, while the boron remains disengaged.
  Fluoboric gas  is  very soluble in water.   Dr.  John
Davy says, water can combine w ith 700 times  Us own
volume, or twice its weight, at the ordinary temperature
and pressure  of  the  air.   The liquid nas a  specific
gravity of 1.7T0.  If a bottle containing this gas be un-
corked under water, the liquid will rush In and fill it
with explosive violence.   Water saturated wilh thia
gas is limpid, fuming, and very caustic.   By heat about
one-fifth of the absorbed gas may  be expelled: but i
is impossible to abstract more.   It then  resembles con-
centrated  sulphuric acid,  and boils at  a temperature
considerably above 212°.  It afterward  condenses al-
together, in stria, although it contains still a very larg
quantity of gas.   It unites with the bases forming salt 
FOE
FON
 called fluoborates. none of which has been applied to
 any use
  The 2ct part ofthe Phil. Transactions, for 1812, con-
 tains an excellent paper by Dr. John Davy on fluosili-
 cic and  fluoboric gases, and the combinations of the
 latter with ammoiiiacal gas.  When united in  equal
 volumes, a  pulverulent salt is formed;  a second vo-
 lumeof ammonia, however,gives a liquid compound;
 and a third of ammonia, which is the limit of combina-
 tion, affords  still a  liquid;  both of them curious on
 many accounts.  ' They are,' says he, ' the first salts
 that have been observed liquid at the common temper-
 ature  of the atmosphere.   And they are  additional
 facts in support of the doctrine of definite proportions,
 and of the relation of volumes.'  The fluosilicic acid
 ulso unites to bases forming fluosilicates.
  From the remarkable property fluoric acid possesses
 of corroding glass, it has been employed  for etching on
 it, both iu the gaseous state, and combined with water;
 and an ingenious apparatus for this purpose is  given
 by Mr. Richard Knight, in the Philosophical Maga-
 eine, vol. xvii. p. 357.
  Of the combinations of this acid with most of the
 bases, little is known.
  Beside the fluor spar and cryolite, in which it is
 abundant, fluoric acid has been detected in the topaz;
 in wavelite, in wliich, however, it ic not  rendered sen-
 sible by sulphuric acid; and in fossil teeth and fossil
 ivory,  though it is  not found iu either of these in
 their natural stale."—Ure's Chem. Diet-
  Fluoric acid, silicated.  See Fluoric arid.
  FLUORIDE.  A  combination  of fluorine  wilh a
 salifiable basis.
  FLUORINE.   The imaginary radical of fluoric
 acid.
  FI.UOSIL1CIC ACID.  See Fluoric  acid.
  FLUX. 1. This word is often employed for dysen-
 Icria.
  2. A general term made use of to denote any sub-
 stance or mixture added to assist the fusion of metals.
  FLUXION.  Fluxio.  A  term  mostly applied by
 chemists, to signify the change of n.etals, or other bo-
 dies, from the solid into Ihe fluid state, by the applica-
 tion of heat.   See Fusion.
  FLY.  .1/usca.
  Fly, Spanish.  See Cantharis.
  Fti'CILE.  The ulna and  the radius  are occasion-
 ally denominated by  the barbarous appellations of
facile  majus  and minus; the tibia and  fibula in the
 leg  are also so called.
  Focus.  A lobe of the liver.
  Fodi'na.   (From fodio, lo dig.)  A quarry.   The
 labyrinth of the ear.
  Fwnicula'tu.m lignum.  A name for sassafras.
  FGEN1 CJLU.U.   (Quasi fanum  oculorum, the
 hay or herb good for the sight; so called because it is
 thought good for the eyes.)  Fennel.  See Anethum.
  Fceniculum alpinum.   The herb spignel.   See
 JEthusa meum.
  Fceniculum annuum.  Royal cummin.
  Fceniculum aquaticum.   See Phclltindrium aqua-
 ticum.
  Fceniculum dulce.  See Ancthum faniculum.
  Fcemculum olumaNICUM.  See Anethum fani-
culttm.
  Fceniculum makinuv.   Samphire.
  FeCNtci lim orientals.  See CiemtitietTi.
  Fceniculum porcinum.   See Peuccdanum officinale.
  Fceniculum sinense.  Aniseed.
  F«ni:i-lum sylvkstrk.   Bastard spignel.   See
 Scseli montanum, of Linnaeus.
  Fcenici i.i'M tortuosum.  French hartwort.   See
 Scseli tortuosum.
  Fceniculum vui.uarb.   See Anethum fmniculum.
  FOB NUM.  (F.vnum, i.n.hay.)  Hay.
  Fa: nit m camelorum.  See Juncus odc-ratus.
  Fcenum oriECUM.   See Trigonella fanum gracum.
  Fcenum svlvkstre.  Wild fenugreek.
  FOESIUS, Anutius, wns born at Mentz, in  1528,
 and received his education at Paris, where he imbibed
 a strong predilection for the Greek language, and par-
 ticularly the works of Hippocrates.   Returning to his
 native place about the age of 28, his talents  soon pro-
 cured   him  such extensive  reputation,  that  several
 princes endeavoured to allure him  to their respective
 courts, but without success.   The practice of his pro-
 fession, instead of weakening his attachment  to Hip-
      3G0
 pocrates, only stimulated  him to a  more profound
 study of his writings; where he found the most cor-
 rect delineations of diseases, and the most important
 observations concerning them, made about two thou-
 sand years before.  He first published an excellent
 Latin translation and commentary on his second book
 of Epidemics: then an explanation of the terms used
 by him, under the title of " QEconomia Hippocratis;''
 and, lastly, at the solicitation of the chief physicians
 of Europe, he undertook a complete correct edition of
 his works, with an interpretation and notes, which 1«
 accomplished in six years, in such a manner as to rank
 him among the nblest interpreters  of the ancients.  He
 was also author of a  Pharmacopoeia  for his  nativn
 city ; and died iu 1595.
   Fceta'bulum.  (From fateo, to become putrid.)   1.
 An encysted abscess.
   2. A foul ulcer.
   FOETUS.  (From feo, to bring forth, according to
 Vossius.)   Epicyema;  Epigonion.   The  child  en
 closed in the uterus of-its mother,  is  called a  foetus
 from the fifth month after pregnancy until the time of
 its birth.  See Ovum.
   Foliata terra.  1. Sulphur.
   2. An old name ofthe acetate of potassa.
   FOLIATIO.  (From folium, a leaf.)   The manner
 in which leaves are folded up in their buds.  See Ver
 natio.
   FOLIA'TUS.  (From its resemblance tc folium, a
 leaf.)  Foliate, leafy.
   FOLICULUS.  (Diminutive of foliis, a  leather
 bag.)  A small follicle.
   FOLIOLUM.   A leaflet or little leaf.
   FOLIUM.  (Folium- i. n.; from QvXXov, the leaf
 of a tree.)   See  Leaf.
   Folium  orientale.  See Cassia senna.
   FOLLICLE.  (Folliculus; diminutive of foliis, a
 bog.)  A small bag; applied to glands.  See Folli-
 culosc.
   FOLLICULOSE. ( Follicutosus ; from folliculus,
 a little bag.)  A term applied to a  simple gland or fol-
 licle. One of the most simple species  of gland, con-
 sisting merely of a hollow vascular membrane or fol
 licle, and an excretory duct; such are the muciparous
 glands, the sebaceous, fee.
   FOLLICULUS.  (Diminutive of  foliis, a  bag.)
 1.  A little bag.  See Folliculose.
   2. In botany, n follicle is a one-valved pericarp, or
 seed-veseel.  It has one cell, and bursts lengthwise,
 and bears the seeds on or near its edges, or or. a recep-
 tacle parallel therewith.
   From the adhesion nf the seeds it is distinguished
 into,
   1. Follicle, iviih a partition, when the seeds adhere
 to an inlermedia'e dissepiment.
  2. Follicle, without a partition, when the seeds ad-
 here to the internal sides only.
   From the number of seeds,
  1. Monosperm follicle ; as in Orontium.
  2. Polysperm; as in Asclepias syriaca.
  From the direction into,
   1. Erect; as in Vinca and Ncrium,
  2. Reflected; ns in Plumeria.
  3. Horizontal; as in Cameraria.
   Folliculis pbllis.   The gall-bladder.
  FOMENTATION.  Fomcntatio.  A sort of partial
 bathing, by applying hot flannels  to any pait, dipped
 iu medicated decoctions, whereby  steams are commu-
 nicated to the parts, their vessels are relaxed, and their
 moibid action sometimes removed.
  Fomes ventriculi.   Hypochondriacism.
  FO'MITES.   A term mostly applied to substances
 imbued with contagion.
  FONS.  A fountain.
  Fons  pulsatilis. Sec Fontanclla.
  FONTANF'LLA.   (Diminutive  of fons, a foun-
 tain.)  Fons pulsatilis.  The parietal  bones and the
 frontal do not coalesce until the third year after birth,
 so that,  before this  period, there Is an obvious Inter
 stice, commonly called  mould, nnd  scientifically the
fontanel, or  fons pulsatilis.  There  is also a lew
space, occasionally, between the occipital and parietal
 bones, termed the posterior fontanel.   These  spaces
between  tlie bones are filled up by the dura mater, pe-
ricranium, and  external integuments, so that, during
birth, the isir.eof flue head may be lessened; for,  at
that time, the bones of the  head  upon the superior 
FOR                                            FOR
part,  are not  only pressed nearer to each other, but
they frequently lap over one another, in order to dimi-
nish the- size during the passage of the head through
the pelvis.
  FONTTCULUS.  (Diminutive of fons.)  An issue.
An artificial ulcer formed in any part, and  kept dis-
charging, by introducing daily a pea, covered  withany
digest i\e- ointment.
  FOltA'MEN.   (From  foro.  to  pierce.)   A little
opening.
  Foramen ccecum.  1.  A single opening in  the basis
of the cranium between the ethmoid and  the frontal
bone, that gives exit to a small vein.
  2. The name of a hole in the  middle of the tongue.
  Foramen Lacehum  in  basi  cranii.  A foramina
in the basis of the cranium, through which the internal
jugular vein, and the eighth pair and accessary nerves
pass.
  Foramen lacerum orbitale  superius.  A largo
opening between the greater and less wing of the sphe-
noid bone  on  each side,  through which the  third,
fourth, liist branch of the fifth,  and the sixth pair of
nerves, and the- ophthalmic artery pass.
  Foramen optickm.   The hole transmitting tho
optic nerve.
  Foramen oval*.  The opening between  the two
auricles of the heart of the ftetus.  See also Innomina-
tum os.
  For^i--n of  Winslow.   An opening in the omen-
tum.  Sec Omentum.
  Forami nulum os.  The ethmoid bone.
  Force, rital.   See I IS cita.
  FO'RCLPS.   (Forcips,  cipis. f.;  quasi fetrriceps,
as being  th" iron w ith which we seize any thing hot,
from ferrum, iron, and capio, to take.)  Pineer*.  A
surgical instrument with which extraneous bodies, or
other substances, are extracted.  Also an instrunient
occasionally used by men  midwives lo bring  the head
of the fetus through the pelvis.
  FORDYCE, Gkorcik, was born at Aberdeen, in
173o, alter the death of his father, and  his mother
having married  again, he was sent to Fouran,  when
about two years old, where he received his sellout edu-
cation; and ihence returned to Abe-ideen, where he
was made master of arts, when only fourteen. Having
evinced an inclination to meedicine, he was soon after
sent to his uncle, Dr. John Fordyce, who practised at
Uppingham, with whom  he remained several  years.
He then studied  at Edinburgh, where he graduated in
175^, having defended a thesis on catarrh:  after which
he went to Leyden, principally to  improve himself in
anatomy under Albinus.   The following year he set-
tled in l^ondon, and began to give lectures on chemis-
try ; and, in 1704, he undertook also to teach the prac-
tice of physic, and the materia medica: these subjects
nccupie-d hint nearly three hours  every morning, ex-
cept on Sunday, for about thirty  yeais successively.
In 1770, he was chosen physician tc St. Thomas's hos-
pital, and, six  years after, a Fellow of the Royal So-
ciety :  also, in  1787, he was admitted a Fellow of the
College of Physicians; having  been  a licentiate for
twenty two years before.  In  1793, lie  assisted  iu
forming a small  Society for the- improvement of Medi-
cal and Chirurgical Knowledge, wliich has since pub-
lished  three volumes of the-ir Tram actions.  He died
in l.-'02.  The countenance of Dr. Fordyce was by no
means expiessive of his powers of mind : he was ra-
ther negligent of hisdre**, and not  sufficiently pleasing
In his h'.ani:e;s, to enable him to get into  very exten-
sive pi notice:  besides, lie was  loo fond ofthe  plea-
sures of society, to which he often sacrificed the  houis
that should have- been dedicated lo sleep.  The vigour
of  his  constitution long resisted these irregularities;
but nt length they brought on the gout, which was fol-
lowed  by dropsy,  and ibis teiminated his existence.
He po.--'.' (.'. -'' iciiiaikalily strong iiinno.y, which ena-
bled him to lecture without any notes, and to compose
his works fur publication without  referring to authors,
which he  had before read; and his having relied too
much on this faculty may help to  explain the want of
method  and elegance, and the  many inaccutacies,
which a; pear in his writings  He was author of"seve-
ral publications on medical and  philosophical  subjects;
many ol  which are to be found  in the transactions of
the societies to which he belonged. The most esteem-
ed, a mI that on which he employed most labour, was
a weri-s of " Dissertations on Fever ;" four of them ap-
peared during his life, and another vas left In mnrra
script, wliich has since been printed.   His Treatise on
Digestion, was read originally as the Gulstoiiiau Lec-
ture be-fore the College of Physicians.  He w as the pro-
jector of the Experiments in heated  rooms, of whicli
Sir Charles Blngden gave nn account
  FORDYCE, Sir Willi/ m, was born nt Aberdeen in
179-4.   Al the nge of eighteen, having acquired a com-
petent knowledge of physic and sui-gc-ry, he- went into
the army. The support of the  friends, whom he iher«
procured, together with his own merit, «oon broughl
him into great practice, when he afterward  settled in
London.  The wealth, which  he thus acnuired, was
liberally employed  in nets of friendship, and iu  sup-
porting  useful projects;  though he  hud some  very
severe losses.  He wrote a Treatise on Feveis, and on
Ihe Ulcerated Sore Throat; on his entering Into prac-
tice, he likewise published on  the Venereal  Disease.
He died after a long illness in 1792.
  FORENSIC.  Forensis.  Belonging to the forum,
or courts of law:  hence forcnf ic medicine is that which
is connected with a legal inquiry  as to the cause of de
feet, disease, or death.
  FORESKIN.  See Prejiucc
  FORESTUS, or V \n Forest,Peter, was born at
Alcmaer, in  foifi.  He was sent  to Louvain to study
the law, but  soon showed a strong inclination to medi-
cine.  He therefore cultivated this science at dilleerenl
universities  in Italy, and afterward at Paiis; but lit
graduated at Bologna.   After being twelve  years set
tied in his unlive town, he was invited lo Delft, wind
was ravaged by n contagious epidemic; and being ex-
tremely successful in the treatment of this, he received
a considerable pension, and was retained as the publ'e
physician for nearly thirty years.  In 1575, he was pre
vailed upon lo give the first lecture on Medicine at tlm
opening of the University ol" Leyden.  He spent tin
latter  part of his life iu his native city, where he died
in 1597.  He was a very diligent observer of diseases
and showed  often great judgment in  anticipating the
result, or in  treating ihem successfully.   He published
at different  periods  six volumes  of Medical and Sur-
gical  Cases;  to one of which  wt>s added a Disserta-
tion, exposing the fallacy and absurdity of pretending
to judge of every thing  by the  urine.   Eoerhaave ha>
highly commended his writings, which have been oftcr
reprinted.
  [Formations, mineral.   "The word Formation
may signify  a single mai*" of one kind of rock, more
ur less extensive, or a collection of mineral substances,
formed  by ihe same agent, under the same or similar
circinn -tance-s; or it may convey the idea, that certain
tnasse-s oi collections of" minerals were formed not only
by the same  agent, but also at the same time.  In this
hitler  s.n^e,  indeed, the  term  is almost always em-
ployed.   The agent and time are to be determined by
a careful examination  of the  external  and  internal
relation:; of ihe whole formation."—Cleav. .)/.«.  A.]
  FO'RMIATE.  Formias.   A  compound  p oduced
by the union of the formic acid with a salifiable basis:
thui, formiate of ammonia, tec
  Formic acid.  See Formica rufa.
  FORMICA.   (Formica, a.  f.; quod  feral micas,
bee .-disc of his diligence in collecting small particles of
provision together.)
  1 The name of a genus of insects.   The ant or pis-
mire.   See Formica rufa.
  2. The name of a black wart with 8 broad base, nnd
cleft superficies, becau.-e the pain attending  it resem
blew the biting of an ant.
  3. A varicose tumour on the  anus and  glans penis.
  I'-irmica  miliaris.   Any herpetic eruption.
  Formica  hufa.   The  ant or pismire.  This indus
Irious little insect contains an acid juice, nnd gross oil,
which were supposed lo possess aphrodisiac virtues.
The chrysalides-of  this animal  Lie said lo be diuretic
and carminative, and by some recommended in lire
cure of dropsy.
  The ant also furnishes an acid called the formic
which it has been  long known to contain, and occa-
sionally to emit.  It may be obtained, either by simple
distillation, or by infusion of them in boiling water,
and subsequent distillation of  as much  of the  water
a- can be brought  over without  burning the residue.
After  this it may be  purified by repeated rectifications,
or by  boiling to separate the impurities; or alter recti
flection it may be concentrated  by frost. 
FOT                                             FRA
   This acid has a very sour taste, nnd continues liquid
 even at very low temperatures.  Its specific gravity is
 i.HG8 at 0*8°, wliich  is much denser than acetic acid
 ever is.
   Dobereiner has recently succeeded in forming this
 acid artificially.  When a mixture of tartaric ucid, or
 of cream of tartar, black oxide of magnesia and water
 is heated, a tumultuous action ensues, carbonic  acid
 is evolved,  and a liquid acid distils over, which, on
 superficial examination, was mistaken for acetic acid,
 but  which now proves to be formic acid.  This acid,
 mixed w ith  concentrated sulphuric acid, is  at common
 temperatures converted into water and caibonic oxide;
 nitrate of silver or of mercury converts it, when gently
 heated, into carbonic acid, the oxides being at the same
 time reduced lo the metallic state.  With barytes, ox-
 ideof lead, and oxide of copper, it produces compounds,
 having all the properties of the genuine formiates of
 these metals.   If a portion of sulphuric acid be  em-
 ployed in the above process, the tartaric acid is resolved
 entirely into carbonic  arid, water, and formic acid;
 and  the product of the latter is much increased.   The
 best,  proportions are, two parts tartaric  acid,  five  per-
 oxide of  manganese,  and five sulphuric acid diluted
 with about twice its weight in water.
  To rmiv.   See Herpes exedens.
  FO'RMULA.   (Diminutive of forma, a  form.)  A
 little Ibriu of proscriptions, such as physicians direct in
 extemporaneous practice, in distinction from the greater
 forms in  pharmacopoeias, &c.
  Fornax.   A furnace.
  FORNICIFORMIS.   Vaulted.  Applied to the nec-
 tary  of some plants ; as the Symphytum officinale, Sec.
 See Nectariurn.
  FORNIX.  (Fornix, an arch or vault.)  A part of
 the corpus callosum in the brain is so called,  because,
 if viewed in a particular direction, it has some resem-
 blance to  the arch of  an ancient vault.   Il is the  me-
 dullary body, composed of two anterior and  two  pos-
 terior crura, situated  at the bottom and inside of the
 lateral ventricle over the  third ventricle, and below
 the septum lucidum.
  FOSSA.   (From fodio, to dig.)   Fovea,   A little
 depression or sinus.  The pudendum muliebre.
  Fossa amynt.e.   A double-headed roller  for the
 fare.
  Fossa magna.   1.  The great groove of the ear.
  2.  The pudendum muliebre.
  Fossa  navicularis.  1. The cavity at the bottom
 of the entrance of the pudendum muliebre.
  2.  The great groove of the ear.
  Fossa ovalis.   The depression in the right auricle
 of the human  heart, which in the foetus opened into
 the otlier auricle, forming the foramen ovale.
  Fossa  pituitaria.   The depression in the sella
 turcica of the sphenoid bone.
  FOSSIL.    (Fossilis; from fodio, to dig.)  Any
 thing dug out of the earth.
  Fossil  copal.   Ilighgate resin.   A semi-transpa-
 rent, brittle,  resinous substance, of a yellowish-brown
 colour; found in the bed of blue clay at Ilighgate, near
 London.
  Fo'ssilus.  The bone of  the leg.
  FOTI1ERGILL, John, was born in  Yorkshire, in
 1712, of a respectable Quaker family.  After passing
 through aie apprenticeship to an apothecary,  he went
 lo Edinburgh, where he graduated at Ihe age of twen-
 ty-four, taking for his inaugural  thesis the use of
 emetics.   He then studied for two years at St. Thomas's
 Hospital, and after an excursion to  the continent,  set-
 tled  in London in 17-10, and six years after became a
 licentiate.  His practice was for some time chiefly gra-
 tuitous ; but his "Account of the Putrid Sore Throat,"
 published  in 1718, brought him speedily into reputa-
 tion.   He was successively elected a Fellow of  the
College of Physicians  nt Edinburgh, of the  Royal  So-
ciety of London, and of some  other societies abroad.
His early partiality to botany induced him, ns his prac-
tice increased, to purchase u large piece of ground  for
the cultivation of lare and valuable  plants, in which
 he spared no expense;  neither did he neglect other de-
partments of natural  history.  He was also an active
nnd liberal promoter of many successful schemes  for
the public benefit;  and particularly in instituting  the
school at  Ackwcr 'i in Yorkshire.   He wus of a rather
 delicate cr-v.' . .ton, but a steady temperance pre-
 eerved i.li ):t")' '., till in 177S he  had an nttack of a
      3Cfi
  suppression of urine, occasione-u  ly l  disease of the
  prostate gland; which, returning two years after, soon
  put a period to  his  existence.  He  had a quick and
  comprehensive understanding; and  his pleating  ad
  dress procured him general confidence, which his dis-
  cretion was not apt to forfeit afterward.  Besides the
  works already noticed, several papers of Dr. Fothergill
  were printed  in the Philosophical Transactions, and
  iu  the  Medical Observations and Inquiries:  he also
  sent several communications to the Gentleman's Maga-
  zine, and otlier periodical publications.
   FO'TUS.  (Fotus, is. in.)  See Fomentation.
   FOVEA.  (From fodio, to dig.)   1. A little  de
  pression.
   2. The pudendum  muliebre.
   3. A  partial sweating-bath.
   FOVEATUS.   Having  a little depression, or pit.
  Applied to the nectary of plants.  See Ncctaruan.
   FOX-CLOVE.  See Digitalis.
   Fox-glove, Eastern.  See Sesamum orientate.
   FRACASTORIUS, Hieronvmus,  was born at Ve-
  rona, in 1483.  He made a rapid progress in his studies,
  and attained early considerable excellence  as  a  poet,
  philosopher, and astronomer.  He was also much
  valued as a physician, particularly by the general of
  the Veenetian army, whom he attended during several
  campaigns:  but  on his dying, in 1515,  Fracastorius
  returned to  his native place.  He corresponded with
  most of the great men of his age, especially with Car-
  dinal Rembo, to whom he  dedicated his poem, " Sy-
  philis ;" which was  thought worthy of comparison
  wilh the Georgicsof Virgil by some of the best judges.
  He  died in 1553,  and a statue was erected to him by
  the  town of Verona.  He published also on Contagious
  Diseases, and several other Medical and Philosophical
  Subjects.
   FRACTURE. (Fraclura; fromfrango, to break.)
  Catagma; Clasis ; Clasma; Agmc.   A solution of a
  bone into two or  more fragments. A simple  fracture
  is when Ihe bone only is divided.  A compound frac-
  ture is a division  of the bone, with a laceration of the
  integuments, the bone nfoslly protruding. A fracture
  is also termed transverse, oblique, tc. according to its
  direction.
   FRENULUM.  (Diminutive of franum, a bridle.)
  The cutaneous fold under the apex of the tongue, that
 connects the tongue to the infralingual  cavity.  It  is
 sometimes, iu  infancy, so  short  as w prevent the
 child from  sucking,  when it is  necessary to cut it,
  in order to give more room for the motion of the tongue.
   FR^E'NUM.  The membraneous  fold which con-
  lects the prepuce  to the  inferior part of the glans
 penis.
  FRA'GARIA.  (Fromfragro, to smell sweet.)  The
 strawberry.  1. The  name  of a  genus  of plants in
 the  Linnaean system.  Class, Icosandria;  Older, Poly-
, gynia.
  2.  The pharmacopoeia! nameof the strawberry. See
 Fragaria vesca.
  Fr.voaria steuilis.   Barren strawberry.   Asirin
 gent, seldom used.
  Fragaria vesca.   The  systematic name  of  ihe
 strawberry  plant.  Fragaria.  The  mature fruit  of
 the  Fragaria, fragellis reptaniibus of Linnaeus, was
 formerly recommended in  gouly and  calculous affec
 tions, in consequence, it would appear, of its efficacy
 in removing  tartar from the teeth, which it is said to
 do very effectually.
  Fragile  vitreum. An obsolete name for the fra
 gilitas ossiuni.
  FRAGILIS.  Brittle.
  FRAGl'LITAS.  Brittleness.
  Fragilitas  ossium.  Brittleness of the bones.
  Fra'omen.  Fragmcntum.  A splinter of a bone.
  FRA'GU.M.  (From fragro, to smell sweet.)  The
 strawberry.  See Fragaria.
  FRAMHQS'SIA.  (From framboise, Fr. for a rasp-
 ben.\.)  The yaws.   A genus of disease, arranged  by
 Cullen in  Ihe  class Cachexia, and order  Impciigines.
 It is somewhat similar in its nature to the  lues vene-
 rea,  and is endominl to the Antilles islands,  as well  as
 Africa.  It appears with excrescences like mulberries.
 growing out of the skin in various parts of the body,
 which discharge on ichorous fluid.
  FRA'NCULA.  (From frango, to  break: so called
 because  of  the  biittle-ness  of its  branches.)   See
 Rhamnus frangula. 
FRE
FRU
  FRANKINCENSE. SeeJuniperus lycie,, and Pinus
 abirs.
  [Frasera Walteri.  See American Columbo.  A.]
  FRAXINELLA.   (From fraxinus, the ash: so
 called because its  leaves resemble tliose of the ash.)
 See Dictamnus albus.
  Era lint-lla, white.  See Dictamnus albus.
  FRAXINUS.  (A fragore, from tlie noise itsaeeds
 make when shaken  by  the wind ; or from cbpahs,
 a hedge, because of its use  in forming hedges.)  The
 ash.
  1. The name of a genus of plants in the Linnaean
 »y-tem.  Class. Polygamia ; Order, Diacia.
  2. The pharmacopceial name of the  ash-tree.   See
 Fraxinus eicilsior.
  Fraxinus excelsior.  Thesystemntic nameof the
 ash-tiee.  Fraxinus.  Called also brumelli and bumc-
 lia.  The bark of this tree, Fraxinus—foliis serratis
fioribus apt talis of  Linnaeus, when fresh, has a mode-
 rately strong bitterish taste.  It possesses resolvent  and
 diuretic qualities, and has been successfully exhibited
 in the cure of intermittents.  The seeds are occasion-
 ally exhibited medicinally as diuretics, in the dose of a
 drachm.  In warm climates, a  sort of manna exudes
 from this species of  fraxinus.
  Fraxinus  ornis.   The  systematic name of  the
 tree from which manna flows.  This substance is also
 termed .Voii:a Calabrina ; Ros calabrinus ; .Icromcli;
 Alusar ; Drysomeli.  That species which is of a ro;-y
 colour, is cubed nuba.  Mel airium, from tlie supposi-
 tion that it descended from heaven.  Manna is  the
 condensed juice of the  flowering ash, or Fraxinus or-
 nus—foltis  ovato oblongis serratis petiolatis, fioribus
 corollatis, Hort. Kew. which is a native ofthe south-
 ern parts of Europe, particularly Sicily and Calabria.
 Many other trees and  shrubs have likewise been  ob-
 served to emit a sweet juice,  whicli concretes upon  ex-
 posure to the air, and may be considered of the manna
 kind, especially the  Fraxinus rotundifolia, and excel-
 sior.  In Sicily these  three  species of fiaxinus  are
 regularly cultivated for the purpose of procuring man-
 na, and with this view aie planted on the declivity of
 a hill with an eastern aspec'. After ten years' growth,
 the trees first begin to yield the manna, but they require
 to be  much older before they afford it in any consider-
 able quantity.  Although the manna exudes sponta-
 neously upon tlie trees, yet, in order lo obtain it mote
 copiously, incisions are made through the bark, by
 means of a sharp crooked instrument; and ihe season
 thought to be most  favourable for instituting this pro-
 cess, is a liltle before the dog days commence, when
 the weather is dry and serene. Manna is generally dis-
 tinguished into different kinds, viz.  the manna in tear,
 the- cauulatc-d and  flaky  manna,  and the  common
 brown or fat manna.  All these varieties seem rather
to depend upon their respective purity, and the manner
 in whicli they are obtained from the plant, than upon
 any essential difference of the drug.  The best manna
 is in oblong  pieces  or flakes, moderately dry, friable,
 very light, of a whitish or pale yellow colour, and in
 some degree transparent:  the inferior kinds are moist.
 unctuous, and brown.  Manna  is well known  as a
 gentle purgative, so mild iu its operation, that il may
 be given with safety to children and pregnant women,
 to the delicacy of vviiose frames and  situations it is
 particularly adapted.  Il is esteemed a good and plea-
 sant  auxiliary to  the purgative  neutral  salts.   It
 sheathes acrimony,  and is useful in coughs, disorders
 of the breast, and such as are attended wilh fever and
 inflammation, as  in pleuritis, &c  It is particularly
 efficacious  in bilious complaints, and  helps the dis-
 charge of mineral waters, when they are not of them-
 selves sufficiently active.  It is apt, in  large doses, to
 create flatulencies and  gripes ; both of wliich are pre-
 vented  by a small  addition  of some warm carmina-
 tives.  It purges in doses of from jjto Jij; but its
 purgative quality is much increased, and its flatulent
 effects prevented, by a small addition of cassia.  The
 dose for children is from one scruple to tliree.  It is
 best dissolved in whey.
  Fraxinus  rotundifolia. The systematic name
 of a tree which affords manna.  See Fraxinusornus.
  FREIND,  John, was born in 1075, at Croton, in
 Northamptonshire,  of  which his father  was rector.
 After being  educated at  Westminster he went lo Ox-
 ford,  where  he distinguished himself greatly  by  his
 classical attainments.   Having for  some time studied
 medicine, he communicated to the Royal Society tome
 singular cases: but a work, which  he published  in
 1703, entitled " Emmenologia," explaining the pheno-
 mena of menstruation, both natural  and inoibid, on
 mechanical principles, first brought him into notice  aa
 a physiologist and physician.  In the following year,
 he  was appointed professor of Chemistry at Oxford,
 bul soon alter went to Spain as physician to the Eng-
 lish forces;  and he took this  opportunity of visiting
 Italy.  On his return, in 1707, he was created a Doctor
 by diploma, and published his Chemical Lectures in
 Latin.  In 1712, lie was chosen a Fellow of the Royal
 Society; but soon went abroad again wilh the troops
 into Flanders.  On the conclusion of the peace in the
 following year he settled in London, nnd rose lo high
 professional repuliition.  In 1710, he  was received  as
 Fellow of the College ol"Physicians, and published tho
 first and  third books of Hippocrates on Epidemics,
 with a Commentary on Fevers, in nine parts; a work
 of great  erudition and judgment.  Some of his  opi-
 nions having been severely attacked, he was led lo de-
 fend them in  a letter lo Dr. Mead, entitled  " De pur-
 gantibus in  sccundo Variolarum conflueutium Febro
 adhibendis," 1719. A few years after this he got  into
 parliament,  and having warmly sided with the oppo-
 sition,  he  was, in  common  with  several  persons of
 consequence, imprisoned on suspicion of high treason-
 but the minister,  Sir Robert VVulpole, having fallen
 sick, Dr. Mead refused to attend him till his friend  was
 liberated; when he made over to him 5000 guineas,
 which  he  had  received  from  his  patients during his
 confinement of a  few months only.  While in the
 Tower, Dr. Freind formed the plan of his great work,
 " The History of Physic from Galen to the  beginning
 of the  Sixteenth Century, chiefly with regard to Prac-
 tice;"  which came out  in two volumes within three
 years after.  This was intended as a continuation of
 Le Clerc, and met with a  very favourable  reception;
 indeed it still continues to be a standard book. On the
 accession of George II. he was appointed physician  to
 the Queen ;  and having died in July 1728, his widow
 and son experienced the royal protection.
  Fre'na.   The sockets of the teeth.
  Frigera'na.  A putrid fever.
  FRIGIDA'RIUM.   (From frigidus,  cold.)  The
 cold bath.
  FRINGE.  See  Fimbria.
  Fringed leaf.  See Leaf.
  FRONS.  (Frons,  tts.  form.)  1. The  forehead
 The part between the eyebrows and the hairy scalp.
  2.  (Frons, dis, f.)  The frond, or  leaf; a tree: now
 used bv botanists to the cryptogamious plants only.
  FRONTAL.   (Frontalis;  from frons,  the  fore-
 head.)   Belonging to the forehead.
  Frontal bone.  See Frontis os.
  Frontal sinus.  See Frontis  OS.
  FRONTALIS.  See Occipito frontalis.
  Frontalis verus.  See Corrugator supercilii.
  FRO'NTIS OS. The frontal bone.  Os coronate;
 Os inverecundum ; Metopon  The external surface of
this bone is smooth at its upper convex part, but below
Beveral cavities and processes are observed.   At each
angle of the orbits the  bone juts out to from two inter-
 nal and two external processes; and the ridge  under
 ihe eyebrow on each side is called the  superciliary pro-
 cess; from which the  orbilar processes extend back-
 wards, forming the upper  part of the orbits; and be-
 tween these  the ethmoid  bone is received.  The nasal
 process is situated between the two  internal angular
 processus   At the internal angular process is a cavity
 for  the caruneula  lachrymalis ; and  at the external,
 another for  the  pulley of the  major  oblique muscle.
 The foramina  are three on each  side; one in each
 superciliary ridge, through which a nerve, artery, and
 vein, pass to the integuments of the forehead; a second
 near the middle of the internal  side of the orbit, called
 internal orbitar; the third is smaller, and lies about nn
 inch deeper in the orbit.   On the  inside of the os
 frontis there is  a ridge wliich is hardly perceptible at
 the  upper part, but grows more prominent at the bot-
 tom, where the foramen coecum appears; to this ridge
 the  falx is attached.  The frontal sinus is placed over
 the orbit on each side, except  at this part the frontal
 bone is of mean thickness between the  parietal and
 occipital; but the orbitar process is so thin as to be
 almost transparent.
  FRUCTIFICATION.  (Fructificatio; fromfmctus,
                                        my 
FRU
FRTJ
fruit, and fucio, to make.)  Under this tern are com-
prehended the flowers and the fruit of a plant.  It  is a
temporary part of plants  appropriated  to  generation.
terminating the old vegetable and beginning tho new.
By the  parts of  fructification,  Sir  James Smith ob-
serves, each species is perpetually  renewed  without
limits, while all other modes of propagation  are but
the extension of an individual, and sooner or later ter-
minate in iu total  extinction.  The fructification is
therefore essential to vegetables.  A plant may be des-
titute of stem,  leaves, or even roots, because if one of
these  parts be wanting, the others  may  perform  ils
functions,  but it can never be destitute of those organs
t>y which its species is propagated.
  Linnaeus distinguishes seven pans of fructification,
some of which are essential to the very  nature of a
flower or fruit; others not so indispensably necessary,
and therefore are not universal.
  I. The calyx, or flower-cup, not essential and often
absent.  See Calyx.
  2. The corolla, or petals, likewise not essential.   Sec
Corolla.
  3. The stamen or stamina.   These are essential.
See Stamen.
  4. The pistillum, or pistilla, in the  centre of the
flower, consisting of the rudiments  of the fruit, with
one or mpre organs attached to them,  and therefore
essential.  See Pistillum.
  5. The pericarpium, or seed-vessel, wanting in many
plants.  See Pericarpium.
  0. 'The semen, or seed,  the perfecting of which is
the sole end of all the other parts.
  7. The receptaculum, which must necessarily be pre-
Dent in some form or other.  See Receptaculum.
  FRUCTUS.   (Fructus, tits, in.; a  fruor.)   The
fruit of a tree or plant.  Ry this term is understood in
botany,  tho produce of the gennen,  consisting of the
seed-vessel and seed.
  Fructus hor.ei.  Summer fruits. Under this term
are comprehended strawben ies,ciierries, currants, mul-
berries,  raspberries, and  the like.   They possess  a
sweet subacid taste, and are exhibited as dietetic auxi-
liaries,  as  refrigerants, antiseptics,  attenuants,  and
aperients.   Formerly they were exhibited medicinally
in the cure of  putrid affections, and to promote the
alvine and urinary excretions.  The acid whicli they
contain is cither the tartaric, oxalic, citric,  or inallic, or
a mixture of two or  more of them with sugar  and
gluten, starch, and a gelatinous substance.  Considering
them  as an  article of diet, they afford little nourish-
ment, and are liable to produce flatulencies.  To per-
sons of a bilious constitution and  rigid  fibres,  and
where the habit is disposed naturally, or from extrinsic
causes, to  an inflaniiiu.tory or putrescent  state, their
moderate  and even plentiful use,  is salubrious; by
those of a cold inactive disposition, where the vessels
are lax, the circulation languid, and the digestion weak,
they should be used  very sparingly.  The juices ex-
tracted  from these fruiu by expiession, contain their
active qualities freed from  their  grosser  indigestible
matter.  On standing, tine juice ferments and changes to
a vinousor acetous state.  By proper addition of sugar,
and by boiling, their fermentative power is suppressed,
nnd their medicinal qualities preserved.   The juices
of these fruits, when purified from their fireculencics by
settling and straining, may be made Into syrups, with a
due proportion of sugar in the usual way.
   FRUIT.  See Fructus.
   Fruits, summer.  See Fructus horai.
   [Fruits affording  spirit.  "I shall  class only the
noveral productions which afford ardent  spirits,  and
which may he worked to advantage at  this day in the
form of results of late experiments in some, and a slight
knowledge of others, for Ihe benefit of future improve-
ment and research, beginning with
   " The Apple.   The juice of this fruit (which  is
called cider, when expressed and fermented,) affords,
by di filiation, one-tenth of its weight of spirit of the
flm proof on Dion's hydrometer.
   " The Pear.  Thin fruit, when expressed as the ap-
ple, affords nearly the snme icsult; the  qualities differ-
ing, as the quality ofthe fruit differs, iu the same ratio
ns ihe apple.  Process, the same as  the apple.
   " The Peach.  This fruit is cultivated m abundance
throughout the United Stntcs, though in greater nbun
dance to the southward of Pennsylvania.  It affords,
by distillation, about one-eighth  by clear expression.
       370
Altf.ough this Is seldom done, it is nevertheless th«
best method to procure a fine flavour, whicli fixes tlie
principal value.
  " Peaches  intended for distilling  are  thrown into
bins;  when  the ripest  should be assorted out, and
thrown into a trough or  vat, into which persons enter
and  mash them with  their feet.   In the southern
states, wooden stampers are used, as they cannot con-
veniently be ground in a mill, owing to the danger of
the stone.  This is a practice whicli might well  be
remedied, by supplying their mills with stones after the
manner of a tanner's bark-mill.   It would also bo nt
tended with the advantage of breaking the  peach-
stones, wliich would impart that rich aromatic bitter
which  its kernel possesses,  and which  is  so highly
prized in that celebrated cordial called noyeau.  After
being well  macerated, it is thrown into vats oi casks,
and diluted with waler, so as to prevent an empy
reuma.   In this state it  is cailed  mobby, and, after a
thorough fermentation, it is in lhat state committed to
the still, together with the  mass.  Otheis press  it in
cider-presses.
  " The Plum.  This is a fruit wliich is more used in
culinary purposes, and for the table.   But  there is a
kind of plum whicli grows plentifully in most parts of
the United States, called  the red plum.   It is of a beau-
tiful saffron colour, inclining to red.  This fruit affords
nearly the same  product as the peach, aud  should  be
treated in the same manner.
  " The Cherry.  There is a variety of this fruit: that
which  affords the greatest  quantity ol" spirit is the
black-heart cherry, which should  be treated precisely
as the peach.  This fruit is more valued for ihe aro-
matic flavour whicli  it imparts  to  spirit,  and  from
which  is made the exhilarating water called cherry-
bounce.
  "The Papaw is a fruit resembling seed cucumber.
Its pulp is of a saffron colour, nearly of the consistence
of u melon, and  its flavour much like custard.  It is
too luscious, when ripe, to be agreeable to the palate,
but when  boiled, green, is pleasant.  It  ripens about
the middle of September; is a  native of Kentucky,
Maryland, and Pennsylvania.  The  tree grows  from
twelve to twenty-six feet high.  The fruit affords, by
distillation, a spirit by some highly prized, and in con-
siderable quantities.  The process is well  known to
the inhabitants where the fruit grows in abundance.
  " 'The  Blackberry,  Whortleberry, Sec  afford  spirit
in tolerable  quantities, by  expression, feriue-ntaiion,
and distillation.
  " The Sugar-maple is a tree whicli abounds  in tho
northern and  western parts of the United Slates: ii
grows  from forty to sixty feet in  height.  Tlie  sap is
drawn in February and March: of this sap the inha-
bitants make large quantities of sugar.  This sap. duly
fermented and distilled, produces a spirit  of a very su-
perior quality, and highly esteemed.  The  process  is
simply a fermentation of the sap, and distillation in
the common way.
  " The Persimmon is a fruit so well known through-
out the United States, that a description is unneces-
sary.  This fruit  is fit for distillation only after a
severe frost, which instantly ripens it, when il  is ga-
thered and thrown into a cistern or cask, iu which
Btatc it is easily crushed  and diluted with  warm water,
fermented, and the whole mass committed to the still.
Some strain ihe mass through a coarse catgut, wliich
lakes out the seeds, that are of a powerful astringent
quality.  This spirit is not highly esteemed.
  "The  Potato.  There are two kinds of line potato •
one of which is commonly called the Irish potato, and
Ihe otlier the sweet potato;  the latter of whicli affords
the greatest  quantity by distillation.   The process it
Ihe same in both, yet the sweet  potato works mor*
kindly.  After being well  boiled in waler.  (steam Is
the best,)  they are macerated by various means  ii
heavy roller is the best): they are then diluted with <i
sufficient quantity of water, aud strained through a
coarse canvass, to separate the  skins (this is a pro-
cess, however, wliich may be dispensed wilh); tlirv
are then thrown into casks,  fermented, and committed
to the still.   The distillation of potatoes  inny, in a
short time, become a  matter worthy of attention.  At
present,  the negroes of Georgia and the Carolina* ura
the only manufacturers. The spirit is of an inferioi
quality, and is used by the poorer class of inhabitants
but u vast  field for improvement lies open. 
FUL
FUL
  " Turnips, Parsnips, Carrots, Pumpions, Caskau-s,
fcc. ullbrd spirit of an inferior quality, and in tolerable
quantities.   They  are to  be treated similar to the
potato.
  " Grain, of every description, affords spirits of dif-
fere-ni qualities, according to weight.
Wheat, weighing OOlbs. per bush.affoiels 8 to 12quarts.
Rye,            00        do.       10-14   ..
Indian corn,     CO        do.       10-  14
Buckwheat,     —        do.        0-  8   ..
Oats,           :«        do.        5-  7   ..
Birley,         45        do.        7-  9   ..
Spelta,          10        do.        9-  13   ..
rtice,           70        do.       13-10   ..
  ■* The spirit afforded  by the distillation of rice is
what is usually termed rack, or arrack.  This article
is  imported chiefly from Bengal, and  is distilled from
rice, although the real and genuine arrack is distilled
in the Island of Goa, from the sap of a tree-, drawn in
the same manner as our sugnr-maple.
  " The Grape.  In tlie United Slates, the cultivation
of the domestic  grape  has  but just commenced: llie
numerous species, however, of our wild grape, with
which our forests abound, make il a mauer of consi-
deration.  These being collected in suflicient quanti-
ties, when ripe, they may  be treated w ith success,
after the process of the apple, and atliiid a beautiful
spirit, nol unlike cogniac.
  " Indian  Corn (tlie stalk).   The young stalk of the
Indian corn, (which should be used about tlie lime of
caring,) like the sugar-cane of the West Indies, affords
a large quantity of juice or sap by expression, which,
when fermented and distilled, yields abundantly of
spirit of a very superior quality. This should be broken
and worked in the same manner as the sugar-cane,
which is by nut-mills of iron, alter tlie manner of our
cider-mills.—Krafft's Amer.  Distiller.  A ]
  FRUMENTA"CEOUS. A term applied  to all such
plants as nave a conformity wlih wheat, either with
respect to their fruit, leaves, or ears.
  FRCTESCENTIA.   (From fructus,  fruit.)  The
time at which the fruit arrives at maturity.
  FRUTEX.  A shrub  or plant, which  rises with a
woody durah'i- stem, but never arrives at the height, or
has the appearance of an arbor, or tree.
  FC CCS.  The name of a genus of  plants in the
Linnaean system. Class, Cryptogamia;  Order, Alga.
  Ficus digitatus.  Tliis  fucus grows upon stones
and  rocks  in tlie sea near the shore.  It has several
plain, long leaves or sinuses springing from a round
stalk, in the manner of fingers  when extended.   It
affords soda.
  Fuecs bsculentus.   Edible  fucus.  Hudson has
made this a distinct species, but Linne-us included it
under his saccharin us.   It grows plentifully in the sea
near the shores of Scotland, and also those of Cum-
berland.  It has a broad, plain, simple, sword-shaped
leaf, springing from a pinnated stalk.
  Fucus helmintiiocorton. S.-e Corallina corsicana.
  Fucus palmatus.  Handed fucus.  This grows in
the sea, and consists of a thin-lobed ieaf like a hand.
  Fucus saccharinus.  Sea-belts; so called from the
supposed resemblance of its leaves to a belt  or girdle.
It grows upon rocks  and stones by the sea-shore.  The
leaves are very sweet, and when washed  and hung up
to dry, will exude a substance like sugar,  from whence
it was named.
  Fucus vesiculous.  The syaemath: name of the
sea-oak.  Sett wreck.   Quercus marina.   This sea-
weed, the Fucus—fronde plana dicholoma costata  t'n-
tegerrima,  vesiculis axillaribus geminis, terminalibus
tuberculatis,  of Linnaeus, is said to  be  a  useful  as-
Blstam to sea-water, in the  cure of  disorders of the
glands.  Burnt in tlie open air, and reduced to a black
powder, it  forms tlie sthinus vegetabllis,  which, as an
interna! medicine, is similar to burnt sponge.
  FULCRUM.  A  prop or support.   This  term Is ap-
plied  by Linnaeus, not only to tliose organs of vegeta-
bles correctly so denominated, such ns tendrils, but also
to various otlier appendages to the herbage of a plant,
none of which are universal or essential, nor is there
any one plant furnished with them all.  Sir  James
Bmllh prefers the English term appendage, for tliose
organs in general, to props, because the  latter applies
only to one of them.
  The greater props, or fulcra \f vegetables  arc the
roots, tnmks, and branches
  To the less are referred,
  1.  The petio'.us, or petiole, which is the fulcrum «J
the leaf.
  8.  Cirrus, the tendril.  See Cirru*.
  3.  The stolo,  or sucker; a  filament, or under-
ground bud, protruded from  the root, and sending oil
radicles into the earth, pushes up a stem resembling
the pnrent plant; ns in  the  strawberry, and Syringa
vulgaris.
  4.  Sarmentum, the runner, whicli gives off from the
stem, and radicates on that which is nearest to it; aa
does the Hedera helix, or ivy.
  The fulcra of a flower arc the peduncle, scape, nnd
receptacle.
  FULTCO.  (Quasifumiligo;  from fumus, smoke.)
Araxos; Asoper; Asuoli.  Soot.  Wood-soot, fuligu
ligni, or the condensed smoke from burning wood, has
a pungent, bitter,  and nauseous taste, and is resolved
by chemical analysis into  a  volatile alkaline salt, an
empyreumatic oil, a fixed alkali, and an insipid earth.
The tincture prepared from this  substance, tinctura
fuliginis, is rccomiiicndod as a powerfuf antispasmodic
in hysterical affections.
  [FULLER,  Dr. Samuel,  one-  of  the  memorable
planters of Plymouth, who  came over with the first
seltkers, in 1620.   He was the first regulnrly-educatcd
physician  that visited New-England.  He did not con
fine his benevolent offices  to the inhabitants of New-
Plymouth, and to the aboriginals of the country, but
readily gave his assistance to the people of Nnumkeak
(Sale-iii) and Charlestown, Rfter Mr. Endicott came to
that part of Massachusetts Bay.   Several of the peo-
ple died of  tlie 'scurvy, and  other distempers,' and
many were subjected to diseases arising from unwhole-
some  diet,  and  want of  proper accommodations.
Having no physician  among themselves, it was for-
tunate for tliose planters that Plymouth could supply
them w ith one so well qualified as Dr.  Fuller, who
visited them at the request of Governor Endicott, and
met  with  great success  in his practice.  He visited
Salem first in 162*», and again in  1629, on account of
the  sickness introduced there by  the newly-arrived
ships.  When be arrived  at Plymouth, from Salem,
Governor Endicolt wrote lo Governor Bradford a lettet
of thanks, speaking highly iu praise of the physician,
and  also expressing his hearty concurrence with their
church at Plymouth,  its form and discipline:  from
which it is evident that the conversation of Dr. Fullei
had  some effect upon his religious opinions, for there
was a difference  of sentiment before this interview,
and  a jealousy, lest lire Plymouth  church should exer
cise  a jurisdiction over the church in Salem.
  In his medical character, and for his Christian vir-
tues and  unfeigned piety, Dr.  Fuller was held  in the
highest estimation, and was resorted to as a father and
wise counsellor during the perils of his day.  He was
finally one of several heads of families who died of a
fever, which prevailed in Plymouth in the summer of
1633, and  was mest deeply lamented by all  the colo-
nists."— Th itch. Mid. Biog.   A.]
  FULLERS' l-'.ARTH.  An earth found in  large beds
in Buckingham-hire and Surrey, composed  of silica,
alumine, magnesia, lime, muriate of toda, a trace ot
potassa, and oxide of" iron.  See Earth, Fuller's.
  [" FULTON, Robert. Notwithstanding the various
unsuccessful  projects of propelling boats by means of
steam-enginery, Mr. Robert Fulton has had the cou-
rage to undertake and construct  one at  New-York,
upon a plan of his own,  and  his success is undoubted.
His boat is upwards of 140 feet long, and about 15 feet
wide, resembling  a batteau of large dimensions.  The
engine is  upon the plan of Watt Se Boulton's latest
improvement,  and is a  most complete piece of ma-
chinery.   The power is applied to ihe water In whicli
the boat moves, by means  of wheels, with only eight
arms, revolving on their axis.  When the ; Lion makes
20 strokes in a minute, these  are turned with n motion
brisk enough to stem the currents both ofthe East and
North rivers, at the rate  of four miles and  more ir. :it
hour.  She  draws but a  few inches of water.  Sha
actually made a vovage  to Albany and back again in
100 hours, or a little more than four days, nnd she pro-
mises to be of the greatest service in working her way
against the streams of rivers, such as the  Mississippi,
and  others that have no tides."—Med. Repos. vol. xi.
  The preceding  notice of  Fulton's first experiment
with his rough-constructed steamboat, was  published
                                        371 
FUM
FUR
 n tne summer of 1S07, in the New-York Medical  Re-
pository.  The writer of ihis article  was on  board
during the- first trial, and observed line anxiety and joy
rf Mr. Fulton  a* the prospect belore him.  The  vessel
moved from the dock in the eastern part of the city of
Kew- York, and was steered into the North or Hudson
river, opposite Hoboken,  where she was  anchored,
and  afier remaining  there a  while, returned to  the
place- of starling.  On the next day, Mr. Fulton pro-
ceeded  to ascend  the Hudson  river,  and, as  stated
above, was 100 hours in going to Albany and returning
I hence lo New-York, a distance of 300 miles, or nearly
that, being on an average  less than four miles an hour.
This boat was afterward  tilted up as a  packot-boat for
passengers,  and called Ihe Car of Neptune.  The next
summer (1803; another boat was constructed upon  a
belteV model, and her speed surpassed the fiist.  Some
alteration or improvement was made  In  every sub-
sequent boat constructed  under the direction of  Mr.
Fulton, until Ihe time of his death, (in Feb.  1815),
when his boats  went from Nt-.v-York to  Albany in
about 20 hours, making an average of more than seven
miles an hour.   Since his death further improvements
have  been  made in the construction of steamboats
and their machinery, so that some of them  make  tlie
trip from New-Yoik lo Albany by daylight, and some
have made  the passage down the river from .Albany to
New-York, in  the  extremely  short period  of twelve
hours, making  an average speed of more than twelve
miles an hour.   Il is the opinion of some that further
improvements  will  take place, and  that the same dis-
tance will be run in nine or ten hours.
  Mr. Fulton has the merit of being the fiist engineer
who made  a practical and successful  application of
steam-power to the propulsion of vessels through  the
water.   He claimed no more.  He used Wait Se lioul-
ton's steam engine, and modified it to suit his wishes,
and the object  he had in view; and having  succeeded
beyond his own most sanguine expectations, and lo the
astoiiishmentof all his countrymen, he has died and let I
a legacy of incalculable value to his country and the
whole- civilized world. Others had indeed engaged in
similar experiments, but without success. He was the
master spirit who pointed out the true method, and
succeeding engineers have profited by his experience ;
and  steamboats  now navigate the  rivers,  bays, and
lakes of the United States, in greater numbers than in
any other country.
  Robert Fulton was a native of  Pennsylvania, and
by profession a portrait-painter.  He became acquaint-
ed with  Robert  Livingston in Paris,  while  residing
there as Minister of the United States near the Flench
government.  Their views corresponding on the feasi-
bility of constructing  a steamboat, Mr.  Fulton was
;  '.unitized  by  Ihe minister, whose wealth enabled him
in make  all the  necessary advances towards accom-
plishing this object.  He  was so far successful as to
put a boat in  rapid motion on the river Seine; and
after ihis prelude to his future success, he returned to
his  native country, and  constructed  his first  boat in
ioo7, as above stated, from which  has emanated all
the steamboats now in use iu ihis country and Eu-
rope.  A ]
  FULMINA'TION.  Fulminatio.   Detonation.   A
quick and lively explosion of bodies,  such us  takes
pluce with  fulminating gold, fulminating powder, and
In tlie combustion of a mixture ol" inflammable gas and
vital uir.
  FUM.VRIA.  (From/«ni««, smoke, from its  juice,
when dropped  into the e>e, producing the same sensa-
tions as smoke.)
  1.  The name of ;i genus of plants in the Linniran
system.  Class, Diadelphia; Order, Decandria.  Fu-
mitory.                       ,  ,
  •2.  'The pharniacopoeial  name of the common  fuml-
ti-rv.  See Funtaria officinalis.
  Fi Maria bulbosa.   Aristolochia fabacea.  The
it-,! of Ihis plant,  Fumaria—eairie simplici, bractcis
tone11udinefiorum, ot Linntr-us, was formerly given lo
rt more suppressed menses, and us an anthelmintic.
  Fumaria ome inalis.  The systematic nameof the
fumitory.   Fumaria;  Fitmus terra ; Capncs;  IL  rim
i"slant holifuga.   The leaves of this indigenous  plant,
Fumaria—pr.ricarpiis monospermis  racemosis,  caule
diffusa, of Linnaeus, are directed for medicinal use by
the F.iliiiburgli ccllcite; they are extremely succulent,
and have no remarkable smell, but ;i  bhter,  somewhat
saline taste.  The infusion of the dried leaves, or J**n
expressed juice of the fresh plant, is esteemed  for its
property of clearing the skin of many disorders of the
leprous kind.
  FUMIGATION. (Fumigatio; from fumus, smoke.)
The application of fumes, lo destroy contagious mias-
mata or effluvia.  The most efficacious substance for
this purpose is chlorine; next to ii the vapour of nitrie
acid; and, lastly, that of the muriatic.  The  fumes ol
heated  vinegar, burning sulphur, or  the smoke of ex-
ploded gunpowder, deserve little confidence as anliloi-
mics.  The air ol" dissecting rooms  should be nightly
fumigated with chlorine, whereby  their  atmosphere
would  be more wholesome and agreeable during tin,
day.
  FUMITORY.  See Fumaria.
  FL'MI'S.  Smoke.
  FUNCTION.  See Action.
  FUNGI.  (The plural of fungus.)  An  order ot tne
class Cryptogamia of Linnaeus's system.  They cannot
probably be said to have any herbage, their substance
is fle.-hy; iheir parts of fructification are in form of very
small capsules buried in llieir fleshy substance. 'These
seminiferous capsules are on the surface, or in plates,
and are called lamella, or gills, pores, or prickles, and
Ihey burst, as in the algse.
  A fungus or mushroom affords the following parts.
  1.  Pileus, the hat, which is the round upper part, or
head.
  2. The Umbo, the knob, or boss, or more prominent
part in tlie centre of the hat.
  3. Lamella, the gills, or membraneous parts on the
under side. These are peculiar to the Agarici.
  4. The pores-, or small  punctures  on the under sur-
face, observed only iu the genus Boletus.
  5.  Echini, or Aculei, elevated  points on the upper
surface of the pileus, noticed in the genus Hydra only.
  C.  Verruca, warts, observed on the inferior surface.
  7. shjics, the stem supporting the hat.
  8. Vulva, the wrapper,  or covering,  of a membra
neous texture, surrounding the stem, and concealing
the parts of fructification, and in due time bursting all
around, formins: a ring upon the stalk; as in Agaricus
campestris.  Linnaeus also uses this  term for the more
fleshy external covering of some other fungi,  which  in
scarcely misted nutof the ground,and enfolds the whole
plant when young.
  9. Annulus,  the  ring,  or  slender membrane sur-
rounding the stem.
  The varieties of tlie pileus, or hat, are,
  1. Planus, flat.
  2. Convcxus ; as in Boletus bovinus.
  3. Cencavus ; as in Octospora.
  4. Umbonatus, umbo or navel-like;  as  in Agaricus
conspurcatus.
  5.  Campanulatus ; as in Agaricus fimitarius
  6.  Viscidus, vipcid.
  7.  Dimidiatus, half round; as in Agaricus nivcus.
  8. Squcmosus, covered  with coloured scales;  as ir
Agaricus procerus.
  9. Squarrosus, having  stiff elevated scales; as is
Agaricus conspurcatus.
  Tlie varieties of the lamella are,
  1.  Equal; as in Agaricus crinitus.
  2.  Unequal.
  3. Branched, when several run into one; as  in Mcru
tins cantnarellus.
  4.  Dccurre-nt, proceeding down the stem.
  5.  Venous, so small that they appear like elevates"
veins.
  6. Dimidiate, half round ; as in  Agaricus musctv
rnts.
  7. Labyrinth-like; as in Agaricus que~cinus
  The varieties of the volva are,
  1. Simple.
  2. Double.
  3.  Stellate, cut several  times:  as in  Lycopodiunt
stcllatum.
  The varieties of the annulus are,
  I. Erect, loose above, and fixed below • as in Agan
cus conspurcatus.
  2.  Inverse, fixed above, free, and bell-like below; as
in Agaricus Mappa.
  3. Sessile, fixed only laterally
  4. Mobile;  as in Agaricus antiquotus.
  5. Persistent, remaining after the perfect formation
of the plant. 
,OAD
GAD
  "6. F.vanes-.cnt, disappearing after the complete evo-
lution of the fungus.
  «. Arachnoid, resembling a slender white web.
  The varieties of the stipes or stem.
  1. Aniiiilat-, having a ring.
  2. Nuked, without any.
  3  St/uamose. scaly.
  4  Bulbous ;  as in Agaricus srparatus.
  5. Filiform .- as in Agaricus crinitus.
  FUNGIC ACID.   Acidum fuugicum.  The  ex-
pressed juice of the boletus juglandis, boletus pscudo-
ignittriits, the phallus impudicus, mertitius caitthurcl-
CHA-.orthe/it-uu nigra, beingIwrile-d tocoaguhtte the al-
bumen, then  filtered, evaporated to the consistence- ol
an extract, and acted on by pure alkohol, leaves a sub-
stance wmch is called Fungic acid.
  It is  a colourless, uncryslallizable, and deliquescent
mass, ol" a  very sour taste.  'The  tungates of poi:is>a
aud soda are imcryst all rouble; that of amn.....in forms
reeular  six-sided  prisms; that  of lime is modc-iatc-ly
soluble, and is not affected by the air; that of baiyics
is soluble in fifteen times its weight of watei, and
crystallizes with difficulty ; ttmt of magnesia appeals
in soluble granular crystals.   This acid precipitates
from the- acetate of lead  a while lloi culeul fungate,
which is soluble iu distilled vineirar.  When insolalcd,
it does not affect solution of nitrate of silver; but  the
(ungates deeom|iose this salt.
  FUNGIN.  The fleshy part of mushrooms deprived
by alkohol and water of every thing soluble.
 "FUNGUS.   1. Proud-flesh.  A term in surgery to
express  any luxuriant formation of flesh on an ulcer.
  2. In morbid anatomy it is applied tn a disrate ofthe
structure of a part wliich enlarges, is soft, and excres-
ccntial.
  S. Tlie name of an wrder of plants in the Linnaean
system,  belonging to ihe Cryptogamia class.
  Fungus h.ehatodks   See Hamatom*.
  Ft Mies ionurils  See Boletus igniarius.
  Funui's laricis.   See Boletus luricis.
  Fungus mllitexsis.  See Cynomcri'uTn.
  Flisjfs rosaceus. See Bedeguar.
  Fungus salicis.  The willow fungus.  See Boletus
mareolcns.
  Func.is SASiieurisus.  See Pcziia auricula.
  Funo-.-s vieioscs.   The  dark  cobweb-like fungus,
whicli  ve-.ei.ites in  dry cellars, where  wine, ale, and
the hk-e aie kept.
  FUM'i'ULl'S.   (Funiculus ;  diminutive of funis,
a coid.)  A tittle cord.
  Funiculus umbilicalis.  See  Umbilical cord.
  The funiculus of u seed is a little filament by which
the immature  seed  adheres to the receptacle, seen in
Pisnm sat^ttm and  l,unariz annua.
  FU'NIS   A rope or cord.
  Funis umbilicalis.  See Umbilical cord
  FUNNEL-SHAPED.   See  Infundibuliforrnis.
  FURCA.  A fork or species of armature of piunta
See Aculeus.
  Furce'lla inferior.  The cnsiforni cartilage
  Fu'rcui.a.  The clavicle.
  FURFUR.   1. Bian.
  2.  A disease of the skin, in which tlie  cuticle keeps
falling off in small scales like b an.
  FURFUHA  CLOUS.  (Furfuraccus;  from furfur,
bran.)  A term applied to •!■<-  hian-like sediment occa-
sionally deposited in lie urine.
  FURNACE.  Fumus.   The furnaces employed iu
chemical opeiatious nre of three kinds:
  1.  The evaporutory furnace, whicli has received iia
name from ils iim- ; it is employed lo roducee siiustaiic-si
iino  vapour by means of In ut, in mder lo separate the
more fixed principles from those which are moi e volatile.
  2.  The revcrberatury furnace, which name  il has re-
ceived from its coiislinclion.lhi- flame being prevented
from rising; it is appropriated tn distillation.
  3.  Tne forge famine, in which the current of air
is determined by bellows.
  FUROR.  "Fmy, inge.
  Furor i terinus.  (From furo, to be mad, ated
uterus, the- womb.)   See Nyinjihonuinia.
  FUHU'NCULUS.   il-'rom furo, to rage : so named
from its heat and inflammation before it suppuiales.)
Dolhctnof Paracelsus.  Lluadus ; Chioti.  A  bile. An
inflammation of a subcutaneous gland, known byni
inflammatory tumour thul does mil exceed the size of a
pigeon's egg.
  Fusible 'metal.  A combination of three  parts-of
lead, with two of tin, and five of bismuth.  It melts at
197° Fahr.
  FUSIBILITY. The property by whicli metals and
minerals assume tho fluid slate.
  FUSIFOItMIS.   Fusiform.   Spindleslraped  or ti
peiing.  Applied lo pans of plants, as roots, &c. whicli
penetrate perpendiculaily into  the earth; as the carrot,
parsnip, radish, Sec.
  FUSION. (Fusio; from /undo, to pour out.) A che-
mical process, by which bodies aie made to pass from
the solid to the fluid state, in consequence of the appli-
cation of heat.  The chief objects susceptible of Una
operation are salts, sulphur, and metals.  Salts are lia-
ble to two kinds of fusion ;  the  one, which is peculiar
to saline matters, is owing to water contained in them,
and  is called aqueous fusion; the otlier, whicli arist-j
from the heat alone, is known  by the name of igneous
fusion.
  FUSUS.  (From fundo, to  pour out.)  Poured out.
Applied by Dr. Good  to a  species of purging, diarrh.t t
fusa, in  which the faeces are loose, copious, and of a
bright yellow colour.
G
^""l abia'nuu oleum.  See Petroleum rubrum.
^"   Gabi'rea.  A  fatty  kind  of myrrh,  mentioned
by Dioscorides.
  GADOL1NATE.   A hard black-coloured semitrans-
parent  mineral  from Sweden,  composed of  silica,
yttria, oxide of cernni, and oxide of iron.
  GADUS.  Tbe name of a genus  of fishes,  of the
jugular tribe.   The following species are brought to the
European markets for the use of the table.
  Gadus ciliaris.   The Baltic torsk.  The Iceland-
ers prepare it by salting and drying, when it becomes
in article of commerce, under the name of Tettclivg.
its flesh is while, tender, and well flavoured.
  Gaui's morhua.   The cod-fish.  This well-known
fish in our markets, abounds in the northern seas.  Its
flesh is  white, tender, and delicious.  When salted, it
is also well flavoured, and ir. general esteem.
  Gadus ^glefinus.  The haddock.  An inhabitant
of the northern seas of Europe.  The larger ones are
much esteemed during the winter; the smaller ones for
summer use.   They are of easy digestion.  Salted and
dried they are eaten at breakfast as a delicacy.
  Gabus :unutus.  Very small,  never exceeding six
or seven inches in length.  It is found in.the Mediter
ranean in great abundance, where it is called a capclau,
or oflicier.
  Gadus merlanous.   The  whiting.   A  delica'.j
white fish  in  great abundance  in the Irish seas and
German Ocean.
  Gadus hollacius.  The whiting pollack, found oa
the rocky coasts of Britain, and other parts of Europe,
and is in ereat  esteem for the table.
  Gadus carbonarius.  The coal-fish.   Very abun-
dant on the rocky coasts of the northern parts of ih-.i
island, about the Orkneys, and the coast of Yorkshire,
where  they become two and three feet long, and con
Btitute the chief support of the poor.
  Gadus merluwuus.  The hake.  A native of t.'-c
North aid  Mediterranean seas,  not  much eaten, ex-
cept by the poor wlien dried, when it is  called per
John, or stock-fish.
  Gadus molva.  Tilling. Thisgrowstothe lenclh
of five or six feet.  It is not so good ns the  morhua,
when fresh; but dried and  salted, is much esteemed,
and is the common food of the poor in Cornwall, where
it is prepared lor exportation.
                                        373 
GAL
GAL
  Gadu3 lota.  The burbot.   The  flesh of this is
considered delicious and of easy digestion.
  Gadus brosme.  The torsk.  This swarms in the
oens about the Shetland islands, and forms a consider-
able article  of commerce,  either dried, or salted, or
packed in barrels.
  [Most of the  fishes belonging  to the genus Gadus,
are edible.   Ofthe preceding enumerated species three
of them are common to the waters of the United States,
as the Gadut  morhua, Gadus  aglefinus, and Gadus
merlurcius.  Besides these, there  are found  on the
stalls  of  ihe fishermen in the markets of New-York
the following  species,  viz. Gadus callarias,  Gadus
tomcodus, Gadus blennoides, Gadus purpurcus, Ga-
dus tenuis, Gadus longipes, and  Gadus punctatus.
Of these  different species, all of which are used as
food, the  Gadus morhua, or bank cod, and the Gadus
eallarias, are the most abundant, and  most esteemed.
The Gadus merluccius, or hake, is remarkable for its
Iarg<e sound,  or swimming-bladder, which is prepared
and dried for  sale, and forms excellent icthyocolla;
(which sec.)  A.]
  GALA'CTIA.  (From yaXa, lac, milk; or yaAaicTi-
t3f, lucteus, milky.)  Galactirrhaa.  1. An excess or
overflowing ofthe milk.
  2. The name of a genus of diseases, Class Genetica;
Order, Cenolica, of Good's Nosology.   Mislactation.
I; comprehends five species, viz. Galuclia pramatura;
defrctura ; depravnta ; crrotica ; virorum.
  Galactina.   (From yaXa,  milk.)    Aliment pre-
pared of  milk.
  GALACTIRRHCE A.   (From yaXa, milk, and ptu,
to flow.)  See Galaclia.
  Galacto'des.  (From yaXa, milk.)   In Hippocrates
Itsiznifies both milk-warm and a milky colour.
  GALACTOPHORUS.   (From  yaXa,  milk,  and
(Jtoio,  to bring or carry.)  1.  That which  has the pro-
perty of increasing the secretion e>f the milk.
  2. The excretory ducts  of the glands of the breasts
of women, which terminate in  the papilla, or nipple,
are so called, because they bring the milk to the nipple.
  GALACTOPOIE'TIC.   (Galactopoieticus;  from
yaXa,  milk, and iroteu, to make.)   Milk-making, the
faculty of making  milk:  applied to particular foods,
plants, &c.
  CALACTOPO'SIA.   (From yaXa,  milk, and irnu,
to drink.) The method of curing diseases by a  milk
diet
  CALA'NGA.   (Perhaps its  Indian  name.)   Sec
Maranta and Kampfcria.
  GaLanoa major.  See Kampfcria galanga.
  Galanga minor.  See Maranta Galanga.
  GALANGAL.  See Maranta Galanga.
  Gnlangnl, English   See Ci/peras longus.
  GALBANUM.   (From chalbanah, He'b.)  See Bu-
bon galbanum.
  C a'i.bkum. A medical bracelet worn by the Romans.
  GA'LBULUS.   (The  name  of the nut, or  little
round ball of the cypress-tree.)  Gaertner applies this
term,  the classical name of  the cypress fruit, which is
a true strobilus, to  a  globular spurious berry  with
three or more seeds formed by the coalescing of a few
scales, of a fertile catkin  become succulent, wliich
liippens in the Juniper.—Smith.
  Galdulus.   (From galbns,  yellow.)   When  the
skin ofthe body is naturally yellow.
  GA'LDA.  A gum-resin, mentioned  by old writers,
fcttt totally forgot in the present day, and nol to be ob-
t-ined.   Externally, it is ol"  a brown colour, but white
v ilhin, of a  hard Inmellated structure, and smells and
l  stes somewhat like clemi.  When burnt it gives out
nn agreeable odour.  It was formerly used as a warm
Rtimulaling  medicine, and  applied in  plasters  as a
slrengtiiener.
  GA'LKA.  (From yaXn, a cat, ofthe skin of which
it was formerly made.)   A  helmet.  1. In anatomy,
tie amnios is so called, because it surrounds the foetus
I.aC n helmet
  2. Iu surgery ; a bandatte for the head.
  3. A species of headache  is so called, when it sur-
rounds the head like a helmet.
  4. In botany it is applied to upper nrched lip of rin-
gient and  personate enrols.  See Corolla.
  GALEANTHRO'PIA.    (This  term seems to  be
from yuXij, n cat, and uvOpu-tros,  n man.)  It is n spe-
riesof madness, in which a person imagines himself
'.a be n cat, and imitates its manners.
      271
  GA'LEGA.   (From yaXa, milk:  so named becaosi
it increases the milk of animals which eat il.)   1. The
name of a genus of plants in  the Linnaean system.
Class, Diadelphia; Order, Decandria.
  2.  The pharniacopoeial name of the Ruta capraria.
See Galega officinalis.
  Galeoa officinalis.  The systematic name of the
goat's rue.  Galega.  Ruta capraria.   Fnm the liltle
smell and taste  of  this plant,  Galega leguminibus
strictis, ereclis; foliolis lanceolatis,  striatis. nudis,
of Linnaeus, it may be supposed to possess liltle vir-
tues.  In Italy, Ihe leaves are eaten among salads.
  Galeg.e.  A species of senna from the East Indies.
The cassia tora of Linnaeus.
  GALENA.   (From yaXetv, to shine.)  The name
of an ore formed by the combination of lead with sul
phur.  A native sulphuret of lead ore.
  GALE'NIC.  That practice of medicine whicli con-
forms to the rules of Galen, and  runs much upon mul-
tiplying heibs and roots iu the fame composition, was
long called Galenical medicine, after the manner  of
Galen.  Il is opposed to chemical medicine, which, by
the force of fire, and a great  deal of art, fetches out
the virtues of bodies, chiefly mineral, into  a small
compass.
  Gai.e'nium.   (From yaXrjvrj,galena.)  A cataplasm;
in the composition of .vhich was the galena.  In Pau-
lus ^Egineta it  is considered as anodyne.
  GALENUS, Claudius, was born at  Pergamus, in
Asia Minor, in  131.  His  father, Nicon, having  in
structed him in the rudiments  of knowledge, sent him
to attend the best schools of philosophy   Galen  soon
displayed his judgment  by selecting want appeared
most rational from the different sects; but be totally
rejected  the Epicurean system, which  was  then  in
fashion.  About the  age of 17,  he began his  attach-
ment to the science of medicine, over which  he was
destined  to preside for many centuries with oracular
authority.  During his youth, he traveled much, that
he might converse with the most intelligent physicians
of the age, and inform himself  concerning the drugs
brought from  other  countries.   He  resided  several
years at Alexandria, which was then the great resort
of men of science, and the best school of medicine in
the world.  At the age of 28, returning to his native
place, he met  wilh distinguished success  in practice;
but four ypars  after he attempted to establish himself
at Rome.  Here he encountered  much opposition from
his professional  brethren, who stigmatized him as a
theorist, and even as a dealer in magic; and though
he gained the esteem of several men of learning and
rank, yet wanting temper and experience suflicient to
maintain a successful contest with a  numerous and
popular party, he was obliged to return to Pergamus
within five years, under the pretence of avoiding the
plague, whicli then raged at Rome.  He was, however,
soon after sent for to attend the emperors Marcus Au
relius and Lucius Verus, of whom the latter died ; and
ihe former conceived so high an opinion of Galen, that
subsequently, during  his German expedition, he com
mitted  his two sons to the care ot  that  physician.
These princes were seized w ith fevers, in which Galen
having prognosticated a favourable issue, contrary to
the opinion of all his colleagues, and having  accord-
ingly restored them to health, he attained an eminence
of reputation,  wiiirh enabled  him to defy the power,
and finally to ruin the credit, of  his former opponeuts.
It  is not certain whether he  continued nt Rome  till
his death, nor  at what precise  period  this occurred;
but Fabricius asserts that  he  attained  the nge of  70,
which  corresponds to the 7th year of  Severus: and
his writings appear  to indicate, that he was still in
that city in the early part of this emperor's reign.  1 lie
greatest part of Galen's life was spent  in the  zealous
pursuit of knowledge, and especially of every thing
which might have the least connexion with medicine,
and he is said to have composed about 750  differeni
essays on such  subjects.  lite appears, however, to have
been loo much elated with the consciousness of  his
superior  endowments, and to have behaved rather
contemptuously  towards his  brethren;  which  may
have inflamed  their opposition to him.   The chief ob-
ject  in his writing appears to be to illustrate those  of
Hippocrates, which he thought succeeding physicians
had misunderstood or misrepresented: in this he has
displayed greal ncuteness and learning, though he havi
natiuuch increased the stock of practical information 
GAL
CiAL
His example, :oo,h«d thj unfortunate effect of intro-
ducing  a laste for mii.ute oistinctions and abstract
speculations ;  whili the diligent observation of nature,
which distinguished the father of medicine, fell into ne-
glc-et.  We must therefore reiiret that the splendour of
Galen's talents so completely dazzled his  successors,
that, until about  the  middle of the 17th century, his
opinion bore almost undivided sway.  Numerous edi-
tions of his works, in the original Greek, or translated
into Latin, have been printed in modern times.
  GALEOBDOLON.  (From yaAtij, felts, and (iio-
Xac, cr-pitiis.)   Se - Galeopsis.
  GALEO TS1S.   (FromxaXos,good.andou*is,vision:
so called because  it was thought good for the niriit, or
from  yaAi7, a cat,  and ouVij, aspect; the flowers gnp-
!ng like the open  mouth of that animal.)   Galubdo-
.011.  See Lamium album.
  Galeri'culum  aponeurotic!-:*.   A  name iu old
writings for  the tendinous expansion which lies over
tlie pericranium.
  Galipot.   See Barras.
  GA'HUM.  (FromyaXa, milk ; some species having
Ihe property of coagulating milk.)  1.  The name of a
genus of plants iu the Linnaean system.   Class, Te-
trandrii; Order, Monogynia.
  2. The pbaruiacopaeial  name  of the  herb cheese-
rennet, or ladies' bedstraw.  See (Galium verum.
  3. A name for madder.
  Galium album.  The greater ladies' bedstraw. See
Galium mollugo.
  Galium aparine.  The  systematic name of the
goose-grass,  and  cleavers' bees.   Cleavers;  Goose-
share; Hayriff.   Aparine; I'kilanthropus; Ampelo-
carpus;  Omphalocarpus ;   Iius;  Asparine;  Aspe-
rula.  '1 his plant is common in our hedges and ditches:
Galium—foliis octonis lanceolatis carinatis scabris
retrorsum uculeatis, geniculis venosis, fructu hispido,
of Linnaeus.  The expressed juice has been given with
advantage as  an  aperient and diuretic in incipient
dropsies: but the character in which it has of late been
chiefly noticed, is thai of a remedy against cancer. A
tea-cupful, internally, gradually increased to  half a
pint, two or three limes a day, and the herb applied, in
cataplasm, externally, has been said to  cure cancers.
Such beneficial results are not confirmed by the expe-
rience of others.
  Galium mollugo.   The  systematic name of  the
greater ladies' bedstraw.   Galium album.   Galium—
foliis  octonis, ovato-linearibus, subserratis,  paten-
tissimis, mucronatis ;  caule flaccido, ramis patcntibus
of Linnaeus.   This herb, wilh its flowers, is used me-
dicinally. Five ounces or more ofthe expressed juice,
taken every evening upon an empty stomach, is said to
cure epilepsy.
  Galium verum. The systematic name of the true
ladies' bed-straw,  or cheese-rennet.   Galium  of the
pharmacopoeias.   The tops of this plant,  Galium—
foliis octonis, lincaribus, sulcatis; ramis fioriferis,
brcvibus, of Linnaeus,  were long used as an efficacious
medicine in the cure of epilepsy; but, in the practice
of the present day, they are-abandoned.  Indeed, from
the sensible qualities of the plant, little can be expect-
ed. The leavi-s and flowers possess the property of
curdling milk; it  is on that account styled cheese-
rennet.
  GALL.  See Bile,
  GALL SICKNESS.   (See Febris  remittens.)  A
popular name for the remitting fever occasioned by
marsh miasmata, in the Netherlands, and which proved
so fatal to thousands  of the English soldiers after the
capture of Walcheren in the year ld09.  Dr. Liiid in-
forms us, that at Middleburg, the capital of Walcheren,
a sickness generally reigns towards the  latter  end of
August or the beginning of September, which is always
most violent after  hot summers.  It commences after
the rains which fall in the end of July, the sooner it
begins the longer it continues, and it  is  only checked
by the coldness of the weather.  Towards ihe end of
August and the beginning  of September,  it is a con-
tinual burning fever, attended wilh a vomiting of bile,
which is the gall-sickness.  This fever, after continu-
ing three or four days, intermits and assumes the form
of a double tertian; leaving the  patient  in  a fortnight
or perhaps sooner.  Strangers, that have been accus-
tomed to breathe  a dry, pure air, do not recover so
quickly.   Foreigners in indigent circumstances, such
as the Scots and German soldiers, who were garrisoned
in the adjacent  places, were apt, after those fevers,
to have a swelling in the legs, and a dropsy; of which
many died.
  These diseases arc the same with the double tertians
common within the tropics.  Such as are seized with
the gall sickness, have at first some flushes of heat
over the body, a loss of appetite, a white, foul tongue,
a yellow tinge in the eyes, and a pale colour of Che lips.
Su.-h as live well, drink wine, and have warm clothes
and a good lodging, do nol sutler so much during the
sickly season as the poor people;  however, those dis-
eases are not infectious, and seldom prove mortal tc
the natives.
  Sir John Pi ingle observes, that the prevailing epi-
demic of autumn, in  all marshy countries, is a fever
of an intermitting nature, commonly of a tertian form,
but of a bad kind; which, in  the  dampest places and
worst seasons, appears as a double tertian, a reuniting,
or even an ardent fever.  But, however these may vary
iu their appearance, according to  the constitution of
the patient and other circumstances, they are all of a
similar nature.  For though,  in the beginning of the
epidemic, when the heat, or rather the putrefaction in
the  uir, is the greatest, they assume a continued or a
remitting form; yet, by the end of autumn, they usually
terminate in regular intermittents.
  But although iu the gall sickness there is both  a
redundance aud a depravation of the bile, still the dis-
ease  cannot, with justice, be said  to originate wholly
from that cause.  It is certain, however, that the dis-
ease may be continued, and the symptoms aggravated
by an increased secretion and  putrefaction of the bile,
occasioned by ihe fever.  In proportion lo the coolness
ofthe season, or the height and dryness ofthe ground,
this disease is milder, remits and intermits more freely,
and  removes further  from  the nature of a continued
fever.  The higher ranks of people in  general are the
least liable to ihe diseases of the marshes;  for such
countries require dry houses, apartments raised above
the ground,  moderate exorcise, without labour, in the
sun,  or evening damps; a just quantity of fennenied
liquors, plenty of vegetables and fresh meats.  With-
out such helps, not only strangers but the natives them-
selves are sickly, especially alter  hot and close  sum-
mers.  The  hardiest constitutions are very little ex-
cepted more than others; and hence the British in the
Netherlands have always been subject to this fever.
  By this disease, the British troops were  harassed
throughout the war, from 1743 to 1747.  It appeared
in the month  of August, 17-13: the  paroxysms came
on in the evening, with great heat, thirst, a violent
headache, and often  a delirium.   These symptoms
lasted must ol" the night, bul  abated in the morning,
with an imperfect sweat; sometimes with an haemor-
rhage of the nose, or  looseness.   The stomach, from
the beginning, was disordered with a nausea ami sense
of oppression ; frequently with a bilious and offensive
vomiting.  If evacuations were either neglected or too
sparingly used, the patient fell into a continued fever,
and  sometimes grew yellow, as in jaundice.  When
the season was further  advanced, this  fever was at-
tended with  a cough, rheumatic pains, and sizy blood.
The  officers, being better accommodated than the com-
mon men, and the cavalry, who  had cloaks to keep
them warm, were not so subject to it; and others, who
belonged to  the army, but lay in qunrters, were least
of all affected; and the  less in proportion to llieir be
ing exposed  to heats, night damps, and the other fa
tigues of the service.   In this manner did the remitting
fever infest  the army for the  remaining years of the
war: and that exactly in proportion to llieir distance
from the marshy places, of wliich we have  seveial
notable instances in Pringle's observations.
  GALL-BLADDER.  Vesicula fcllis.   An oblong
membraneous receptacle, situated under tho liver, lo
which it is attached  in the  right  hypochondriuni.  It
is composed of three membranes, a  common, fibrous,
and villous.   Its use  is to retain the bile whicli regur-
gitates from  the hepatic duct, there to become thicker,
more acrid, and  bitter, and  to send it  through the
cystic duct,  whicli proceeds from its neck  into the
ductus communis choledochus, to be  sent on to the
duodenum.
  GALL-STONE.   Calculus biliosus.  Biliary con-
cretion.  Hard concrete bodies,  formed in the gall
bladder of animals.  Of these there arc four differen' 
GAL
UAL
   1. The first has a white colour, and when broken
presents crystalline plates, or striae, brilliant and  white
like mica, aud having a soft, greasy feel.   Sometimes
its colour is yellow or greenish ; and  il has constantly
a nucleus of inspissated bile.  Its specific gravity is in-
ferior to that of water: Gren found the specific gravity
of one 0.803.  When exposed to  a heat considerably
greater than that of boiling water,  this crystallized
calculus softons and melts, and crystallizes again when
the temperature is lowered.  It is  altogether insoluble
in water, but hot alkohol dissolves it with facility.
Alkohol, of the temperature of 167°, dissolves one-
twentieth of its weight of this substance;  but alkohol,
at the temperature of 60°, scarcely  dissolves any of
it.  As the alkohol cools, the matter is  deposited in
brilliant plates, resembling talc or boracic acid.   It is
soluble in oil of turpentine.  When melted, it has the
appearance of oil,  and  exhales the  smell of melted
wax; when suddenly heated, it evaporates altogether
in a thick smoke.   It is soluble in pure alkalies, and
Ihe solution  has all the properties of a soap.   Nitric
acid also dissolves it; but  it is precipitated  unaltered
by water.
  This matter, which is evidently the same with the
crystals Cadet obtained from bile, and which he con-
sidered as analogous to sugar of milk, has a strong re-
semblance to spermaceti.  Like  that substance, it is
of an oily nature, and inflammable; but it differs from
it in a variety  of particulars.  Since  it is contained in
bile, it is not difficult to see how it may crystallize in
the gall-bladder if it happen to be more abundant than
usual; and the consequence must be a  gall-stone of
this species.   Fourcroy found a quantity of the same
substance in  the dried human liver.   He called it
adipocerc.
  2. 'The second  species  of biliary calculus is  of a
round or polygonal shape, often of a gray colour  exter-
nally, and brown within.  It is formed of concentric
layers of a matter, which seems to be inspissated bile;
and there is usually a nucleus of the  white crystalline
matter at the centre.  For the  most part, there are
many of this  species of  calculus in  the gall-bladder
together; indeed, it is frequently filled  with them.  The
calculi belonging to this species  are often  light and
friable, and of a brownish-red colour.   The gall-stones
of oxen, used by painters, belong to this species.  These
are also adipocere.
  3. The third species of calculi are most numerous
of all.  Their colour is often deep brown or green ; and
when broken, a number  of crystals of the substance
resembling spermaceti are observable, mixed with in-
spissated bile.   The calculi belonging to  these three
species are soluble in alkalies, in soap ley, in alkohol,
and iu oils.
  4. Concerning the fourth species of gall-stone, very
little is known with accuracy.   Dr. Saunders tells us,
that he  has  met with some gall-stones insoluble both
in alkohol and oil of turpentine; some of whicli do
not flame, but  become red, and consume to ashes like-
charcoal.  Haller quotes several  (examples of similar
calculi.   Gall-stones often occur  in  the inferior ani-
mals, particularly in cows and  hogs; but the biliary
concretions ol" these animals have not hitherto been
examined with much attention.
  Gall-stones often  lie quiet; so that until dissection
after death, some arc never known to exist; but  when
they are prevented from passing through the gall-ducts,
they obstruct the passage of the bile into the intestines,
and produce also many inconvenient symptoms,  parti-
cularly the jaundice.
  'The diagnostics of this disorder are generally very-
obscure and uncertain:  for other  causes  produce the
same kind of symptoms as those which occur in this
disease.   The  usual symptoms are a loss of appetite,
a sense  of fulness iu the stomach, sickness, and vo-
miting, languor, inactivity, sleepiness; and, if the ob-
ntruclion continues for n time, there is wasting of the
flesh; yellowness  ofthe eyes, skin, and urine; whitish
stools; a pain in  the pilot'  the  stomach;  while the
pulse remains iu its natural  state.  The pain excited
by an obstruction of the gall-ducts, in consequence of
gall-stones passing through them, and this not atlectiilg
Ihe pulse, is considered as the leading pathognomonic
symptom.  'This pain, in  some, is extremely acute, in
otheis there  is only u slight uneasiness felt about the
"egion of the liver"; but its particular seat is the eall-
      37b*
duct, just where it enters the duodenum.   In some pa
tients there is no yellowness of the skin; in others i
exists for several months.  There is no disease more
painful than this, in some instances; it is as  frequent
as any other affection of the liver; it admits of much
relief" from medicine, and is not immediately danger-
ous to the patient.  See Icterus.
  GA'LLA.  (From  Gallus, a river in Bithynia.)  A
gall.  See Quercus cerris.
  Galla turcica.  See Quercus  cerris.
  ["Gal'lj..   Galls.   Most species ofthe oak, when
stimulated by the  puncture of au  insect, and the de-
position  of its egg, produce a  kind of spherical ex^
crescence, which serves as the habitation and food of
the  young larva when hatched.  These excrescences
are known by the general name of galls, and are pro-
duced on various parts of the trees by different insects
ofthe genera Cynips, and Diplolepsis.  The best galls,
and  those  which  predominate  in commerce,  are
brought from  Smyrna, Aleppo, and the neighbouring
countries.  The Edinburgh College considers them aa
produced on the Quercus Cerris, a tree  growing in
the south of Europe.  The French traveller, Olivier,
informs us, that the Asiatic galls are the product of a
species of  oak, which he names Quercus infectoria,
and that  the puncturing insect is the Diplolepsis gal-
la tinctoria of Geoffroy. Both the insect and the gall
have been observed in France.
  Good galls are round, of a dark colour, and studded
with tubercles.  They are of various sizes, under that
of a cherry.  They are hard, brittle, and  exhibit  an
irregular and partly resinous fracture.  Their taste is
highly astringent,and somewhat bitter and acrid. Those
which  have "been perforated by the  insect are  of an
inferior quality, their central portion being consumed
The chemical  constituents, which  give to galls  their
chief value, are tannin and gallic acid.  Besides these,
they contain, according to Davy, extractive mucilage;
according to Bronchi, a concrete, volatile oil;  and ac-
cording  to Braconnot,  another acid, which  he calls
ellagic acid.   Chemists, however, are  not agreed as
to their  entire composition.  It is obvious, that the
presence or absence of the larva, as well  as its stage
of growth, must materially affect the analysis.
  Must metallic salts produce precipitates with infu-
sion of galls, consisting of the metallic  oxides, tannin,
and gallic acid  It is questionable  how far the nstrin-
geney of the calls is  affected  by such combinations.
The sulphuric and muriatic acids, lime water, and tlie
alkaline carbonates, also, occasion precipitates.  Gela-
tin nnd starch combine immediately with the tannin
of f he calls.
  Galls are among the most powerful vegetable astrin-
gents.  They are sometimes given  internally,  in doses
of a scruple; but their chief medical use is as a  local
remedy in the form of gargles, and in the ointment;
which s-e.   On account of the purple or black colour,
whicli  they strike wilh  sails of iron, they are exten-
sively consumed in dying nnd  ink-making.   For tlie
latter purpose, no substitute can be  safely used instead
of them."—Big. Mat. Meet.   A.l
  GALLIC  ACID.  Acidumgallicum.  An acid found
in vegetable substances possessing astringent proper-
lies,  but  most  abundantly in the excrescences termed
galls, whence it derives its name.   It may be obtained
by macerating galls in water, filtering, "and  suffering
the liquor to stand exposed to  the air.  It will grow
mouldy,  be  covered with a thick glutinous  pellicle,
abundance of  glutinous flocks will fall down, and, in
the course of two  or three months, the sides of the
vessel will appear covered with small yellowish crys
tals, abundance of whicli will  likewise be found  on
the under surface of the supernatant pellicle.  These
crystals  may be purified by solution in alkohol,  and
evaporation to dryness.
  Or muriate of tin may be added to the infusion of
galls, till  no more precipitate falls down ; the excess of
oxide of  tin remaining  in tlie solution, may  then be
precipitated by sulphuretted hydrogen gas, and the
liquor will yield crjstals of gallic acid by evaporation.
  A more simple process, however, is to boil an ounce
of powdered galls in sixteen ounces of water to eight,
and  strain.  Dissolve two ounces of alum in water.
precipitate the alumina by carbonate of potassa ; and
after edulcorating it completely by  repeated ablutions,
add  it to the decoction,  frequently stirring lhc mixture 
GAL
GAL
with a glass rod.  'The next day  filtoi the mixture,
wash the precipitate with warm water, till this will no
longer  blacken sulphate of iron;  ink ihe washings
with ihe filtered liquor, evapornte. and the jailic acid
will be obtained in fine needled crystals.
  These crystals obtained in any of these ways, how-
ever, are  contaminated with a small portion of ex-
tractive matter; and  lo purify them they may be
placed in a glass capsule  in  a sand-heat, and sub-
limed into another capsule inverted over this, and kept
cool.
  The gallic acid placed on a red-hot iron, burns with
flame,  and emits an aromatic smell, not unlike that of
benzoic acid.  Il is soluble  in 20 parts of cold water,
and in three parts at a boiling hent.  It is more soluble
in alkohol, which takes up  an equal weight if heated,
and one-fourth of its weight cold.
  Il has an  acido-astringent taste, and reddens tinc-
ture of litmus.   It does nol attract humidity from the
air.
  This acid, in its combinations  with the salifiable
bases, presents some remarkable phenomena.   It we
pour its aqueous solution by slow degrees into lime,
barytes, or strontites water, there will first be formed a
greenish-white precipitate.  As the quantity of acid is
increased, the precipitate changes to a \ iolt t hue, and
eventually disappears.   'The liquid has then acquired
a reddish lint.   Among the salts, those only of  black
oxide and red oxide-of iron, are decomposed by  the
pure gallic acid.  Ii forms  a blue precipitate with the
first, and a brown with  the second.   But  when this
icid is  united with tannin, il dccompoM s ainiost all the
salts of the permanent metals.
  Concentrated sulphuric acid decompose*; and carbo-
nizes il; and the nitric acid converts il into malic and
oxalic acids.
  United with barytes, strontian, lime, and magnesia,
it forms snl> of a dull yellow colour, which are litlle
soluble, but more so if their base be in excess.   With
alkalies it  forms salts that are not very soluble in
general.
  Its most distinguishing characteristic  is  its  great
affinity for metallic oxides, so as, when combined with
tannin, to take them from powerful acids.  The  more
readily ihe metallic oxides part with their oxygen, the
more ihey are alterable by the gallic acid.  To a solu-
tion of gold, it imparts a green hue ; and a brown pre-
cipitate is formed, whicli readily passes to the metallic
state, and covers the solution with a shilling golden
pellicle.  With nitric solution of silver, it  produces a
similar effect.   Mercury it  precipitates of  an orange-
vellow ; copper, brown; bismuth, of a lemon colour;
lead, white; iron,  black.  Platina,  zinc, lin, cobalt,
aud manganese, are not precipitated by it.
  The  gallic acid is of extensive use in the art of dy-
ing, as  it constitutes one of the principal ingredients in
all the  shades of black, and is employed to fix or im-
prove several  other colours.  It is well known  as an
ingredient in ink.
  GA'LLICUS.  Belonging to the French: applied to
the  venereal disease.  See Lues venerea.
  GALL1NAGO.  (Diminutive of gallus, a cock.)
1. The woodcock.
  2. An eminence within the prostate gland is called
caput callinaginis, from its fancied resemblance to a
w oodcock's head.
  Galli'trichts.  Corrupted from callitrichis, or cal-
litrichum.  See Callitriche.
  Ga'llium.  See Galium.
  GA'LVANISM. A  professor of anatomy, in  the
university of Bologna, named Galvani, was one day
making experiments  on electricity  in his elaboratory :
near the machine were some frogs that had been flay-
ed,  the limbs of wliich became convulsed every time a
spark was drawn from the apparatus.  Galvani, sur-
prised  at this phenomenon, made it a subject of inves-
tigation,  and discovered that metals, applied to  the
nerves and musclesof these animals, occasioned power-
ful  and sudden contractions, when  disposed in a cer-
tain manner.  He gave the name of animal electricity
to this  orde'r of new phenomena, from the analogy that
he considered existing between these effects and  those
produced by electricity.
  The  name animal  electricity has been superseded,
notwithstanding the great analogy that exists between
the effects of electricity and  those of Galvanism, in
I'avour of the  lalter  term • which is not  only  more
applicable to ihe generality of the phenomena, irat
likewise serves  to  perpetuate the  memory of the dis-
coverer.
  In order to give rise to Galvanic effects in animal
bodies it is  necessary  to  establish a communication
between two points of one series of nervous and mus-
cular organs.  Iu this manner a circle is formed, one
arch of which consists of the animal parts, rendered
the subject  of experiment, while the other  arch  is
composed of excitatory instruments, which generally
consist of several pieces, some  placed under the ani
mal parts called supporters, others destined to establish
a communication between  the latter, are called con-
ductors.  To form  a complete Galvanic circle, take
Ihe thigh of a frog, deprived  of its skin; detach the
crural nerve, as far as the knee; put it on a piece of
zinc; put the musclesof the leg on a  piece of silver;
then finish the excitatory arch, and complete the Gal-
vanic circle by establishing a communication by means
of ihe two  supporters;  by means of iron or  copper-
wire, pewter or lend.  The instant that the communi-
cators touch the two supporters, a part of the animal
arch formed by Ihe two supporters will be convulsed.
Although ihis  disposition of the animal parts, and of
Galvanic instruments, be most favourable to the  deve-
lope-ment of the phenomena, yet the composition of the
animal and excitatory  arch may be much varied.
Thus contractions are' obtained, by placing the two
supporters under the nerve, and leaving the muscle out
of the circle, which proves that nerves essentially con-
stitute the animal arch.
  It is not necessary for nerves to be entire in order to
produce contractions.  They take place whether the
organs be tied or cut through, provided there exists  a
simple contiguity  between the divided  ends.  This
proves that we cannot strictly conclude what happens
in muscular action, from that which takes place  in
Galvanic phenomena; since, if a nerve be tied  or di-
vided, the muscles on which this is distributed lose the
jiower of action.                          ,
  The cuticle is an obstacle to  Galvanic  effects: they
are always feebly manifested in parts covered  by  it.
When it is moist, fine, and delicate, the effect  is not
entirely interrupted.  Humboldt, after having detach-
ed the cuticle from the  posterior part  of the neck and
back,  by means of two blisters, applied plates  ol
metal to  the bare cutis,  and, at the moment of estab-
lishing a communication, he experienced sharp prick-
ings, accompanied with a sero-sanguineous discharge.
  11* a plate of zinc be placed under the tongue,  and a
flat piece of silver on its superior surface, on making
them touch each other, an acerb laste will be perceiv-
ed, accompanied with a slight trembling.
  The excitatory arch may  be constructed with three,
two, or even one metal only, with alloys, amalgams,
or other metallic or mineral combinations, carbonated
substances, &c.  It is observed that metals whicli are
in generr.l the most powerful excitors, induce contrac-
tions so much the more as they have an extent of sur
face.  Motals are  all more or less excitants; audit
is observed  that zinr,   gold, silver,  pewter,  are of
the highest lank;  then copper,  lead,  nickel,  anti-
mony, &c.
  Galvanic susceptibility, like muscular irritability, is
exhausted by too long continued exercise, and  is re-
cruited by repose.  Immersion of nerves and muscles
in alkohol and opiate solutions diminishes, and even
destroys, this susceptibility,  in  tne  same  manner,
doubtless, as the immoderate use  cf these substances
in the living man blunts,and induces paralysis iu mus-
cular action.  Immersion in oxymuriatie acid restores
the fatigued parts, to be again acted on by the stimulus.
Animal's killed by the repeated discharge of an electric
battery, acquire an increase of Galvanic susceptibility,
and  this  property subsists unchanged  in animals de
stroyed  by  submersion in mercury, pure hydrogen
gas,  azote,   and ammonia; and finally,  it is totally
annihilated in animals suffocated  by the  vapour of
charcoal.
  Galvanic susceptibility is extinct in the muscles of
animals of warm blood,  in proportion as vital heat  is
dissipated;  sometimes oven when life is terminated in
convulsions, contractility cannot be put into  action.
although  warmth be not completely gone, as  lining!'
the vital property were consumed  by  the (oigYu!si..ii]
amidst which the animals  had ex| ired.   '"ll.nscoi
cold blood, on the contrary, it  is more duranle.  Tim 
GAL
GAL
thigns of frogs, long after being separated from every
thing, and even to the instant of incipient putrefactiou,
are influenced by Galvanic stimuli; doubtless, because
irritability, in these animals, is less intimately connect-
ed with respiration, and file more divided among the
different organs, which have  less occasion to acl on
each other for the execution of its phenomena.   The
Galvanic chain does not produce sensible actions (that
is, contractions,) until the moment it is completed, by
establishing  a communication wilh the parts consti-
tuting it.  During the time  it is complete, that is,
throughout the whole space of time that the commu-
nication  remains established, every  thing  remains
tranquil; nevertheless, Galvanic influence is not sus-
pended: in fact, excitability is evidently increased, or
diminished, in muscles that have  been long continued
in the Galvanic chain, according to the difference of
the reciprocal situation of the connecting  metals.
  If silver has been applied to  nerves,  and zinc to
muscles, the irritability of the latter increase? in pro-
portion to the time they have remained in the chain.
By this  method, the thighs of frogs have  been revivi-
fied in some  degree, and afterward become sensible to
stimuli, that  before had ceased to act on them.  By dis-
tributing the metals in an inverse manner, applying
zinc to  nerves and silver to muscles, an effect abso-
lutely contrary is observed; and the muscles that pos-
sess  the most lively  irritability  when placed in the
chain, seem  to be rendered entirely paralytic if they
remain long  in this situation.
  This difference evidently depends on the direction of
the Galvanic fluid, determined towards  the muscles or
nerves, according to the manner in which these metals
are disposed, and this is of some importance  to be
known  for the application of Galvanic moans to the
cure of diseases.
  Galvanic  Pile.—Volta's apparatus is as follows:—
  Raise a pile, by placing a plate of zinc, a flat  piece
of wet card, and a plate of silver, successively; then a
second piece of zii-.c, Sec. until the elevation is several
feet high; for the effects are greater in proportion lo its
height;  then touch both extremities of the pile, at the
same instant, with one piece of iron wire; at the mo-
ment of contact, a spark is  excited from tho extremi-
ties ofthe pile, and luminous points are often perceived
at different  heights, where  the zinc and  silver  come
into mutual contact.  The zinc end of this pile appears
to be negatively electrified; that formed by the silver,
on the contrary, indicates marks of positive electricity.
  If we touch both extremities ofthe pile, after having
dipped our hands into water, or,  what is better, a sa-
line solution, a commotion, followed by a  disagreeable
prickling in  the fingers and elbow, is felt.
  If we place in a tube filled with water, and herme-
tically closed hy two corks, the extremities of two
wires of the  same metal which are in  contact at the
other extremity, one with the summit, the other with
ihe base of the pile;  these ends, even when separated
only by  the  space of a few lines, experience evident
changes at the instant the extremities of the pile ure
touched ; the wire in contact wilh thai part of the pile
composed of silver becomes covered with bullae of hy-
drogen gas;  that which touches the extremity formed
by zinc, becomes oxidized, or gives off oxygen gas.
Fourcroy attributes this phenomenon to the decompo-
sition of water by the Galvanic fluid,which abandons
the oxygen  to the metal that touches the positive ex-
tiemity  of the pile; then conducts the otlier gas invisi-
bly lo the end of the other  wire there  to  be disen-
gag'd.
   Gidonnic  Trough.—This is a  much more conve-
nient apparatus.   Plates of  two metals, commonly
f.inc and copper, nre- fastened together, and cemented
into a wooden trough, so as to form a number of cells;
or earthenware troughs with partitions being procured,
tlie metals  connected by a slip, ..re suspended over
these, so lhat iu each cell, except at the ends, there is a
plate of each metal; Ihen u diluted acid, (usually the
bulphuiic, nitric, or muriatic  mixed with from twelve
to twenty parts of water,) is  poured  into the trough.
\t is necessary that the  metals be placed in the same
order throughout, or one series will counteract anol tor.
The- zinc end becomes negative,  the copper positue;
and the pow cr is in proportion to the number of the
Beiies:  and  Mveral such  troughs may be connected
together, so  as to form a most powerful apparatus.
   Fiuin  tnc number  of experiments of  Davy,  innnv
new and important facts have been established, and
Galvanism has been  found one of the most powerful
agents in chemistry:  by its influence, platina wire nag
been melted ; gold, silver, copper, and most ofthe me
tals, have easily been  burnt;  the fixed alkalies, and
many of the earths, have been made to appear as con
sisting of a metallic base, and oxygen ; compound sub-
stances, which were before extremely difficult to decom-
pose, are now, by the aid of Galvanism, easily resolved
into their constituents.
  The Galvanic influence has been considered by some
practitioners as likely to increase the nervous influence
in paralyzed and debilitated states of the muscular sys
lean, and many  ingenious ways of applying  it  have
been  resorted to;  but  it does not seem to have  been
useful.   Dr.  Lie's observations and experiments on
this subjuct and on Galvanism  are highly interesting
The following account of them is extracted from his
Chemical Dictionary.  "Many experiments," he ob
serves, " have oeen performed, in this country and
abroad,  on the bodies of criminals, soon alter their
execution.  Vassali, Julio, and Rossi, made au ample
set, on  several bodies decapitated at  Turin. They
paid  particular  attention to  the  effect of  Galvanic
electricity on the heart, and otlier involuntary muscles:
a  subject of much previous  controversy.  Volta as-
serted, lhat these muscles are not at all sensible to this
electric power.  Fowler maintained, that they  were
affected; but with difficulty and in a slight degree.
This  opinion was confirmed by Vassali; who further
showed, that  the muscles of the stomach and intes-
tines  might thus also be excited. Aldini, on  the  con-
trary, declared, that he could not affect the heart by his
most powerful Galvanic arrangements."
  Most of the above experiments were how ever made
either without a voltaic  battery, or with piles, feeble
in comparison with those now employed.  Those in-
deed performed on  the body of a criminal, at Newgate,
in which the limbs were violently agitated; the eyes
opened and shut; the mouth and jaws worked about,
and the whole face thrown into frightful convulsions,
were made by Aldini, with, I  believe a considerable
series of voltaic plates.
  A circumstance of the first  moment,  in my opinion,
has been too much overlooked in experiments of this
kind,—that a  muscular mass through which the Gal-
vanic energy is directly transmitted, exhibits  very
weak contractile movements, in comparison with those
whicli can be excited by passing the influence along
the principal nerve of the muscle.  Inattention to this
important distinction, I conceive to be the principal
source of the slender effects hitherto produced in such
experiments on the heart, and other muscles, indepen-
dent of  the will.  It ought also lo be observed, that too
little  distinction has  been made between the positive
and negative poles of the battery; though  there are
good  reasons for supposing, that their powers on  mus-
cular contraction are by no means the same.
  According  lo  Ritter, the electricity of the  positive
pole augments, while the negative diminishes, the ac-
tions of life.   Tumefaction of parts is produced by the
former ;  depression by the latter.  The pulse of the
hand, he says, held a few minutes in contact wilh the
positive  pole, is  strengthened ; that of the one in con-
tact with the negative is enfeebled: the former is ac-
companied with a sense of  heat; the latter with a
feeling  of coldness.   Objects  appear to a  positively
electrified eye, larger, brighter, and red ;  while to one
negatively electrified, they seem smaller, less distinct.
and bluish,—colours indicating opposite extremities of
tlie prismatic spectrum. The acid and alkalines tastes,
when the tongue is acted on in succession  by tlie two
electricities,  are well  known, and  have been  inge-
niously accounted for by Sir H. Davy, in his admirable
Bukerian lectures.  The smell of oxymurialic acid, and
of ammonia,  are  said by Ritter to be  the opposite
odours, excited by the two opposite poles; as a full
body of sound nnd a sharp tone are the correspond ing
effects on ihe cars.  These experiments require verifi-
cation.                                 ,
   Consonant in  some respects, though  not in all, with
these statements, are the  doctrines taught by a London
practitioner, experiencced in the administration of me-
dical electricity.  Ho affirms, that the  influence of the
electrical fluid of our common machines, in the cure
of diseases, may be referred to three distinct heads;
first- the form of  rai'ii,  when  projected  from a  jwint 
(aAL
GAL
 positively electrified; secondly, that of a  star, or the
 negative lire,concentrated on a brass ball; thirdly, the
 Leyden explosion.  To each of these forms he assigns
 a specific, action.  Tho first acts as a sedative, allaying
 morbid activity  the second as a stimulant; and the
 last has a deobstruent operation, in dispersing chronic
 tumours. An  ample narrative of cases  is given in
 confirmation of these general propositions.   My own
 experience leads me to suppose, that the'negative pole
 of a Voltaic battery gives more  poignant sensations
 than the positive.
  The most precise and  interesting researches on the
 relation between Voltaic electricity and the phenomena
 of life, are those contained in  Dr." Wilson  Philip's Dis-
 sertations in the Philosophical Transactions, as well
 as in his experimental Inquiry into  the Laws of tlie
 Vital Functions, more recently published.
  In  his earlier researches he eudeuvoured to prove,
 that the circulation of the blood, aud the action of the
 involuntary muscles, were independent of  ihe- nervous
 influence.  Iu a late  paper, read in January, l^'.O, he
 showed the immediate dependence of the  secretory
 functions on the nervous  influence.
  The eighth pair of nerves distributed to the stomach,
 and subservient to digestion, were divided by incisions
 in the necks of seveial living rabbits.  Alter the ope-
 ration, the paisley whicli they ate remained  without
 alteration iu their stomachs; and  the  animals, after
 evincing much difficulty of breathing, seemed to die of
 suffocation.   But  when  in other rabbits,  similarly
 treated, Ihe Galvanic power was transmitted along the
 nerve, below its section, to  a disc  of silver, placed
 closely in contact with the skin of the animal, oppo-
 site to its stomach, no difficulty of breathing occuncd.
 The Voltaic action being  kepuip for twenty-six hours,
 the rabbits were then kilied, and ihe parsley was found
 in as perfectly digested a  slate, as that in  healthy rab-
 bits fed at the same lime; and their stomachs evolved
 the smell peculiar to that of a rabbit during digestion.
 These experiments  were seveial times repealed  with
 similar results.
  Hence it appears that the Galvanic energy is capable
 of supplying the piace of the  nervous influence, so
 that, while under it, the stomach, otherwise inactive,
 digests food as usual.  I am not, however, wi.iing to
 adopt the conclusion drawn  by its ingenious author,
 that the identity of Galvanic  electricity  and nervous
 influence is established by these experiments.'  They
clearly slww a remarkable analogy between these two
powers, since the one may serve as a substitute for the
other.  It might possibly be urged by the anatomist,
that as the stomach  is  supplied  by twigs  of  other
 nerves,  which  communicate  under the place of Dr.
 Philip's section of tlie par vagum,  the Galvanic fluid
 may operate merely as a powerful stimulus, exciting
 those slender twigs to perform such au increase of ac-
 tion, as may compensate for the want of the  principal
 nerve.  The above experiments were repeated on dogs,
 with like results; the  battery never being so strong as
 to occasion painful shocks.
  The removal  of dyspnoea, as stated above, led him
 to try Galvanism as a remedy in asthma.  By transmit-
 ting'its influence from the nape of the neck to the  pit
 ol" tlie stomach, he gave decided relief in every one of
 twenty two cases, of which four were in private prac-
 tice, and eighteen in the Worcester  Infirmary.  The
 power employed varied from ten to twenty-five pairs.
  The general inferences deduced by him from his mul-
 tiplied experiments, are, that  Voltaic electricity is
 capable of effecting the formation of the secreted fluids,
 when applied to the blood in the same way in which
 the nervous influence is applied lo it; and that it is
 capable of occasioning an  evolution of caloric from
 arterial blood.  When the lungs  are deprived of the
 nervous influence, by which tiieir function is impeded,
 and even destroyed, when digestion is interrupted, by
 withdrawing this influence from the stomach, these
 iwo vital functions  are  renewed by exposing them to
 the influence of a Galvanic trough.  ' Hence,' says he,
 'Galvanism seems capable of performing all the func-
 tions fo  the nervous influence in the animal economy;
 but obviously it cannot excite the functions of animal
 life, unless  when acting  on parts endowed with the
living principle.'
  These lesults nf Dr. Philip have been recently con-
firmed bj Dr. Clarke Abel, of Brighton, who employed,
 in one ot the repetitions  of the experiments, a com-
paratively weak, and  in  the  other  a  considerabl*
power of Galvanism.  In the former, although the Gal-
vanism was not of suflicient power  to occasion evi-
dent digestion of the food, yet the efforts to vomit, and
the difficulty of breathing, constant effects of dividing
the eighth pair of nerves, were prevented by it. Thcue
symptoms recurred when it was discontinued, and va-
nished on  its  re-application.  'The respiration of the
animal,' he observes,' continued quite free during the
experiment,  except when  the  disengagement of Ihe
nenc> from the tiu-foil rendered a short suspension
nf the Galvanism necessary during their readjustment.1
The  iiongaivanized rabbit breathed  with difficulty,
wheezed audibly, and made frequent attempts to vo-
mit.'   In the lalter experiment, in which the greater
power of Galvanism was employed, digestion went on
as in  Dr. Philip's experiments.—Jour. Se. ix.
  Gallois, an eminent French physiologist, haJ endea-
voured to prove, that the motion of the heart depends
entirely upon  the  spinal marrow, and  immediately
ceases when the spinal marrow is  removed or de
stroyed.  Dr. Philip appears to have  refuted this no-
tion by the following experiments.  Rabbits  were reu
dcred insensible by u blow on the  occiput; the spinal
marrow and brain were then removed, nnd therespira
lion kept  up by artificial means; the motion of the
heart, and the  circulation, were carried on as usual.
When spirit of wine or  opium  was applied to the spi-
nal marrow or  brain, the rate  of the circulation was
accelerated.
  A middle-sized,  athletic, and  extremely  muscular
man,  about thirty years of age,  was the subject of the
following  highly interesting experiments.   He was
suspended  from the  gallows  nearly an  hour, and
made no convulsive struggle after he dropped ; w hile
a thief, executed along with him, was violently agi
tatcd  for a considerable  time.   He was brought lo the
anatomical theatre of our university in about ten mi-
nutes after he was cut  down.   His  face hud a per-
fectly natural aspect, being neither livid nor tumefied;
and there  was no dislocation of his neck.
  Dr. Jeffray, the distinguished professor of  anatomy,
having on the preceding day requested me (says  Dr.
Ure)  to perform the Galvanic  experiments,  I sent to
his theatre, with this view, next  morning, my minor
Voltaic baitery, consisting of 270 pairs  of  four-inch
plates, with wires of communication,  and pointed me
tallic  rods with insulating  handles, for ihe more com
modious application of the electric power.  About five
minutes before the police  officers arrived  wilh the
body, the battery was charged with a dilute nitro-sul-
phuric acid, which speedily brought il into a slate of
intense action-   The  dissections  were skilfully exe-
cuted by Mr. Marshal, under tlie  superintendence of
the professor.
  Exp. 1.  A large incision was made into the nape of
the neck, close below the occiput.  The posterior half
of the atlas vertebra was then  removed by bone for-
ceps, when the spinal marrow was brought into view.
A profuse flow of liquid blood gushed from the wound,
inundating the floor.  A considerable incision was at
the same time made in  the left  hip, through Ihe groat
gluteal muscle, so as to bring Ihe scialic nerve into
sight:  and a small  cut was  made  in Ihe heel.  From
neither of these did  any  blood flow.  The pointed rod
connected wilh  one end  of the battery, was  now
placed in  contact with the  spinal marrow,  while the
other  rod was applied  to  the sciatic nerve. Every
muscle of the body was immediately agitated  with
convulsive movements, resembling a violent shudder
ing from cold.   The left side was most powerfully
convulsed at each renewal of the electric contact.  On
moving ihe second  rod  from the hip to the  heel, the
knee  being previously bent, the  leg was thrown out
with  sucli  violence as  nearly  to overturn one of the
assistants, who in  vain  attempted to  prevent its ex
tension.
  Exp. 2.  The  left phrenic nerve was now iatd bare
at  the outer edge  of  the sterno-thyroideus  muscle,
from three to four inches above the clavicle;  the cuta-
neous incision  having been made by the side of the
sterno-cleido mastoideus.  Since  this nerve  is distil
buled to the diaphragm, and since it communicates
with the heart through the eighth pair, it was expected
by transmitting the Galvanic power along with it, thai
the respiratory  process  would  be renewed.  Accord-
ingly, a small  incision  leaving  been made under tlie
                                        379 
GAL
GAI
eartilage of the seventh rib, the point ofthe one insu-
lating  rod was brought into contact with the great
licad"of the diaphragm, while the other point was ap-
plied to the phrenic nerve in the neck.  This muscle-,
the main agent of respiration, was instantly contracted,
but with less force than was expected.  Satisfied, from
ample experience on the living body, that more power-
ful effects can be produced in Galvanic excitation, by
leaving the extreme communicating rods in close con-
tact wilh the parts to be operated on, while the electric
chain or circuit is completed  by running the end of
the wires along the top of the plates in the last  trough
of either pole, the other wire "Being  steadily immersed
iu the last cell  of  the opposite pole, I  iind immediate
recourse V this method. The success of  it was truly
wond •;-."..<..  Full, nay, laborious breathing, instantly
commenced.  The chest heaved, and fell; the belly
was proiruded, and again collapsed, with the relaxing
and retiring diaphragm. This process was continued,
without  interruption, as long as I continued the elec-
tric discharges.
  In the  judgment of many scientific gentlemen  who
witnessed the  scene, this respiratory  experiment was
perhaps the most  striking ever made with a philoso-
phical apparatus.   Let it also be remembered, that for
full half an hour before this period, the body had been
well nigh drained  of its blood, and the spinal marrow
severely lacerated.  No pulsation could  be  perceived
meanwhile at  the heart or wrist; but it may be sup-
posed,  that but for the evacuation of the blood,—the
essential stimulus of that  organ,—this  phenomenon
might also have occurred.
  Exp. 3. The supra-orbital nerve was laid hare in the
forehead, as it issues through the supra-ciliary fora-
men, in  the eyebrow: the one conducting rod being
applied to it, and  the othet to the heel, most extraor-
dinary grimaces were  exhibited every time that the
electric discharges were made, by  running the wiro in
my hand along the edges of the last trough, from the
220th  to the 27Uth pair of  plates: thus  fifty shocks,
each greater than the preceding one, were given  in
two seconds.  Every muscle in h's countenance was
simultaneously thrown into fearful action; rage, hor-
ror, despair, anguish,  and ghastly smiles, united  their
hideous  expression  in the  murderer's face, surpassing
far the wildest representations of a Fuseli or a Kcan.
At this period  several of the spectators were forced to
leave the apartment from terror or sickness, aud one
gentleman fainted.
   Exp. 4. The last Galvanic experiment consistetl in
transmitting the  electric power from the spinal  mar-
row to the ulnar nerve,  as it passes by the internal
condyle at the elbow:  the fingers now moved nimbly,
like those of  a violin performer;  an assistant, who
tried to close the  fist, found the hand to open forcibly,
in spite of nis efforts.   When the  one rod was  applied
to a slight incision in the tip of the forefinger,  tlie fist
being  previously clenched,  that  finger  extended in-
stantly; and from the convulsive agitation of the arm,
ho seemed to point to the different spectators, some of
whom thought he had come lo life.
   About an hour  was spent iu these operations.
   Iti deliberating  on the above Galvanic phenomena,
we are almost willing to imagine, that if, without cut-
ling into and wounding the spinal marrow and blood-
vessels in  the neck, the  pulmonary organs had been
set a-playing  at  first, (ns I  proposed,) by electrifying
the plneriic nerve, (which may be done without any
dangerous incision,)  there  is a  probability that life
might  have been restored.  This event, however little
desirable with a murderer, and perhaps contrary lo
 law, would yet have been pardonable in one instance,
us it would have  been highly honourable and useful to
science.  From the accurate experiments of Dr. Philip
  f appear?, lhat the action of the diaphragm and lungs
 is indispensable towards restoring the suspended action
 ofthe heart and great vessels, subservient to the circu-
 lation  ofthe blood.
   It is known, that cases of deathlike lethargy, or sus-
 pended  animation, from disease and accidents, have
 occurred, where  life  has  returned, nfler longer inter-
 ruption  of its functions than in the subject of  the pre-
 ceding experiments.   It  is  probable, when apparent
 death  supervenes from suffocation with noxious gases,
 fcc. nnd when there is no organic la-sion, that a judi-
 ciously directed Galvanic experiment will, if any thing
 ■will, restore the  activity of the vilul functions  'The
       3S0
plans of administering Voltaic electricity, hitliertu par
sued in such cases, are, in my humble apprehension,
very defective.  No advantage, we  perceive, is likely
to accrue from passing electric discharges across the
chest, directly through  the  heart and  lungs.  On  the
principles so  well developed  by Dr. Philip, and now
illustrated rn C'ydesdale's body, we should transmit
along the channel of the nerves, that substitute for
nervous influence, or that power which may perchance
awaken its dormant faculties.  Then, indeed, fair hopes
maybe formeu of deriving extensive benefit from Gal-
vanism;  and of raising this wonderful agent to itse.v
pected rank among the miiiistei sot*health and life to man.
  I would, however,  beg leave to  suggest  another
nervous channel, which I conceive to be a stiil  readier
and more powerful one, to the action of the heart and
lungs, than the phrenic nerve.  If a  longitudinal inci-
sion  be made, as is frequently  done for  aneurism,
through the integuments ofthe neck ut the outer edge
of the sterno-mastoidevs muscle, about  half way be-
tween the clavicle and  angle of the  lower jaw; then,
on turning over the edge of this muscle, we  bring into
view the throbbing  carotid, on the outside of wliich,
the par vagum, and great sympathetic nerve, lie to-
gether in one- sheath.   Here, therefore, they may both
be direcily touched and  pressed by a blunl metallic
conductor.  These nerves communicate directly, or
indirectly, with the phrenic; and the superficial nerve
of the heart is sent off from the sympathetic.
  Should, however, the phrenic nerve be taken, that
of the left side is the preferable of the two.   From the
position of the heart, the left  phrenic differs a liltle in
its course from the right.   It  passes over the pcricar
Uium, covering the apex of the heart.
  While the point of one metallic conductor is applied
to the nervous cords above described, the other knob
ought to  be firmly pressed against the side of the per-
son,  immediately under  the  cartilage of the seventh
rib.  The skin should be moistened with a solution of
common salt, or, what is better, a hot saturated solu-
tion  of sal-ammoniac,  by which  means,  the elec-
tric energy will be more effectually  conveyed through
the cuticle so as to complete the Voltaic chain.
   'To lay bare the nerves above described, requires, as
I have stated, no formidable incision, noi does it de-
mand more anatomical skill, or surgical dexterity, ihan
every pracfiiioner of the hea-iing art ought to possess
We  should always bear in  mind, that the subject of
experiment is at least insensible to pain; and lhat life
is at stake, perhaps irrecoverably gone.  And assured-
ly, if we place the risk and difficulty of the operations
in competition wilh the blessings and glory consequent
on success, they will weigh as nothing, with Ihe intel-
ligent and humane.  It is  possible,  indeed,  that  two
small brass knobs, covered with cloth moistened with
solution of sal ammoniac, pressed above and below, on
the place of the  nerve, and the diaphragmatic region,
may suffice, without  any suigical  operation:  it may
first be tried.
   Immersion of the  body  in cold  water  accelerates
greatly the extinction of life arising from suffocation;
and  hence less  hopes need be entertained of recover-
ing drowned persons after a considerable interval, ihan
when the vital heat has been  suffered to continue will,
little abatement.   None of the ordinary practices judi-
ciously enjoined by the Humane Society, should ever
on such occasions be  neglected. For it is surely cul-
pable to spare any pains wliich may contribute, in the
slightest degree, to recall the  fleeting breath of man to
its cherished ntansion.
   My attention has been again particu'arly directed to
this interesting subject, by a very flattering letter which
 1 lately received from the learned Secretary of the
 Royal Humane Society.
   In the preceding account, 1 had accidentally omitted
 to stale a veiy essential circumstance relative to the
electrization of Clydesdale.  The  paper indeed  was
 very rapidly written at the busiest period of my public
 prelections, to be presented to the society, as a substi-
 tute for the essay of an absent friend, and was  sent ofl
 to London the morning after  it was  read.
   The positive  pole of wire  connected with the zinc
 end ofthe  battery, was lhat which I  applied to the
 nerve; and  the negative, or  that connected with the
 copper end  was thai which  I applied to the muscles.
 This is a matter of primary importance,ns the follow
 ing  experiments will prove. 
                       GAR

  "Prepare the posterior limbs of a frog for Voltaic cioc
trization, leaving the crural nerves connected, ns usual,
to a detached portion of the spine.  When the excita-
bility has  become nearly exhausted, plunge the limbs
into the water of one wine-glass, and the crural nerves
with their pendent  portion of spine,  into  that of the
otlier.  The edges of Ihe two glasses should be almost
in contact.  Then taking  a  rod of zinc in one hand,
and a rod  of silver (or a silver tea-spoon) in the other,
plunge the former into the water of the limbs' glass,
and  the latter  into that of the nerves' glass, without
touching ihe frog itself, and gently strike the dry parts
of the  bright  metals  together.   Feeble  convulsive
movements, or  mere twitching of the fibres, will be
perceix e.l  at every contact.  Reverse now tlie position
of tlie metallic  inds, that is, plunge the zinc into the
nc-rveo' glass, and the silver into the oilier.  On renew-
ing ihe contact of the dry surfaces of the metal now,
very lively convulsions will  take  place ;  and  if the
limbs aie skilfully disposed  in a narrow ish conical
glass, they will  probably spring out  to  some distance.
This inteiesting cwpci uncut may be agreeeubly varied
in the following way, Willi an assistant operator:  let
that person seize,  in the moist fingers of his left nand,
the spine and nervous cords of the prepared frog; and
in tliose ot the right hand, a  silver rod; and let the
other pci son lay hold of one of the limbs with his right
hand, while he holds a zinc rod in the moist fingers of
Ihe- led. On making the metallic contact, feeble con-
vulsive twitchings will be perceived as before.   Hold-
ing siill the frog as above,  let them merely exchange
the pieces of metal.  On renew ing the contacts now,
lively movements  will take place, which  become very
conspicuous, if one  limb be  held nearly horizontal, |
while the otlier hangs freely down.  At each touch of
the Voltaic pair, the drooping limb will start up, and
btrike the  hand of the experimenter.
  It is evident, therefore, lhat for ihe  purposes of re-
suscitating dormant irritability of nerves, or contrac-
tility of their subordinate muscles, the positive pole
ihust be applied lo the former, and the  negative to the
iatier."—Ure's  Cht mical Dictionary.
  Ga.ma'kdra. ^ee Stalagmites.
  Gambi'e.nsk gummi.  See Kino.
  GAMBOGE.  See Stalagmitis.
  GAMBO'GIA.  See Cambogia and Stalagmitis.
  Gambo'gii'M.  Sec Stalagmitis.
  G e.MBi.i oca.  See Stalagmitis.
  GA'MMA.  (From the  letler r, gamma, which it
resembles.)  A surgical instrunient for cauterizing a
hernia.
  Ga.mpiie'le.  (From yap^oc, crooked.) The cheek.
The jaw.
  Ga'ncamon.  (From yayyaprj, a fishing-net, which
it w as .-aid to resemble.)  1. A name of the omentum.
  2.  Some call tlie contextuie  of nerves  about the
navel bv ihis name.
  GA NGI.ION.  (TayyXiov, a knot.l  A knot.   1.
In anatomy il is applied to a natural knot-like enlarge-
ment in the course of a nerve.
  2.  In surgery it is an  encysted tumour,  formed in
the sheath of a tendon, and containing a fluid like the
white of  an egg.  It most frequently occurs on the
back of the hand or foot.
   GA'NGRENE.   (Tayypatva;  from  ypaui,  to feed
upon: so named  from its eating away  the  flesh.)
Gangrcna.  See Mortification.
   Ga rab.  An Arabic name for the disorder of the
eves.  See JEgylops.
  ' GARCl'NIA.  (So called in honour of Dr. Garcin,
who  accurately described it.)  The name of a genus
of plants in tlie Linnaean system.  Clnss Dodecandria;
Older, Monogynia.
   Garcima mangostana.  The systematic name of
the mangosteen tree.  The inaiigosleen is a fruit about |
the size of an orange, wliich grows in gre-atabundance t
on this tree in Java and the Molucca islands.  Ac- ]
cording to the concurring testimonies of all travellers,
it ia the most exquisitely flavoured, and the most salu-
brious of  ail fruils, ii being such a delicious mixture of
I'.ic tart and sweet-  The flesh is juicy, white,almost
transparent, and of a more delicate and agreeable  fla-
vour than the richest grape.  It is eaten in  almost
every disorder, and the  dried bark is used medicinally
in dysenteries and  tenesmus, and a strong decoction
of il is much  esteemed as a gargle in ulcerated sore
throats.                                           i
                      GAb

  Ga'iioalk.   FipjuAij.   Gargalos;  Gnrgalismol
Irritation, or stimulation.
  Gaicoa ittoN.  (Hebrew.)  The uvuln,  or  glandu-
lous body, which hangs down into the throat.
  GA'RGARISM.  See Gurgarisma.
  GARGAR1SMA.   (Gargarisma, oris,  n.;  and
Gargari.-mus, i. in. ; and  Gargarismum, i. n.; from
yapyaptgu,  to gargle.)  A gargle, or wash for the
throat.
  GaRoarismum.  See Gargarisma.
  Ga'roatium.  A bed on which lunatics, tec. were
formeily confined.
  GARGLE   S?eo Gargarisma,
  GARLIC.  See Allium.
  UA1LM ET.  Professor Jameson divides this mineral
genus into three species : the pyramidal garnet, dodc-
cahedrul garnet, and prismatic garnet.
  1. The Pyramidal contains three sub-species; Vesn
vian, Egoran, Gehlenite.
  2. The  Dodecahedral contains  nine sub-species,
Pyremite, Grosstilare, Melanite, Pyrope, Garnet, Allo-
chroite, Colophonite, Cinnamon-stone, llelvin.
  3. The Prismatic;  the  grenntitc. Of the garnet
proper, there are two species:
  1. The precious or noble  garnet.
  J. The common garnet.
  GAK.NET, Thomas, was born  in 1766, atCaste-rlon
in Westmoreland.  After serving his lime to a surgeon
and apothecary, he went to study at Edinburgh, where
he took his degree at  twenty-two, and then attended
the London hospitals  for  two years.  In  17t.O he set-
tled at Bradford, and  began to give private lectures on
Philosophy and  Chemistry; and here he  wrote his
Treatise on the Horley Green Spa.  But in the follow-
ing year he removed toKiiaresborough, and soon  after
published an Analysis of the different Waters of  Har
rowgate,  which pUce  he  visited during the  summer
season.  About this period he formed the design of
going to America;  but while waiting lo lake his pas
sage at Liverpool, he was solicited to deliver some lec-
tuies there, which were so favourably received, that he
was  induced to repeat his course at various other
places ; and al length  the  professorship at Anderson's
Institution  in  Glasgow was offered him, wtieie he
began lecturing in 17U6.  Two years after  he  made  a
tour to the  Highlands, of which he subsequently pub-
bshed an account.  On the formation of the Royal In-
stitution iu London, he was invited by Count Rumford
to become the lecturer there; he accepted the appoint-
ment, and the room was crowded wilh persons of the
first distinction  and  fashion.   He then  turned his
thoughts more  seriously to the practice of his profes-
sion, as likely  to afford the most permanent support;
but his prospects  were cut short by death about the
middle of the year 1802.  A posthumous volume, en-
titled " Zooiiomia," was published for the benefit of his
family.
  Ga'ron.   Tapov.  A kind  of pickle prepared of
fish : at first it was mode from a fish, which the Greeks
cull Garos; but the best was  niude from mackurel
Among the moderns,  garum signifies  the liquor in
whicli fish is pickled.
  GAROU.  See Daphne gnidium.
  Garropiiy'llus. See Eugenia caryophyllata.
  Garroti'llo.   (From  garoltar, to  bind  closely
Spanish.)   A name of the cynanche maligna, from its
sense of strangulation, as if the throat were bound with
a cord.
  GAS. (From Gascht, German, an eruption of wind.)
Gcz.   Elastic fluid; Aeriform fluid. This term is ap-
plied to all permanently elastic fluids, simple or com-
pound, except tlie atmosphere, lo  which the term air
is appropriated.
  Some of  the gases exist in nature without the aid ol
art, and  may therefore be collected, others, on the
contrary, are only producible by artificial means.
  All gases are combinations of certain substances,
reduced to the gaseous form by the addition of caloric
It is, therefore, necessary to distinguish  in every  gas,
the matter of heat which acted the  part of a solvent
and the substance wliich forms the basis of the gas.
  Cases  are not contained in  those substances  from
which we  obtain  them in the state of gas, but owe
iheir formation to the expansive property of caloric.
  Formation of Gases.—The different forms undei
which bodies appear,  depend upon a certain quantity
of caloric, chemically combined with them.  The \ en
                                        38] 
GAS
GAS
          rtrmathm of gases corroborates this truth.  Their pro-
          duction totally defends upon the combination of the
          particular substances with caloric; and though called
          permanently elastic, they are only so because we can-
          not so far reduce llieir temperature, as to dispose them
          to part wilh it; otherwise they would undoubtedly be-
          come fluid or solid.
           Water, for instance, is a solid substance in  all de-
          grees below 32° of Fahrenheit's scale; above this tem-
          perature it combines with caloric, and becomes a fluid.
          It retains its liquid state under  the ordinary pressure
          of the atmosphere, till its temperature  is  augmented
          to 212°.  It then combines with a  larger portion of
          caloric, and is converted, apparently, into gas, or at
          least into elastic vapour; in which state it would con-
          tinue,  if the temperature of our iilniospherc was above
          212°.  Gases are therefore solid substances, between
          the particles of which a repulsion is established by the
          quantity of caloric.
           But as in the gaseous water or steam, the caloric is
          letained with but little force, on accouut of ils quitting
          the  water when  the vapour is merely exposed to a
          lower temperature, we do not admit  steam  among
          the  class of gases, or permanently elastic agriform
          fluids.   In  gases, caloric united by a very forcible
          affinity, and no diminution of temperature, or increase
          of pressure, thai has ever yet been effected, can sepa-
          rate it from them.  Thus the nir of our atmosphere,
          in the most intense cold, or when very strongly com-
          pressed, still remains in the aCrilorm slate; aud lience
          is derived the essential character of gases, namely, that
          they shall remain airiform,  under  all variations of
          pressure and temperature.
           In the  modern nomenclature, the name of every
          substance existing  in the  aeriform state,  is derived
          from its supposed solid base; and the term gas is used
          to denote its existence in this state.
           In order to illustrate the formation of gases, or to
          show  in what manner caloric is combined witli them,
          the following experiment may serve.  Put into a retort,
          capable, of holding half a pint of water, two ounces
          Of muriate of soda (common salt):  pour on it  half its
          weight of sulphuric acid, and apply the  heat of a lamp;
          a great quantity of gas is produced, which might be
          collected and retained over mercury.   But to serve
T         the  purpose of this experiment, let  it pass through  a
          glass receiver, having two openings, into one of which
          the  neck of the retort passes, while, from  the otlier, a
          bent tube proceeds, which ends in a vessel of water.
          Before closing the apparatus, let a thermometer be in-
          cluded in the receiver, to show the temperature of the
          gas.  It will be  found that the mercury in the ther-
          mometer will rise only a few degrees: whereas the wa-
          fer in the vessel which receives the bent tube, will soon
          become boiling hot.
            Explanation.—Common  salt consists of muriatic
          acid, united lo soda; on presenting sulphuric acid to
          this union, a  decomposition takes place, especially
          when assisted by heat.  The sulphuric acid unites by
          virtue of its greater affinity lo the soda, and forms sul-
          phate of soda, or Glauber's snlt; the muriatic acid be-
          comes therefore disengaged, and takes the gaseous
          form  in which it is capable of existing at the common
          temperature.   To trace the caloric during this experi-
          ment, as vvus our object, we musi remark, that it first
          flows from the lamp to the disengaged muriatic acid,
          and converts it into gas;  hut the heat thus expended
          is  chemically  united, uud  therefore not appreciable
          by the thermometer.  The caloric,  however,  is again
          evolved, when the muriatic acid gas  is condensed
          by  the  water, with whicli  it forms  liquid  muriatic
          acid.
            In  this experiment we therefore trace caloric  in a
          chemical combination producing gas; and from this
          union we again trace it in the condensation ofthe gas,
          producing sensible heat.
            Such, in general, is the cause of  the formation and
          fixation of glises.   It may be further observed, that
          each  of these fluids loses or  suffers  the disengage-
          ment of different quantities of heat,  ns it becomes
          more or less solid  in its new combination, or ns that
          combination is capable of retaining more or less spe-
          cific hwit.
            The discovery of neYifnrni gaseous  fluids has occa-
          sioned ihe necessity of some peculiar  Instruments, by
          means of wliich  tliose substances may  be conveniently
           :ol:ected and submitted  to examination.  The prin-
                362
cipal ones for that purpose are styled the pneumatt*
apparatus.
  The  pneumatic trough is made either of wood ot
strong  sheet iron,  tinned, japanned, or painted.  A
trough  of about  two feet long, sixteen  inches wide,
and fifteen high, has been  found to be suflicient for
most experiments.  Two or three  inches below Its
brim, a horizontal shelf is fastened, in dimension about
half or one-third part of the width of the trough.  In
this shelf are several holes: these holes must be male
in the  centre of a small excavation, shaped like a
funnel, whicli is formed in the lower part of* the shelf
  This trougli is filled with water sufficient to cover
the shelf to the height of  an inch.
  The  use of this shelf is to support receivers, jars, or
bell-glasses, which, being  previously  filled with water,
are placed invertedly,  their open end turned down
upon the  above-mentioned holes, through which  the
gases,  conveyed there  and directed by means ol  the
funnel-shaped  excavations, rise  in  the  form of air-
bubbles into the receiver.
   When the gaseous  fluids are capable of being  ab-
sorbed  by water, as is the case with some of them, tlie
trough  must be  filled  with mercury.  Tbe price and
gravity of this fluid make it an object of convenience
and economy, that the trough should be smaller than
when water is used.
  A mercurial trough is best cut in marble, free-stone,
or a solid block of wood.   A trough about twelve
inches  long, three inches  wide, and four deep, is suffi-
cient for all private experiments.
   Method of collecting gases, and transferring them
from  one vessel to another.—If we are desirous of
transmitting air from one vessel to another, il is neces-
sary that  the vessel destined  to receive  it be full of
water, or some fluid heavier than air.   For thai pur-
pose,  take a  wide-mouthed  bell-glass, or receiver;
plunge it under the water in the trough, in order to fill
it; then raise it with the mouth downwards, and place
it on the shelf of the trough, so as lo cover one or
more of the holes in it.
   It will now be full of water, and continue so as long
as the  mouth remains below the surface of the fluid in
the cistern; for, in this case,  ihe water is sustained in
the vessel  by the  pressure of the atmosphere, in the
same  manner as the mercury is sustained in the ba-
rometer.  It may without difficulty  be imagined,  that
if common air (or any other fluid resembling common
air in lightness and elasticity) be suffered to enter the
inverted" vessel  filled wilh water,  it will rise to the
upper  part, on account of its  levity,  and the surface of
the water will subside.  To exemplify this, take a glass,
or any other vessel, in that state which is usually called
empty, and plunge it into the wnter with its mouth
downwards: scarce any  of it will enter tlie glass, be-
cause  its entiaiice is opposed by the elasticity of the
included air; but if ihe vessel be turned with its mouth
upwards, it immediately  fills, and the air rises in bub
liles to the surface.  Suppose this operation be  per-
formed under one of the jars or receivers, which are
filled with water, and placed upon the perforated shelf,
the air will ascend in bubbles as before, but, instead
of escaping, it will be caught in the upper part of the
jar, and expel part of tlie water it contains.
   In this manner we  see that air may be emptied out
of one vessel into another by a kind of inverted  pour-
ing, by which  means it  is made to  ascend  from the
 lower to the upper vessel.  When the receiving vessel
 has n  narrow neck, the air may be poured, in a similar
 manner, through  an  inverted funnel, inserted iu iu
 mouth.
   If the air is to be transferred  from a vessel that  is
 stopped like a bottle, the bottle must be unstopped, with
 its orifice downwards in the  wnter; and then inclined
 in such a manner that  ils neck may come under the
 perforated excavation of the shelf.   The gas will es
 tape from the bottle, and passing into the vessel destined
 to receive it, will ascend in it in the form of bubbles.
   In whatever manner this operation is performed,
 the necessity of the excavation in the lower part of the
 shelf  may be readily conceived. It is, ns mentioned
 before, destined to collect the gas which escapes from
 Ihe vessel, ond direct it in  its passage towards the ves-
 sel adapted lo receive it.   Without this excavation, the
 gas, instead of  proceeding to the place of its destina-
 tion, would bo dispersed and lost, unless the mouth of
 the receiving vessel were large 
GAS
GAS
  1 he vessels, or receivers,  for collecting the  disen-
 pagi il  gases, should be glass cylinders,  jars, or bell-
 gla— e-s of various sizes; some of tliem should be open
 at both ciuls, others should be fitted with necks  at the
 top, ground perlertly level, in order  that they may be
 slopped by  ground flat pieces of metal,  glass, slate,
 Sec; others should be furnished with ground stoppers.
 Some should be graduated into cubic inches, and sub-
 divided into decimal or otlier equidistant parts.  Be-
 sides tl-.r.,c.  common glass-bottles, tumblers, Sec. may
 be used.
  Classification of Gases.—All the clastic aeriform
 fluids wiih  which we ure hitherto  acquainted, are
 generally  divided, by  systematic  writers, into two
 classe-s, namely : those- that are respirable and capable
 of maintaining combustion, and those thai arc not re-
 spirublr Klnl incapable of maintaining combustion.
 This division, indeed, has its  advantage, but the term
 respirable, in ils physiological  application, has been
 veiy differently employed by different writers.  Some-
 times by the respiiability of a gas has been meant its
 power of supporting  life, when repeatedly applied  to
 the  blood iu  the  lungs.  Al other times all gases have
 been considered respirable which were capable of in-
 troduction into the lungs by voluntary efforts, without
 any  re!a ion to their vitality.   In ihe Inst case, the
 word respirable- seems to us most properly employed,
 and in this sense it is here  used.
  Non-respliable gases are ihose which, when applied
 to tlie  externa!  organs of respiration, stimulate the
 muscles of the epiglottis in such a  manner as to keep
 il perfectly clo*e on the glottis; thus preventing the
 smallot particle of gas from entering into the bronchia,
 in spile of voluntary exertions.
  Ol ie-spirnble gases, or those which are capable of
 being taken  i-iio the lungs by voluntary efforts, only
one has the power of uniformly supporting life, namely,
atmospheric  air; other gases, when respired, sooner or
 later impair  the  health of  the  human constitution, or
perhaps occasion death; but in different modes.
  Some gases effect no positive change in the blood;
animals immersed iu it die of a disease produced by
the  privation of atmospheric air, analogous to that
occasioned by their submersion in waler.
  Others again produce some positive change in the
blood, as appears from the experiments of Dr. Bed-
does and Sir Humphrey Davy. They seem to render
it incaj.nble  of  supplying  the  nervous and muscular
 fibres with principles essential  to sensibility and  irrita-
 bility.  Thoe L.a-es, therefore, destroy animal life on
 a diifen-iit principle.
  It is obvious,  therefore, that  the above classification
rs not very pieeise, bul  capable of misleading the stu-
dent without proper explanation.
  Gas, azotic.  See Nitrogen.
  Got, carbonic arid.  See Carbonic  acid.
  Gas, hency carbonated hydrogen.  See  Carburetted
 hydrogen gat.
  Gas, hepatic.  See Hydrogen gas, sulphuretted.
  Gas, hydrogen.  See Hydrogen.
  Gas, light carbonated hydrogen   See  Carburetted
hydrogen gas.
  Gaseous oxide of carbon.  See Carbon, go cous ox-
 ide  of.
  GA'STRIC.    (Gastricus;   from  yasvP. ''lc sto-
 mach.)  Appertaining to the stomach.
  Gastric artery.  Arteriagastrica.  The right or
 greater gastric artery, is a branch of the hepatic ; the
 left, or smaller, a branch of the splenic.
  Gastric ji'Ice.  Surcus gastricus. A fluid  sepa-
 rated by the stomach.  See Digestion.
  Gastrimtm.   Potassa.
  GASTRITIS.  (From  yaj-Tjp, the stomach.;  In-
 flammation  of the stomach.   A  genus  of disease in
 the  class  Pyrexia, and order Phlegmasia of Cullen.
 ft is kiwwn  by  pyrexia, anxiety, heat, and pain  in the
 epigastrium, increased when  any thing is taken into
 the  stomach, vomiting, hiccup, pulse  small and  hard,
 and prostration of strength.  There are two species:
  1. Gastritis  phlcgmonodca, with acute pain and se-
 vere fever.
  2. Gastritis erylhematica, when the pain and fever
 arc slighter, with'an erysipelatous redness appearing
 in the fauces.
  Giestritis is produced by acrid substances of various
 kinds, such  ns arsenic, corrosive sublimate, &.c.  taken
 into the stomach, as  likewise  by food of  an improper
nature ; by taking laige draughts of any cold llT"tl«J
when the body is much heated by exercise, or dancing,
and by repelled exanthemata and gout. Besides these, it
may arise from an inflammation of some of the neigh
bouring parts being communicated to Ihe stomach.
  The erysipelatous gastritis arises chiefly towaids the
close of other diseases, marking the  certain  approach
to dissolution, and being unaccompanied with nny
marks of general  inflammation, or by any  burning
pain in the stomach.
  The symptoms of phlegmonous gastritis, ns observed
above, are a violent burning pain in  tlie stomach, with
great soreness, distention,  and flatulency ;  a severe
vomiting,  especially alter  any lliini;  is swallowed,
whether it be liquid or solid ; most  distressing thirst;
restlessness, anxiety, and a  continual  tossing of Ihe
body, with grent  debility,  constant watching, and a
frequent, hard, nnd contracted pulse.  In  some cases,
severe purging attends.
  If the disease  increases  in violence, symptoms of
irritation then ensue ; lliere is a great loss of strength,
with  faiiuings; a  short and interrupted  respiration;
cold, clammy sweats, hiccups, coldness of the extremi-
ties, au intermittent pulse, and the patient is  soon cut
off.
  The event of gastritis is  seldom favourable, ns the
person is usually either  suddenly destroyed by the vi-
olence of  the inflammation,  or else it terminates  in
suppuration, ulceration, or gangrene.
  If tlie symptoms are very mild, and proper remedies
have been employed al an early period  of the  disease,
it  may, however, terminate in resolution, and that  in
Ihe course of the first, or, at farthest, the second week
  Its  termination  in suppuration may  be known by
the symptoms, although moderate, exceeding ihe con-
tinuance of this period, and a remission  of pain oc-
curring, while a sense of weight and anxiety still re-
main  ; and, on the formation of mi  abscess, cold shi-
verings ensue, with marked  exacerbations in  the eve-
ning,  wliich arc followed by night sweats, and other
symptoms of hectic fever;  nnd these at length prove
fatal, unless the pns  is thrown up  by  vomiting, and
the ulcer heals.
  Its tendency to gangrere  may be dreaded, from the
violence ot its symptoms not yielding to proper reme-
dies early in the disease; and, when begun, it  inny be
kno|vn by Ihe sudden cessation ofthe pain; by the
pulse continuing its frequency, but becoming weaker;
and by delirium, with other marks of increasing debi-
lity ensuing.
  Fatal cases of  this disease show, on dissection, a
considerable redness of the inner coat of ihe stomach,
having a layer of  coagulable  lymph lining its  surface.
They likewise show a partial thickening of ihe sub-
stance of the organ, at the inflamed part, the  inflam-
mation seldom extending over the whole of it.  Where
ulceration has taken place, the ulcers sometimes are
found lo penetrate through all its coats, and sometimes
only through one or two of them.
  The cure is to be ntteinpied by copious and repealed
bleedings, employed at an early period of the  disease,
not regarding the sinullness  of ihe pulse, as it  usually
becomes softer and fuller after the operation:  also se-
veral  leeches should  be applied to the epigastrium,
followed by fomentations, or the hot  bath ; alter which
a large blister will be proper.  The large  intestines
may be in some measure evacuated by a laxative clys-
ter ; but scarcely  any internal medicine can be borne
by the stomach, Till the violence ofthe disease  is much
abated; we may then  try magnesia,  or other mild ca-
thartic, to clear outthecanal effectually.   Where acrid
substances have been token, mucilaginous minks may
be freely exhibited, to assist  llieir evacuation n:i,l
sheathe the stomach ; otherwise only in small quan
tity: aud, in the former  case, according to t'e mmm
of the. poi.-on, other chemical lemedies may come  in
aid, but ought never to be too much relnd upon.
Should suppuration occur,  little can b-- dune  beyond
avoiding irritation, and supporting strength  by a mild
farinaceous  diet,  and giving opium occasionally  to
relieve pain.
  GASTRO.  Names compounded with  this non'
have some connexion  with the stomach.
  GASTKOCE'LE.   (Fromyofiyp,  the Mmnacli, ar.
xrfXrj, a tumour.)  A hernia  of the stomach, occasioned
by u protrusion of that viscus through the abdomena*
parictes. See Hernia vcntriculi.
                                        383 
GAY
FRU
   UASTROe'XBMIUS.  (From  yasvp, the stomach,
 and xvnui}, the leg.)  The calf or belly of the leg.
   Gastrocnemius externus.   Gemellus.  An ex-
 tensor muscle of the foot, situated immediately under
 the  integuments at the back part of" the leg ; some-
 times called gemellus : this latter name is adopted by
 •Ubiuus.  Winslow describes it as two muscles, which
 he calls, •rastrocnimii;  and Douglas  considers ihis
 and Ihe following as a quadriceps, or muscle wilh four
 heads, lo which he gives the name of  extensor tarsi
 suralis.   Il is  called bi femoro calcanien  by Dumas.
 The gastrocnemius externus arises  hy two  distinct
 heads.  The first, which  is the thickest and longest of
 the  two, springs  by  a strong thick  tendon from  the
 upper and  back part  of the inner condyle of the os
 femoris, adhering strongly to the capsular ligament of
 the joint, between whicli and the tendon is a consider-
 able bursa mucosa.  The second head arises by a thin-
 ner and shorter tendon from the back part of the  outer
 condyle ol" the os  femoris.   A little below the  joint,
 their fleshy bellies unite in a middle  tendon,  and  be-
 low  the middle  of the tibia they cease lo be fleshy, and
 terminate in a  broad tendon, which, a little above the
 lower  extremity of the tibia, unite  with that of  the
 gastrocnemius  internus,  to  form  one  round  tendon,
 sonietimes called chorda magna, but commonly  tendo
 Achillis.
  Gastrocnemius intbrnus.  Tibioperoneicalcanirn
 of Dumas.  This, which is situated immediately under
 the lust described muscle, is sometimes  named soleas,
 on  account of its shape, which  resembles that of the
 sole-fish.  It arises by two heads.  The first springs by
 tendinous and fleshy fibres from the  posterior  part of
 the head of the fibula,  and for some way below il. The
 second arises from an oblique ridge at the  upper and
 posterior part of the tibia, which affords origin to the
 inferior edge of the  poplitens, continuing to  receive
 fleshy fibres from the inner edge of the tibia for some
 way down.  This muscle, which is narrow at its ori-
 gin, spreads wider, as it descends, as far as its middle;
 after wliich it becomes narrower again, and begins to
 grow tendinous, but its fleshy fibres do not entirely
 disappear till it  has almost reached  the extremity of
 the tibia, a little above whic'i it unites with the last
 described muscle, to form the  tendo Achillis.   This
 thick round chord is inserted into the lower and pos-
 terior part of the os calcis, after sliding over a  cartila-
 ginous surface on that  bone, to wliich it is connected
 by a tendinous sheath that is furnished with  a  large
 bursamucosa.
  Both the gastrocnemii have the  same use, viz. that
 of extending  the foot, by drawing it  backwards and
 downwards.
  GASTROCO'LIC.   \Gastrocolicus;  from  yasijp,
 the stomach, and xuXov, the colon.)  A term applied to
 a vein  wliich proceeds from the stomach to  the colon.
  GASTRODY'NIA.    (From  yas-no,  the stomach,
 and  oSvrri, pain.)   Pain in the stomach.
  Gastro-epiploic artkrv.  Arteria gastrico-epi-
 p'oica.  The branch of the greater gastric artery that
 runs to the epiploon.
  GASTRORAPHV.    (Gastroraphc;  from  yasvp,
 the stomach, and patbrj, a suture.)  The sewing of
 wounds ofthe abdomen.
  GASTROTO'MIA.    From yasyp, the  belly, and
 rrpvu,  to cut.)   The  operation of cutting open the
 belly.
  GAU'BIUS, Jkrome  David, a celebrated Dutch
 physician, was a pupil ofthe illustrious  Bocrhaave at
 Leyden, where  he  gi admitted iu 1723, and  about ten
years after  he became professor there-, aud taught with
great applause for a period of forty years.  His repu-
tation was extended all over Europe by several valu-
 able  publications, particularly by his  " Institutiones
 Putin login:  Medicinalis," and his "Adversaria;" which
 contributed not a liltle to the improvement both of the
 theory and practice of medicine.  Iu another work, he
 Heated ably of  the medical  regulation  of the mind:
 and  he printed also a very elegant little book " De Me-
 thodo  coneiuriiindi formulas Mcilicamcnioruni.''   He
 died in !7.-<(), in the seventy-sixth year of his age.
  GAUUO.  So.' M-ynca gale.
  '''GvitLTiueiin.  I'.irtridgeberry.  Thegaulthcna
prorumbens is a well known creeping evergreen, found
 in woody and  mou itainous tracts throughout the
 United Sales.  Its laste is astrigent and aromatic, and
 lias been compared to thai of orange flowers.  It exactly
 resembles  that of black birch (betula lenta).   The
 medical properties of'this plant are not unlike tliose of
 cinnamon, being a warm, aromatic,  astringent, parti-
 cularly useful in the secondary stage of diarrhoea.  It
 is popularly considered  an  eminenagogue.   The dose
 may be one or two scruples, but a tincture and infusion
 are more convenient forms.   The volatile oil of this
 article is officinal."—Bigcl.Mat. Med  A.]
   ["Gaylussacite.   This name  has recently  been
 given to a new metal obtained from a species of pyritii
 found iu South America, of which  the following ac-
 count has been received by Dr. Mitchill, together with
 a specimen of the substance in a crystalline form.
   " The pyrites is obtained from a small  lake in the
 province of Merida de Columbia, being the upper coat
 of a substratum of strong mineral alkali, called urao,
 much  used by the lower class ofthe natives of Colum-
 bia, mixed with an extract of tobacco, and  then called
 chimoo.   The alkali  produces to  the govi rumeiit a
 rental  of from 50,000 lo 00,000 dollars per annum.   The
 mineral is at the bottom ofthe lake, about three fathoms
 under  water.  Several  Indians are employed by the
 government to dive  and extract it, which  they do by
 means of small crowbars.  They are paid about two
 reales  per pound for it, and the government afterward
 sell it at one dollar.  The situation of the lake is about
 leu leagues west ofthe city  of Merida, called Lagunil-
 las.    'The pyrites are there called espejuelas, and have
 been analyzed in Paris, and found to contain a metal
 hitherto  unknown, and now called Gaylussacite, from
 the celebrated French chemist of that name."—A.]
  GAZ.  (From gaschl, a German word which means
 an eruption of wind.)  See  Gas.
  GEHLENITE.  A mineral  substance allied to Ve-
 suvian, found along with calcareous spar in the Tyrol.
  Geiso'ma.   (From yttisov, the eaves cf the house)
 Geison.  The prominent parts of the eyebrows, which
 hang over the eyes like the eaves of a house.
  Gki'son.  See Gcisoma.
  Gela'sinos.  (From yeXau, to laugh.)  An epithet
 for the middle fore-tecih, because ihey are shown iu
 laughter.
  Gela'smus.  (From  ytXau, to laugh.)   The  Sar-
 donic laugh.  See Sardonic  laugh.
  GE'LATIN. Gelly, or jelly.  An animal substance
 soluble in water, bul not in  alkohol: capable of as-
 suming a well-known elastic or tremulous consistence,
 by cooling, when the water is not too abundant, anil
 iiquifiable again, by increasing its temperature.  Tlfio
 last property remarkably distinguishes it from albumen.
 which  becomes consistent by heat.  It is precipitated
 in an insoluble form by tannin, and it is this action of
 tannin  on gelatin that is the foundation of the art of
 tanning leather.
  Jellies are very common in our kitchens; they maybe
 extracted from all the partsof animals, by boiling them
 in water.  Hot water dissolves a large quantity of this
substance.  Acids likewise  dissolve them,  as do like-
 wise more particularly the alkalies.   Jelly, which has
 been extracted without long decoction, possesses mosl
 of the characters of vegetable mucilage ; but il is sel
 dom obtained without a mixture of albumen.
  Jellies, in a pure stale, have scarcely any smell o:
 remarkable taste.  By distillation, they  afford an insi-
 pid and  inodorous phlegm,  which easily putrefies.  A
 stronger  heat causes  them to swell up, become black,
 and emit a foetid odour, accompanied wilh white acrid
 fumes.  An impure volatile alkali, together with empy
 reumatic oil, then passes over, leaving a spongy coal,
 not easily  burned, and  containing common salt and
 phosphate of lime.
  The jelly of various  animal subsiiuces  is prepared
 for the use of seafaring persons under the name of
 portable  soup.  The whole  art of performing this ope-
 ration  consists in boiling the meat, and taking the scum
 off, as  usual,  until the soup  possesses the requisite fla-
 vour.  It is then suffered to cool, in order that the fal
 may be separated.  In the next place, it is mixed  with
 five or six whites of eggs,  and slightly boiled.  This
 operation serves to clarify the liquid, by the  removal of
 opaque particles, wliich unite with the w hite of egg at
 the time it becomes solid by the heat, and aie conse-
 quently removed along with it.  The liquor is then tc
 be  strained through flannel, nnd evapoiated on the
 water-bath, to the  consistence of a very thick paste ;
 after which it is spread, rather thin, upon a  smooth
 stone,  then cut into cakes, and, lastly, dried in i stove, 
GEM                                          GEM
tmti it becomes brittle.  These cakes may be kept four
»r five years, if defended from moisture.  When  in-
tended to be used, nothing more is required to be done
than to dissolve  a suflicient quantity in boiling water,
(vhich by that means becomes converted into soup.
  Jelly is also found in  vegetables, as ripe currants,
and other berries mixen wnn an acid.
  GELA'TIO.   (From gelo, to freeze.)
  1. Freezing.
  S. That rigidity of the body which happens in a
catalepsy, as if the person were frozen.
  GEM.  This word is used to denote a stone wliich
is considered  as  precious; as the diamond, ruby, sap-
phire, topaz, chrysolite, beryl, emerald, &c.
  GEME'LLUS. (From gcminns, double, having a
fellow.)  See Gastrocnemius and  Gemini.
  GEMINI. Gcmelli of Winslow.  Part of the jnar-
supialis  of Cowper.  Ischio spini trochanteric of
Dumas.  A  muscle of the thigh, which has been a
subject of dispute among anatomists since the days of
Vesalius.   Some describe it as two distinct muscles;
and hence the name it has gotten of gemini.  Others
contend that it ought to be considered as a single mus-
cle.  The truth  is,  that  it consists of two portions,
which  are united together by a tendinous and fleshy
membrane, and  afford a  passage between them to the
tendon of tlie obdurator internus, wliich they enclose
as it were in a purse.  These  two portions are placed
under the glutaeus maximus, between the ischium and
ihe great trochanter.
  The superior  portion,  which is the  shortest  and
thickest of the two,  rises  fleshy from the external sur-
face of the spine of the ischium; and the inferior, from
the tuberosity of thai bone, and likew ise from the pos-
terior sacro-ischiatic ligament.  They are inserted, ten-
dinous and fleshy, into the cavity at  the root of the
great  trochanter. Between the two portions of this
muscle,.and the termination of theobturator interims,
there  is a small bursa mucosa, connected to both, and
to that part of the capsular ligament of the joint which
lies under the gemini.
  This muscle  assists in rolling  the  os femoris out-
wards, and prevents the tendon of the  obturator inter-
nus from slipping out of ils place while that muscle is
in action.
  GEMMA.  1.  A precious stone or gem.
  2. In botany this term is now applied exclusively to
the buds on the stems of plants.   The ancients used
the terms gcrmen and  oculus to  d-note lliose buds
wliich contain the rudiments  of branches and leaves,
and gemma those in which flowers only arc contained;
but by the moderns, germen has been applied to denote
the rudiment of  the fruit, or as a generic term for all
Duds.— Thompson.
  A gemma or bud contains the rudiments of a plant,
or of part of a plant, for  a while  in a latent state, till
the time  of the year, and otlier circumstances, favour
their evolution.   In the bud, therefore,  the vital princi-
ple is dormant.   Buds of trees or  shrubs, destined for
cold countries, are formed in the course of the summor
in the bosoms of their leaves, and  are generally soli-
tary; but  in the Lonicera carulea,  or blue-berried
honey-suckle, they grow one under  another for three
successive seasons.
   The buds of the plane-tree,  Plalanus, arc concealed
in the footstalk, which must be removed before they
can  be seen, and which they force  off by their in-
crease;  so that  no plant can have more  truly and
necessarily deciduous leaves.
   Shrubs in  general have no buds, neither have the
-reees of hot climates.
   Buds are various in their forms, but very uniform in
the same species, or even genus.  They consist of
scales closely enveloping  each other, and enfolding the
embryo  plant or branch.  Externally they have often
an additional  guard of gum, resin,  or  woolliness,
against wet or cold.  The horse-chesnut affords a fine
example of large and well-formed buds.
   The contents of bud3 are different, even in differ-
ent species of the same genus, as  willows.  The buds
of some produce leaves  only, others flowers, while in
other species the same bud bears both leaves and flow-
ers   Different  causes, depending on the soil or situa-
tion seem in one case to generate leaf-buds, in another
flower-buds.  In general, whatever checks the iuxu
riunt production of leaf-buds, favours the formation ot
flowers and seeds —Smith.
                                          Ii b
  Gems are found in all trees and shrubs in tempera*.
climates.  In the majority of instances Ihey are visible
from the first, in which case  they are axillary, that is,
seated in the axillae of the leaves, or the angle which
the upper part of ihe footstalk of the leaf makes with
the surface of the stem; but  in some instances, as the
sumachs and planes, they are latent, being hid within
the base of the  footstalk, and never seen until the fall
of the leaf.  Gems ure however sometimes protruded
from  the trunk,  long after it  has  ceased to producv
leaves, as in the case of adventitious buds;  they are
also situated on roots, and on tubers, but in these cases
they are usually denominated oculi, or eyes.
  Annual plants are supposed to  be furnished with
gems; but although they are devoid of covered gems,
yet their lateral shoots proceed from naked buds which
immediately spread into foliage.
  The relative position of axillary geni3 is necessarily
regulated by that of the leaf, and therefore we find llieiu,
  1. Opposite, or placed  exactly on the same line on
opposite sides of the stem or the branch.
  2. Alternate, or placed alternately, although on op-
posite sides; and,
  3. Spiral, that is, placed round the stem or branch in
such a manner  that a cord wound iu a  spiral manner
round it would touch each gem.  'They are said to bo
simple or solitary, when  one gem only is seen in the
axilla of each leaf, as  in the greate-r number  of in-
stances; and aggregate, when, us in some plants, two,
three, or even more are protruded at the same time :
thus we find two in the Sambucus nigra, or common
elder ; three in the Aristolochia sipko, or broad-leaved
birth-wort;  and  many in the  Zanthoxylum  fraxine
um, or toothache tree.
  Du Hamel first noticed the fact, that  stems  and
branches furnished with alternate axillary gems have
generally one terminal gem only; and those with oppo
site have generally three terminal gems.
  The gems on most trees  and shrubs rise with a
broad base from the surface where they  are protruded,
and consequently being in close contact with it, are
said to be sessile ; but they are distanl or stalked on
some, as the common alder, on which  they  are  sup-
ported on a short footstalk, and are termed pedicillata,
or stalked.
  Gems differ very considerably in the number and
characters of the enclosing  scales, their contents, the
folding  up of the leaves within them, and the manner
in whicli they are evolved in  the spring.
  a. The scales differ  in size and texture, even in the
same gem: in the gems of different plants, they differ
also in  number and in  the nature of their coverings;
some gems are entirely destitute of scales; as those of
annual  plants, and many perennials of tropical  cli-
mates.  The scales in some instances ure besmeared
with  a resinous matter; in  others  they  are entirely
free from  any moist exudation, but are smooth and
polished, being covered with  a dry gummy varnish: or
ihey  are externally hairy or enveloped  in a velvetv
down.
  Gems are arranged into three species:
  1. Gemma foliifera, leaf gems.
  2. Gemma fiorifera, flower gems.
  3. Gemma mixta, mixed gems.
  The Amygdalus persica, or peach-tree, the Daphne
mezereum, aud many other plants, afford  examples of
distinct loaf and  flower gems; the Syringa  vulgaris
and .-Esculus hippocastanum, of mixed gems; and the
pear and apple trees of both  leaf and mixed gems.
  'The leaves, as has  already  been mentioned, are
variously folded up so as to occupy the smallest possi-
ble space iu  the gem.  This  regulates the expansion
of the leaves when the gem  opens in spring, and  it is
invariably the same in individual  plants of  the same
species.  This  process is termed  foliation, and  the
figures wliich the leaves assume at the time have ro
ceived different appellations.—Thompson.
   1. Foliatio involuta,  involute, in which each inter
nal margin of the leaf is rolled inwards;  as in Humu
lus lupulus and Nymphaa lutea.
  2. F. rcvoluta,xevo\\xte, in which  the lateral margins
are  rolled outwards;  as in  willows, and Rumex pa-
tientia.
  3. F. obvolttta, obvolute, in which one leaf, doubled
lengthways, embraces within its doubling one half of
the other leaf, folded in the same manner;  as in Sulvia
officinalis, and Dipsacus communis.
                                        385 
GLl\
(jfcfl
  4. F. convoluta, convolute, in which the leaf Is rolled
lengthwise in a spiral manner, one margin forming the
axis round which the other turns; as in Prunus domcs-
tica, and Prunus armcniaca, the cabbage, grasses, &c.
  5. F. equitans, equitant, in which the  leaf is so
folded that the two sides deeply embrace the opposite
leaf, which in its turn encloses the one opposed to it,
and so  on to  tlie centre of the  bud: this is beautifully
exemplified in the Hcmarocallis, or day-lily, and Sy-
nnga vulgaris.
  6.  F. conduplicata, in wliich  the two sides of the
leaf lie parallel to each other; as in Fagus sylvatica
and Quercus robur.
  7.  P. plicata, plaited,  the leaf being folded up like a
fan ; as in Betula alba,  and Alchemilla vulgaris.
  8.  F. reclinata, reclinate, turned  down, the leaf
hanging down and wrapped round the footstalk ; as in
Aconitum and Arum.
  9.  F. circinata, circinal, in which tlie leaf 13 rolled
from the apex to the base; as iu all  ferns.
  As the gems open, the leaves gradually unfold them-
selves,  and assume their natural forms; but the open-
ing of  the bud does  not, in every instance, immedi-
ately set free the leaves, for ih some gems each leaf  is
separately enclosed in a membraneous cover.
  GEMMACEUS.   A  term  used by  botanists to  a
flower-stalk whjch grows out of a leaf-bud, as is teen
in the Berberis vulgaris.
  GEMMATIO.  (From gemma,  a  bud.)   A term
used by Linnaeus expressive of the origin, form, Sec. of
buds.
  GisMu'nsA.  (From gemo, to groan: so called from
the pain  it was said lo occasion in  walking.)  The
name of an excrescence between the toes.
  GeneTas.  (From ytvvs, the cheek.)
  1.  The downy hairs which first cover the cheek.
  2.  The name of a bandage mentioned  by Galen,
which  covers the check, and conies under the chin.
  GENERATION.   (Gcneralio;  from yetvopat,  to
beget.)   Many ingenious  hypotheses  have been insti-
tuted by physiologists to explain the mystery of gene-
ration ; but the whole of our knowledge concerning  it
appeare to be built upon the phenomena it affords, and
may be seen  in the works of Haller, Bufl'on, Cruick-
shanks, and Haighton.  It is a sexual action, performed
in different ways in most animal*; many of them have
different sexes and require conjunction: such are the
human species, quadrupeds, and others.  The females
of quadrupeds have a matrix, separated into two cavi-
ties, uterus  bicornis, and a considerable number of
teats;  they have no menstrual flux; most of them bear
several young at a time, and  the period of their ges-
tation  is generally short.  The generation of birds  is
very different.  The males have a strong genital organ,
which  is often double.  The  vulva in the  females  is
placed  behind the anus; the ovaries have no matrices,
and there is a duct for the purpose of conveying the
egg from the ovarium into the intestines: this passage
is called the  oviduct.  The eggs of  pullets have exhi-
bited unexpected facts to physiologists, who examined
the phenomena of incubation.  The  most  important
discoveries arc those of the immortal Haller, who
found  the chicken  perfectly  formed  in eggs which
were not fecundated.  There is no determinate con-
junction -tictween fishes ; the female deposites her eggs
on the  sands, over which the male passes, and emits its
seminal fluid, doubtless for the purpose of fecundating
them;  these eggs are hatched  after  a certain time.
1 he males of several  oviparous quadrupeds have  a
double or forked oigan.   Insects exhibit nil  the varie-
ties whicli are observed  in other animals: there are
some, indeed the  greater  number, which  have the
sexes in two separate Individuals;  among others, the
reproduction is made either with or without conjunc-
tion, as in the viue-lietter ; one of these insects, con-
fined alone beneath a glass, produces a (.real number
of others. The organ ofthe male in insects is usually
armed  with two hooks to seize the female : the place
of these organs Is greatly vailed;  with some, it is  nt
the upper part of  the belly, near the  chest, as  in the
female drngon-fly; in others, it  Is at  the extremity of '
the antenna, as In the  male *pider.  Most  worms ure
hermaphrodite; each individual  has  both sexes.  Po-
lypi, with respect to generation, nre singular animals,
they nre reproduced by  buds or offsets: a bud is sepa- i
rated from each vigorous polypus, wliich  is fixed  to I
some neighbouring body, and  grows: polypi are like '
       3SG
wise found on their surface, in the same manner is
branches issue  from plants.  These arc the principal
modes of generation in animals.   In the human spe-
cies, which engages our attention  more particularly
the phenomena are as follow:
  The part of the male, in the act of reproduction, it
to deposite the semen in the vagina, at a greater or
less distance from the orifice of the uterus.
  The function which the  female discharges is much
more obscure; some feel, at this  moment, very strong
voluptuous sensations; others appear entirely inseu
sible; while  others, again, experience a sensation
which is very painful.  Some of them pour out a mu-
cous substance in considerable abundance, at the in-
stant ofthe most vivid pleasure : while, in the  greater
part, this phenomenon is  entirely wanting.   In all
these respects, there is, perhaps, no exact ictemblance
between any two females.
  These different phenomena nre common to the  most
frequent acts of copulation, that is, to those whicli do
not produce impregnation, as well as those which are
effective.
  The most recent opinion  is, that the  uterus during
impregnation  opens a  little, draws in the semen by
aspiration, aud directs it to the ovarium by means of
the Fallopian tubes,  the fimbriated extremity of which
closely embraces that organ.
  The contact of the semen determines the rupture of
one of the vesicles, and  Ihe fluid that passes from it, oi
the vesicle itself, passes  into the uterus, where the new
individual is to be developed.
  However satisfactory this explanation may appear
it is purely hypothetical, and even contrary to the ex-
periments ofthe most exact observers.
  In the numerous attempis made upon animals, by
Harvey, DeGraaf, Valisneri, Sec. ihe semen has never
been perceived in tlie cavity of the uterus; much less
has it been seen in the Fallopian tube at the surface of
the ovarium.   It  is  quite the same with the motion
whicli the Fallopian tube is supposed to have in em-
bracing  the circumference  of  the ovarium:  it  has
never been proved by experiment.   Even if one should
suppose that the semen penetrates into the uterus at
tine moment of coition, which is not impossible, though
it has not been observed, it Would still be very difficult
to comprehend how the fluid could pass into the Fallo-
pian tubes, and arrive at the ovarium.   The uterus in
ihe empty state is not contractible; the  uterine orifice
of the Fallopian tubes is extremely narrow, and these
canals have no known sensible motion
  On account of the difficulty of conceiving the passage
of the semen to the ovarium, some authors have ima-
gined thai this matter is not carried there, but only the
vapour which exhales from  it, or  the aura seminalis.
Others think that the semen is absorbed  in Ihe vagina,
passes into ihe venous sy.-tem, and arrives at tlie ova
ria  by the arteries.  The  phenomena which accom
pany the fecundation of women are, then, nearly un-
known.   An equal obscurity rests  on the fecundation
of other mammiferous females.    Nevertheless, it
would be more easy to conceive  a passage of ihe se-
men to the ovaria in these, since  the uterus and the
Fallopian tubes pessess a  peristaltic motion like thai
of the intestines.  Fecundation, however,taking place
by the contact of tho semen with  the o\a, in fishes,
reptiles, end birds, it is not very likely that nature em-
ploys any other mode for the mammifern; it is neces-
sary, then, to consider it as very probable, that, either
at the instant of coition, or at a greater  or a less time
afterward, the semen arrives al the ovarium, where il
exerts more especially its action upon the vessels most
developed.
  But, even should  it be out of doubt  that the semen
arrives  nt the vesicles of the ovarium, it would still
remain  to be known how  its contact  animates the
germ contained in il.   Now, this phenomenon is one
o>" those on which our senses, and even our mind, have
' o hold: it is one of those impenetrable mysteries of
 vhicli we  are,  and,  perhaps, shall ever remain ig-
norant.
  We have, however, on this subject, some very itigej.
nious experiments of Spnllniizntii, which have remove^
the difficulty as far ns it seems possible.
  This philosopher has proved, by a great number of
trials, 1st, that three eMins of semen, dissolved  in two
pounds of water, are suflicient to  give to it ihe fecun
 iating virtue; 2d, that the spermatic animaleula ar« 
GEN
OrES
 mA nece<se?ary to fecundation, as Buffon and other au
 triors have thought; 3d, that Die  aura seminalis, ot
 seminal vapour, has no fecundating property; 4th, that
 a bitch can be impregnated by the mechanical iajec
 tion of semen into her vagina, Sec. Sec.
   It is thus necessary to  consider as conjectural what
 authors say about tlie general signs of fecundation.
 At the instance of conception, the woman frels, it is
 said, a universal tremor,  continued for some ime, ac
 companied by a voluptuous sensation; the features
 are discomposed, the eyes lose their brilliancy, the pu-
 pils are dilated, the visage pale, &c. No doubt, im-
 pregnation is sometimes accompanied by these signs;
 but many mothers have never  felt  them, and reach
•even the third month of  their pregnancy without sus-
 pecting their situation."—Magendic's Physiology.
   Fecundation having thus  taken  place, a motion is
 Induced  in the vivified ovum, which ruptures the ten-
 der vesicle that contains it; the fimbria  of the Fallo-
 pian tube then grasp  and convey it into the  tube,
 which,  by its peristaltic  motion, conducts  it into the
 cavity of" the uterus, there to be  evolved and brought
 to maturity, and, at the expiration of nine months, to
 be sent into the world.
   Generation, oroans  or.   The parts subservient
 to generation in a woman  are divided  into external
 and internal.  The external parts are tlie mo-ns veneris,
 the labia, the perineum, the clitoris, and the nympka.
 To these may be added the  meatus urinarius, or ori-
 fice of the urethra. Tlie hymen may be  esteemed the
 barrier between tlie external and internal parts.   The
 internal parts of generation are the vagina and uterus,
 and its appendages.
   The parts which constitute the organs of genera-
 tion in men, are the penis, testes, and vosicuta semi-
 nales.
   GENTCULATUS. Geniculate; bent like the knee:
 applied to the culm or straw of grasses ;  as iu Alopecu-
 ris gen iculatus.
   GENIO.  (From yevatv,  the  chin.)   Names com
 pounded of Ihis word belong to muscles  which are
 attached to the chin.
   Gemo-hyo-olossus.  (From ytvtiov,   the  chin,
 votties,   the os hyoides,  and yX-ucca, the  tongue; so
 called from its origin and insertion.)  Genioglossus
 of some  authors.   The muscle which forms tlie fourth
 layer between the lower jaw and os hyoides.  It arises
 from a rough protuberance in the inside of the middle
 of the lower jaw;  its  fibres  run  like  a fan, forwards,
 upwards, and backwards, and are inserted into the tip,
 middle,  and  root of the  tongue, and base of the os
 hyoides,  near ils corner.  Its use is  to draw the tip of
 the  tongue backwards into the mouth, the middle
 downwards, and to render its back concave.  It also
 draws its root and the os hyoides forwards, and thrusts
 the tongue out of the mouth.
   Genio-iivoideus.   (From  yevuav, the  chin,  and
 votties, the os hyoides; so called from its origin in the
 chin, and its insertion in the os hyoides.)  The muscle
 which continues tlie  third layer between the lower
 jaw  and os hyoides.   It is a long, thin, and  fleshy
 muscle,  arising tendinous from a rough  protuberance
 at the inside of the  chin,  and growing  somewhat
 nroader and thicker as it descendsbackward to be in-
 serted by very short  tendinous fibres into both the
 edges of  the base of tbe os hyoides.  Il draws ihe os
 hyoides forwards to the chin.
   Geniopharynoe'is.   See Constrictor  pharyngis
 superior.
   Genipi album.  Stee Artemisia rupestris.
   Gn.MPi verum.  The  plant directed for medicinal
 purposes under this title,  is the Achillea—foliis pinna-
 tis, pinnis  simplicibus, glabris, punctatis, of Haller.
 It has a very grateful smell, and a very bitter taste, and
 is exhibited in Switzerland, in epilepsy, diarrhoea, and
 debility of the stomach.
  GENI'STA.  (From genu, a knee; so called from
 the inflection and angularity of its  twigs.)  1. The
 name of a genus of plants  in the Limuean system.
 Ciass,Diadelphia; Order, Decandria.
  2.  The pharniacopoeial name of the common broom.
 Bee Spartium scoparium.
  Genista canariknsis.  This tree was supposed
 to afford the lignum Rhodium, whicli is now known
 to be an aspalathus.  See Aspalathus canariensis.
  Genista spinosa indica.  Bahel schulli. An In-
 dian tree, a decoction ofthe roots of which is diuretic.
The leaves, wiled and sprinkled in vinegar, have ihe
same effect, according to Ray.
  GtMSTA Taui.TORiA.   The systematic name  of
Chama-purt-jtin, or Dyer's brooin.
  ULNl'lV  LI'..  (From ^i^ito, to beget.)  The mem
brum virile   See  Penis.
  Genita/iaUM. (From genitale, the membrum virile.)
A disease of the genital parts.
  GEN1TICA.   (From yttvouat, gignor.) The name
of a class of diseases, iu Good's Nosology, embracing
diseases of the  sexual function.  It has three ordere,
viz. Cenotica, Orgastica; Carpolica.
  Ckmtura.  (From gigno.)  1. The male seed.
  2. The membrum virile.
  Ge'non.  (From ytm, the knee.)  A moveable ar-
ticulation like that of the knee.
  [•'Genesee oil.   This is  a variety of petroleum
found in various parts of tbe United States, sometimes
abundantly, as  iu Kentucky, Okio,  the western pans
of Pennsylvania, and ill wVcie- York,  at Seneca lake,
&.c.  It usually floats on the surface of springs, which,
in many cases,  are known tone iu the vicinity of coal.
It is sometimes  called Seneca or  Genesee, oil."—
Cleav. Min.  A.l
  GF.NSING.  tree Panax.
  GENTLVNA.  (From Gcntius, king of Illyria, wlio
first used it.)  1. The name of a genus  of plants jki
the  Linna-an system.  Class,  Pentandria; Ordfr,
Digynia.   Gentian.
  2. The  pharmacopceial  name of the gentian root.
See Gentiuna lutea.
  Gentiana  alba.  See Laserpitium latifolium.
  Gentiana  centaurium.   Less centaury  was  mi
called in the Linnaean system; but it is now Chironia
centaurium.
  Gentiana  lutea.  The systematic name of tbe
officinal gentian.   Gentiana  rubra.   Felwort.  The
gentian met with in the shops is the root of  the gen-
tiana—corollis  subquinqucfidis rotatis  verticillatis,
calycibus  spathaceis, of Linnaeus; and is imported
from Switzerland and Germany.  It  is the only medi-
cinal part of the plant, has little or no smell, but lo the
taste manifests  great bitterness, on which account it in
in general use as a tonic, stomachic, anthelmintic, an-
tiseptic, einincenagogue, and febrifuge.  The  officinal
preparations  of this  root are  the infusum gentiana
compositum, and tinctura gentiana composita, of the
London Pharmacopoeia ; and the infusum  amarum,
vinum amarum, tinctura amara, of the Edinburgh
Pharmacopoeia  ; and the extractum gentiana  is order-
ed by both.
  Gentiana  rubra.  See Gentiana lutea.
  ["Gentiana  catesbcei.  Biuegentian.  Of various
native species of gentian, which our country affords;
this  approaches most nearly to the officinal plant in
bitterness.  Ils virtue appears to reside chiefly in an
extractive principle, soluble in water and alkohol.   It
has also a little resin.  Like the imported gemjiin, it
is an active tonic, invigorating the stomach, and giving
relief in complaints arising from indigestion.  It ap-
pears to possess much reputation in the Southern States,
to which ils growth is principally confined."—Bigcl.
Mat. Med.  A.]
  Gentianine.  The bifter principle of the Geati.-.u
root.
  [" The discovery of this  immediate principle, pte-
sents a circumstance  so singular as to merit being re-
lated.
  " M. Henry, chief of central  pharmacy, and M. Ca
ventou, were  occupied al the same time, and without
the knowledge of each other, on the  analysis of gen
tian.   They  arrived at results so much alike, that
having •oinniuiiicated their labours to each ether, the/
perceived that Ihey steemed  to have acted in conce.:,
and resolved to  publish them in common.
  "Preparation of gentianine.  'The  powder of gen-
tian is treated with cold ether.  After forty-eight hours,
a tincture is obtained of a greenish yellow;—this tinc-
ture ljiltered, poured into an open vase, arid exposed in
heat, will become, by cooling, if the liquor is sufficiently
concentrated, a yellow crystalline maee, with  a \ery
perceptible taste and smell of gentian.
  "This moss is treated with alkohol until it ceases
taking a citron tinge.   The washings are reunited ami
exposed to a mild heat; the yellow crystalline inns*
reappears, which,  upon evaporation, becomes eon
centrated, and of a very strong bitterness.
                                        .%*> 
GEO
GEO
   "Resumed  by feeble alkohol,  ii is redissotved  in
 :nrt. with  the exception of a certain quantity of oily
 matter
  " This last alkoholic solution, besides the bitter prin-
 ciple of the gentian, contains an acid sub3lance, and
 the odorous matter of gentian.
  " By evaporating this  liquor to dryness, soaking the
 natter in water, adding  a little washed  and calcined
 taagnesia, boiling and evaporating with a vapour bath,
 tae greatest part of the odorous matter of the gentian
 is expelled; the  acidity  disappears by means of the
 Magnesia, and the yellow bitter principle remains  in
 [ art free and in part combined with the  magnesia,  to
 which it communicates a beautiful yellow colour.
 Then by boiling  this magnesia with ether, the greater
 part of this bitter principle is taken  up, which is ob
 tt-.ined pure and alone by evaporation.  If it be wished
 to separate the greatest part  of the  bitter  principle,
 which remains fixed in  the magnesia, and which the
 ether could not take up,  it must be treated with oxalic
 acid, in a quantity sufficient to produce acidity.  This
 acid unites with the magnesia, and sets free the bit-
 tor principle, which is retaken by the means already
 pointed out.
  " Properties of gentianine.   'The gentianine is yel-
 low, inodorous,  with the  aromatic bitterness of the
 gentian very strong, and  whicli is increased very much
 when it is dissolved in an acid.
  "It is very soluble in ether and alkohol, and is sepa-
 rated by spontaneous evaporation, in the  form of very
 wnal! yellow crystalline  needles.  It i- much less solu-
 ble in cold water,which it renders, however,very biller;
 boiling water dissolves more.
  "The  dilute alkalies deepen very much  its colour,
 and dissolve it a little more than water alone.
  " Acids lighten its yellow colour in a  very evident
 manner.  Its solutions are almost colourless with sul-
 phuric and  phosphoric acid, and yellowish with acids
 more feeble, such  as the acetic acid.  Concentrated
 Bulphuric acid carbonizes it and destroys  its bitterness.
  "Gentianine, exposed  in a glass tube to the heat of
 boiling mercury, is sublimed in the form of small yel-
 iOW crystalline'needles.  One part is decomposed.
  "Action  of gentianine on man  and other animals.
 Some which I made, taught me that gentianine has no
 poisonous qualities.  Several  grains of this substance
 injected into the  veins, produce- no apparent effect.  I
 myself swallowed two grains dissolved iu alkohol, and
 only experienced an extreme  bitterne-s, and a slight
 freling of warmth  at the stomach
  "Mode of employing  gentianine.   The  tincture  is
 the preparation wliich should  be most frequently  us«d.
 It may be prepared from the following formula:
  Tincture of gentianine.  Be. Alkohol at 2¥>, 1 ounce.
                            Gentianine, 5 grains.
  "This tincture replaces with success  the elixir  of
 r/entian, and is employed iu the same circumstances:
  Syrup of gentianine   Be. syrup of sugar, 1 pound.
                          Gentianine, 1(5 grains.
  "This is  one of the best bitters which can be used  in
 scrofulous affections."—Magendte's Formulary.   A.]
  GE'NU.   The knee.
  GENU'GRA.   (From ytvv, the knee, and aypa,
 p. seizure.)   A name in  Paracelsus for the gout in the
 knee.
  GENUS.  (From ytvos, a family.)   By this term is
 understood, in natural history, a certain analogy of a
 i.umbcr of  species, making them agree together in the
 number, figure, and situation of their  parts; in such a
 manner,  that they  are  easily distinguished from the
 i .iccies of any other genus, at least by some one arti-
 cle.  This  is the proper and determinate se.i-e of the
 word genus, whereby it forms a  subdivision of any
 c -•.«!, or order of natural beings, whether of the  nni-
 imI, vegetable, or  mineral kingdoms, all agreeing  in
 certain common  and distinct characters.
  GEODES.  A kind of aelites, the hollow of which
I'-.-ntiiiiis only loose earth, instead of a nodule.
  GEOFFK.rE'A. (Named in  honour of Dr. Geoffroy.)
 (.'Mffroya.   1. The name of a genus of plants in the
linnaean system.  Class, Diadclpkia ; Order, Decan-
tlria.
  2.  The pharmacopceial  name of the cabbage bark-
ttee.  See Geoffraa incrmis.
  Gkoffr.va inermis.   The  syslomalic name of the
cabbage  bark-tree,  or worm  bark-tree.   Geoffraa—
foliis Ituictiolatis of Swanz.   It has  a mucilaginous
      'Wo
and sweetish taste, and a disagreeable smell.  Accord
ing to Dr. Wright of Jamaica, it is powerfully medici
nal as an anthelmintic.
  Geoffraa jamaicensis.  The systematic name of
the bastard cabbage-lree, or bulgewater-tree. Geoffroy a
—incrmis foliolis lanceolatis, of Swartfc.  The bark it
principally used in Jamaica, and with great success, aa
a vermifuge.
  Geotfr.iea surihamensis.  The systematic name
of a  tree, the bark of whicli  is esteemed as an anthel
nunt tie.
  GEOFFROY,  Stephen   Francis,  was  born at
Paris, in 1673.  After giving him an excellent general
education, his father, who was an apothecary, sent
hkn to study his own profession at Moiupelier ;  where •
he attended the  several lectures.  On his return to
Paris, having already accpiired considerable reputation,
he was appointed to attend the Duke de Tallard, on his
embassy to England, in 1698.  Here he was very favour-
ably  received, and elected a member of the Royal So-
ciety: and he afterward visited Holland and Italy. Hia
attention was chiefly directed to natural history and
the materia medica, his father wishing him to succeed
to his establishment at Paris:  however, he liecame am-
bitious of the higher branch  of the profession,  and at
length graduated in  1704.  His reputation rapidly in-
creased; and he  was called in  consultation even by
the most distinguished practitioners.  In 170'j he was
appointed to ihe professorship of medicine  on the
death of Tournefort.  He then undertook to deliver to
his pupils a complete History of Ihe Materia Medica,
divided  into mineral,  vegetable,  and animal sub-
stances; ihe first  part of which he finished, and about
half of the second: this was afterward published from
his papers, in Latin, in three octavo volumes.  In 1712
he was made professor of chemistry in the king's gar-
den ; and 14 years after, dean of the  faculty.   In this
office he was led  into some  active disputes ; whence
his health, naturally delicate, began to decline;  and he
uied  in the beginning of 17111.  Notwithstanding his
illness,  however, he completed a  work, which had
been deemed necessary by preceding deans, but never
accomplished ; namely,  a Pharmacopoeia, which was
published under the name of "  Code Medkeamenlairc
de la Fae-ult* de Paris."
  GEOGNOSY.  The same as geology.
  GEOLOGY.   (Geologia;  from yr), the earth, and
Xoyos, a discourse.)  A description of the structure of
the earth.   This study may be  divided, like most
others, into  two parts;  observation and theory.  By
the first we  learn the relative positions  of the great
rocky or mineral aggregates that compose the crust of
our globe; through the second, we endeavour to pene-
trate into the causes of these collocations.  A valuable
work was some time since published, comprehending
a view of both parts of the subject, by Mr. Greenough,
to which the reader is referred for much instruction,
communicated in a very lively manner.
  Very  recently the world has been favoured with the
first part of an eescellent view of this science by Messrs.
Conybenrc and   Phillips, in their  " Outlines  of  the
Geology of England and Wales ;"  from which work,
the following brief sketch of the subject is taken: The
Traiti  de Geoguosie  of D'Aubuisson bears  a  high
character on the continent.
Werner's  Tabic of  the different Mountain  Rocks
                  from Jameson,
            Class I.—Primiliverocks.
  1.  Granite.                8. Porphyry.
  2.  Gneiss.                 9. Syenite.
  3.  Mica-slate.             10. Topaz-rock.
  4.  Clay-slate.             11. Quartz-rock.
  5.  Primitive limestone.    12. Primitive flinty-slats.
  6.  Primitive trap.         El. Primitive gypsum.
  7  Serpentine.            14. White stone.
           Class 11.— Transition rocks.
  1. Transition lime-stone.   4. Transition flinty-slate.
  2. Transition  trap.        5. Transition gypsum.
  3. Greywackc
             Class III.—Floetz rocks.
  1.  Old red sandstone, or first sandstone formation.
  2.  First or oldest floetz limestone.
  3.  First or oldest floetz gypsum.
  4  Second or variegated sandstone formation.
  5.  Second floetz gypsum.
  6.  Second floetz limestone.
  7  Third floetz limestone. 
GEO
<1E0
  ■S  "Rooksalt formation.
  it.  Chalk formation.
 10.  Floetz-trap formation.
 II.  Independent coal formalism
 12.  Newest floetz-trap fonnalion.
             Class  IV.—Alluvial rocks.
  I.  Peat.                   5. Nagelfluh.
  2.  Sand and gravel.        8. Calc-tufK
  ■3.  Loam.                 7. Calc-sinter
  4.  Bog-iron ore.
             Class V.— Volcanic rocks.
               Pseudo-volcanic rocks.
  ■1.  Burnt clay.
  2.  Porcelain jasper
  3.  Earth slag.
  4.  Columnar clay ironstone.
  -5.  Poher, or polishing slate.
                True volcanic rocks.
  1.  Ejected stones and ashes.
  2.  Different kinds of lava.
  3.  The matter of muddy eruptions.
  The primitive rocks lie undermost, and never con-
tain  any traces of organized beings imbedded in them.
The  transition  rocks contain* comparatively  few or-
ganic remains, and  approach  more  nearly  to  the
chemical structure ofthe primitive, than the mechani
cal of the secondary rocks.  As these transition rooks
were taken by Werner  from among those which, in
his general arrangement,  were called  secondary, th-.'
formation of that class made  it necessary to abandon
the latter term.  To denote the mineral  masses re
pesing in his transition series, he accordingly-eniployeJ
the term floeU rocks, from the  idea that they were
generally stratified in  planes  nearly horizontal, while
those of  the older strata were inclined to  the horizon
at considerable nngles.  But this holds  good with re-
gard to  the structure of  lho.se countries  wliich  are
comparatively low; in  the Jura chain,  and on  tho
borders  of  the Alps  and  Pyrenees,  Wernei's  Moot.;
formations  are highly  inclined.  Should we  therefore
persist in the  use of this  term, says Mr. Conybeare, w .
must prepare  ourselves  to speak of vertical  beds of
floetz, (i. e. horizontal), limestone, Sec.   As the in-
quiries of geologists extended the  knowledge of the
various  formations, Werner, or his disciples, found it
necessary to subdivide the  bulky class of tloet/. rocks
into floetz and newest floetz, thus completing a 1'ourfoM
enumeration.  Some writers have bestowed  the term
tertiary on  the newest floetz rocks of Werner.  The
following synoptical view  of geological arrangement
is given  by  the Rev. Mr.  Conybeare.
Character.	Proposed Names.	VVernerian names	Other Writers.
1. Formations (chiefly of sand and clay) above the chalk.	Superior order.	Newest floetz class.	Tertiary class.
0. Cenepi■ - n;:, a. Chalk. b. Sands and clay, beneath the chalk. c. Calcareous freestones (ooli-tes) and argillaceous beds. d. -V( to red sandstone, conglo-merate, and magnesian limestone.	Supermediat order.	Floetz class.	Secondary class. 1
3. Carboniferous rocks, comprising, a. Coal measures. b. Carboniferous limestone. c. Old red sandstone.	Medial order.	Sometimes referred to the preceding, some-times to the succeeding class, by writers of these ' schools; very often the coal measures are refer-red to the former, the subjacent limestone and sandstone to the latter.	
4. Roofing slate, Sec Sec	Submedial order.	Transition class. 1 Intermediate class, j	
5, Mica slate, gneiss, granite, Sec.	Inferior order.	Primitive class. j Primitive class, j	
  In all these formations, from the lowest to the high-
est, we find a repetition of rocks and  beds of similar
chemical composifion; i. e. siliceous, argillaceous, and
calcareous, but with a considerable difference in tex-
ture ; those in  the lowest formations being compact
and often crystalline, while those in  the highest and
most recent are loose and earthy.  These repetitions
form what the Wernerians call formation suites.  We
may mention,
  1st.  Tbe limestone suite.  This exhibits, in the in-
ferior  or  primitive order, crystalline  marbles; in the
two next, or transition and carboniferous orders, com-
pact and subcrystalline limestones (Derbyshire lime-
stone) ; in the supcrmedial or floetz order, less compact
limestone (lias), calcareous freestone (Portland and
Bath stone), and  chalk;  in the  superior or newest
floetz order, loose  earthy limestones.
  2d. Tlie argillaceous suite presents the  following
gradations; clay-slate, shale ofthe coal-measures, shale
of the lias, clays alternating in the oolite series, and
that of the sand beneath the chalk ; and, lastly, clays
above the chalk.
  3d. The siliceous suite may (since many of the sand-
stones of which it consists present evident traces of
felspar and abundance of mica, as well as  grains of
quartz, and since mica is more or less  present in every
bed of sand) perhaps deserves to have  granite placed at
its head, as its several members may possibly  have been
derived from the detritus of that rock: it may be con-
tinued thus;  quartz rock and transition sandstone, old
red sandstone,  inillstone-grit, and coal-grits, new red
eandstone, sand and sandstone beneath the chalk, and
 above  the  chalk.   In all these instances  a regular
 diminution in the degree of consolidation may be per-
 ceived in ascending the series.

 ["A Geological  Nomenclature for North Aminei,
   founded upon  Geological Surveys, by Amos Eaton,
   Professor m the  Rensellacr School at Troy, N.  >'.
                 Classes of Roclcs.
   Class 1. Primitive Rocks; being tliose which contain
 no organic relics  nor coal  See Fig. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and !i.
   Class 2.  Transition Rocks; being those which con-
 tain no animal remains, but radiated and molluscous- -
 the lalter more than  one  valved, or one valved a.-..I
 chambered.  See Fig.  7,8, 9, 10,11, and 12.
   Class 3. Secondary Rocks ; being those which cop-
 tain in some localities, one valved molluscous aiiima.1
 remains,  not ckambcred.  They embrace most of tho- •
 remains found in transition rocks  also; and the upp";
 secondary rocks  contain oviparous vertebral reman..-..
 See Fig. 13, 14,15,16,  17, 18. and 19.
   Class  4.  Superincumbent Rocks; being those horn-
 blende rocks, wliich  overlay others withoui any regular
 order of superposition, supposed to be of volcanic
 origin.  See Fig. 20.
                 Classes of Detritus.
   Class  5.   Alluvial Detritus; being those mass s
 of detritus, which have been washed into their present
 situation.  See Fig. 21, 22, 23, and 24.
   Clas3 6.  Analluvial Detritus;  being those masses
 of detritus, which have not been washed from places
 where they were first  formed by the disintegration ol*
j rocks.  See Fig. 25 and 26.
                                          3811 
GEOLOGICAL  NOMENCLATURE
   » No- C  iSoc'onil  eirav-W
tV .n-ylviicl.
       I'.'.I'J
ke)  is a secondary rook, unit tmVraras the AalUmc'le coal of th» L*hi.*"r. river 
OF  ROCKS  IN  PLACE.
* N.j i9.  (Third Gnynrickel U owrlaud bf Oolite, io tbe SUte at Ohio.  II a the upper ierouJary cf Ra 
NOJVJENCLATURE  OF DETRITUS
    CASE  OF
 SPECIMENS.
Classes  6  &  5.
POST-DILKVION.
Sil—     B. Sediment.
GENERAL DEPO-
  SITE S AND
 SUBDIVISIONS.
Superficial  Anal-
      lcvion

  B.  Granulated
 (from graywacke).

  A.  Clay-loam
 (from argillite).
VARIETIES.
IMBEDDED AND
DISSEMINATED
 SUBSTANCES.
Stratified  Anal-
      LL'VION.
C. Lias.
B. Ferriferous.
A. Saliferous.
Various boulders.
Pebbles.
Gypsum.
Shell limestone.
Reddle.
 A.  Pebbles (in the
rocky bed of a river).
 Various boulders.
 Trees and herbs.
 Fish  bones   and
shells.
 Works of art.
 Ultimate Dilu-
       vion
(on crag in old fo-
rests).
Yellowish gray.
Grayish yellow.
DlLUVlON
(in  an antediluvial
trough).
Quicksand.
Gravel.
Vegetable mould.
Boulders.
Trees and leaves.
Bones and shells.
No works of art.
Antedimjvion,  or
Upper  Tertiary.*
 C. Marine, or Ban
skot, sand, and era*
B. Marly clay.
A. Plastic clay.
Quicksand.
Yellow sand.
Hardpan.
Brick earth.
Pudding-stone.
Buhrstone.
Bog ore.
Shell-marl.
Indurated marl
Septaria 1
* No 21   (Aniediluvion)  is the genuine tertiary formation in New Jersey, along the bay of Amboy.
l'rnfcs-or Eaton has recently reviewed most of the territory upon which his  synopsis was founded.  He now
    that Ml strata may be Arranged under five ieriu, each comprising three formations: the first series accoril in g
»itr the primitive cla«s, the second with the transition, the third with the lower secondary, the fourih with the
n n'r ncconda-y and th fifth with the tertiary ; lhat the lower formation of every series is carboniferous, the middle
<w miartzose the uppier .">e calcareous.   In the course of a year, Ihis view of the subject will probably be puMishal,
 lluVtra'ed by a geological map of the State of New York.  A prodeomus of therj  scries will appear in Sillur.an i
Journal.
       :vj? 
GEO
GEO
    DEFINITIONS* OF NAMES ARRANGED

               IN THE SYNOPSIS.

          Names under the Primitive Class.
   I- Granite, is an aggregate of angular masses of
 quartz, felspar, and mica.  Subdivisions.—It is called
 chrystalline (granite proper)  when the felspar  and
 quartz present a  crystalline, not  a slaly, form.   It is
 called slaty (gneiss) when the mica is so interposed  in
 layers as to present a slaty form.  Varieties.—It  is
 graphic when tlie felspar is in  a large proportion, an"d
 the quartz is arranged in oblong masses, so as to pre-
 sent an appearance resembling Chinese letters.   It is
 porphyritic when spotted with cuboid blocks of fel-
 spar.  This Tariety is peculiar  to the slaty division.
   2  Mica-Slate, is an  asuregate of grains of quartz
 and  scales of mica.   Subdivisions.—Compact, when
 the slaty lamina-  are so closely  united, that it will pre-
 sent  a uniform  smooth face'when cut transversely.
 Fissile, when the laminae scpaiate readily by a blow
 upon its surface.
  3.  Hornblende Rock,+ is an  acsregate, not basal-
 tic, consisting wholly, or in part, of hornblende  and
 felspar.   Sule-divisioiis.—Granitic, when it presents
 the appearance of crystalline granite wilh hornblende
 substituted for mica.  Slaty,  when of a rifty or tabidar
 structure.   Varieties.—Gucisscoid, when it resembles
 Blaty granite (gnei>s) with scales ol" hornblende substi-
 tuted for mica.  Greenstone,  when of a pretty uniform
 green colour, and containing  but a small proportion of
 felspar, generally  of a  slaty structure.  Porphyritic,
 when spotted wilh cuboid  blocks of felspar.  Sienitic,
 when speckled with small irregular masses of felspar.
  4.  Talcose Sute, is an agereegatc  of grains of
 quartz and scales of mica and talc.J  Subdivisions.—
 Compact,  having the laminae so closely  united that a
 transverse section may be wrought into a smooth face.
 When the quartzose particles are very minute and in
 a large proportion, it is manufactured into scythe- whet-
 stones, called  Quinnebog  stones.   Fissile, when the
 laminae separate readily  by a blow upon the  surface.
 Varieties.—Chloritic, when coloured green by chlorite.
 In some localities the chlorite seems to form beds; or
 rather the rock passes into an aggregate consisting of
 quartz, mica, talc, and  a large proportion of chlorite.
 Vast beds of pure chlorite are embraced iii this rock on
 DeertSeid river, in Florida, Mass.
  5.  Granular Quartz, consists of grains of quartz
 united without cement. Subdivisions.—Compact, when
 it consists of tine grains, so as to appear almost homo-
geneous ; generally in large rhomboidal blocks. Sandy,
when the grains are so slightly attached as to be some-
what friable.  Varieties.— Translucent, when it is so
compact and homogeneous as to  transmit light.   Yel-
low, when slightly tinged with iron  (probably a carbo-
nate).  Ferruginous, when  an aggregate of minute
crystals, strongly coloured yellow or red  with the car-
bonate or peroxyde of iron.  There is a remarkable
locality two miles north of Bennington village, in Ver-
mont.  Large masses may be found consisting of  six-
sided crystals, with six-sided  pyramids on both ends.
  6.  Granular Limestone, consists of glimmering
 grains  of carbonate of lime united without cement.
 Subdivisions.—Compact, when  it consols of grains of
 nearly pure carbonate of lime, so closely uniled that  it
 will take a polish.  Sandy, when grains of quartz arc
 aggregated with the grains of  carbonate of lime, but
 so loosely as to be somewhat friable.  Varieties.—Do-
 lomite, when it consists in part of magnesia,  and  is
 friable.  Verd-antique, when it is variegated in colour
 by the presence of serpentine, giving it more or less of
 j clouded green.
        Names under the Transition Class.
  7.  Argillite,  is a  slate rock  of an  aluminous

  • Every rock consists, esstntially, ot one, two, or llree, of the fol-
 owing nine homogeneous mineral*  These are called the geological
 titphabcl; and every student must procure and familiarize himself
 with a specimen of each, oefore he commences the study of geology—
 quartz, felspar, mica,  talc, hornblende, argillite, limestone, gypsum,
 chlorite.  He should procure also a specimen of iron pyrites, horn-
 itone  calc spar, reddle-ore, bog-ore, glance coal, bituminous coal.
  t I  believe M'Clure first applied this general name,  to all the
 varieties of primitive hornblende rock.
  J That a small proportion of talc scales should serve to distinguish
 Ihis rock from mica-slate, wouid scarcely satisfy a mere  cabinet
 student.  But thetraveliinz geologist will acknowledge its importance.
 See Tazhconnuc and Saddle mountains, and the same ;ange along Ihe
 wert aide of Ihe Green mountains to Canada.
character and neai iy homogeneous, alwt»M consisting
of tables or lamina; whose direction forms a large angle
with the general direction of the rock. Subdivisions.—
Clay Slate, when the argillite is nearly destitute of all
grittiness, and contains no  scales of  mica or  talc.
 IVacke Slate, when it is somewhat gritty and contains
glimmering scales of mica or talc.  Varieties.—Roof
Slate, when the slate is susceptible of division into
pieces suitable for roofing houses and for ciphering
slate.  Glazed Slate, when the natural cleavages arc
lined  with a  black  glazing.   This variety contains
anthracite coal and marine organic relics.
  8. First  Graywacke, is  an aegregate  of angular
grains of quartzose sr.nd, united by an argillaceous
cement,  apparently  disintegrated clay slate, and  is
never above the calciferous sandrock.  Subdivisions.
—Compact, when  the  grains are  so fine and united so
compactly, as to be suitable  for quarrying. Rubble,
when the grains, or a part of them, are loo large for
quarrying. This division isoften  very hard, and some-
times  contains  felspar,  and  has the  appearance of
coarse granite; though some of the largest  pebbles arc
generally rounded.  It  is often coloured green  with
chlorite.   Every  kind of t"ust graywacke  is  almost
horizontal—being  a  little elevated at tho edge next to
tlie primitive rocks only.
  9. Sparry Limerook, consists of carbonate of lime
intermediate in texture between granular and compact;
and is traversed by veins of calcareous spar.  Subdi
visions.—Compact, when the massesor blocks, between
the veins of spar, are  sufficiently homogeneous and
uniform  to receive  a  polish.  Slaty, when the rock
is in slaty tables or  laminae, with transverse veins of
calcareous spar. This rock is often cut into very small
irregular blocks by the spar, which gives it the name
of checkered rock.
  10.  Calciferous  Sandrock, consists of fine grains
of quartzose sand and of carbonate of lime,  uniled
without cement, or with an exceeding small proportion.
Subdivisions.—Compact, when the rock is uniform, oi
nearly so, without  cells or  cavities.   Geodiferour
when it contains numerous geodes, or curvilinear cav
ties; which are empty or rilled with calc spar,  quai'
crystals,  barytes, anthracite, or other mineral substan-
ces different from tlie rock.  Varieties.—Oolitic, when
it consists in part of oolite, of a dark colour, and  liardei
than  the kind which is common in the lias or oolitic
formation of Europe.
  11.  Metalliferous Limerock, consists of carbo
nate of lime in  a  homogeneous state, or in a state of
petrifactions.  Subdivisions.—Compact, when  it con-
tains but few petrifactions, and is susceptible of a polish.
Shelly, when  it consists of  petrifactions,  mostly of
bivalve molluscous animals.  Variety.—Birdseyc mar
ble, when the natural  layers are pierced transversely
with cylindrical petrifactions, so  as to give the birds
eye appearance when polished.
  1-2.  Second  Graywacke, scarcely  distinguished
from first graywacke, excepting by its relative position,
being always  above  calciferous sandrock.   Subdi-
visions.—Compact, when in blocks or slaty, consisling
of fine grains.   Rubble, when it consists of, or contains
large rounded pebbles. The rubble of second graywacke
is  in  a much smaller proportion than in first gray
wacke.   Varieties.—R:d sandy,  when  it passes into
red sandstone, which formation occurs in a few  locali-
ties.  Hone-slate, when soft, and  suitable for setting a
fine edge. Grind-stone, when the quartzose particles
are sharp-angular.
         Names under the Secondary Class.
  13. Millstone Grit, is a coarse, hard aggregate of
shar|i-angular quartzose sand or pebbles; mostly with
out any cement, always gray or rusty  gray.  Subd'
visions.—Sandy, when it contains few or no pebbles.
Conglomerate,  when it  consists  chiefly of  rounded
pebbles.
  14. Saliferous Rock, consists of red, or bluish-
gray, sand or clay-marle, or both.   The  grains of sand
are mostly somewhat rounded, and all the varieties of
this rock, in some localities,  form  the floor of salt
mines and salt springs.  Subdivisions.—Marie-slate,
when the rock is soft, slaty, and contains minute  grains:
of carbonate of lime.   Sandy, when  it  is  in solid
blocks or layers, consisting of red or bluish-ir-ay  quart-
zose sand.   Varieties.— Gray-band, the  uppermost
layers of bluish-gray sandrock.  Conglomerate, (brec
cia) consisting chiefly of rounded pebbles, red, gray, oi 
(JEt-)
GER
fust-colour,  as  under the  superincumbent rocks  at
MountHolyoke, tlie Palisades, on toe Hudson river, &c.
  15. Ferriferous Rock, is a soft, slaty, argillaceous,
Dr a hard, sandy, siliceous rock, embracing red  argil-
laceous  iron ore.  Subdivisions.—Slaty, consists of
green, or bluish-green, smooth soft slate, generally im-
mediately under the layer of red argillaceous iron ore.
Sandy, consists of a gray, or rusty-gray, aggregate of
quartzose sandrock, in compact blocks or layers, over-
laying or embracing red argillaceous iron ore."  Variety.
—Conglomerate, consists of rounded pebbles, cemented
together  by carbonate or oxide of  iron, or adhering
without cement.
  16. Lias,  consists  of  rounded grains  of quartzose
sand, clay-slate, and sometimes partly of other alumi-
nous compounds, of a dark or light-gray colour, aggre-
gated with fine grains of carbonate of lime.   Subdi-
visions.—Calciferous slate, when it is of a slaty texture,
and  the  argillaceous and calcareous constituents pre-
dominate.  Calciferous  grit, when  it is in blocks or
thick layers, and  the quartzose sand, or sharp grit,
predominates.  Varieties.—Conchoidai, when the slaty
kind is separated into small divisions, somewhat of a
lenticular form,  by natural  conchoidai cleavages.
Shell grit, when the gritty variety consists, in  part, of
petrifactions of quartzose sand.
  17. Geodiferous Limerock, (lowest  of the oolitic
formation of Europe,) consists  of carbonate of lime,
combined with a small proportion of argillite or quartz,
in a  compact state, mostly foetid, and always contain-
ing  numerous  geodes.   Subdivisions.— Swinestone,
when it  contains very little or no quartzose sand, is
irregular in structure, foetid and abounds in  geodes.
Sandy, when it contains quartzose  sand, is stratified,
scarcely fcetid, and contains but few geodts.
  18. Cornitiferous Limerock,  (included  in the
oolitic formation  of Europe,)  consists of carbonate
of lime,  embracing  hornstone.  Subdivisions.—Com-
pact, when the rock is close-grained; and it generally
contains  hornstone in layers.  Shelly, when it consists
of shells',  and contains hornstone in nodules or irregular
masses.
  19. Third Graywacke,  (well-known to  be era-
braced in the oolitic formation of Europe;  but con-
tains no oolite,) having the character of first and second
graywacke  in  general; but differing in containing
much iron pyrites, fine grains of carbonate of lime, in
larger or  smaller proportion, and in  having the quart-
zose grains mostly rounded.—Subdivisions.—Pyriti-
ferous slate, when the rock has a slaty structure, and
is in thin lamina; or in blocks or thick  layers.  Pyriti-
ferous grit, when  the rock has a  siliceous or  gritty
structure, containing a  large proportion of quartzose
sand or  pebbles.  Varieties.—Red sandstone, and red
wacke, when the gray rock passes into a dirty orange,
and  thence  into a red  siliceous sandrock.  This has
been called old red sandstone; but I do not believe that
such a general stratum is admissible.  Conglomerate,
(breccia)  when the  rock consists chiefly of rounded
pebbles,  of a light-red, grayish red, or rust colour.
      Names under  the Superincumbent Class.
  20. Basalt, is a hornblende rock,  not primitive, pro-
bably of volcanic origin.   Subdivisions.—Amygdaloid,
when amorphous, of  a compact texture, but containing
cellules,  empty or filled.  Greenstone trap, when of a
columnar structure, or in angular blocks, often coarse-
grained.   Variety.— Toadstone, when the amygdaloid
has  a warty appearance, and resembles slag.
          Names  under the Alluvial Class.
  21. Antediluvion, or upper tertians, when the
detritus is in layers,  so situated that it must have been
deposited from water, while standing over it at a great
depth, in nearly  a quiescent  state.  As we have no
chalk in  North America, and as no tertiary rocks have
hitherto  been ascertained, this  crnnd division may all
berefened  to detritus.   Subdivisions.—Plastic  clay,
when it  will not effervesce with acids; being destitute
of carbonate of lime.   Marly clay,  when  the clay
contains fine grains  of  carbonate of lime, suflicient to
effervesce strongly with acids.  Marine, or Bagshot,
sand and crag, when it consists of quartzose sand,
nearly pure, or combined with  a little loam, it  is called
marine sand; when  it  passes  into  a gravelly forma-
tion, often containing pudding-stone, beds of clay, Sec,
it is called crag.  Variety.— Hard-pan, when  the crag
consist* of gravel,  strongly cemented by clay.
  2-2. Dii.rvioK, consists of a confused mixture of
      3II-I
gravel, sand, clay, loam, plants, shell-animals, Sec so
situated, that it must have been deposited from water,
in a state of forcible and violent action.  To make ita
character perfectly evident, it muia be so situated, thai
the elevation of the water, sufficient for niakiim the
deposite, could not have been effected by any existing
cause.
  23.  Ultimate  Diluvion, a thin deposite of yellow
ish-gray loam, reposing on crag or  some other sub-
stance in ancient uncultivated forest grounds.  It is so
situated, that it could  not  have been produced by the
disintegration of any  stratum iu  the vicinity, nor by
water when runninc with much velocity.  It appears
to have oeen deposited  from waters greatly elevated,
and which had been rendered turbid by violent action,
but had  become  almost quiescent.  It may be consi-
dered as the last settlings of a deluge.
  2-1.  Post-dh.uvion, when the detritus is so arranged
that coarse pebbles appear towards the source of the
waters which deposited them, and fine sediment more
remote.
        Names under the Analluvial Class.
  25.  Stratified Analluvion,Is the detritus formed
by the disintegration of rock strata, wliich  remains
in the situation formerly occupied by the rocks, retain-
ing the same order of superposition.  Subdivisions.—
These take the names, and retain the essential charac-
ters, of the original rocks; assaliferous, ferriferous
lias, Src.
  26".  Superficial ANALLUvio.N,isthedetritusformed
by the disintegration of the exposed surfaces of all
rocks, and remains on or near the place of disintegra-
tion.  Subdivisions.—Clay-loam, when  the detritus is
fine and adhesive.  Granulated, when in coarse grains,
or friable.  The character of the soil depends on the
character of the rock disintegrated.
                     Remarks.
  1. The upper part of every general rock-stratum, is
either morefissite or more loose and siliceous,  than the
under part.   This  affords a natural  character for
making the two-fold divisions adopted  in this nomen
clature.
  2. The upper surface of every general rock-stratum
in our district,  is  destitute of a superimposed  rocky
covering, for a great  distance.  This affords a very
natural guide for the limit of general strata.
  3. By general  strata is meant, those deposites of
rocks and detritus, wliich constitute the exterior visible
rind of the earth,  of nearly equal  importance.  They
may be distinguished from each  oilier by  essential
characters.  The most  conclusive is relative position
—the  next in importance is the contents—the last is the
constituents.  For example,  we  know  the third gray-
wacke as the uppermost rock in the regular series of
superposition—we know  the ferriferous rock from
its embracing the argillaceous peroxyde of iron—we
know the granite  from its consisting of quartz, feld-
spar, and mica.
  4. The words upper and lower are applied, without
reference to degree of  elevation.  A stratum is said to
be geologically the lowest, or oldest, when it is nearest
to the centre of tlie rang<" of granite towards which it
inclines.
  5. General strata may be vcrynaturally subdivided,
are subject to variations in character, and contain beds.
Numerous  minerals not essential to their respective
characters, are found in them in the state of veins and
of dissemination.  They appear to have become hard,
while the strata containing them were  in a soft state;
for their forms are always impressed in them.
  6. All strata have their peculiar associates and con-
tents.  Therefore a knowledge of strata enables us
to foretell  the probable discovery of useful minerals.
Geoloey, then, embraces the "Science of Mining."
  7. The bassetling, or out-cropping sides of transition
and secondary rocks, at and  near the edges approach-
ing primitive rocks, present more of a primitive aspect.
and contain  fewer petrifuctions, Ihftn  otlier  parts of
the same rocks.   A.j
   Gera'nis.   (From ytpavoc, a crane:  so called from
its supposed resemblance to  an  extended  crane)  A
bandage for a fractured clavicle.
   GERANIUM.  (From  ytpavos, n crane:  so called
because  its pistil is  long like the bill of a crane.)
Class, Monadelphia;  Order,  Decandria.  The  name
of a genus of plants in tlie linnaean system.  Gera-
nium nr r.ranp'o-bi'l- 
GES                                              GIL
  Geraniumbatrachioides   See t?c?-aiiium pro-
tense.
  Geranium colu.mbinv.m.  See  Geranium rotundi-
folium.
  Geranium moschatum.  The adstringent property
of this plant has induced practitioners to exhibit it in
cases of debility and profluvia.
  Geranium  tratense.   'l'he  systematic name of
the crow foot crane's-bill.  Geranium batrachioidcs.
A plant wliich  possesses adstringent virtues, but  in a
slight degree.
  Geranium  robertianum.  Slinking  crane's bill.
Herb Robert.  This common plant has been much es-
teemed as an  external application in erysipelatous
inflammations, cancer, mastodynia, and old ulcers, but
is now deservedly fallen into disuse.
  Geranium rotu.ndifolium.  The systematic name
of the dove's-foot.   Geranium  columbinum.   This
plant is slightly astringent.
  Geranium sanuuinarium. See Geranium sangui-
neum.
  Geranium sanquineum.  Tiie systematic name of
the Geranium sanguinaritim.   Bloody crane's-bill.
The  adstringent virtues ascribed to this plant do not
appear to he consideiuble.
   ["Geranium  maculatum.   Crane's-bill.   The
Geranium  muculatum is a native {American)  plant,
common about woods and fence-, and conspicuous lor
its large purple flowers in May and June.
  "The root is horizontal,  nearly as large as the little
finger, tortuous, and full of knobs.   To the taste il is a
pure and powerful astringent.   It  abounds with tan-
nin, which  is imparted iu great quautilii.-. both to the
tincture and watery solution, and  appears  lo be the
basis of its medicinal efficacy.
  " It is  applicable to  all the purposes of vegetable
astringents, being surpassed by very  few articles of
that class.  In various debilitating discharges, particu-
larly from the bowels, it has afforded relief, when the
disease has been of a nature to require astringent me-
dicines.  In apthous eruption-, and ulcerations of the
mouth  and throat, a strong decoction has been found
beneficial as a gargle.  A dose of the powder is twenty
or thirty grains, and of a saturated tincture from  one
to two fluid drachms. The  extract of this root is  a
very powerful astringent, and may be substituted for
kino and catechu."—Big. Mat, Med.  A.]
  GERM.  See Corculum.
  GERMANDER.  See Teucrium chamadrys.
  Germander water. See Teucrium Scordium.
  GERMEN.  This is the rudiment of the young fruit
and seed, and is found at the bottom of the pistil.  See
Pistillum.  It appears under a variety of shapes  and
sizes.
  From its  figure it is called,
  1.  Globose;  as iu Rosa eglantaria, and cinna-
momea.
  2.  Oblong; as in Stellaria biflora.
  3.  Orate; as in Rosa canina, and alba.
  From its  situation, it is distinguished into,
  1.  Superior, when internal between tlie corolla; as
In Prunus.
  2.  Inferior, below and without  the corolla; as in
Galanlhus nivalis.
  3.  Pedicellate, upon a footstalk;  ns in the Eu-
phorbia.
  It is  of gieat moment, for botanical distinctions, tn
observe whether it be superior, above the bases of the
calyx, or below.
  GERMINATION.  Gcrminatio.  The  vital deve-
lopement of a seed, when it first begins to grow.
  GEROCO'MIA.  (From ytpuv, an aged person, and
xoptu  to be concerned about.)  That partof medicine
which  regards the regimen and treatment of old nge.
  Gerontopo'gon.  (From ytpuv, an old man,  and
iruyuv, a beard ; so called  because its downy seed,
while enclosed in the calyx, resembles the beard of an
aged man.) The herb old man's beard, a speciesof
tragopogon.
  Geronto'xon.  vFrom ytpuv,  an old  person, and
rolov,  a dart.)  1  A small ulcer, like the head of a
dart, appealing sonietimes in the cornea of old persons.
  2.  The socket of a tooth.
  Gerofo'oon.  See Geronlopogon.
  GESNER, Conrad,  was bom at Zurich, in 1516.
His father was killed in the civil war, and left him in
»nch poverty, that lie was obliged to become a servant,
at Mrnsburg.   His master allowed him to devote some
lime to study,  in which he made great progress; and
having acquired  a  little  money, he went lo Paris,
where he  unproved rapidly in the classics and rheto-
ric, and then  turned his attention to philosophy nnd
medicine.  But he  was soon compelled to return lo
his native country, nnd teach ihe languages, &c. for a
livelihood. This enabled  him afterward  to resume
his medical studies at Moutpelier, and lie graduated al
Basil iu  1540.  He  then  settled  in  his  native city,
where he was appointed  professor of philosophy,
which office he discharged with great reputation for
twenty-fwur years.  He had an early predilection for
botany, which led him to cultivate other parts of na
lural history; he was the first collector of a museum,
and  acquired the character of being the greatest  na
finalist  since  Aiistolle.  He also founded and sup-
ported a botanic garden, had numerous drawings and
wood engravings made of plants, and appears to have
meditated a general work on lhat subject.  He like-
wise discovered the only true principles  of botanical
arrangement  in the (lower and  fruit.  Though of a
feeble and sickly constitution, he traversed ihe Alps,
and even sometimes plunged into the waters in seaicli
of plants  he also carefully studied their medical pro-
perties, and frequently hazarded his life by experi-
ments on himself; indeed he was at one time reported
to have been  killed by the root of  doronicum.   His
other occupations prevented his  enteritis/, very exten-
sively into practice, but his enlarged views rendered
him  successful; and the profits of his profession ena-
bled  him to support the great expense of Ins favourite
pursuits.   He  gave  also many proof's of liberal and
active friendship.   He died of  the  plague, in 1565.
His chief works are his " Ilistorioe  Animalium," in
three folio volumes, with wood cuts; and a pharma-
copoeia,  entitled  " De  Secretis Remediis Thesaurus,"
which passed through many editions.
  Gestation, uterine.  See Pregnancy.
  GE'l'M.  1. The name of a genus of plants in the
Linnaean  system.   Class,  Icosanana;  Order,  Poly-
gynia.
  2.  The  pharmacopaeial name of the two following
species of this genus.
  Geum rivale.  The root is the part  directed  for
medicinal uses.  It  is  inodorous,  and imparts an aus-
tere taste.  In America il is in high estimation in the
cure of intermittents, and is said to be more efficacious
than  the  Peruvian  bark.   Diarrhoeas  and  haemor-
rhages are also stopped by its exhibition.
  Geum urbanum.  The systematic name of the herb
bennet, or avens.  Caryophyllata; Herba benedicta;
Caryophyllus  vulgaris; Garyophylla; Janamunda;
Geum—fioribus ercctis, fructibus globosis villosis,
aristis uvanatis nudis, foliis lyratis, of Linnaeus.
The  root of this plant  has  been employed as a gentle
styptic, corroborant, and stomachic.   It has a mildly
austere, somewhat aromatic taste, and a very pleasant
smell, of the clove kind.   It is also esteemed on the
Continerit as a febrifuge.
  GIBBl S.    Gibbous; swelled; applied  to leaves
when swelled on one side or  both,  from  excessive
abundance of pulp;  as in the Aloe rctusa.
  GIDDINESS.   See  Vertigo.
  GILBERT,  William, was born at Colchester, in
1540.  After studying at Cambridge, he went abroad for
improvement, and graduated at  some foreign univer-   ,
Bity.   He returned with a high character for philoso-
phical and chemical knowledge, and was admitted
into the college of physicians in London, where he set-
tled about the year 1573.  He was so successful in his
practice, that he was at length made first physician tc
Uueen Elizabeth, who allowed him a pension to pro-
secute philosophical experiments.  He died in 1603,
leaving his books, apparatus, and  minerals, to the col
lege of physicians.  His capital work on the magnet
was  published three years before his death; it is  not
only  the earliest complete system on that subject,  bul
nlso one of the first specimens of philosophy founded
upon  experiments;  which method  the  great  Lord
Bacon afterward  so strenuously recommended.
  Gilead,  balsam.  See Amyris gileadensis.
  GILLIFLOWER.  See  Dianthus  cnryophyllus.
  [" Gillenia trifoliata. The Gillema tnfoliala is
a native, perennial  plant,  more generally known  to
cultivators ofthe Ameiicaii Materia Meilu.,  by  I In;
Liniuxan name of Soircca trifoliata.   It grow:  in and 
GLA
GLA
 ■bout woods, in light soil, throughout most partsof the
 Union, excepting the eastern states.
  "The root is mucn branched and knobby.  It con-
 sists of a woody portion, invested with a thick bark,
 which, when dry, is brittle, and very bitter to the taste.
 The predominant soluble ingredients appear to be, a
 bilter extractive matter and resin.  When boiled in
 water, it imparts to it a beautiful red wine-colour, and
 an  intensely bitter  taste.  The tincture deposites an
 abundant resinous precipitate on  the  addition  of
 wnter.
  "This article is one of the most prominent  indige-
 nous emetics, resembling ipecacuanha in its operation,
 but requiring a large dose.  It sometimes fails to pro-
 duce vomiting, especially if the portion used has be-
 come old.  Thirty  grains of the bark of the root, re-
 cently dried and powdered, are a suitable dose for an
 emetic.   In doses so small as  not  to excite nausea, it
 has been thought useful as a tonic.   The Gillenia sti-
 pulacea,  of the western states, possesses properties
 similar  to those of this species."—Bi<relow's Mat.
 Med. A.l
  GIN.   Spiritus Juniperi.  Geneva.  Hollands.  The
 name of a spirit distilled from malt or rye, which after-
 ward undergoes the same process, a second time, with
juniper-berries. This is the original and most whole-
some state of the spirit;  but  it is now prepared without
juniper-berries, and is distilled from turpentine, wliich
gives it something of a similar flavour.  The consump-
 tion of this article, especially in the metropolis, is  im-
 mense, and  the consequences  are  pernicious to  Ihe
 health ofthe inhabitants.
  GINGER.  See Zingiber.
  GI'NGIBER.  See Zingiber.
  Gingibra'chium.  (From gingiva, the gums, and
 brachium, the arm.) A name for the scurvy, because
 the gums, arms, and legs, are affected with it.
  Gingi'dium.  A species of Daucus.
  Gi'ngihil.  See  Zingiber.
  Gingipe'dium.  (From gingiva, the gums, and pes,
 She foot.)  A name  for the scurvy, because tl e gums,
 arms, and legs are affected.
  GINGI'VyE.  (From gigno, to beget;  because the
teeth are, as it were, born iu them.)  The gums.   See
 Gums.
  GI'NCLYMUS.   (TiyyAuuoc.aJiinge.)   The hinge-
 like joint.  A species of diarthrosis or  moveable con-
nexion of bones, wliich admits of flexion and extension,
 as the knee-joint, Sec.
  GI'NSENG. An Indian word.  See Panax qumque-
folium.
  Gir.  Quick-lime.
  Gi'rmir.  Tartar.
  GITHAGO.  A name used by Pliny, for the Lolium,
oi darnel-grass.
  GIZZARD.  The stomach of poultry.  Those from
 white flesh, have  long  been considered in France as
 medicinal. They have been recommended in obstruc-
 tions of the  urinary passages, complaints of the blad-
 der, and  nephritic  pains; but particularly as a febri-
 fuge.  Bouillon Lagrange considers its principal sub-
 stance as oxygenated gelatine,  with a small quantity
 of extractive matter.
  Glabella.  (From glaber,  smooth;  because it is
 without hair.)  The space between the eyebrows.
  GLABER.  Glabrous; Smooth;  applied to steins,
 leaves, seeds, &c. of plants, and opposed to all kinds of
 hairiness  and pubescence ;  as in the stem of the Eu-
 phorbia peplus, and the seeds of Galium montanum.
  GLACIES.  Ice.
  GLADIOLUS.   (Diminutive of gladius, a sword ;
 no named from the sword-like shape of ils leaf.)  The
 name of n genus of plants in the  Linnaean system.
 IMsss, Triandria;  Order, Monogynia.
  Gladiolus luteus.   See Iris pseudacorus,
  Gla'ma.  TXapa. The sordes of the eye.
  GLAND.  Glans.  Glandula.  I. In anatomy, an
 organic part of the body, composed of blood-vessels,
 nerves, and absorbents, and destined for the secretion
 or alteration of some peculiar  fluid.  The glands of
 Ihe human bodv are divided, by anatomists, into  dif-
 ferent classes, either according to their structure, or
 the fluid  they contain.  According to their fabric, they
 are distinguished into four classes:
  1. Simple glands.
  2. Compounds of simple glands.
  3. Conglobate glands.
      3%'
  4. Conglomerate glands.
  According to their fluid contents, they are more pro
perly divided into,
  1. Mucous glands.
  2. Sebaceous glands.
  3. Lymphatic glands.
  4. Salival glands.
  5. Lachrymal glands.
  1. Simple glands are small hollow follicles, covered
with a peculiar membrane, and having a proper ex
cxetory duct, through which they evacuate the liquor
contained  in  their cavity.  Such are the mucous
glands of the nose, tongue, fauces, trachea, stomach,
intestine, and urinary bladder,  the sebaceous glands
about  the  anus, and  those of the ear.  These simple
glands are either dispersed here and there, or are con-
tiguous to one another, forming a heap in such a man-
ner  that they are not covered by a  common mem-
brane, but each hath its own excretory duel, which is
never joined to  the excretory duct of  another gland.
The former are termed solitary simple glands, the lat-
ter aggregate or congregate simple glands.
  2.  The compound glands consist of many simple
glands, the excretory ducts of whicli are joined in one
common excretory duct;  as the sebaceous glands of
the face, lips, palate, and  various parts of the skin,
especially about  the pubes.
  3.  Conglobate, or, as they are  also called, lymphatic
glands, are those into whicli lymphatic vessels enter,
and  from which ihey go out again: as  the mesenteric,
lumbar, Sec.  They have no excretory duct, but are
composed of a texture of lymphatic vessel m..meted
together by cellular membrane: they are the largest
in the foetus.
  4.  Conglomerate glands are composed of a congeries
of many simple glands, the excretory ducts of which
open into one common trunk:  as the paro.id :,l;uid,
thyroid gland, pancreas,  and all  the  saliva! glands.
Conglomerate glands  differ but little  from the com-
pound glands, yel they are composed of more simple
glands than the compound.
  The excretory duct  of a  gland- is the duct through
which the fluid  of the gland is excreted. The vessels
and  nerves of glands always come from the neighbour-
ing parts, and the arteries appear to possess a high de-
gree of irritability.  The use of the glands is to sepa-
rate a peculiar liquor, or to change it.  The use ofthe
conglobate glands is unknown.
  I J. In botany, Linnaeus defines it, a little tumour
discharging a fluid.
  From llieir situation they are said to be,
  1.  Foliares, when on the surface of tlie leaf; as  in
the Gossypium  religiosum, which has one gland on
the leal";  and Gossypium barbadense, the leaves of
which have three.
  2.  Petiolarcs, when in tlie footstalk ; as in Prvnus
cerasus.
  3.  Corollares.  The claw of the corolla of the Ber-
beris vulgaris has two glands.
  4.  Filamentares, in the filaments; as in Dictamnus
albus.
  From their adhesion,
  1.  Glandula scssitis, without any peduncle; as  in
Prunus cerasus.
  2.  Glandula pedicillata, furnished with a peduncle ■
as in Droscra.
  G'ands are abundant on the slalk and calyx of the
mess-rose, and  between the serratures of the leaf of
the Salix pentandria; on the Ibolstalks of the Vibur-
num opulus, and various species of  passion-flower
The liquor discharged  is resinous and fragrant.
  CLANDORP, Mai-thias Louis, was "bom at Co-
logne, iu 15U5.  Soon  after commencing his  medical
pursuits, he went to Padua, which had at that time
great reputation.  He  Improved so much in anatomy
under Spigehus, that he was deemed competent to give
public demonstrations: and he took his degree in 1618.
He  settled  in Bremen, whence  his family originated;
and  he was so  successful  it.  practice, that  he was
raised to the most honourable ot3ces.  He was physi-
cian to the archbishop, and to  the republic, when' he
died in 1640.  He left several works, with plates, con-
taining many important observations on auatomv, *tc.
The principal ure his "Speculum ChL-urgortini,"  and
a Treatise on Issues nnd Setons.  He wes very parlia.
to the use ofthe actual cautery, even in the iimm c»uv
mon disorders. 
GLE
GLO
  GLA'XDULA.  (A diminutive of glans, a gland.)
A small gland.  See Gland.
  Glandula  lachrymalis.  See Lachrymal gland.
  Glandule  myrtiformes.   See Caruneula myr-
tifcrmes
  Glandule PACi-HiONi.ee.  A number of small, oval,
fatty substances, not yet ascertained to be glandular,
situated under ihe dura mater, about the sides of the
longitudinal sinus. Their use is not. known.
  Glandulosoca'rneus. An epithet given by Uuysch
to some excrescences,  which  he  observed in the
bladder.
  GLANDULOSUS.  Glandular.  1. In anatomy,
having the appearance,  structure,  or function  of a
gland.
  2. In  botany, applied  to  leaves  which have little
glandiform elevations; as the bay-leaved willow, and
Hypericum montanum.
  GLANS.  A gland, or nut.  See Gland.
  Glans penis.   The very vascular body that forms
the apex of the penis.  The posterior circle is termed
the corona glandis.  Sec Corpus spongiosum urethra.
  Glass unguentaria.  See Guilandina moringa.
  GLASS.  This substance was formerly employed
by surgeons, when roughly powdered, to destroy opa-
cities of the cornea.
  Glass of antimony.  See Antimony.
  Glass-wort, snail-seeded.  See Salsola kali.
  Gla stum.   (Quast callastum;  fiom Callia} who
first used iu)  The herb woad.   See /satis ttnetoria.
  Glauber's salt.  A sulphate of soda.   It is found
native  in Bohemia, and is the produce  of art.  See
Soda sulphas
  GLACBERITE.  A native crystallized  salt, com-
posed of dry sulphate of lime, nnd dry sulphate of soda,
found in rock salt at Villarubra in Spain.
  GLAUCEDO.  (From yXavxos, bluish, or greenish
tint)  See  Glaucoma.
  GLAU'CIUM.  (So named from its glaucous or sea-
green colour.   The name of a  genus of plants in the
Linnaean system.  Class, Polyandria ; Order, Mono-
gynia.)   The horned poppy.
  GLAUCOMA.  (From  yXavxos, blue; because of
the eye  becoming of a blue, or sea-green  colour.)
Glaucedo ; Glaucosis ; Apoglaucosis.  1. An opacity
of the vitreous humour.  It is difficult to ascertain, and
is only to be known by a very attentive examination of
the eye
  2. A species of cataract.   See Cataract.
  GLAUCOSIS. See Glaucoma.
  GLAUCUS.   TSavxis, sea-green.)   Stems are
called glaucous win* h aie clothed with a fine sea-green
mealiness, which la.-ih  rubs off; as in Chlora per-
foliata.
  GLECO MA.   (From  yXrtxuv, the name  of a plant
in Dioscorides.)  Class,  Didynamia; Order, Gymno-
spermia.  The name of a genus of plants in Ihe Lin-
naean system.  Ground-ivy.
  Glecoma hederacka.  The systematic name of the
ground-ivy, or gill.   Hedera terrcstris.   Glecoma—
foliis renlformibus crenatis, of Linnaeus.   This indv-
genous plant has a peculiar strong amell, and a bitterish
somewhat  aromatic  tasie.  It is one of tliose plants
which was formerly much esteemed for possessing vir-
tues that, in  the present age, cannot be detected. In
obstinate coughs, it  is a favoiuite remedy with the
poor.
  GLE'cnoN.  (TXn\uv.)  Pennyroyal.
  Glechoni'tes. (.From yXrjxuv,pennyroyal.)  Wme
impregnated  with pennyroyal.
  GLEET.  In consequence of the repeated attacks
of gonorrhoea, and the debility of the part  occasioned
thereby, it not unfrequently happens, that a gleel, or
constant small discharge takes place, or remains be-
hind, after all danger of  infection is removed. Mr.
Hunter remarks, that it differs from gonorrhoea  in be-
ing uninfectious, and in the discharge consisting of
globular particles, contained in a slimy mucus, instead
of  serum.    It is unattended with pain, scalding in
making of water, tc.     ...._,
  GLE'NE.   VXnvq-  Strictly signifies  the cavity or
socket of the eye; but by some anatomists is also used
for that cavity of a bone which receives another with-

  GLE'NOID.   (Glcnoidcs;  from yXvvn, a cavity,
nnd ttios, resemblance.)   The  name  of articulate ca-
nities of bones.
  Oleo'cinum.    (From yXtvxas,  must.)   An jlnV
ment, in the preparation ot  which was must
  Gleu'xis.   (From yXtvxvs, sweet.)  A sweet wine.
  GL1ADINE.  Sc- Gluten.
  Gli'scere.  To increase gradually, properly as fire
does; but, by physical writers, is sou .climes  applied
to the natural  heat and increase  of spirits;  and by
others to the exacerbation of fevers which return pe-
riodicallv.
  GLISCHRO'CHOLOS.   (From  vWXpov, viscid,
ami xp^l, *ne hi'1'-)  Vi-eid bilious excrement.
  GLISCRA'SMA.   (From yXtoxpatvu,  to  become
glutinous.)   Viscidity.
  Glisoma'rqo.   White chalk.
  GLISSON, Francis, was born in Dorsetshire, 15117.
He studied at both the English universities ; bul look
his degree  of doctor  in Cambridge, where  he  was
made Regius professor  of Physic, which office he
held about forty years,  lie settled, however, to prac-
tise in London, and became a Follow of the College in
1635; four years alter wliich he was chosen reaiter of
Anatonn, and distinguished himself much by Ins lec-
tures " De Morbis Partium," which he was requested
to publish.  During the  civil wars  he  retired to Col-
chester, where he practised with great credit; and was
there during the siege of that town by the Parliament-
ary forces.   He was one ofthe members ofthe society
whicli, about the  year 1645, held weekly meetings in
London to  promote Natural Philosophy:  and which
having lemovcd  to Oxford during the  troubles, was
augmented after  the  Restoration,  and  became  ulti-
mately the present Royal Society.  He was afterward
several  years president  of the College of  Physicians,
and died at the advanced uge  of eighty.   He left the
following valuable works:  1. A Treatise on the Rick-
ets. 2.  The Anatomy of the Liver, which he described
much more accurately than any one before, nnd par-
ticularly the capsule ofthe Vena Portarum, which has
since been named after him. 3. A large metaphysical
treatise " De Natura Substantial Energetica," after the
manner of Aristotle.  4. A Treatise on  the Stomach,
Intestines, &c, a  well-arranged and comprehensive
work, wilh various new observations, whicli came out
the year before his death.
   Glisson's Capsule.  See Capsule of Glisson
   GLOBATE.  See Gland.
   GLOBOSUS.   Globose.  A  root is so called which
is rounded, and gives off radicles  in every direction ;
as that ofthe Cyclamen europeum.   The receptacle of
the  Cephalanthus and Nauclea, are so called from
their form.
   GLOBULA'RIA.   (From glob us, a globe: so
called  from the shape of its  flower.)   The French
daisy.
   Globula'ria alypum.  The leaves of this plant are
used in some parts of Spsin In the cure ofthe venereal
disease.  Il is said to act also as a powerful but safe
cathartic.
  GLOBUS.  A  ball.
  Globus hystericus.  The  air rising  in the oeso-
phagus, and prevented  by  spasm from  reaching the
mouth, is so called by authors, because it mostly at-
tends hysteria, and  gives the  sensation of a  ball as-
cending in the throat.
   GLOCHIS.   (TXuxH, cuspis teli.)  A pointed hair.
A sharp prfint:  used in botany to a bristle-like pubes-
cence,  whicli is turned  backwards at  its point into
many straight teelh.
   GLO'MEIl.  A clue of thread.  A term mostly ap-
plied to glands.
   GLOMERATE.  A  gland  is so called which  is
formed of a glomer of sanguineous vessels, having no
cavity, but furnished with an  excretory duct; as the
lachrymal and mammary glands
   GLOMERULUS.   In botany, a smal tuft, or capi-
tulnm, mosllv in the axilla ofthe peduncle.
   GLOSSA'GRA.   (From yKuooa, the tongue, and
aypa, a seizure.)  A violent pain in the tongue.
   GLO'SSO.   (From yXuaaa, the tongue.)   Names
compounded with this word belong to muscles, nerves,
or vessels, from their  being attached, or going to the
tongue.
   Glosso-pharyngeaz, nerves.  The  ninth  pair of
nerves.  Tho" arise from the processes of the  cere-
bellum, wliich run to the medulla  spinalis, and termi-
nate by numerous branches  in the muscles of the
tongue and pharynx. 
GLU
CJLU
  Glosso-Pharynoeus.  See Constrictorpharyngeus
tuperior.
  Glosso-staphylinus.  See Constrictor isthmi fau-
cium.
  Glossoca'tochos.  (From yXoaoa, tongue, and xa-
ftxu, to hold.)  An instrument in P. yEgineta for de-
pressing the tongue.  A spatula linguae.  The ancient
glossocatochus was a sort of forceps, one of the blades
of which served to depress the tongue, while the other
was applied under the chin.
  GLOSSOCE'LE.  (From yXutraa, the tongue, and
xviXri, a tumour.)  An extrusion ofthe tongue.
  Glossocoma.  A retraction of the tongue.
  Glossocomi'on.  (From yXua-aa,  a tongue, and xo-
y.tu, to guard.)  By this was formerly meant a  case
for the tongue, for a hautboy; but the old surgeons, by
metaphor, use it to signify an instrument, or case, for
containing a'fractured limb.
  GLO'TTA.  (TXuTfa, the tongue.)  The tongue.
  GLOTTIS.  (From yXurfa, the tongue.)  The su-
perior opening of the  larynx at the bottom of the
tongue.
  GLUCINA.  (From yXvxvs, which signifies sweet,
because it gives that taste to the salts in forms.)   The
name of an earth, for the discovery  of whicli we arc
indebted  to Va-iquelin, who found  it, in 17115, in the
Aigue-niarine or beryl, a transparent stone, of a green
colour, and in the emerald  of Peru.  It ovists  com-
bined wilh  silex, alumine, lime, and oxide of iron, in
the one; and wilh the same earths, and oxide of
chrome, in the other.  It has lately been discovered in
the gadolinite by Mr. Ekeberg.
  Glucina is white, light, and soft to the touch.  It is
insipid, and adheres to the tongue ; and is iulusible by
itself in the fire.  Its specific gravity is 2.'J07.  It  is so-
luble in alkalies and llieir carbonates, and in all the
acids except the carbonic and  phosphoric, and forms
with them saccharine and slightly astiingent salts. It
is exceedingly soluble in sulphuric acid used to excess.
it is  fusible with borax, and forms with it a transpa-
rent  gluss.  It absorbs one-fourth of its weight of car-
bonic acid.   It decomposes sulphate of alumine.   It is
not precipitated by the hydro-sulphurets nor by  prus-
eiatc of  potassa, but by-all the succinates.  Its nihility
for the acids is intermediate between  magnolia and
alumine.
  To obtain this earth, reduce some  beryl to an impal-
pable powder, fuse it wilh three times its weight of
potassa, and dissolve the mass in muriatic acid. Se-
parate the silex by evaporation and  filtration, and de-
compose the  remaining fluid by adding carbonate of
potassa; rcdissolve the dei>osile when washed iu sul-
phuric acid, and by mingling this solution with sul-
phate of potassa, alum will  be obtained, which  crys-
tallizes.
  Then  mix the fluid with a solution of carbonate of
ammonia, which must  be used in  excess ; filter nnd
boil it, and  a white powder will gradually fall down,
which is glucine.
  GLUE.   An inspissated jelly made from the parings
of hides and  other offals, by boiling them in water,
straitiing through a wicker basket, suffering the impu-
rities to subside, and then boiling  it a second lime. The
articles  should first be digested in lime  water, to
cleanse  them from grease  and dirt; then steeped in
water, stirring them Well from time to time ; and, last-
ly, laid in a heap, to have the  water pressed out, be-
fore they are put into the boiler.  Some recommend,
that the water should be kept as nearly as possible to a
boiling heat, without suffering it to enter into ebulli-
tion.  In ihis state it is poured  into  flat  frames or
moulds,  then cut  into square pieces when congealed,
and afterward dried in a coarse net. It is said to im-
prove by nge; and that glue  Is  reckoned the  best,
whicli swells considerably without dissolving by  thtee
or four days' infusion in cold water,  and recovers its
former dimensions and properties by drying.  Shreds
or  parings  of vellum, parchment, or  white leather,
make n clear and almost colourless glue.
  GLUMA.  (Gluma, d  glubcndo,  a husk of corn.)
The  husk.  The peculiar calyx of grasses and grass-
like plants,  of a chaffy texture, formed of little  con-
cave leaflets which are called valves.^ To Ihe  husk
belongs the arista, the beard or awn.  Seu Arista.
  The gluma is,
  1.  Univalve, in Loilum perennc.
  2.  Bivalve, in mostgiusses.
      398
  3. Tritalved in Panicum miliaceum.
  4. Many-valved, in Uniola paniculata.
  5. Coloured,  otherwise than green; as in Holcus
bicolor.
  From the number of flowers the husk contains, it is
called,
  1. Gluma uniflora, one-flowered; as in  Panicum
  2. G. biflora, with two ; as in Aira.
  3. G.  multiflora,  having many;  as  in  Poa and
Avena.
  From the external appearance, the gluma is termed,
  1. Glabrous, smooth; as in Holcus taxus.
  2. Hispid, briskly ; as in Secale orientate.
  3. Striate ; as in Holcus striatus.
  4. Villosc; as in Holcus sorgham, Holcus saccha
ratus, and Bromus purgans.
  5. Ciliate, fringed; as in Bromus ciliatus.
  0. Beardless; as in Briza and Poa.
  7. Awned; as in Hordeum.
  GLUMOSUS.  A  flower is  so called,  which is ag
eregntc, and has a glumous or husky calyx.
  GLUTEAL.   Belonging to the buttocks.
  Gluteal artery.  A  branch of the internal iliac
artery.
  GLUTEN.   (Quasi gcluten; fromgelo, to congeal.)
See Glue.
  Gluten, animal.   This substance constitutes the
basis of the fibres of all the solid  parts.   It resembles
in its properties the gluten of vegetables.
  Gluten, vegetable.   If wheat-flower be  made
into a paste, and washed in a large quantity of water,
it is separated Into three  distinct substances: a muci-
laginous saccharine matter, whicli is readily dissolved
in the liquor, and may be separated from it by evapo-
ration ; starch, whicli is suspended  in the fluid, and
subsides  to the bottom by repose; and gluteu, which
remains  in the  hand, mid is tenacious, very ductile,
somewhat elastic, and  of a brown-gray colour.   The
first of these substances does not essentially ditler from
other saccharine mucilages.  The second, namely, the
starch, forms a gluey fluid by boiling in water, though
ilis scarcely, if at all, acted upon by lhat fluid when
cold.   Its habitudes and products with the fire, or with
nitric acid, are  nearly the same as those of gum and
of sugar.  It appears to be as much more  remote from
the saline state than gum, asguin is more remote from
that state than sugar.
  The vegetable gluten,  though it existed  before tbe
washing in the pulverulent form, and has acquired  ita
tenacity and adhesive qualities from the waler  it has
imbibed, is nevertheless totally insoluble  in this fluid.
It has scarcely  any taste.  When dry, it is semitrans
parent, and resembles  glue in its colour  and appear
ance.  If it be drawn out thin, when first obtained, il
may be dried by exposure to  the uir: but ifit be ex
posed to  warmth and moisture while wet, it putrefiei
like an animal substance.   The dried gluten applied la
the flame of a candle, crackles, swells, and burns, ex
actly like a feather, or  piece of horn.  It affords tho
same products by destructive distillation as animal
matters do; is not  soluble in  alkohol, oils, or aether;
and is acted upon by acids and alkalies, when heated.
According to Rouelle,  it is the same wilh the caseous
substance of milk.
  Gluten of Wheat.—Taddey,  an Italian chemist, has
lately ascertained that the gluten of wheat nmy be de-
composed into two  principles, which he has distin-
guished by the  names, gliadine (from yXta, gluten,)
and zimomc (from hipri, terment.)  They  are obtained
in a separate state by kneading the fresh gluten in suc-
cessive portions  of alkohol, as  long as that liquid con-
tinues to become  milky, when diluted  with water
The alkohol solutions being set aside, gradually depo
site a whitish matter, consisting of small  filaments  of
gluten, and become perfectly transparent.  Being now
left to slow evaporation, the gliadine remains behind,
ofthe consistence of honey, and mixed  with a little
yellow resinous matter, from wliich it may be freed by
digestion in sulphuric aether, in which gliadine is not
sensibly soluble.  The portion of the gluten not dissolved
by the alkohol is the zimome.
  Properties of Gliadine.—When dry, it has n straw -
yellow colour, slightly transparent, and in  thin plates,
brittle, having n slight smell, similar to that of honey-
comb, and, when slightly  heated, giving out an odour
similar to that of boiled apples.  In the mouth, it be-
comes adhctivc, and has a sweetish and  balsamic 
GLU
GrNA    »
 laste  It Is pretty  soluble in boiling antoho!, which
 loses its  transparency  in  proportion as it coois, and
 then renins only a small quantity in solution. It forms
 a kind of varnish in tliose  bodies to which it is applied.
 It softens, but does not dissolve in cold distilled water.
 At a boiling heat it is converted into froth, and the  li-
 quid remains sl.ghlly milky.  It is specifically heavier
 than water
  The nlkoholic solution  of gliadine becomes milky
 when mixed with water, and'is precipitated in white
 flocks by the  alkaline carbonates.   It  is scarcely af-
 fected by the mineral and vegetable acids.  Diy gli-
 adine  di-solves in caustic alkalies and in acids.  It
 swells upon red-hot coals, and  then contracts  in the
 manner of animal substances.  It burns wilh a pretty
 lively flame, and leaves behind it a light spongy chur-
 coal,  dirticult  to incinerate  ("liailme,  in some  re-
 spects, approaches the properties of resins; but Uifl'ers
from them in being insoluble in sulphuric a-ther.  It i-
very sensibly affected by the infusion of nut-galls.  It
is capable ol itself of undergoing a slow fermentation,
and produces fermentation in saccharine substances.
  From tlie flour of  barley, rye,  or oats, no gluten can
 be extracted as from that of wheat, probably because
 they contain too small a quantity.
  The lesidue  of wheat which is not dissolved in al-
kohol, is called zimome.  If this be boiled repeatedly in
alkohol, it is obtained pure.
  Zimome thus purified has the form of small globules,
or constitutes a shapeless ma=s, which is hard,  lough,
destitute  of  cohesion,  and of  an ash-white colour.
When washed in water, it recovers part of its visco-
sity, and  becomes quickly brown, when left in contact
with ihe  air.  Il is specifically henviei than water.  Its
mode of fermenting  is no  longer that of gluten; for
when it  purities it exhales a  foetid urinous odour.
It dissolves completely in vinegar,  and in ihe mineral
acids al a boiling lempetature.  Willi caustic potassa,
it combines andYorms a kind of soap.  When put into
lime water, or into tlie solutions of the alkaline carbo-
nates, il becomes harder, nnd assumes a new appear-
ance without dissolving.  When thrown upon red-hot
coals, it exhales  an odour similar to that of burning
 hair or hoofs, and bums with flame.
  Zinionie is to be found in several parts of vegetables.
 It produces various kinds  of fermentation, according
 to the nature of the  substance with which il comes in
 contact.
  GLUTEUS.  (.From yXovros, the buttocks.)  The
 name of  some muscles ot the buttocks.
  Gluteus  maximus.  Gluteus magnus of Albinus.
 Glutaus  major of Cowper; and 1lio *aero femoral of
 Dumas.  A broad radiated muscle, on  whicli we sit,
is divided into a number of strong  fasciculi, is covered
by a pietty thick aponeurosis derived from tlie fascia
lata,  r.ml" is situated  immediately under the  integu-
ments. It arises fleshy from tne outer lip of somewhat
more ihan the po.-u-rior half of the spine of the ilium,
from the  ligaments that cover the two posterior spinous
proces-ses ; fmni the posterior sacro-ischiatic ligament;
and from the outer sides of the os sacrum and os coc-
 cygis.  From the&e origins  tbe fibres ofthe muscle run
 towards the great trochanter of  the os femoris,  wtiere
 they form a broad and thick tendon, between  wliich
 and the  trochanter there is a considerable bursa mu-
 cosa.   This tendon  is  inserted into the  upper part of
 the linea  aspera, for the space of two or three  inches
 downwards ; and sends off fibres to the fascia lata, mid
 to the upper extremity of the vastus externus.  This
 muscle serves to extend the thigh, by pulling it directly
 backwards; at the same time it draws it  a little out-
 wards, and thus assists in  its rotatory motion.   Ils
 origin from the coccyx seems to prevent that bone from
 being forced too far backwards.
  Gluteus medius.   Ilic trochantericn of Dumas.
 The posterior half  of this musch is covered by the
 gluteus maximus, which it greatly resembles in shape ;
 but the anterior and upper part of it is covered only by
 tbe integuments, and by a tendinous membrane which
 belongs°to the fascia lata.   It  arises fleshy from the
 outer lip  of the anterior part of  the spine of the ilium,
 from part of the posterior surface of that bone, and
 likewise  from the fascia  that covers it.  From these
 origins its fibres run towards the great trochanter, into
 the outer and  posterior part of  which it is inserted by
 a broad tendon. Between this tendon and the trochan-
 ter there  is a small  thin bursa  mucosa.  The uses of
this muscle are nearly the same as those of the gill
tens maximus; but it is not confined, like that muscle,
to rolling the us femoris outwards, its anterior portion
being  capable of turning  that bone a  little inwards.
As it has no origin from  the coccyx, it can have no
cll'oct on that bone.
   Gluteus  minimus.  Glutaus  minor of Albinus
and Cowper ; and  Hio ischii trochantericn of Dumas.
A radiated muscle, is shunted under the gluteus me-
dius.   In  adults,  and especially in old  subjects, its
outer  surfnee is  usually  tendinous.  It  arises fleshy
between tho two semicircular ridges we observe on the
outer surface of the ilium, and likewise from the edge
of its greet niche.   Its fibres run,  in dill'ei ent direc-
tions, towards a thick flr"  tendon, which  adheres lo a
capsular ligament of the „oint, and is inserted into the
fore and upper part of the great trochanter.  A  small
bursa mucosa may be observed between the tendon of
this muscle and the trochanter.   This muscle  assists
the two former in  drawing the thigh backwards aud
outwards, and iu  rolling it.  It may likewise serve to
prevent the capsular ligament from being pinched in
the motions of the joint.
   GLU'TIA.   (From  yAoumj,  the buttocks.)   The
buttocks.   See Nates
   GLUTTir'PiTENS.  (From  gluttus, the throat, and
patco, to extend.)   The stomach, wliich is an exten-
sion of the throat.
   GLU'TIS   (TXovros;  from yXtuos, filthy.)   The
buttock. See Nates.
   Glyua'sma.  (From yXvxvs, sweet.)  A sweet me-
dicated wine.
   Glycypi'cros.   (From  yXvituj,  sweet, and micooj,
bitter: so called from Us  bitterish-sweet taste.)  See
Solanum dulcamara.
   GLYCYRRHIZA.   (From  yXvxvs,  sweet,  and
wCu, a root.)  1. The name of a genus of plants in the
Linna-an system.   Class, Diadelphia;  Order,  De-
candria.
   2. The  pharmacopceial name of liquorice.   See
Glycyrrhiza glabra.
   Glycyrrhiza echinata.  This species of liquorice
is substituted in some places  for the root ofthe glabra.
   Glycyrrhiza glabra.  The  systematic  name of
the  officinal liquoiice.   Glycyrrhiza; leguminibu*
glabris, slipulis nullis, foliolo  imparl petiolato.  A
native of the south of Europe, but cultivated in Bri-
tain.   The  root contains a great quantity of saccha-
rine matter, joined with some proportion of mucilage,
and hence it lias a  viscid sweet, taste.  It is in common
use as a pectoral or emollient, in catarrhal defluxiona
on the breast, coughs, hoarsenesses, &c.  Infusions,
or tiie extract made from  it, whicli is called Spanish
liquorice, afford likewise  very commodious vehicles
for the exhibition  of other medicines; the liquorice
taste concealing that of unpalatable drugs more effec-
tually than pyrup.s  or any ofthe sweets of" the saccha
rule kind.
  Glycysa'ncon.   (From yXvxvs,  sweet, and ayxu,-
the elbow:  so called from its sweetish taste, and it- *
tlectioii-., or elbows at the joints.)   A species of south-
ern wood.
  GNAPHALIUM.   (From yinrbaXov. cotton:  so
named-from its soft downy surface.)  1. The name
of a genus  of plants in the Linutieuii system.  Class,
Syng'inesia ; Order, Polygamia superfi.ua.
  2. The  pharmnoopceial  name of ihe  hetb  cotton
weed.   See Gnapkalium dioicum.
   Gnaphalium  arenarium.  The flowers  of this
plant, as well as tliose ofthe gnaphalium stcechas, arc
called, in the pharmacopoeias, flores clichrysi.   See
Gnaphtlium stcechas.
   Gnas -alium dioicum.   The  systematic name of
th. r>es  i.ti.  Gnaphalium  albinum   Cotton  we«d.
Tht" .lor »#  -naphalii ofthe pharmacopoeias, called also
flores v.* -.. .'a, seu pedis call, are  Ihe pioiluoe of ihis
plant,   lTicy -tre now quite obsolete,  but were for
merly  u» -.* -ii  i.'tringents, and  recommended  in  the
cure of ho.i.'»v •••-'■ ?h, phthisis  pulmoealis, and hae-
moptysis.
   GmaphawiCI* <-r<rrr*.-   The  systematic  name of
Goldilocks.  Elichr-szi,-   *,.?caas citnna.  The flow-
ers of this small down;'  :•■,:"' are warm, pungent, and
bitter, and said to possess aperient and  corroborant
virtues.
   Gna'thus.  (From vvaiflu, to  bend;  so called from
their curvature.)   1- Tlie jaw., or jaw-hones.
                                         339 
GOYi
GJN
  P  rhecherk.
  GNEISS.  A compound rock, consisting of felspar,
quartz, and mica, disposed in slates, from the prepon-
derance ofthe mica scales.
  Gni'dius.  A term  applied  by Hippocrates, and
others since, to some medicinal precepts wrote in the
island of Gnidos.
  Goafs-rue.  See Galega.
  Goat's-thorn.  See Astragalus verus
  GOAT-WEED.  See (F.gopodium.
  GOUT-WEED.  See (Egopodium podagraria.
  GODDARD, Jonathan, was born at Greenwich, in
1617.  After studying at Oxford, and travelling for im-
provement, he graduated at Cambridge, and settled to
practise in  London.  He was elected a Fellow of the
College of Physicians in 1646, and, the following year,
appointed Lecturer on Anatomy.  He  formed a So-
ciety  for Experimental Inquiry, which met  at his
house; and he was very assiduous in  promoting  its
objects.   Having gained considerable  reputation, and
sided  with the popular party, he was  appointed  by
Cromwell chief physician to the army, and attended
him in some of his expeditions.  Cromwell then made
him warden of Merton College, Oxford, afterward sole
representative of that university in the short parlia-
ment, in  1653, and in the same year one of the Coun-
cil of State.  On the Restoration, being driven  from
Oxford, he removed to Gresham College,  where he had
been chosen Professor of Physic.  Here  he continued
to frequent tliose meetings, wliich gave birth to the
Royal Society, and  he was nominated one of the first
council of thai institution.   He was an able and  con-
scientious practitioner; and was induced, partly from
Ihe love  of experimental chemistry,  but  principally
from doubting the competency of apothecaries, to pre-
pare  his  own medicines: in which, however, finding
numerous obstacles, he published  " A Discourse, set-
ting forth the unhappy Condition of the Practice of
Physic in London;"  but this was  of no avail.  Two
papers of his appeared in the Philosophical Transac-
tions, and i lany others in Birch's History of the Royal
Society.  He died in 1674, of an apoplectic stroke.
  GOELICKE, Andrew  Offon, a  German physi-
cian,  acquired considerable  reputation in the begin-
ning of the eighteenth century, as a medical professor,
and especially as an advocate of the doctrines of Stahl.
He left several works which relate principally to the
History  of  Anatomy, &c, particularly the " Historia
Medicmae Universalis," which was published in six
different portions, between the years 1717 and 1720.
  Goitre.  See Bronchocele.
  GOLD.  Aurum.   A metal found in nature only in
a metallic  state; most commonly in grains, ramifica-
tions, leaves, or crystals, rhomboidal, octahedral,  or
pyramidal.  Its matrix  is generally quartz, sandstone,
siliceous schistus, &c.   It is found also in the sands
of many rivers, particularly in Africa, Hungary, and
France,  in minute irregular grains, called gold dust.
Native gold, found in compact masses,  is never com-
pletely pure;  it is alloyed with silver, or copper, and
•ometiines with iron and tellurium.  The largest piece
if native gold that has been hitherto discovered  in
("mope, was  found in the counfy of Wicklow, in Ire-
and.   Its weight was said to be twenty-two ounces,
and the quantity of alloy it contained was very small.
Several other pieces, exceeding one ounce, have also
been  discovered at the same place, in sand, covered
wilh turf, and adjacent to a rivulet.
  Gold is also met with in a particular sort of argenti-
ferous copper pyrites, called, in Hungary, Gelf.  This
nre is found either massive, or crystallized in rhom-
boids, or otlier irregular quadrangular  or polygonal
masses.  Il exists likewise in the sulphurated ores of
Nipaya in Transylvania.  These all contain the metal
ended tellurium.  Berthollet, and  other French  che-
rt- sts, have obtained gold out of the  ashes of vegie-
V'tiles.
   COLD CUP.  See Ranunculus.
   GULDEN-ROD.  See Solidago virga aurca.
   Gulden maidenhair.  See Potytrichum commune.
   GOLDILOCKS.  See Gnaphalium  stachaa
   [Goldthread.  See Coptis trifolia.  A.]
   GOMPIH'ASIS.   (From yoptbos, a nail.)   Gomphi-
tsmits.   A disease of the teeth, when they are loosened
from the sockets, like nails drawn out of the wood.
   Gomphia'smus.  Sec Gomphiasis.
   Go'mphioi.  (From yopios, a nail:  so called be-
      400
 cause they are as nails driven into their sockets.)  The
 dentes molares, or grinding teeth.
   GonrtfOMi.  See  Gompkosis.
   GOMPHO'SIS.   (From yoptbou, to drive In a nail.)
 Gomphoma.   A species of immoveable connexion of
 bones, in which one bone is fixed in another, like a nail
 in a board, as the teeth in the alveoli of the jaws.
   GONA'LGIA.  See Gonyalgia.
   GONA'GRA.  (From yovv,  the knee, and aypa, a
 seizure.) The gout in the knee.
   GONE,  (yovn.)   1. The seed.
   2.  In Hippocrates it is the uterus.
   GONG.  Tam-tam.   A species of cymbal which
 produces a very  loud sound when struck.  It is  an
 alloy of about eighty parts of copper with twenty of
 tin.
   GONGRO'NA.   (From ynyypos, a  hard knot.)  1.
 The cramp.
   2.  A knot in the trunk of a tree.
   3. A hard  round tumour of the nervous parts; but
 particularly a bronchocele, or otlier hard tumour of the
 neck.
   Gongy'lion.  (From yoyyvXos, round.)  A pill.
   GONIOMETER.   An instrument for measuring the
 angles of crystals.
   GONOI'DES.  (From yovn, seed, and rtoos, form.)
 Resembling seed.   Hippocrates often uses  it ns an
 epithet for the excrements of the belly, and for the con-
 tents of the urine, when there  i3 something in them
 which resembles the seminal matter.
   GONORRHCE'A.  (From  yovn,  the semen, and
 peu, to flow; from a  supposition of the ancients, that
 it was a seminal flux.)  A genus of disease iu the class
 Locales,  and order Apocenoses, of Dr. Cullen's ar-
 rangement, who defines it a preternatural flux of fluid
 from the urethra  in males, with or without libidinous
 desires.   Females,  however, are subject to the same
 complaint in some forms.  He makes four species, viz.
   1.  Gonorrhaa  pur a or benigna;  a puriform dis-
 charge from the urethra, without dysuria, or lascivious
 inclination, and not following an impure connexion.
   2.  Gonorrhaa  impura, maligna, syphilitica, viru-
 lenta; a discharge  resembling  pus, from the urethra,
 with heat of urine, Sec, after impure coition, to which
 often succeeds a discharge of mucus from the urethra,
 with little or no dysury, called a gleet.  This disease
 is also called Fiuor albus malignus   Blennorrhagia,
 by Swediaur.  In English, a clap, from the old French
 word clapises, which were public shops, kept and  in-
 habited  by  single prostitutes, and generally confined
 to  a particular quarter ofthe town, as is even now ihe
 case in several of the great towns in Italy.  In Ger-
 many, the disorder is named tripper, from dripping;
 and in French, chaudpisse, from the heat and scalding
 in  making water.
   No certain rule can be laid down wilh regard to the
 time that a clap will  take before it makes its appear-
 ance, after infection has been conveyed.  With some
 persons it will show itself in the course of tliree or four
 days, while, with  others, there will  not be  the  least
 appearance of il before the expiration of some weeks.
 It  most  usually is perceptible, however, in the space
 of from six to fourteen  days, and in a male, begins
 with an uneasiness about the parts of generation, such
 as an itching in the clans penis, and a soreness and
 tingling  sensation along  the whole course of the ure-
 thra;  soon after which, the person perceives  an ap-
 pearance of whitish matter at its orifice, aud also some
 degree of pungency upon making water.
   In the course of a few days, the discharge of matter
 will increase considerably; will assume, most proba
 bly, a greenish or yellowish hue, and will become thin
 ner, and lose  its adhesiveness; the parts will  also be
 occupied with some degree of redness and inflamma-
 tion, in consequence of which the glans will put on tin
j appearance of a ripe cherry, the stream of urine will
| be smaller than usual, owing to the canal being made
j narrower by the inflamed state of its internal mem-
i brane, and a  considerable degree of pain, and scald-
I ing heat will be experienced on everv  attempt to make
[ water.
t   Where the inflammation prevails in a very high de-
 gree, it prevents  the  extension of the urethra, in lite
 taking place of any erection, so that the penis is, at
 that time, curved downwards, with greal pain, which
 is much increased,  if attempted to be raised toward
 the belly, and the  stimulus occasions it often to b. 
GON
GOS
 erected, particularly when the patient is warm in bed,
 and so deprives him of sleep, producing, in some cases,
 an involuntary emission of semen.
   In  consequence of the inflammation, it sometimes
 happens that, at the time of making water, owing to
 the rupture of some small blood-vessel, a slight hemor-
 rhage ensues, and a small quantity of blood is voided.
 In consequence of inflammation, the prepuce likewise
 becomes often so swelled at  the end, that  it cannot be
 drawn back, which symptom is called a phimosis; or,
 that being drawn  behind the  glans, it cannot be re-
 turned, which is known by the name of paraphimosis.
 Now and then, from the same cause, little hard swell-
 ings arise on the lower surface of the penis, along the
 course of the urethra, and these perhsps suppurate and
 lirm into fistulous  sores.
   The adjacent parts sympathizing with those already
 affected,  the bladder becomes irritable, and  incapable
 of retaining the urine for any length  of time, which
 gives the patient a frequent inclination to make water,
 and he  feels an uneasiness  about the scrotum, pcri-
 nrruni, ami fundament.   Moreover, the glands of the
 groins grow indurated  and enlarged, or perhaps the
 testicles become swelled and  inflamed, in consequence
 of wliich he experiences excruciating pains, extending
 from the sea' ofthe complaint up into the small ofthe
 back, he gets hot  and restless, and  a small sympto-
 matic fever arises.
  Where the parts are not occupied by much inflam-
 mation, few or none of the last-mentioned symptoms
 will arise, and only a discharge with a slight heat or
 scalding in making water will prevail.
  If a gonorrhoea be neither irritated  by any irregu-
 larity of the patient, nor prolonged  by the want of
 timely and  proper  assistance, then, in the course of
 about a fortnight, or three weeks, the discharge, from
 having been thin and discoloured at first, will become
 thick, white, and  of a ropy consistence;  and from
 having gradually begun to diminish  in quantity, will
 at last cease entirely, together wilh every inflammatory
 symptom whatever; whereas, on the contrary, if the
 patient has led a life of intemperance and sensuality,
 has partaken  freely of the bottle and high-seasoned
 meats, and has, at the same time, neglected  to pursue
 the necessary  means, it may then continue for many
 weeks or months; and,  on going off, may leave a
 weakness or gleet  behind it, besides being accompa-
 nied with the risk of giving rise, at some distant period,
 to a constitutional affection, especially if there has
 been  a neglect of proper cleanliness; for where vene-
 real matter  has been suffered  to lodge between the
 prepuce and glans penis for any time, so as to have oc-
 casioned  either excoriation or ulceration,  there will
 always be danger of its having  been absorbed.
  Another risk, arising from Ihe long continuance of
a gonorrhoea, especially if it has been attended with
inflammatory symptoms, or has been  of frequent re-
currence, is the taking place of  one or more strictures
in the urethra.  These are sure to occasion a consider-
able degree of difficulty,  as well as pain, in making
 water, and, instead of ils being discharged in a free
 and uninterrupted stream, it splits into two,or perhaps
 is voided drop by drop.  Such affections become, from
 neglect,  of a  most  serious and dangerous nature, as
 they not  unfrequently block  up the urethra, so as to
 induce a total suppression of urine.
  Where the  gonorrhoea has been of long  standing,
 warty excrescences are  likewise apt to arise about the
 pans  of generation, owing to the matter  falling and
 lodging thereon; and they not unfrequMtly prove both
 numerous and troublesome.
  Having noticed every symptom which  usually at-
 tends on gonorrhoea, in the male sex, it will only be
 necessary to observe, that the same heat and soreness
 in making water, and the same discharge of discolour-
 ed mucus, together with a slight pain in walking, and
 an uneasiness in sitting, 'ike place in females as in the
 former; but as the parts in  women, which  are most
 apt to be affected by the venereal poison, are less com-
 plex in  their  nature, and fewer in  number, than in
 men, so of course the former are not liable to many of
 the symptoms which  the latter are;  and,  from the
 urinary canal being much shorter, and of a more sim-
 ple form, in them  than in men, they are seldom, if
 ever, incommoded  by the taking place of strictures.
  With women, it  indeed often happens, that all the
 symptoms of a gonorrhoea are  so very slight, they ex-
perience no other inconvenience than the discharge
except  perhaps  immediately after menstruation, nl
wliich period, it is no uncommon occurrence for their.
to perceh e some degree of aggravation in the symp
toms.
   Women of a relaxed habit, and such as have hail
frequent miscarriages,  are apt to be alllicfed with a
disease known by the name of fluor albus, wliich it is
often difficult to distinguish from gonorrhoea vimlenta,
as the matter discharged in both is, in many cases, of
the same colour and  consistence.  Tho surest way of
forming a just conclusion, in  instances  of this nature,
will be to draw it from  an accurate investigation, both
of the symptoms which are  present and those whicli
have preceded the discharge; as likewise from flic
concurring circumstances, such as the character  and
mode  of life of the person, and the  probability there
may be of  her having had vencical  infection  con
veyed to her by any  connexion in which she may bo
engaged.
   Not long ago, it was  generally supposed that gonor-
rhoea depended always  upon ulcers in the urethra, pro
ducing a discharge of purulent matter; and such ulcers
do, indeed, occur in  consequence of a high degree of
inflammation and suppuration; but  many dissections
of persons, who have  died while labouring  under a
gonorrhoea, have clearly shown that the disease may,
and often does,  exist without  any ulceration in the
urethra, so lhat the discharge which appears is usually
of a vitiated mucus, thrown out from the mucous folli
cles of the urethra.   On opening this canal, in recent
cases, it usually appears red and inflamed; its mucous
glands are somewhat enlarged, nnd its  cavity is filled
with matter to within  a small distance from its ex
tremity. Where the disease has been of long  con-
tinuance, its surface  all along, even to the bladder, is
generally found pale and relaxed, without any erosion.
  3. Gonorrhaa laxorum, libidinosa; a pellucid  dis-
charge from the urethra, without erection ofthe penis,
but with venereal thoughts while awake.
  4. Gonorrhaa dormicntium.  Oneirogonos.  When,
during sleep, but dreaming of venereal  engagements,
there is an erection of the penis, and a seminal  dis-
charge.
   Gonorrhoea balani. A species of gonorrhoea af
fecting the glans penis only.
  GONYA'LGIA.  (From yovu, the knee, and aXyof,
pain.)   Gonialgia;  Gonalgia.  Gout in the knee.
  GOOSE.  Anser.   The  Anser domesticus, or tame
goose.
  GOOSE-FOOT.  See Chenopodium.
  GOOSE-GRASS.   See Galium aparine.
  GORDIUS.  1. The  name of a genus of the Ordei
Vermes, of animals.
  2. The gordius, or  hair-tail worm, of old  writers.
which is the seta equina found in stagnant marshes
and ditches in  Lapland, and other places.
  Gordius medinensis.  The systematic name of n
curious animal.  See Mcdinensis vena.
  GORGONIA.  The name of a genus of corals.
  Gorgonia nobilis.  The red coral.
  GOSSYPIUM.  (From  gotne, whence gottipium.
Egyptian.)   1. The name of a genus of plants in tho
Linnaean system.  Class, Monadelphia; Order, Poly-
andria.
  2. The pharniacopoeial name of the cotton-tree.  See
Gossypium kerbaceum.
  Gossypium  herbaceum.   The systematic name
of the cotton-plant.   Gossypium; Bombax.  Gossy-
pium—foliis quinquelobis subtus eglandulosis, caule
herbaceo, of Linnaeus.   The seeds are  directed  for
medicinal use  in some foreign pharmacopoeias; and
are administered in coughs, on account of" the muci-
lage they contain.  The cotton, the produce of thid
tree, is well known for domestic purposes.
  [Besides the Gossypium herbaceum, there are other
species, producing cotton-wool, some of which is of a
fawn-colour, found in Peru, and used by the natives
of the country.  Which of the following species u is,
we have not been able to  ascertain.  Persoon, in his
Synopsis Plantarum, gives the ten following species
of Gossypium, viz.
            1. Gossypium herbaceum.
            2.     ..     indicum.
            3.     ..     micranthum
            4.     ..     arboreum.
            5     ..     vitifolium.
                                        401 
GRA
GRA
            G. Gossypium hirsutum.
            7.      ••     rcligiosura.
            8.      ••     latifolium.
            9.      ..     barbadcnse.
           10.      ..     peruvianum.  A.]
  Goulard's Extract.  A saturated solution of acetate
of lead.  See Plumbi acetatis liquor.
  GOULSTON, Theodore, was born in Northamp-
tonshire.  After studying medicine at Oxford, he prac-
tised for a time with considerable reputation at Wy-
mondham,  of which hie father was rector.  Having
taken his doctor's degree in 1610,  he  removed to Lon-
don, and became a fellow of the College of Physicians.
He was much esteemed for classical  and theological
learning, as well as in his profession.   He died in 1632,
and bequeathed  £200 to purchase a rent-charge for
maintaining an annual Pathological Lecture, to be read
at the college by one of the four junior doctors.  He
translated and wrote learned notes  on some of the
works of Aristotle and Galen ; of which the latter wore
not published till after his death.
  GOURD.   See Cucurbita.
  Gourd, bitter.  See Cucumis colocynthis
  GOUT.  See Arthritis, and Podagra.
  Gout stone. See Chalk stone.
  GRAAF, Reinier de, was born at Schoonhove, in
Holland, 1611.   He studied physic at Leyden, where
he made great progress, and at the age of twenty-two
published his treatise " De Suoco Pancreatico," wliich
gained him considerable reputation.  Two years after
he went to France, and graduated at Angers; he  then
returned to his native countiy, and  settled  at Delft,
whore he was very successful in practice; but he died
at the early age of thiity-two.   He published three
dissertations relative to  the  organs  of generation in
hoth sexes; upon which he  had a controversy wilh
Swammerdam.
  GRA'CILIS.   (So nained from its smallness.)   Rec-
tus interior femoris, sive gracilis interior of Winslow.
Sous pubio  creli tibial of Dumas.   A long, straight,
and  tender  muscle, situated  immediately under the
integuments, at the inner part of the thigh.  It arises
by a  broad and  thin tendon, from the anterior part
of the ischium and pubis, and soon  becoming fleshy,
descends nearly  in a straight direction along the in-
side of the  thigh.  A little above the  knee, it termi-
nates in a slender and roundish tendon, which after-
ward becomes flatter, and is  inserted into the middle
of the liliia, behind and  under the sartorius.  Under
the tendons of this  and the rectus, there is a consider-
able bursa mucosa, which on one side adheres to them
and to the  tendon of the semitendinosus, and on the
other to the capsular ligament of the knee. This mus-
 le assists in bending the thigh and leg inwards.
  GRiECUS.  The trivial  name of some herbs found
in or brought from Greece.
  GRAFTING.  Budding and inoculating is the  pro-
cess of uniting the branches or buds  of two or more
separate trees.  The bud or branch of one tree, accom-
panied by a portion of its  bark,  is inserted into the
bark of another, and the tree which is thus engrafted
upon is called the stock.  By this mode different kinds
of fruits, pears, apples, plums,  Sec, each of  which is
only a variety accidentally raised from seed, but no
further  perpetuated in the same manner, are multi-
plied;  buds of  the kind wanted to be  propagated,
being engrafted on so many stalks of a wild nature.
  GRA'MEN.  (Gramen,inis.n.) Grass.  Any  kind
of grass-like herb.
  Gramen arundinackum.   See Calamagrostis.
  Gramen caninum.  See  Triticum repens.
  Gramen crucis ctpkrioidis.   Gramen  agyptia-
cum.  Egyptian cock's-foot grass, or grass of the cross.
The roots and plants possesj ihe same virtues as the
dog'* grass, and are serviceable in the earlier stoges of
dropsy. They are supposed to correct the bad tmell of
the breath, nnd  to relieve  nephritic  disorders, colics,
&c, although now neglected.
  G ram ia.  Tlie sordes of the eyes.
  GRAMMATITE.  Sec Tremolite.
  Gra'mme.  (From ypaii/in, a l'ne '• s0called from its
linear appearance.)  The iris of Ihe eye.
  Granaiu'llv.   (Diminutive of granado, a pome-
granate, Spanish : so called because  at the top of the
flower there ore points, like lite grains ot the pomegrn
naie.)   The passion-flower, the fruit  of wliich is said
lo possess refrigerating qualities.
  GRANATITE.  See Grenatite.
  Granatri'stum.  A bile or carbuncle.
  GRANATUM.  (From granum, a grain, because il
is full of seed.)  The pomegranate.   See Punica grar
nalum.
  Grande'bal.e.  (Quod in grandioribus  atate not
cantur, because they appear in those who are advanced
in years.)   The hairs under the arm-pits.
  Grandinosum os.  The os cuboides.
  GRA'NDO.  (Grando,inis.f.  Quod similitudintm
granorum habeat, because it is  in shape and size like
a grain of seed.)
  1. Hail.
  2. A moveable tumour on the margin of the eyelid
is so called, from in likeness to a hail-stone.
  GRANITE.  Acompound rock consisting of quartz,
felspar, and mica,  each crystallized, and cohering by
mutual affinity without any basis or cement.
  GRANULATION.  (Granulatio;  from granum,
a grain.)   1.  In surgery:   The liltle grainlike fleshy
bodies whicli form on tlie surfaces of ulcers and sup-
purating wounds, and serve both for filling up the cavi
ties, and bringing  nearer  together  and uniting their
sides, aie called granulations.
  Nature is supposed to be active in bringing parts aa
nearly as possible to their original slate, whose dispo-
sition, action,  and structure, have been altered by acci-
dent, or  disease; and after having, in  her  operations
for this purpose, formed pus, she  immediately  sets
about forming a new matter upon suifaces, iu  which
there has been a breach of continuity.  This  process
is called granulating or  incarnation;  and the sub-
stance formed is called granulations.  The colour of
healthy granulations is a deep florid  red.  When livid.
ihey are unhealthy, and have only a languid circula
tion.  Healthy  granulations,  on an exposed or flat
surface, rise nearly even with the surface of the sur
rounding skin, and often a little higher; but when they
exceed this, and take on a growing disposition, they aie
unhealthy,  become soft, spongy, and without any dis-
position to form  skin.    Healthy  granulations  aie
always  prone to unite to each  other, so as lo be the
means of uniting parts.
  2. In chemistry:  The method of  dividing metallic
substances  into grains or  small particles, in oider to
facilitate their combination w ith other substances, and
sometimes for the purpose of readily subdividing llieni
by weight.
  GRANULATUS.  Granulated.  Applied to ulcers
and to parts of plants.  A root  is so called which is
jointed;  as that of the Oxalis acclocclla.
  GRA'NUM.  (Granum, i. n.)  A grain or kernel.
  Granum  cnidium. See  Dapkne mezereum.
  Granum  infectorium.   Kermes ben ies.
  Granum  kermes.  Kermes berries.
  Granum  mosciii.  See Hibiscus abtlmoschus
  Granum  paradisi.  See Amomum.
  Granum  reoium.  The castor-oil seed.
  Granum  ticlii.  See Croton tiglium.
  Granum  tinctori.e.  Keimes berries.
  GRAPHIC  ORE.  An ore of tellurium.
  GRAPHIOI'DES.   (From ypu^ij,  a pencil,  nnd
ttlos, a  form.)   1. The stylifoim  process of  the os
temporis.
  2. A process of the ulna.
  3. The digasiricus  was  formerly so  called from Its
supposed origin  from the above-mentioned  process of
the temporal bone
  GRAPHITE.  Rhomboidal graphite of Jameson, or
pl.imliago, or  black-lead, of which  he gives iwo sub-
species,  the scaly and compact.
  Gra'ssa.   Borax.
  GRATI'OLA.   (Diminutive  of  gratia, so  named
from its supposed admirable qualities.)   Hyssop.
  1. The name  of  a genus  of plants in ilie Linna-an
system.  Class, Diandna:  Oidei, Mouogrmia.
  2. The pharmacopo-ial  name of the  hedge-hyssop.
See Gratiola  officinalis.
  Gratiola  officinalis.   The systematic name of
the hedge-hyssop.   Digitalis minima;  Gratia dei;
Gratiola centauriodes.  This exotic plant, line Gra-
tiola ;—foliis lanceolatis,  serratis,fioribus peduncu-
latis, of Liiinii-iis, is a native of the south of Europe ;
but is raised in our gardens.  The leaves have  a nau-
seous bitter tasic, but no lemarkablc smell;  ihey purge
and vomit briskly in the dose of linlf a drr-.-hni of the
dry he.b, or of a drachm  infused in wine or water 
GRK
GRE
'Fhrs plant, in small doses, has been commonly em-
ployed as a cathartic and diuretic  in hydroplcal dis-
eases ; and instances of its good effects  in  ascites and
anasarca are  recorded  by many respectable practi-
tioners.  Gesner and Bergius found a scruple of the
powder  a  sufficient dose, as  in  this quantity  it fre-
quently excited nausea or vomiting; others have given
it to half a drachm, two scruples, a drachm, and  even
more.
  An extract  of the root of this plant  is said  to  be
more efficacious ihan the plant itself, and exhibited in
the dose of half a  drachm, or drachm, in dysenteries,
produces the best effect.  We are also told by Kostr-
zewski that in the  hospitals at Vienna, three maniacal
patients  were perfectly recovered by its use; and in
the most conftnnod cases of lues venerea, it effected a
complete cure; it usually acted by increasing  tlie uri-
nary, cutaneous, or salivary discharges.
  GRAVE DO.  (From  gravis, heavy.)  A  catarrh,
or cold, with a sense of heaviness in the head.
  GRAVEL.  See Calculus.
  (Gravel root.  See Eupatorium purpureum. A.J
  GRAVITY.   A term used  by physical writers  to
denote the cause  by which all bodies move toward
each  other, unless  prevented by  some otlier force  or
obstacle.
  Gravity, swtcmc.  The density of tlie matter  of
whicli any body is  composed, compared to the destiny
of another  body,  assumed as the standard.   This
standard is pure distilled water, at the temperature  of
60° F. To determine the specific gravity of a solid, w
weigh it, first in air, and then in water.  In the  latter
case, it loses of its weight a quantity precisely equal to
the weight of its own bulk of water; and hence,  by
comparing this weight, with its total weight,  we find
its specific gravity.  The rule, llicrefore, is, Divide the
total weight by the loss of weight in water, the  quo-
tient is the specific  gravity. If it be a liquid or a gas.
we weigh it in a glass or other  vessel of known capa-
city ; and dividing that weight by the weight of the
same bulk of water, the quotient is, as before,  the spe-
cific eravitv.
  [" GREEN, Thomas.   The family of  Green has
maae itself remarkable, in the medical  profession,  by
^s  humble and  singular origin.   The subject of this
notice, the  medical ancestor of the family, was  born
in MaldeB, and was one of the first settlers of Leices-
ter, county of Worcester, Massachusetts.  He received
his first  medical  impressions, and impulse,  from a
book, given him by a surgeon  of a British ship, who
resided a few  months at  his father's, and took an in-
terest in  hisvigorous and opening intellect.  Hisoutfit,
for  Ihe wilderness,  consisted of his gun, his axe, his
book, his sack, and his cow.  His first habitation was
built by  nature,  its roof composed of a shelving  rock.
Here he  passed the night in sound repose, after the
labour of the day,  in felling and  clearing  the forest.
Soon after  he began his  settlement, he was attacked
by  a fever.  Foreseeing  the difficulties  which  must
attend his situation, without a friendly hand to admi-
nister even the scanty necessaries of life, he had the
precaution  to  tie a young calf to his cabin, formed
under the rock.  By this stratagem he was enabled  to
obtain sustenance  from  the cow, as often  as  she re-
turned to give nourishment to her young.  In this man-
ner  he derived his support for some weeks.  By the
aid of his book, and the knowledge of simples, a profi-
ciency in which be earfy acquired by an intercourse
with the Indians,  he was soon enabled to prescribe
BuceessftiHy for the simple maladies of his fellow-set-
tlers. By practice, from the necessity of the case,  as
well as from choice, he acquired theory and skill, and
soon rose to great  reputation.  Thus, from fortuitous
circumstances, and an humble beginning, the name of
Green has attained its present eminence in the medical
profession "—Tkack. Med. Biog.  A.]
  f" GREEN, Dr. John, (senior,) son of tlie above
mentioned, was  born at Leicester, in the  year  1736.
By the aid of his father, he early became a physician,
and settled at Worcester.  He married a daughter of
Brigadier Ruggles, of Hard wick, and became the father
of a  large  family. Not satisfied, as too  many are,
with the limited means of knowledge which necessa-
rily fell to his lot, he afforded his children the best edu-
cation in his power.  He was extensively employed,
and distinguished himself tor his tendernecs ind  fide-
lity.  He inherited a taste ana akill in  bouny, with
his professi<\.i, f:om his father.  In his garden were to
be found :h»* useful plant, the Leal ing herb, and tho
grateful  »Vuit; which either  h:s humanity bestow   1
on the sick, or his hospitality on his friends.  He died,
November 29th, 1799, aged 63 years.— Thach.  Med.
Biog.  A.l
   ("GREEN, Dr.  John,  (junior,) son  of the  pre-
ceding, w as  born  A. D.  1763.  Descended from an-
cestors who  made the art of healing their study, Dr.
Green was easily initiated in the school of physic;  and,
from his childhood, ihe natural bias  of his mind led
him to that profession, which,  through life, was the
sole object of his anient pursuit.  To be distinguished
as a physician, was not  his chief incentive. To as-
suage the sufferings of humanity, by his  skin*,'was a
higher motive of his benevolent  mind.  Every duty
was performed with delicacy and tenderness.  With
these propensities, aided  by a strong, inquisitive, and
discriminating mind, he attained to a pre-eminent rank
among the physicians and surgeons of our country
To this sentiment of his worth, correctly derived from
witnessing his practice on others, a more feeling tribute
is added  by those who have experienced his skill; for
so mild  was his  deportment, so  soothing were his
manners, and so indefatigable was his attention, that
he gained  the unbounded confidence of his patients,
and  the cure  was in a good  measure performed before
medicine was administered.  To tliose who were ac-
quainted with Dr. Green, the idea, that  "some  men
are  born physicians," was  not absurd; for he not
only possessed an innate  mental fitness  for the profes
sion, but was constitutionally formed  to bear its fa-
tigues and privations.  Few men, of  his age, have
had  such extensive practice, or endured a greater va
liety of  fatigue, or have been  so often deprived of
stated rest and refreshment.  It is worthy of remark,
that in all the variety of  duty, incident to his calling,
he was never known  to yield to the well-intended
proffer of that kind of  momentary  refreshment, so
ready at command, and so often successfully pressed
upon tlie weary, exhausted, and incautious physician.
   " The firmness and equanimity of his mind, which
were conspicuous iu all the exigencies of life, forsook
him not in death.  With Christian resignation, he "-set
his house in  order" knowing he " must die and not
live."  In perfect possession of his intellectual facul-
ties, with a mind calm and collected,  he spent the last
moments of life performing its last duties,  with the
sublime feelings nf a philosopher and Christian.  And
when, by an  examination of his pulse, he found the
coir1 hand of  death pressing hard upon him,  he bade a
cam  adieu to  his attending physicians,  whom  ha
wished should be the sole witnesses  of nature's  ls:;t
conflict.  Placing himself in the most favourable  pos-
ture  for an  easy exit, he expressed  a hope that his for-
titude would save his afflicted family and friends from
tbe distress of hearing a dying groan.   His  hope  was
accomplished!  He died,  August 11th,  1808, aged 45
years.  At  his request, bis body was examined.  The
cause of death was found in the  enlargement,  and
consequent fiaccidity, of the aorta."—Thacher's Med.
Biog.  A.l
  GREEN  EARTH.  Mountain green.  A mineral
of a celandine green colour, found  in Saxony, Verona,
and Hungary.
  GREEN  SICKNESS.  See Chlorosis.
   Gnen vitriol.  Sulphate of iron.
  GREENSTONE.  A rock  of the  trap formation,
consisting of a hornblend, and felspar, both in  the
state of grains or small crystals. See Diabase.
  GREGORY, John, was  born in 1725, his father
being professor of medicine at King's College, Aber-
deen: after studying under whom, lie went to Edin-
burgh, Leyden, and Paris. At the age  of 20, he  was
elected professor of philosophy at Aberdeen, and was
made doctor  of medicine.  In the year 175G !;e  ,,us
chosen professor of medicine on the death of his  hro
ther James, who had succeeded his father in that chair
But about nine years after he went to Edinburgh;  ami
was  appointed professor  of the practice of medicine
there, Dr. Rutherford having resigned in  his favour
The year following, on the death of Dr. While, he was
nominated first physician  to the king for Scotland.  He
also enjoyed very extensive practice, prior to his denth
in 1773.  He published, in  1765," A Comparative View
of the State and  Faculties of Man with those of the;
Animal World," which contains many just and origt- 
GRY
GUA
cat remarks, and was very favouranly received.   Five
years after his "Observations on  the Duties and Of-
fices of a Physician, Sec,"  given  in his introductory
lectures, were made public surreptitiously; whicli in-
duced mm to print them in a more correct form.  The
work has been greatly admired.  His last publication.
" Elements of the Practice of Physic " was intended
as a syliabus to his  lectures;  bin he did not  live to
complete it.
  GRENATITE.  Prismatoidal garnet.
  Gxessu'ra.  (From gradior, to proceed.)  The pe-
rineum which goes from the pudendum to the anus.
  GREW, Neiiemiaii, was born al Coventry ; where,
after graduating at some foreign university, he  settled
in practice.  He there formed the idea of studying the
anatomy of plants.  His first essay on this subject was
communicated to the Royal Society in 1670, and met
v, ilh great  approbation:  whence  he was induced to
settle in London, and two years after became a fellow
of that  society; of which he was also at one period
secretary.  In lfWO he was  made  an honorary fellow
cf the College  of Physicians.  He is said to have at-
tained considerable practice, and  died in 1711.  His
1 A natomy of Vegetable Roots and Trunks," is a large
collection of original and  useful facts; though  his
theories have been  invalidated  by subsequent disco-
veries.  He had no correct ideas of the propulsion or
direction of the sap;  but  he  was one of the first
who adopted ihe doctrine of the  sexes of plants ; nor
did even the principles  of methodical  arrangement
entirely escape his notice.  In  1681, he published a de-
scriptive catalogue of the Museum of the Royal So-
ciety ; to which were added some lectures on the com-
parative anatomy  of  the  stomach and  intestines.
Another publication was entitled " Cosmographia Sa-
cra, or a Discourse of the Universe; as it is the Crea-
ture  and Kingdom of God."   His works were soon
•.ranslated into  French and Latin :  but the latter  very
incorrectly
  GREYWACKE.  A mountain  formation, consist-
ing of two similar rocks, which alternate with, and
pass into each other, called grey wacke, and grey uacke-
slate.
  GRIAS.   (A name mentioned by  Apuleius.)  The
name of a genus of plants.  Class, Polyandria; Order;
Monogynia.
  Grias cauliflora.  The systematic name  of the
tree, the fruit of" which is the anchovy pear. The in-
habitants of Jamaica esteem it as a pleasant and cool-
ing fruit
  Grie'lum. A name formerly applied to parsley and
smallage.
  Gripho'menos.  (From ypttpos, a net; because it
surrounds the body as with  a  net.; Applied to pains
which surround the body at the loins.
  GROMWELL.  See Lilhospcrmum.
  GROSSULARE.   A mineral of an asparagus-green
colour, of the garnet genus.
  GROSSULA'RIA.  (Diniiimtiveot grossus,an un-
ripe fig; so named because its fruit resembles an unripe
fig.)   The gooseberry, or gooseberry-bush. See Ribes.
  Grotto del cane.  (The Italian  for  the dogs'
grotto.)   A grotto near Naples, in  which dogs are suf-
focated.  The  carbonic, acid gas rises about eighteen
inches.   A man therefore is  not  affected, hut a dog
forcibly held in, or that cannot  rise  above it, is  soon
killed, unless taken out.   He is recovered by plunging
him in an adjoining lake.
  Ground ivy.  See Glccoma hederacea.
  Ground liverwort.  See Lichen caninus.
  Ground nut.  See Bunium bulhocustunum.
  Ground-pine.  See 'Teucrium  chamapitys.
  GROUNDSEL.  See Senecio vulgaris.
  GKUINALES.  (From grus, a  crane.) The name
of an order of plants in Linnaeus's Fragments of a
Natural  Method, consisting ol" geranium, or cranc's-
till genus principally.
  GUU'TUM.  A hard, white tubercle of the skin, re-
sembling in size and appeammc a millet seed.
  GRYLLU9.  The name of an  extensive genus of
insects, including ihe grasshoppers, and the locust of
the Scriptures.
  Gryllus verrucivorus.  The wart-eating grass-
hopper.  It has green wings, spotted  wiili brown, and
is caught by the common people in Sweden to destroy
warts, which they do, by biting off the excrescence and
discharging a corrosive liquor on the wound.
      404
  GRYPHO SIS.  (From ypvnou, to ineurvato.)  A
disease of the naiie, which turn inwards, and irritate
the soft parts below.
  GUAIACUM.   (From  the  Spanish  Guayacan
which is formed from the Indian Hoaxacum.)  1. The
name of a genus of plants in the Linnaean systeir
Class. Dccandria; Order, Monogynia.
  2.  The pharniacopoeial  name of the officinal guaiz
cum. See Guaiacum officinale.
  Guaiacum  officinale.  This  tree,  Guaiaeum-
foliis bijugis, obtusis of Linnaeus, is a  natfve of ihe
West Indian  islands.   The wood, gum, bark, fiuit
and even the flowers, have been found to possess medi-
cinal qualities.  The wood, which  is called Guaiacum
Americanum ; Lignum  vita; Lignum sanctum , Lig
num bcnediclum ; Palus sanctus, is brought principally
frym Jamaica, in large  pieces of four or five hundred
weight each, and from its hardness and beauty is used
for various aitides of turnery-ware.  It scarcely dis-
covers any smell, unless heated, or while rasping, in
which circuinstances it yields a light aromatic one
chewed,  it impresses a slight acrimony, biting the
palate and fauces. The gum, or  rallter resin, is ob
lained by wounding the bark in different parts of the
bod)- of the tree,  or by what has been called jagging.
It exudes copiously from  the wounds, though  gradu
ally; and when a quantity is found accumulated upoti
the several  wounded  trees, hardened by exposure  to
the sun, it is gathered and packed up in small kegs fo«
exportation: it is of a friable texture, of a deep green-
ish colour, and sometimes of a reddish hue ; it has a
pungenl acrid taste, but little or no  smell, unless heat-
ed.   The bark contains less resinous matter than the
wood, and is consequently a less powerful  medicine,
though in a recent state  it is strongly cathartic.  " The
fruit," says  a late author,  "is purgative, and  for
medicinal use, far excels the bark.  A decoction of it
has been known to cure the venereal disease, and even
the  yaws in  its  advanced stage, without the use of
mercury."   The flowers, cr blossoms,  are  laxative,
and in Jamaica are commonly given to the childien in
the  form of syrup. It  is only the wood and resin of
guaiacum which are now in general medicinal use in
Europe; and as the efficacy of the former is  supposed
to be derived  merely from  the  quantity of resinous
matter which it contains, Ihey may be  considered in-
discriminately as the same medicine.  Guaiacum was
first  introduced into the materia medica soon after the
discovery of  America;  and  previous to the  use of
mercury in the lues venerea, it was  the principal reme-
dy employed in the cure of lhat disease: itsgreaj suc-
cess  brought it into such repute, that it is said to have
been sold for seven gold crowns a pound:  but notwith-
standing the very numerous testimonies  in its  favour,
it often failed in curing the patient, and w as at length
entirely superseded by mercury ,  and though it be still
occasionally employed in syphilis, it is rather with a
view to correct other diseases in the habit, than for its
effects as an anti-venereal.  It is now more  geneially
employed for its virtues  in curing gouty and rheumatic
pains, and some cutaneous diseases. Dr. Woodville
and others  fiequently conjoined  it with mercury and
soap, and in some cases wilh bark  or steel, and found
it eminently useful as an alterative.  In  the phanna-
copoeia it is directed in  the form of mixture and tinc-
ture : the miter is ordered lo be prepared in two ways,
oil. with rectified spirit,  and  Ihe  aromatic spiiit  of
ammonia  Of these latter compounds, the dose may
be from two scruples to two drachms; tlie gum is gene-
rally given from six grains to twenty, or even more, for
a dose, either in  pills or in a fluid form, by means of
mucilage or the yelk of an egg.  The decoctum ligno-
rum (Pharm. Edinb.)  of wiiich guaiacum is the chief
ingredient, is  comnionly taken  in the  quantity of a
pint a day.
  As many writers of the sixteenth century contended
that guaiacum was a true specific for the venereal dis-
ease, and the celebrated Boerhaave maintained the
same opinion, the following observations are inserted:
Mr. Pearson mentions, that when he was first intrust
ed with the en re of the Lock Hospital, 1781, Mr. Brom
field and Mr. Williams were iu  the habit of reposing
great confidence in the efficacy of a decoctionof guaia-
cum wind.  This was  administered to such patients
as hud already employed the  usual quantity of mer-
cury ; but who complained of nocturnal pains, or haa
gunmiata, nodes, oza-na, and other effects of the vene 
GUI
GUM
real Thus, connected with secondary symptoms, as did
nol yield to a course of mercurial frictions.  The diet
consisted  of raisins,  and tuud biscuit; from two to
"four pints of the decoction were taken every day; (he j
hot hath u as used twice a week ;  and a dose of unti-
mouial wine and luiidauiun, or Dover's powder, was
commonly taken  every evening.    Constant couline-
mem to lid was uol deemed necessary; neither was
exposure to ihe vaj.our ol burning spirit, with a v lew
of exciting peispuauuii,  often practised;  as only  a j
moifi  state of the skin was dosiied.  Tins treatment |
was sometimes of singular advantage to those whose j
health had sustained injury lioui the disease, long con- j
fineiiient, and mercury.  The strength incii ased ;  bud
ulceis healed; exfoliations were completed; and ilioe
anomalous symptoms  winch would hive been exas-
perated by  mercuiy, soon yielded lo guaiacum.
  Besides snch cases, ill winch the good  effects of
guaidcuiii made il be erroneously n-garded as a sjiecihc
for Hie lues venerea, the medicine was also lonniriy
given, by some, on ihe first attack of ihe venereal dis .
ease.   The disoider being thus bonetiled, a radical
cure was consideied to be  accomplished: :iud llio.igii
frequent relapses followed.yet, as these partly vicidid
to the  satire remedy, ils reputation was siitl kept up i
Many  diseases also,  widen got well,  were pioliabiy I
nut venereal  cases.  Peaisou seems lo uUoiv, Hint uj j
syphilitic atleeuiins, it may indeed  operate like a true j
antidote, suspending, lor a lime, the progress of eeriain
venereal s\ u.pioios, and removing  other appcaiam es
alUt^tiie i , imi he observes that experience has evinced, j
lhat Ihe unsubdued  virus  yel remains  active iu  the
CJUslllilMuIl.
  1'edi- ii  lias  found guaiacum of little  use in pains j
ofthe  Ij ■tn s, except when il proven sudoiitic ; but thai
it was then  iiileiior  to aiiiiiiiony or volatile alkali.'
When the  constitution has been impaired by mercury
and long confinement, and there  is a thickened slate
of the ligaments, or periosteum, or tout ulceis still re-
maining, Pcarvon says, tlitse effects will oiton subside
during the exhibition of the decoction;  und ii  will
often suspend,  for a short time, the progress of certain
secondary  symptoms of the lues venera;  for ihsuuice,
ulcers of the tonsils, venereal  eruptions, and even
nodes. Pearson, however, never  knew one instance
in which guaiacum eradicated the  virus; aud he con-
tends, tiiat its  being conjoined wilh mercury neither
increases  the  virtue of this mineral, lessens its  bad
effects, nor diminishes the necessity of giving a certain
quantity of  it.   Pearson  remarks that he has seen
guaiacum produce good effects in many patients, hav nig
cutaneous diseases, the ozaena, and scrofulous affec-
tions of the iiiembianes and ligaments.
   G Lit. A'XLll.N A.   (Named after Guilandus, a Prus-
sian, who  travelled  in  Palestine, Egypt, Africa,  and
Greece, and succeeded Fallopius in the botanical chair
at Padua.  He died iu lotfJ.)  The name of a genus
of plants.  Class, Decandria; Order, Monogynia.
   Guilandina bonduc.  The systematic name of the
plant, the fruit of which is called  Bonduch indorum.
Molucca or bezoar nut.  Il possesses warm, bitter, and
carminative virtues.
   Guilandina moringa.  This plant,  Guilandina—
 incrmis, foliis subpinnatis, foliolis inferioribus terna-
 tis of Linnaeus, affords the  ben-nut and the lignum
 nephritkeum.
   1.  Bennuz; Glans unguentaria ; Balanus myrep-
 eica; Coatis.  The oily acorn, or ben-nut.  A whitish
 nut, about the size of a small filberd, of a  roundish
 triangular shape, including a kernel of the same figure,
 covered with a white skin.  They were formerly em-
 ployed to remove obstructions ofthe primae viae.   The
 oil afforded by simple  pressure, is remarkable  for its
 not growing rancid  in keeping, or, at least, not until
 it has stood for a number of years; and  on this ac-
 count, it is used  in extricating the aromatic principles
 of such odoriferous flowers as yield little or no essen-
 tial oil in  distillation.  The unaiierability of this oil
 would render  it the most valuable substance  for ce-
 rates, or liniments, were it sufficiently common.   It is
 actually employed for this purpose in many parts of
 Italy.
   2.  Lignum ncphriticum.  Nephritic wood.   It  is
 brought from  America in  large,  compact, ponderous
 pieces, without knots, the outer part of a whitish, or
 pale  yellowish colour, the inner  of a dark brown or
 red.   When rasped, it gives out a  faint aromatic smell.
It is never used medicinally in this country, butHinnds
high in reputation abroad, against difficulties of making
mine, nephritic complaints, and most disorders of t';e
kidneys and urinary passages.
  GUINEA PEPPER.   See  Capsicum annuum.
  Guinea-worm.  See Mcdinensis vena.
  GUINTERIUS, John, was bom iu 1487. at Ander
nach, in Germany.  He was of obscure birth, and his
real name wassaid to have been Whither.  He showed
very early a great ze.al  for knowledge, and  at the age
of 12 went to 1 'irecht to study ; but ho had to struggle
wilh great hardships, supported partly by his own in-
dustry, parti) by Ihe bounty of tliose whociuniu seinleJ
his situation.  At length, having given striking proofs
of his talents, he was appointed professor ol" Greek :it
Louvain.   But his inclination being to medicine, he
went lo Paris iu 1j-."> ; wheie he was made doctor live
years after,   lie was appointed physician lo the  king,
and practised there during seveiul years; giving also
lectures on anatomy.   His reputation had reached the
norih  of Europe; and  lie  received the most advanta-
geous offers to repair lo tlie  court of Denmark.   But
iu 1537 he was compelled by  tlie religious disturbances
lo retire inlo Germany.  At Strosburgh he was receive J
with honour  by the magistrates, and  had  a chair as-
signed  him  by line lacully;  he also practised  very
extensively and successfully;  and at length letters of
nobility were conferred upon him by the emperor. He
lived," however,  only  twelve  years to enjoy  these
honours, having died iu I.YM.   His works  are nume
ruus,  consisting partly of tianslatious  of  the  tx-t
ancient physicians, hut principally  of commentaries
and illustrations ol them.
  GI'M. I. Gummi.  The mucilage  of vegetables.   Ii
is usually transparent, more  or less  brittle when dry,
though difticullly pulverable ; of an insipid, or slightly
saccharine taste ; soluble in, or capable of combining
with, water  in all proportions,  to which  it gives a
gluey adhesive consistence, iu proportion as ils quan-
tity is greater. It is sepai able, or congulates  by the
action of weak acids; il is insoluble  in alkohol, and  in
oil; and capableof the acid fermentation, when diluted
with water.  The  destructive action of  fire causes it
to emit much carbonic  acid,  and converts it  into cool
without exhibiting  any flame.  Distillation affords
water, acid, a small quantity of oil, a small quantity
of ammonia, and much coal.
  These are  tbe leading properties of gums, rightly so
called;  but the inaccurate custom of former times ap-
plied the term gum to all concrete vegetable juices,  so
that in common we hear of gum copal, gum sandai aeh,
and other gums, wliich are either pure resins, or mix-
tures of resins wilh the vegetable mucilage.
  The principal gums  are, 1. The common gums, ob-
tained fiom  ihe plum,  the peach, the cherry-tree, Sec.
2. Gum Arabic, which flows naturally from the acacia
in Egypt,  Arabia, and  elsewhere. This forms a clear
transparent mucilage with water.  3. Gum Seneca, or
Senegal.  It does not greatly differ from gum Arabic:
the pieces are larger and dearer; and it seems to com-
municate a higher degree of the  adhesive quality lo
water.  It is much used by calico-printers and others
The first sort of gums are frequently sold by ihis name,
but may be known by  their darker  colour.  4. Gum
adragant, or tragacanth.  It is obtained from a  small
plant, a species of astragalus, growing in  Syria, and
other eastern parts.  It comes to us in small white con-
torted pieces, resembling worms.  Il is usually dearet
than other gums, and forms a thicker jelly with waler.
   Willis has found, that the  root of the common blue-
bell, Hyactntltus non  scriptus, dried and powdered,
affords a  mucilage possessing  all  the qualities of that
from gum Arabic.  The roots of ihe vernal squill, white
lily, and  orchis, equally yield mucilage.   Lord Dun
donald has extracted a mucilage also from lichens.
   Gums treated with nilric  acid afford the  saclactic,
malic, and oxalic acids.
   II.   Gingiva.  The  very vascular and  elastic tub-
stance that covers the alveolar arches ofthe upper and
under jaws, and embraces the necks of the teeth
   Gum acacia.  See Acacia vera.
   Gum arabic.  See Acacia vera.                  ^
   Gum, elastic.  See Caoutchouc.
   GUM-BILE.  See Parulis.
   GUMMA. A strumous tunvmr on the periosteum
of a bone.
   GUMMI.  (Gummi,n.indcclin.)   See Gum.
                                         405 
GUT                                           GYP
  Gummi acaci.e.  See Acacia vera.
  Gummi acanthinum.  See Acacia vera.
  Gummi arabicum.  See Acacia vera.
  Gummi carann.is.  See Caranna.
  Gummi cerasorum.  The juices wliich exude from
the bark of cherry-trees.  It  is very similar to gum
Arabic, for whicli it may be substituted.
  Gummi chibou.  A spurious kind of gum elemi, but
liltle used.
  Gummi courbaril.  An epithet sometimes applied
to the juice of the Hymcnaa courbaril. See Anime.
  Gummi euphorbii.  See Euphorbia.
  Gummi oalda. See Galda.
  Gummi gambibnse.  See Kino.
  Gummi qutt.e.  See Stalagmitis.
  Gummi hederj:.   See Hedera helix.
  Gummi juniperinum. See Juniperus communis.
  Gummi kikekunemalo.   See Kikekur.emalo
  Gummi kino.  See ATino.
  Gummi lacca. See Lucca.
  Gummi lamac. See Acacia vera.
  Gummi lutea. See Botany Bay.
  Gummi myrrha.  See Myrrha.
  Gummi rubrum astringensoambiense. See Kino.
  Gummi saqapenum.  See Sagapenum.
  Gummi scorpionis.  See Acacia vera.
  Gummi senega.  See Acacia vera.
  Gummi senegalensk. See Mimosa Senegal.
  Gummi senica.  See Acacia vera.
  Gummi thebaicum.  See Acacia vera.
  Gummi tragacanth*.  See Astragalus.
  GUM-RE'SIN.  Gummi resina. Gum-resins are
the juices of plants that are mixed with resin, and an
cxti active matter, which has been taken  for a gum-
my substance.  They seldom  flow  naturally from
plants, but are mostly extracted by incision in the form
of white, yellow, or red fluids, which dry  more or less
Quickly.  Water, spirit of wine, wine, or  vinegar, dis-
solve them  only in  part according to the proportion
they contain of resin or extract.  Gum-resins may also
be  formed by art, by digesting Ihe parts of vegetables
containing the gum-resin in diluted alkohol, and then
evaporating the solution. For this  reason most tine-
Ceres contain gum-resin.  The principal gum-resins
employed medicinally are aloes, ammoniacum,assafoeti-
da,galbanum, cambogia, guaiacum, myrrha,olibanum,
cpoponax, sagapenum, sarcocolla, scammonium, and
styrax.
  GUNDELIA.  (The name given by Tonrnefort in
honour of his companion and friend, Andrew Gundel-
scheimer, its discoverer, in the mountains of Armenia.)
A genus  of plants.   Class, Syngencsia;  Order, Poly-
gamia segregata.
  Gundelia tournifortii.  The young shoots of
this plant are eaten by the  Indians but the roots are

  GUTTA.  (Gutta, a. f.)  1. A  drop.  Drops are
uncertain forms of administering  medicines,  and
should never be trusted to.  The shape of the bottle
or of its mouth,  from whence the drops fall, as well as
the consistence  of the fluid, occasion a  considerable
difference in tlie quantity administered. See Minimum.
  2. A name of apoplexy, from a supposition lhat its
cause was a drop of blood falling from the brain upon
the heart.
  Gutta uamba. See Stalagmitis.
  Gutta nigra. The black drop, occasionally called
the Lancashire, or the Cheshire drop.  A secret pre-
preparation of opium said to be more active than the
common tincture, and supposed to be less  injurious, as
seldom followed by headache.
  Gutta opaca. A name for the cataract.
  Gutta serena.   (So called by the Arabians.)  See
Amaurosis
      406
  Gutt.e rosaceje.  Red spots upon the face and
nose.
  GU'TTURAL.  Belonging to the throat.
  Guttural artery. The superior thyroideal artery.
The first branch of the external carotid.
  GYMNA'STIC.  (Gymnasticus;  from yypvos, m-
ked, performed by naked men in the public games.)
This term is applied to a method of curing diseases by
exercise, or that part of physic which treats of tlie
rules that are  to be observed in all sorts of exercises,
for the preservation  of health.  This is said to have
been invented by one Herodicus, born at Salymbra, a
city of Thrace ; or, as some say, at Leutiui, in Sicily
He was first master of an academy where young gen-
tlemen came  to learn warlike and manly exercises;
and observing them  to  be very healthful on lhat ac-
count, he made exercise become an art in reference tc
the recovering of men out of diseases, as well as pre-
serving them  from them, and called  it Gymnastic,
which  he made a great part of his practice.  But Hip-
pocrates, who was his scholar, blames him sometimes
for his excesses with this view.  And Plato exclaims
against him with some warmth, for enjoining  his
patients to  walk  from Athens to Megara, which is
about 23 miles, and to come home on foot as they went,
as soon as ever they had  but touched the walls of the
city.
  GYMNOCARPI. The second division in Persoon's
arrangement of  mushrooms,  such as bear seeds em-
bedded in an appropriate, dilated, exposed  membrane,
denominated hymenium,  like helvella,  in which that
part is smooth and even; boletus, in which it is porous;
and the vast genus agaricus, in which it  consists of
gills.
  GYMNOSPERMIA.    (From  yvpvos,  naked,  and
tnrtppa, a seed.)   The name of an order of the class
Didynamia, of the sexual system of plants, embracing
such as have added to the didynainial character, fout
naked seeds.
  Gyn^'cia.  (From yvvrj, a woman.)  The menses,
and also the lochia.
  GYN.&'CIUM. (From yvvn, a woman.1
  1. A seraglio.
  2. The pudendum muliebre.
  3. A name for antimony.
  GYNiECOMA'NIA.   (From yvvr),  a woman,  and
pavta, madness.)  That species of insanity that arises
from love.
  Gyn.ecomy'stax-   (From  yvvrj,  a  woman,  and
pvsra\, a beard.)  The hairs on tbe female pudendum.
  Gyn.ecoma'ston.  t.From  yvvt),  a woman,   and
pasos, abreast.)  An enormous increase of the breasts
of women.
  GYNANDRIA.  (From yvvri, a woman, and avijp,
a man, or  husband.)  The name of a class in  the
sexual system of plants.   It contains tliose  hermaphro-
dite flowers, the stamina of which growupon Ihe pistil,
so that the male and female organs are united, and do
not stand separate as in other hermaphrodite flowers.
  GYl'SATA.  (From gypsum, a saline body consist-
lngof sulphuric acid and lime.)  Dr. Good denominates
a species of purging diarrhaa gypsata, in which the
digestions are liquid, serous, and compounded of earth
of lime.
  GYPSUM.  A genus of minerals, composed of lime
and sulphuric acid, containing, according to Jameson,
two species: the prismatic and the axifrangiblc.
  1. Prismatic gypsum, or anhydrite, has five sub-spe
cics: sparry anhydrite, scaly anhydrite, fibrous anhy-
drite, convoluted anhydrite, compact anhydrite.  See
Anhydrite.
  2. Axifrangible gypsum contains six sub-species
sparry gypsum, foliated, compact, fibrous, scalv foliated
and earthy  gypsum 
H
                      HJEM

 i  ""LB.harries.  Werner's  n.-.r.>  for  the capillary
 '   ■*■  pyrites of Jameson, and ine Nickel natif of
 Ilaiiy.  Native nickel.  A.]
   HABE'NA. A bridle.  A bar/.'age for keeping the
 lijis of  wounds together, made in the form of a bridle.
   Hacid.   See Gundclia touriefortii.
   ILL MA GO GA.   (From cvpa, blood,  and ayu, to
 bring oil")   Medicines which  promote the menstrual
 and haemorrhoidal discharges.
   H^EMALO PIA.  (from atpa, blood, and otfopat,
 to see.)  A disease ofthe eyes, in which all things ap-
 pear ol" a red colour.  A variety of the Pscudoblepsis
 imnginaria.
   H^E'MALOPS.  (From  atpa,  blood,  and utp,  the
 face.)   1. A red or livid mark in the face or eye.
  2. A blood-shot eye.
  HiEMA'XTHl'S.  (From atpa, blood, and avOos, a
 flower, so called from its colour.)  The blood-flower.
   HjE.MATE MFSIS.  (From  atpa, blood, and tpeu,
 to vomit.)   I omitus crucntns.   A vomiting of blood is
 readily to be distinguished  from a discharge from  the
 lungs, by its being usually preceded by sense of weight,
 pain, or anxiety in the region of the stomach; hy ils
 being unaccompanied by any cough; by the blood being
 discharged in  a  very considerable  quantity;  by its
 being of n dark colour, and somewhat grumous;  and
 by its being mixed  with the  other contents of  the
 stomach.
   The disease may be occasioned by any  thing  re-
 ceived into the stomach, which stimulates it violently
 or wounds it; or  may proceed from blows, bruises, or
 any oilier cause capable of exciting inflammation in this
 organ, or of determining too great a flow of blood to it;
 but il arises more usually as a symptom of some other
 disease (such as a suppression of  the menstrual, or
 haemorrhoidal flux, or obstructions in the liver, spleen,
 and other viscera) than as a primary affection.  It is
 seldom  so profuse as to destroy tlie patient suddenly,
 and the principal danger seems to arise, either from  the
 great debility which  repeated attacks of the complaint
 induce, or from the lodgment of blood in the intestines,
 which by becoming putrid might occasion some other
 disagreeable disorder.
  This haemorrhage, being usually rather of a passive
 character, does not admit of large evacuations.  Where
 it  arises, on  the suppression of the menses, in young
 persons, aud returns periodically, it may be useful to
 anticipate this by taking away a few ounces of blood;
 not neglecting  proper means to help tbe function of the
 uterus.  In moderate attacks, particularly where  the
 bowels have been confined, the  infusion  of roses  and
 sulphate of magnesia may be employed:  if this should
 not check the bleeding, the sulphuric  acid may be ex-
 hibited more largely, or  some of the more  powerful
 astringents and tonics, as alum, tincture of muriate of
 iron, decoction of bark, or superacetate of lead.  Where
 pain attends, opium should be given freely, taking care
 that the bowels be not constipated; and a blister to the
 epigastrium  may be useful.  If depending on scirrhous
 tumours, these must be attacked by mercury, hemlock,
 Sec.   In all cases the food should be  light, and easy of
 digestion; but more nourishing  as the paiient is more
 exhausted.
  HAEMATIC A.  The name of a class of diseases in
 Good's Nosology, of the sanguineous system. Its orders
 are, Pyretica,  Phlegotica, Exanthematica, Dystlietica.
  ILEMATIX.   The colouring  matter of logwood,
 and according to Chevreuil, a distinct vegetable sub-
 stance.  See Hamatoxylon.
  HAEMATITES.    (From atpa, blood: so named
from i s property of stopping blood, or from its colour.)
Lapis hamatites.  An elegant  iron  ore called blood-
stone.   Finely levigated,  and freed  from  the grosser
pans  by frequent washings with water, it has been
long recommended  in hemorrhages, fluxes, uterine
obstructions, Sec in doses of frorii one scruple to three
 or four.
  ILemati'tinus.  (From  atpaftf tqs, the bloodstone.)
 In epithet of a collyrium, in which was the bloodstone.
  HEMATOCELE.  (From atpa, blood, and xyXn,
                     UJEM

 a tumour.)  A swellingofthcscrotum,or spermatic ooirl
 proceeding from or caused by blood.  The distinction
 of the different kinds of lucniatocelc, though notunu.jlly
 made, is absolutely necessary tow aids  rightly under-
 standing tlie disease ;  the general idea, or concept ion of
 which, apiiears to Pott to be somewhat erroneous, ami
 to have produced a prognostic which is ill founded and
 hasty  According to this eminent surgeon, tie disease,
 properly called lueniaiocele,  is of four  kinds ; two oi
 which have their seat within the tunica vaginalis testis;
 one within the albuginea; and the found in the tunica
 communis or common cellulai membrane, investing the
 spermatic vessels.
   In tlie passing an instrument, In order to let out the
 water from a hydrocele  of the vaginal coat, a vessel
 is sometimes wounded, which is of such size, as lo
 tinge the fluid  pretty deeply at the lime of its running
 out: the orifice becoming close, when the waier is all
 discharged,and a plaster being applied, the blood ceases
 to flow from thence, but insinuates itself partly into
 the cavity ol" tlie vaginal  coat, and partly inlo the cells
 of the scrotum  ; making in the space of a few hours, a
 tumour  nearly eoual in  size to the original hydrocele.
 This is one species.
  It sometimes happens in tapping a hydrocele, that
 although the fluid discharged  by that operation be per-
 fectly clear and limpid, yet in a very short space of time
 (sometimes in  a  few hours,) the scrotum becomes as
 large as it wasbefore, and palpably as full of a fluid  If
 a new  puncture be now  made, the discharge,  instead
 of being limpid  (as before,) is either  pure bloo^ or
 very bloody.  This is another species;  and,  like the
 preceding, confined to the tunica vaginalis.
  The  whole  vascular compages of  the testicle is
 sonietimes very much enlarged, and at the same time
 rendered so lax and loose, that the tumour produced
 thereby has, to the fingers of an examiner, veiy much
 the appearance of a swelling composed of a mere fluid,
 supposed to be somewhat thick, or viscid.  This is in
 some measure a  deception;  but not totally so:  the
 greater part of the  tumefaction  is  caused  by the
 loosened texture of the testes;  but  there  is very fre-
 quently a quantity of extravasated blood also.  If this be
 supposed to be a hydrocele, and pierced,  Ihe discharge
 will  be mere blood.  This is a third kind of ha-matocele;
 and  very different, in  all its circumstances, from the
 two  preceding:  the fluid is shed from the vessels ofthe
 glandular part of the testicle, and contained within the
 tunica albuginea.
  The fourth consists in a rupture of, and an effusion of
 blood, from a branch of the spermatic vein, in its pas-
 sage from the groin to the testicles.  In  which case, the
 extravasation is made into the  tunica  communis, or
 cellular membrane, investing the spermatic vessels.
  Each of these species, Pol;  says, he has seen so dis-
 tinctly,  and perfectly, that he has not  the smallest
 doubt concerning  their existence, and of their differ-
 ence from each oilier.
  HiEMATO'CIIYSIS.   (From atpa,  blood, and xcu..
 to pour out)  A haemorrhage or flux of blood.
  HiEMATO'DES.  (From atpa, blood, and ttios, ap-
 pearance : so called from the red colour.)   1. An  old
 name for the bloody crane's-bill.  See Geranium  san-
 guineum.
  2.  A fungus, which has somewhat  the appearance of
 blood.   See  Hamatoma.
  HEMATOLOGY.   (Hamatologia ; from  atpa,
 blood, and Xovos-  a discourse.)  The  doctrine of ihe
 blood.
  HEMATOMA.  (From atpa, blood.)   Fungus ha-
 matodes.  The  bleeding fungus.  Spongoid inflamma-
 tion  of  Burns.  This  disease has been described also
 under the names of  soft cancer and  medullary sar-
 coma.   It assumes  a variety of forms, ond attacks most
 parts of the body, but particularly  the  testicle,  eye,
 breast, and the extremities.   It begins with a soft en-
 largement or tumour ot  the part, which  is extremely
elastic, and in some cases very painful; as it tncreasen
it often has the feel of an encysted tumour, and at length
 becomes irregular,  bulging out here and there, and in 
H^M                                            IUEM
unuates itself  between the neighbouring parts, and
forms a large mass, if under an aponeurotic expansion.
When it ulcerates ii bleeds, shoots up a mass of a bloody
fungus, and then shows its decided character if unknown
before.  Most of the  medicines which  have been em-
ployed against cancerous diseases have been uiiprofit-
ably exhibited against h.-ematoma ; as alteratives, both
vegetable and mineral;  tonics and narcotics.  Extirpa-
tion, when practicable, is the only cure.
  H.ematomphaloce'le.  (From atpa, blood, optpaXos,
•Jic navel, and 107X17, a tumour.)  A tumour  about the
 lavel, from an extravasation of blood.   A species of
ecchymosis.
  H/ematopede'sis.  (From atpa, blood, and zztoau, a
leap.)  The  leaping of  the blood from a wounded
arterv.
  HjEMATO'SIS.  (From atpa, blood.)   A haemor-
rhage or flux of blood.
  ILHMATO'XYLON. (Fromatpa, blood, and \vXov.
wood: so called from  the fed colour of ils wood.) The
name of a genus of plants in the Linnaean system. Class,
Decandria; Order, Monogynia.
  II.ematoxylon campeohianum    The systematic
name of the  logwood-tree.  Acacia Z.cylonica. The
part ordered in the Pharmacopoeia, is  the wcod, called
Hamatoxyli lignum; Lignum campechense; Lignum
campechianum; Lignum campescanum ; Lignum indi-
cum; Lignum  sappan.  Logwood.   It is of a solid
texture and of a dark red colour.  It is imported  princi-
pally as  a substance for dying, cut into junks and logs
of about three feet in length;  of these pieces the largest
and  thickest are preserved,  as being  of  the deepest
colour.  Logwood has a sweetish sub-ailstringent taste,
and  no remarkable smell;  it gives a purplish red tinc-
ture both to watery and spirituous infusions, and tinges
the stools, nnd sometimes the urine, of the same colour.
It is employed medicinally as an adstringent and cor-
roborant.  In diarrhoeas it has been found  peculiarly
emcacious, and haslhe recommendation of some ofthe
first medical  authorities; also  in  the  latter stages  of
dysentery, when the  obstructing causes are removed ;
to obviate tlie extreme laxity of the intestines usually
superinduced by the repeated dejections.   In  the form
of a decoction the proportion is two ounces  to 21b. of
fluid, reduced by boiling to one.  A-n extract is ordered
in  the pharmacopoeias.  The dose from  ten to forty
grains.  The colouring  principle of this root is called
lemetin.  On the watery  extract of  logwood, digest
ilkohol  for a day, filter the solution, evaporate, add a
 ittle water, evaporate gently again, and then leave the
iquid at rest.  Hemafin is deposited in small crystals,
which, after washing with alkohol, are brilliant, and of
a reddish-white colour.   Their taste is bitter, acrid, and
(lightly astringen'.
  Hematin forms an  orange-red solution with boiling
water, becoming yellow as it  cools, but recovering,
with increase of heat, its  former hue.   Excess  of
alkali converts it first  to  purple, then to violet, and,
lastly, to brown : in whicli state the hematin seems to
he decomposed.  Metallic  oxides unite with hematin,
forming a blue coloured compound.   Gelatin throws
down reddish flocculi.   Peroxide of tin, and acid,
merely redden it.
  H.rEMATO'XYLUM.  See Hamatoxylon.
  II.EMATU'RIA.  (From atpa, blood, and  ovpnv,
urine.)  The voiding of blood  with urine.  This dis-
ease is sometimes occasioned by falls, blows, bruises,
or some violent  exertion, such as hard riding and
jumping; but it more  usually arises,  from a small
stone lodged either 'n the kidney or ureter, whicli  by
ita size or irregularity wounds the inner surface of the
part it  comes in contact with;  in  which case the
blood discharged is  most usually somewhat  coagu-
lated, and  the  urine deposites a sediment of  a dark
brown colour, resembling tlie grounds of coffee.
  A discharge  of blood by urine, when proceeding
from the kidney or ureter, is comnionly attended with
an acute pain in the back,  and sonic difficulty of mak-
ing water, the urine which conies away first, being
muddy and high coloured,  but towards the close of  its
flowing, becoming transparent and of a natural ap-
pearance.  When the blood conies immediately from
the bladder, it is usually accompanied with a sense of
heat and pain at tho bottom of the belly.
  The voiding of bloody urine is always attended with
some danger, particularly  when mixed with purulent
matter   When it arises in the  course of any malig-
      408
nant  disease, it  shows a  highly putrid state of tJM
blood, and always indicates a fatal termination.
  The appearances to be observed on dissection will
accord wilh those usually met with in the disease which
has given rise to the complaint.
  When the  disease has resulted from a mechanical
injury in  a plethoric habit, it  may be proper to lake
blood, and pursue the general antiphlogistic plan, open
"2 the bowels occasionally with castor oil, &c. When
dwingto calculi, wliich cannot be removed, we must
be chiefly content with palliative measures, giving al
kalies or acids according to the quality of the urine;
likewise mucilaginous drinks and clysters; and opium
fomentations, &c. to relieve pain; uva  ursi also  has
been  found useful under  these  ciicumstauces,  but
more  decidedly where the  haemorrhage is purely pas-
sive ;  in  which  case also 60ino  of the  terebinthate
remedies  may  be cautiously  tried;  aud  means of
stienglhening the constitution must not be neglected.
  ILemo'dia.  (From atpultu, to stupefy.)  A painful
stupor of the  teeth, caused by acrid substances touch-
ing them.
  HEMO'PTOE.   (From  aina.  blood, and rfvu,
to spit up.) The spitting of blood.   See Hamoplysis.
  H^EMO'PTYSIS.  (From atpa, blood, and n%u, to
spit.)  Hamoptoe.  A spitting  of blood.  A genus of
disease arranged by Cullen  in the class Pyrexia, and
order  Hamojrrhagia.  It is chaiacterized by coughing
up florid or frothy blood, preceded  usually by heat 01
pain iu the chest, irritation in the larynx, and a saltish
taste in the mouth.  There are five species of this dis-
ease.
  1. Hamoplysisplethorica, from fulness of the vessels.
  2. Hamoptysis violenta,fromsomeexternal violence
  3. Hamoptysis phthisica,  from ulcers corroding the
small  vessels.
  4. Hamoptysis  calculosa,  from  calculous matter in
the lungs.
  5. Hamoptysis  vicaria, from  the suppression of
some  customary evacuation.
  It is readily to be distinguished from haeinaloiuesis
as in  this last, the blood is usually thrown out in consi-
derable quantities; and is,  moreover, of a darker co
lour,  more grumous, and mixed with  the otlier con
tents  of the stomach; whereas blood proceeding from
the lungs  is usually  in small quantity, of a florid co
lour, and mixed with a little frothy mucus only.
  A spitting of blood arises most usually between the
ages of sixteen and twenty-five, and may be occasioned
by any  violent exertion  either in running, jumping,
wrestling, singing loud, or blowing wind-instruments-
as likewise by wounds, plethora, weak vessels, hectic
fever, coughs, irregular living, excessive drinking, or  a
suppression of some accustomed discharge, such  as the
menstrual or  ha-morrhoidal.  It may likewise be occa-
sioned by breathing air which is too much rarefied to
be able properly to expand the lungs.
  Persons in whom there is a faulty  proportion, either
in the vessels of the  lungs,  or  in  the capacity of  the
chest, being distinguished by a narrow thorax nnd pro-
minent shoulders, or who are of a delicate make and
sanguine temperament, seem much predisposed to this
haemorrhage ; but in  these, the  complaint is  often
brought on by the concurrence of the various  occa-
sional and exciting causes before mentioned.
  A spitting of blood is not, however,  always  to be
considered as a primary disease.  It is often only  a
symptom, and in  some disorders, such  as  pleurisies,
peripneumonies, and many fevers, often  arises, and is
the presage of a favourable  termination.
  Sometimes it is preceded, as has already been ob
served, by  a  sense of weight  and oppression at  the
chest, a dry tickling cough, and some slight dilficuliy
of breathing.   Sometimes it is ushered in with shiver-
ings, coldness at the extremities, pains in the back and
loins, flatulency, costiveness, and lassitude. The blood
which is spit  up is generally thin, and of a florid  red
colour; but sometimes it is thick,  and of a  dark 01
blackish cast; nothing, however, can be inferred from
this circumstance, but that the blood has lain n longer
or shorter time in the breast, before it was dischatged
  An liR-inoptoe is not attended with danger, where no
symptoms of phthisis  piilmonulis have preceded or
accompanied  ihe haemorrhage, or where il leaves  b«»-
hind  no cough, dyspnoea,  or  otlier affection of the
lungs; nor is it dangerous in a strong healthy person,
of a sound constitution ; but when it attacks persons 
H.EM
H/EM
ot a weak lax fibre, and delicate habit, it may be diffi-
cult to remove it.
  It seldom  takes place to  such a degree as to prove
fatal at once; but when it  does, the effusion is from
some large vessel.  The danger, therefore, will  be in
proportion as the  discharge of blood  comes from  a
laree vessel, or a small one.
  When the disease  proves fatal, in consequence of
the rupture of some  Inr^e vessels, there is found, on
dissection, a considerate quantity of clotted blood in
the lungs, and there is usually more or less of an in-
flammatory appearanej at the ruptured pari.   Where
the disfise terminates in  pulmonary consumption, the
same morbid appearances  are to  be met wilh as de-
scribed under that particular head.
  In this haemorrhage, which  is mostly of  the active
kind, the antiphlogistic regimen must  bo strictly ob-
served ; particularly  avoiding heat, muscular  exer-
tion, and  agitation of the mind; and  restricting the
patient to a Tight, cooling, vegetable diet.  Acidulated
drink will be useful lo quench the thirst, without so'
much liquid  being taken.   Where the  blood is dis-
charged copiously, but no great quantity bus been lost
already, it will be proper to attempt to check  it by
bleeding freely, if the habit will allow : and sometimes,
where there is pain in the chest, local evacuations and
blisters may  be  useful.  The  bowels should  be  well
cleared with some cooling saline cathartic, which may
be given in the infusion of roses.   Digitalis is also  a
proper  remedy, particularly where the pulse is  very
quick, from its sedative influence on the heart and ar-
teries.  Antimonials  in nauseating doso have some-
times an excellent effect, as well bv checking the force
of the circulation, as by promoting diaphoresis; calo-
mel also might be added with advantage; and opium,
or otlier narcotic, to  relieve pain and  quiet  cough,
which  may perhaps keep up  the bleeding.  Emetics
have, on some occasions, been successful; but they
are  not altogether  free from danger.   In protracted
cases, internal astringents are given, as alum, kino, Sec
but  their effects are very precarious: the superacetate
of lead, however, is perhaps the most powerful medi-
cine, especially  combined  with  opium, and  should
always be resorted to  iu alarming or obstinate cases,
though as it is liable to occasion colic  and paralysis,
its use should nol be indiscriminate ; but it acts proba-
bly  rather as  a sedative than  astringent. Sometimes
the  application of cold water to some sensible part of
the  body, producing a general refrigeration, will check
the  bleeding.  When  the discharge is stopped,  great
attention to regimen is still required, to obviate its re-
turn, with occasional evacuations: the exercise of
swinging,  riding in an easy carriage, or on a gentle
horse, or especially sailing,  may keep up a salutary
determination of the  blood  to other parts: an occa-
sional blister  may  be applied,  where there are marks
of local disease, or an issue or selon perhaps  answer
better.   Should haemoptysis occasionally exhibit rather
the  passive character, evacuations must  be sparingly
used, and tonic medicines will be proper, with a more
nutritious diet.
  H/EMORRHAGIA.  (From atpa, blood, and  jtny-
vvpi, to break out.)  A lneinorrhage, or flow of blood.
  H-rEMORRH.VGIA"..   Haemorrhages, or  fluxes of
blood.  The name of  an order in the class Pyrexia of
Cullen's Nosology is so called.   It is characterized by
pyrexia with a discharge of  blood, without any exter-
nal injury; the blood on  venaesection  exhibiting the
huffy coat.   The order  Hamorrhagia contains the
following generaof diseases, viz.epistaxis, haemoptysis,
(of which phthisis is represented as a sequel,) haemor-
rhois. and menor'hagia.
  ILEMORRHOI'DAL.  (Hamorrhoidalis; the name
of the vessels wliich are the seat of the haemorrhoids or
piles.)  1. Of or belonging to the haemorrhoidal vessels.
  2. The trivial name of some plants which were sup-
posed to be efficacious against piles; as  Carduus ha-
morrhoidales, Sec.
  Hemorrhoidal  arteries.   Arteria hamorrhoi-
dales.  The arteries of the rectum are  so called: they
are sometimes two, and at other times three in number.
1. The upper haemorrhoidal artery, which is the  great
branch  of the lower mesenteric continued  into the
pelvis   2 The middle  haemorrhoidal, which some-
times comes off from the hypogastric artery, and very
often from the pudical artery.  It is  sometimes want-
ing.  3 The  lower or external haemorrhoidal is almost
always a branch of the pudical artery, or that artery
which goes to the penis.
  Hemorrhoidal  veins.    Vena  Hamorrhoidales.
These are two.  1. The external, wliich evacuates it-
self into the vena iliaca Interna.
  2.  The internal, which conveys its blood into  the
vena porta?.                        •>
  HjEMO'RRHOIS.  (From*atpa, blood, and ptu, tc
flow.)  Aimorrhois.  The piles.  A genus of disease
■in the class pyrexia, and order Hamorrhagia of Cul
len.  They ure certain excrescences or tumours arising
about the verge of the anus, or the inferior part ofthe
intestiiium rectum;  when they discharge blood, parti-
cularly upon the patient's going to stool, the disease is
known by the name of bleeding piles; but when there
is no discharge, it is called blind  piles.   The rectum
as well as the colon,  is composed of several membranes
connected to each other by an intervening cellular sub-
stance;  and as the muscular fibres  of  this  intestine
ulways tend, by their  contraction, to  lessen its cavity,
ihe internal membrane, which is very lax, forms itsell
into several rugae, or folds.  In this construction nature
respects the use of the part, which occasionally gives
passage to, or allows the retention of, the excrements,
ihe hardness  and bulk of wliich might  produce con-
siderable lacerations, if this intestine were not capable
nf dilatation.  The arteries and veins subservient to
this part are called  haemorrhoidal, and the blood that
returns  from hence is carried to the inesetaic veins.
The  intestiiium rectum is particularly  subject lo  the
haemorrhoids, from  its situalion, structure, and use;
lor while the course of the blood is assisted iu almost
all the otlier veins  of the body, by the  distention of
ihe adjacent  muscles, and the piessure of the neigh-
bouring parts, the  blood in ihe  hemorrhoidal veins,
whicli is to ascend against the natural tendency of its
own weight, is not only destitute of these assistances,
but is impeded in its  passage: for, first, the large  ex-
crements which  lodge in this intestine dilate its sides,
and  the different resistances which  they form there
are so many impediments obstructing the return ofthe
blood; not in the large veins, for they are placed along
the external surface of the intestine, but in all the  ca-
pillaries which enter into its composition.   Secondly,
as often as these large excrements, protruded by others
approached near the anus, their successive pressure
upon the internal coals of the intestine, which they
dilate, drives back the blood into  the  veins, and for so
long suspends its course; the necessary consequence
of which is, a distention of the veins iu proportion to
the quantity of blood that fills them.  Thirdly, in every
effort we make, either in going to stool, or upon any
other occasion, the contraction of the abdominal mus-
cles,  and the diaphragm  pressing the contents of the
abdomen downwards, atafc these pressing  upon  the
parts contained  in the pelvis, another  obstruction is
thereby opposed, to  the return of the blood, not only
in the large veins, but also in the capillaries, which,
being of too weak a texture to resist the impulse of
the blood that always  tends to dilate them, may hereby
become varicose.
  The dilatation of all  these vessels is the primary
cause ofthe  hxmorrhoids;  for the internal  coat of
the intestine, and the  cellular membrane which con-
nects that to the muscular coat, are enlarged in propor-
tion to ihe distention  of the vessels of whicli ihey are
composed.   This distention, not being equal in every
part, produces separate  tumours in the  gut, or at the
verge of the  anus, which increases according as the
venal blood is obstructed iu them, or circulates there
more slowly.
  Whatever, then, is  capable of retarding the course
of the blood in the  haemorrhoidal veins, may occasion
this disease.  Thus, persons that are generally costive,
who aie accustomed to sit long  at  stool, and strain
hard; pregnant women, or such  as  have had difficult
labours: and likewise persons who have an obstrur>
tion  in their liver, are for the most part afflicted with
the piles; yet every one has not the haemorrhoids,  the
different causes wliich are mentioned above being not
common to all, or at leasl not having in all  the same
effects.   When the  haemorrhoids ate  once  formed,
they seldom disappear entirely, and we  may judge of
those within the rectum  by those whicli, being at the
verge of the anus,  are plainly lo  be seen.   A small
pile, that has been  painful for some days, may cease
to bo so, and dry up ;  but the skin does  not  afterward 
HiEM                                            HAI
ictain its former firmness, being more  lax and wrin-
kled, like the empty skin of a grape.  If this external
pile swells and sinks again several times, we may per-
ceive, after each return, the  remains  of each pile,
lliough shrivelled and decayed, yet still left larger than
before.  The case is the name wilh those that are situ-
ated   within the  rectum; they may happen  indeed
never to return again, if the cause that produced them
is removed; but it  is probable  that the  excrements in
passing out  occasion a return of the swelling, to which
the external ones are less  liable: for the internal piles
make a sort of knots or tumours in the intestine, wliich
straightening the passage, the  excrements in  passing
out, occasion irritations  there that are more or less
painful  in  proportion to the efforts wliich the person
makes in going to stool; and it is llus tlic.-c tumours
become  gradually larger.   The haemorrhoids are sub-
ject lo many variations;  they  may become inflamed
from the above irritations to wliich they are exposed,
and this inflammation cannot  always be  removed by
art.  In some,  the inflammation terminates in an ab-
scess, which arises  in the middle of the tumour, and
degenerates into a fistula.   Those piles are very painful
till the abscess is formed.   In others, the inflammation
terminates by induration ofthe hemorrhoid, which re-
mains in a manner scirrhous.  These never lessen, but
often grow larger.  This scirrhus sometimes ulceiates,
and continually discharges a sanies, whicli the patient
perceives by stains on his shirt, and by its  occasioning
a very troublesome itching about the verge of the anus.
These kinds of haemorrhoids sonietimes turn  cancer-
ous.   There are some  haemorrhoids, and those of dif-
ferent sizes, which are covered with  so fine a  skin as
frequently to admit blood to pass through.  This fine
Bkin is only the internal coat of the  rectum, greatly at-
tenuated by the varicose distention of its vessels.  The
haemorrhage may proceed from two  causes, namely,
either from an  excoriation  produced  by the hardness
of the excrements, or from ihe rupture of the tumefied
vessels,  whicli break by llieir too great distention.  In
some  of these,  the patient voids blood almost every
time he goes to stool; in others not so constantly.  We
sometimes meet with men who have a periodical bleed-
ing by the piles, not unlike the menses in women; and
as this evacuation, if moderate, does  not weaken the
constitution, we may infer that it supplies  some oilier
evacuation  which nature  either ceases lo carry on, or
does not furnish in due quantity; aud hence also we
may explain why the su ipression of this discharge, to
whicli nature had been accustomed,  is  frequently at-
tended with dangerous diseases.   The haemorrhoids
are sometimes  distended  to that degiee as to fill the
rectum,  so that if the excrements are at all hard they
cannot pass.  In this case  the excrements farce the hae-
morrhoids out of the anusxo  procure a free passage,
consequently the internal aftat of the rectum, to wliich
they  ure connected,  yields to extension, and upon ex-
amining these patients immediately after having been
at stool, a part of the internal coat of" that gut is per-
ceived.  A  difficulty will  occur in the return of these,
in pioportion to their size, and as the verge ofthe anus
is more or less contracted.  If the bleeding piles come
out in the same manner upon going to stool, it is then
they void most blood, because the verge  of the anus
forms a kind of ligature above them.  The treatment
of this complaint will vary much, according to circum-
stances.  When the loss of blood is considerable, we
phould endeavour to stop  it by applying  cold water, or
ire; or some astringent, as a solution of alum, or sul-
phate of zinc: but a more certain way is making con-
tinued pressure on the part.  At the same time inter-
nal astringents may be given; joined with opium, if
much pain  or Irriiation attend.  Care musi be taken,
however, to avoid constipation: and  in all cases pa-
tients find  benefit from the steady use  of some mild
cathartic, procuring regular loose motions.   Sulphur is
mostly resorted to for  this purpose; and especially in
combination with supertartrate of potassa, tamarinds,
Sec in the form of electuary, usually  answers very
well; likewise castor oil is an excellent remedy in these
cases'.   Should the  parts be much inflamed,  leeches
may be applied near the anus, and cold saturnine lotions
used; sometimes, however, fomenting wilh the decoc-
tion of poppy will give more relief; where symptom-
atic fever attends, the  antiphlogistic regimen must be
strictly observed, and besides clearing the bowels, an-
timonials may begiven to promote diaphoresis.  Where
      410
tne tumours are considcranlc and flaccid without >n
flaiiiinalioii, powerful astringent or even  stimulant
applications will be  proner, together wilh similar in
ternal medicines; and the part should <>e supported by
a compress kept on  by a  proper bandage.  An oint
ment of galls is often very useful, with opium, to re-
lieve pain; and some of the liquor plumbi subaeetatis
may be farther added, if there be a tendency to inflam-
mation.  In ihese ca6es of relaxed piles of some stand-
ing, the copaiba  frequently does much good, both ap-
plied locally and taken internally, usually keeping the
bowels  regular;  also the celebrated Ward's paste, a
medicine of whicli the active ingredient is black pep
per. Sometimes where a large tumour has been form
ed by extravasated blood, subsequently become organ
ized, permanent relief can only be obtained by extir-
pating this.
  HiEMOSTA'SIA.   (From atpa. blood, and 107m. tc
stand.)  A stagnation of blond.
  HiEMOSTA'TICA.  (From atpa, blood,  and j-nm,
to slop )   Medicines  which stop hieniorrliages.  See
Styptics.
  IIAEN, Anthony he,  was born in  Ley;!en, in
1704, and became one of the distinguished pupiis ofthe
celebrated Boerhaave.  After graduating at his native
place, he settled al the Hague, where lie practised with
considerable reputalion lor nearly 20 years.  Baron
Van Swieten, being acquainted with the extent of his
talents, invited him to Vienna, to assist in llie plan of
reform, wliich the empress had consented to support in
the  medical faculty of that capital.   De Haeu accord-
ingly repaired thither in  1754, was made professor of
tiie  practice of medicine, and  fully answered  the ex-
pectation which had been formed of him.  He under-
took a system of clinical education, as the best method
of forming good physicians: ihe result of this was the
collection of a great number of valuable observations,
wliich  were published in successive volumes of  a
work, entitled, " Ratio Medendi iu Nosocomio Practi
co," amounting ultimately to 16.   He left also several
other works, as On the Division  of Fevers, Sec, and
died at the age of 72. He was generally an enemy lo
new opinions and innovations in practice, which led
him into several  controversies;  particularly  against
variolous  inoculation, and the use of poisonous plants
in medicine: but he exhibited much learning and prac-
tical knowledge.
  Hagiospe'rmum.  (From aytcs, holy, and  c-zenpa,
seed: so called from its reputed virtues.,  Wonnseid.
  Hagio'xylum.  (Froniayioj, holy, and ";vAov, wood:
so named because of its medical virtues.)  Guaiacum.
  HAIR  See Capillus.
  [Hair salt/  The Haar salz,  (or hair salt,) of
Werner, formerly supposed to be a variety of alum, is,
according to Klaproth, a mixture of the sulphates of
magnesia and iron.—Cleav. Mm.  AJ
  Hala'tium.   (From aXs, salt)  A clyster, composed
chiefly of salt.
  Halberd-shaped icaf.  See Leaf.
  [Halb-opal. This is the Semi-opal of Jameson, and
Cleaveland.  The other synonymes are La demi-opale
of Brochant; Silex re'sinite of Brogniart; Quartz re-
sinitc commune of Hniiy:  all these  being the same as
the  Halb-opal of Werner.  "This variety  is a little
harder than the  precious  opal, and is easily  broken.
lis fracture it imperfectly conchoidai with large cavi-
ties, or nearly even,  usually more or less  glistening
and a liltle resinous, but sometimes nearly dull.   The
edges of the  conchoidai  fracture,  and tliose of the
fragments, are usually very sharp.  It is more or less
translucent, sometimes only in a slight degree at the
edges,  and some specimens are semitransparent"
Cleav. Min. A.]
  Halche'mia.  (From  aXs.  sail,  and \tu, to poui
out.)  The art of fusing salts
  Haleli'um.  (From oXj, salt, and tXaiov. oil.)  A
medicine composed of salt and oil.
 _ Halica'cabum.  (From  aXs, the sea,  and xaxaBos,
night-shade:  so called  because it grows  upon the
banks of the sen.)  See  Physatis alkekengi.
  Ha'limus.   (Fn.ni aXtpos,  belonging  to  the  sea.)
The Atriplex.  halimus of Linnaeus  or  eca-pui-slain,
said to be antispasmodic.
  Halini'trum.    (From  aXs, the sea,  nnd  vtjpov
niire.)   Nine, or rather rock salt.
  HA'LITUS.   (From  halito,  to  breathe  out*i  A
vapour 
HAM
HAR
  HALLER, Albert, was born at Berne, where  his
 nthei  was an advocate, iu  1709.  He displayed, at a
very early age, extraordinary marks of industry and
talen-g.  He was intended for the church, but having
lost his father when only thirteen, he soon after deter-
mined upon  the medical piofessioii. Having studied
a short time at Tubingen, he was attracted to Leyden
by the reputation of Boerhaave, to whom he has  ex-
pressed his obligations in tl.e most affeciionate tonus ;
but he took his degree at the former place, when about
seventeen years of age.  He soon  after visited  Eng-
land and France; then returning to his iiaiivccounlry,
fiist  acquired a  taste for botany, whicli he pursued
with  great zeal,  making frequent excursions lo  the
neighbouring mountains,  lie also composed a " Poem
on the Alps," and other pieces, wliich  were received
with  much applause.   Having settled in his native
city, about 1730, he began to give lectures on anatomy,
but wilh  indifferent 'success;  ami some  detached
pieces on anatomy and botany having gained him ton-
sidciablerepulation abroad, he was  invited by George
II., iu 1736,  to become  professor  iu the university,
wliich lie hud recently founded at Goltingcn.  He  ac-
cepted this advantageous oiler, and, though his arrival
was rendered melancholy by the loss of a beloved wile,
from some accident which occurred in the journey, he
commenced at once the duties of his office with  gieat
zeal;  he encouraged the most industrious of his pupils
to institute an experimental investigation on some part
of tlie animal economy, affording  them  his assistance
therein.   He  was likewise  hiniself indefatigable in
similar researches, during the seventeen years which
be spent there, having iu view a grand reform in phy-
siology, which his writings  ultimately elicited, dissi-
pating the metaphysical and chemical jargon, whereby
it  was before obscured.  He procured the establish-
ment  of a botanic garden,  an anatomical theatre, a
school lor surgery and for midwifery, with a lying-in
hospital, and other useful institutions at that univer-
sity.   He  received also many honourable testimonies
of his fame, being chosen a member of  the Royal So-
cieties of Stockholm and  London, made physician and
couuselloi to George II., and the emperor conferred on
him the title of Baron;  wliich, however, he declined,
as it  would not  have  been  esteemed  in his native
country.   To this he relumed iu 1753, and during  the
remainder of his life  discharged  various important
public offices there.  He ultimately received every
testimony of  the general estimation iu  which he was
held; ihe learned societies of Europe, as well as seve-
ral sovereigns, vying with  each  other in conferring
honours upon him.  His constitution was delicate, and
impatience of pain, or interruption to his studies,  led
him to use violent  remedies when  ill;  however, by
temperance and activity, he reached an  advanced age,
having died towards the end of 1777.  He was one of
the most universally informed men in  modern times.
He spoke  with equal facility  the German, French, and
Lalin languages;  and read all the other tongues of Eu-
rope,  except  the  Sclavonic;  and  there was scarcely
any book  of  reputation, w ith which he was  not  ac-
quainted.   His own works were extremely numerous,
on anatomy, physiology, pathology, surgery,  botany,
&c, besides his poems and political  and religious pub-
lications.   The principal arc, 1. His large work on  the
Botany of Switzerland,  in  3 vols,  folio, with many
plates; 2. Commentaries on Boerhanve's Lectures, 7
vols,  octavo; 3. Elements   of  Physiology,  8  vols.
quarto, a  work of the greatest merit; 4. His "Biblio-
theca," or Chronological Histories of  Authors, with
brief Analyses; 2 vols, quarto on Botany, two on Sur-
gery, two on  Anatomy,  and  four on the Practice of
Medicine, displaying an immense body of research.
  HALLUCINA'TIO.   (From  hallucinor, to err.)
An erroneous imagination.
  Halmyro'des.   (From aXpvpos, salted.)   A term
applied to the humours;  it means acrimonious.  It is
also applied  to  fevers which communicate such nn
itching sensation as is perceived from handling  salt
substances.
   HALO.  (From aXos, an  area or circle.)  The red
circle  surrounding  the  nipple, which becomes some-
what  brown  iu  old people, and is beset with many
sebaceous glands.
  Hama'lgama.  See Amalgam.
  HAMOSUS.  Hooked. Applied  to  the bristly  pu-
ticsceuce of seeds and plants; as the ucricaroe of the
Arctium lappa, the seeds of Daucus vmricatus, and
Alisma cordifolia.
  HAMPSTEAD.  A village  near tD London, where
there is nil excellent chalybeate water, not iiiferii ir lo
that of Tunbridge-wclls in any respect, except being
nearer to the metropolis.
  HA'MULUS.  (Diminutive of kamus, a 'look.)  A
term in anatomy, applied lo any hook-like process, as
the hamulus of the pterygoid process of the sphenoid
bone.
  1I.VMU9.  A  hook.  A species of pubescence of
plants formed ol" bristles, bent  at their point into a
hook; as in Rumex tttberosus, Caucalis daucoides, and
Galium aparine, Sec.
  HAND.   Manus.  The hand is  composed of the
carpus or  wrist, metacarpus,  and fingers.  The arts
rics of Ihe hand are the palmary arch, and  the digital
arteries.  The veins are the digital, the cephalic of tho
thumb, and the salvatella. The nerves arc the cuta-
neous, externus, and interims.
  Harde'sia.  See Lapis Hibcrnicus.
  HARE.   See Lepus  timtdus.
  HARE-LIP.  Lagocheilus; Lagostoma;  Labium
tcporinum.   A fissure or longitudinal division of one
or both lips.  Children are frequently burn  with  this
kind of malformation, particularly of the  upi«er lip.
Sometimes the portions of the lip whicli ought be united,
have a  considerable space between them;  in other
instances ihey are not much apart.  The cleft is occa-
sionally double, there being a  little lobe, or small  por-
tion  of  the  lip,  situated  between  the two  fissures.
Every species of the deformity has  Ihe same appella-
tion of hare-lip, in consequence of the imagined re-
semblance which the part has to the upper lip of a
hare.
  The fissure commonly affects only the lip itself.  In
many cases, however, it  extends along Ihe  bones of
the palate, even as far as tho uvula.  Sonietimes these
bones are totally wanting: sometimes they are only
divided by a fissure.
  Such a malformation is always peculiarly afflicting.
In its least degree, it constantly occasions  consider-
able deformity; and  when it is more marked, it fre-
quently hinders "infants from  sucking, and  makes it
indispensable to nourish them by other means. When
the lower lip alone is  affected, which is more rarely
Ihe case, the child can neither retain its saliva, nor
learn to speak, except  with the greatest impediment.
But when the fissure pervades the palate, the patient
not only never articulates perfectly, but cannot masti
cate nor swallow*, except with great difficulty, on ac
count ofthe food readily getting up into the nose.
  HARMO'NIA.   (From anu, to fit together.)   Har
mony.   A species of synarthrosis, or immoveable con
nexioii of bones, in which  bones are connected together
by means of rough margins,  not dentiform:  in  this
n.anner most of the  bones of the face ure connected
together.
  IIARMOTOME.   See  Cross-stone.
  HARRIS, Walter, was born at  Gloucester about
the year 1631.  He took the degree of bachelor of phy-
sic at Oxford, but, having embraced the Roman Ca-
tholic religion, he was made doctor at some French
university.   He settled in London in 1676, and  two
years after, to evade Ihe order that all Catholics should
quit the metropolis, he  publicly adopted the Protestant
Faith.   His practice rapidly augmented, and on tho
accession of William III. he was appointed his physi-
cian in ordinary.  He died  in  1725.   His principal
work, " De Morbis Actitis Infantum," is said to have
been published at the suggestion of the celebrated Sy
denham : it  passed through several  editions.  He left
also a Treatise on  the Plague, and a collection ol  me-
dical and surgical papers, which had been read before
the College of Physicians.
  HARROGATE.   The  villages of High  and  Low
Harrogate are situate in  the  centre  of the county of
York,  adjoining the town of Knaresborough.   The
whole  of  Harrogate, in particular,  has long enjoyed
considerable  reputation,  by possessing two kinds of
very valuable springs:  and,some years ago, the cha-
lybeate  was Ihe only one that  was user* internally,
while the sulphureous  water  was confined to external
use.  At present,  however,  the latter is employed
largely as an internal medicine.
  The  sulphureous springs of Harrogate are tour in
number of the same quality, though diflerent in the
                                        411 
HAR
HEA
 rJegice of their powers.  This water, when first taken
 up, appears perfectly clear and transparent, and sends
 forlii a few air hubbies, but not in any quantity.  It
 possesses a very strong sulphureous and foetid smell,
 precisely like that of a damp rusty gun barrel, or bilge-
 water. To the taste it is bitter, nauseous, and strongly
 saline, which is soon borne without any  disgust.  In a
 few hours of exposure this waler loses its transparen-
 cy, and becomes somewhat pearly, and rather greenish
 to the eye;  its sulphureous smell abates, and at last
 the  sulphur is deposited in the form of a thin film, on
 the bottom and sides of the vessel in which it is kept.
 The volatile productions of this water show carbonic
 acid, sulphuretted hydrogen, and azotic  gas.
  The sensible effects which this water excites, are
 of'cn a headache and giddiness on being fiist drunk,
 followed bv a purgative operation, which is speedy and
 mild,  without  any  attendant gripes: and  this is the
 only apparent effect the exhibition of this water dis-
 plays.
  The diseases in which this water is used are nume-
 rous, particularly of the alimentary canal, and irregu-
 larity of the  bilious  secretions.  Under  this water the
 health, appetite, and  spirits improve;  and, from its
 opening effects, it cannot fail to be useful in the costive
 habit  of  hypochondriasis.   But the  highest  recom-
 mendation of this water has been in cutaneous dis-
 eases, and for this purpose il  is universally employed,
 both as an internal medicine, and au external applica-
 tion :  iu this united  form, it is iff particular service in
 the most obstinate and complicated forms of cutaneous
 affections; nor  is it less  so  in states and  symptoms
 supposed connected  with worms, especially with the
 round worm and ascarides, when taken  in such a dose
 as to prove a brisk purgative; and in the latter case
♦also, when used as a clyster, the ascarides  being
 chiefly confined to  the rectum, and, therefore, within
 the reach of this form of medicine.  From the union
 of the sulphuieous and saline ingredients, the benefit
 of its use has been  long established in  haemorrhoidal
 affections.
  A course of Harrogate waters should  be  conducted
 so as to produce sensible effects on the bowels ; half a
 pint taken in the morning, and repeated three or four
 times, will produce it, and its nauseating taste may be
 corrected by. taking  a dry biscuit, or a bit  of coarse
 bread alter it.  The course must  be continued, in ob-
 stinate cases, a period of some months, before a cure
 can be expected.
  HART FELL.  The name of a place near Moffat, in
 Scotland.  It has a mineral water which contains iron
 dissolved by the sulphuric acid, and is much celebrated
 in  scrofulous affections, and cutaneous diseases.  It
 is used no less as an external application, than drank
 internally. The effects of this water, at  first, are some
 degree of drowsiness, vertigo, and pain in the head,
 wliich soon  go off,  and this may be hastened  by  a
 slight purge.  It  produces generally a flow  of urine,
 and an increase of appetite.  It has acquired much re-
 putation also in old  and languid ulcers, where the tex-
 ture of the diseased part is very lax, and  the dischaige
 profuse and ill conditioned.
  Tiie dose of this water is more limited than that of
 most of the mineral springs which aie used medicinally.
 It is of importance iu  all  cases, and especially in deli-
 cate and irritable habits, to begin with  a very small
 quantity, for an over-dose is apt to be very soon reject-
 ed  by the stomach, or to occasion griping  and dis-
 turbance in  the  intestinal canal;  and it is never as a
 direct purgative that this water is intended to be em-
 ployed.  Few patients will bear more that an English
 pint in the course of the  day; but Ihis  quantity may
 be  long continued.   It is often advisable to warm the
 water for delicate  stomachs, and this  may be  done
 without occasioning any material change in its pro-
 perties.
  HARTLEY, David, was  bom in  1<05, son  of  a
 Clergyman in Yorkshire.  He studied at Cambridge,
 and Was Intended for  the church, but scruples about
 subscribing to the 39 Articles  led him to change to the
 medical profession;  for whicli his talents and benevo-
 lent disposition well  qualified him.  After practising in
 different parts ofthe country, he settled  for some time
 .n London, but finally went to Bath, where he died in
 1757.  He published some tracts concerning the stone,
 •especially in commendation (tf Mrs. Stephens's medi-
 :lne, and appears lo have been chiefly instrumental in
       ■112
piocuring her a reward from Parlian ent; yet ne w
said to have died of the disease after taking about two
hundred pounds of  soap, the principal ingredient in
that nostrum.  Some other  papers  were also written
by him ; but the principal work, upon which his fame
securely rests, is a metaphysical treatise, entitled  ' Ob-
servations  on Man,  his Frame, his  Duty, and his
Expectations."  The doctrine of vibration, indeed, on
which he  explained sensation, is merely gratuitous;
but his Disquisitions on the Power of Association, and
other mental Phenomena, evince great subtlety and
accuracy of research.
  HARTSHORN.  See Cornu.
  Hartshorn shavings.  See Cornu
  HART'S-TONGUE.  See  Asplenium  scholopen
drium.
  HART-WORT.  See Laserpitium siler.
  Hart-wort of Marseilles.   See Scseli tortuosum.
  HARVEY, William, the illustrious discoverer of the
circulation of the  blood, was born at  Fnlkstone,  in
Kent, in lj7iee\ After studying four years at Cambridge,
he went abroad at the age  of 19,"visited France and
Germany, and then fixed himself at Padua, which was
the most celebrated medical school  in Europe, where
lie was created Doctor in 1602.  On  returning to Eng
land he repeated his  graduation at Cambridge, and
settled in London: he became a Fellow ofthe College
of Physicians in 1603, and soon  after physician to St.
Bartholomew's hospital. In 1615 he was appointed Lec-
turer on Anatomy and Surgery to the College, which
was probably the more immediate cause of the  publi-
cation of his grand  discovery.   He appears to have
withheld his opinions from the world, until reiterated
experiment had confirmed them, and enabled him to
prove the  whole in  detail,  with every evidence of
Which the  subject will admit.   The promulgation of
this importiiiitdoctrine brought on him the most unjust
opposition, some condemning it as  an innovation,
others pretending lliat it was known before ; and  he
complained that his  practice materially declined after
ward: however, he  had the satisfaction of living  to
see ihe  truth fully established.  He likewise received
considerable  marks of royal favour from James and
Charles  I., to whom  he was appointed physician; and
the latter particularly assisted his inquiries concerning
generation, by the opportunity of dissecting numerous
females of  the deer kind in different stages of pregnan-
cy.  Duiing the civil war, when he  retired  to Oxford,
his house iu London was pillaged, and many valuable
papers, the result of several years  labour, destroyed.
He published his first  work on the circulation in 1628,
at Frankfort, as tiie best  means of circulating his
opinions throughout Europe; after which  he found it
necessary to write two " Exercitations" in refutation
of his opponents.  In 1651 he allowed his otlier great
work,  " De Gcneratione Animalium," lo be  made
public, leading to the inference of the universal preva
fence of oval  generation.  In  the year following he had
the gratification of seeing his bust  in marble", with a
suitable inscription recording his discoveries, placed in
the hall of ihe College of Physicians, by a vote of that
body, and he was soon after chosen  President, but de-
clined the office on account of his age and infirmities.
In return lie presented  to the College an elegantly fur-
nished convocation room, and a museum filled with
choice books and surgical instruments.  He also gave
up his paternal estate ol" 56  pounds  per annum for the
institution of nn annual feast, at which a Latin oration
should be spoken in  commemoration  of the benefac-
tors of the College, &c.  He died in  1658.  A splendid
edition of his works was printed in 1766, by the College,
in quarto, to which a Latin life of the author was pre-
fixed, written by Dr.  Laurence.
  I1ASTATUS.  Spear, or  halberd-shaped. Applied
to a triangular leaf, hollowed out at ihe base and sides,
but with spreading lobes; as in Rumex  acctocella and
Solunum dulcamara.
  Hatchet-shaped.  See Dolabriformis.
  HAUYNE.  A blue-coloured mineral found imbed-
ded in Ihe basalt rock of Albaco and Frescnte, which
Jameson thinks is allied to the azure stone.  So named
after Haiiy, the celebrated French mineralogist.
  Hay,  camel's. See ./uncus odoratus.
  HEAD.  See Caput,
  HEARING.   Auditits.  " The hearing is a function
intending to make known to us  the vibratory motion
ot'bodies. 
HEA
HE A
  Sound is to the hearing what light is lo Ihe sight. |
Sound is the result of an impression produced upon tlie
ear by the vibratory motion impressed upon Ihe atoms
of the body by percussion, or any other cause.  This
word signifies also the vibratory motion itself.   When
the atoms of a body have been thus put  in motion,
they communicate it to the surrounding elastic bodies:
these communicate it in Hie same manner, and  so the
vibratory motion is often continued to a great distance.
In general, only elastic bodies are capable of producing
and  propagating sound; but for the most part solid
bodies produce it, and the air is generally the medium
by which it reaches the ear.
  There a. e three things distinguished in  sound, in-
tensify, tone,and timbre, or expression.  The intensity
of sound depends on tbe extent ofthe vibrations.
  The lone  depends  on  the number  of  vibrations
which are  produced in  a given time,  and, in  ihis
respect, sound is distinguished into  acute and grave.
  The grave sound arises from a small number of vi-
brations, the acute from a great number.
  The gravest sound which the air is capable of  per-
ceiving, is formed of thirty-two vibrations in a second.
The most acute sound is formed of twelve thousand
vibrations in a second.   Between these two limits are
contained all the distinguishable sounds: that is, those
sounds of which the ear can count the vibration. Noise
differs from distinguishable sound  in  so much  as the
ear cannot distinguish  the number  of vibrations of
Whicli it is composed.
  A distinguishable sound,  composed of double the
number of vibrations of another sound, is said to be its
octave. There are intermediate sounds, between these
two, which are seven in number, and which constitute
the diatonic scale, or gamut: they are distinguished
by the names, ut, re, mi, fa, sol, la, si.
  When the sonorous body is put in motion by percus-
sion, there is at first heard a sound very distinct, more
or less intense, more or  less acute, Sec., according  as it
may happen;  this is the fundamental sound; but with
a liitle attention other sounds can lie perceived.  These
are called harmonic sounds.  This can be easily per-
ceived in touching tlie strings of an instrument.
  The timbre, or expression of sound, depends on the
nature of the sonorous body.
  Sound is propagated through all elastic bodies.  Its
rapidity is variable according to the  body which  pro-
pagates it.  The rapidity of  sound in the air is a thou-
sand one hundred and thirty English feet  It is still
more rapidly transmitted  by water, stone, wood, &c.
Sound  loses  its force in a  direct proportion  to the
square of the distance;  this happens at least in the air.
It may .also become more intense as it  proceeds; as
happens vv ben it passes through very elastic bodies,  such
as metals, wood, condensed air, &c. All sorts of sounds
arc propagated with the same rapidity, without being
confounded one with another.
  It is generally supposed lhat sound is propagated in
right lines, forming cones, analogous  to tliose of light,
with this essential difference, however, that, in sono-
rous cones, the atoms have only a motion of oscillation,
while tliose of the cones of light have a real transitive
motion.
   When sound meets a body that prevents its passage,
It is reflected in the same manner as light, its angle of
reflection being equal to the  angle of incidence.  The
form of the body which reflects sound, has similar in-
fluence upon it.  The  slowness with which sound is
propagated, produces certain  phenomena, for which
we can easily account.  Such  is the phenomenon of
echo, ofthe mysterious chamber, Sec.
   Apparatus of Hearing.—There are in the appara-
tus of hearing a  number of organs,  which appear  to
concur in that function by their  physical  properties;
and behind them, a nerve for the purpose of receiving
and transmitting impressions.
   The apparatus of hearing is composed of the outer,
middle, and internal ear; and of the acoustic nerve.
   The auricle collects the sonorous radiations, and di-
rects them towards the meatus externus; in proportion
as it is  large, elastic, prominent from the  head, and
directed forward.  Boerhaave supposed he  had proved
by calculation, that all the sonorous radiations (or pul-
sations) which fall upon the external face of the pinna,
are, ultimately, directed to the auditory passage.  This
assertion is evidently erroneous, at least for those pinnae
in which the antihelix is more projecting than the helix.
How could tliose rays arrive at the concha, whicli fall
upon  the  posterior surface of  the antihelix *!   The
pinna is not indispensable to the  hearing; for, both in
men and in the animals, it may he removed without
any inconvenience beyond a few days.
  The Meatut  auditorius transmits the sound in the
same manner nsany other conduit, partly by the  air it
contains, and partly by its purietes, until it arrives nt
the membrane of the tympanum.  The hairs, and the
cerumen with which  it is provided at the  eiitinnce,
are intended to prevent the introduction of r.aud, dust,
insects, &c.
  The Membrane of the Tympanum receives the
sound which has been transmitted by the meatus au-
ditorius.  In what circumstances is it stretched by the
intei mil muscle of the malleus 1 Or when is it relaxed
by the contraction of the anterioi muscle of the mal-
leoi ?—All  our knowledge on this subject  is  merely
conjectural.   Au opening made in this meiiibrnuedues
not much impair thefaculty of hearing.  As this mem-
brane is dry and elastic, it ought to transmit the sound
very well, both to the air contained in  the tympanum,
and to the chain of little bones.  The chorda tympani
cannot fail to participate iu the vibrations of the mem-
brane, and transmit  impressions to the brain.  The
contact of any foreign body upon the membrane ia
very painful, and a violent noise also gives great pain.
The membrane of ihe tympanum may be lorn, or even
totally destroyed, without deranging  the hearing in
any sensible degree.
  The Cavity of the Tympanum transmits  the sounds
from the external to the internal ear.  The transmis-
sion of sound by the tympanum happens—1st, By the
chain of bones which  has a particular action upon the
membrane of the fenestra  ovalis.   2d, By  the air
which fills it, and which acts upon the whole petrous
portion, but particulaily upon the menibranum of the
fenestra ovalis.  3d, By its sides.
  The Eustachian Tube renews the air in the tym-
panum ; being destroyed, it is said to cause deafness.
  The notion of its being capable of carrying sound to
tne internal ear is erroneous; there is nothing lo sup-
port this assertion : it permits the air to pass in cases
when the tympanum is struck by violent sounds, and
it permits the renewal of thai which fills the tympa-
num, and ihe mastoid cells.   The air in the tympanum
being  much rarefied.,  is very suitable for diminishing
the intensity of the sounds it transmits.
  The use of the mastoid cells is not well known ; it
is supposed that they help to augment the intensity of
the sound that arises in the cavity.  If they produce
this effect it ought to be rather from the  vibrations of
the partitions which separate the cells than from  the
air wliich  they contain.  Sound may arrive  iu  the
tympanum by another way than the external meatus;
the shocks received by the bones of the head are di-
rected towards the temples, and perceived  by the ear.
It is  well known that the movement of  a watch is
hcaid distinctly when it is placed in contact with  the
teeth.
  We know little of the functions of the internal ear;
we can only imagine that the sonorous vibrations  are
propagated'in different modes, but principally by the
membrane of the fenestra ovalis, by that  of the fe-
nestra rotunda, and  by ihe  internal par ition  of the
tympanum; that the liquor of Cotunnius ought to suffer
vibrations which are transmitted to the acoustic nerve.
It may be conceived how necessary it is that this liquid
should give way to those vibrations which are too in-
tense, and which might injure this nerve.  Possibly, in
his case, it flows into the  aqueducts of the cochlea
and of the  vestibule, which, in this  respect,  would
tube.
have a great deal  of analogy with  the Eustachian
   The internal gyri of the cochlea ought lo receive the
vibrations principally by the membrane of the fenestra
ovalis; the vestibule, by the chain of bones ; the semi-
circular canals, by the sides of the  tympanum,  and
perhaps by the mastoid cells, which frequently extend
beyond the canals.  But the aid w lich is given to the
hearing by each separate part of the internal  ear is
totally unknown.
  The osseo-membraneous partition, which separate'
the cochlea into two parts, has given rise to mi  hypo-
I thesis which no one now admits.
  The impressions are  received and transmitted to
the brain  bv the acoustic nerve; the  brain perceives
                                         413 
HEA
HEA
diem with more or less facility and exactness in differ-
ent  individuals.   Many  people  have  a  false ear,
ivhich means  that  they  do not  distinguish sounds
perfectly.
  There is no explanation given of the action of the
icoustic nerve and ofthe brain in hearing.
  in order to be heard, sounds must be within certain
imits of intensity.  Too strong a sound hurts us, while
one  too weak produces  no sensation.  We can per-
ceive a great number of sounds at once.  Sounds, par-
dcularly appreciable sounds, combined, and suooecd-
 ng each other in a certain  manner, are  a source  of
»greeable sensations.  It is in such combinations, for
•he production of this effect, that music is  employed.
On the contrary, certain combinations of sound pro-
duce a disagreeable  impression ;  the ear is  hurt  by
very acute sounds.  Sounds wliich  are very intense
and  very grave, hurt excessively the  membrane ofthe
'ympanum.  By the  absence of the  liquor of Cotun-
nius, the hearing  is destroyed.  When a  sound has
been of long duration, we still think we hear it, though
it may have been some time  discontinued.
  We  receive two impressions, though we perceive
only one.  It has been said that we use only one ear at
once, but this notion is erroneous.
  When the sound comes more directly to the one ear,
it is  in reality distinguished with more facility by that
one, than by the otlier:  therelore in this case we em-
ploy only one ear;  and when we listen with attention
to  a sound which we do not hear exactly, we  place
ourselves so that the rays may enter directly into the
concha; but when it is necessary to determine the di-
rection of the sound, that is, the point whence it pro-
ceeds, we are obliged to employ both ears, for it is only
by comparing  the  intensity  of  the two impressions,
that we  are  capable of deciding from whence the
sound  proceeds.  Should  we shut one ear perfectly
close, and cause a slight noise  to be made, in a dark
place, at a short distance, it would be utterly impossi-
ble to determine its direction ; in using both ears this
could he determined.   In these cases the eye is  of
great use, for even in using both ears it is  frequently
impossible to tell in the dark from  whence a sound
comes.  By the sound we may  also  estimate the dis-
tance ofthe body from which it proceeds: but in order
to judge exactly in  this respect we ought to be perfectly
acquainted with the nature of the sound, for without
this condition the estimation is always erroneous.  The
principle upon which we judge is, that an intense sound
proceeds from a body which is near,  while a feeble
sound proceeds from a body at a distance: if it happen
that an intense sound comes from a distant body  while
a feeble sound proceeds from a body which is  near,
we fall into acoustic errors.  We  are generally very
subject to deception with regard  to the point whence a
sound comes: sight and reason are of great use in as-
sisting our judgment.
  The different degree of convergence, and divergence,
of the sonorous rays, do not seem to  have  any "influ-
ence on the hearing, neither are ihey modified in their
course, except for the purpose of making them  enter
into the ear in greater quantity:  it is to produce this
effect that speaking trumpets are used for those who
do  not hear well.  Sometimes it is necessary to dimi-
nish the intensity of sounds: in this  case a soft and
scarcely elastic body is placed in the external meatus."
—Magevdie's Physiology.
  HEART.  Cor.   A hollow muscular viscus, situ-
ated In flic cavity  of the pericardium for  the circula-
tion of the blood.   It is divided externally into a  base,
or its broad part; a superior and an  inferior surface,
and an anterior and posterior margin. Internally, it
is divided into a right and left ventricle.  The situa-
tion of the  heart is oblique, not transverse; its base
being placed on the right of the bodies of the vertebra?,
and its ntxx obliquely lo the sixth rib on the left side;
so that the  left ventricle Is almost posterior, and the
right anterior.  Its inferior surface lies upon the dia-
phragm.   There are two cavities adhering to the base
of the henrt, from their resemblance called auricles.
The right auricle is a muscular sac, in which are four
apertures, two of the vena- cavae, nn  opening into the
right ventricle, and the opening of the coronary \ ein.
The left is a similar sac, In which there are five apcr-
tures, viz. those of the fonr  pulmonary veins, and an
n|ieniiig into tho  left vi-ntric'.e   The cavities in the
heart are called ventricles:  these are divided  by a
      414
fleshy septum, called septum  cordis, into a right an«
left.  Each ventricle  has two orifices;  the  one auri-
cular, through which the blood enters, the other arte-
rious, through which the blood passes out.  These four
orifices are supplied  with valves, which are named
from their resemblance; those at the arterior orifices
are  called the semilunar; fhose at the orifice ofthe
right auricle, tricuspid; and those at the orilite of the
left auricle, mitral.  The valve of Eustachius is situ-
ated at the termination of the vena cava inferior, just
within the auricle.  The substance ofthe heart is mus
cular; its exterior fibres are longitudir al, its middle
transverse, and its interior oblique.  The  internal su
perficesof the ventricles and auricles of the heart are
invested with a strong and smooth membrane, wliich
is extremely irritable. The vessels  of the  heart ure
divided into common and proper.  The common are, 1.
The  aorta, which arises from the  left ventricle.   2,
The  pulmonary  artery,  which  originates from  the
right ventricle.  3. The four pulmonary veins, which
terminate in the left auricle.  4. The two  vena cava,
which evacuate themselves into the right auricle. The
proper vessels are, 1. The coronary  arteries, which
arise from the aorta,  and  are distributed on the heart.
2. The coronary  veins, which return  the blood into
the right auricle.  The nerves of the heart are branches
of the eight and great intercostal pairs.  The heart of
the foetus"differs from that of the adult, in  having a
foramen ovale, through which the blood passes from
the right auricle to ihe left.
  Heart-shaped.  See Cordatus.
  HEART'S  EASE.  See Viola tricolor
  HEAT.  See Caloric.
  Heat, absolute.   This term is applied to thewhole
quantity of caloric  existing in  a body in  chemical
union.
  Heat, animal.  "An inert body which  does not
change its position, being placed among other bodies,
very soon assumes the same temperature, on account
of the tendency  of caloric to an equilibrium.  The
body of man is very different: surrounded by  bodies
hotter than itself, it preserves its  inferior temperature
as long as life continues ; being surrounded  wilh bodies
of a lower temperature,  it maintains its temperature
more elevated.   There are, then, in the animal econo-
my, two different and distinct properties, the one of pro
dueing heat, the other of producing cold.  We  will
examine these  two  properties.  Let  us first see how
heat is produced.
  The respiration appears to be the  principal, or at
least the most evident source of animal heat.   In fact.
experience demonstrates that  the heat of the blood
increases nearly a degree in traversing the lungs; and
as it is  distributed  to all parts of the body from the
lungs, it carries the heat every where into tl.e organs;
for we have also seen that the heat of the  veins is less
than that of the arteries.
  This developement of heat in the respiration appears,
as we have already said, to proceed from the formation
of carbonic acid, w-hether it takes place directly in the
rungs, or  happens afterward in the arteries, or in the
parenchyma of the organs.  Some very good experi-
ments of Lavoisier, and De Laplace, lead  to this con-
clusion :  they placed animals in a  calorimeter,  and
compared the quantity of acid formed  by the respira-
tion, w ith the quantity of heat produced in a given
time:  except a  very  small  proportion,  the  heat
produced  was that which would have  been occa-
sioned by the quantity of carbonic  acid  which  was
formed.
  It has also been proved by the experiments of Bro-
die, Thillnge, and Legallois, that if  the respiration of
an animal is incommoded, either by  putting it in •
fatiguing position, or in making it respire artificially,
ils temperature lowers, and the quantity of carbonic
acid that it forms becomes less.  In diseases when the
respiration is accelerated, the heat Increases, except  in
particular circumstances.   The respiration  is then a
focus In which caloric is developed.
  In considering for an instant only this source of heat
in the economy, we see that the  caloric must be dis-
tributed to the different parts ofthe body in an unequal
manner;  those  farthest from the heart, those that re-
ceive least blood, or which cool more rapidly, must
generally be colder than those that are  differently dis-
posed.
  This difference partly exists. The extremities are 
HEA
HEB
colder than the trunk;  sometimes they present only
89° or 91° F., and often much less, while the cavity of the
thorax is  about 104° F.:  bul the extremities'have a
considerable surface  relative io their mass; they nre
farther  from the heart, and receive less blood ihan
mosl of the organs of the trunk.
  On account of the extent of their surface and dis-
tance from the heart, the feel and hands would proba-
bly have a leiuperaliire  still lower than lhat which is
peculiar to them, if these parts did not receive a greater
propoitioual quantity of blood.   The same disposition
exists lor all the exterior organs that have a very laige
surface, as the nose, the  pavilion of the ear,  tc : their
temperature is also higher than their  surface aud dis-
tance from ihe heart vv mild seem  to indicate.
  Notwithstanding  the  providence of nature, those
parts that  have large surfaces lose their caloric with
greater  laciliiv ; and they  are  not  only habitually
colder than the others, but Iheir temperature often be-
comes  very low:  the temperature of  the  feet  and
hands in vviuler is often nearly ns low as 3e2° F.  It is
on this account we expose them so  willingly to  the
heat of our tires.
  Among other means that we instinctively  employ to
remedy or prevent coldness, are motion, walking, run
ning, leaping, which accelerate the circulation , picss-
ure, shocks u|mhi the skin, which attract a great quan-
tity of blood into the tissue of this membrane.  Ano-
ther  equally effective  means  consists  in diminishiiig
Ihe surface in contact with the bodies that deprive  us
of caloric.  Tims  we  bend tlie different parts of the
limbs upon each other, we apply them forcibly to the
trunk when the  exterior  temperature is very low.
Children and weak  persons often lake this position
when in bed.   In this respect it would be very proper
that young children should not be confined too much in
their swaihiuz clothes to prevent them from thus bend-
ing themselves.  Our clothes  preserve the heat of our
bodies;  lor the substance of which  they are formed
being bad conductors of caloric, ihey prevent that ofthe
body from \ ussing off.
  According to what  has been said, the combination
of the oxygen of ihe air wilh the carbon of the blood
is sufficient for  the explanation of most of ihe pheno-
mena presented by the production of animal  heat; bul
there are several which, if real, could  not be  explained
by this  means.  Authors  worthy of  credit  have  re-
marked, that, in certain local diseases, the temperature
of the diseased place rises several degrees above that
of the blood, taken at the left auricle.  If" this is so, the
continual renewal of Ihe arterial blood is nol sufficient
to account for this Increase of heat.
  This second  source of heat musl belong to the nutri-
tive phenomena which take place in the diseased part.
  There is nothing forced in this supposition ; for most
of Ihe chemical combinations produce elevations of
temperature, and it cannot bo doubted that both in the
secretions and  in ihe nutrition, combinations of this
3ort lake place in the organs.
  By means of these two sources of heat, life can be
maintained though  tlie external  temperature is very
low, as that of winter in countries near the pole, which
descend ■  sonietimes lo — 429 F.  Generally such  an
excessive cold is not supported without great difficulty,
and it often happens that the parts most easily cooled
are mortified:  many of ihe military suffered these ac-
cidi nts  in  the ware of Russia.  Nevertheless, as we
easily resist a temperature  much  lower than our own,
it is evident that we are possessed of the faculty of pro-
ducing heat lo a great degree.
  The faculty  of producing cold, or, in more exact
terms, of resisting foreign heat, which has a tendency
to enter our organs, is more  confined.   In the torrid
zone, it has happened that men have died  suddenly,
when the temperature Ims approached 122°  F.
  Bul IhN property is not less  real, though limited.
Banks, Blagden, and  Fordyce, having exposed them-
selves to a lieat of nearly  2t>(P, they  found  that their
bodies had  preserved nearly their own temperature.
More recent experiments of Beraer and Delaroche have
Bhown that by this cause the heat of the  body may
rise several degrees:  for this to take place it  is only
necessary thai the surrounding temperature  should  be
a little elevated.  Having  both placed themselves in a
stove of 121)°, their temperature rose nearly 6.8°  F.
Delaroche  having remained sixteen minutes in a dry
ttove at 176°, his temperature rose 9° F.
  Franklin, to whom the physical and moral science!
are indebted  for many  important discoveries, and a
great many ingenious views, was the first who disco-
vered the reason why the body thus resists such a
strong heat.  He showed that this effect was due to the
evaporation of the cutaneous and pulmonary transpira-
tion, and that  i-n this respect the bodies of animals re-
semble the porous vases called alcarrazas.  These ves-
sels, which are used in  hot countries, allow the water
that they contain to sweat through thorn; their surface
is always humid, and a rapid evaporation takes place,
which cools the liquid they contain.
  In order to  prove this important  result, Delaroche
placed animals iu a hot atmosphere  that was so satu-
fatcd with huniidily that no evaporation could take
place.  These animals could not support a heat but a
liltle  greater  than  their own without perishing, and
t!i -y became heated, because they had  no longer the
means  of cooling  themselves.  Thus,  there is no
doubt that the cutaneous and pulmonary evaporation
are ihe causes which enable man and animals to resist
a strong  heat.  This explanation is  also continued hy
the considerable loss of weight that the  body sullem
after having been exposed to a great heat.
  According to these  facts it is evident that the au
thnrs who have represented animal heat as fixed, have
been very far from the truth. To judge exactly of it,
it would be necessary to lake  into  account  the sur-
rounding  temperature and humidity; ihe degree of
heat of different parts ought to be considered, and Ihe
temperature of one part ought not to be determined by
that of another.
  We have few correct observations upon the temper-
ature proper to the body of man; the latest are due to
Edwards  and  Gentil.   These authors observed  that
the most suitable place for judging of the heat of ihe
body is the armpit.  They  noticed nearly 2el degrees
of difference between the heat  of a  young man and
thai of a young girl: the heal of her hand was a little
less than 97-1°, that of the young man was 98.4°.  The
same person observed  great differences of heat  in ihe
different temperaments.   There are also diurnal varia-
tions ; the temperature may change about two or three
degrees  from morning lo evening.— Ure's Chem. Diet.
  Heat, free.  If the heat which exists in any sub-
stance be from any cause forced  in some degree to quit
that substance, and  to combine with those that  sur-
round it, then such heat is said  to be free, or sensible,
until the equilibrium is restored.
  Heat, latent. When any body  is in  equilibrium
with the bodies which surround it with respect to its
heat, that quantity which it contains is not perceptible
by any external sign, or organ of sense, and is termed
combined caloric, or latent heat.
  Heat, sensible.  See Heat, free.
  Heavy carbonated hydrogen.  See Carburetted hy-
drogen.
  HEAVY SPAR.  Baryte.  A genus of minerals,
divided by Professor Jameson into four species.
  1. Rhomboidal baryte, or  IVitherite. Tins is a car-
bonate of baryles; and  is found in  Cumberland and
Durham.
  2. Prismatic baryte, or heavy spar, a sulphate; found
also in Cumberland and  Durham.
  3. Diprismatic baryte, or strontianile.   A carbonate
of barytes; found in Strontian, in Argyleshire.
  4. Axifrangible baryte, or Celestme.  A sulphate of
strontites, with  about two per cent of sulphate of ba-
rvtes: found near Edinburgh, in Inverness-shire, and
Bristol.
  Heavy i^Hammable air.  Sec  Carburetted hydrogen
gcs.
  HEBERDEN, WitLiAM,  was born in  Loudon In
1710, and graduated at  Cambridge, where he afterward
 Practised during ten years, and gave lecures  on tho
 lateria Medica.  During this  period he  published a
little Tract, entitled  "  Antitheriaca," condemning the
complication  of certain ancient  Formulae of Medi-
cines.  In 1748, he  removed to London, having  pre-
viously been elected a fellow of the College of Phy-
sicians; and he was  shortly after admitted into the
Royal Society.  He soon rose to considerable reputa-
tion and practice in his profession.   At his suggestion
"the Medical  Transactions of  the  College of Physi-
cians," first appeared in 1768; and four otlier  volumes
have  since been published at  different  periods.  Dr.
Heherdcu contributed some valuable papers lo this
                                        415 
HEL                                             HEL
Work, especially on ihe Angina Pectoris, a disease not
before described; and on Chicken Pox, whicli he first
accurately distinguished from Small Pox.  Some other
papers of his appeared in the Philosophical Transac-
tions.  As he advanced in years he  began to relax
from the fatigue of practice: and in 1762 he drew up the
result of  his experience in a volume of " Commenta-
ries," written in Latin, the great excellence of which is
its style.  He reserved it for publication, however, till
after Ins death, whicli did nol happen till 1801.
  HECTIC.  (llccticus  ; from dis, habit.) See Febris
Her.tiea.
  HEDERA.  (From hareo, lo  stick, because it at-
taches itself to  trees and old walls.)   The name of a
genus of plants in the Linnaean system.  Class, Pentan-
dria ; Order, Monogynia. The ivy.
  Hedera arborea.  See Hedera Helix.
  Hedera helix.  -Hedera arborea.   The ivy.  The
Ireaves of  this tree have little or no smell, but a very
nauseous  taste.  Haller  informs  ns, that they are  re-
commended in Germany against the  atrophy of chil-
dren  By the common people of this country they are
sometimes applied  to running sores, and to keep issues
apen.  The  berries were supposed by the ancients to
have a purgative and emetic quality;  and an extract
was made from them by  water, called by Quercetanus
extractumpurgans.  Later writers have recommended
them  in small doses as  alexipharmic and  sudorific ;
it is said, that in the plague at London, the powder of
them was given  in vinegar, or white wine, with good
success.   It is from the stalk of this tree that a resinous
juice, called Gummi hedera, exudes very plentifully in
warm climates.   It is imported from the East Indies,
though  it may be collected from trees  in this country.
It is brought over in hard compact masses, externally of
a reddish brown colour, internally of a bright brownish
yellow,  with reddish specks or veins.   It has a strong,
resinous, agreeable smell, and an adstringent taste.
Though never used in the practice of the present day,
it possesses corroborant,  astringent, and antispasmodic
virtues.
  Hedera terrestris. See Glecoma.
  HEDERACE,4?..   (From hedera,  the ivy.)  The
n amc of an order of plants in Linna-us's Fragments of a
Natural Method, consisting of the ivy and a few other
genera which in  their form and  appearance  resem-
ble it.
  Hedge hyssop.  See Gratiola officinalis.
  Hedge mustard.  See  Erysimum officinale
  Hedge mustard, stinking.  See Erysimum Alliaria.
  He dra.  1. The anus.
  2 Excrement.
  3. A fracture
  Hedyo'smos.   Mint.
  HEISTER, Laurkncl-, was born at Frankfort  on
lie Maine in 1683. Afterstudying in different German
universities, and serving sometime as an army-surgeon,
he graduated at  Leyden: and in  1709 was appointed
physician general to tiie Dutch Military Hospital.  The
next year he became professor of anatomy and surgery
at Altorf: and having distinguished himself greatly by
his lectures and writings, he received  in 1720 a more
advantageous appointment at Hehnstadt, under the
Dulte of  Brunswick, as physician, Aulic  counsellor,
and professor of medicine;  in which he continued,
notwithstanding an invitation to Russia from the Czar
Peter, fill the period of hisdeath in 1758.  He was author
of several esteemed works, particularly a Compendium
Df  Anatomy, which  became  very popular,  being re-
markable for its conciseness and clearness.   " His In-
stitutions of Surgery," also  gained him great credit;
being translated  into Latin, and most of the modern
languages of Europe.   Another  valuable  practical
work was entitled " Medical, Surgical, and Anatomi-
cal Cases and Observations."  He had some taste for
botany also, which he taught at Hehnstadt, and con-
siderably enriched the garden there ; but he  unfortu-
nately became an iintngonistof the celebrated Linnaeus,
not properly appreciating the excellence of the system
of that eminent naturalist.
  IIF.U'O MA.   Ulceration.
  Hei.conia.  (From tXicos, an ulcer.)   Anulcerinthe
external or internal superficies of the cornea, known by
au excavation and oozing of purulent matter from the
cornea.
  Heloy'drion.  (From tXnos, an ulcer, and v$up,
water.)   Hclcydrium.  A moist ulcerous pustule.
      416
   HELrv'sTER.  (From tXxu, to draw.)  An  instru
 ment for extracting the foetus.
   Hele'nium.   (From  Helene,  the island where il
 grew.)  See Inula helenium.
   HELIANTHU9.  (From r/Xtos, the sun ; and avdos,
 a flower.  This name originated from the resemblance
 which its broad golden disk  and ray bear to the sun,
 and is rendered further appropriate by its having the
 power of constantly presenting its flowers to that lumi-
 nary.) The name of a genus of plants.  Class, Syngene-
 sia"; Order, Polygamia fruslranea.   The sun-flower.
   Heliantiius annuus.  The systematic name of the
 Corona solis, and  chimalatus. The seeds have been
 made into a nutritious bread.  The  whole plant when
 young is boiled and eaten in some countries, as being
 aphrodisiac.
   Helianthus  tuberosus.   Jerusalem  artichoke.
 Although formerly in estimation for the lablc, this
 root is now neglected, it being apt to produce flatulen
 cy and dyspepsia.
   Helica'lis major.  See  Helicis major.
   IIelica'lis minor.  See Htlicis minor.
   HE'LICIS  MAJOR.  A  proper muscle of the  eai,
 which depresses the part of ihe cartilage of the ear into
 which it is inserted; it lies upon the upper or sharp
 point of the helix,  or  outward ring, arising from the
 upper and acute part of the helix anteriorly, and pass-
 ing to be inserted into its cartilage a little above the
 tragus.
  IlELieis minor.  A proper muscle of the ear, which
 contracts the fissure of theear; it is situated below the
 helicis major, upon part of  the helix.  It arises from
 the inferior and anterior part of the helix, and is in-
 serted into the crus of the helix, near the fissure in the
 cartilage opnosite to the concha.
  HELIOTROPE.   A  sub-3pecies  of  rhomboidal
 quartz.
   HELIOTR'OPIUM.  (TIAiotpotnov ra piya,  of Di-
 oscorides; from  rjAio;, the  sun, and rpoirn, a turning
 or inclination : because, says  that ancient writer, it
 turns its leaves  round with the declining sin.)  The
 name of a genus of plants.   Class, Pentandria; Order,
 Monogynia.
   Heliotro'pu succus. See Croton tinctoriam.
   HELIX.   (EXi"""., from ttXu, to turn about.) The
 external circle or border of  the outer ear, thai curls iu
 wards.
   Hem hortensis.  The  garden snail.
   HELLEBORA'STER. (From iXXcflopo;, hellebore i
 See Hellcborus fatidus.
   HELLEBORE.  See Hellcborus.
   Hellebore, black.  See Hellcborus niger.
   Hellebore, white.  See Veratrum album.
  HELLEBORUS. (EXXeSopos' -xaparorriBopacXXtiv,
 because it destroys, if eaten.)  The nanieof a genus of
 plants  in  the Linnaean  system.  Class  Polyandria ;
 Order, Polygynia.  Hellebore.
  Helleborus albus.  See Veratrum album.
  Hellebore fcetidus. Stinking Hellebore, or bear's-
 foot.   Helleboraster.   Helliborus—caule multifioro
folioso, foliis pedatis, of Linnaeus.  The leaves of this
 indigenous plant are recommended by many as possess
 ing extraordinary anthelmintic powers.  The smell of
 the recent plant is extremely foetid, and the taste is bit-
 ter and remarkably acrid, insomuch that, when chewed,
 it  excoriates the mouth and  fauces.   It comnionly
 operates as a cathartic, sometimes as  au einelic, and
 in large doses proves highly deleterious.
  Helleborus niger.  Black hellebore, or Christmas
 rose.   Melampodium.   Hellcborus—senpo subbiflort
 subnudo, foliis pedatis, of Linnaeus.  The root of this
 exotic plant is the part employed medicinally : its taste,
 when fresh, is bitterish, and somewhat acrid: it also
 emits a nauseous  acrid smell: but, being long kept,
 both ils sensible qualities and medicinal activity suffer
 very considerable diminution.   The ancients esteemed
 it as a powerful remedy in maniacal cases.  At present
 it  is exhibited principally  ns  an alterative, or, when
 given in a large dose, as a purgative.   It often proves a
 very powerful einnienagogiiein plethoric habits, where
 steel is ineffectual, or improper.   It  is  also  recom-
 mended in diopsies, and some cutaneous diseases.
  HELM KT  FLOWER.  See Anthora,
  HELMI'NTll AGOGUE.   (Helminthm-nirus, fiom
 cXptvs, a worm, and <i>ui, to drive out.)  Whatever de-
 stroys and expels worms. See Anthelmintic.
   HELM1.NTHIA. The nanieof a genus cf diseases 
HEM
HEP
 Clans, Gtliaca;  Order, Entcrica, in Good's Nosology.
 Inyermination, worms.  It has tliree species, viz. Hel-
 minthia alvi, podicis, erratica.
   HELMINTHIASIS.   (F.Xptvdta<ris;  from tXptvs,
 whicli signifies any species of worm.)  A disease in
 which worms, or the larva- of worms, are bred under
 the skin, or some external part of the body. Ii is ende-
 mial to Martinique, Westphalia,  Transylvania,  and
 aome other places.
   HELMINTHOCO'RTON.  See Corallinacorsicana.
   HELMONT, John Baptist Van, was born of  a
 noble family at Brussels in 1377.   He exhibited very
 early proofs of superior abilities,  and soon became
 convinced how much hypothesis was ranked under the
 name of science and philosophy in boons; lie seems lo
 have perceived the necessity of experiment and induc-
 tion  iu the discovery of real knowledge; but did not
 methodize his ideas sufficiently, to pursue that plan
 with its full advantage.  Alter  taking  his degree at
 Louvain he travelled during ten  years, and in  ihis
 period acquired some practical knowledge of chemis-
 try.  On his return in 1609 he  married a noble Indy of
 large fortune, wliich enabled him  lo pursue his re-
 searches into the  three kingdoms of nature with little
 interruption.  He declined visiting patients, but gave
 gratuitous advice to those wiio went to consult him ;
 and he  lioasts of having cured several thousands  an-
 nually.  He continued his investigations with astonish-
 ing diligence during thirty years, and made several dis-
 coveries in chemistry; among which were certain
 articles possessed of considerable activity on the human
 body.  This confirmed his'opposilion to  the Galenical
 school, the absurd  hypotheses, and inert practice of
 which he attacl*-d with great warmth and ability.  In-
 deed lie'c.mtributed greatly to overturn their influence;
 but from a desire to explain every thing on chemical
 principles, he substituted doctrines equally gratuitous
 or unintelligible.  He published  various  works from
 lime to time, which brought him considerable reputa-
 tion,  and he was repeatedly invited to Vienna;  but
 he  preferred continuing  in  his laboratory.  He died
 in 1644.
  HELO'DES.  (From tXos,  a marsh.)   A term ap-
 plied to fevers generated from marsh miasma.
  HELO SIS.  (From ttXu, to turn.)  An eversion or
 turning up of the eyelids.
  HELVINE.  A sub-species of dodecahedral garnet
  He'lxi.nls.  (From tXxu,  to draw: so called  be-
 cause ii sticks to  whatever it  touches.)   Peliilory of
 tlie wall.
  Hemalo'pia.  Corruptly written for haemalopia.
  HEMATIN.  The colouring principle of logwood.
 See Hamatoxylon camptrhianum.
  HEMATU RIA.   See Hamaturia.
  HEMERALOPIA.  (From  nutpa, the day, and mi".,
 the eye.) A defect in the sight,  which consists in being
 able to see  in the daytime, but not  in  the evening.
 The following is  Scarpa's description of this curious
 disorder.  Hemeralopia, or nocturnal blindness, is pro-
 perly  nothing bul a kind of imperfect periodical amau-
 rosis,  most  commonly sympathetic with the stomach.
 Its  paroxysms come on towards the evening, and dis-
 appear in  the morning.  The disease is  endemic in
 some countries, and epidemic, at certain seasons of the
 year,  in others.  At  sunset, objects appear to jiersons
 affected vv ith this complaint as  if covered with an ash-
 coloured veil, whicli gradually changes into a dense
 cloud, which  intervenes between  the eyes and sur-
 rounding objects.   Patients with hemeralopia,  have
 the pupil, both in the day and nighttime, more dilated,
 and less moveable than it usually is in healthy eyes.
 The majority of them, however, have the  pupil more
 or less moveable in the daytime, and always expanded
 and motionless  at night.   When brought inlo a room
 faintly lighted by  a candle, where all the bystanders
 can see tolerably well, they cannot discern at all, or in
 a very feeble manner, scarcely any one object;  or they
o lly find themselves able to distinguish  light  from
darkness, and at  moonlight their sight is still worse.
 At  daybreak they recover their sight, whicli continues
perfect all the rest of the day till sunset.
  ["According  to M. Dujardin, this term is  derived
from ypepa, the day,  AXaos, blind, and uip, the eye;
and in its right signification is therefore inferred io be
diurna cacitudo, or day blindness.   In the same sense,
Dr. Ilil'ary  and Dr  Hebetden, have  employed  the
term
                                        •O d
   "Hemcralopia  then, which  is of very rare occur
 rence, stands in opposition to the nyctalopia of the an-
 cients, or night-blindness.  Numerous modern writers,
 however, have used these terms in the contrary sense-
 considering the hemeralopia, as denoting sight during
 the day, and blindness in the night;  and nvclalopia an
 expressing night-seeing, (owl-sight, as the "French cal"
 it,) and blindness  during the  daytiiue."--G>o»cr<
 Sue. Die.  A.)                               e
   HEMERALOPS.  (From mupa,  the dav, and uiC,
 the eye.)  One who can see but in the dayfinie.
   Hemicerau'mos.  (From  npttrvs, half, and xetpu,
 to cut:  so called  because it was cut halfway down./
 A bandage* for the back and breast.
   HEMICRA NIA.  (From yptovs, half, and xpaviov,
 the head.)   A  pain that affects only one side of the
 head.   It is generally nervous or hysterical, sometimes
 bilious; and in both cases sometimes comes al n regu
 lar period, like an ague.  When it is accompanied by
 a strong pulsation like that of a nail piercing the part,
 it  is denominated clavus.
   HF.MIO'PSIA.   (From rjpicrvs, half, and  aid/, an
 eye.)   A defect of vision, in which the person sees the
 half, but not the whole of an object.
   Hemipa'oia.   (From  npttrvs, half, and itayios,
 fixed.)  A fixed pain on one side of the head.  See
 Hemicrania.
   HEMIPLEGIA.  (From rjptovs, half, and irXijacru,
 to strike.)  A paralytic  affection of one side of the
 body.  See Paralysis.
   HEMLOCK.  See Conium maculatum.
   HEMLOCK-DROPWORT.   See  (Enanthe crocata.
   Hemlock, water.  See Cicuta virosa.
   Hemorrhage from the lungs.   See  Hamoptysis.
   Hemorrhage from the nose.   See Epistaxis.
   Hemorrhage from the stomach. See Hamatemesis
   Hemorrhage from the urinary organs. See Hama
 turia.
   Hemorrhage from the uterus.   See Menorrhagia.
   HEMP.  See Cannabis.
   HEMP-AGRIMONY.  See  Eupatorium  canniba
 num.
   Hirmp, water.  See Eupatorium.
   HENBANE.  See Hyoscyamus.
   HEPAR.  (Hepar, atis. n.  He-rap, the liver.)  See
 Liver.
  Hepar sulphuris.  Liver of sulphur.   A sulphu
 ret made either with potassa or soda.  See Sulphurs
 turn potassa.
  Hepar uterinum.  The placenta.
  HEPATA'LGIA. (From rjirap, the liver, andaXyos,
 pain.)   Pain in the liver.
  HEPATIC.   (Hepalicus; from ijitqjO,  the  liver "•
Belonging to the liver.
  Hepatic air.  See Hydrogen sulphuretted.
  Hepatic artery.  Arteria  hepatica.  The artery
which nourishes the substance of the liver.  It arises
from the coeliac, where it almost touches the point of
the lobulus Spigclii.  Its root is covered by ihe pan-
creas ; it then turns a little forwards, and passes under
the pylorus to the porta of the liver, and runs between
the biliary ducts and the vena porta1, where it divides
into two large branches, one of which enters the right,
and the other the  left lobe of the liver.   In this place
 it is enclosed  along with all  the  other vessels in the
capsule  of Glisson.
  Hepatic duct.  Ductus hepaticus.  The trunk of
 the biliary pores.  It runs from the sinus of the liver
 towards the duodenum, and is joined  by  the cystic
duct, to form the ductus communis choledochus.   See
 Biliary  duct.
  Hepatic veins.  See Vein, and Vena porta.
  Hepatica.  (From  rprtap, the liver:  so  called be-
cause it was thought  to  be useful in diseases ot the
liver.)   See Marchantia polymorpha.
  Hepatica nobilis.  See Anemone hepatica.
  Hepatica terrestris.  See  Marchantia  poly
morpha.
  HEPATIRRH^E'A.   (From  «irap, the  liver,  ani
ptu, to flow.)  1.  A purging with bilious evacuations.
  2. A diarrhoea, in whicli portions of flesh, like liver
 are voided.
  HEPATITE. Foetid, straight, lamellar, heavy spar
A  variety of lamellar barytes, containing a small quan-
tity of  sulphur, in consequence of which,  when
 is  heated or rubbed,  it emits a foetid sulphureous
odour.
                                        417 
HEP
HEIi
  HEPATI'TIS.   (From rjmp, the liver.)   Inflamma-
tio hepatis.  An inflammation of the liver.  A genus
of disease in the class Pyrexia, and order Phlegmasia
Df Cullen, who defines it " febrile affection, attended
with  tension and  pain of the right hypochondrium,
often  pungent, like that of a pleurisy, but more fre-
quently dull, or obtuse, a pain at the clavicle and at the
top of the shoulder of the right side;  much uneasiness
in lying down on the left side: difficulty of breathing;
a dry cough, vomiting, and hiccup."
  Besides the causes producing other inflammations,
such as the application of cold, external injuries from,
contusions, blows, &c. this disease may be.occasioned
by certain passions ofthe mind, by violent exercise,
by intense summer heats,  by long-continued intermit-
tent and remittent fevers, and by various solid concre-
tions in the substance of the liver.  In warm climates
this viscus is more apt to be affected with inflamma-
tion Ihan  perhaps any other part  of the body, proba-
bly  from the increased secretion of  bile which takes
place when the  blood is thrown on the internal parts,
by an  exposure to cold ; or from the bile becoming
acrid, and thereby exciting an irritation in the part.
Hepatitis has generally been considered of two kinds ;
one the acute, the other chronic.
  The  acute species of hepatitis comes on with a pain
in the  right hypochondrium, extending up to the cla-
vicle and shoulder; which is much increased by press-
ing upon the part, and  is accompanied with a cough,
oppression cf breathing, and difficulty of lying on the
lelt side ; together with nausea and sickness, and often
with a vomiting of bilious  matter.  The urine is of a
deep saffron colour, and small in quantity; there is
nss of appetite, great thirst, and  costiveness, with a
strong, hard, and  frequent  pulse; and when the dis-
ease has  continued for some days, the skin and eyes
become tinged of a deep yellow.   When the inflam-
mation is in the cellular structureor substance of the
liver, it is called by some hepatitis  parenchymatosa,
and when the gull-bladder which  is  attached  to  this
organ,  is the seat of the  inflammation, it has been
called hepatitis cystica.
  The  chronic species is usually accompanied with a
tuoibid complexion, loss of appetite and flesh, costive-
ness, indigestion, flatulency, pains in the  stomach, a
yellow tinge of  the skin and eyes, clay-coloured stools,
high-coloured urine,  depositing a red sediment  and
ropy mucus; an obtuse pain in the region of the liver,
extending to the shoulder, and not unfrequently with a
considerable degree of asthma.
  These symptoms are, however,  often so mild  and
insignificant as to pass almost unnoticed; as large ab-
scesses have been found in  the liver upon dissection,
which in the person's lifetime had created little or no
inconvenience, and which we  may  presume to have
been occasioned by some previous inflammation.
  Hepatitis, like other inflammations, may end in re-
solution,  suppuration, gangrene, or  scirrhus, but its
termination in gangrene is a rare occurrence.
  The disease is  seldom  attended with fatal  conse-
quences of an immediate  nature, and is often carried
off by  ha-morrhage from the nose, or haemorrhoidal
vessels, and  likewise by sweating, by a diarrhoea, or
by an evacuation of urine, depositing a copious sedi-
ment.  In a few instances, it  has been observed to
cease on the appearance of erysipelas, in some external
part.
  When suppuration takes place, ns it generally does,
before  this forms an adhesion with some neighbouring
part, the  pus is usually discharged  by the different
outlets with which this part is connected, as by cough-
ing, vomiting, purging, or by nn abscess breaking out-
wardly; but, iu  some instances, the pus has been dis-
charged into the cavity ofthe abdomen, where niisuch
adhesion had been formed.
  On dissection, the liver is often found much enlarged,
and hard to the touch; its colour is more of a deep
purple than what  is natural, and  its membranes are
more or less affected by Inflammation.  Dissections
likewise show lhat adhesions to the neighbouring parts
often take place, and large abscesses, containing a con-
siderable quantity of pua. are often found in its sub-

  The  treatment of this disease  must  be distinguished,
n* it Is of the acute, or of the chronic form.  In acute
hepatitis, where the symptoms  run high, and the con-
Mituiion will admit, we should.  In ihe beginning, bleed
      418
 freely from the arm; whicli  it will seldom be nece-
 sary to repeat, if carried to the proper extent nt first
 in milder cases,  or where there  is less power in  the
 system, the local abstraction of blood, by cupping oi
 leeching, may be sufficient.  We should next give- calo-
 mel alone, or combined with opium, and  followed up
 by infusion of senna with neutral salts, jalap, or other
 cathartic, to evacuate bile, and thoroughly clear  out
 the intestines.  When, by these means, the inflamma-
 tion is materially abated, we should endeavour to pro-
 mote  diaphoresis by suitable  medicines, assisted by
 the warm bath; a blister may be applied; and  the
 antiphlogistic regimen is to be duly enlbrced.  But tht
 dischaige of bile, by occasional dosc3 of calomel, must
 not be neglected:  and where the alvine  evacuations
 are deficient in that secretion, it will be proper to p.-sh
 this, or other mercurial preparation, till the mouth i*
 in some measure  affected.  In India this  is the re-
 medy chiefly relied upon, and exhibited  often in much
 larger doses than appear advisable in  more temperate
 climates.   Should the disease proceed to suppuration,
 means must be used to suppoit the strength ; a nutri-
 tious diet, with a moderate quantity of  wine,  and  de-
 coctionof bark, or other tonic medicine: fomentation*
 or poultices will also be proper to promote the discharge
 externally; but when any fluctuation is perceptible, it
 is better to make an opening, lest it should burst in-
 wardly.  In the chronic form of the disease, mercury
 is the remedy chiefly to be relied upon ; but due cau-
 tion must be observed in ils  use, especially in scrofu-
 lous subjects.  It appears  more effectual in restoring
 the healthy action of  the liver, when taken internally :
 but if the mildest forms, though guarded by opium, or
 rather sedative, cannot so be borne, the  ointment may
 be rubbed  in.   In the meantime, calumba, or other
 tonic, with antacids, and mild aperients, as rhubarb, to
 regulate tlie state of the  primie viae,  will be  proper.
 Where the system will not admit the adequate use of
 mercury, the nitric acid is the  most promising substi-
 tute.  An occasional blister may be required to relieve
 unusual pain; or where this is very limited and con
 tinued, an issue, or seton may answer better.  The
 strength must be supported by  a  light nutritious diet
 and gentle exercise wilh warm clothing, to maintain
 Ihe perspiration steadily, is important, iu the convales-
 cent state: more especially a  sea voyage in  pe;soi:»
 long resident in  India has often appeared the only
 means of restoring perfect health.
  Hepatitis parenchymatosa.   Inflammation of
 the substance of" the liver.
  Hepatitis periton.ealis.  Inflammation  in  tht
 peritonaeum covering the liver.
  IlEPATOCE'LEr  (.From irirap, the liver, and xnXrj.
 a tumour.)  A hernia, in wliicn a portion of the liver
 protrudes through the abdominal pariei.es.
  Hepato'rium.  The same as Eupatorium.
  Heph^'stias.    (From ll<l>ais;os, Vulcan, or fire.)
 A drying plaster of burnt tiles.
  Hepi'alus.  (From i/moj, gentle.)   A mild quoti-
dian fever.
  HEPTA'NDRIA.  (From eirra, seven, and avrtp, a
 man, or husband.)  The name of a class iu the sexual
system of  plants, consisting of such  hermaphrodite
 flowers as have seven stamens.
  Heptapha'rmacum.  (From tn)a, seven, nnd cbappa-
xov, medicine.)   A medicine composed  of  seven  in
greditnts, the principal of which were cenis.-e. litharge.
wax, Ike
  HEPTAPHY'LLCM.   (From  tnla,  seven,  and
qivXXov, a leaf: so named because it consists of seven
 leaves.)  See Tormentilla erecta.
  Heptaple'urum.  (From  tif]a, seven  and -rXtvpa,
a rib: so named fiom its having seven rihs upon  ths
leaf.)  The herb plantain.   See Plantago major.
  HERA'CLEA.   1.  W.-.ier hoarhound.
  2. The common  wild marjoram received, a trivial
name from its growing in abundance ir- Horaclea  See
 Origanum vulgare.
  HERA'CLEUM.  (From Hercclea,  the  city ncRr
which it grows; or  from 'HpaxXns, Hercules, being  the
 plant sacred to him.)   The name of a genus of plants
 in the  Linnaean  system.   Class, Penthidria;  Order,
 Digynia.
  Heraclp.um gummiferum.   This species is sup-
 posed by Wildeiiow to afford the gum ainmoniacum.
See Ainmoniacum.
  Heracleum spondylum   Branca ursina Germm- 
HER
HER
  Mi*,-  Sponityliuin.  Cow-parsnip.  All-heal.  Iftrtt
  strum—jottolis pumatifidis, lavibus, fioribus unifor-
  tittbtts of Linimiis.  The plant which is directed by
  (lie name of Branca ursina in foreign pharmacopoeias.
  In tsilioria it grows extremely high, and appears to Imve
  virtues in the cure ol' dysentery which the plants  of
  tins country do not possess.
   ["The Hcracleum Lanatum is one of  our largest
  native umbellate  plana, growing frequently to  the
  height ot a man, with a stalk more than an inch in
  thickness.  lis taste is strong and acrid. The bruised
  root or leaves, externally applied, excite rubefaction.
  Internally used, this article has  been  recommended in
  epilepsy.  It appears to me to possess .1 virose charac-
  ter, and should be  used with caution, especially when
  gathered from  ,1 watery or damp situation "—Bisr.
  Mat. Med.  A.l                                 *
   HERB-BEN.Vl". T.  See Geum urbanum.
   HERB OF GKACK.   S.-e Gratiola.
   HERB MAS'ITCH.  See  Thymus mastichina.
   Herb-trinity.   See Anemone hepatica.
   HERBA.  An herd.  A plant is properly so called
 which bears its  How ei and  fruit once only, and then
 with iu root wholly perishes.   There are iwo kinds:
 annuals, wliich perish the same year; and biennials,
 which have their leaves the tirst year, and llieir flowers
 and fruit the si-coud, and then die away.
   By the teim kerba, Linnaeus dciiomiaates lhat por-
 tion of every vegetable  whicli  arises  from tlie root,
 and is terminated by the fructification.
   Herba britannic v.  See Rumex hydrotapathttm.
   Herba military  See AchUlaa millefolium.
   Herba sacra.  See V-.rbina  trifoliata.
   Herba trinitatis.  See Anemone hepatica.
   HERBACEUS.   Herbaceous   Piants are so con-
 sidered which have succulent steins or stalks, and die
 down to the root every year.
   HERBARIUM.  A collection  of dried or preserved
 plants: called also Hortus siccus
   HERCULES S  ALL-HEAL.  See Lascrpitium
 ckirontunt.
   Hercules bovii.  Gold and  mercury dissolved in
 a distillation of copperas, nitre, and sea-salt.
   HEREDITARY. (From hares, an heir.)  A disease,
 or predisposition to a disease, which is transferred from
 parer.'s to their children.
   HERMA PHRODITE.    (Hcrmaphrodttus ; from
 "EppiK, Mercury, and A0poct7l,  Venus, 1. e. partaking
 of both sexes.)   1.  The true hermaphrodite of the an-
 cients was, the  man with  male organs of generation,
 and the female  stature of body, that is, narrow chest
 and large pelvis; or the woman with female organs of
 generation, and the male stature of body, that is, broad
 chest and narrow pelvis.  The term  is now,  how-
 ever, used to express any lusus  natura wherein tlie
 parts of generation appear to be a mixture of both
 sexes
   2. In botany, an hermaphrodite flower is one which
 contains both Ihe male and female organs,  for the
 production of the fruit, within  the same calyx and
 petals.
   HERMETIC.   (From 'Kppns, Mercury.)  In the
 language  of the  ancient chemists, Hermes was the
 father of chemistry, and the hermetic seal was the
 closing the end  of a glass vessel while in a state of
 fusion, according to the usage of chemists.
   HEKMODACTYL.  See Hermodaclylus.
   HERMODA'CTYLUS. ('EppoSaxfvXos-  Etymolo-
 gists  have always  derived  this word  from 'Eppn,s,
 Mercury,  and iax^vXos, a finger.  It is, however, pro-
 bably named from Hermus, a river in Asia, upon whose
 banks it grows, and Sax^vXos, a date, wliich  it is like.)
 Anima  articulorum.  The root of a species of col-
 chicum,  not yet ascertained, but supposed  to be the
 Colchicum illyricum of Linnaeus, of the shape of a
 heart, flattened on one side, with a furrow on the other,
 of a white colour, compact and  solid, yet easy to cut
 or powder.  This root, which has a viscous, sweetish,
 farinaceous taste, and no remarkable smell, is import-
 ed from Turkey.  Its use is totally laid aside in the
 practii e of ihe present day.  Formerly the roots were
esteemed  as cathartics, which  power is wanting in
those that reach this country
  HERNIA.  (From {pvos,  a branch;  from its pro-
truding out of its place.)   A rupture.   Surgeons un-
derstand, by the term hernia, a tumour formed by the
protrusion of some of the viscera of the abdomen out I
                                      DdS       *
  of  that cavity into a kind of sac, composed of ilia
  portion of peritoneum, whicli is pushed before them.
  However, there are certainly some cases wt.c.1! will
  not be comprehended in this definition; either tecauso
  the parts are not protruded  at all, or have no  hernial
  sac.  The  places in wliich  these  swellings most fre-
  quently make their appearance, are the groin, the navel,
  the labia pudendi, and the  upper  and forepart of the
  thigh; they do also occur at every point ofthe anterior
  part of the abdomen; and there nre several less com-
  mon instances, in which hernial tumours present them-
  selves at the foramen ovale, in  the perinaemn, in the
  vagina, at the ischiaiic notch, Sec   The parts which
  by being thrust forth  from  the  cavity, in which they
  ought naturally to remain, mostly produce hernia-  are
  either a portion of the omentum, or a part of the in-
  testinal canal,  or both together.  But the stomach, the
  liver, the spleen, uterus, ovaries,  bladder, Sec. have
  been known to form the contents of some hernial tu-
  mours,  from these two circumstances of situations
  and contents, are derived all the different appellations
  by wliich hemic are distinguished.   If a portion  01"
  intestine only forms  the contents of the tumour, it is
 called enterocHc;  if a piece of omentum only, epiplo-
 cde; and if both intestine and omentum contribute to
 tlie  formation  of n tumour, it is called  entcro-epiplo-
 cete.  When the contents of  a hernia are protruded at
 the  abdominal  ring, but only  pass as low as the groin,
 or labium pudendi, the case receives the name of bubo-
 nocele, or inguinal  hernia;  when the parts descend
 Into the scrotum, it  is called an oscheocele or  scrotal
 hernia.  The crural, or femoral kernia, is  the name
 given to that which takes place  below Poupart's liga-
 ment.  When  the bowels protrude at the navel, the
 case is named an cxonpluilos, or umbilical  hernial
 and ventral is the epithet given to  the swelling, when
 it occurs at any other promiscuous  part ofthe front of
 the abdomen.  The congenital rupture is a very parti-
 cular case,  in  winch the protruded  viscera are not
 covered with a common hernial sac of peritoneum,
 but  are lodged in the cavity of the tunica vaginalis, in
 contact wilh the testicle; and, as must  be obvious, it
 is not named, like hernia in general, from its situation,
 or contents, but from the circumstances of its existing
 from the time of birth.
   When the hernial contents lie quietly in the sac, and
 admit of being readily put back into the abdomen, it ia
 termed a reducible hernia:  and when they suffer no
 constriction, yet cannot be put back, owing  to adhe-
 sions, or their large  size in  relation  to the aperture,
 through which they have to pass, the hernia is termed
 irreducible.   An incarcerated, or strangulated hernia,
 signifies one wiiich not only cannot be  reduced, but
 suffers constriction:  so that, if" a piece of intestine bo
 protruded, the pressure to which it is subjected stop*
 the passage of its contents onward  towards tlie anus,
 makes the bowel inflame, and brings on a train of most
 alarming and often fatal consequences.
  The general symptoms of a hernia, which is reduci-
 ble and free from strangulation, are—an indolent tu-
 mour at some point  of the parietes of the abdomen;
 most frequently descending out ofthe abdominal ring.
 or from just below Poupart's ligament, or else  out of
 the navel;  but occasionally from various other  situa-
 tions.   The swelling mostly originates suddenly, ex-
 cept  in the circumstances above related; and it is sub-
 ject to a change of size, being smaller when the patient
 lies down upon his back, and larger when he  stands
 up, or draws in his breath.   The tumour fn ju< nriy
 diminishes when pressed, and grows large ogaiu when
 the pressure  is removed.  Its size  and tension 1 :k;j
 increase after a meal, or when the patient is tlatuicut.
 Patients with hernia,are apt  to be troubled w-.i'i coiic
 constipation, and vomiting inconsequence of the iu>
 natural situation ofthe bowels.  Very often, !iu< cv./.
 the functions of the visc.ua beem to uuffei liiiie or no
 interruption.
  If  the case be an enterocclc, and  the portion  of iYk
 intestine be small, tbe tumour is small in proportion,
 but though small, yet, if the gut be distended wall
 wind, inflamed, or have any degree of stricture : iade
 on it, it will be tense, resist the impression ofthe  finger,
 and give pain upon being bandied.   On the contrail
 if there be no stricture, and the intestine suffers  no de-
 gree  of inflammation, let the prolapsed  piece  be cf
 what length  it may, and the tumour of whatever size
yet the tension will be little, and no pain will  attend
                                        413 
HER
HER
the handling of it; upon the patient's coughing, it will
feel as if it was blown into; and, in general, it will be
found very easily  returnable.   A guggling noise  is
often made when Ihe bowel is ascending.
  If the hernia be an epiplocele, or one of the omental
Kind,  ihe tumour  lias a more flabby and a more un-
equal feel, it is in  general perfectly indolent, is more
compressible, and (if in the scrotum) is more oblong
and less round than the swelling occasioned in the
same  situation by an intestinal  hernia; and, if the
quaniuy be  large, and the patient an adult, it is, in
some measure, distinguishable by its greater weight.
  If the case be an enlero-epiplocele, that is, one con-
slating of  both intestine and omentum, the character-
istic marks will be less clear than in either of the sim-
ple cases;  but the disease may easily be distinguished
from every other one, by any body in  the habit of
making the examination.
  Hernia cerebri.   Fungus cerebri.  This  name is
given to a tumour which every now  and  then rises
from the  brain, through au uleerated  opening in the
dura mater, and protrudes through  a perforation in
(lie cranium,  made by the previous application of the
trephine.
  Hernia congenita.  (So called because it  is, as il
were, bom with the person.)  This species of hernia
consists in the adhesion of a protruded portion of inlet-
tine or omentum to the testicle, after its descent  into
Ihe scrotum.   This  adhesion takes place  while the
testicle is  yet in the abdomen.  Upon  its leaving the
abdomen,  it draws the adhering intestine, or omentum,
along with it into the scrotum, where  it  forms.tho
hernia congenita.
  From the term congenital,  we might  suppose that
this hernia always existed at  the time of" birth.  The
protrusion, however, seldom occurs  till after  this pe-
riod, on the operation of the usual exciting causes of
hernia  in general.  The congenital hernia docs not
usually  happen till some months after birth;  in some
instances not lill a late period.  Hey relates a case, in
whicli a hernia congenita was first formed in  a young
man, aged sixteen, whose right testis had, a little while
before the attack of the disease, descended  into the
scrotum.  It  seems probable  that, in cases of hernia
congenita; which actually take place when the testicle
descends into the scrotum  before birth, the event may
commonly be referred, as observed above, to the testi-
cle having contracted an adhesion to a piece of intes-
tine, or  of the omentum,  in  its  passage to tiie ring.
Wrisborg  found one testicle which had not passed the
ring, adhering, by means of a few slender filaments, to
the omentum, just above this aperture, in  an infa.it
that died a few days  after birth.
   Excepting  the impossibility of  feeling the testicle in
hernia congenita, as we can in most cases of bubono-
cele, (which criterion Mr. Samuel Cooper,  in  his Sur-
gical  Dictionary, observes Mr. Pott should  have men-
tioned,) the following account is very excellent. "The
appearance of a  hernia, in very early  infancy, will
always make it probable that  it is of this kind; but m
an adult, there is  no reason for supposing his rupture
to be of this sort, but his having  been afflicted with it
fiom  his infancy;  there is no external mark, or cha-
ra.-t, i  whereby it can be certainly distinguished from
the on ■contained  in a common  hernial sac; neither
would it be  of any material  use in practice, if there

"hernia cruralis.   Femoral  hernia. The parts
Cl!,......sine this kind  of hernia are always  protruded
under Poupart's ligament, and the swelling Is  situated
towaids the inner part ofthe bend of the thigh.   The
rupture descends on the side of Ihe femoral artery and
vein, hcuveen these  vessels  and the os pubis.  I-c-
malesare partici...irly subject to this kind ot rupture
In  consequence of the great  breadth of their pelvis,
while in them the inguinal hernia is rare.  It has been
computed, that nineteen out ol twenty married women,
afflicted with hernia, have this kind; but that not one
out of  ;i  hundred  unmarried females, or out of tl.e
-feme nu.nber of men,  have this form of the disease.
The situation ofthe tumour makes it liable to be  nua-
larven for  an enlarged inguinal gland;  and many tatal
events  arc recorded  to have happened from  the  sur-
l-ooii'b  l-norance of the existence of the disease   A
Kb', I can only become enlarged by the gradual effects
ol' inflammation; the swelling of a crural hernia comes
mi in  nln.cn nry and sudden manner;  and, when
strangulated, occasions the tramof symptoms described
in the account ol  the hernia incarcera.a, which symp-
toms an enlarged gland could never occasion.   Such
circumstances seem to be sufficiently discriminative:
though the feel of the twO kinds of swelling is ofles
not in itself enough to  make the surgeon decided  in
his opinion   A femoral  hernia may be mistaken for a
bubonocele, when the expanded part of the swelling
lies over Poupart's ligament.  As the taxis and opera-
tion for the first case ought to be done differently from
those for  the  latter, the error may lead to  very bad
consequences.  The femoral hernia,  however, may
always be discriminated, by the neck of the tumour
having Poupart's ligament  above it.  In the bubono-
cele, the angle of  the pubes is behind  and below this
part of the sac; but  in the femoral  hernia, it is on the
same horizontal lei-el, a little on the inside of it
  Until very lately,  the stricture, in cases  of femoral
hernia, was always supposed lo be produced  by the
lower border of the  external oblique muscle, or as it is
termed, Poupart's ligament.   A total change  of surgi-
cal opinion on this subject has, however, latterly  taken
place, in consequence of the accurate observations first
made in  1708, by Gimbernat, surgeon to the king of
Spain. Iti the crural  hernia, (says  he,)  tlie  aperture
through which the  parts issue is not formed by two
bauds, (as in the inguinal hernia,) but it is a  foramen,
almost round, proceeding from the internal margin of
the crural  arch, (Poupart's ligament,) near its  insertion
into the branch of the os pubis, between  the bone and
the iiiac vein, so that, in  this hernia, the branch ofthe
us pubis is situated more internally  than  the intestine,
and a little behind;  the vein externally,  and behind;
and the internal border of the arch before".  Now it  is
this border which  always forms the strangulation.
  Hernia flatulenta.   A swelling of the  side,
caused by  air that Ik.s escaped through the pleura: an
obsolete term.
  Hernia clttu:'.is.   Bronchocele, or tumour of the
bronchial  gland.
  Hernia humoralis.  See Orchitis.
  Hernia incarcerata. Incarcerated hernia.  Stran-
gulated hernia,or a  hernia with stricture.   The symp-
toms arc a swelling  in the groin, Sec resisting the im-
pression ofthe fingers.  If the hernia be of the intes-
tinal kind, it is generally painful to the touch, and the
pain is increased by coughing, sneezing, or standing
upright.   These  are the very first symptoms, and, il
they are  not relieved, are  soon followed by others;
viz. a sickness at  the stomach, a frequent retchiHg, or
inclination to  vomit, a stoppage of all discharge per
anym, attended with  frequent hard pulse, and some
degree of fever.   These are the first symptoms; and
if they nre not appeased by the return of the  intestine,
that is, if the attempts made for this  purpose  Jo not
succeed, tho sickness  becomes more troublesome, the
vomiting  more frequent, the pain  more intense, the
tension of the belly greater, the fever higher,  and a
general restlessness comes  on, which is very terrible
to bear.   When  this  is the  state  of the  patient,  no
lime is to be lost; a very little delay is  now of the
utmost consequence;  and if the one single reined}',
which the  disease  is now capable of, be not  admi-
nistered immediately, it will generally  baffle  every
other attempt.  This remedy is the  operation whereby
the parts  engaged in the stricture may be set free.   If
this be not now  performed, the  vomiting is soon ex-
changed for a convulsive hiccup, and a frequent gulp-
ing up of bilious  matter: the tension of the  belly, tlie
restlessness and fever, having  been considerably in-
creased for a few  hours, the patient suddenly becomes
perfectly  easy, the belly subsides, the  pulse, from
having  been  hard,  full,  and frequent,  becomes low
languid, and generally interrupted ; and the skin, espe-
cially that of the  limbs, cold and moist;  the eyes have
now a languor and glassincss, a lack lustre not easy io
be described:  the tumour of the part disappears, and
the skin covering it sonietimes changes its natural co-
lour for a  livid hue; but whether it keeps or loses  its
colour, it  has an emphysematous feel,  a crepitus to
the touch, which will easily be conceived by all why
have attended to  it, but  is not easy to convey an idea
of by words.  This crepitus  is the too sure  indicator
of  gangrenous mischief within.  In  this state,  the
gut either goes up spontaneously or is returned with
the smallest degree of pressure; a discharge is made
by stool, and the patient is generally much pleased at 
HER
HEIt
tke  ease he finds ;  but  this pleasure is of short dura-
tion, for the  hiccup and the cold sweats continuing
and increasing, with the addition of spasmodic rigours
and subtultus teinlimim, the tragedy soon finishes.
   IlEKNi.MMii ivalis.   Bubonocele.  Inguinal hernia.
 The hernia inguinalis is so called because it appears ill
both sexes nt Ihe groin.   It is one ofthe divisions of
hernia, and includes all tliose  luernite in wliich ihe
parts displaced  pass out  of  the abdomen through the
ring, that is, thre arch formed by the aponeurosis of
the  museums obliquus  externus" in tire groin, for the
pnssageol'the spermatic vessels in men, and the round
ligament ir, women.  The  parts displaced thai form
the  hernia,  the  part inlo which they fall, the manner
of ihe hernia  being produced, and tlie lime il lias con-
tinued, occasion great  differences in this  disorder.
There are  three -different parts lhat  may produce a
hernia in the groin, viz., one or more ot the intestines,
the epiploon, and the Madder.  That which is formed
by one or more of the  intestines, was called, by ihe
ancients, eittcroceie.  The intestine which most  lie-
queutly produces tlie hernia, is the lii'am .- because,
being placed in  the iliac region, it is nearer Ihe groin
than Ihe rest:  but notwithstanding the situation ofthe
other intestines,  which seems  not  io  allow  of their
coming near tlie groin, we often  lind the jejunum, nnd
frequently also a portion of the  colon and caecum, in-
cluded in the hernia.  It must be remeiiibered. that the
mesentery and mesocolon are membranous substances,
capable of extension, which, by little  and little,  are
sometimes- so far stretched by the weight of Ihe intes-
tines, as to  escape  with the iKum,  in  this species of
hernia.  Tlie hernia made by the epiploon, is called
yiplocele, as  lhat caused by the epiploon and any of
•lie iiitestfaes together, is called entero epiplocele.  The
hernia of the  bladder Is called crytocele.  Hernia  of
ihe bladder is uncommon, and has seldom been known
to happen l.  .it  in conjunction with some of tlie other
viscera.  When the parts, having passed through the
abdnmnal rings, descend no lower than ihe groin, it is
called  an incomplete hernia ; when they fail into the
scrotum in men, or into the labia pudendi in women, it
is then termed complete.
   The marks of discrimination between  some other
diseases and inguinal hernia are these:—
   The disorders in whicli a  mistake may possibly be
made, are th« circocele, bubo, hydrocele,  and hernia
humoraiis, or  ii.flamed testicle.
   For an account of the manner of distinguishing cir-
cocele from  a bubonocele, see Circocele.
   The circumscribed incompressible hardness, the situ-
ation of ttie  tumour, and ils being free from all connex-
ion wilh the spermatic process,  will sufficiently point
out its being a bubo, at (east while it  is in a recent
slate; and when it  is in any degree suppurated,  he
must have a very small shar*- of the  tactus eruditus
who cannot fee  the differe-icc  between matter, and
either a piece of intestine or omentum.
  The perfect  equality of tlie whole tumour, and free-
dom and smallness of the spermatic process above it,
the power of feeling the  spermatic vessels, and the vas
deferens in that process; ils being void of pain upon
iicing handled, the fluctuation of the  water, the gra-
dual formation ofthe swelling, its having begun below
and  proceeded upwards, its not being affected  by any
posture or action of the patient, nor increased by his
coughing or  sneezing, together with the absolute im-
possibility of feeling the testicle at the bottom of the
Ecrotum, will  always, to  an  intelligent person, prove
the disease to be hydrocele.
  Pott, however, allows that there are some exceptions
in which the testicle cannot be felt at the bottom of the
BCrotum, in  cases of hernia. In recent bubonoceles,
while the hernial sac is  thin, has not been  long, or
very much distended, and the scrotum still preserves a
regularity of figure, the  testicle may almost always be
easily  felt at  the inferior and  posterior part of the
tumour.  But in  old ruptures, which  have been long,
down, In which  the quantity of contents is large, the
sac considerably thickened,  and the  scrotum of an
irregular figure, the testicle frequently cannot be felt;
neither is it  in general easily felt in Ihe congenital her-
nia, for obvious reasons.
  In the hernia humor alls, the pain in the testicle, its
enlargement, the hardened state of the  opididymtis,
and the exemption of tlie spermatic cord from all un-
natural  fulness,  are such marks as cannot  easily he
 mistaken ; not to mention the generally preceding go-
 norrhoea.  But  if any doubt still remains of the true
 nature of the  disease, the progress of it from above
 dovvnw.uds, its d'nli-nni state and size in different pos-
 tures, particularly lying and  standing, together with ita
 descent and ascent, will, if duly attended to, put il out
 of all doubt lhat the tumour is a true hernia.
   When an inguinal hernia does  nut descend through
 the  abdominal  ring, but only into the  canal lor Ihe
 spermatic cord, it is covered by ihe aponeurosis of the
 external oblique muscle, and the swelling is small and
 undefined.
   Now and  then,  the testicle does  not descend into
 Ihe scrotum till a late period.  The first appearance of
 this body at the ring,  in mder lo get  into  ita  natural
 situation, might tie  mistaken lor lhat of a hernia, were
 the surgeon not to  pay attention to ihe absence of ihe
 testicle from the scrotum, and the peculiar sensation
 occasioned by pressing the swelling.
   Hernia i\ testinalis.  A  rupture caused by the
 protrusion ot  a poilioli of the intestine.  See  Hernia
 inguinalis.
   Hernia ischiatica.  A rupture at the  iVhiatie
 notch.  This is  very rare.   A case, .however, wliich
 was strangulated, and  undiscovered till after d'-nlh, is
 related in Sir A. Cooper's second part of his work on
 hernia. The disease happened in a young inan aged
I i7.   On opening the abdomen, the ilium was found  ia
 have descended on the light side of the rectum into
 the pelvis; and a fold of il was protruded into a small
 sac, which  passed  out of the pelvis  at the  ischiaiie
 notch.  The intestine  was adherent to the s:u: at two
 points; the strangulated part, and about tliree inches
 on each side, were very black. The intestines towards
 the stomach, were  very much distended with air, and
 hero  and ihere had a livid spot on ihem.  A daik spot
 was even found on the stomach  itself, just above the
 pylorus.  The colon was exceedingly contracted, as
 tar as its sigmoid flexure.   A small orifice  was ihund
 in the side ofthe peivis, in front  of, but a little above.
 the sciatic nerve, and on the forepart of" the pyrit'or-
 inis muscle.  The sac  lay under the glutaeus maximus
 muscle, nnd  ils orifice  was before ihe  internal iliac
 arteiy, below the obturator artery, but above the vein.
   Hernia lachrymalis. When the tears pass through
 the puncta lachrymalia, but stagnate in the succulus
 lachrymalis, the tumour is  styled hernia lachrymalis
 wilh little propriety or  precision. It is  with equal
 impropriety called,  by Anel, a dropsy of the lachrymal
 sac.  If the inner angle of the eye is  pressed, and an
 aqueous humour flows out, Ihe disease is  the fistul.i
 ladaym ilis.
   Hl-kma mesksterica.  Mes-iiteric hernia.  If one
 of ihe layers ofthe mesentery be torn by a blow, while
 the <>:her remains  in  its natural slate, the intestines
 may  insinuate themselves into the aperture and form
 a kind of hernia.  The same consequences  may result
 from a natural deficiency in one of these layers. Sir
 A. Cooper relates a case, in  which all the small intes-
 tines, except the duodenum, were thus circumstanced
 The symptoms during life were unknown.
   Hernia mesocolica.  Mesocolic hernia.  So named
 by Sir A. Cooper, when the bowels glide between lie-
 layers of ihe mesocolon.  Every  surgeon  should he
 aware lhat the intestines may be strangulated from the.
 following causes: 1. Apertures in the omentum, me-
 sentery, or  mesocolon, through  which  the intestine
 protrudes. 2. Adhesions, leaving an aperture, in whic'i
 a piece of intestine becomes confined.  3. Membra-
 nous bands at the mouth of hernial  sacs, which be
 coming elongated by the frequent protrusion and retuv.i
 of the viscera, surround the intestine, so as to strangu-
 late them within the  abdomen when returned fro.-i
 the sac.
   Hernia omentalis.  Epiplocele.  A rupture of the
 omentum; or a protrusion  of the omentum through
 apertures in the integuments of the belly. Sometimes,
 according to Sharpe, so large a quantity of  the omen-
 tum hath  fallen into the scrotum, that its weight, draw-
 ing the stomach and bowels downwerds, hath excited
 vomiting, inflammation,  and symptoms  similar  ;j
 those ofthe incarceiated hernia.
   Hernia perinealis.  Perineal hernia. In men, the
 parts protrude between  the bladder and  rectum ; i.-i
 women, between the rectum and vagina  The henna
 does not project so as to lorm an external tumour; and,
 in men, its existence can only be distinguished by es-
                                         421 
rfER
HEK
Biniiiing in the rectum. In women, it may be detected
both from this part and the vagina.
  Hernia phrenica.  Phrenic hernia.  The abdomi-
nal viscera are  occasionally protruded through the
diaphragm, either through some of the  natural  aper-
tures  in this muscle, or deficiencies, or wounds, and
Noerations in it.   The second kind of case is the most
fn-quem.  Morgagni furnishes an instance ofthe first.
Two  cases related  by Dr. Macauley, and two others
published  by Sir A. Cooper,  are  instances of the se
coud sort.  And another case has been lately recorded
Ly the latter gentleman, affording  an example of the
liiird  kind.  Hildanus,  Paid, Petit, Schenck,  &x. also
mention oases of phrenic hernia.
  Hernia  pudendalis.  Pudendal hernia.   This is
the name assigned by Sir A. Cooper,  to that which
descends between  the vagina  and ramus ischii, and
forms an oblong tumour in the labium, traceable within
the pelvis, as far as the os uteri.  Sir A. C. thinks this
i ase has sometimes been mistaken for a hernia of the
foramen ovule.
  Hernia scrotalis.  Hernia Oschealis.  Oscheocele.
Paracelsus calls it Crepatura.  When  the omentum,
the intestine, or both, descend into the scrotum,  it has
these appellations; when the omentum only, it is called
epiploschcocele.   It is styled  a perfect rupture in con-
tradistinction to  a bubonocele, which is the  same dis-
order ; but the descent  is not  so  greal. The hernia
BCrotalis is distinguished into the true and false ; in the
former, the omentum or intestine, or both, fall into the
scrotum;  in the latter,  an inflammation, or a  fluid,
causes a tumour in this part, as in hernia humornlis, or
hydrocele.  Sometimes sebaceous matter is  collected
in the scrotum;  and this hernia is called stealocele.
  Hernia tuyroidealis.  Hernia foraminis ovalis.
Thyroideal hernia. In the anterior and upper part of the
obturator ligament there is an opening, through which
Cie obturator artery, vein, and nerve proceed, and
through which occasionally a piece of omentum  or in-
testine is protruded, covered with  a part of the perito-
naeum, which constitutes tlie hernial sac.
  Hernia umbilicalis.  Epiploomphalion ;  Ompha-
locele ; Exomphalos; Omphalos;  and when owing to
flatulency, Pneumatomphalos.  The exomphalos,  or
umbilical  rupture, is so called from its  situation, and
has, like other hernia-, for its general contents, a por-
tion of intestine, or omentum, or both. In old  umbi-
lical ruptures, the quantity of omentum is sometimes
very great.  Mr. Ranby says, that he found two ells and
a half of intestine in one of these, with about a third
part of  the stomach, all adhering together.   Gay and
Nourse found the liver in the sac of an umbilical hernia;
and  Bohnius says that he did also.  But whatever are
the contents, they are originally contained in 'he sac,
formed by the protrusion of the peritoneum.
  In recent and small ruptures, this sac  is very visible;
I. it in old and large ones, it is broken  through at the
Knot of the navel, by the pressure and weight of the
contents, and is not always to be distinguished; which
ia the reason why it has by some been doubted whether
t!:is kind of rupture has a hernial sac or not.
  Infants are very subject to this disease, in a small de-
gree, from the separation of the funiculus; but in gene-
r I they either get rid of  it as they gather strength, or
are easily cured by wearing a proper bandage.  It is of
still more consequence to get this  disorder cured in fe-
males, than in males; that its return,  when they are
become adult and pregnant, may be prevented as much
as possible; for at this time it often happens, from the
too great  distention of the belly, or from unguarded
motion when the parts are upon the stretch.
  Dr. Hamilton has met with about two cases aunually
for the space of  seventeen years, of umbilical hernia,
which strictly deserve ihe name of congenital umbili-
ci! hernia.  The funis cuds in a sort of Bag, containing
some of the viscera, which puss out of the  abdomen
through an aperture in the situation of the navel.   The
•i" elling is not covered wilh skin, so that the contents
of the hernia can be seen through the  then distended
covering of tiie cord.  The disease Is owing to  n pre-
ternatural deficiency in  ihe  abdominal muscles, and
the hope of cure must be regulated by  the size of the
uiilformatioii and quantity of viscera protruded.
  Hekma  uteri.  Hysterocele.  Instances  have oc-
curred (,f  the uterus being thrust through the rings of
the muscles; but this is scarcely to be discovered, unless
In a pregnant state, when  tho strueglings of » child
      4'22
would discover the nature of the disease.  In that state,
however, it could scarcely ever occur.  It is the cerexis
of Hippocrates.
  Hernia vaginalis.  Elytrocele. Vaginal hernia.  A
tumour  occurs within the os externum of the vagina.
It is elastic, but  not  painful.   When compressed, it
readily recedes, but is  reproduced by coughing, or even
without this, when the pressure is removed.   The in-
conveniences produced are an inability to undergo much
exercise or exertion ; for every effort of this sort brings
on a sense of bearing down. The vaginal hernia pro-
trudes in the space left between the uterus and rectum.
This space is bounded below by the peritoneum, which
membrane is forced downwards, towards the perinaeum;
but being unable to protrude further in that direction, is
pushed  towards the back pan of the  vagina.  These
cases probably are always intestinaL   Some herniae
protrude at the anterior part of the vagina.
  Hernia varicosa.  See Circocele.
  Hernia ventosa.   See Pneumatocele.
  Hernia ventralis.  Hypogaslrocele.  Theventrai
hernia may appear at  almost any point of the anterior
part of the belly, but is most frequently found between
the recti muscles. The portion of intestine, &c. Sec. is
always contained in a sac made by the protrusion of the
peritonaeum.  Sir A. Cooper imputes its causes to the
dilatation ofthe natural foramina, for the transmission
of vessels, to congenital deficiencies,  lacerations, and
wounds of the abdominal  muscles,  or their  tendons
In small ventral herniae, a second fascia is found  be
neath the superficial one ; but in large ones ihe latter ia
the  only one covering the sac.
  Hernia ventriculi.   Gastrocelc.   A ventral  nip-
lure caused by the stomach protruding through  some
patt of the abdominal  parietes.  Il rarely occurs, but it
does it generally at or  near the  navel.
  Hernia  vesicalis.   Hernia cystica;  Cystocele
The urinary bladder is liable lo be thrust forth, from its
proper situation, either through the openings in  the
oblique  muscle, like the inguinal hernia, or under Pou
pan's ligament, in the same manner as ihe femoral.
  This is not a very frequent species of hernia, but does
happen, and has as plain and  determined a character
as any oilier.
  HERNIA'RIA.  (From hernia, a rupture : so called
from  its supposed efficacy in  curing  ruptures.)  The
name of  a genus of plants in the Linnaean system.
Class, Pentandria ; Order, Digynia,  Rupture-wort.
  Hernia glabra.  The systematic name of the rup-
ture-wort.  Hei-niaria.   This  plant, though formerly
esteemed as efficacious in  the cure of hernias, appears
lo be destitute, not only of such virtues, but of any other.
It has no smell nor taste.
  HERNIO'TOMY.  (Herniotomia; from hernia, and
rtpvu, to cut)  The operation to remove the strangu
lated part in cases of incarcerated herniae.
  HERPES.  From ip,io, to creep; because it creeps
and spreads about the skin.)  Teller.  A genus of dis-
ease in the class Locales, and order Dialyses of Cullen,
distinguished  by an  assemblage of  numerous  little
creeping ulcers, in  clusters, itching very much, and
difficult to heal, but terminating in furfuraceous scales.
  Bell, in his Treatise on Ulcers, arranges the herpes
among  the cutaneous ulcers,  and says, that  all the
varieties of importance maybe comprehended in the
four following species:
  1. Herpes farinosus, or what may be termed the dry
letter, is the most simple of all the species.  It appears
indiscriminately in different parts ofthe body, but most
commonly on the face, neck, arms and wrists, in pretty
broad spots and small pimples.  These are  generally
very itchy, though  not otherwise  troublesome; and,
after continuing a certain  time, they  at last  fall off in
Ihe form of a white powder, similar to fine bran, "cav-
ing the  skin below perfectly sound;  and again return-
ing in tho form of a red efflorescence, they fall off, and
are renewed as before.
  2. Herpes pustulosus.   This species appears in the
form of pustules, which originally are separate and dis-
tinct, but whicli afterward run together  in clusters.
At  first, they seemed lo contain nothing but a thin wa-
tery serum, which afterward turns yellow, nnd, exud-
ing over the whole surface ofthe part affected, it at last
dries into a thick crust, or scab; when  this falls off, the
skin below frequently  appears entire,  with onlv a
slightdegree of redness on its surface;  but on some oc
n-isimw  vvhftu the matter has probably been more acrid, 
HEW
HIE
 upon the scab falling off, the skin is found slightly ex-
 coriited. Eruptions of ihis kind appear most frequently
 on the face, behind the ears, and on other parts of tlie
 head; and  they occur most commonly in children.
   3. Herpes miliar is.  The miliary tetter. This breaks
 out indiscriminately over the whole body;  but  more
 frequently about the loins, breast, perimeuin, scrotum,
 and inguiua, than iu other parts.  It generally appears
 in clusters, though sometimes in distinct rings, or cir-
 cles, of very minute pimples, the resemblance of which
 to the millei-seed has  given rise to the denomination of
 the species.  The pimples are  at first,  though small,
 perfectly separate,  and contain nothing but a  clear
 lymph, which, in the course of this disease, is excreted,
 upon the surface, and there forms into  small distinct
 Kales;  these, at last,  fall oh",  and leave  a considerable
 degree of inflammation below, and still continues to
 exude fresh matter, which likewise  forms into cakes,
 and so falls off as before.   The itching,  in this species
 of complaint, is  always  very lioublesoiuc; and the
 matter  discharged  from the  pimples is so tough and
 viscid, that  every thing applied to tlie part adheres, so
 as to occasion much trouble aud uneasiness on its being
 removed.
   4. Herpes exedens, the eating and corroding tetter (so
 called from  its destroying or corroding the parts whicli
 it attacks.) appears commonly, at first, iu the form of
 several  small  painful  ulcerations, all  collected  into
 larger spots, of different sues and of various figures,
 with always more or leesof an erysipelatous inflamma-
 tion.  These ulcers discharge large quantities of a  thin,
 sharp, serous matter, wliich sometimes forms into small
 crusts, that in  a short time fall off; bul most frequently
 the discharge is so thin and acrid as to spread  along ihe
 neighbouring parts, where it soon produces the same
 kind of sores.  Though these ulcers do not, in general,
 proceed  farther than the cutis vera,  yet sometimes the
 discharge is so very penetrating and  corrosive as to
 destroy the skin, cellular substance, and, on some occa-
 sions, even the muscles themselves.   It is this species
 that should  be termed the depascent, or phagedenic
 ulcer, from the great destruction of parts which it fre-
 quently occasions.  See Phagedana.
   Herpes  ambucativa.   A species of  erysipelas
 whicli moves from one part to another.
   Herpes depascens.  The  same as herpes exedens.
 Stee Herpes.
   Herpes esthiomznos.  Herpes destroying the skin
 by ulceration.
   Herpes farinosus.   See Herpes.
   Herpes firus.  An erysipelas.
   Herpes indica.  A fiery, itchy herpes, peculiar to
 India.
   Herpes miliaris.  See  Herpes.
   Herpes periscelis.  The shingles.  See  Erysipe-
 las phlyctanodcs.
   Herpes pustulosus. See Herpes.
   Herpes serpioo.  The  ring-worm.
   Herpes siccus.  The dry, mealy tetter
   Herpes zoster.    Shingles  encircling the  oody.
 See Erysipelas.
   HERPETIC.  Relating to Herpes
   He'rfeton.  (From icnrcu,  to creep./   A creeping
 pustule, or ulcer.
   HESPERIDE.E.   (From  Hesperides, whose  or-
 chards,  according to the poets, produced golden ap-
 ples.)   Golden or precious fruit.  The name of an
 order of  plants in Linnaeus's Fragments  of a Natural
 Method,  consisting of  plants which  have rigid ever-
 green leaves;  odorous and polyandrous flowers; as
 the myrtle, clove, &c.
   l" The Heuzhera  Cortusa of  Michaux, is  a native
 plant, growing  in woods, from New-England to Caro-
 lina.  The  root is one of the strongest  vegetable as-
 tringents. As such, it has  been employed in various
 complaints,  to  which  astringents are  adapted,  and
favourable reports are made of its operation.   Hitherto
it  has been more known  as an external application
than as an internal remedy."—Big. Mat. Med.  A.]
  HEWSON,  William, was  born  at  Hexham, in
1739.  After serving an apprenticeship to his father, he
came to London at the age  of twenty, and resided
with Mr. John Hunter, attending also the lectures of
Dr. Hunter.   His assiduity and skill were so conspicu-
ous, that he  was appointed to superintend the dissect
ing room, when  the  former  went  abroad  with  the
army in 1760.  He then studied a vear at Edinburgh.
 nnd in 1762 he became associated with Dr. Hunter in
 delivering the anatomical  lectures, and ho was after-
 ward allowed an upiirliment in Windmill street.  Here
 he pursued  his  anatomical  invesiigati .ns,  and  his
 experimental inquiries into the properties of the blood,
 of which he published an  account in 1771  He also
 communicate^ to  the Rovul Society several papers
 concerning the lymphatic  system in  birds and fishes,
 lor w hich he received ihe < 'opk-yan medal, and was
 soon alter elected  a fellow of that  body   He began a
 course of lectures alone in 1T7-J, having quitted I»r
 Hunter two years  before, and soon became veiy popu-
 lar.  Iu 1774, he published his work on ihe Lymphatic
 System.   Bul not  long alter, his Ine was  tc'i initiated
 by a fever,  occasioned by  a  wound  received in dis-           fc
 seeling a  morbid body, in the thirty-fifth year of his
 age.
   HEXAGV MA.  (From fl-.six, and yon;, a woman
 or w ii'e.)  The name of an order of plants in the  sex
 ual system, which, besides  Ihe clpvsic chaiacter, have
 six females or pistils.
   HEX.VNDR1A.  (From/*:, six, nnd jir/p, a man,or
 husband.)  The name of a class of plains in ihe sexual
 system, consisting of plants with heiiuaphrodite flow-
 ers that  arc furnished wilh six stamens of an equal
 length.
   Hexaph.v rmacum.  (From l\, six, and tj>tippaxov,
 a  medicine.)   Any medicine  in  the composition of
 w Inch arc six ingredients.
   Hibe RMi-us lapis.  See Lapis hibernicus.
   HIBISCUS.  (From  i/ejif, a  stoik, who is said to
 chew it, and inject il as a  clyster.)  The  name of a
 genus of plants in the  Linnaean system.  Class, Mono
 delphia; Order, Polyandna.
   Hibiscus  abelmoschus.  Tlie  systematic  name of
 the plant, the seeds of which arc culled musk seed;
 Abehnoschus;  Granum moschi;  Moschus Arabum;
 JEgirptia moschata;  Banna moschuta; Alcca;  Alcea
 Indica;  Alcea JEgypliaca villosa ;  Abrctte ; Abel-
 mosch; Abelmusk.  The plant is indigenous in Egypt,
 and in many parts of both the  Indies.  These seeds
 have the flavour of musk.   The best comes from  Mar-
 linico.  By the Arabians,  they are esteemed cordial,
 and are mixed with their coffee, to wliich they impart
 their fragrance.  In this country they are used by the
 perfumers.
   HICCUP.   Singultus.    A  spasmodic affection of
 the diaphragm, generally  arising from irritation pro-
 duced by acidity in the stomach, error of diet,  Sec.
   HIDRO'A.  (From  t6pus, sweat.)  A pustular dis
 ease, produced by sweating in hot weather.
   HIDRU'CRISIS.  (From tSous, sweat, and xptvu,
 to judge.; A judgment foruieu from the sweat of the
 patient.
   HIDRO'NOSOS.  (From tSpus, sweat, and voaos,
 c disease )  The sweating sickness.
   HIDROPV'RETUS.   (From  t&pus,  sweat,  and
 rrvptlos, a fever.)   Sweating fever.
   HIDROTICA.   (From  tipus, sweat.)   Medicines
 which cause perspiration.
   HIDROTOPOIE PICA.  (From tipus, sweat, and
 woicu, to make )  Sudorifics.
   HI'ERA.   (From  ttpos,  holy;  and from  itpai", a
 hawk.)  Holy.   Also applied  to  some plants which
 hawks are said to be fond of.
  Hiera picra.  (From ttpos, holy, and mxpos, bitter.
 Holy bitter.)   Pulvis  aloeticus, formerly called hiera
 logadii, made in the fonn of an electuary with honey.
 It  is now kept in the form of dry powder, prepared by
 mixing Socotorine aloes, one pound, with three ounces
 of white canella.
  Hierabo'tane.  (From  tepos, holy, and Po"]arn, an
 herb: so called from its supposed virtues.)  See  Ver-
 bena trifoliata.
  Hieraca'ntha.  (From icpai;, a hawk, and  aiOos, n
 flower:  so named because it seizes  passengers  as a
 hawk does its prey.)  A sort of thistle.
  HIERA'CIUM.  (From itpal, a hawk: so called be-
cause hawks feed upon it, or because it was said that
hawks applied  the juice of it to cleanse their eyes.)
The name of a genus of plants in  the Linna-an sys-
tem.  Class, Syngencsia ; Older, Polygamia  cqualis.
 Hawk-weed.
  Hieracium pilosella.  The  systematic name of
the mouse-ear, Auriculamuris; Pilosella; Myosolis;
 Hieraculum.  This common  plant contains  a bitter
lactescent juice, which has a slight degree of astrin-
                                        423 
HIP
HIP
gency.  The roots are more powerful than the leaves.
They are very seldom used in this country.
  Hieka'culuMi  See Hieracium.
  HIERA'NOSOS.   (From  ttpos, holy,  and vooos, a
disease: so called because it was supposed to be  that
iisorder which our Saviour cured in tliose who .were
said to be possessed of devils.)  The eujlepsy.
  Hibka'ticum.   (From  ttpos, holy.)  A poultice for
the stomach, so  named from its supposed divine vir-
tues.
  Highgnle resin.  See Fossil copal.
  HIGHMORE,  Nathaniel, was  born at Fording-
bridgo, in Hampshire, in  1613.   After  graduating at
Oxford, he settled at Sherborne, where ho obtained
considerable reputation  iu practice, and died in 1684.
He pursued the  study of anatomy with zeal, though
with limited opportunities of dissection; and his name
has been attached to a part, though not originally dis-
covered by  him, namely, the Antrum Maxillare, wliich
had been before  mentioned  by Casserius.   His prin-
cipal  work  is "Corporis humani Disquisitio  anato-
mica," printed  at the Hague  in  1651,  with  figures,
chiefly from Vesalius.  He  also published two disser-
tations on Hysteria and  Hypochondriasis; and a his-
tory of Geneiation.
  Highmore's antrum.  See Antrum of Highmore.
  Hioue'ro.  The calabash-tree, the fruit of wliich is
said to be febrifuge.
  HILDA XCS.  See Fabricius, William.
  HILUM.  The scar, or point by  which the seed is
attached to its seed-vessel or receptacle, and through
whicli alone life and  nourishment are conveyed for the
perfecting of its internal parts.  Consequently all those
parts must be intimately connected with the inner sur-
face of this scar, and they ure all found lo meet there,
and to divide or divaricate from that point, more or
less immediately.  In describing the form or  various
external portions of any seed, the hilum is always to be
considered as the base.   When the seed is quite ripe,
the communication through this channel is interrupted,
it separates from the parent  plant  without injury, a
soar being formed on each.  Yet the hilum is so far
capable of resuming its former nature, that the moisture
of the earth is imbibed through it, previous to germi-
nation.—Smith.
  Himanto'sis.  (From tp.as, a thong of leather.)  A
relaxation of the uvula, when it hangs down like a
thong.
  Hi'mas   A relaxation of the uvula.
  Hin.  Hindisch.  Hing.   Assafcetida.
  HIP.   The ripe fruit of the dog-rose.   They are
chiefly used as a sweetmeat, or in a preserved state.
See Confectio rnsa canina.
  HIPPOCAMPUS.   (1-Ktroxapiros, the name of a sea
insect which  has a head like thai ofthe horse, and tail
like the xaprrn, or eruca.)  1. The sea-horse.
  2. Some  parts are  so called from their supposed re-
semblance.  See Cerebrum.
  HIPPOCA'STANU.M.  (From  jenroc, a horse, and
xa^avov, a chesnut:  so called from its size.)  See  .Es-
cvluti hippocastanum.
   HIPPOCRATES,  usually called the father  of phy-
sic, was born in  the island of Cos, about 460 years be-
fore Christ.  He is reckoned the 18th lineal descendant
from ^Esculapius, the profession of medicine  having
been  hereditarily followed in that family, under whose
direction tlie Coan school attained ils high  degree of
eminence, and by the mother's side he is said to have
descended  from  Hercules.   Born wilh  these  advan-
tages, and stimulated by the fame of his ancestors, he
devoted himself zealously to the  cultivation  of ihe
healing art.  Not content with the empirical prac-
tice,  which was derived fiom  his predecessors, he
■tudicd under Hcrodicus, who had  invented the gym-
nastic medicine, as well ns some  other philosophers.
But he appears to  have judged carefully for  himself,
and to have adopted  only those  principles, which
seemed founded  in sound reason.   He was thus ena-
bled to throw light on the deductions of experience, and
tfeiir away the false  theories with which medicine had
been loaded by those who had no practical knowledge
of diseases, and bring it into the true path of observa-
tion,  under the guidance of reason.  Hence the physi-
cians of the rational  or dogmatic sect always acknow-
ledged him as their leader.  The  events of his life arc
involved in much obscurity and fable.  But he appears
 to have travelled much, rending at different olaces for
       •121
 some time, and practising his profession there.  He died
 at Larissa, in Thessaly, at a very advanced age, which
 is variously staled from 85 to  109 years.  He left two
 sons, Thessalus and Draco, who followed  the same
 profession, and a  daughter, married to his  favourite
 pupil Poly bus, who arranged and published his works;
 and he formed many other disciples.  He acquired a
 high reputation among his countrymen, which  has
 descended to modern times; and his opinions have been
 respected as oracles, not only  in the schools of medi
 cine, but even in  the courts of  law.  He has shared
 with Plato the title of divine:  statues and  temples
 have been erected to his memory, and  his altars co-
 vered with incense, like those of !/£sculapius himself.
 Indeed, the qualifications and duties required in a phy-
 sician, were never more fully exemplified than in his
 conduct, and  more eloquently described than by his
 pen. Ho is said to have admitted no one to his in
 structions without the solemnity of an oath, in whicli
 the chief obligations  are, the most  religions atten-
 tion to the advantages of the sick, the  strictest chas-
 tity, and inviolable secrecy concerning matters which
 ought  not  to  lie  divulged.   Besides these  charac-
 teristics, he displayed great simplicity,  candour, and
 benevolence, with  unwearied zeal, in investigating the
 progress and nature of disease, and in administering to
 their cure.   The books attributed  to him amount lo
 72; of which, however, many are considered spurious,
 and others have been much corrupted.  The most es-
 teemed, and generally admitted genuine, arc the essay
 " On Air, Water, and Situation," the first and third
 books of "Epidemics," thai on "Prognostics," the
 " Aphorisms," the treatise  " On  the Diet in acute Dis-
 eases,"  and that "On  Wounds of  the Head."  He
 wrote in the  Ionic  dialect, in a pure but remarkably
 concise style.   He was necessarily  deficient in the
 knowledge of anatomy, as the  dissection of human
 bodies was not then allowed ;  whence hi3 Physiology
 also is, in many respects, erroneous: but he, iu a greal
 measure, compensated  this by unceasing observation
 of diseases, whereby he  attained so  much skill in
 pathology  and therapeutics, that he has  been regarded
 as the  founder of medical science: and his  opinions
 still influence the healing art in a considerable degree.
 He diligently investigated the several  causes of dis-
 eases,  but especially their symptoms, which enabled
 him readily to distinguish them from each other: and
 very few of those  noticed by him  are now unknown,
 mostly retaining  even the same  names.  But he  is
 more  remarkably  distinguished by his Prognostics,
 which  have been comparatively lilllc improved since
 founded upon various appearances in the state of the
 patient, but especially upon the excretions.  His at
 tention seems to have been directed chiefly to these in
 consequence  of a particular  theory.  He  supposed
 that there are four humours in the body, blood,
 phlegm, yellow and  black bile, having different de-
 grees of heat or coldness, moisture  or dryness, and
 that to  certain changes in ihe  quantity or quality of
 these, all diseases might be referred; and farther, that
 in  acute disorders a concoction ofthe morbid humours
 took place, followed  by a critical discharge, which he
 believed to happen, especially on certain days.   But
 he seems  to have paid little,  if any, attention to the
 state of the pulse.  He advanced another  opinion,
 which  has since very generally prevailed, that there is
 a principle, or power in  tlie  system, which he called
 Nature, tending to the  preservation of health, aud the
 removal of.disease.   He, therefore, advised practition-
 ers carefully  to observe  and promote  the efforts of
 nature, at the same  time correcting morbid stales by
 their opposite:, and endeavouring to bring  back tho
 fluids into their proper channels.  The chief part of
 his treatment at first was a great restriction of the diet;
 in very acute  diseases merely allowing the mouth to be
 moistened occasionally for three or four days, and only
 a more plentiful  dilution  during a fortnight, piovidcd
 the strength would bear it; afterward a more substan-
 tial diet was directed, but hardly any medicines, except
 gentle  emetics, and  laxatives, or  clysters.  When:
I these n.eans  failed, very active purgatives  were em
| ployed, as hellebore, elaterium, Sec.  or sonietimes the
i sudorific regimen, or  garlic and otlier  diuretics.  He
I seems cautious in  the use of narcotics, but occasionally
 had recourse  to some ol" the preparations of lend, cop-
| per, silver, and iron.  He bled freely in cases of e\u cum
I pain or inflammation, sometimes opening two veins m 
HOD
HOL
once, so ws to produce fainting; and also took blood
often by cupping, but  preferably from a remote  part,
with a view of producing a revulsion.  Where medi-
cines fail, he recommends the knife, or even fire, ns a
last resoui-.e, and  he  advises trepanning, iu cases of
violent headache.  But he  wishes the more ditlicult
operations of surgery to be performed only by particular
persons, who might thereby acquire more expertnesS.
  HIPPOCRATIC. Relating  to Hippocrates.  Sec
Fades hippocratica.
  Hippola'pathum.  (From Imros, a horse, and Xaira-
9ov,  the  lapaihiiin.)   A  species  of  lapathum;  so
named from its size.   See Rumex paticntiu.
  Hippoma'rathrum.  (From  ijr7ro5,  a horse, and
paoaQpov, fennel: so named from its size.) See Peuce-
danunt silnus.
  Hipposlli num.  (From iirroj, a horse, and otXivov,
purslane; so named because il resembles a large kind
of purslane.)   See  Smyrnaum oltisatrum.
  HlPPU RIS. (From'irTToj, a horse, and ovpa, a tail.)
1.  Some herbs are thus named  because they resemble
a horse's tail.
  2. The name of  a genus of plants in the  Linntenn
system. Class, Monandria; Order, Monogynia. Mare's
tail.
  Hippuris vulgaris.  The systematic  name of the
horse's or mare's tail.  Equisetum; Cauda equina.   It
possesses  astringent qualities, and is frequently used
by the common people as tea in diarrhoeas and haemor-
rhages   Tbe  same virtues are also attributed to the
Equisetum arvense, fiuvialile,  limosum, and other
species, which are directed indiscriminately  by the
term Equisetum.
  HIPPCS.  (From Imros, a horse; because the eyes
of tliose who labour under this atiliclion are continually
twinkling and trembling, as is  usual with those who
ride on horseback.)  A repeated dilatation and alter-
nate constriction of the pupil, arising from spasm, or
convulsion of ihe iris.
  Hir.  (From  x«p,  the hand.)  The palm of the
hand.
  Hira.   (From Air, the palm of the hand ; because
it is usually found empty.)   The inteslinum jejunum.
  HIRCUS.   'Tragus. The goat.
  Hircus bezoarticus.   {Quasi hirtus;  from bis
shaggy hair.)  The goat which affords  the oriental
bezoar.
  Hi'rquus.  (From tpxos, a  hedge;  because it  is
hedged in by the eyelash.)  The angle ofthe eye.
  H1RSUTIES. A trivial name in Good's Nosology
."or a species of  disease in whicli hair grows in extra-
neous parts, or superfluously in parts where it naturally
grows.   Trichosis hirsuties.
  HIRSUTUS.  Hairy:  applied to leaves,  petals,
seeds, &c of plants ;  as the petals of the Mmyanthcs
trifoliata and Asclepias crispa: the seeds of the Scan-
dix trichosperma.
  HI'RTUS.  (A contraction of hirsutus.)   Hairy:
applied to stems of plants, as that cf the Cirastium al-
pinum.
  HIRU'DO.  (Quasi  haurudo; fiom haurio, to draw
out: so named from its greediness to suck blood.) See
Leech.
  Hirudo medicinalis.  Sec Leech.
   HIRUNDIXA'RIA. (From hirundo, the swallow:
so called  from the resemblance of its pods to  a swal-
low.)  Swallowwort,  or  asclepias.  See Lysimachia
numu'-jtria and Asclepias vincetoxicum.
   Hi*fNDO.  (Abharendo; from its sticking its nest
to tne eaves of houses.*i
   1. The swallow
   2." The cavity m the bend ofthe arm.
   Hispi'dula.   (From  hispidus, rough:  so named
from  the rough, woolly surface of its stalks.)   Sec
Gnaphalium.
  HISPIDUS.  Bristly: applied lo stems, seeds, &c.
of plants.  The Borago officinalis is a good example
ofthe Caulus hispidus: the seeds of the Daucus carota,
and Galium boreale.
  HOARHOUND.  See Marrubium.
  HODGES, Nathaniel, son of the Dean of Hereford,
was born at Kensington, and graduated at Oxford  in
1659.   He then settled in London, and continued there
iuring the plague, when mostother physicians deserted
their post. He was twice taken ill, but by timely reme-
dies recovered   He afterward published an authentic
account  of the disease, which appears  to have de-
stroyed 68,596 persoiw  In the year 1665.  It is to b(
regretted, that a person who  had performed such ar
important and dangerous service to his follow-citizena
should have died in prison, confined for debt, in 1684
  HOFFMANN, Frederic, was bom at Halle, in
Saxony, 1660.  Having  lost his parents from an epi
demic disease, he  went to study medicine at Jena,
where he graduated in 1681.  The year following hr
published an  excellent  tract,  " De Cinnabari  Ami
monii,"  wliich gained him great applause,  and nume-
rous pupils to attend a course of chemical lectures,
Which he delivered there,  lie then practised his pro-
fession for two years at Miudeu wilh very good suc-
cess; and niter travelling  to  Holland and  England,
where he received  many marks of distinction, he was
appointed, on his return in 1685, physician to the gar-
rison, and subsequently to Frederic William, Elector
of Brandenburgh, and the whole principality of Min-
den.  He wns, however, Induced to settle, in 1688, as
public physician al Halberstadt; where he  published  a
treatise,  "  De Insufficiencia Acidi  el  Viscidi."   A
university being founded at  Halle, by  Frederic III.,
afterward first King of Prussia, Hoffman  was  ap-
pointed, in 1693, primary Professor of Medicine, and
composed the Statutes of that institution,  and recom-
mended Stahl as his colleague.  He was  most active
in his professional  duties;  and by the eloquence and
learning displayed  in his lectures and publications, he
extendtd his own reputation, and that of the new uni
versiiy.   He was admitted into the scientific societies
at Berlin,  Petersburgh,  and  London ;  and had  the
honour of attending many of the German  courts as
physician.   Haller  asserts that he  acquired great
wealth by the sale of various chemical nostrums.  He
examined many of the mineral waters in Germany,
particularly those of Seidlitz, wliich he first introduced
lo public notice in 1717.  The veai alter  he com-
menced the publication of his " .Melicitia Rationrdis
Systematica," which was received with great applause
by the faculty in various parts of Europe,  and is said
to have  occupied  him  nearly twenty years.  He also
published two volumes of " Consultations," and tliree
books of select chemical  observations.  In 1727, he
was created Count Palatine, by the Prince of Swart-
zenburgh, whom he carried through a dangerous dis-
ease.  About seven years after, he attended Frederic
William, King of Prussia, and  is said by dignified
remonstrance to have  secured himself  against  the
brutal ruedness shown by that monarch to  those about
him; he  was ultimately distinguished  with great
honours, and invited strongly to settle  at Berlin, but
declined it on account of his advanced age.   He con-
tinued to perform his duties at  Halle till 1742, in which
year he died.  Hoffman was a  very voluminous writer.
His works  have been collected in  six folio volumes,
printed  at Geneva.  They contain a great mass of
valuable practical matter, partly original, but detailed
in a prolix manner, and intermixed  with much  hypo-
thesis.  He has the merit, however, of first turning the
attention of  practitioners to the morbid affections of
the nervous system, instead of framing mere  mechani
cal or chemical theories: but he did not carry the doc-
trine to its fullest  extent,  and retained some of the
errors of the  humoral  pathology.   He pursued  the
study of chemistry and pharmacy with considerable
ardour; but his practice was cautious, particularly in
advanced age, trusting much to vegetable simples.
   [Hoffman's anodyne liquor.  Formerly so called ,
now known by the name of compound  spirit of Sul
phuric ether.  A.]
   Hog's fennel.  See Peucedanum.
   [Hog-tooth spar. A variety of calcareous spar.  A.]
   Ho'lcimos.  (From cXxu, to draw.)  It sometimes
means a tumour ofthe liver.
   HOLCUS. 1. The  name  of a genus  of plants in
the Linnaean system.  Class, Polygamia;  Order, Mo
noecia.  ,
   2. The Indian millet-seed, which is said to be mitt]
tive.
   Holcus sorgum  Guinea corn.
   HOLERACEUS.  See Oleraceovs.
   [HOLYOKE,  Dr. Edward.  This  beloved ano
venerated  man  was- born at  Marblehead,  Mass. in
1<28.  The house in which he was born is still stand-
ing. He was graduated at Harvard  University in 17-16
and settled  in this place in  1749, where he has ever
since, for a period of 80 years, resided, useful, iieio-ved,
                                        4ar. 
HOR                                            HOR
and honoured  He was married, the first time in 1755,
and a second lime in 175i).   He had by the second
marriage 12 children, of" whom only two survive.  His
only child by his first wife died in infancy  He has
lived in his mansion-house, in Essex-street, for the last
66 years,  and at one  period of his  practice, he  has
stated that there was not a dwelling-house in Salem
which ho had not visited professionally.   For a long
period he nearly engrossed ihe medical practice of the
place, and is known to have made a hundred profes-
sional visits in a day.  This was  in May or June of
1783, at which  time the measles prevailed epidemi-
cally,   lie teissed his long life in almost uninterrupted
health, without any of tliose accidents and dangers
which  his skill  was exerted to remedy and remove in
others, ard his old age has  been almost without inlir- j
mity,  and  literally without decrepitude.  Who that{
saw iiini does not recollect his firm and elastic step and
his cheerful looks on the day of his  hundredth anni-
versary ?  To much exercise and greal temperance he
was disposed io  am mule his health and advanced age.
And when to these causes we add those of piousopinions,
virtuous practices, ami a calm, cheerful, and contented
spirit, we  shall  have disclosed much of the secret of
his corporeal advantages.  Of his temperance we are
induced to make one remark, that it was  not a system
of rules in  diet  and regimen, but a temperance of mo-
derate desires.  He enjoyed all  the bounties of Provi-
dence with remarkable appetency, bul his well-regu-
lated  mind always saved him from excessive  indul-
gence.  Of his  exercise some  idea may be formed by
a computation whicli he made a short time before his
decease, that he had walked in the course of his prac-
tice, a distance  whicli  would reach three times  round
theglobe.   He died in 1821).  A.J
  Hollow leaf.  See Concavus.
  HOLLV.   See Ilex.
  Holly, knee.  Sec liuscus.
  Holly, sea. See Eryngium.
  Hol.mi'scus.   (Din;. ofoXuos, a mortar.)
  1. A small mortar.
  2. The cavity of the large teeth, because they  pound
the food as in a mortar.
  HOLMITE.  A  new mineral composed of lime,
carbonic   acid,  alumina,  silica,  oxide  of iron, and
water.
  Holophly'ctides. (.From oXos, whole, and $\vk]is,
a pustule.)   Little  pimples all over the body.
  Holo stes.  See Holosteus.
  Holo'steum. See Holosteus.
  Holo'steus.  (From oXoj, whole, and oj-tov, a  bone)
Glue-bone.  See Osteocolla.
  Holoto'nicus.  (From  oXos, whole, and rttvu, to
stretch.)   A term formerly applied to diseases accom-
panied with universal convulsion, or rigour.
  HOLY  THISTLE.  See Centaurea benedicta.
  HOLYWELL.  There  is  a mineral  water at this
place  arranged under the class of simple cold, waters,
remarkable for  its purity.  It possesses similar virtues
to that of Malvern. See Malvern water.
  Ho  ma.  An anasarcous swelling.
  Hombcrg's phospkorus.  Ignited muriate of lime.
  Homberg's salt. See Boracic acid.
  HOMOGENEOUS.  (Homogeneus; from opo$, like,
nnd ytvos, a kind.) Uniform, of a like kind or species,
ofthe same quality.  A term used in contradistinction
to heterogeneous, when the parts of the  body  are of
different qualities.
  HOMOPLA'TA.  (From  upos, the shoulder, and
tiXala, the blade.)  See Scapula.
  HONEY.  See Mel.
  HONEY STONE.  Mellite.  Crystalhartzof Moris.
Pyiamidal honey-stone  of Jameson.   This is of a
honey coliur,  distinctly  crystallized, and occurs on
bituminous wood and earth coal, and is usually accom-
panied with sulphur at Artern, in Thuringia.
   11' >.\ EY-SUCKLE.   See Lonicerapeiiclymcnum.
   Homled leaf.   ( 'ucullatus.
   HOOPING-COUGH.  See Pertussis.
   HOP.   Sec Humulus lupulus.
   IlopLocnRi'sMA.  (From orrXoi',  a  weapon, and
XPtopa, a salve.)   A salve which was ridiculously said
to cure wounds by consent; that is, by anointing the
Instiiiment with which the wound was made.
   HORDE ULUM.  (lliiiiinutiveof'Aordeum, barley.)
A little tumour on the eyelids,  resembling a barley-
corn.  A  stye.   Scarnn remarks- the slye  is strictly
       426
only a little bile, which projects from the edge of fbe
eyelids, mostly  near the great angle of Ihe eye. This
little tumour, like the furuuculus, is of a 'dark  red
colour, much inflamed, and a great deal more painful
than might be expected, considering its small size. The
latiercircumstance is partly owing to the vehemence
of the  inflammation producing the stye, and partly tc
the exquisite sensibility and tension of the skin, which
covers the edge of the eyelids.  On this account, the
hordeolum very often  excites fever and restlessness in
delicate, irritable constitutions; it suppurates slowly
and imperfectly ; and, when suppurated, has  no ten-
dency to burst.
  The stye, like other furunculous inflammations, forms
an exception to  the general rule, flint the best mode in
which iiillammatory swellings can end, is resolution;
for  whenever a furunculous inflammation extends so
deeply as to destroy any of the cellular substance, the
little tumour can never be resolved, or only imperfectly
si i.  This event, indeed, would rather be hurtful, since
there  would s-rill  remain  behind a greater oi  smaller
portion of  dead  cellular membrane; which, sooner or
later, might bring on a renewal of the stye in the same
place  as  before,  or  else become converted into  a
hard indolent body, deforming tlie edge of the eyelid.
  HORDEUM.  (Ab  horrore  arista; from  the  un-
pleasantness of  its beard to the touch.)  1. The name
of a genus of plants in the Linnaean system.  Class
Triandria;  Order, Digynia.  Barley.
  2. The pharuiacopxial nanieof  the common barley
See Hordcum vulgare.
  Hordeu.m causticum.   Sec Cevadilla.
  Hordeum distichon. This plant affords the barley
in common use.  See Hordeum vulgare.
  Hordeum perlatum.  See Hordeum vulgare.
  Hordeum vulgare.  The systematic name of the
common barley. The  seed called barley, is obtained
from several species of hordeum, but principally from
the vulgare,  or common  or Scotch  barley,  and the
distichon,  or hordeum gallicum vcl mundatum, or
French barley, of Linnaeus.  It is extremely nutritious
and mucilaginous, and in common use as a drink,
when boiled, in all inflammatory diseases and affec-
tions of Ihe chest, especially where there is cough or
irritation about the fauces. A decoction of barley with
gum,  is considered a useful diluent and demulcent in
dysury and strangury; the gum mixing with the urine,
sheaths the urinary  canal from the  acrimony cf the
urine.   Among the  ancients,  decoctions of" barley,
itpitir), were the  principal medicine, as well as aliment,
iu acute diseases.   Barley  is  freed from its  shells in
mills, and iu this state called Scotch and French barley.
In Holland, they rub  barley into small  round grains,
somewhat like  pearls, whicli is therefore called pearl
barley, or  hordeum perlatum.
  HORIZOXTALIS.  Horizontal: applied to leaves,
roots, Sec  which spread in  the greatest possible degree;
as the leaves of Gentiana  campestris, and roots of tho
Laserpitium prutenicum.
  HO'RMINUM.   (From oppau, to incite:  named
from ils supposed qualities ot provoking venery.)  See
Salvia sclarea.
  HORN.  An animal substance chiefly membraneous,
composed of coagulated albumen, with a little celatin,
and about  a half per cent, of  phosphate  of lime.
The horns of the buck and hart are of a different
nature, being intermediate between  bone and  horn.
Sec Cornu.
   Horn silver.   A chloride of silver.
   HORNBLENDE.   A sub-species of straight-edged
augite. There are three varieties of it:
   1. Common hornblende,  which i3of a greenish black
colour: is an  essential  ingredient of the mountain
rocks, syenite and green-stone,  and occurs  frequently
in granite, gneiss, &c. It is found  abundantly in the
British isles, and on the Continent.
   2. Hornblende  slate, of a  colour  intermediate be-
 tween green and  black.   It occurs  in  beds of gneiss
 in many  parts of Scotland, England, and the Conti-
nent.                                       •
   3. Basaltic hornblende, of a velvet black colour.   It
is found imbedded in basalt,  along  with olivine and
 augite, at Arthur's Seat, near Edinburgh, an J in basal-
 tic rocks of England, Ireland, and the Continent.
   HORNSTONE.   Professor  Jameson's  ninth  sub
species of rhomboidal quartz.
   HORRIPILA'TIO.  Horripilation.   (From hirroi 
HUM
HUM
 and pilus, a hair.)  A shuddering or a sense of creep-
 ing in different parts of the body.  A symptom of the
 approach of fever.
   Horse-chtsnut.   See JEsculus hippocastanum.
   Horse-raciish.   See Cochlearia armoracia.
   HOUSE-TAIL.  See Hippurus vulgaris.
   HORSTIL'S, Gregory,  was  bom at  Torgau,  in
 1578.  After studying in different partsof Germany
 and Switzerland, lie graduated at Basil in 1606, and
 was soon after appointed to a medical professorship at
 Wittenburg.  But two years after he received  a simi-
 lar appointment at Giessen, and was made chief phy-
 sician of Hesse ; where he attained considerable repu-
 tation in his profession.   In 1722 he went to Ulm, on
 an invitation from  the magistracy as public physician
 and president of the college ; where his learning, skill,
 and humanity, procured him general esteem.  He died
 iu 1636.  His works were collected by his sons in three
 folio volumes.
  HO RTUS.   (From orior, to rise, as being the place
 whore vegetables grow up )  1. A garden.
  2. The genitals of a woman, which is the repository
 of the human semen.
  Hortus siccus.  A collection of dried  plants
  HOUNDS TONGUE.   See Cynoglossum,
  HOUSE-LEEK.  See Sempervivum tectorum.
  HUBER, John James, was  born  at Basle in 1707,
 and graduated  there  at  the age of -J:', after studying
 Under the celebrated Haller  at.d other able  teachers.
 Two  yeais after he was appointed physician to the
 Court  of Baden  Dourlach.  He materially assisted
 Haller in his work on the Botany of Switzerland, and
 was consequently  invited by him in 1738  lo be dis-
 sector at  Gottingen.
  He  speedily rose to considerable reputation there,
 and received different public appointments.  He had
 likewise  the honour of being  elected into the most
 celebrated ofthe learned societies in Europe. He died
 in 1778.  The  chief objects of his research  were the
 spinal marrow, and the nerves originating fiom it: lie
 also inquired into the supposed influence of the imagi-
 nation of the mother on the foetus, and into the cause
of miscarriages.
  [HULL, Dr.  Amos G.   This gentleman is a living
 practitioner of physic and surgery in the city of New-
 Fork.  He has paid particular attention to the cure of
 Reducible Hernia, and  has succeeded beyond all other
 surgeons in the cure of this frequent complaint.   Prac-
 titioners  have most usually directed  their patients to
 apply a truss.  Dr. Hull, however, in  attending more
 particularly and personalty to the adaptation of  trusses
 to different kinds of Reducible Hernia, found lhat they
 were all made upon erroneous principles.  He has ac-
cordingly invented  a truss differing from all preceding
trusses, and it  has the general approbation of  practi-
tioners in this country, for its simplicity and superior
 utility.  He has improved  upon those he first made,
and he now calls  it hi3 improved hinge  and pivot
Truss, for an account of which see article, Truss.  A.]
  HULME, Nathaniel, was born at Halifax, in York-
shire, 1732,  and bred to the profession of a  surgeon-
 apothecary. After serving some time in the navy, he
graduated at Edinburgh in  1765.  He then settled in
 London, and was soon after appointed physician to the
 General Dispensarv the first institution of that kind
 established in the metropolis.  About the year 1775 he
 was elected physician to the Charter-house. In 1807
 he  died,  in consequence of a severe bruise by a fall.
 He was  author of several dissertations on scurvy,
 puerperal fever, Sec.   He also made a series of expe-
 riments on the  light spontaneously emitted from vari-
 ous bodies, published in the Philosophical Transac-
 tions :  and  he was one of the  editors of the London
 Practice of Physic.
  HUMECT A NTI A.  (From humecto, to make moist.)
 Medicines which are supposed capable of softening by
 making the solids of the body moist.
  HUMERAL.  Humeralis.  Belonging to the hume-
 rus or arm.
  Humeral artery.  Arteria humeralis.  Brachial
 artery.  The axillary artery, having passed the tendon
of the  greal pectoral  muscle, changes its name to the
brachial or humeral artery, which  name it retains in
its course down the arm to the bend, where it divides
into the radial and ulnar arteries.  In this course it
 gives  off several muscular branciies, three of which
 onlv deserve attention: L  The arteria profunda suoe-
 rior, which goes round the back of the arm  to the ei
 terior  muscle, and is often named the upper niuscultu
 artery. 2. Anotheilike it, called arteria profunda in-
Jertor, or the lower muscular artery.  3.  Ramus anas-
 tomotic^ major, which anastomoses round the elbow
 w ith the branches of the ulnar artery.
  Humeralis musculus.  See Deltoides.
  HU'MEllL'S.  (From upos, the shoulder.)
  1. The  arm, as  composed of hard and soft parts,
 from the shoulder to the forearm.
  2. The shoulder.
  3. The bone of the arm, or os humeri, os brachii.  A
 long cylindrical bone, situated between the scapula and
 forearm.   Its upper extremity is  formed somewhat
 laterally and internally, into a large, round, nnd smooth
 head,  whicli is admitted into the glenoid cavity of the
 scapula.  Around the basis of this head is observed  a
 circular fossa, deepest anteriorly and externally, which
 forms what is called the neck of the bone, and from
 the edge of which  arises the capsular ligament, which
 is further strengthened by a strong membraneous ex-
 pansion, extending lo the upper edge of the glenoid
 cavity, and to the coracoid process of tlie scapula; and
 likewise by the  tendinous expansions of the muscles,
 inserted into the head of the liiimcius.  This capsular
 ligament is sometimes torn  in  luxation, and becomes
 an obstacle to the easy reduction of the bone.  The
 articulating surface of the head is covered by a car-
 tilage, which is thick in  its  middle part,  and thin to-
 vvards its edges;  by whicli means it is more convex in
 the recent subject than in the skeleton.   This upper
 extremity,  besides the round  smooth head, affords two
 otlier smaller protuberances.   One of these, which is
 the largest of the two, is of an irregular oblong shape,
 and is placed at the back of the head of the bone, from
 whicli it is separated by a kind of groove, that makes
 a part of the neck.  This tuberosity is divided, at its
 upper part, into three surfaces; the first of these, which
 is the smallest and uppermost, serves for the insertion
 of the supiaspinatus muscle;  the second or middle-
 most, for the insertion of the  infraspinatus; and the
 third,  which is the lowest and hindmost, for the inser-
 tion of the teres  minor.   The other smaller  tuberosity
 is situated anteriorly, between the larger one and the
 head of the humerus, and serves for the  insertion of
 the snbscapularis muscle. Between these two tube-
 rosities there is a deep groove for lodging the tendinous
 head of the biceps brachii;  the capsular  ligament of
 the joint affoiding here a prolongation, thinner than
 the capsule itself", which covers and  accompanies this
 muscle to its fleshy portion, where il gradually disap-
 pears  in the adjacent cellular  membrane.  Immedi-
 ately below its neck, the os humeri begins to assume a
cylindrical  shape, so that here the  body of the bone
may be said lo  commence.   At its  upper part is ob-
served a continuation of  the  groove for the biceps,
which extends downward, about the fourth part of
 the length  of the bone  in  an oblique direction.   The
edges of this groove arc continuations ofthe greater and
smaller tuberosities, and serve for the attachment of
the pectoralis, lalissimus dorsi, and teres major mus-
cles.  The  groove itself is lined wilh a glistening sub-
stance like cartilage, but w hioh seems to be nothing
more than  the remains of tendinous fibres.   A little
lower down, towards the external and anterior side of
the middle  of the bone, it is seen rising into a rough
ridge for the insertion of the deltoid muscle.  On each
side of this ridge the bone is smooth and flat, for the
lodgment of the  braehialis internus  muscle; and be-
hind the middle part of the outermost side of the ridge
is a channel, for Ihe transmission of vessels into  the
substance of the bone.  A Utile lower down, and near
the  inner side of the ridge, there is  sometimes seen
such another channel, which is intended for the same
purpose.  The os humeri, at its lower extremity, be-
comes gradually broader and  flatter, so as to have  this
end nearly of a triangular shape. The bone, thus ex-
panded, affords two surfaces, of which  the anterior
one is  the broadest, and somewhat convex; and  the
posterior one narrower and smoother.  The  bone  ter-
minates in  four large processes, the two outermost of
which are called condyles, though not designed for the
articulation of the bone.  These condyles, whicli  are
placed  at some distance from each other, on each side
of the bone, are rough and  irregular protuberances,
formed for the insertion of muscles and ligaments, and
differ from each otlier iu size and shape.  The external
                                       427 
HuN
HUN
connyle, when the arm is in the most natural position,
Is found to be placed somewhat fonvarder than the
other.  The internal condyle is longer, and more pro-
tuberant, than the external.  From each of these pro-
cesses a ridge is continued  upwards, at the side or the
bone.  In the interval between the two  condyles are
placed  the two articulating  processes, contiguous to
each other, and  covered with cartilage.  One of these,
which is the smallest, is formed into  a small,  obtuse,
Binooth head, on which the radius plays.   This little
head is placed near the external condyle, as a  part of
wliich it has  been sometimes described.   The other,
and larger process, is composed of two lateral-protu-
berances and a middle cavity, all of which are  smooth
and covered  with cartilage.   From  the manner in
which the ulna  moves upon this process, it has gotten
the name of trochlea, or pulley.  The sides of this pul-
ley are unequal; that which is towards the little head,
is the highest of the two; the other, vv hich is contigu-
ous to  the external condyle, is more slanting, being
situated obliquely from within outwards, so that when
the forearm is fully extended, it docs not form a straight
line with ihe os humeri, and, for the same reason, when
we bend the elbow, the hand comes not to the shoulder,
as it might be expected to do, but to the forepart ofthe
breast.  ~ There  is  a cavily al  the root of these pro-
cesses,  on  each of the two  surfaces of the bone.  The
cavily on the anterior surface is divided by a ridge into
two, the external of which  receives  the end of the
radius, and the  internal  one  lodges the coronoid pro-
cess of the uina in the flexions of the forearm.   The
cavity on the posterior surface, at the basis of" the pul-
 ey, is much larger, and lodges the olecranon when the
arm  is extended.   The internal structure of the os
humeri is similar to that of other long bones.  In new-
oorn infants, both the ends of the bone are cartilagi-
nous, and the large head, with the two tubercles above,
and the condyles, with the two articulating processes
below, become epiphyses before they are entirely united
,o the rest of the bone.
  HU'MILIS.  (From htnni, on the ground : so named
because it turns the eye downwards, and is expressive
of humility.)  See Rectus  inferior oculi.
  HUMITE.   A mineral  of a reddish  brown colour
found  near Naples, and named by Count Bournon in
nonour of Sir Abraham Hume, a distinguished culli-
valor of mineralogy.
  HU'MOR.    (Ab  humo,  from the ground ; because
moisture springs from the  earth.)  Humour, a general
name for any fluid of the body except the blood.
  Humor vitreus.  The  vitreous humour of the eye,
 which  takes its  name from the resemblance to melted
glass, is less dense than the crystalline but  more than
the aqueous  humour; it is very considerable in the
 human eye, and seems to be formed by the small arte-
ries that are distributed in cells of the hyaloid mem-
brane ;  it is heavier than common water, slightly albu-
 minous and saline.
   HUMOUR.  See Humor.
   Humour, aqueous.  See Aqueous humour.
   Humour, vitreous.  See Humor vitreus.
   Humours of the Eye.  See Eye.
   HUMULIN.   The narcotic principle of the  fruit of
 tlie hop.  See Hamulus.
   HU'MULUS.  (From humus, the ground: so named
 because, without factitious support, it creeps along the
 ground.)  The name of a  genus of plants in the Lin-
 naean  system.   Class,  Diacia; Older, Pentandria.
 The hop.
   Humulus  lupulus.  The systematic name of the
 hop-plant.   Lupulus;  Convolvulus  perennis.  The
 hop is the floral leaf or  bractea of  this plant: it is
 dried and used in various  kinds of strong beer.  Hops
 have a bitter taste, less ungrateful than most of the
 other strong bitlers, accompanied with some degree of
 warmth nnd aromatic flavour, and are highly intoxi-
 cating.   The hop-flower  also exhales a considerable
 quantity of its narcotic power in drying; hence those
 who sleep in the hop-houses are with difficulty roused
 from their slumber.  A  pillow stufl'ed with these flow-
 ers is said to have laid our late monarch to sleep when
 other lemedies had failed.  The young sprouts, called
 hop-tops, if plucked when only a foot above the ground,
 and boiled, are eaten, like asparagus, and arc a whole-
 Home delicacy.  The active or  narcotic principle of the
 hop, is called humulin.
   HUNGER.  Fames.  "The want of solid aliments
       428
is c"nara cterized by a peculiar sensation in the region
of the s, omach, and by a general feebleness, more or
less mar ted.  This feeling is generally renewed alter
the stomach has been for some time empty; it is varia-
ble in its intensity and its nature in  different individu-
als, and even in  the same individual.   In some its
violence is excessive, in others it is scarcely felt; some
never feel it, and eat only because the hour of repast
is come.   Many persons  perceive a drawing, a pres-
sure more or less painful  in the epigastric region, ac-
companied by yawnings,  and a particular noise, pro
duced by the gases contained in the stomach, wliich
becomes contracted.  When this want is  not satisfied
it increases, and may become a severe pain: thesama
takes place with the sensation of weakness and gene-
ral fatigue, which is  felt, and which may increase,
so as to  render  the motions  difficult, or even im-
possible.
  Authors distinguish in hunger, local phenomena, ant
general phenomena.
  This distinction is good in itself, and may be useful
for study; but have not  mere gratuitous suppositions
been described as local or general phenomena of hun
ger, the existence of which was rendered  probable by
this theory ?  This point of physiology is one of those
in which the want of direct experiment  is the most
strongly felt.—The  pressure and contraction  of" the
stomach are considered among the  local  phenomena
of hunger: 'the sides of that viscus,'  it is said, 'be
come thicker; it changes its form and situation, and
draws the duodenum a little towards it; its cavity con
tains saliva mixed with  air, niucosilies,  bile, which
has  regurgitated in consequence of the dragging of
the  duodenum; the quantity of these humours in
creases in the stomach in proportion as hunger is of .
longer continuation.   The  c>\tic bile does not flow
into the duodenum; it collects in the gall-bladder; and
it  becomes abundant and black according to the con-
tinuance of abstinence.   A change takes  place in the
order ofthe circulation  of the digestive  organs; the
stomach receives less blood, perhaps on account ofthe
flexion of these vesscK, whicli is then greater; perhaps
by the compression of the nerves, in consequence of
this confinement, the influence of which upon the cir
dilation will then he diminished.  On the other hand,
the  liver, the spleen, the epiploon,  receive more, and
perform  the  office of diverticula:  the liver and the
spleen, because they are less supported when  the sto-
mach is empty, and then present a more easy access
to the blood; and the epiploon, because the vessels arc
then less fiexuous,' Sec.   The most of these daia are
mere conjectures, and nearly devoid of proof.   After
twenty four, forty-eight, and even sixty hours of com-
plete abstinence, Dr. Magendie says he never saw tho
contraction and  pressure of the stomach of  wliich
some authors speak: this organ has always presented
lo him  very considerable dimensions, particularly in
its splenic extremity ;  it was only after the fourth and
fifth day lhat it appeared to ltlurn upon itself, to di
minish  much in size, and  slightly  in position ; even
tliose effects are not strongly markied unless fasting lias
been very strictly observed.
   Bichat  thinks that  the pressure  sustained by trie       »
empty stomach is equal to that which it supports when
distended by aliments, since, says he, the sides of the
abdomen are compressed in proportion as the volume
ofthe stomach diminishes.  The contrary of this may
be easily proved by putting one or two fingers into the
abdominal cavity, after having made an incision in its
sides; it will then be easily seen that the pressure sus-
tained by the viscera, is, in a certain degree, in direct
proportion to the distention of the stomach;  if the
stomach is full, the finger will be stronger pressed, and
the  viscera will press outward to  escape through the
opening;  if  it is empty, the  pressure  will be very
trifling, and the  viscera will have little tendency i<:
pass out  from the abdomina". cavity.   It must  be un-
derstood that in  this experiment the pressure exertec
by the abdominal muscle, when they are relaxed, ought
not  to be confounded wilh that which they exert w lien
contracted with force.   Also, when  the  stomach is
empty,  nil the reservoirs conlaiiued in the abdomen
are  more  easily distended  by the  matters wliich re
main some time in them.  Perhaps this is be princi
 pal  reason why bile then accumulates  in  'he gall-
bladder.  With regard  to  the presence of bile in the
stomach, that borne persons regard as the cause of 
HUN
IIUIS
ttungfr, unless m certain sickly cartes  bile d<  *  1 ot
enter it, though it continues to flow into the siu.u. in-
testine.
  The quantity of mucus that the cavity of the sto-
mach presents is so much greater in proportion to the
prolongation of abstinence.
  Relatively to the quantity of  blood which goes to
the stomach when empty, in proportion lo the volume
of its vessels, aud the mode of circulation which then
exists, the general opinion  is thai it receives less of
this  fluid than when il  is full of aliments; but, far
from boi.'ig in this respect in opposition with the other
abdominal organs, this disposition appears to be com-
mon to all the organs contained in the abdomen.
  To the general phenomena of hunger is ascribed  a
weakness and diminution  of the action of all  the
organs; the circulation and  the respiration become
Blow, the heat of the body lowers, the secretions dimi-
nish, the whole of the functions are exerted with more
difficulty.  The  absorption alone is said to become
more active, but nothing is strictly demonstrated in
this respect.
  Hunger, appetite itself, which is only its first degree,
ought to  be distinguished from  that feeling which in-
duces us to prefer one sort of food to another, from that
which causes  us, during a repast, to choose one dish
rather than another, ir.
  These  feelings are very different from real hunger,
which expresses the true wants of the economy ; they
iu a great measure depend on civilization, on habits,
and certain ideas relative to the properties of aliments.
Some of them are iu unison with the season, the cli-
mate, and then  they are equally legitimate as hun-
ger itself; such is thai which inclines us to a vegetable
regimen  in  hot  countries, or  during  the  heats of
cummer.
  Certain circumstances  render  hunger  more intense,
and  cause it lo return at nearer intervals; such as a
cold and dry  air, winter, spring, cold baths, dry fric-
tions upon the skin, exercise on horseback, walking,
bodily fatigue, and generally all the causes that  put
tlie action of the organs in play, and accelerate ihe nu-
tritive process with wliich hunger  is essentially con-
nected.  Some substances, being introduced into the
stomach, excite a feeling like hunger, but which ought
not to be confounded with it.
  There are causes which  diminish the intensity of
hunger, aud  wliich  prolong the periods at wliich  it
habitually manifests itself; among this number are the
inhabiting of hot countries, and humid places, rest of
the  body and mind, depressing  passions,  and  indeed
all the circumstances thai interrupt the action of the
organs, and diminish the activity of nutrition.  There
Are also substances wliich, being brought  into the di-
gestive canals, prevent hunger, or cause it to cease, as
opiuinjiot drinks, Sec.
  With res|iect to the cause of hunger, it has been, by
turns, attributed to tlie providence of the vital princi-
ple, to the frictions of the sides of the stomach against
each otlier, to the dragging of the liver upon the dia-
phragm, to the action of  bile upon the stomach, to the
acrimony and acidity ofthe gastric juice, to fatigue of
the contracted fibres of tbe stomach, to compression of
the nerves of this viscus, see Sec.
   Hunger arises, like all other internal sensations, from
tlie action of the nervous system; it has no other scat
than this system itself, and no other causes than the
general laws of organization.  What very well proves
the truth of this assertion is, that  il sometimes conti-
nues though the stomach is filled with  food; thai ii
cannot be produced though the stomach  has  been
some time empty; lastly, that it is so subject io habit
as to cease spontaneously after  the habitual hour of
repast is over.   This is true  not only  of the feeling
which takes place in the region of the  stomach, but
also ofthe general weakness that accompanies it, and
which, consequently, cannot be considered as real,  at
least in the first in.-ta.nt in which it is manifested."
   HUNTER, William, was born in 1718, at Kilbride
in Scotland.   He was educated for the church at Glas-
gow;  but feeling scruples against subscription,  and
having become acquainted with the celebrated Cullen,
be determined to pursue the medical profession.  After
living three  years wilh lhat able  teacher, who then
practised as a surgeon-apothecary at  Hamilton, he
went to Edinburgh in November, 1740; and in the fol-
lowing summer came to London with a recommenda-
tion to Dr. James Douglas, who engaged him to assiit
in his dissections, and superintend  the education of
his son.   He wti.-, also enabled by that physician's libe-
rality to attend St.  George's Hospital, and other teach-
ers; but death  deprived  him of so valuable a friend
within a year.  However, he remained in ihe family,
and prosecuted his studies wilh great zeal.  In 1743,
lie communicated to the Royal Society a paper on the
structure and diseases of articulating cartilages, which
was  much admired.  He now formed  the  design of
teaching anatomy ; and, alter encountering some dif-
ficulties, commenced by giving a course on the opera-
lions of surgery to n society  of navy surgeons  iu lieu
of Mr. Samuel  Sharpe.   At first he felt considerable
solicitude  iu  speaking in public;  but  gradually this
wore off, and lie evinced a remarkable facility iu ex-
pressing himself with perspicuity and elegance.   He
gave so much satisfaction, lhat he vv as requested to ex-
tend the plan to anatomy, which he begun accordingly
in 1746.  His success was  considerable, but  having
somewhat embarrassed himself at first by assisting his
friends, he was obliged  to  adopt proper caution  in
lending  money; which, with his talents, industry, and
economy,  enabled  him to acquire an ample fortune.
In a7-1.-. ho accompanied  his pupil, young Douglas, on
a tour,  and having seen  the admirable  injections of
Albinus at Leyden, he was inspired with u  strong
emulation to excel in that branch.  On his return, he
relinquished the profession  of surgery, and devoted
himself to midwifery, to which his person  and man-
neis well adapted him; and  having been appointed to
the Middlesex and  British lying-in hospital-, as  well as
favoured by other circumslances, he made a rapid ad-
vance  in  practice.  In  17.)') he obtained a doctor's
degree  from Glasgow, and was afterward often  con-
sulted as a physician, in cases whicli required peculiar
anatomical skill.  Six years after, he was admitted n
licentiate  of the College in London ; and also a mem-
ber of the society, by which the  "  Medical Ohserva
tions and  Inquiries" were  published.    He enriched
that work wilh many valuable communications; par
ticularly an account of the disease, since called Aneu
rismal Varix, a case of emphysema, wilh practical re
marks,  wherein  he showed  the fat to be deposited in
distinct vesicles; and some observations on the retro-
version of the uterus: and, on the death of Dr. Fother-
gill, he  was chosen president of that society.  In 1762
he published his " Medical Commentaries," in which
he laid  claim, with much asperity, to several anatomi-
cal discoveries, especially relative  to  the  absorbent
system, in opposition to the second Monro, of Edin-
burgh.  He was extremely tenacious of his rights in
this respect, and would not allow them to be infringed,
even  by his own  brother.   It must be very difficult,
and of  little importance,  to decide such controversies;
especially ns the principal points concerning the ab-
sorbent system had been stated as  early as 1726, in a
work printed at Paris by M. Noguez. About the same
period,  the queen being pregnant, Dr. Hunter was con-
sulted;  and,  two  years  after, he was  appointed her
phvsician  extraordinary.  In 1767  he  was chosen a
Fellow of the Royal Society, to which  he  conimuni
cated some papers;  and, in the year  following, he
was appointed,  by the king, Professor of Anatomy to
the Royal Academy, on its  first  institution; he vva.-i
also elected into the Society  of Antiquaries, and some
respectable foreign associations.  In 1775 he published
a splendid work, which had occupied him for 24 yeais
previously, "The  Anatomy of tlie Gravid Uterus,"
illustrated bv plates, admirable for  their  accuracy, as
well  as elegance; among otlier improvements,  the
membrana decidua reflexa, discovered by himself, was
here first delineated. He drew up a detailed descrip-
tion of the figures;  which was published after his
death by  his nephew, Dr. Baillie.  Another  posthu-
mous publication, deservedly much admired, was the
"Two  Introductory Lectures"  to his anatomical
course.  As his wealth increased, he formed the noble
design of establishing au anatomical school; and pro-
posed to government, on the  grant of a piece of ground,
to build a proper edifice  and endow a  perpetual pro-
fessorship: but this not being acceded to, he set about
the establishment  In Great Windmill-street, where he
collected a most valuable museum of anatomical pre-
parations, subjects of natural history, scarce boo*\s,
coins, Sec to which an easy  access was always given.
He continued to lecture and practise till near the pe 
HUX
HYD
 ifod of his death, in 1783.  He bequeathed the use of
 his museum, for thirty  years, to Dr. Baillie; after
 which it was to belong to the University of Glasgow.
   HUNTER, John, was born  ten years after his bro-
 ther  William.  His  early education was much  ne-
 glected, and  his temper injured, through his  mother's
 indulgence.  At a proper age he was put under a rela-
 tion, a carpenter and cabinet-maker, who failed in his
 business.   Hearing, at this period, of his brother's suc-
 cess, he applied to become his ussistant, and accord-
 ingly came to London in the autumn of 1748.  He
 made such proficiency in dissection, that he was cnpa-
 )le of undertaking the demonstrations in the following
 reason.  During the summer he attended the surgical
 practice at different hospitals; and, in 1756, he was
 appointed  house-surgeon at St. George's.  He had
 been admitted  by his  brother to a  partnership in  the
 .ectures the  year before.  After labouring about ten
 tears with unexampled ardour in the study of human
 anatomy, he  turned his attention to that of other ani-
 mals, with a  view to elucidate physiology.  His health
 was so much impaired by these pursuits, that, in 1760,
 lie went abroad as surgeon on the staff, and thus ac-
 quired a knowledge of gun-shot wounds.  On his re-
 turn, alter three years, he settled in London  as a sur-
 geon, and gave instructions in dissection and the per-
 formance of operations;  and he continued, with great
 eeal,  his  researches into comparative anatomy and
 natural history.  Several papers were communicated
 by him to the Royal Society, of which he was elected
 a  member in 1767.  About this time, by his brother's
 interest,  he was appointed one of the surgeons at St.
 George's Hospital; and his professional reputation was
 rapidly increasing.  In 1771 he published the  first part
 of his work on the teelh, displaying great accuracy of
 research : und, two  years after, he began a course of
 lectures on the  principles of surgery.  He fell short of
 his brother in methodical arrangement,  and facility of
 expressing his  ideas,  and indeed  adopted a  peculiar
 language, perhaps in  part from the deficiency of bis
 education; but he certainly brought forward many in-
 genious speculations in physiology and pathology, and
 suggested some important practical  improvements,
 particularly the operation for popliteal  aneurism.  In
 1776 he was appointed  surgeon-extraordinary to lin-
 king; and  soon after received marks  of distinction
 from  several foreign  societies.  His emoluments in-
 creasing, he took a  large  house in  Leicester-square,
 nnd built a spacious museum, which he continued to
 store with subjects in comparative anatomy, at a very
 great  expense.  The post of Deputy-Surgeon General
 to the Army was conferred upon him in 1786; and, in
 the same year,  his great work on the venereal disease
 appeared, which will ever remain  a monument of his
 extraordinary sagacity and talent for observation.  He
 also published, at this period,  " Observations on the
 Animal  Economy,"  chiefly   composed   of  papers
 already printed in  the  Philosophical  Transactions.
 In 1790 lie was appointed Inspector-General  of Hos-
 pitals,  and Surgeon-General to the Army; when  he
 resigned his lectures to Mr. Home, whose sister he had
 married.  He had been for two years before labouring
 under symptoms of organic disease about the heart,
 which were aggravated by any sudden exertion or agi-
 tation of his mind; these increased progressively, and,
 in October 1703, while at the hospital, being vexed by
 some  untoward circumstance,  he suddenly  expired.
 He left a valuable treatise on the blood, inflammation,
 and gun-shot wounds,  which was published  soon after,
 with a life prefixed, by his brother-in-law.  His mu-
 seum  was  directed to be offered to the purchase of
 rovcriimeiit:  it was bought for 15,00©X and presented
 lo the College of Surgeons, on condition of their open-
 ing it  to public inspection, and giving a set of lectures
 annually,  explanatory of its contents.   The prepara-
 tions are n<-ranged so as to exhibit all the gradations of
 nature, from the simplest state  of animated existence
 up to man, according to the different  functions.  It
comprehends  also a large series of entire animals, ske-
letons of nlniost every  genus, and other subjects of na-
"ural history.
  HUUTSICKLE.  (So called because it is  trouble-
some to cut down, and sometimes notches  the sickle.)
See Centaurea cyanus.
  HUSK.   See Gluma.
  IIU X H A M, John, was born about the end of the 17th
century, and practised as a physician, with considcr-
      4J0
 able reputation, at Plymouth, where he died in 1768
 His writings display great  learning and talent  for ob-
 servation.  He kept a register of the weather and pre-
 vailing diseases  for nearly thirty years,  which  was
 published in Latin,  in three volumes.  He was early
 elected into the Iloya; Society,  and communicated
 several papers on pathology and morbid anatomy.  But
 his fame rests chiefly upon his " Essay on Fevers,"
 which  went through several editions: a  dissertation
 being afterward added on the malignant sore throat.
   HYACINTH.  1. A sub-species of pyramidal zircon.
 It comes from Ceylon, and is much esteemed as a gem.
   2. See Hyacinthus.
   HYACI'NTHUS.  (Said by the poets to be named
 from the friend of Apollo, who wes turned into ihis
 flower.)  The name of a  genus of  plants.   Class,
 Hexandria; Order,  Monogynia.
   Hyacinthus muscari.   Muscari.   The systematic
 name  of the musk-grape  flower, which, according to
 Ray, possescs emetic and diuretic qualities.
   Hyacinthus hon scrhtus.  Hare-bells.  The sys-
 tematic name of the blue-bells, so common in our
 hedges in spring.  The roots are bulbous ;  the flowers
 agreeably scented.   Galen  considered Ihe root as  a
 remedy in jaundice.   It is  ranked among the  astrin-
 gents, but of very inferior power.
   HYALITE. A transparent siliceous stone, whicli
 is often cut  into ring-stones, found near Frankfort on
 the Maine.
   HYALO'IDES. (Membrana hyaloides ;  from  iaXos,
 glass,  nnd ttios,  likeness.)    Membrana arachnoidea.
 Capsule of the  vitreous humour.  The  transparent
 membrane enclosing the vitreous humour ot* the eye.
   HYBERNACULt M.  This is defined by Linnaeus
 to be a part of the plant wliich protects the embryo
 herb from external injuries.
   An organic body which sprouts  from Ihe surface of
 different parts of a plant, enclosing the rudiments of tlie
 new shoot, aii>' which is capable of evolving a new in-
 dividual perfectly similar to the  parent.   This is  a
 modification ofthe definition of Grertner.— Thompson
   Hvboma.   A gibbosity ofthe spine.
   HYBRID.   (Afy4ri</a,fromtif?pi5, an injury; because
 its nature is tainted.)  A monstrous production of two
 different species of animals or plants.  In the former ii
 is called mongrel, or mule.  Neither the animal nor the
 seeds of hybrid plants propagate their species.
   HYDA'RTHRUS.  (From viup, water,  and apdpov,
 n joint )  Hydarthron.  Hydarthros.   Spina ventosa
 ofthe Arabian writers, R hazes and Avicenna.  White-
 swelling.  The wliite-swelling, in this country,  is  a
 peculiarly common and  exceedingly terrible discase-
 The varieties of white-swelling are very numerous, and
 might usefully receive particular appellations.  Sysie
 matlc writers have generally  been  content  with  a dis
 tinction into two kinds, viz.  rheumatic and  scrofulous
 The last species  of  the disease they also  distinguish
 into such tumours as primarily affect the  bones, and
 then the ligaments and soft parts; and into other cases,
 in which the ligaments and  soft parts become diseased
 before there is any morbid affection of the bones.
  These divisions, Mr. Samuel Cooper, in Iii3 Treatise
 on the Diseases of the  Joints, proves to be not suffi-
 ciently comprehensive; and the propriety of using the
 term rheumatic bethinks to  be very questionable.
  The  knee,  ankle, wrist,  and elbow, are ihe  joints
 most subject to white-swellings.  As the name of the
 disease implies, the skin is not at all altered in colour.
 In some instances, the swelling yields, in n certain
 degree, to pressure; but it  never pits, and is almost
 always  sufficiently firm to make an  uninformed ex-
 aminer believe that the bones contribute to ihe tumour
 The pain is point-times vehement from  the very first
 in other instances, there is hardly the least  paiii  in th
 beginning of the disease. In the  majority of scrofu
Ions w Idle -swellings, let the pain be trivial or violent
it is particularly situated in one part of the Joint, viz
cither the centre of the articulation, or tlie  Acad of the
 tibia, supposing  the  knee  affected.   Sometimes  the
 pain continues without interruption;  sometimes there
 are intermissions; and in other instances the pain
recurs  at regular times, so ns to have been called by
 some writers, periodical. Almost all authors describe
 the patient assuffering more uneasiness in the diseased
 part, when he is warm, and particularly when he is in
 Ihis condition in bed.
  At the commencement ofthe disease in the majority 
HYD
II YD
 nf .li-»ia,vros, the swelling  is very inconsuleroble, ot
 there is *:»cn no visible enlargement whatever.  In Ihe
 little  depressions, naturally situated on  each side of
 tlie patella  a fulness  first shows itself, nnd gradually
 spreads till over the affected joint.
   The patient, unable to bear the weight of his body on
 the disordered joint, in consi-quence of the great in-
 crease of pii-n thus created, gets into the hubit <;f only
 touching the ground wilh Ins toes:  and the knee being
 generally kept a little  bent in this manner, soon lo.-es
 thecapacityofbecomingcxtendedagain. VVhen white-
 swellings have lasted a while, the knee is almost always
 found in a permanent  sta.e of flexion.  In scrofulous
 cases of this kind, pain constantly precedes any appear-
 ance of swelling; but  the interval between the  two
 symptoms differs very much in different subjects.
   Tbe morbid joint, in  the course of lime, acquires  a
 vast magnitude.   Still the integuments retain their
 natural  colour, and remain unalfected.  The enlarge-
 ment of the articulation,  however,   always  seemt
 greater than it really is, in consequence of the emacia-
 tion ofthe limb both above and below the disease.
   An appearance of blue distended veins, nnd a shining
 smoothness, are the only alterations lo be noticed in
 Ihe  skin covering the  enlarged joint.   The shining
 smoothness seems attributable to the distention, wliich
 obliterates the natural furrows and wrinkles of the
 cutis.   When the joint is thus swollen, the integuments
 cannot be pinched up into a fold, ns they could in the
 stale of health, and even in the beginning of thedisease.
   As the distemper of the articulation  advances, col-
 lections of matter form  about the part, and at length
 burst.   The ulcerated openings sometime? heal up;  bin
 such abscesses arc generally followed by other collec-
 tions, whicli  pursue the same course.  In  some cases,
 these abscesses form a few months after Ihe first  affec-
 tion of  the joint; on other occasions, several  years
 elapse, and no suppuration of this kind  mokes its ap-
 pearance.
   Such terrible local mischief must necessarily produce
 constitutional disturbance.   The patient's health  be-
 comes gradually  impaired;  he loses  both his appetito
 and  natural rest and sleep;  his pulse is small and  fre-
 quent; and obstinate debilitating diarrhoea and profuse
 nocturnal sweats ensue.  Such complaints are sooner
 or later followed by dissolution, unless the constitution
 be relieved in time, cither by Hie amendment or remo-
 val  ofthe diseased pait.  In different patients,  how-
 ever, the course ofthe disease,  and ils e rile is upon  the
 system, vary very nun h in relation lo the rapidity with
 which they occur.
   Rheumatic white-swellings are very distinct diseases
 from the scrofulous distemper of large joints.  In  the
 first, the pain is  said never to occur without  being at-
 tended with swelling.   Scmfulous white-swellings, on
 the other hand, are alwuia preceded  by  a pain, which
 is particularly confined to one point of the articulation.
 In rheumatic cases, the pain is  more geneinl, and dif-
 fused over the whole joint.
   With  respect  to the  particular causes of  all  such
 white swelling* as come within the class of rheumatic
 ones, little is known.   External irritation, either  by
 exposure to damp or cold, or by the application of vio-
 lence, is often concerned in bringing on the  disease;
 but very frequently no cause of this kind can be  as-
 signed for the complaint.   As for scrofulous white-
 swellings, there  can be  no doubt that they arc under
 the  influence of a particular  kind  of constitution,
 termed a scrofulous or strumous habit.  Iu this sort
 of temperament, every  cause capable of exciting  in-
 flammation, or any u orbid and irritable state of a large
 Joint, may bring such disorder as may end in the severe
 disease of which we are now speaking.
   In a man of a sound constitution, an irritation of
 Ihe kitd alluded to might only induce common healthy
 inflammation of the affected joint
  In scrofulous habits, it also seems probable that the
 rritationof a joint is much more easily produced than
 n the other constitutions;  and  no one can doubt that,
 When once excited in  scrofulous habits, it  is much
 more dangerous and dillicult of removal than in  other
 patients.
  HYDATID.   (Hydat is; from viup, water.   LA
 very singular animal,  formed like a bladder,  and dis-
 ■enlled wilh  an aqueous fluid.  These animals are
sometimes formed in the natural cavities of the body,
•is the 'abdomen and ventricle*  of the brain, but  more
 frequently in the liver, kidney, and lungs, where Ihey
 produce diseased actions  of those viscera.  Cullca
 arranges  those  affections  m the class Local's,  an
 order Tumorce.  If the vires natuiae  medicatrices are
 not sullic ient to  effect a cure, the patient mostly falls a
 sucritice to their ravages.   Dr. Baillie gives the follow
 ing interesting  account  ofthe hydatids, as Ihey ate
 sometimes found in the liver:—'Then.- is no gland  in
 the human  body in whicli hydatids are so frequently
 found as the liver, except the kidneys, where ihey are
 still more common.  Hydatids of the  liver are usually
 found in  a cyst, which is fiequently of considerable
 size, and is formed of very Ii in materials, so  as to give
 to Ihe touch almost the feeling of cartilage.  This cyst,
 when cut into,  is obviously  Inniuntted, and is much
 thicker in one liver than another.  In some livers it is
 not thicker  thnn a  shilling, and in others it  is near a
 quarter of an inch  iu thickness.  The laminae which
 conlpose It are foimed of a white matter, m,il on ihe
 inside there is a lining of n pulpy subatain e, like the
 coagulable lymph.   The cavily  of the  cyst, I  have
 seen, in one instance, subdivided by a partition ol  this
 pulpy substance. In a cyst may be found one hydatid,
 or a  greater number of lliem.  They lie loone iu the
 cavity, swimming  in  a  fluid;  or some  of  them are
 attached lo ihe  side of the cyst.  They consist of a
 round hag, whicli is composed of n while, semi-opaque,
 pulpy manor, and contain ti fluid capable of coagula
 fion.   Although the common colour of hydatids be
 white, yet  1  have occasionally seen  some of a  ligh*
 amber colour.  The bag of the hydatid consists of live
 laminae, and possesses a good deal of contractile power
 In one hydatid this coat, or hug, is  much thicker an'
 inoie opaque  than in another;  and even in  the saint
 hydatid, different parts of il will often differ in thicif
 nets.   On ihe inside of a hydatid, smaller ones an
 sometimes found, which are commonly not larger than
 ihe heads of pins, but sometimes they are even lar':c:
 in llieir size than a gooseberry.  These nre attached :-i
 the larger hydatid, either  al scattered irregular  ni»
 lances, or so as  to form small clusters; aud  they are
 also louiid  floating loose in the  liquor of the larger
 hydatids.   Hydatids of the liver are often found  un-
 connected wilh each other; but sometimes they have
 been  sail! to enclose each  other iu a series, like pill-
 boxes.  The  most  common  situation of hydatids of
 the liver is in its substance, and enclosed in a cyst;
 but they aie occasionally attached to the outer surface
 of' (he liver, hanging from il, and occupying more or
 less of the general cavily of the abdomen.  The origin
 and real nature of these hydatids are not fully ascer-
 tained ; il is extremely probable, however, lhat  they
 are a sort of imperfect animalcules.  There is no doubt
 at all, that the hydatids in the livers of sheep are ani-
 malcules; ihey have been  often seen to  move when
 laken out of the liver and put into warm water; and
 Ihey retain this power of motion lor a good n.xmy hours
 niter a sheep  has been killed.  The analogy is great
 between hydatids in the liver of a sheep and those of
 the human subject.   In  both, they are contained in
strong  cysts, and in both  they consist of the same
 white pulpy matter.  There is undoubtedly some  dif-
 ference between them  in simplicity of organization;
 Ihe hydatid in  the human liver being a simple uniform
 bag, and the hydatid iu that ol" a sheep having a nock
 and mouth appendant to  the bag.    This difference
 need be no considerable objection to the opinion above
staled.  Lite may be conceived to be attached to the
 most simple form of organization.  In proof of this,
 hydatids  have been found in the  brains of sheep, re-
Bembling almost exactly those in the human liver, and
 which have been n en to move and therefore are cer-
tainly known to  be animalcules.  The hydatids of the
 human liver, indeed, have not, as far as I know, been
 found to move when laken out of Ihe body and  put
 into warm water;  weic  ibis 10 have happened, no
 uncertainty would remain.   Il is not difficult to see n
good reason why there will hardly  occur any proper
opportunity of making this experiment. Hydatids are
 not very often  found in the liver, because it is not n
 very frequent  disease there; and the body is allowed
to remain for  so long a time artir  death before it is
examined, that the hydatids must have lost their living
 principle, even if they weie  animalcules, and it ap-
 pears even more  difficult to account for iheii prodtic
lion, according to the common  thorny of generation,
than for that of intestinal vvur- is   We do net get rid
                                        4'tl 
HYD
HYD
nt the difficulty by asserting, that the hydatids in'the
human liver are not living animals, because in sheep
they are certainly such, where the difficulty of account-
ing for meir production is precisely the same."
  2. The name of a lumour, the contents of which is
a water-like fluid.
  HYDERUS.  (From vltpos, ley-drops; from vSup,
water.)   An increased flow of urine.
  HV'DRAGOGUE.  (Hydragogus; from urjup, wa-
ter, and  ayu, to drive out.)    Medicines are so termed
which possess the  property of increasing the secre-
tions or  excretions of the bodv so as to cause the re-
moval of water from any of its cavities, such as ca-
thartics, &c.
  1IYDRARGYRATUS.  Of or  belonging to mer-
cury.
  HYDRA'llGYHUM. ('XSpapyvpos; fromu5up,wa-
ter, and  apyvpos, silver: so named from  its having a
resemblance to fluid  silver.)  Hydrargyrus.  '»'he
name in the London Pharmacopeia, and other works,
lor mercury.  See Mercury.
  Hydrargyrum jpr.ecipitatum album.  White pre-
cipitated mercury.   Calx hydrargyri alba.  Take of
oxymuriate of mercury, half a pound; muriate of
ammonia, four ounces; solution of subcarbonate of
potassa, half a pint; distilled water, four pints.  First
dissolve the muriate of ammonia, then the oxymuriate
of mercury, in the distilled  water, and add thereto the
solution ot  subcarbonate of potassa.  Wash the pre-
cipitated powder until it becomes tasteless; then  dry
it.  It is only used externally, in the form of ointment,
as an application in some cutaneous affections.
  Hydrargyrum purificatum.   Purified mercury.
Argcntum vivum purificatum.  Take of mercury, by
weight,  six pounds; iron tilings, a  pound. Rub them
together, and distil the mercury from an iron retort,
by the application  of heat to it.  Purified quicksil-
ver is sometimes administered  in its metallic state,
in doses of an ounce cr more, in constipation of  the
bowels.
  Hydrargyrus  acbtatus.  Mercurius acetatus;
Pilula Keyseri.  By this preparation cf mercury, the
celebrated  Keyser  acquired  an immense fortune in
curing the venereal disease.  It is an acetate of mer-
cury, and  tlierefoie termed hydrargyri acetas in  the
new chemical nomenclature.   The dose is from three
to five grains.  Notwithstanding the encomium given
to it by some, it does not appear to be so efficacious as
some other preparations of  mercury.
  Hydrargyrum cum creta.  Mercury with chalk.
Mercurius  alkalizatus.  Take of purified mercury,
by weight, three ounces; prepared chalk, five ounces.
Rub them  together, until the metallic globules disap-
pear.  This preparation is milder than any other mer-
curial, except the sulphuret, and does not so easily act
upon the bowels; it is therefore used largely by many
practitioners, and possesses  alterative  properties in
cutaneous and venereal complaints, in obstructions of
the viscera, or of the prostate gland, given in the dose
of 3ss  to  Z ss, two or three times a day.
  Hydrargyrus phosphoratus.  This remedy has
been observed to heal inveterate venereal ulcers in a
very short time, nay, in the course of a very few days,
particularly those about the pudenda.  In venereal in-
flammations of the eyes, chancres, rheumatisms, aud
chronic  eruptions,  it has proved of eminent service.
Upon the whole, if used with necessary precaution,
nud in the hands of a judicious practitioner, it is a
medicine mild and gentle in its operation.  The cases
in which  it deserves the preference over other mer-
curial preparations, are these: in an  inveterate stage
of syphilis, particularly in persons of torpid insensible
fibres; in cases of exostosis, as well as obstructions in
Ihe lymphatic system; in chronic  complaints of  the
skin.  The following is  the formula.  11. Hydrargyri
phosphorati, gr. iv.  Corticis ciiiiiaiiiomi  in pulverem
trili.gr.  xiv. Sacchari purif.  3 ss. Misce.  The whole
lo be divided into eight equal parts, one of which is to
be taken every morning and evening, unless salivation
takes place, when it ought to be discontinued.  Some
patients, however, will bear from one to two grains of"
the phosphate of quicksilver,  without inconvenience.
   Hydrargyrus prkiipitatus iinlreus. This pre-
paration is an oxide of mercury, and  nearly the same
with the hydrargyri oxydum cinircuin ol the London
pharmacopoeia.  It is used  as an alterative in cases of
win? arising from  ;ui admixture of rheumatism wilh
      432
syphilis.  It may he substituted for the hydrargyri!
sulphuratus ruber, in fumigating czaena, and venereal
ulcerated sore throat, on account of its not yielding
any vapour offensive to the patient.
  Hydrargyrus vitriolatus. Turpcthumminerale;
Mercurius emeticus flavus; Sulphas hydrargyri. For-
merly this  medicine was in more general use than in
the present day.  It is  a very powerful and active
alterative when given in small doses.  Two grains aa
on the stomach so as to produce violent vomitings.
is recommended  as an errhine in cases of amaurosis
In combination with antimony it acts powerfully oi
the skin.
  Hydrargyri  nitrico-oxydum.    Nitrico-oxydr.n
hydrargyri;  Hydrargyrus nitratus  ruber;  Mcrcu
rius corrosivus ruber; Mercurius pracipitatus com
sivus.   Nitric oxide of mercury.   Red precipitate
Take of purified mercury,  by weight, Ihree pounds
of nitric acid, by weight, a pound and a half: of dis
tilled water two pints.  Mix in a glass vessel, aud bo't.
the mixture in a sand-bath, until the mercury be dis
solved, the water also evaporated, and a white mas.-
remain.  Rub this into powder, and put it into anotlie
shallow vessel, then apply a moderate heat, and raise
the fire gradually,  until red vapour shall cease to rise
This preparation isveiy  extensively employed  by sur
goons as a stimulant and escharotic, but its'extiaordi-
nary activity does  not allow of its being given inter-
nally.  Finely levigated  and  mixed  wilh common
cerates, it is an  excellent application to indolent ul-
cers, especially those  which  remain  after burns and
scalds, and those in which the granulations are indo-
lent and flabby.  Il is also  an excellent caustic appli
cation to chancres.
  Hydrargyri oxydum cinkkkum. Oxydum hydrar-
gyri nigrum.  The gray or black oxide of mercury.
It has received several names; JEthiops per se ; Pul-
vis mercurialis cinercus; Jlcrcurius  cincrcus;  Tur-
pelhum nigrum ;  Mercurius pracipitatus niger. Take
of subrauiiate of mercury, an ounce; limewater, a
gallon.  Boil the submuriate of mercury in the lime-
water, constantly stirring, until a gray  oxide of mer-
cury is separated.  Wash this with  distilled  water,
and then dry it.  The dose  from gr. ii. to x.   There
are four other  preparations of this oxide in high esti-
mation:
  One made by  rubbing  mercury with mucilage of
gum-arabic.  Plonk, of Vienna, has written a  treatise
on the superior efficacy of this medicine.  It  is very
troublesome to make; and does not appear to possess
more virtues than some other mercurial preparations
Auother made by triturating equal parts of sugar aim
mercury together.  The third, composed of*huney oi
liquorice and purified meicury.  The fourth is the blut
mercurial ointment.   All  tjiese preparations  posses;
anthelmintic, antisypliilitic, alterative, sialagogue, and
deobstruent virtues, and  are exhibited in the cure
of worms, syphilis, amenorrhoea, diseases of the skin,
chronic diseases, obstructions of the viscera, &c.
  Hydrargyri oxydum nigrum.  See Hydrargyri
oxydum cinereum.
  Hydrargyri oxydum rubrum.  Oxydum hydrar-
gyri rubrum; Hydrargyrus calcinatus.  Red oxide
of mercury. Take of purified mercury by  weight n
pound.  Pour the mercury into a glass matrass, with
a very  narrow  mouth and broad bottom.  Apply a
lieatof C00°to this vessel, without stopping it, until the
mercury  has changed into  red scales: then reduce
these to a very fine powder.  The whole process may
probably require  an exposure of six weeks.   This pre-
paration of mercury is given with great advantage in
the cure of syphilis.  Its  action, however,  is such.
when given alone, on  the  bowelr,, as to require  the
addition of opium,  whicli totally prevents it.  It is also
given in conjunction with opium and camphire, as a
diaphoretic, in chronic pains and diseases of long con
tinuance.   It is given as an alterative and diaphoretic
from gr. ss. to ii every night, joined with camphoi
and opium, each  gr. one-foeerth  or  one-half.  It is
violently emetic  and cathartic in the dose of gr. iv. to
gr. v.
  Hydrargyri oxymurias.  Oxymuriashydrargyri;
Hydrargyrus  muriatus.   Oxymuriate  of  mercury.
Take of purified mercury by weight two pounds, sul
phuric acid by weight thirty  ounces, dried muriate of
soda four pounds.  Boil  Hie mercury with the sulphu-
ric acid in u glass vessel until the sulphate of mercurv 
HYD
HYD
 shall be left dry.  Rub this, when it is  cold, with the
 muriate  of  soda in an  earthen-ware mortar: then
 t'liblime it in a glass cucurbit, increasing the heat gra-
 mally.  An  extremely acrid  and violently poisonous
 prepaiation.
   Given internally in small doses properly diluted, and
 never in the  formof pill, it possesses antisyphilitic and
 Alterative virtues. Externally, applied in form of lotion,
 It facilitates  the healing of venereal sores, and cures
 the itch.  In  gargles for venereal ulcers in the throat,
 tlie oxymuriate of mercury  gr. iii. or iv. barley decoc-
 tion Ibj., honey of roses 3 jj., proves very serviceable;
 also  in  cases of tetters, from  gr. v. to gr. x. in water
 flbj.;  and for films and ulcerations of the cornea, gr. i.
 to water 3 iv.
   Mr. Pearson  remarks, that " when the sublimate is
 given to cure the primary symptoms of syphilis, it will
 sometimes succeed; more especially, when it produces
 a considerable degree of soreness ofthe gums, and the
 common specific effects of mercury in the animal sys-
 tem.   But it  will often fail of removing even a recent
 chancre; and where that symptom  has  vanished dur-
 ing tlie  administration of corrosive sublimate, I have
 known, says he, a three months' course of that medi-
 cine fail of securing the patient from a constitutional
 affection.  The result of my observation is, that simple
 mercury, calomel  or  calcined  mercury, are prepara-
 tions  piore to be confided in for the cure of primary
 symptoms, than corrosive sublimate.  The  latter will
 often check the  progress of secondary symptoms very
 conveniently, and I think it is peculiarly efficacious in
 relieving venereal pains, in healing ulcers of the throat,
 aud in promoting the desquamation of eruptions.  Yet
 eren in tliose cases it never confers permanent benefit;
 for new  symptoms will appear during  the  use of it;
 and on  many occasions it  will  fail of affording the
 least advantage to the patient from first to last.  I do,
 sometimes, indeed, employ this preparation in venereal
 cases; but it  is either at the beginning of a mercurial
 course, to bring the constitution under the influence of
 mercury at an early period, or during a course of in-
 unction, with tlie intention of increasing the action of
 simple  mercury. I sometimes also prescribe it after
 the conclusion of a course of friction, to support the
 mercurial  influence in  the  habit, in order to guard
 against the danger of a relapse.  But on no occasion
 whatever do  I think it safe to confide in this prepara-
 tion singly and uncombined  for the cure of any truly
 venereal symptoms."
  A solution  of it is  ordered  in the pharmacopoeia,
 termed Liquor hydrargyri oxymuriatis.  Solution of
 oxymuriale of mercury.  Take of oxymuriate of mer-
 cury, eight grains ; distilled water, fifteen fluid ounces;
 rectified spirit, a fluid ounce.  Dissolve the oxymuriate
 of mercury in the water, and add the spirit.
  This solution is directed  in order to facilitate the
 administration of divisions of  the grain of this active
 medicine.  Half an ounce of it contains one-fourth of
 a grain of the salt.  The dose  is  from one drachm to
 half an ounce.
  Hydrargyri sudmurias.   Submurias hydrargyri.
 Submuriate of mercury.  Calomelas.  Calomel.  Take
 of oxymuriate of mercury, a pound; purified mercury,
 by weight nine  ounces.  Rub them together until the
 metallic globules disappear, then sublime ; take out
 the sublimed mass, and  reduce it to powder, and sub-
 lime it in tlie  same manner twice more  successively.
 Lastly, bring  it into the state of very fine powder by
 the same process which has  been directed for the pre-
 paration of chalk.  Submuriate, or mild muriate of
 mercury, is one of the most  useful preparations of
 mercury.  As an anti-venereal it is given iu the dose
 of a grain night and morning,  its usual determination
 to the  intestines being prevented,  if necessary, by
 opium.  It is the  preparation whicli is perhaps most
 usually given in the other diseases in which mercury
 is employed, as in affections of the liver,  or neighbour-
ing organs, in cutaneous diseases, chronic rheumatism,
tetanus, hydrophobia,  hydrocephalus, and febrile affec-
tions, especially  those of warm climates.  It  is  em
ployed  as  a  cathartic alone,  in  doses from v. to xii.
grains, or to promote the operation of other purgatives.
Its anthelmintic  power is justly celebrated;  and  it is
perhaps  superior to the other mercurials in assisting
the operation  of diuretics in dropsy. From its specific
gravity it ought always to be given in  the form of a
solus or pill.
   Hydrargyri sulphuretum niorum.   Hydrargv-
 rus cum sulphure.  .rElhiop's mineral.  Take of purl
 fled mercury,  sublimed sulphur,  each a pound, by
 weight.  Rub them together, till ihe metallic globule*
 disappear.  Some suppose that the mercury is oxidized
 in  this process, but that is not confirmed by the best
 experiments.  The mercury, by this admixture of the
 sulphur, is deprived of its salivating power, and may
 be administered with safety to all ages and constitu-
 tions, as an anthelmintic and alterative.
   Hydrargyri sulphuretum rubrum.  Red sul
 phuretof mercury.  Hydrargyrus sulphuratus ruber,
 Minium purum; Minium  (Iracorum;  Ma suit epi-
 lepsia;  Atzcmafor;  Amnion; Azamar.   Vilruvius
 calls it anthrax.  A red  mineral substance  composed
 of mercury combined with sulphur.  It is either native
 or factitious.  The  native is an ore of quicksilver 1110
 derately compact, and of an elegant striated red colour.
 It is found in the dutchy of Douxponts, in the Palati-
 nate, in Spain, South America, &c.  It is called native
 vermilion, and  cinnabar  in flowers.  The factitious is
 thus prepared:  " Take of purified mercury, by weight
 forty ounces ; sublimed sulphur, eight ounces. Having
 melted the sulphur over ihe fire, mix in ihe mercury,
 and as soon  as the mass begins to swell, remove the
 vessel  from the fire,  and cover it wilh considerable
 force to prevent inflammation; then rub the mass into
 powder, and  sublime."   This preparation is esteemed
 a mild  mercurial alterative, and given to children in
 small doses.   Hoffman greatly recommends it as a
 sedative and antispasmodic.  Others deny that cinna-
 bar, taken internally, has any medicinal quality; and
 their opinion is grounded on the insolubility of it in any
 menstruum. In surgery its chief and almost only use is
 in the administration of quicksilver by  fumigation
 Thus employed it has proved extremely serviceable in
 venereal cases.  Ulcers and excrescences about the
 pudendum and anus in women, are particularly bene-
 fited by it; and  in these cases it is most conveniently
 applied by placing a red hot heater at the bottom of a
 night stool-pan, and after sprinkling on it a few grains
 of the red sulphuret of quicksilver, placing the | alient
 on the  stool.  To fumigate ulcers  in the throat, it is
 necessary to receive  Ihe fumes on the part affected,
 through the lube of a funnel.  By enclosing the patient
 naked in a box, it has on some occasions been contrived
 to fumigate the whole body at once, and in  this « ay
 the specific powers of the quicksilver have been very
 rapidly excited.
  This mode of curing the lues venerea is spoken of
 as confirmed; and the subject has of late years been
 revived in a treatise by Sabonette, and by trials made
 in Bartholomew's hospital.
  Mr. Pearson, from his experiments on mercurial fu-
 migation, concludes, that where checking the progress
of the disease suddenly is an object of great moment,
 and where the body is covered with ulcers or large
and numerous  eruptions, and in  general to ulcers,
fungi, and excrescences, the vapour of mercury is  an
application of great  efficacy and utility; but that it is
apt to induce a ptyalism rapidly, and great consequent
debility, and that for the purpose of securing the con-
stitution against a relapse, as great a quantity of mer-
cury must he introduced into the system, by inunction,
as if no fumigation had been employed.
  HYDRATE.   Hydroxure.   Hydro oxide.   A com-
pound of oxygen, in  a definite proportion, with water.
  HYDREL^E'UM.  (From viup,  water, and cXator,
oil.)  A mixture of oil and water.
  HYDRENTEROCE'LE.   (From viup, water, tv
Itpov, an intestine, and  xnXv, a tumour.)  A hydro-
cele, or dropsy of the scrotum, attended with a rup-
ture.
  HYDRIODATE.  A salt consistingof the hydriodic
acid, combined in a  definite proportion wilh an oxide.
  HYDRIODIC  ACID.   Acidum  hydriodicum.   A
gaseous acid in its Insulated stae-e.   " If four parts  of
iodine be mixed with one of phosphorus, in a  small
glass retort, applying a gentle heat, and adding  a few
drops of water from time to time, a gas comes over,
which  must  be  received in  the mercurial bath.  Ita
specific  gravity  is  4.4:  100  cubic  inches, therefore,
weigh 134.2 grs. ; It  is elastic and invisible, but has a
smell somewhat similar to that of muriatic acid.  Mer
cury after some time decomposes it, seizing ils iodine,
and leaving its  hydrogen, equal to one-half the on
ginal bulk, at liberty.  Chlorine, on the otlier  hand 
HYD
HYD
unites to Its hydrogen, and  precipitates the iodine.
From these experiments, il evidently consists of vapour
of iodine and  hydrogen, which combine in  equal vo-
lumes, without change of their primitive bulk.  Hy-
driodic acid is partly decomposed at a  red-heat, and
the decomposition is complete if it be mixed with oxy-
gen.  Water is formed, and iodine separated.
  We  can easily obtain an aqueous hydriodic acid
very economically, by passing  sulphuretted hydrogen
gas through a mixture  of  water and iodine  iu a
Woolfe's bottle.  On heating the liquid obtained, the
excess of sulphur flies off, and  leaves liquid hydriodic
acid.  At temperatures  below 262°, it  parts with its
water;  and becomes of a density = 1.7.  At 262° the
acid distils over.  When exposed to the air, it is speed-
ily decomposed, and iodine is evolved.   Concentrated
sulphuric and nitric acids also  decompose it.  When
poured inlo a saline solution of lead, it throws down a
tine orange precipitate.   With  solution of peroxide of
mercury, il gives  a  red precipitate; and with that of
silver, a white precipitate insoluble in ammonia.  Hy-
driodic acid may also be formed, by passing hydrogen
over iodine at an elevated tempeiature.
  The compounds of hydriodic acid with the salifiable
bases may be easily formed, either by direct combina-
tion, or  by acting on the basis  in  water, with iodine.
The latter mode is most economical.  Upon a deter-
minate quantity of iodine, pour solution of potassa or
soda, till the liquor ceases to  be coloured.  Evaporate
to dryness, and digest the dry salt in alkohol of the spe-
cific gravity 0.810, or 0 820.  As the iodate is not solu-
ble in this liquid, while the hydriodale is very soluble,
ihe  two salts easily separate from each other.   After
having washed the iodate two or three times with al-
kohol, dissolve it in water, ni»u neutralize it with ace-
tic acid.  Evaporate to dryness, and digest the dry salt
in alkohol, to remove the acetate.   After two or three
washings, the iodate is pure.   As for the alkohol con-
taining the hydriodate, distil it  off, and then complete
the  neutralization of the potassa, by means of a little
hydriodic acid separately obtained.   Sulphurous and
muriatic acids, as well as sulphuretted hydrogen, pro-
duce no change on the hydriodates, at the usual tem-
perature ofthe air.
  Chlorine, nitric acid, and concentrated sulphuric, in-
stantly decompose them, and separate the iodine.
  Willi solution  of silver, they give a  white precipi-
tate insoluble in ammonia; with the pemitrate of mer-
cury, a  greenish-yellow precipitate; with corrosive
sublimate, a precipitate of a fine orange-red, very solu-
ble  in  an excess of hydriodate; and with  nitrate of
lead, a precipitate of an ornnge-yellow colour.   They
dissolve iodine, and acquire a deep reddish-brown co-
lour.
  Hydriodate of potassa, or in the dry state, iodide of
potassium, yields crystals like sea-salt, which melt and
sublime  at a  red-heat.  This salt is not changed by
being heated in contact with air.  100 parts of water
at 64°, dissolve 143 of it.  It consists of 15.5 iodine,
and 5 potassium.
  Hydriodate of soda, called in the dry state iodide of
sodium, may be  obtained in  pretty large flat rhom-
boidal prisms.  It consists, when dry, of 15 5 iodine
+ 3 sodium.
  Hydriodate  of  barytes crystallizes in fine  prisms,
similar to muriate of s"trontites.   In itsdry state, it con-
sists of 15.5 iodine + 8.75 barium.
  The hydriodates of lime and strontites nre very so-
luble ; and the first exceedingly deliquescent.
  Hydriodate  of ammonia results from  the combina-
tion of equal volumes of ammoniacal and hydriodic
gases;  though it is usually prepared by  saturating the
liquid acid with ammonia.  It is nearly as volatile as
sal ammoniac; but it is more soluble and more deli-
quescent.  It crystallizes in cubes.
  Hydriodate  of magnesia  is formed  by uniting its
constituents together; it is deliquescent, and crystal-
lizes with difficulty.—It is decomposed  by a strong
heat.
  Hydriodate  of zinc  Is easily  obtained, by putting
/odinc into water with an excess of zinc, and favour-
ing their action by heat. When dried it becomes an
iodide.                             •
  All the nydriodates nave the property of dissolving
abundance of  iodine ; and thence they acquire a deep
reddish-brown  colour.   They part with  it on boiling,
or when exposed to the air after being dried;"
       434
  HYDROCHLORIC ACID.  Muriatic acid; acorn
pound of chlorine and hydrogen.   See Murialic acid.
  HYDRO-CYANIC ACID.  See Prussic acid.
  HYDRO-FLUORIC ACID.   Acidum hydrofiuori
cum.  This is procured by distilling, in lead or silver,
a mixture of one part of the purest fluor spar, in fine
powder, with two of  sulphuric acid.   The heat re-
quired is not considerable; sulphate of lime remains in
the retort, and a highly acrid and corrosive liquid passes
over, which requires the assistance of ice for  its con-
densation.
  HYDRO-SULPHURIC  ACID.   The aqueous solu-
tion  of sulphuretted hydrogen, is so called  by Gay
Lussac.
  HYDRO SULPHUROUS ACID.  When three vo-
lumes of sulphuretted  hydrogen gas  and two  of sul-
phurous  acid gas, both dry, are mixed together over
mercury, they are condensed into a solid orange-yellow
body, which  Dr. Thompson calls  hydro-sulphurous
acid.
  HYDRO'A.  (From vitop, water.)  A watery pus
tule.
  HYDROCARBONATE.   See  Carburetted  hydro-
gen gas.
  HYDROCA'RDIA.  (From vlup, water, and xap-
Sta, the heart.)  Hydrocordis.  Hydrops  pericardii.
Dropsy of the heart.   Dropsy of the pericardium.   A
collection of fluid in  the pericardium, which may be
either coagulable  lymph, serum, or  a puriform fluid.
It produces symptoms similar to those of hydrteUiera.-s,
with violent palpitation of the  heart, and  mostly an
intermittent pulse. It is incurable.
  HYDROCE'LE.  (From viup,  water, and  xnXij,  a
tumour.)  The term  hydrocele, used in a literal sense,
means any tumour produced by water; but surgeons
have always  confined it to those wliich possess either
the membranes of the scrotum, or the coats of the
testicle and ils vessels.  The first of these, viz. that
which has  its seat in the membranes of the scrotum,
anasarca integumentorum, is common lo the whole
bag, and to all the cellular substance whicli  loosely
envelopes both the testes.  Il is, strictly speaking, only
a symptom of a disease, in which  the whole  habit  is
most frequently more or less  concerned, and very sel-
dom  affects the part only.  The latter, or that which
occupies the coats immediately investing the  testicle
and its vessels, hydrocele tunica vaginalis, is abso-
lutely local, very seldom affects thecoiiimon membrane
of the scrotum, generally attacks one side only; and is
frequently  found in persons who  are perfectly free
from all other complaints.
  The anasarca integumentorum  retains the impres-
sion of the finger.  The vaginal hydrocele  has an  un-
dulating feel.
  The hydrocele ofthe tunica vaginalis testis is a mor-
bid accumulation of  the water separated on the inter-
nal surface ofthe tunica vaginalis, to moisten or lubri-
cate the testicle.
  From its first appearance, it  seldom disappeats or
diminishes, hut generally continues to increase, some-
times rapidly, at others more slowly.  In some ii grows
to a painful degree of distention in a few months: in
others, it continues many years wilh little disturbance.
As it enlarges, il becomes more tense, and is sometimes
transparent; so that if a candle is  held on the oppo-
site side, a degree of light is perceived through the
whole tumour; but the only certain distinction' is the
fluctuation, which is  not found when the disease is a
hernia of the omentum, or intestines, or an inflamma-
tory or scirrhous tumour of the testicle.
  Hydrocelb cystata.  Encysted hydrocele of the
spermatic cord, resembles the common hydrocele; bin
the tumour docs not extend to ihe  testicle, which may
be felt below or behind it, while, in the hydrocele of the
vaginal coat, when large, the lesti'.le cannot be disco-
vered.  In  this disease, also, the ptnis is nc>t buried  in
the tumour.  Sometimes the fluid is contained in two
distinct cells; and this is  discovered by littlecontiac
tions  in it.   It is distinguished from  the  aniisarcotw
hydrocele by a sensible fluctuation, and the want of
the inelastic pitting;  from hernia, by us beginning be-
low, from  its not receding in  a  horizontal position,
and not enlarging by  coughing mid sneezing.
  Hydrocele funiculi  spermatici, or hydrocele o
the spermatic cord.   Annsarcnu.s hydrortele ofthe spur
inntic cord sometimes accompanies  ascites, and, al
other times, it is found to  be confined to the  ccllulat 
HYD
HYD
wAttancc, in or about the spermatic cord.  The causes |
of this disease may be obstructions in the lymphatics,
leading from the part, in consequence of scirrhous af-
fections of the abdominal viscera, or the pressure of
a truss applied for the cure of hernia
  When  the affection is connected with anasarca in
other parts, it is  then so evident as to require no par-
ticular description.   When  it is local it is  attended
with a colourless tumour iu tlie course ofthe spermatic
cord,  soft and inelastic to  the  touch, and unaccom-
panied wilh fluctuation.  In an erect  position of the
body, it is of an oblong figure; but when the body is
recumbent, it is  flatter, and somewhat round.  Gene-
rally it is no longer than the part of tne  cord which lies
iu the groin;  though sometimes it extends as far as the
testicle, and even stretches the  scrotum to an uncom-
mon size.   By pressure a greal part of the swcllingcan
always be made to recede into the abdomen.  It in-
stantly, however, retuf-ns to its former situation, on the
pressure being withdrawn.
  Hydrocele peritonei.  The common dropsy of
the belly.
  Hydrocele spinalis-.   A  watery swelling on the
vertebra.
  HYDROCEPHALUS    (From  ufup, water, and
rcdoAif, the head.) Hydrtcepkalum ; Hydrenrepkalus.
Dropsy of the brain.  Dropsy of the head.   A genus
nf disease arranged by Cullen in the class Cachexia,
and order Intumescentia.   It is  distinguished by
authors into external and internal:
  1. Hydrocephalus ei tenuis, is a collection of water
between the membranes of the brain.
  2. Hydrocephalus internus, is when a fluid is col-
lected in  the ventricles of the brain, producing dilata-
tion of the pupils, apoplexy, See  See Apeplcxia.  It
is sometimes of a chronic nature, when the water has
been  known to  increase to an enormous quantity,
effecting  a diastasis of the bones of the head, and an
absorption ofthe brain.
  Pain in tbe head, particularly across the brow, stupor,
dilatation of the pupils, nausea, vomiting, preternatu-
ral  slowness of  the pulse, and convulsions, are the
pathognomonic symptoms of this disease, which  have
been laid down by the generality of writers.
  Hydrocephalus is almost peculiar to children,  being
rarely known to extend beyond u.; age of twelve or
fourteen;  and it seems more  frequently to  arise in
those of a scrofulous and rickety habit than in others.
It is an affection  which has been observed  to pervade
families, affecting all or the greater part of the children
at a certain period of their life ; which seems to show
that,  in many cases, it depends more on the general
habit, than on any local affection or accidental cause.
  The disease lias generally been supposed to arise in
consequence either of injuries done to  the brain  itself,
by blows, falls, Sec. from  scirrhous tumours or excres-
cences within the skull, from original laxity or weak-
ness in the brain, or from  general debility  and an
impoverished state ofthe blood.
  With respect to its proximate cause, very opposite
opinions are still entertained by medical writers, which,
in conjunction with the equivocal nature of its symp-
toms, prove a source of considerable embarrassment to
tbe young practitioner.  Some believe it to be inflam-
matory, and bleed largely.
  Dr. Withering observes, tliet in a great many cases,
if not in all, congestion, or slight inflammation, are the
precursors to the aqueous accumulation.
  Dr. Rush thinks that, instead  of its being conside red
 in  idiopathic dropsy, it should be considered only as
an effect of a primary inflammation or congestion of
blood in the brain.  It appears, says he, that the dis-
ease, in its first stage, is the effect of causes which pro-
duce a less degree of that inflammation which consti-
tutes  phrenitis;  and that its  second  stage  is a less
degree of U>at effu?i«n which produces serous apoplexy
in adults   The  former partakes of the nature of the
chronic inflammation of Dr. Cullen, and the asthenic
inflammation if Dr. Brown.—There are others, again,
who  view the subject in  a  very different light.  Dr.
Darwin supposes inactivity,or torpor of the absorbent
veeswels of the brain, to be the cause of hydrocephalus
internus;  but he confesses, In another part of his
work, that the torpor of the absorbent vessels may
•ften exist as tr secondary effect.
  Dr. Whytt, who has published an ingenious treatise
en the disease, observes, the imweiiibic cause ot every
kind of dropsy its the same; vi*. snch a state ol U»
parts as makes the exhalent arteries throw out a greatet
quantity  of fluids  than the  absorbents can take up
From what  he  afterward mentions, he evidently con
siders this state as consisting in debility.
  As many cases are accompanied with an increase;!
or inflammatory action ofthe vessels ofthe brain, and
others again are observed to prevail along with general
anasarca, it seems rational to allow, that hydrocepha-
lus is, in  some  instances, the consequence of  conges-
tion, or slight inflammation of tlie brain; and  that, ill
others, it arises cither  from general debility or topical
laxity.  In admitting  these as incontrovertible facts,
Dr. Thomas is, at the same time, induced to suppose,
that the cases of it  occurring from mere debility arc
by no means frequent.
  The great analogy subsisting between the symptom*
which are characteristic  of inflammation, and those
which form the first stage of the acute species of hydro-
cephalus, (tor  the  disease, as already observed,  has
been  divided into the chronic  and  acute  by some
writers,)  together with the good effects often conse-
quent on blood-letting, and tlie  inflammatory appear-
ance  which the blood frequently exhibits,  seems to
point out strong proof of the disease being, in  most
instances, an active inflammation, and that it rarely
occurs from mere debility, as a primary cause.
  The progress of  the disorder has, by Bonte,  been
divided into three stages.
  When it is accompanied by an increased or inflam-
matory action  of the brain, as not uncommonly hap-
pens, its first stage is marked with many of the symp-
toms of pyrexia, such as languor, inactivity, loss of
appetite, nausea, vomiting,  parched tongue, hot, dry
skin, flashing of the face, headache, throbbing of the
temporal arteries, and quickened pulse; whicli symp-
toms always suffer an exacerbation in the evening, but
towards morning become milder.
  When it  is  unaccompanied  by any inflammatory
action of the broin, many of these appearances are uot
to be  observed.  In these cases, it  is marked  by a
dejection of countenance, loss of appetite, pains ovel
the eyes, soreness ofthe integuments ofthe cranium to
the touch, propensity  to the bed, aversion to being
moved, nausea, and costiveness.  The disease, at length,
makes a remarkable  transition, which denotes the
commencementof its second stage.  The child screams
out, without being able to assign any cause ; its sloop
is much disturbed ;  there °s a considerable dilatation
of the pupils of the eyes, without any contraction o>
their  being exposed to light: lethargic torpor,  with
strabismus, or perhaps double vision ensues, and tbe
pulse becomes slow and unequal.
  In th* 'bird  stage,  the pulse returns again to Ihe
febrile srai .-, becomine uncommonly  quick  and va-1
riable; and coma,  with  convulsions, ensue.  When
.he accumulation of water is very great, and the child
young, the  sutures recede a considerable way  from
each  other, and tlie head, towards the end, becomes
much enlarged.
  When  recoveries have actually taken place in hy-
drocephalus, we ought probably to attribute more to
the efforts of nature than to the interference of art.   It
is always to be regarded as of difficult cure.
  An accumulation of water in the ventricles of the
brain, is one of the most common appearances  to be
observed on dissection.   In different cases this is ac-
cumulated in greater or less quantities.  It sometimes
amounts only to a few  ounces, and occasionally to
some pints. When the quantity of water is consider-
able, the fornix is raised  at its anterior extremity, in
consequence of its accumulation, and  an immediate
opening of communication is thereby formed between
the lateral ventricles.   The water is of a purer colour
and more limpid than what is found in the dropsy of
the thorax, or  abdomen.  It appears, however, io ba.
generally of the same nature with the water lhat is
accumulated in these cavities.  In some instances, the
Water in hydrocephalus contains a very small propor-
tion of coagulable  matter, and  in others it is entirely
ft-ee from il.
  When  the  water is accumulated to a very  large
quantity in the ventricles, the substance of the brain
appears to be a sort of pulpy bag, containing u  ffuiA
The skull, upon such occasions, is very much enlarged
in  its size, and altered in its shape; and it  appears
Mceedinsly large  in  proportion to the  face.  On re- 
HYD
HYD
 moving the scalp, the bones are found to be very thin,
 and there are frequently broad spots of membrane in
 the bone.  These appearances are, however, only to
 be observed where the disease has been of some years'
 contiiuance.
   In some cases, where the quantity of water collected
 is not great, the substance of the brain has appeared to
 he indurated, and in  others softened.  At times, the
 organ has been found gorged  with blood: collections
 also of a viscid tenacious matter have been discovered
 in  cysts, upon its external surface, and tumours have |
 lisee:i found attached to its substance.                 I
   The treatment must be prompt and  active to give a !
 tolerable  chance of success. The general indications |
 nre, in the first stlge, to lessen the  inflammatory action,
 afterward to  promote absorption.  Should the patient
 be about tbe age of puberty, of a plethoric habit, and
 t':e symptoms run high al the beginning, it  will be
 proper to take some  blood, especially from the tempo-
 re! artery, or the jugular vein ; but, if younger, or the
 disease more  advanced, a sufficient quantity may be
 withdrawn by leeches, applied to the temples, or in the
 direction  of the  sutures.  The bowels must then be
 i iioroughly evacuated by some active cathartic, as they
 are usually very torpid, calomel with scammony, or
 jalap, for example; and, in  the progress of the cam-
 plaint, this function must be kept up with some degree
 of activity.  For this  purpose, caiomel may be given
 in divided doses, or some other mercurial preparation,
 which may not  run off too rapidly,  producing mere
 watery stools, but regulaTly clear oul the bowels,  as
 well  as the liver, and promote tlie other secretions.
 Besides, mercury is  the  most powerful remedy in
 rousing the absoibents, and some  of the most remark-
 able cures of this disease, even at  an advanced period,
 have been affected by  it:  whence it would be advisa-
 ble, where  the  disease was proceeding rapidly, and
 particularly if the bowels were irritable, to use mer-
 curial frictions,  that  the  system  might be  sooner
 affected.  Another very important step, after clearing
 the bowels, is to apply some evaporating lotion assidu-
 ously  to the scalp, previously shaved;  and the anti-
 phlogistic regimen should  be steadily observed.  Dia-
 phoretics  will generally  be proper, assisted  by  the
 warm bath; and diuretics on  some occasions may be
 useful; but digitalis, which has been recommended on
 ihis ground, seems more  likely to avail by lessening
 arterial action.  Blisters may be  applied to the tem-
 ples, behind the ears, or tc the  nape of the neck, each
 perhaps successively: and dressed with savine cerate
 occasionally, to increase the discharge, and irritation
 externally: issues appear not so likely to prove bene-
 ficial.  Errhines  may  farther  contribute  to  obviate
 internal effusion.  Electricity  has been  proposed  to
 rouse the absorbents'to the second stage; but its effi-
 cacy, and even  propriety, is very doubtful.  Should
 the progress of the complaint  be fortunately arrested,
 tlie strength must be established  by a nutritious diet,
 tend tonic medicines;  taking care to keep the bowels
 r.i good order, and the head cool:  an issue, under these
 circumstances, may be a very useful remedy.
  Hydrocephalus acutus. See  Hydrocephalus.
  Hydrocephalus externus.   Water between the
 brain and ils membranes.
  Hydrocephalus internus.  Water in the ventri-
 cles ofthe brain.
  HYDKOCO'TYLE.    (From   viup,   water,  and
 xofvXn, the cotula.)  1. The nanieof a genus of plants
 in the Linnaean  system.  Class,  Pentandria; Order,
 Digyniu.
  2. The name, in some pharmacopoeias, for the coin-
 ■ on marsh or water cotula, or pennywort, which  is
 s.i id to possess acrid qualities.
  Hydrocy'stis.  (From viup, water,  and xvs-t;, a
 i  irle.)   An encysted dropsy.
  HYDROGEN,  (llydrogeuium; from viup, water,
 i'.ud yii-ojuat, to become, orytvi-iiu, to produce, because
 v. ithoxygen it produces water.) Base of inflammable air.
  Hydrogen is n substance not perceptible to our sensa-
tions iu a  sepnrate state;  but its existence is not at all
■ lie less certain.  Though we  cannot exhibit it ex-
perimentally uncombined, we can pursue it while it
passes, out of one combination  into another; we can-
not, indeed, arrest it on its passage, but we never fail
to discover it, at least  if we use the proper chemical
means, when it presents itself  to  our notice in a new
compound.
      4:iii
   Hydrogen, as its name expresses, is one of the eon
 stituent elements of water, from which it can alone b?
 procured.  Its existence was unknown till lately.   It is
 plentifully distributed in nature, and  acts a very con-
 siderable part hi the process of the animal and vegeta-
 ble economy.   It is one of the ingredients in tlie varie-
 ties of bitumen, oils, fat, ardent spirits, aether, and,  in
 fact, all the proximate, component partsof animal ancf
 vegetable bodies.  It forms a constituent part of all
 animal and vegetable acids.  It is one of the constitu
 ents of ammonia and of various other compound gases
   It possesses  so great an affinity tor caloric, that  i
 can only exist separately in the state of gas; it is con
 sequently impossible to procure it in the concrete or
 liquid state, independent of combination.
   Solid hydrogen, therefore, united to caloric and light
 forms hydrogen oas.
            Properties  of  Hydrogen Gas.
   This gas, wliich was commonly railed  inflammable
 air, was  discovered by Cavendish  in the year 1768, or
 ralher  he first obtained it in a state  of purity, and as-
 certained hs more important properties; though it had
 been noticed  long before.  The famous philosophical
 candle attests the antiquity of this discovery.
   Hydrogen gas, like oxygen gas, is a triple compound,
 consisting of ihe ponderable base of hydrogen, caloric,
 and light.  It possesses  all the  mechanical  properties
 of atmospheric air.  It  is the lightest substance whose
 weight we are able to estimate:  when in  its purest
 state,and free from moisture, it is about fourteen times-
 lighter than atmospheric air.  Il is not fitted for respi-
 ration; animals, when obliged  to breathe  in it, die al-
 most instantaneously.  It is decomposed by living vege-
 tables,  and its basis becomes one ofthe constituents of
 oil, resin, &c.  It is  inflammable, and burns  rapidly
 when kindled, in  contact with atmospheric  air or
 oxygen gas, by means  of the electric spark, or by ane
 inflamed  body;  and burns, when pure, with a yellow-
 ish lambent flame:  bul  all burning substances are im-
 mediately extinguished  when  immersed  in h. It is-
 therefore", incapable of supporting combustion.  It is
 not injurious to growing vegetables.   It is unabsorba-
 ble by most substances; water absorbs it very sparingly
 It is capable of dissolving carbon, sulphur, phospho-
 rus, arsenic, and many oilier bodies.   When hs basis
 combines with  that of oxygen gas, water is fonned ;
 with nitrogen it forms  ammonia.  It does not act on
 earthy  substances.
   Method of obtaining Hydrogen  Gns.—A ready
 method of obtaining hydrogen  gas consists in  subject-
 ing water to the action of a substance which  is capa-
 ble of decomposing this fluid.
   1. For  this purpose, let  sulphuric  acid, previously
 diluted  with four or five times  its weight of water, be
 poured  on iron filings, or bits of zinc, in a small retort,
 or gas-bottle, called a pneumatic flask, or proof; as
 soon as the diluted acid comes in  contact with the metal.
 a  violent effervescence takes place, and hydrogen cas
 escapes without external heat being  applied.  It may
 be collected in the usual manner  over water, taking care
 to let a certain portion escape on account of the atmos-
 pheric air contained in the disengaging vessels.
  The production of hydrogen gas in the above way is
 owing to  the decomposition of water. The  iron, or
 zinc, when in contact with this fluid, in  conjunction
 with sulphuric acid, has a greater affinity to oxygen
 than the hydrogen has; the oxygen, therefore, unites
 to it, and  forms an  oxide of that  metal whicli is  in-
 stantly attacked and dissolved  by the  acid; the othei
 constituent part ofthe water, the hydrogen, is set free,
 whicli,  by uniting with caloric, assumes ihe form of
 hydrogen gas. The oxygen is, therefore,  the bond of
 union between the metal and the acid.
  The hissing noise, or effervescence, observable du ring
 the process, is owing to the rapid motion exciteo in t tj
 mixture by means of the great number of air-Dtibbles
 quickly disengaged and  breaking at the surface of tbe
 fluid.
  We see, also, in this case, thai tiro substances exert
 an attraction, and are even  capable of decomposing
jointly a third, whicli neither of them is able lo  do
 singly;  viz. if we present sulphuric acid alone, or iron
 or zinc alone, to  waler, they cannot detach the  oxygen
 from the hydrogen of" that fluid; but, if both are applied,
 a decomposition is instantly effected.  This experiment,
 therefore,  proves lhat the agency of chemical  affinity
 between two or more bodies may lie dormant,  until 11 
HYD
HYD
 fc <al"ed into action by the interposition of another
 body, which frequently  exerts no energy upon any
 of them in a separate state.  Instances  of this kind
 Were formerly called predisposing affinities.
   2.  lion, in a red heat, hasalso the property of decom-
 posing water,by dislodging the oxygen from its combi-
 nation Willi hydrogen, in the following manner:—
   Lei a sun-barrel, having ils  touch-hole screwed up,
 pass tlnougli  a furnace, or large crucible perforated for
 that  purpose, taking  care to incline the  barrel at the
 narrowest part; adjust to its upper extremity  a retort
 charged with  water, and let the otlier extremity termi-
 nate in a lube introduced under a receiver in the pneu-
 matic trough.  When the apparatus is thus disposed,
 and well luted, bring the gun-barrel to a red heat, and,
 when thoroughly red-hot, make ihe water in the retort
 boil; the vapour, when passing through the red-hot
 tube, will yield hydrogen gas abundantly.  In this ex-
 periment, the  oxygen of the water combines with the
 iron at a red heat, so as to convert it into an oxide, and
 the caloric applied combines with the hydrogen of  the
 water, and  forms hydrogen gas.  It  Is, therefore,  the
 result of a double affinity, that of the oxyeen of  the
 water for the metal, and that of its hydrogen for caloric.
  'Phc more cal >ric is employed in the experiment of
 decomposing water by means of iron, Sec. the sooner is
 the water decomposed.
  Hydiogeu gas, combined with carbon, is frequently
 found in great abundance in mines and coal-pils, where
 it is sometimes generated suddenly, and becomes mixed
 wilh tlie atmospheric air of these subterraneous cavi-
 ties.   If a lighted candle be brought in, this  mixture
 often explodes, and produces the most dreadful effects.
 It is called by  miners, fire damp.   It generally forms a
 cloud  in the upper part of the  mine, on account of its
 levity, bul does not mix there  with atmospheric air,
 unless some agitation  takes  place.  The miners  fre-
 quently set fire to ii with  a candle, lying  at the same
 time  flat on their  faces to escape the violence of ihe
 shock.  An easier and  more safe  method of clearing
 the mine, is by leading a long tube through the shaft of
 it, to  the ash-pit of a  fumace;  by this means the gas
 will be conducted to feed the fire.
  Sir Humphrey Davy has invented a valuable instru-
 ment  called a safely  lamp, which wiH  enable  tho
 mineis to convey a light into such impure air without
 risk.  This  is founded  on the important discovery,
 made by him, that flame is incapable of passing through
 minute apertures in a metallic substance, which yet
 are pervious lo air; the reason of whicli appears to  be,
 that the ignited gas, or vapour, is so much cooled by the
 metal in its passage as to cease being luminous.
  Hydrogen gas, in whatever manner produced, always
 originates from water, either in  consequence of* a pre-
ceding decomposition, by which it had been combined
 in the state of solid or fixed hydrogen, with one of the
substances employed, or from a decomposition of water
 actually taking place during the  experiment
  There are instances recorded of a vapour issuing from
 the stomach of dead persons whicli took fire on the ap-
 proach of a candle.  We even find accounts, in several
 works, of the combustionof living human beings, which
 appeared to be spontaneous.   Dr. Swediaur has related
 some  instances of porters at Warsaw, who  having
 drunk abundantly of spirit, fell down in the street, with
 the siujikte issuing out of their mouths ; and people came
 to their  assistance, saying they would take fire; to
 prevent which, they made them drink a great quantity
 of milk, or used a more singular expedient, by caus-
 ing them to swallow the urine of the bystanders, im-
 mediately on its evacuation.
  However  difficult it  may be  to give credit to such
 narratives, it is equally difficult to reject them entirely,
without refusing to admit the numerous testimonies of
 men,  who were,  for the most  part, worthy of credit.
 Citizen Lair has collected all  the circumstances of this
nature which he found dispersed in different books, and
has rejected those which did not appear to be supported
by respectable testimony, to which he has added some
others  related by persons still living.  These narratives
are nine  in number; they were communicated to the
Philomathic Socio tv, at  Paris, and inserted in the bul-
letin Thcrmidor, An.  5, No. 29.   The cause of this
pnenomenon has been attributed to a developement of
hydrogen gas taking place in the stomachs of these in-
dividuals.
  Lair believes that  the bodies of tliose people were
hot burned perfectly spontaneously, but It appeared to
be owingtosome very slight external cause, such as tiie
fire of a candle, taper, or pipe.
   Hydrogen  gas, sklemuretthd.  This gas is co-
lourless.  It reddens litmus.  Its density has not been
determined by experiment.  Its smell resembles, at fir si,
that of sulphuretted  hydrogen gas; hut  the sensation
soon changes, and another succeeds, which is at once
pungent, astringent, and painful.  The eyes become
almost instantly red  and inflamed, and  the  seme of
smelling entirely disappears.  \ bubble of the size of
a little pea is sufficient to  produce these effects.  Of
all the bodies derived from  the inorganic kingdom, sc-
ieniuretted  hydrogen  is 'hat  which  exorcises  the
strongest action on ihe animal economy.   Water di*
solves this gas; hut in what proportions is not known
This solution disturbs almost all the metallic solutions,
producing  black or brown precipitates, which assume,
on rubbing with polished haematites, a metallic lustre.
Zinc, manganese, and cerium, form exceptions.   They
yield flesh-coloured  precipitates, whicli  appear io be
hydro-seleniiirets of the oxides, while the others,  for
the most part, are merely metallic scleniurets.
   Hydrogen, sulphuretted.  Sulphuretted  hydro-
gen gas possesses the properties of an acid ; for, when
absorbed by water, its solution reddens vegetable blues,
it combines also with alkalies, earths, and with seve-
ral metallic oxides.  Sulphuretted hydrogen, combined
with any base, forms a hydrosulphuret,  which may
be also called an hepatule, to distinguish  it  from  an
hepar, which  is the union of sulphur singly wilh a
base.   Sulphuretted hydrogen  gas possesses  an  ex-
tremely offensive odour, resembling that of putrid eggs.
It kills  animals, and extinguishes burning  bodies.
When in contact with oxygen gas, or atmospheric air,
it is inflammable.  Mingled with nitrous; gas, i: burns
with a yellowish green flame.   It is decomposed by
ammonia, by oxymuriatie acid gas, and by sulphurous
acid gas.  It has a strong action on the greater number
of metallic oxides.  Its specific gravity is  about ] .10
when  pure.  It is composed, according  to Thomson,
of sixteen  parts of sulphur, and one of hydrogen.   Ii
has the property of dissolving a small quantity  of
phosphorus.
   Sulphuretted hydrogen gas may be obtained in seve-
ral ways:—
   1. Take dry sulphuret of potassa, put it into n tubu-
lated retort, lodged in a sand-bath,or supported over a
lamp; direct the neck of the retort under a  receiver
placed in the pneumatic trough;  then  pour gradually
upon the sulphuret diluted sulphuric or muriatic acid;
a violent effervescence will  take place, and sulphuret
ted hydrogen  gas will be liberated. When  no more
gas is produced spontaneously, urge the mixture with
heat,  by degrees, till it boils, and  gas will again be
liberated abundanlly.
  The vv ater made use of for receiving  it, should be
heated to about 80° or 90°;  at this temperature it d:-.
solves little ofthe gas; whereas, if cold water be made
use of, a much greater quantity of it is absorbed.
  Explanation.—Though sulphur makes no alteration
on water, which proves that sulphur has less attraction
for oxygen than hydrogen has, yet if sulphur be unird
to an  alkali, this  combination  decomposes  water
whenever itcomes in contact with it, though the alknh
itself has no attraction either for oxygen or hydrogen.
  The formation of  this gas explains this  truth.  C'u
adding the sulphuret of potassa to the water, this fluii
becomes decomposed, part of the sulphur robs it of its
oxygen; and forms with it sulphuric acid; this gene
rated acid unites to  part of the alkali, and forms sul
phatc of potassa.  The liberated  hydrogen dissolve?
another part of the sulphur, and forms with it sulphu-
retted hydrogen, the basis of this gas, which is retained
by the separated portion of the alkali.  The sulphuric
or muriatic acid, added now, extricates it from t'-n
alkali, and  makes it fly off in the form of gas.
  Diluted muriatic  acid seems best adapted for the
production  of sulphuretted  hydrogen gas from alka
line sulphurets. If nitric acid be made use of, it uuirt
be much diluted.  Sulphuric acid yields little gas, uu
less assisted by heat.   When the proportion of sulphur
in the sulphuret exceeds that of the alkali, the dense
sulphuric acid,  poured upon it, emits sulphurous acid
gas.  All the rest of the acids may be made use of for
ib-coniposing the sulphurets.
  2. When iron and sulphur are united together, they
                                        437 
HYD                                            HYD
afford a large quantity of sulphuretted hydrogen gas, :
on submitting them to the action of heat, in contact'
with diluted muriatic acid.
   Melt together, in a  crucible, equal  parts of iron
filings and sulphur; the product is a black brittle mass,
called sulphuret of iron.  Reduce  this to powder, and
put ii, with a little water, into a tubulated retort; add
diluted muriatic acid, and apply a gentle heat, till  no
jnore gas is disengaged.  The philosophy of this expe-
riment is analogous to the former.  Part of the oxygen
of the water unites to  part of  the sulphur, and forms
sulphuric acid; another part oxidizes the iron, which,
dissolved by the acid, forms sulphate of iron: the hy-
drogen of the water unites to another part of the sul-
phur, and  forms sulphuretted hydrogen, which be-
comes gaseous by the addition of caloric.
   3. Sulphuretted hydrogen gas may also be obtained
by heating  an alkaline sulphuret, with the addition of
water, without the aid of an acid.  In this case, the
water is also decomposed; its hydrogen unites with
part of the sulphur, and forms sulphuretted hydrogen;
the oxygen of the water unites wilh another pari of
tbe sulphur, and produces sulphuric acid, which joins
to the alkali and forms a sulphate.  The sulphuretted
hydrogen becomes disengaged  by heat in  the gaseous
form.
   4. Sulphuretted hydrogen gas may be obtained  by
passing  hydrogen gas  through sulphur, in a state of
lusion.
   For this purpose, put sulphur into a  gun-barrel, or
Wedgewood's tube, and place it across a furnace; fit
to the lower extremity a bent  glass  tube, which goes
under a receiver placed in the pneumatic  trough, and
adapt to the upper extremity  a tubulated retort,  or
other apparatus proper for producing hydrogen gas.
The sulphur must then be heated, and,  when melted.
the hydrogen gas evolved  must be made lo pass over
it, which,  in this manner, will dissolve  part of the
sulphur,  and  become converted into sulphuretted hy-
drogen gas.
   5. It may likewise be procured  in the following di-
rect manner:  let a small quantity of sulphur  be en-
closed in a jar full of hydrogen gas, and melt it by
means of a burning-glass.   This method dues not suc-
ceed except the hydrogen gas be as dry as  possible, for
its affinity to sulphur is weakened  in proportion  to its
moisiure.
   6. The method, however, which affords it purest, is
by treating sulphuret of antimony with diluted muri-
atic acid. The explanation is similar to the preceding
processes.
   Hydrogen, carburetted.   See Carburetted hydrogen
gas.
   Hydrogen, per carburetted.  See Carburetted hydro-
gen gas.
   Hydrogen, subcarburetted.  See Carburetted hydro-
gen gas.
   Hydrogen, phospkuretted.  See Phosphoi us.
   Hydrogen, subphosphuretted. See Phosphorus.
   Hydrogen gas, heavy, carbonated.  See Carbonated
hydrogen gas.
   Hydrogen gas, light, carbonated.   See  Carburetted
hydrogen gas.
   HYDROGURET.   See Uret.
   Hydroguret of carbon.   See Carburetted hydrogen

   HYDROLATATHUM.  (From u<5u>p,  water, and
JtartaOov, the dock.)  See Rumex hydrolapathum,
   HYDRO MELI.  (From viup, water, and ptXt, ho-
li:y.)   Mulsum; Aqua Mulsa; Melicratum; Brag-
gat; Hydromel.   Water  impregnated with  honey.
After it  is fermented, it U called vinous hyaromel, or
mead.                              . ,       ,  ,
   HYDROTHIONIC ACID.  See  Sulphuretted hy-
drogen.                            ,      ,
   HYDROMETER.  (Hydrometer;  from viup, wa-
ter, or fluid,  and pcrpov, a measure.)  The best me-
thod of  weighing equal quantities  ofcorrosive volatile
fluids, to determine llieir specific gravities, appears to
consist  in  enclosing them in n bottle with a conical
stopper,  in the side of which stopper a line mark is cut
wnh a file.  The fluid  being poured into the bottle, it
U easy to  put  in the stopper, because the redundant
fluid escapes through the notch, or mark, and may be
carefully wiped off.  Equal "oulks of water, and other
fluids, are by this mentis weighed to n great degree of
 accuracy, care being taken to keep the temperature as
      433
equal as possible, by avoiding any contact of the not
tie with the  hand, or otheiwise.  The bottle itself
shows with much  precision, by a rise or fall of the
liquid in the notch of the stopper, whether any such
change have taken place.
  The hydrometer of Fahrenheit consists of a hollow
ball, with a counterpoise  below, and a very slende»
stem above, terminating in a small dish.  The middle,
or half length of the stem, is distinguished by a fine
line across.  In this  instrument every division of the
stem is rejected, and it is immersed in all experiments
to ihe middle ofthe stem, by placing proper weights in
the little dish above.  Then, as the part immersed is
constantly  of the same magnitude,  and the whole
weight of the hydrometer is known, this last weight,
added to the weights in the dish, will be equal to the
weight of fluid displaced by the instrument, as all wri-
ters on hydrostatics prove.  And, accordingly, ihe sp.
gravities for the common form of the tables will be had
by the proportion:
      As the whole weight of the hydrometer and its
        load, when adjusted in distilled water,
      Is to the number 1000, &c.
      So is the whole weight  when  adjusted in any
        other fluid
      To the number expressing its specific gravity.
  The  hydrometers,  or   pese-liqueurs,  of  Baume,
though in reality comparable with each other, are sub-
ject in part to the defect, that their results, having no
independent numerical measure, require explanation
to those who do not know the instruments.
  HYDROME'TRA.  (From viup, water, and pnrpa,
the womb.)  Hydrops  uteri.   Dropsy of the womb.
A genus of disease  in the class Cachexia, and order
Intumescentia, of Cullen.   It produces a swelling of
tlie  hypogastric  region,  slowly and gradually in-
creasing, resembling  the figure of the uterus, yielding
to, or fluctuating on pressure; without ischury or preg-
nancy.  Sauvages enumerates seven species.  It must
be considered as a very rare disease, and one that can
with difficulty be ascertained.
  HYDRO MPHALUM.    (From viup, water,  and
optpaXo;, the navel.)  A tumour of the navel, contain-
ing water.
  Hydro'nosos.   (From  vr5u>p, water,  and  voaos, a
disease.)  The sweating sickness.  See Ephidrosis.
  HYDRO-OXIDE. See Hydrate.          .
  HYDROPEDE'SIS.  (From viup, water, and injoau,
to break out.)   A breaking out into a violent sweat.
  HYDROPHANE.  Oculus  mundi.  A variety of
opal, which has the  property of becoming transparent
on immersion in water.
  HYDROPHOBIA.  (From viup, water, nnd qtoStu,
to fear.)   Rabies canina;  Cynanthropia ; Cynolesia.
Canine  madness. This disease arises in consequence
of the bite of a rabid animal,  as  a dog or  cat, and
sometimes  spontaneously.  It  is termed hydrophobia,
because persons that are thus bitten dread the sight oi
the falling  of water when first seized.   Cullen has
arranged it under the class Neuroses, nnd order Spas-
mi, and defines it a loathing and great dread of drink-
ing any liquids, from their creating a painful convul-
sion ofthe  pharynx, occasioned most commonly by tlie
bite of a mad animal.
  There are two species of  hydrophobia.
  1.  Hydrophobia rabiesa, when there  is a desire ol
biting.
  2.  Hydrophobia simplex, when there  is not a desire
Ctf biting.
  Dr. James observes, that  this peculiar affection pro-
perly belongs to the canine  genus, viz. dogs, foxes, and
wolves; in which animals only it seems to  be Innate
and  natural, scarcely ever appearing  in any others,
except when communicated from these.  When a dog
is affected  with  madness, he becomes dull, solitary,
and  endeavours to  hide himself, seldom barking, bui
making a murmuring noise, and refusing all kinds of
meat and  drink.  He flies at strangers; but, in this
stage, he remembers and respects his master; his head
and tail hang down; he walks ns  if overpowered by
sleep; and a bite, at this period, though dangerous, is
not so apt to bring on the  disease in the animal  bitten
as one  inflicted at a later period.   The dog at length
begins to pant; he breathes quickly  and heavily; his
tongue hangs out; his mouth is continually open, and
discharges  a large quantity of froth.   Sometimes lw
walks slowly, as if half asleep, and then runs suddenly 
                      HYD

but not always directly forward.  At last he forgets his
master, his eyes have a dull, watery, red appearance:
he grows thin and weak, often falls down, gets up and
attempts to fly at every  thing, becoming very  soon
quite furious.  The animal seldom lives in this lalter
state longer than thirty hours; and il is said, that his
biles toward the end of his existence, are the  most
dangerous.  The throat of a person suffering hydro-
phobia is  always much affected; and, it  is asserted,
the nearer the bite to this part the more perilous.
  Hydrophobia may be communicated lo the human
subject from the biles of cats, cows, and oilier animals,
not of the canine species, to which the affection has
been previously communicated.  However, it is  from
the bites of those domestic ones, the dog and cat, that
most cases of hydrophobia originate.  It docs not ap-
pear that the bile of a person affected can communi-
cate  the disease to another; at least the records of me-
dicine furnish no proof of this circumstance.
  In  the human species, the general symptoms attend-
ant upon the bite of a mad dog, or other rabid animal,
are, at  some indefinite period, and occasionally long
after the bitten part seems quite well; a slight  pain
begins  to be felt in it, now and  then attended  with
itching,  b*t generally resembling  a rheumatic pain.
Then come on  wandering pains, wilh an uneasiness
and  heaviness,  disturbed  sleep,  and frightful dreams,
accompanied with greal restlessness, sudden startiugs,
and spasms, sighing, anxiety, and a love for solitude.
These symptoms continuing  lo increase daily,  pains
begin to shoot from the place which was wounded, all
along up to the throat with a straitness and sensation
of choking, and a horror and dread at the  sight of
water, and oilier liquids, together with  a loss of appe-
tite and tremor.  The person is,  however, capable of
swallowing any solid substance with  tolerable ease;
but  the moment that any thing in a fluid  form is
brought in contact with  his lips, it occasions him to
start back with much  dread and horror, although he
labours  perhaps under great lliirst at the time.
  A  vomiting of bilious matter soon comes on, in the
course  of the disease, and an intense hot fever ensues,
attended witli continual watching, great thirst, dryness
and  roughness of the tongue, hoarseness of the voice,
and  the discharge of a viscid saliva from the mouth,
which the patient is constantly spitting out;  together
with spasms of the genital and urinary organs, in con-
sequence of which the evacuations are forcibly thrown
out.  His respiration is laborious and uneasy, but his
judgment is unaffected; and, as lung as he retains the
power of speech, his answers are distinct.
   In some few instances, a severe delirium arises, and
closes the tragic scene, but it more frequently happens
that the pulse  becomes tremulous and irregular, that
convulsions arise, and that nature  being al length ex-
hausted, sinks under the pressure of misery.
   The  appearances to be observed, on dissection in
hydrophobia, are unusual aridity  of the  viscera and
other parts;  marks of inflammation in  the fauces,
gula, and larynx;  inflammatory appearances in the
stomach, and an accumulation or effusion of blood in
the lungs. Some marks of inflammation are likewise to
be observed in tlie brain, consisting in a serous effusion
on its surface, or in  a redness of the pia mater; which
appearances have also presented themselves in the dog.
   In some cases of disseotion, not the least morbid ap-
pearance has been observed, either in the fauces, dia-
phragm, stomach, or intestines.  The poison has, there-
fire, been conceived  by some physicians load upon
the  nervous system, and to be so wholly confined to  it,
as to make it a matter  of doubc whether the  qualities
of the blood are  altered  or  not.  There  is no known
cure for this terrible disease: and the only preventive
to be relied upon is the complete excision of the  bitten
part, which should be performed as soon as  possible ;
 though it may perhaps not be too late any time before
the  symptoms appear.
   HYDROPHOSPHOROUS ACID. See Phosphorous
 acid.
   UYDROPHTHA'LMIA.   From viup, water, and
otbQaXuos, the  eye.)  Hydrophthalmium.  There are
two diseases, different in their nature and consequence,
 thus termed.  The one is  a mere auasarcous or (Ede-
 matous swelling of the eyelid.  The  other,  the true
hydrophthalmia, is a  swelling of the bulb of the eye,
 from too great a collection  of vitreous or aqueous
 humours.
                      HYD

  HYDROPHTHA'LMIUM.  (Fromviup,water, am*!
otpOaXpos, the eye.)  See Hydrophthalmia.
  HYDROPHTORIC  ACID.   Acidum hydrophtori-
cum.  (From viup, water, and ebdoptos, destructive.)
Ampere's name for the base of the fluoric acid, called
by Davy,Ji«on'»/-.  See Hydro-fiitoric acid.
  HYDROPHVSOCE'LE.  (From viup, water,0ixr»/j
flatulence, and xtjXn, a tumour.)   A swelling formed
of water and air.  It was applied to a hernia, in the
sac of which was a fluid and nir.
  HYDRO PICA.  (From viou4i, the dropsy.)  Modi
cines whicli relieve or cure dropsy.
  HYDRO'PIPER.  iFroin viup, water, and irrirept.
pepper: so called from its biting the tongue like peppei
and growing in marshy places.)  See Polygonum hydro
piper.
  HYDROPNEUMOSA'RCA   (From viup, water,
nvtvpa, wind, and o-api;, flesh ) A tumour of air, water,
and solid substances.
  HYDROPOIDES.  (From vipud/,  a  dropsy, and
ti'ios, likeness.)  Serous or watery, formerly applied to
liquid and watery excrements.
  II Y'DROPS.  (Hydrops, pis. m.; from viup, water.)
Dropsy.   A  preternatural collection of  serous  or
watery  fluid in the  cellular substance, or different
cavities of the body.  It receives  different appella-
tions,  according to  the  particular situation of the
fluid.
  When it is diffused through the cellular membrane,
either generally or partially, it is called  anasarca.
When il  is deposited in the cavity of the cranium, il Is
called hydrocephalus ;  when in the chest, hydrothorax,
or hydrops pectoris; when in the abdomen, ascites.
In the uterus, hydrometra, and within  the scrotum,
hydrocele.
  The causes of these diseases are a family disposition
thereto, frequent salivations, excessive and long-conti-
nued evacuations, a  free use of spirituous liquors,
(which  never fail to destroy the digestive powers,)
scirrhosities of the liver, spleen, pancreas, mesentery
and other abdominal  viscera;  preceding diseases, as
the jaundice, diarrhoea, dysentery, phthisis,  asthma,
gout, intermittents of long duration, scarlet fever, and
some of the exanthemata;  a suppression  of accus-
tomed evacuations, the sudden striking in of eruptive
humours, ossification of the valves of the heart, polypi
in the right ventricle, aneurism in the arteries, tumours
making  a  considerable  pressure on the  neighbouring
parts, permanent obstruction in the lungs,  rupture of
the thoracic duct, exposure for a length of time to a
moist atmosphere, laxity of the exhalants, defect in
tbe absorbents, topical weakness, and general debility.
   Hydrops articuli.  A white swelling of a joint is
sonietimes so called.
   Hydrops cysticus.  A dropsy enclosed in a bag,
or cyst.
   Hydrops genu.  An accumulation of synovia, or
serum, within the capsular ligament of the  knee.
   Hydrops ad matulam.  Diabetes.
   Hydrops medllls spinalis.  See Hydrorachilis
and Spina bifida.
   Hydrops ovarii.   A dropsy of the ovarium.  Sec
Ascites.
   Hydrops pectoris.  See Hydrothorax.
   Hydrops pericardii.  See Hydrocardia.
   Hydrops pulmonum.  Water in the cellular intei
stice3 of the lungs.
   Hydrops scroti.  See Hydrocele.
   Hydrops uteri.   See Hydrometra.
   Hydropy'retus.   (From viup, water, and impious.
fever.)   A sweating fever.
   HYDRORACHI'TIS.   (From viup, water,  anc
paxts, the  spine.)  A fluctuating tumour, mostly situ-
 ated on the lumbar vertebra of new-born children.   Il
 is a genus of disease  in the  class Cachexia, and ordei
 Intumescentia,  of Cullen, and is always incurable
 See Spina bifida.
   Hydroro satum.   A drink made of water, honey,
 and the juice of roses.
   HYDROSA'CCHARUM.  (From viup,  vv ater, anil
 oaxxapov, sugar.)  A drink made of sugar and water.
   HYDROSA'RCA.   (From viup, water, and aap\,
 the flesh.)  Sec Anasarca.
   HYDROSARCOCE LE.   (From viup, water, oap\
 the flesh, and 107X17,  a tumour.)  Saicucele, with ar
 effusion of water into the cellular membrane.
   HYDROSELENIC ACID. The best process wliich
                                         439 
HYD
HYG
we can employ for procuring this acid, consists in
treating the seleniuret of iron with the liquid muriatic
acid.  The acid gas evolved  must be collected over
mercury.  As in this case a little of another gas, con-
densiblo neither by water nor alkaline solutions, ap-
pears, the  best  substance for  obtaining  absolutely
pure hydroselonic  acid would be seleniuret of potas-
sium
  HYDROSELI'NUM.   (From  viup,  water, and
creXtvov, purslane.)   A species of purslane growing in
marshy places.
  HYDROSULPHURET.   Hydrosulphuretum.   A
compound of sulphuretted hydrogen with a salifiable
basis.
  Hydrosulphure'tum stidu luteum.   See Anti-
monii sulphuretum pracipitatum.
  Hydrosulphuretum stibu  rubrum.    Kermes
mincralis.  A  hydro-sulphuret of antimony formerly
ill high estimation  as an expectorant, sudorific, and
antispasmodic,  in  difficult  respiration, rheumatism,
diseases of the skin and glands.
  HYDROTHIONICACID. Some German chemists
distinguish sulphuretted hydrogen by this name on ac-
count of its properties resembling those of an acid.
  HYDROTHORAX.  (From viup, water, and Qupa\,
the chest.)   Hydrops  thoracis;  Hydrops pectoris.
Dropsy of the chest. A genus  of disease in the class
Cachexia,  and order Intumescentia, of Cullen.  Diffi-
culty of breathing, particularly when in a horizontal
posture; sudden starlings from sleep, with anxiety,
and  palpitations of the heart;  cough,  paleness  of
the visage, anasarcous swellings of  the lower  ex-
tremities, thirst, and a scarcity of urine, are the cha-
racteristic symptoms of hydrothorax;  but  the one
which is more decisive than  all the rest is  a fluc-
tuation of water being  perceived in the chest, either
by the patient himself or his medical attendant, on cer-
tain motions of the body.
  The causes which give rise to the  disease, are pretty
much the  same with those wliich  are productive of
the other  species of dropsy.  In some cases, it exists
without any other  kind of dropsical affection being
present; bul it  prevails very often as a part of more
universal dropsy.
  It frequently takes place to a considerable degree be-
fore  ii becomes very perceptible; and its presence is
not readily known, the symptoms, like those of hydro-
cephalus,'not being always very distinct.  In some in-
stances, the water is collected  in "both sacs of Ihe
pleura; but, at otlier times, it is only in one.  Some-
times it is lodged  in the pericardium alone; but,  loi
the most part, it only appears there  when, at the same
time, a collection is present in one or both cavities of
the thorax.  Sometimes the water is effused in the
cellular texture of the  lungs, without any being de-
posited in the cavity of the  thorax.  In a few casts,
the water  that is collected is enveloped in small cysts,
uf a membraneous nature,  known by the name of
hydatides, which seem to  float in the cavity; bul
more frequently they are connected wilh, and  attach-
ed to, particular parts of the internal surface of the
pleura.
  Hydrothorax often comes on with a sense of uneasi-
ness at the lower end of the sternum,  accompanied by
a difficulty of  breathing which is much increased by
any exertion, and which is  always most considerable
during night, when the body is in a horizontal posture.
Along with these symptoms" there is a cough, that is at
first dry, but which, alter a time, ii attended wilh an
expectoration of thin mucus.   There is likewise a
paleness of the complexion, and an anasarcous swell-
ing of the feet and  legs, together with a considerable
degree of thirst and a diminished flow of urine. Under
these appearances, we  have just grounds  to  suspect
that there  is a  collection of  water  in the  chest; but
if the fluctuation can be perceived, there can then re-
main no doubt as to the reality  of its presence.
  During the progress of the disease, il is no uncom-
mon thing for the patient to feel a numbness, or degree
of palsy, in  one or  both arms, and lo be more than
ordinarily wnsible lo cold.   With regard to the pulse,
it is  usually quick at first, but, towards the end, be-
comes irregular and intermitting.
  Our prognostic in hvdrothorax must, in general, be
unfavourable,  as it hiis seldom been cured, and, in
many cases, will hardly admit even of alleviation, the
difficulty of breathing continuing lo increase, until tlie
      <i40
action of the kings is at last entirely impeded by the
quantity of water deposited in the chest.  In some
cases, the  event is suddenly fatal;  but in others, it is
preceded, for a few days previous to death, by a  spit-
ting of blood.
  Dissections of this disease show that, in some cases,
the water is either collected in one side of the thorax,
or that there are hydatides formed  in some particular
part of it;  but they more frequently discover water in
both  sides of the chest, accompanied by a collection
in the cellular texture and  principal cavities of the
body.  The fluid is usually of a yellowish colour;  pos-
sesses properties similar to serum, and, with respect to
its quantity, varies  very much, being  from a  few
ounces to several quarts.   According  to  the quantity,
so are the  lungs compressed by it; and, where  it is
very considerable,  they are  usually found much re-
duced in size.   When universal anasarca has  pre-
ceded tiie  collection in the chest, it is no  uncommon
occurrence to find some of the abdominal viscera in a
scirrhous state.
  The treatment of this disease must be conducted on
the same general plan as  that of anasarca. Emetics,
however, are hazardous, and purgatives do not afford
so much benefit; but the bowels must be kept regular,
and otlier evacuating remedies may  be  employed  in
conjunction with tonics.   Squill has been chiefly re-
sorted to, as being expectorant as well as diuretic; but
its power is usually not great, unless it be carried so far
as to cause nausea, which cannot usually be borne to
any extent  Digitalis is more to be relied upon; but i*
will be better to conjoin them, adding, perhaps, some
form of mercury;  and employing  at the  same time
other diuretics,  as the suinertartrate  or acetate of po-
tassa, juniper berries, &c.    Where febrile symptoms
attend, diaphoretics  will  probably  be especially  ser-
viceable, as the pulvis ipecacuanhae  compositus,  or
antimonials, in small doses;  which  last may also  pro-
mote expectoration.  Blisters to the chest will be  pro-
per in many cases, particularly should there be  any
pain or other mark  of inflammatory action.  Myrrh
seems to answer better than most other tonics, as more
decidedly promoting expectoration; or the  nitric  acid
may be given, increasing the secretion of urine, as well
as supporting the strength.  The inhalation of oxygen
gas is stated to have been in some instances singularly
beneficial.  Where the fluid is collected in either  of
the sacs of the pleura, the operation of paracentesis of
the thorax may afford relief under urgent symptoms,
and, perhaps, contribute to the recovery ofthe patient.
   HVDROXURE.   See Hydrate.
   HYDRURET   A compound of hydrogen wilh a
metal.  See Lrct.
   HYGE1A.   Hygieia. The goddess of health.   One
of the four daughters  sf Esculapius.   She often ac-
companies her father in the monuments of him  now
remaining, and appears like a young woman, com-
nionly holding a serpent in one hand, and a patera in
the oilier.  Sometimes the serpent drinks out of the
patera; sonietimes he twines about the whole body  of
ihe goddess.
   HYGIENE.  (Fromiiyiaivoi^obewell.)  Hygiesis
Modern physicians have applied Ihis term to that divi-
sion of therapcia wliich  treats of  the diet and  non
naturals of the sick.
   Hygie'sis.  See Hygiene.
   Hv gra.  (From uypoy,  humid.)   An ancient  term
for liquid plasters.
   Hygrempla'strum.  (From vypos, mcist, and tp-
■xXas-pov, a plaster.)   A liquid plaster.
   Hyguoblepha'ricus.   (From vypos,  humid, and
6Xtq>apov,  the  eyelid.)    Applied  to the  emunctory
ducts in the extreme edge, or inner part of the eyelid
   Hygrocirsoce'le.  (From  vypos, moist, xipcros, a
varix, and  107X17, a tumour.)  Dilated spermatic veins,
or circocele, with dropsy ot the scrotum.
   Hygrocolly'rium.  (From vyooc, liquid, and i.iX-
Xvptoy, a collyrium.) A collyrium composed of liquids
   IIYGRO'LOGY. '(Hygrologia ; from vyoos, a hu-
mour or fluid, and  Xoyos, a discourse.)   The aootrine
of the fluids.
   HYGROMA.  (Yypupa; from vypos, a liquid.)  An
ency.sted tumour,  the  contents of which  aie cither
serum or a fluid-like lymph.  It sometimes happens
that these tumours are filled with  hydatids.  Hygro-
matous tumours require the removal ofthe cyst, or the
destruction of its secreting surface 
HYM
HYO
   HYGROMETER.   (Hygrometrum ;  from vypos,
 moist, and ptrpov, a measure.)  Hygrometer.  An in-
 strument to measure tlie degrees of moisture in the
 atmosphere.  It also means an infirm part of Ihe body,
 affected by moisture of the atmosphere.
   Hyoromy'ru.m.   (From vypos, moist, and pvpov, a
 liquid ointment.)  A liquid ointment.
   HYGROSCOPIC.  Substances which have the pro-
 perty of absorbing moisture from the atmosphere.  Sec
 Atmosphere.
   Hydrophobia.  See Hydrophobia.
   HY'LE.  ('TXrj, matter.)  The materia medica, or
 matter of any kind  thai comes  under the cognizance
 of a medical person.
   HY'MEX.   (From  Hymen,  the god of marriage,
 because this membrane is supposed to be entire before
 marriage, or copulation.)  The  hymen is a thin mem-
 brane, of a  semilunar or circular form, placed at the
 entrauceof the vagina, which it partly closes.  It has
 a very different appearance in different women, but it
 is generally, il" not  always, found in virgins, and is
 very properly esteemed the test of  virginity, being
 ruptured in  the first act of coition.  The remnants of
 the hymen are'called the carunculae myrtiformes.  The
 hymen is also peculiar  to the human  species.  There
 are two circumstances relating  to the hymen which
 require medical assistance.  It is sonietimes ol" such a
 strong ligamentous texture, that  it cannot be ruptured,
 and prevents the connexion between the sexes.  It is
 also sometimes imperforated, wholly closing the en-
 trance into tlie vagina, and  preventing any discharge
 from tlie uterus; but both  these cases are extremely
 rare.   If the hymen be of an  umiatiiially firm tex-
 ture,  but  perforated, though perhaps  with a  very
 small opening,   the  inconveniences  thence  arising
 will not be discovered  before the time of marriage,
 when they  may  be removed  by  a  crucial  incision
 made through it, taking care not lo injure the adjoin-
 ing parts.
  The imperforation of the hymen  will  produce its
 inconveniences  when the person begins to menstruate.
 For the menstruous fluid,  being  secreted from  the
 uterus at each period, and not evacuated, the patient
 suffers much pain from the distention of the parts,
 many strange symptoms and appearances are occa-
 sioned, and suspicions injurious  to her reputation are
 often entertained.  In a case of this  kind, for which
 Dr. Denman was consulted, the  young woman,  who
 was twenty-two years  of aze, having many uterine
 complaints, with the abdomen enlarged, was suspected
 to be pregnant, though she persevered in asserting the
 contrary, and had never menstruated.  When she was
 prevailed upon to submit to an  examination, the cir-
 cumscribed tumour of the uterus was found lo reach
 as high as the  navel, and  the  external  parts were
 stretched by a round soft substance at the entrance of
 the vagina, in such a manner  as to resemble that ap-
 pearance which they have when the head of a child
 is passing through them; but there was no entrance
 into the vagina.  On the following morning an incision
was carefully made through  the  hymen, which had a
 fleshy appearance, and was thickened in proportion
 to ils detention.   Not less than four pounds of blood,
 of the colour and consistence of  tar, were discharged;
 and the tumefaction of the abdomen was immediately
 removed.  Several stellated  incisions were afterward
 made through the divided edges, which is a very ne-
 cessary part of the operation:  and care was taken to
 prevent a reunion of the hymen till the next period
 of menstruation, after which she suffered no inconve-
 nience.  The blood  discharged was not putrid or co-
 agulated, and seemed  to have  undergone no other
 change after its secretion, but what was occasioned by
 the absorption of its more fluid  parts.  Some caution
 is required when the hymen  is closed in those who are
 in advanced age, unless the membrane be distended by
 the confined menses; as Dr. Denman once saw an in-
stance of inflammation of the peritonxum being im-
 mediately produced after the operation, of wliich the
 patient died as in the  true puerperal fever; and no
other reason could be assigned for the disease.
  The carunculae myrtiformes, by thelt elongation and
enlargement, sometimes become  very painful  and
troublesome.
  H YMEN.rEA. (From Hymen, the god of marriage;
 because, as Linnaeus informs us, its  younger  leaves
cohere togellicr  in pairs, throughout the night.)  The
 name of a genus of plants.  Class, Dccandria; Ordei
 Monogynia.
   Hymenjea courbaril.   The systematic name of
 the locust-tree wliich affords the rc.-in called  gum
 anime, which is now fallen into disuse, and is only to
 be found in the collections ofthe curious.
   HYMENIUM.   (From  Vpnv, a  membrane.)  The
 dilated exposed membrane of gymnocarpous mush
 rooms, in which the seed is placed.  See Gymnocarpi.
   HYMENODES.  (From Vpnv, a  membrane, and
 tir3oj, likeness.1 An old term for such urine as is found
 to be full of little Alms  and  pellicles.  Hippocrates
 applies it aUo to the menstrual discharge when mixed
 with a tough viscid phlegm.
   HYO.  Names compounded of this word belong to
 muscles which originate from, or are inserted  into, or
 connected with, the os hyoides; ns Hyo-glossus, Hyo-
 pharyngeus, Gcnio-kyo-glossus, Sec.
   HYO-GLOSSUS.   Cerato-glossus of Douglas and
 Cowper.  Basio-ccrato-chondro-glossus  of  Albinus.
 Hyo-chondro-glosse of Dumas.  A muscle situated at
 the sides, between the os hyoides and the tongue.  It
 arises from the basis, but chiefly from the comer of the
 os hyoides, running laterally and forwards to the tongue,
 which it pulls inward and  downward.
   HYOIDES OS. (From  theGreek letter v, and uios,
 likeness: so named from its resemblance.) This bone,
 which is situated between the root of the tongue and
 the larynx, derives its name from  its supposed  resem-
 blance to  the Greek  letter u, and is, by some writers,
 described along with the parts contained in the mouth.
 Ruysch has seen the  ligaments of the bone so com-
 pletely ossified,  that  the os hyoides was joined  to
 the temporal  bones by anchylosis.  In describing this
 bone, it may be distinguished inlo its body, horns, and
 appendices.  The body is the middle and broadest part
 of the bono,  so placed that it may be easily fell v\ ith
 the finger in  the forepart of the throat.  Its forepart,
 wiiich is placed toward the tongue, is irregularly con-
 vex, and its inner surface, which is lurneds towards the
 larynx, is unequally concave.   The eornua, or horns.
 which are flat, and a little bent, are considerably longer
 than the body ofthe bone, and may be said to form the
 sides of the v.  These horns are thickest near the body'
 of the  bone.   At  the extremity of each is observed a
 round tubercle, from which a ligame^* passes  to the
 thyroid cartilage.  The appendices, or smaller  horns,
 eornua minora, as they are called by some writers, are
 two small processes, which, in their size and shape, are
 somewhat like a grain cf wheat.   They rise up from
 the articulations of the eornua, with the body of the
 bone, and are sometimes connected with the styloid
 process on each side, by means of a ligament.  It is not
 unusual to find small  portions of bone  in these liga-
 ments; and Ruysch, as we have already observed, has
 seen them completely ossified. In Ihe foetus, almost the
 whole of the bone is in a cartilaginous state, excepting
a small point of a bone in the middle of its body, and
 in each of its horns.  The appendices do not begin to
appear till after birth, and usually remain cartilaginous
many years.  The os hyoides servos to  support tho
tongue, and affords attachment to a variety of muscles,
some of which perforin the motions of  the tongue,
while others  act on the larvnx and fauces.
  HYOPHARYNGE'US.  (From  voeiies, Ihe  hyoid
bone, and Aapvyt,, the  pharynx.)  A muscle so  called
 from its origin in the os hyoides,  and its insertion in
the pharynx.
  HYOPHTHA'I.MUS.   (From uj, a swine, and o<p-
BaXpos, an eye: so named  from the supposed resem-
blance of its  flower to a hog's eye.)  Hogs-eye  plant.
Most probably the Buphthalmum spmosum of Linnaeus.
  HYOSCIAMA.  A  new vegetable alkali extracted
by Dr. Brande from henbane. See Hyoscyamus niger
  HYOSCY'AMUS.   (From vs, a swine, and xvapos,
a bean: so named because hogs cat it as a medicine,
or it may be because the plant is hairy and bristly, like
 a swine.)
  1. The name of a genus of plants in the Linnaean
system.  Class, Pentandria; Older, Monogynia.
  2. The pharmacopaeial name of the henbane.  See
 Hyoscyamus niger.
  Hyoscyamus albus.  This plant, a native  of the
south of Europe, possesses similar virtues to the hyos-
cyamus niger.
  Hyoscyamus luteus.  A species of tobacco, lh<
 Nicotiana rastica of Linnaeus.
                                       44J 
HYP
HYP
  Hyoscyamus niger.  Thesystemsuciianieof com-1
mon or black henbane, called also Faba suilla; Apolli-
naris altercum ; Agone ; Altercangenon; Hyoscyamus
—foliis  amplexicaulibus sinuatis, fioribus  sessilibus
of Linnaeus.  The leaves of this plant, when recent,
have a slightly foetid smell, and a mucilaginous taste;
when dried, they lose both taste and smell, and part also
of their  narcotic power.  The root possesses the same
qualities as the leaves, and even in a more eminent
degree.  Henbane resembles opium in its action, more
than any other narcotic dose.   In a moderate dose it
Increases at first the strength of the pulse, and occa-
sions some  sense  of heat, which arc followed by
diminished sensibility and  motion;  in some cases, by
thirst, sickness, stupor, and dimness of vision.   In a
larger quantity it occasions profound sleep, hard pulse,
and sometimes fierce.delirium,ending in coma, or con-
vulsions, with a remarkable dilatation of the pupil, dis-
tortion of the countenance, a weak tremulous pulse,
and eruption of peiechiae.   On dissection, gangrenous
spots have been found on the  internal surface of the
stomach.  Its baneful effects are best counteracted by
a powerful emetic, and by drinking largely of the vege-
table acids.
  Henbane has been used  in various spasmodic and
painful  diseases, as in epilepsy, hysteria, palpitation,
headache ; paralysis, mania, and scirrhus.   Il is given
in the form of the inspissated juice of the fresh leaves,
the dose of which is from one to two grains ; wiiich
requires io be gradually  increased.  It  is sometimes
employed  as a substitute for opium, where the latter,
from idiosyncrasy, occasions  any disagreeable symp-
tom.  The henbane also is free from the constipating
quality  of the opium
  Dr. Brande has extracted a  new  alkali  from this
plant, which he calls hyosciania. It crystallizes in long
prisms,  and when neutralized  by sulphuric or  nitric
acid, forms characteristic sails.
  Hyothyroi'des.  (From vottits, the hyoid  bone,
and dvpottins, the thyroid cartilage.)  A muscle named
from ils origin in the hyoid bone, and insertion in the
thyroid  cartilage.
  Hypa'cth a.  (From vrrayu,  to subdue.)   Medicines
which evacuate the fieces.
  Hypalei'ptrum.  (From viraXucbu, to spread upon.)
A spatula for spreading ointments with.
  Hype'lata.  (From virtXau, to move.)   Medicines
which purge.
  HYPER-rETHE'SIS.  (From vircp, and atodavopat,
to feel.) Error of appetite, whether by excess or de-
ficiency.
  H YPERCATHA'RSIS.  (From virtp, supra, over or
above, and xaBatpu, to purge.)  Hyperinesis; Hype-
rinos.  An excessive purging from medicines.
   Hypercorypho'sis.  (From vrrsp, above, and xopv-
tptj, the  vertex.) A prominence or protuberance.  Hip-
pocrates calls the lobes of the liver and lungs Hypcr-
coryphoses.
   HYPERCRI3IS.   ('Yizepxptats;  from vxtp,  ovci
or above, and Apivu, to separate.)  A critical excretion
above measure; as when a fever terminates in a loose-
nets, the humours may flow off faster than the strength
can boar,  and therefore it is to  be checked.
   HYPERE'MESIS.  (From viup, in excess, and tptu,
 to vomit.)  Anexcessive evacuation by vomiting.
   I1YPEREPHIDROS1S. (From uirtp, excess,^and
 tipus, svveat.l  Immoderate sweating.'
   HYPERICUM.  (From virtp, over, and tixuv,nil
 image or spectre: so named because it was thought to
 have powcrover and to drive away evil  spirits.)   1.
 The name of a genus of plants in the Linnaean system.
 Clas><",  Polyadelphta;  Order,  Polyandria.  St. John's
 won.
   2. Tho phannncopuiial  name of the common St.
 John's  wort.  See Hypericum  perfoliatum.
   Hypericum  daccikerum    Caa-opia;  Arbuncula
 gummifera Brazilicnsis.   A  juice exudes from the
 wounded bark of this plant,  in the Brazils, which,
 in a dry state, resembles camboge, but is rather darker.
   Hypericum coris.  Coris  lutea; Coris  legitima
 crctica.  Bastard St. John's  wort.  The  seeds are
 diuretic, eiiimemmoguc, and antispasmouic.
   Hypericum perfoliatum.   The systematic name
 ofthe St. John's wort, called alsofuga diemonum; and
 androsamum.  Hypericum perforatum—fioribus tri-
 gynis,caule ancipiti, foliisobtusispclluctdopiinctatts,
 of Linnaeus  This indigenous plant was  greatly es-
       442
tecuiea jy the ancients, internally in a great variety
of diseases,  and externally as an anodyne and dis>
cuticut,  bul  is  now very rarely  used.  The flowers
were formerly used in our pharmacopoeia, on account
of ihe great proportion of resinous oily matter, in which
the medical efficacy of the plant is supposed io reside,
but arc now omitted.
  Hypericum saxatile.  Hypcricoides.  The  seeds
are said to be diuretic and antispasmodic.
  HYPERI'NA.  (From virtp, in excess, and iveu, to
evacuate.)   Medicines which purge excessively.
  Hyperine'sis.  See Hypereatharsis.
  Hyperi'nos.  See Hypereatharsis.
  Hypero'a. (From virtp, above,  and uov, the top ol
a house.)  The palate.
  Hyperopuarynge'us.   (From  vrtp,  above,  and
tj>apvy\, the pharynx.)  A muscle named from its situa-
tion above ihe pharynx.
  HYPEROSTOSIS.  (From vrttp,  upon, and.cuov, a
bone.)   See Exostosis.
  Hypero'um.  (From virtp, above, and uov, tlie roof
or palate.)  A foramen in the upper part of the palate.
  Hyperoxymuriate of potassa.  See Murias potassa
oxygenatus
  Hyperoxymuriatic acid.  See Chlorine.
  HYPEROXYMURIATE.   A salt now called a chlo-
rate.
  HYPERSARCO MA.  (From virtp, in excess, and
eap\,  flesh.)  Hypersarcosis.  A fleshy  excrescence.
A polypus.
  Hypersarco'sis. See Hypersarcoma.
  HYPERSTENE. Labrador schiller spar.  Found
in Labrador, Greenland, and Isle  of Skye.  It has a
beautiful copper colour  when eul and  polished into
rings, brooches, &c.
  Hyperydro'sis.  (From virtp, in  excess, aud viup,
water.)   A great  distention of any part, from water
collected iu it.
   Hype'xodos.  (From  v-o, under, and t\oios, passing
out)   A flux of the bellv.
   HYPNO BATES.  (From  iirvos, sleep, and fiatvu,
to go.)  Hypnobatasis.  One who walks in  his sleep
See Oneirodynia.
   HYPNOLO'GIA.  (From virvos, sleep, and Xoyos, a
discourse.)  A dissertation, or directions for the due
regulation of sleeping and waking
   HYPNOPOIE'TICA.    (From  v-rvot, sleep,  and
irouu,lo cause.)  Medicines which procure sleep.  Sec
Anodyne.
   HYPNOTIC.   (Hipnoticus;  from  v-vos, sleep.)
Sec Anodyne.
   HYPO-SULPHITE.  A sulphuretted sulphite.
   HYPOiE  MA.  (From vicq, under, and atpa, blood;
because the blood is under the cornea.)  An effusion
of red blood into the chambers ofthe eye.
   Hypocaro'des. (From viro, and xapos,  a carus.)
Hypocarothis.  One who labours under a low degree
of carus.
   Hypocatha'rsis.  (From v-u, under, and xaBatpu,
to purge.)   It is when a medicine does not work so
much ns expected, or but very little.   Or a slight purg-
ing, when ilis a disorder.
   HYPOCAU'STRUM.  (From uiro, under, and xatu,
to bum.)  A stove, hot house, or any such like con
 irivance, to preserve plants from cold air.
   Hypocerchna'leon.  (From uiro, and xtpxvos, an
 asperity of  the fauces.)  A stridulous kind of asperity
 of the fauces.
   Hypocheo'menos.  (From tiro, under, and x«">> to
 pour.)  One who labours under a cataract.
   Hypochloro'sis.  (From  viro, and xXu/xoo-i;,  the
 green-sickness.)  A slight degree of  chlorosis.
   HYPOCHO'NDRIAC.    (From  uiro,  under, snd
 xovipos, o. cartilage.)  1. Belonging  to  the hypochon-
 dria.
   2. A person  affected  wilh lowness of spirits   Se«
 Hypochondriasis
   Hypociio.ndp.ial- regions.  Regiones hypochindri-
 acw; Hypochondria.  The spaces in the abdomen that
 nre under the cartilages of the  spurious ribs on each
 side ofthe epigastrium.
   HYPOCHONDRIASIS.  (Fromviroxovlptaxos,one
 who is  hipped.i   Hypochondriacus morbus; Affeciio
 hypochondrinca; Passio hypochondriaca.  The  hypo-
 chondriac affection, vapours, spleen, Sec  A genus of
 disease in the class Neuroses, and order Adynamia, of
 Cullen, characterized by dyspepsia languor, and want 
HYP
HYP
  31 energy; sadness and fear  from uncertain causes,
  wilh a melancholic temperament.
 .   The state of mind peculiar to hypochondriacs is thus
  described by Cullen:—"A langour, listlessnoss.or want
  of resolution and activity, with respect lo all undertak-
  ings; a disposition to seriousness, sadness, and timidity,
  as to all future events, and apprehension of the vvorsl
  or most unhappy state of them; nnd, therefore, often
  upon slight grounds, and apprehension of great evil.
  Such persons are particularly attentive to the state of
  their own  health, to every the smallest change of feel-
  ing in their bodies:  and from any unusual sensation,
  perhaps of ihe slightest kind, they apprehend great
  danger, and even death itself.,  Iu respect  to these
  feelings and feats, there is commonly the most obsti-
  nate belief and persuasion.''   He adds, " lhat it is only
  when the state of mind just described is joined with
  indigestion, in either sex, somewhat in years,  of*a me-
  lancholic temperament, and a firm and rigid habit, that
  tbe disease takes the name of Hypochondi-iacism."
    The seat of  the hypochondriac passions is in the
  stomach and  bowels; for, first these parts are disor-
  dered, then the others suffer from the connexion.  The
  causes are, sorrow, tear, or excesses of any of  tlie pas-
  sions; too  long continued watching;  irregular diet.
  Those habitually disposed to it (and these causes have
  little effect  in other constitutions,) have generally a sal-
  low  or brown complexion, and  a  downcast  look; a
  rigidity of the solids, and torpor ofthe nervous system.
  Whatever may occasion nervous disorders in  general,
  may also be the cause of this.
   The signs of this complaint  are so various,  that to
  describe them is to describe almost every otlier disease;
  but, in general, there is an insurmountable indolence,
  dejected spirits, dread of death, costiveness, a slow and
 somewhat difficult inspiration, flatulencies in the prima
  viae, and various spasmodic affections.  It  is  seldom
  fatal; but  if neglected,  or  improperly treated, may
  bring on incurable melancholy, jaundice, madness, or
 vertigo, palsy, and apoplexy.
   On dissections of hypochondriacal persons, some of
 the abdominal  viscera  (particularly  the  liver  and
 spleen) are  usually found considerably enlarged.  In
 some few instances, effusion  and a  turgescence of the
 vessels have been observed in the brain.
   This being a disease of a mixed description, the treat-
 ment must be partly corporeal, partly mental; but it has
 been too often  neglected, as merely imaginary, and
 their complaints met by argument or raillery, which,
 however, can  only Weaken their  confidence  in the
 practitioner. It  may be very proper to inform them,
 that their disorder is not so dangerous as they suppose,
 and may be removed by suitable  remedies; but to tell
 them they ail nothing, is absurd.  In reality, medicine
 is often of much service; and though others have been
 cured  chiefly by  amusements, couulry air, and exer-
 cise, it by no means follows, that their disorder was only
 in the imagination.  In so far as dyspeptic symptoms
 appear, these must be  encountered by the remedies
 pointed out  under that head; antacids, aperients, &c.
 Sometimes emetics, or drastic  cathartics,  have pro-
 duced  speedy relief; but they are too debilitating to be
 often employed.   The bowels will be better regulated
 by milder remedies, as castor oil, senna, aloes,  (unless
 they are subject  to haemorrhoids,) and the like; and
 magnesia may at the same time correct ascidity; but if
 the liver be torpid, some mercurial preparation  will be
 of more avail.   Flatulence and spasmodic pains may
 be relieved  by aromatics, ether, the  foetid gum  resins,
 musk, va'aerian, Sec. but severe  and obstinate pain, or
 high irritation, will be best attacked  by opium: it is
 important, however, to guard against the patient get-
 ting into the habitual use of this remedy.  Occasionally,
 mild  tonics appear useful,  especially  chalybeate
 waters;  and tepid bathing, with friction, gentle exor-
 cise, and warm clothing, are important to keep up the
 function of  the skin.  The diet should be light, and
 sufficiently  nutritious; but moderation must  be  en-
joined to those who have  been  accustomed to indulge
too much in  the luxuries of the table: ond, in all cases,
those articles which are ascesccnt, flatulent, or difficult
of  digestion, must be avoided.  Malt  liquors  do  not
usually agree so well as wine or  spirits, considerably
diluted- but these stimuli should never be allowed un-
necessarily.   The mental treatment required will be
such as is calculated to  restore  the strength, and cor-
rect  the aberrations  of the judgment.  When  any \ gas-, we obtain  an absorption of 500, proceeding from
  false association of ideas occurs, the best mode of re
  moving it is, by keeping up a continued train of natural
  associated impressions of superior  force, which mav
  amuse the mind,  and  moderately exercise, without
  exhausting it.   A variety of literary recreations and
  diversions, especially in the open air,  with  agreeable
  company, will  be therefore  advisable:  frequently
  changing the scene, taking them to watering places,
  and adopting other expedients, to prevent them from
  dwelling too much  upon their own morbid feelines.
    HYPOCHO'NimiUM.   (From  tiro  under, and
  vovipos, a cartilage.)  That part of the rody which
  lies under Ihe cartilages of the spurious ribs.
    HYPOCIIYMA.   (From viro, and xou,  to  pour-
  because the ancients thought  that the opacity pro'
  ceeded from  something running under the crystalline
  humour.)  A cataract.
    HYPOCI STIS.  (From uiro, under, and xisos, the
  cistus.)   See Asarum hypocislis and Cytinus  hypo
  cistts.
    IlvpoctE'PTicuM.  (From uiro, under, and xXtirru,
  to  steal.)  A chemical vessel for separating liquors
  particularly the essential oil of any vegetable from the
  water; and named because it  steals, as it were, the
  water from the oil.
    Hypocoelon.  (From viro,  under,  and  xotXov, u
  cavity.)  The cavily under the lower eyelid.
    Hypocopho'sis.  A trifling degree of deafness.
    Hypocra'nium.   (From uiro, under, and xpavtov, the
  skull.)  A kind  of  abscess, so  called because seated
  under the cranium,  between it and the duru mater.
   HYPOCRATERIFORMIS.   (From  viro, xparnp, a
  cup, goblet, or salver, and forma, likeness.) Hypociute-
  riform,  salver-shaped; applied to leaves so shaped, as
  those ofthe Primula.
   Hypodei'ris.  In Rufus Ephesius, it is the extremity
  of the forepart ofthe neck.
   Hypode'rmis.  (From mro, under, and Itppn, the
  skin.)   1.  The skin over the clitoris, whicli covers il
  like a prepuce.
   2. The clitoris.
   Hypo'desis.   (From uiro, under, and itu  to bind.j
  Hypodesmus.  An underswathe, or bandage.
   HYPO'GALA.  (From uiro, under, and yaXa, milk;
  because it is a milk-like effusion under the cornea.)  A
  collection of white humour, like  milk, in tne chambers
  of the eye.  There are two species of this disease; the
  one takes place, it is said, from a deposition of the mine,
  as is sometimes observed in women who suckle, the
 other from a depression of the milky cataract.
   HYPOGASTRIC.  (From viro, under, and ya^p,
 Ihe stomach.)  Belonging  to  the hypogastria.   See
  Hypogas trium.
   Hypogastric  arteries.  Of or  belonging to the
 hypogastrium.  See Iliac arteries.
   Hypogastric region.  See Hypogastrium.
   HYPOGA'STRIUM.  (From uiro, under, and yas^p,
 the stomach.)   Regio hypogastrica.  The region of
 ihe abdomen that reaches from above the  pubes to
 within three flusters' breadth ofthe navel.
   HYPOGASTROCE'LE.  (From  viroyas-piov,  the
 hypogastrium, and xrjXn, a tumour.)  A hernia, in the
 hypogastric region.
   HYPOGLO'SSIS. (From uiro, under, and yXuoaa,
 tine  tongue.)   The under part of the tongue, which
 adheres to ihe jaw.
   HYPOGLO'SSUS. (From viro, under, nnd yXuoaa,
 the tongue.)  A nerve which goes to the under part of
 the tongue.
   HYPOGLO'TTIDES.   (From  uiro,  under,  and
 yXurfa, the tongue.)' They are a kind of lozenge to
 be held under the tongue until they ure dissolved.
   HYPOGLU'TIS.  (From viro,  under, and  yXovros,
 the nates.)  It is the fleshy part under  the nates to-
 wards  the thigh.  Some  say it is the flexure  of the
■coxa, under the nates.
   Hypo'mia.   (From uiro, under,  and  upos, shoulder.)
 In Galen's Exegesis, it is the part subjacent to the
 shoulder.
   HYPONITRIC ACID.  See Nitric acid.
   HYPONITROUS  ACID.  Pernitrous acid.   ' Il
 appears  from  the experiments of Gay Lussac, that
 there exists an  acid, formed of 100 azote  and 150
 oxygen.  When into a tost  tube  filled with mercury,
 we pass  up from 500 to 000 volumes  of deutoxide of
 azote, a  little alkaline water, and 100 parts of oxygen 
HYP
HYS
llie condensation of the 100 parts of oxygen with 400
of deutoxide of azote.  Now these 400 parts are com-
posed of 200 azote and 200 oxygen; consequently, the
new acid is composed of azote and oxygon, in the ratio
of 100 to 150, as wo have said above.  It is the same
acid, according  to Gay Lussac, which is produced on
leaving for a long time a strong solution of potassa in
contact with deutoxide of azote.  At the end of three
months he found that 100 parts of deutoxide of azote
were  reduced  to 25 of protoxide of azote, and that
crystals of hyponilrite (pernitrile) were formed.
  Hyponitrous acid (called  pcrnitrous by the  French
chemists) cannot be insulated.  As soon  as we lay
hold, by an acid, of the potassa with which it  is asso-
ciated, it is transformed into deutoxide of azote, which
is  disengaged, and into  nitrous or nitric acid, which
remains iu solution."
  Hypo'nomos.  (From vssovopos, a phagedenic ulcer.)
I.  A subterraneous place.
  2. A deep phagedenic ulcer.
  Hypope'dium.  (From  uiro,  under, and  irnv;, the
foot.)   A cataplasm for the  sole ofthe foot.
  Hypo phora.   (From virotptpopat, to  be carried or
conveyed underneath.)   A deep fistulous ulcer.
  HYPOPHOSPHOROUS  ACID.   This  acid was
lately discovered by Dulong.  Pour waler on the phos
phuret of barytes, and  wait till all the phosphuretted
hydrogen  be disengaged.  Add  cautiously  to the
filtered liquid dilute sulphuric acid, till the  barytes be
all precipitated in the state of sulphate.  The superna-
tant liquid is hypophosphorous acid, which should be
passed through  a filter.  This liquid may  be concen-
trated by evaporation, till it become viscid.  It has a
very sour taste, reddens vegetable blues, and does not
crystallize.  It  is.probably  composed of 2 primes of
phosphorus = 3 + 1 of oxygen.  Dulong's analysis ap-
proaches to this  proportion.   He assigns, but from
rather precarious data, 100 phosphorus to  37.41 oxy-
gen.  The  hypophosphites  have the  remarkable pro-
perty  of being all soluble in water; while many of the
phosphates and phosphites are insoluble.
  HYPOPHTHA'LMION.   (From uro, under,  and
otpdaXpos, the eye.)  The part under the eye wliich is
subject to swell in a cachexy, or dropsy.
  Hypo'physis.  (From uiro, under, and q)vu, to pro-
duce.)  A disease ofthe eyelids, when the  hairs grow
so much as to irritate and offend the pupil.
  HYPOPYUM.  (From uiro, under, and  ruoi-, pus;
because the pus is under  the cornea.)   Hypopion;
Pyosis; Abscessus oculi. An accumulation of a glu-
tinous yellow fluid, like pus, which takes place in the
anterior chamber of the aqueous  humour, and  fre-
quently also in the posterior one, in  consequence of
severe, acute ophthalmy, particularly the internal spe-
cies.  This viscid matter of the hypopyum, is com-
monly called pus; but Scarpa contends, that it is only
coagulating  lymph.  The  symptoms portending an
extravasation of coagulable lymph in the  eye, or an
hypopyum, are the same as those which  occur in the
highest stage of violent acute ophthalmy,  viz. prodi-
gious tumefaction of the eyelids;  the same swelling
and redness as in chemosis; burning heal and  pain in
the eye;  pains in the eyebrow, and nape of the neck;
fever, restlessness, aversion  to the faintest light, and a
contracted state of the pupil.
   Hypori'nion. (From uiro, under, and piv,the nose.)
 "i  name for  the  parts  of  the upper lip  below the
 nostrils.
   Hyposa'rca.  (From uiro, under, and cap\, flesh.)
 Uyposarcidios.  A collection of fluid or air in the cel-
lular membrane
   Hypospadias.  (From  uiro, under, and omiu, to
draw.)  The urethra terminating under the glans.
   IIypospathi'smus.  (From  uto, under, and criraBn,
a spatula.)  The name of nn operation formerly used
in  surgery, for removing defluxions  in the eyes.  It
was thus named  from the  instrument with which  it
wus performed.
   Hypospha'gma.   (From  uno, under,  and  o<j>a$u,
to kill.)  Aposphagma.   An  extravasation of blood
in  the  tunica adnata  of" the  eye, from external
injury.
   Hypoiple'nia.  (From uiro, under, and  o-irXijv, the
spleen.)   A tumour under the spleen.
   Hyposta'phyle.   (From uiro,  and  ra^At.  the
■jvula.)  Relaxation of the uvula.
   Hypo'stasis. (From vqjtsvpt, to subside.)  A sedi-
      444
ment, as  that which is occasionally let down  Irom
urine.
  HYPOSULPHUREOUS ACID.  " In order to ob-"
tain  liyposulphureous acid, Herschel mixed a dilute
solution of hyposulphite of strontites with a slight ex-
cess  of dilute sulphuric acid,  and, after  agitation,
poured the mixture on three filters.  The first was re-
ceived into a solution of carbonate of potassa.  fiona
which it expelled carbonic acid gas.  The second |K>r-
tion being received successively into nitrates of silver
and mercury, precipitated Ihe metals copiously in this
state of sulphurets, but produced no effect on solution i
of copper, iron, or zinc.  The third, being tasted, was
acid,  astringent, and bitter.  When fresh filtered,  it
was clear; but  it became milky on standing, deposit-
ing sulphur, and colouring sulphureous acid.  A mo-
derate exposure to air, or a gentle heat,  caused its en-
tire decomposition."
  HYPOSULPHURIC  ACID.   "Gay  Lussac and
Welther have recently announced the discovery of a
new  acid combination of sulphur and oxyuen, interme-
diate between  sulphureous and  sulphuric acids, to
which they have given the name of hyposulphuric
acid.  It is obtained by passing a current of sulphure-
ous acid gas over the black oxide of manganese.  A
combination  takes place;  the excess of the oxide of
manganese is separated by dissolving the hyposulphate
of manganese in water.  Caustic barytes precipitates
the manganese, and forms with the new acid a  very
soluble salt, which, freed from excess of barytes by a
current  of carbonic acid,  crystallizes  regularly, like
the nitrate or muriate of barytes.  Hyposulphate of
barytes  being thus obtained, sulphuric  acid' is  cau-
tiously added lo the solution, which throws down the
barytes, and leaves the hyposulphuric acid in the wa-
ter.  This acid bears considerable concentration under
the receiver of the air-pump.  Il consists of five  parts
of oxygen to four of sulphur.  The greater number of
the hyposulphates, both earthy and metallic, are solu-
ble, and crystallize; those of baryies and lime are un-
alterable in the  air.
  Hyposulphuric acid is distinguished by the following
properties:—
  1st, It is decomposed by heal into sulphurous and
sulphuric  acids.
  2d, It forms soluble  salts with barytes, strontites,
lime, lead, and silver.
  3d, The hyposulphates are all soluble.
  4th, They yield sulphurous acid when their solutions
are mixed with acids, only if the mixture becomes hot
of itself, or be artificially heated.
  5tA, They disengage a great deal of sulphurous acid
at a  high temperature, and are converted into neutral
sulphates."
  HYPO'THENAR.  (From  uiro, under, and Btvap,
the palm of the hand.)  1. A  muscle which runs on
the inside of the hand.
  2.  That part of the hand which is opposite to the
palm.
  HYPOTHESIS.  An opinion, or a system of  gene-
ral rules,  founded partly on fact but principally on
conjecture.  A theory explains every fact, and every
circumstance connected with  it;  an  hypothesis ex-
plains only a certain number,  leaving  some  unac-
counted for, and others in opposition to it.
  HYPO'THETON.   (From viro, under, and nBnpt,
to put.)   A suppository, or medicine introduced into
the rectum, to procure stools.
  Hypo'xylon.   (From viro, and "JuXoi'. wood.  A spe-
cies of clararia, which grows under old wood.
  Hypozo'ma.   (From  viro  and ^uvvvpt,  to  bind
round.)  The diaphragm.
  Hypsiglo'ssus.  (From vipiXotiits. the hyoid  bone
and yXuaoa, the tongue.)  A  muscle named from its
o.igin  in  the os hyoides, and  its insertion in ihe
tongue.
  HYPSILOIDES.  1.  The Os hyoides.
  2.  The hyoglossus muscle.
  Hyptia's.mos.  (From v/liai,u,  to lie with the face
upwards.)  A supine decubiture, or a nausea, with in
cliuation to vomit.
  Hypu'lus.  (From vro, under, and ovXij a c catrix. j
An ulcer under a cicatrix.
  HYSSOP.  See Hyssopus.
  Hyssop  hedge.  See Gratiola.
  HyssopiTes.   (From vetouiros, hyssop*)   W-!ie im-
pregnated  with hyssop. 
HYS                                             HYS
   HYSSOPUS.   ('Yoouiroc; from  Azob, Hebrew.)
 I. 1 he name of a genus of plants iu the Linna-an sjs-
 tcin.   Class,  Didynamia;   Order,  Gymnospcrmia.
 Hyssop.
   2 The pharniacopoeial  name of the common hys-
 sop.  See Hyssopus officinalis.
   Hyssopus capitata.  Wild thyme.
   Hyssopus officinalis.   The systematic name of
 the  common hyssop.  Hyssopus—spicis secundis, fo-
 liis  lanceolatis of Linnaeus.  This  exotic  plant is es-
 teemed as an aromatic and stimulant, but is chiefly
 employed as a pectoral, and has long been thought use-
 ful  in humoral asthmas, coughs, and catarrhal affec-
 tions,; for this  purpose, an infusion  of  the  leaves,
 sweetened with honey, or sugar, is recommended to
 be drank as Ua.
  HY'STERA.   (From i-j-tpof, behind: so called be-
 cause it is placed behind the otlier parts.)   The womb.
 See  Cirrus.
  HYSTERA LGIA.   (From uftpa, the  womb, and
 aXyos, P:'in.)  A pain in the womb.
  HYSTE RIA.   (From vs-cpa, the womb, from which
 the disease was supposed to arise.)   Passio hysterica.
 Hysterics.  Dr. Cullen places  this disease  in the class
 .Ycnrosrs,and order Spasmt.   There are four species:
  1.  Hysteria chlorotica,  from a retention  of the
 menses.
  2.  Hysteria <i leucorrhaa, from a  fluor albus.
  3.  Hysteria d menorrhagia, from an immoderate
 flow of the menses.
  4.  Hysteria libidinosa, from sensual desires.
  The complaint appears under such various shapes,
 imitates so many other diseases, and is attended with
 such a variety of symptoms, which  denote the animal
 and  vital functions to be considerably disordered, that
 it is difficult to give a just character or definition of it;
 and it is only by taking an assemblage of all its appear-
 ances, lhat we can convey a proper idea of  it to  otheis.
 The disease attacks in paroxysms, or fits.  These are
 sometimes preceded by dejection of spirits, anxiety of
 mind, effusion of tears, difficulty of breathing, sickness
 at the stomach, and palpitations at the heart; bul it
 more usually happens, that a pain  is  felt  on the left
 Bide, about the flexure of the colon, with  a sense of
 distention advancing  upwards, till it gets into the  sto-
 mach,  and  removing from thence into the throat, it oc-
 casions, by its pressure, a sensation as if a ball was
 lodged ihere, wliich by authors has been called globus
 hystericus.  The disease having arrived at  this height,
 tiie patient appears to be threatened with suffocation,
 becomes faint, and is  affected wilh stupor and insen-
 sibility ; while, at the same time, tlie trunk  ofthe body
 is turned to and fro, the limbs are variously agitated ;
 wild aud irregular actions take place in alternate fits
 of laughter,  crying, and screaming:  incoherent ex-
 pressions are uttered, a temporary  delirium prevails,
 and a frothy saliva is discharged from the mouth.  The
 spasms at length abating, a quantity of wind is evacu-
 ated upwards, with frequent sighing and sobbing, and
 the woman recovers the  exercise of  sense and motion
 without any recollection of what has taken place dur-
 ing the fit;  feeling, however, a severe pain  in  her
 head, and a soreness over  her whole body.  Iu some
 oases, there is little or no convulsive motion, and the
 person lies seemingly in a state of profound sleep, with-
 out eithersenseor motion.  Hiccup is asymptom which
 likewise attends, in some- instances, on hysteria;  and
 now and then il happens, that a fit of hysteria consists
 of this alone.  In some cases,of this nature, it has been
 known to continue for two oi ihree days, during which
 it frequently seems as if il would suffocate  the patient, j
 and  proceeds, gradually weakening her, till it either j
 goes off or  else occasions death by suflocation: bui |
 this  last is extremely rare.   Besides hiccup, other j
 slight spasmodic affections sometimes  wholly form a
 fit of hysteria, whicli perhaps continue for  a day or
 two, and then either go oft' of themselves, or are re-
 moved by the aid of medicine.  In  some cases the pa-
 tient is attacked with violent pain in the back, which
 extend from the spine to the sternum, and at length
 become fixed upon the region of the stomach, being
 evidently of a spasmodic nature, and often prevailing
in so high a degree as to cause clammy sweats,  a  pale
cadaverous  look, coldness  of the  extremities, and a
pulse hardly perceptible.                ,   .    .  ,
  Hysteric affections occur more frequently in a single
elate of life than in the married ; and usually between
 the age of puberty and that of thirty-five  years; and
 they  make their attack oftener about tiie period of
 menstruation than at any other.
   They are readily excited in ihose who are subject to
 them, by passions ofthe mind,  and by every consider-
 able emotion, especially when brought on by surprise;
 hence, sudden joy, grief, fear, Sec arc very apt to occa-
 sion them.  They have also been known to arise from
 imitation and sympathy.
   Women of a delicate habit, and whose nervous sys-
 tem is extremely sensible, are tliose who are most sub-
 ject to hysteric affections;  and the habit which predis-
 poses to their attacks, is acquired by inactivity and a
 sedentary life, grief, anxiety of  mind, a suppression or
 obstruction of the menstrual flux, excessive  evacua-
 tions, and a constant use of a low diet, or of crude un-
 wholesome food.
   Hysteria differs from hypochondriasis in  tiie follow
 ing particulars, nnd, by paying attention to them, may
 always readily be distinguished from it:—Hysteria at
 tacks the sanguine and plethoric; comes on soon after
 the age of puberty ; makes its onset suddenly and vi-
 olently, so as to deprive the patient of all  sense and
 voluntary motion : is accompanied with the sensation
 of a ball rising upwards in the throat, so as to threaten
 suffocation;  is attended usually with much spasmodic
 affection; is more apt to tcrmiimte in epilepsy than  in
 any otlier disease; and, on dissection, its morbid ap-
 pearances are confined principally to the  uterus and
 ovaria.
  The reverse happens in hypochondriasis.   It attacks
 the melancholic; seldom occurs till after the age of
 thirty five; conies on gradually; isa tedious  disease,
 and difficult to cure ; exerts its pernicious effects on the
 membraneous canal of the intestines, as well by spasms
 as wind; is more apt to terminate in melancholy, or a
 low fever, than in any other disease; and, on dissec-
 tion, exhibits  its morbid effects principally on the liver,
 spleen, and pancreas, which are often found in a dis-
 eased state.
  Another very material difference might  be  pointed
 out between these two diseases,  which is, that hysteria
 is much relieved by advancing  in age, whereas hypo-
 chondriasis usually becomes aggravated.
  The two diseases have often been confounded to-
 gether;  but,  from consider ing  the foregoing  circum-
 stances, it  appears  that a  proper line  of  distinction
 should be drawn between them.
  The hysteric passion likewise differs from a syncope,
 as iu this there is an entire cessation of the pulse, aeon
 tracted face,  and a ghastly countenance; whereas, in
 the uterine disorder, there is often something of a co-
 lour, aud the  face is more expanded ; there is likewise
 a pulse, though languid; and this state may continue
some days, which never happens in a syncope.
  It also differs from apoplexy, in which the abolition
of sense and voluntary motion is attended with a sort
of snoring, great difficulty of breathing, and a quick
 pul*e; which do not take place in hysteria.
  It differs from  epilepsy, in that this  is supposed to
 arise in consequence of a distention of  the vessels of
 the brain:  whereas, in hysteria, the spasmodic and
convulsive motions arise from a lurgescence of blood
 in the uterus, or in other parts of the genital system.
  However dreadful and alarming any hysteric fit may
 appear, still it is seldom accompanied with danger, and
 the disease nc-ver terminates fatally, unless it changes
 into epilepsy, or that the patient is in a  very weak re
 duced slate.
  The indications in this disease are,  1. To lessen the
 violence of tlie fits.  2.  To prevent  their return by ob-
 viating the several causes.   Where the attack is slight,
 it may be as well to leave  it in a great measure to
 have  its course.   But where the paioxysm  is  severe,
 and  the disease  of no long standing, occurring in  a
 young plethoric female, as  is most frequent, and espe-
 cially from suppression of the  menses, a  liberal ab-
 straction of blood should be made, and will often afford
 speedy relief.  If this step do not appear advisable, and
 the disorder be rather connected with the slate of the
 prims viae, an emetic may check its progress, if the
 patient can be got to swallow during a remission ofthe
 convulsions.  At otheT times the application  of cold
 water to the skin more or less extensively ;  stiotig and
 disagreeable odours, as hartshorn, burnt feathers, &c-
 rubbiiiL'  the temples with aether; antispasmodics, par-
 ticularly opium, by the mouth or in glyster: the pedi-
                                        445 
HY9
HYS
 ttiTiura, ftc may be resorted to according to the state
 ol the patient.  During the intervals, we must endea-
 vour to leniove any observable predisposition;  in the
 plethoric, by a spare diet, exercise, and occasional pur-
 gatives : in those who at-e weakly, and rather deficient
 in blood, oy proper  nourishment, with chalybcates, or
 other tonic medicines.  The state of the uterine func-
 tion  must be particularly attended to, as well as that
 of the primae viie; those cathartics are to be preferred
 Which are not apt to occasion flatulence, nor particu-
 larly irritate the rectum, unless where tiie menses are
 julcrrupted, When the aloetic preparations may claim
 n preference; and  the  perspiration should  be main-
 tained by warm clothing, particularly to the feet, with
 the prudent use  of the cold bath.   The mind ought also
 to be occupied  by agreeable and  useful pursuits, and
 regular hours will tend materially to the restoration of
 the general health.
  Hystbria'lqbs.  (From  vftpa, the womb, and aX
 yof,  pain.)   1.  An epithet for any thing that  excites
 pain in the uterus.
  2.  Hippocrates applies this word to vinegar.
  3.  The pains which resemble labour-pains^ generally
 called false pains.
  HYSTERI'TIS.   (From  vs-tpa, the womb.)  Me-
 tritis.  Inflammation of the womh. A genusof disease
 in the class Pyrexia, and order Phlegmasia, of Cullen;
characterized by  fever, heat,  tension,  tumour, and
 pain iu the region of the womb;  pain in the os uteri,
 When touched, and vomiting.
  In natural labours, as well as  those of a  laborious
 sort, inanv causes of injury  to the uterus, and the peri-
 tona-um which  covers it, will be applied.  The long
 continued  action of the uterus  on  the  body of the
 child, and  the great  pressure made by its head on the
 soft  pails, will  further add to the chance of  injury.
 Besides these, an improper application of instruments,
or an ofliciousness  of the  midwife  in  hurrying the
labour, may have contributed  to the violence.  To
 these causes may be  added exposure to cold, by taking
 the woman too early out of bed after delivery, and
 thereby throwing the circulating fluids upon the inter-
 nal parts,  putting a stop to the secretion of milk, or
 occasioning a suppression ofthe lochia.
  An inflammation of the womb is  sometimes per-
 fectly distinct, but is more frequently communicated to
 the peritonaeum, Fallopian tubes, and ovaria; and
 having once begun,  the natural functions of the organ
 become much disturbed, which  greatly adds to the
 iisease.  It is oftencr met with in women of a robust
 *nd plethoric habit than in those of lax fibres aud a de-
 Scale constitution, particularly where they  have in-
dulged freely in  food of a heating nature, and  in the
 use of spirituous liquors.  It never prevails as an epi-
 lemic, like puerperal fever, for which it has probably
often  been mistaken; and to this  we may, with some
 reason, ascribe the difference in the mode of treatment
 wliich has taken place among physicians.
  An inflammation of the uterus  shows itself usually
 about the second or third day after delivery, with a
 painful sensation at the bottom  of the  belly, which
gradually increases in violence, without any kind of
 Intermission.  On examining externally, the uterus
 appears much increased in size, is hard to the feel, and
 on making a pressure upon it, the patient experiences
 gieal soreness and pain.  Soon afterward there ensues
an increase in bent  over the whole of the body, with
 pains in the head nnd back, extending into the groins,
 rigors, considerable thirst, nausea,  and vomiting. The
 ongue is white and dry, the secretion of milk is usually
much interrupted, the lochia arc greatly diminished,
 the urine Is high-coloured and scanty; the body is cos-
 tive-  and the pulse hard,  full, and  frequent
      Mli
   These are titfl symptoms which usually present them-
 selves when the inflammation does not run very high,
 and is perfectly distinct; but when it is so extensive
 as to nltecl the peritouuuni, those of irritation succeed,
 and soon destroy the patient.
   Uterine inflammation is always attended with much
 danger,  particularly where the  gymirtoms run high,
 and the proper means for removing them have not been
 timely adopted.  In such cases, It may terminate in
 suppuration, scirrhus, or gangrene.
   Frequent rigors, succeeded by flushings of the face,
 quickness  and weakness of the pulse, great depression
 of strength, delirium, and the sudden cessation of pain
 and soreness  in tlie region of the abdomen, denote a
 fatal termination.  On the contrary, the ensuing of a
 gentle diarrhoea, the lochial discharge returning in due
 quantity and  quality, the secretion of milk  recom-
 mencing, and the uterus becoming  gradually softer
 at».d less tender to the touch, wilh an abatement oi
 heat and thirst, prognosticate a favourable issue.
   When shiverines  attack the patient, after several
 days' continuance of the symptoms, but  little relief
 can be afforded by medicine, the event being generally
 fatal.  In this case, the woman emaciates and loses her
 strength, becomes hectic, and sinks under colliquative
 sweating, or purging.
   Upon opening the bodies of women who have died
 of this disease, and where it existed in a simple state,
 little or no  extravasated fluid is usually to bo met with
 in the cavity of the abdomen. In some Instances, the
 peritono-al surfaces have been discovered free from tlie
 disease; while in  others,  that portion  which covers
 the  uterus  and posterior part of the bladder, has been
 found partially inflamed.  The inflammation has been
 observed, in some  cases, to extend to the ovoria and
 Fallopian  tubes,  wliich, when cut open, are often
 loaded  with  blood.   The uterun itself usually ap
 pears of a firm substance, but  is larger than in its
 natural state,  and, when cut into, a quantity of pus
 is often found.  Gangrene is seldom, if ever, to be
 met with.
   HYSTEROCE'LE.  (From ve-ip*, the womb, and
 07X7, a tumour.)   A hernia of  the womb.   This is-
 occasioned by  violent muscular efforts, by ulows on the
 abdomen at the time of gestation, and also i-y wounds
 and  abscesses of the abdomen wliich permit the uterus
 to dilate the part.  Ruysch relates the case ol a woman.
 who, becoming pregnant after an ulcer had been healed
 in the lower part "of the abdomen, the tumid uterus
 descended into a dilated sac of the peritona-tim in that
 weakened part, till it hung, with the included foetus, at
 licr  knees.   Yet when Iter  full  time was come, the
 midwife reduced this wonderful Iicrnia, and, in a natu-
 ral way, she was safely delivered of a son.
  Hy'stero.v.    (From vs-cpos, afterward; so named
 liecause it comes immediately after the foetus;)  The
 placenta.
  HYSTEROPHY'SA.  (From vs-epa, the womb, and
tbvoa, flatus.)   A swelling, or distention of  the womb
from a collection of air in its cavity.
  HYSTEROTOMY.   (Hystcrotomia; from  vc-tpo\
the womb,  and rtpvto,  to  cut.)   Sec Casarian ope-
ration.
  Hysterotomatocia.  See Casarian operation.
  HYSTEROPTO'SIS.  (From vftpa, the womb, and
ffurrw, to fall.)   A bearing down of the womb.
  HYSTRICI'ASIS.   (From w^-f, a hedge-hog, or
porcupine.)  A disease of tlie hairs, in which they
stand erect, like porcupine quills.   An account of this
rare  disease is  to be seen in the Philosophical  Trans-
actions, No. 424.
  Hy'sTRtcis lapis.   See Bezoar kustriiis
  HYSTRl'TIS  Sec Hysterias  " 
ICH
1
ICH
 | ATRALEIPTES.  (From tarpos, a physician, and
   aAtiqju, to anoint.)   One who undertakes to cure
distempers by external unction nnd friction: Galen
makes mention of such in his time, particularly one
Uiotas; and  Pliny informs us, that this practice was
first introduced by Prodlcus of Selymbriu, who was a
disciple of  .'E-culapius.
  1ATROCHY M1CUS.  (From iarpoy, n physician,
and xufiiu, chemistry.)   Chymiatcr.  A chemical phy-
sician, who cures by means ol" chemical medicines.
  IATROLl'PTICE.  i.From «arfioc, a physician, and
aXttsbo, to anoint.)  The method of curing diseases by
unction nnd friction.
  IATROPH Y SICUS.  (From tarpos, phvsiclnn, and
0UO-IJ, nature.)   An  epithet  bestowed on some writ-
ings which treat of physical subjects with relation to
medicine.
  IBE'RIS.   (So named from Iberia, the place of its
natural  growth.)   1. The name of a uenus of plants
in the Linnaean system.  Class, Tctradynamia ; Order,
Siliculosa.
  8. The phaniincopceini name of tlie Sciatica cresses.
See Lrpidiiim ibcris.
  Ibira'ce.   Sec Guaiacum.
  I'BIS.   IfJif.    A  bird much like our  kingfisher,
taken notice of by the Egyptians, because, when it was
sick, it used to inject Willi its lone bill ihe water of the
Nile into its fundament, whence Langius, lib. ii. ep. ii.
says they learned the use of clysters.
  IBI SCUS.   (From tpis,  the  stork, who was said
to chew it and inject it as a clyster.)   Marshmallow.
  Ibi'xuma.  (From i6toxos, the  mallow, and  ilos,
glue:  so  named from its having a glutinous leaf, like
Ihe mallow.)  Saponaria arbor. The soap tree, pro-
bably  ihe ^opindus saponaria of Linnaeus.
  ICE.   Glacies.  Water  made solid by tlie applica-
tion of cold.  It  is frequently applied by  surgeons to
resolve external inflammatory diseases, to stop haemor-
rhages, and constritige relaxed parts.
  Iceland -par.  A calcareous spar.
  ICHOR,   (\xup-)  A thin, aqueous, and acrid dis-
charge.
  l'CTII YA.  UxOva, a fish-hook; from tx<9vs, a fish.)
1. The skin of the Squatinn, or monkfish.
  2 Tne name of au instrument like a fish-hook, for
extractini! the foetus.
  ICH'I'll YASIS.  See Ichthyosis.
  ICHTHYOCOLLA.   (From tXBvs, a  fish, and
KoXXa, elue.)   Colla piscium.   Isinglass.   Fish glue.
This substance is almost wholly gelatin; 100 giains of
good dry isinglass containing rattier more than 98 of
matter soluble in water.
  Isinglass U made from certain  fish found  in the
Danube, and the rivers of Muscovy   Willoughby and
others inform us, that it is made of the sound of the
Beluua;  and  Neumann, lhat il  is made  ofthe  Huso
Germanoruiii, and other fish, which he has frequently
ceen sold in the  public markets of Vienna.  Jackson
remarks, that the sounds of cod,  properly prepared,
afford this substance; and that  the lakes of America
abound with fish from which the very finest sort may
be obtained.
  Isinglass receives  its different shapes in the follow-
ing manner:  the parts of wliich it is^ami posed, parti-
cularly the sounds, are taken from the fish while sweet
and fre-li, silt open, washed from their slimy sordes,
divested of a very thin ineinbiane which envelopes
the sound, and  then exposed to stiffen a  little in the
air.   In  this state, they are formed into rolls about the
thickness of  a finger, and  in  length according to the
intended size of the staple: a thin membrane is gene-
rally  selected for the centre of  the roll,  round wliich
rhe rest ate folded alternately, and  about half an inch
of each extremity of the roll is  turned inwards.
  Isingla-i" is best made in the summer, as frost gives it
a disagreeable colour, deprives it of weight, and im-
pal -s its  gelatinous principles.
  Isinglass boiled in milk forms a mild nutritious jelly,
and is thus sometimes  employed medicinally.   This,
 when flavoured by the art of the cook, is the blntic-
mangcrof our tables   A solution of isinglass in water.
with a very small  proportion of some balsam, spread
on black silk, is the court-planter of the shops.
  [That  variety of the codfish called the Hake, and
known to naturalists as the Gadus Merluccius, has n
very large sound or swimming bladder, which affords
ichthyocolla in abundance.   In 1824, a quantity wan
presented to the Nevv-Y'ork Lyceum of Natural  His-
tory for  their inspection,  and a  committee  of  thai
learned body made the following report on the  sub-
ject:
  "The Isinglass, or Ichthyocolla, made by Mr. Wil
liam Hall, at the Isle of Shoals, which was presented*
by him, for examination, at the last sitting of  ihe Ly
ceum, has been submitted to several experiments by the
committee.  It  proved  more pure ihan the  Russian
isinglnss, with  which  it  was  compared,  possesses
greater solubility, and exhibits more tenacity; and its
solution resists longer the process of putrefaction; bu»
It retains to a peculiar degree the unpleasant flavoui
peculiar to fish.
  The result of the experiment induces the committer
to recommend the article as  a valuable acquisition to
our domestic manufactures. It is found excellent in
clarifying liquors, and merits the  particular attention
of brewers ; it is valuable in preparing leather, render
ing it soft and pliable, and deserves lo be employed in
colton manufactories for glazing, and starching gene-
rally. Iu its present state, however, it Would not be
agreeable as  an article  in the preparation of food ; il
might be, if deprived of  the fishy smell.
  The  form  or the  ichthyocolla  from the  Isle of
Shoals,  is far preferable to lhat of foreign manufac-
ture.  The peculiar shape of the isinglass from  the
Muscovy rivers was probably adopted to conceal and
disguise the real substance, and to preserve the mono-
poly ; but now, ns  the subterfuge  is no longer neces-
sary, it is acknowledged to answer every purpose more
effectually in its native state.  In the rolled or curled
form, it is more apt to retain oily particles and exuvia
of insects between the membranes, that frequently con-
taminate the liquor for whose clarification it is em-
ployed.   The sounds of the Cod igadus morhua) and
Line (gadus molva) have long been used by Newfound-
laud and Iceland  fishermen, and bear a strong re-
semblance to tliose of the genus Accipenser; the Huso
'or Beluga) which family lias always supplied Muscovy
(to which country we are  originally indebted for it)
with this article of commerce. Mr. Hall, alone, as far
as we know, employs  the Hake (gadus  merluccius)
and he offers his isinglass  at $4,000 a ton, nearly one
quarter less than we pay for tlie foreign, of which 100
tons are  every  year imported.  If the manufacture
succeeds, of which (with  cupilal and zeal) we little
doubt, it  will save yearly from 80 to  $100,000 to our
citizens; at the same time it opens to them a field of en-
terprise whicli will yield annually from 4 to $5,000, and
whicli must increase with the growth  of our country.
  In concluding, we  may  remark, that Mr. Hall  em-
ploys the mode described  in the 63d volume of the
Transactions of the Royal Society of London, but
without previously salting the sounds.
                            J. VAN RENSSELAER.
                            J. E. DE KAY.
                            SAMUEL AKERLY.
  83" Mr. Hall observes that the  unpleasant smell of
the isinglass can be entirely extracted by three weeks
exposure to the night-air, after finished."—From the
Statesman, Jan. 9th, 1824.1
  ICHTHYOPHTHAL'MITE.  Fish eyestone.  Sea
Apophyllite.
  ICHTHYO'SIS.  (From t\Bva, th» scale of a fish,
from the resemblance of the scales to those of a fish.;
khlkyasis.  A genus of diseases of the second order
of Dr. VVillan's disease of the skin.   The character-
istic of ichthyosis  is a  permanently harsh, dry, scaly,
and in some cases, almost hornv texture of the integu-
ments of the body, unconnected" with internal disorder
Psoriasis and Lenra differ from this affection, in being
bin partially diffused, and  in having deciduous scales.
                                         447 
CT
ICT
 The arrangement and distribution ofthe scales In ich-
 thyosis are peculiar.   Above and below the olecranon
 on the arm, says Dr. Willan, and in a similar situation
 with  respect to the patella on the thigh and leg, they
 are small, rounded, prominent, or papillary, and of a
 black colour; some of the  scaly papillae have  a short,
 narrow neck, and broad irregular tops.  On some part
 of the extremities, and on  the trunk of the body, the
 scales are flat and large, often placed like tiling, or in
 the same order  as scales on the back of a fish;  but, in
 a few cases, they have appeared separate, being inter-
 sected by whitish furrows.  There  is usually  in this
 complaint a dryness and roughness of the soles of the
 feet; sometimes a thickened  and brittle  state of the
 skin in the palms  of the hands,  with large  painful
 fissures, and on the face  an appearance of the scurf
 rather than of scales.   The inner  part of the wrist,
 the hams, the inside of the elbow,  the  furrow along
 the spine, the inner and upper part of the thigh, are
perhaps the only portions of the skin always exempt
 from the scaliness.   Patients affected with ichthyosis
 are occasionally much harassed with inflamed pus-
 tules, or with large painful biles on different parts of
 the body;  it is also remarkable, that they never seem
 to have the least perspiration or moisture ofthe skin.
 This disease did not, iu any case, appear to Dr. Willan
 lo have been transmitted hereditarily; nor was more
 than one child from liie same  parents affected  with it.
 Dr. Willan never met wilh an  instance of the horny
 rigidity of the integuments,  Ichthyosis cornea, im-
 peding the motion of the muscles or joints.  It is, how-
ever, mentioned by authors as affecting  the lips, pre-
 puce,  toes, fingers, &c. and sometimes as extending
over nearly the  whole body.
  ICOSA'NDRIA.   (From txoett, twenty, and ay>7p,
a man, or husband.)  The name of a class of plains
 in the sexual system of Linnaeus, consisting of those
which  have hermaphrodite flowers furnished with
twenty or more  stamina that are inserted into the inner
side of" the calyx, or petals, or  both.  By this last cir-
cumstance is this class distinguished from Polyandria.
  ICTERI'TIA.  (From icterus, the jaundice.)  1.
An eruption of yellowish spots.
  2. A yellow discoloration ofthe skin.
  I'CTERUS.   (Named from  its likeness to the plu-
mage of the golden thrush, of which  Pliny relates, that
 if a jaundiced person  looks on one,  the bird dies, and
 the patient recovers.)  Morbus arcuatus, or arquatus;
Aurigo ;  Morbus regius;  Morbus leseoli.  The jaun-
dice.  A genus  of disease in the class Cachexia,  and
order  Impeligines, of  Cullen;  characterized  by yel-
lowness of  the skin and eyes;  faeces white, and urine
of a high colour.  There are six species:—
  1. Icterus calculosus, acute pain  in  the epigastric
region, increasing  after eating: gall-stones pass  by
stool.
  2. Icterus spasmodicus, without pain, after spasmo-
dic diseases and passions of the mind.
  3. Icterus mucosas, without either pain, gall-stones,
or spasm,  and relieved  by the discharge of  tough
 phlegm by stool.
  4. Icterus hepaticus, from an induration in the liver.
  5. Icterus gravidarum, from pregnancy, and disap
 pearing after delivery.
  6. Icterus infantum, of infants
  It takes place most usually in consequence of an  in-
 terrupted excretion of bile, from an obstruction in the
ductus communis choledochus, which occasions its ab-
sorption into line blood-vessels.  In some cases it may,
however, be owing to a redundant secretion  of the
 >i!c.   The causes producing the first species are, the
 presence of biliary calculi in the gall-bladder and  its
 iucts; spasmodic constriction  of the ducts thenisel ves;
 and, lastly, the  pressure made by tumours in adjacent
 parts- hence jaundice is often an attendant symptom
on a 'scirrhosity of the liver,  pancreas, &c,  and  on
 pregnancy.
  Chronic bilious affections are frequently brought on
 by drinking freely, but more particularly by spirituous
liquors: hence  Hey are often  to be observed  in the
debauchee and  the drinker of  drams.  They are like-
wise frequently  met wilh  in tlmse who lead a  seden-
tary life; and who indulge much iu anxious thoughts.
  AsliKliides;recof jaundice often proceeds from the
 redundant secretioii of bile;  and a  bilious habit is
therefore constitutional to some people, particularly to
 hose who reside long in a warm climate.
      44H
   By attending to the various circumstances and symp-
toms which present themselves, we shall in general be
able to ascertain, with much certainty, the real nature
of the cause which has given rise to the disease.
   We may be assured by the long continuance of the
complaint, and by feeling the liver and otlier parts ex-
ternally, whether or not it arises from disease of the
liver, pancreas, or adjacent parts.
   Where passions  cf the mind induce  the  disease,
without  any hardness or enlargement of the liver, or
adjacent parts, and without any appearance of calculi
in the faeces, or on dissection after death, we are na-
turally induced  to  conclude that  the disorder  was
owing to a spasmodic affection of the biliary ducts.
   Where gall-stones are lodged in the ducts, acut«
lancinating pains will be felt in the region of the parts,
which will cease for a time,and then return  again;
great irritation at the stomach and frequent vomiting
will attend, and the  patient will experience an  aggra-
vation of the pain after eating.  Such calculi  are of
various sizes, from a pea to that of a walnut;  and, in
some cases, are voided in a considerable number, being,
like the gall, of a yellowish, brownish, or green colour.
   The jaundice comes on with languor, inactivity,
loathing of food, flatulence, acidities  in the stomach
and bowels,  and costiveness.  As it  advances in its
progress, Ihe skin and eyes become tinged of  a deep
yellow ; there is a bitter tosie in the mouth, with fre-
quent nausea and vomiting; the urine is very high
coloured; the stools are of a gray or clayey appearance,
and a dull obtuse pain is felt in the right hypochon-
drium, which is much increased by pressure.  Where
the pain  is very acute, ihe pulse is apt  to become hard
and full, and other febrile symptoms to  attend.
   The disease, when of long continuance, and  pro-
ceeding from a chronic  affection of the liver, or other
neighbouring viscera,  is often  attended with anasar-
cous swellings, and sometimes with ascites: also scor
butic symptoms frequently supervene.
   Where jaundice is recent, and is occasioned by con-
cretions  obstructing the biliary ducts, it  is probable
that,  by using proper means, we may be able to effect
a cure; but where it is brought on by tumours of the
neighbouring parts, or has arisen in  consequence of
other diseases attended with  symptoms of obstructed
viscera,  our endeavours will most  likely  not be
crowned  with success.   Arising during a state of prcg
nancy, it is of little consequence, as  it will cease on
parturition.
  On opening the bodies of those who  die of jaundice,
the yellow tinge  appears to pervade even the most in-
terior part of the body; it is diffused throughout the
whole of the cellular membrane, in the cartilages and
bones, and  even the substance of the brain  is coloured
with it.   A diseased slate of the liver, gall-bladder, or
adjacent  viscera, is usually to be met with.
  The Icterus infantum, or yellow gum, is a species
of jaundice which affects children, at or soon after
their  birth, and which usually  continues for some
days. It has generally been supposed to arise from the
meconium, impacted in the intestines, preventing ihe
flow of bile into them.  The effects produced by it at«
languor, indolence, a yellow tinge of the  skin, nnd a
tendency to sleep, which is sometimes  fatal, where th
child is prevented from sucking.
  The indications in  this disease  are, 1.  To pailiatt
urgent symptoms.  2. To remove the cause of obstruc
tion to the passage ofthe bile into the duodenum: this
is  the essential part of the treatment; but the  means
will vary according  to  circumstances.  When there
are appearances of  inflammation,  of which perhaps
the jaundice  is  symptomatic, or both produced  by a
gall-stone, the means explained under  the head of he-
palitis will be proper.  If there be severe spasmodic
pain, as is usual when a gall-stone is passim:, the  libe-
ral use of opium and tbeWarm bath will probably re
lieve  it.   After which, in all instances, where there is
reason for supposing  an obstructing cause within the
duct, a nauseating emetic, or brisk cathartic, would be
the most likely to force it onward: emetics, however,
are hardly  advisable, except in recent castes without
inflammation; and calomel, seeming  to promote the
discharge of bile more than other cathartics, )nav be
given in a large dose with or after the opium. Several
remedies  have  been recommended, on the idea  that
Ihey may dissolve  gall-stones;  wliich, however,  is
haully probable, unless thev should  have advanced  to 
IDE
iGA
    ,u "^i0f the tommon duct: the fixed alkalies, ether
 with oil of turpentine, raw eggs, &c. come under this
 nead;  though the alkalies may be certainly beneficial
 by correcting acidity, which usually results from a de-
 ncient supply of bile to  the intestines; and possibly
 tt'ter the secretion of the liver so  much as to prevent
 the formation of more concretions.  When  tlie com-
 plaint  arises  from scirrhous tumours, mercury is the
 remedy most likely to afford relief, particularly should
 the liver itself be diseased:  but it must be used with
 proper caution, and  hemlock, or other narcotic, may
 sometimes enable the system to bear it better.  Where
 this remedy is precluded, nitric acid promises to be the
 best substitute, the taraxacum appears by no means so
 much to be depended upon.  In all tedious cases the
 strength must be supported by the vegetable bitters, or
 oilier tonics, and a nutritious diet, easy of digestion:
 there is often  a dislike of  animal food; and a craving
 for acids,  whicli mostly may be indulged;  indeed,
 when scorbutic symptoms attended, the native vegeta-
 ble acids have been sometimes very serviceable.  The
 bowels must be kept regular, and the other secretions
 promoted,  to get rid ofthe bile diffused in the system;
 as well as to  obviate febrile or inflammatory action.
 When  accumulations of  hardened fteces induce the
 complaint, or  in the icterus infantum, cathartics may
 be alone suflicient to afford relief: and, in that of preg-
 nant  females, we must chiefly look to the period of
 delivery.
   Icterus albus.  The  white jaundice.  Chlorosis
 is sonietimes so called.
   I'CTUS.  1  A stroke or blow.
   2. The pulsation of an artery.
   3. The sting of a bee, or other insect.
   ID^E'US.   (From ic"ij, a mountain in Phrygia, their
 native place.)  A nanieof the peony and blackberry.
   IDE.  This terminal is affixed to oxygen, chlorine,
 and iodine, when ihey enter into combination  with
 each other, or with simple combustibles or metals in
 proportions not  forming an  acid, thus ox-ide of chlo-
 rine, ox-ide of nitrogen, chlor-ide  of sulphur, iod-ide
 of iron
   IDEOLOGY'.   (Ideologia;  from tita, a  thought,
 and Xoyos,  a discourse.)  The doctrine or study ofthe
 understanding.  "Whatever be the number  and the
 diversity of the  phenomena which belong  to human
 intelligence, however different they appear from the
 other phenomena of life, though they evidently depend
 on the soul, it is absolutely necessary to consider them
 as the result ofthe action ofthe brain, and to make no
 distinction  between them  and  tbe other phenomena
 that depend on the actions of that organ.  The func-
 tions of Ihe brain are absolutely subject to the same
 laws as the otlier functions; they develope and goto
 decay in the progress of age;  they are modified by ha-
 bit, sex, temperament, and  individual disposition ; they
 become confused, weakened, or elevated  in diseases ;
 the physical injuries of the  brain weaken or destroy
 them;  in a word, they are not susceptible of any ex-
 planation more than  the other actions of the organ;
 and setting aside all hypothetical ideas, they are capa-
 ble of  being  studiedr only  by  observation  and  ex-
 perience.
   We  must also be cautious in imagining that  the
 study of the functions of the brain is more difficult than
 that of the other organs, and that it appertains pecu-
 liarly to metaphysics.  By keeping close to observa-
 tion, and avoiding carefully any theory, or conjecture,
 this study becomes purely physiological, and  perhaps
 it is easier ihan the most part of the other functions,
 on account ofthe facility with which the phenomena
 can be  produced and observed.   The  innumerable
 phenomena which form the intellect of man,  are only
 modifications ofthe faculty of percepiion.  If they are
 examined attentively, this truth, whicli  is well illus-
 trated  by modern metaphysicians, will be found very
 clear.
  There are four principal modifications  ofthe faculty
 of perception.
  1st. Sensibility, or the action ofthe brain, by wliich
 ive receive impressions, either from within  or from
 Without.
  2d. The Memory, or the faculty  of reproducing im-
 pressions, or sensations formerly received.
  3d. The  faculty of perceiving the relations which
sensations have to each other, or the Judgment.
  4th  The Desires, or the Will.
   The  study of the  understanding, from  whatever
 cause, is not at present an essential part of physiology;
 the science which treats particularly of it is Ideology
 Whoever may wish to acquire an extensive knowledge
 on this interesting subject, should consult the works of
 Bacon, Locke,  Condillnc, Cnbanis, and especially the
 excellent book  of Dcstutt Tracy, entitled « Elements
 of Ideology."
   IDIOCRASIA.  See Idiosyncrasy.
   IDIOPA'THIC. (Idiopathicus; from ic'ioj, peculiar,
 and irados, an  affection.)   A  disease wliich does not
 depend on any other disease, in which  respect it is
 opposed  to a systematic  disease, which is  dependen
 on another.
   IDIOSY'NCRASY.  (Idiosyncrasia,  from  tiws,
 peculiar, ovv, with, and  xpaais, a temperament.)  A
 peculiarity of constitution, in whichaperson is affected
 by certain agents, which, if applied to a hundred other
 persons,  would  produce no effect:  thus some people
 cannot see a finger bleed without  fainting; and thus
 violent inflammation  Is induced on the skin of some
 petsons,  by substances that are perfectly innocent to
 others.
   Idiot'ropia.   (From titos, peculiar, and  rpsirw, to
 turn.)  The same as Idiosyncrasia.
   1DOCRASE.   See  Vesuvian.
   IGASURIC ACID.  Acidum Igusaricum. Pelletier
 and Caventou, in their elegant researches in the faba
 Sancti Ignatii, et nux vomica, having observed that
 these substances contai ned a new vegetable base (strych
 nine) in  combination  with an  acid, sought to sepa
 rate  the  latter, in order  to determine its nature.  It
 appeared to them to be new, and they called  it igasuric
 acid, from the Malay name by which the natives desig
 nate in the Indies the faba Sancti Ignatii. This bean,
 according to these chemists, is composed of igasurate
 of strychnine, a  little wax, a  concrete oil, a yellow
 colouring matter, gum, starch, bassorine,  and  vege-
 table fibre.
  To extract the acid,  the rasped bean must  be heated
 in ether, in a digester,  with a  valve of safely.   Thus
 the concrete  oil, and  a little  igasurate of strychnine,
 are dissolved oul  When the  powder is  no longer
 acted on  by the ether,  they subject it, at several times,
 to the action of boiling alkohol, which carries off the
 oil which had escaped the ether, as also wax, whicli
 is deposited on  cooling, some igasurate of strychnine,
 and colouring matter.  All the alkoholic decoctions art
 united, filtered, and evaporated. The brownish-yellow
 residuum isdiffused in water;  magnesia is now added,
 and the whole is boiled together  for some minutes.
 By this means, the igasurate is decomposed,  and from
 this decomposition there results free strychnine, and a
 sub-igasurate of magnesia, very little soluble in water.
 Washing with cold water  removes almost completely
 Ihe colouring matter, and boiling alkohol then separatee
 the strychnine,  which falls down as the liquid cools.
 Finally, to procure igasuric acid from the sub-igasurate
of magnesia, which remains uniled to a small quantity
of colouring matter, we must  dissolve the magnesian
sail in a great body of  boiling distilled water; concen-
trate the liquor, and add to it acetate of lead, which
 immediately throws down the acid in the state of an
 igasurate of lead.  This compound is then decomposed
 by transmitting a current  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen
 through it, diffused in 8 or 10 times its weight of boiling
 water.
  This acid, evaporated to the consistence  of syrup
 and left to itself, concretes in  hard and granular crys
 tals.  It is very soluble in water, and in alkohol.  Iti
 taste is acid and very styptic.  It combines with thf
 alkaline  and earthy  bases, forming salts soluble ir
 water and  alkohol. Its combination with  barytes i;
 very soluble, and crystallizes with difficulty, and mush
 room-like.  Its combination with ammonia, when per
 fectly neutral, does not form  a precipitate with  tin
 salts of silver,  mercury,  and  iron; but it  comport*
 ifself with the salts of copper in a peculiar manner, and
 which seems to characterize the acid of strychnos (for
the same acid is  found in nux vomica, and in snake
 wood, bois de couleuvre): this effect consists  in th*
decomposition of the salts of copper, by its ammoniacal
compound.  These salts pass immediately to a green
colour, and gradually deposite a greenish-white salt, ol
 very sparing solubility in water. The acid of strychnos
seeins thus to resemble meconic acid; but it diftV
 essentially  from it, by its action with salts of  iroi
                                        449 
ILE
ILL
 Which immediately assume a very deep red coiour with
 the meconic acid ; an effect not produced by the acid of
 strychnos.  The authors, after all, do  not positively
 affirm this acid to be new and peculiar.
  IGNATIA.  (So named by Linnaeus, because the
seeds are known in  the materia medica by the name
of Saint Ignatius's beans.)  The name  of a genus of
plants.  Class, Pentandria; Order, Monogynia.
  Ionatia amara.  The systematic name ofthe plant
which affords St. Ignatius's bean;  Faba indica; Faba
Sancti Ignatii;  Faba febrifuga.  These beans are of
a roundish  figure, very  irregular and uneven, about
ihe size of a  middling nutmeg, semi-transparent, and
of a  hard,  homy texture.  They have  a  very bitter
taste, and no considerable smell.  They arc said to be
used in the  Philippine islands in all diseases, acting as
a vomit and  purgative.  Infusions arc given in the
cure  of intermittents, Sec
  Ignatii faiia.  See Ignatia amara.
  IGNATIUS'S BEAN.  See Ignatia amara.
  I'G.MS.  Fire.  1. Van Helmont, Paracelsus,  and
other alchemists, applied this term to what they con-
sidered as universal solvents.
  2.  In medicine, the older writers used it to express
several diseases characterized by external redness and
heat.
  Ionis calidus.  A  hot fire: a gangrene:  also a
violent inflammation, just about to degenerate into
a gangrene, were formerly so called by some.
  Io.ms fatuus.  A luminous appearance or flame,
frequently seen in the night in different country places,
and called in England Jack with a lantern,or IVill with
tlie wisp.   It  seems to be mostly occasioned by  the
extrication  of phosphorus from  rotting leaves and
oilier vegetable matters. It is probable, that the motion-
less ignes fatui of Italy, which are seen nightly on the
same spot, are produced  by the slow combustion of
sulphur, emitted  through  clefts and apertures in  the
soil of that  volcanic  country.
  Ionis frigidus.  A  cold fire.   A sphacelus was so
called, because the parts that are so affected become
as cold as the  surrounding air.
  Ignis  persicus.   A name ofthe erysipelas, also of
Ihe carbuncle.  See  Anthrax.
  Ignis rot*.  Fire for fusion.  It is when a vessel,
which contains some matter for fusion, is surrounded
wilh live, i. e. red-hot, coals.
  Ignis sacer.  A name of erysipelas, and of a species
af herpes.
  Ignis sapientium.  Heat of horse-dung.
  losis sancti antonii.  See Enjsipelas.
  Ionis sylvaticus. See Impetigo.
  Ignis volaop.ius.  See Impetigo.
  Ionis volaticus.  See Erysipelas.
  I'kan radix.  A somewhat oval, oblong, compressed
root, brought  from China. It is  extremely rare, and
would appear to be the root of some  of the orchis
tribe.
  I'lapius.  A name  in Myrepsus for  the  burdoch.
See Arctium lappa.
  I'lecii.   By this word, Paracelsus seems to mean a
first principle.
  I'leon cruentum.  Hippocrates describes it in  lib.
De Intern.  Affect.  In  this disease, as well as in  Ihe
scurvy, the breath is foetid, the gums recede from  ihe
teeth, haemorrhages of the nose happen, and sometimes
there are ulcers  iu the legs, but the patient can move
about.
  ILEUM.  (From tthtu, to turn about;  from ils
convolutions.)  Ileum intestiiium.  The last portion
ofthe small intestines, about nfteen  hands' breadth in
length, which terminates  at the valve of the caecum.
See Intestine.
  ILEUS.  Sec Iliac passion.
  ILEX.   (The name of a  genus of plants in  the
 Linnaean system.  Class,  TUrundria; Order, Tctra-
gynia.)  The holly.
  Ilex  aquikolium.  The systematic name of  the
common holly.  Aquifolium.  The leaves of this plant,
Ilex—foliis ovatis acutis spinosis,  of Linnpeus, have
been  known  to cure intermittent fevers; and an in-
fusion of tho leaves, drank as tea, is said to be a pre-
ventive against the gout.
  Ilex CA8SINE.  Cassina; Apalachtne gallis.  This
tree g-ows in Carolina; the  leaves resemble  those of
senna, blackish when dried, with  a bitter taste, nnd
aromatic smell.  They are  considered  us stomachic
      450
 and stimulant.  They are sometimes used as texpee-
 torants; and when fresh are emetic.
   ILIA.  (The plural of He, uXn.)
   1. The flanks, or that part in which are enclosed the
 small intestines.
   2. The small intestines.
   I'LIAC.  (Iliacus; from ileum intestinum.)   Be-
 longing to the ilium ; an intestine so called.
   Iliac arteries.  Arteria iliaca.  The arteries so
 called are formed by the bifurcation of the aorta, near
 the last lumbar vertebra.  They are divided into inter-
 nal and external.  The internal iliac, also called the
 hypograslic artery, is distributed in the foetus into six
 and in the adult into five branches, wliich  are divided
 about  the pelvis,  viz. the little iliac, the  gluteal, the
 ischiatic, the pudical, and the obturator}-;  and in tlie
 foetus, the umbilical.  The external iliac proceeds out
 of the pelvis through Poupart's ligament,  to form the
 femoral artery
   Iliac passion.   (EtXtos, tXtos, ttXtios, is described as
 a kind of nervous colic, the seal of which is the ilium.)
 Passio iliaca-; Volvulus; Miserere met; Convolvulus',
 Chordapsut;  Tormentum.  A  violent  vomiting,  in
 whicli  the fecal portion of the  food is voided by the
 mouth.   It is produced by many morbid conditions of
 the bowels, by inflammatory affections of the abdonii
 nal viscera, and by herniae.
   Iliac region.   The  side of the  abdomen, between
 the ribs and ihe hips.
   ILl'ACUS.  The name of muscles, regions, or dis-
 eases, situated near to, or connected with, parts about
 the ilia or flanks.
   Iliacus internus.  Iliacus  of Winslow.  Iliaco
 traehanten of  Dumas.  A thick, broad, and radiated
 muscle, which is situated iu the pelvis, upon the innei
 surlace of ihe  ilium.  It  arises  fleshy from the innei
 lip of tbe ilium, from most of ihe hollow part, and  like-
 wise from the edge of that bone, between  ils anterioi
 superior spinous process and the acetabulum.  It joins
 with the psoas magnus, where it begins lo become ten-
 dinous, and passing under the ligamentum  Fullopii, in
 inserted in common wilh  that muscle.   1 he tendon of
 Ihis muscle  has been seen distinct from  that of the
 psoas, and, in some subjects, it has  been found divided
 into two portions.  The iliacus internus serves to assisl
 the psoas magnus in bending the thigh, and in bringing
 it directlv forwards.
   ILIADUM.  Iliadus.  The first matter of all things,
 consisting of mercury, salt, and sulphur.  These are
 Paracelsus's three  principles.   His iliadus is also a
 mineral spirit, which is  contained in every element,
 aud is the supposed cause of diseases.
  Ilia'ster.  Paracelsus gives this name lo the occult
 virtue of nature, whence all things have iheir increase.
  ILI'NGOS.  (From tXtyl, a  vortex.) A giddiness,
 in  which all things appear io turn round, and ihe  eyes
grow dim.
  Ili'scus.  Avicenna says, it is madness caused by
love.
  ILIUM OS.  (From ilia, the small intestines; so
named because it supports the ilia.)  The haunch-bone.
The superior portion ofthe os innominatum, wiiich, in
the foetus, is a distinct bone.  See Innominatum os.
  ILLA.  See Ula.
  ILLE'CEBRA.   (From tiXtu, to turn;  because its
lea\ es resemble worms.)  See Sedum acre.
  ILLl'CIUM.  (Illicium, ab illieicndo; denoting an
enticing plant, from its being very fragrant and  aro-
matic.)   The name of a  genus  of  plants in the  Lin-
naean system.  Class, Polyandria :  Order,  Polygynia
  Illicium anisatum.  The systematic name of ihe
yellow-flowered aniseed-tree  the seeds of whicli are
called the star aniseed.  Anisum stcllatum ; Anisum
stinense; Semen badian.   They arc  used wilh the same
views as tliose of  the Pimpinella anisum.  The same*'
tree is  supposed to furnish the  aromatic bark, called
cortex anisi stcllati, or cortex lavola.
  ILLO SIS.  (From tXXos, the eye.)   A distortion of
 the eyes.
  Ii.lutame'ntum.  An  ancient form of an external
 medicine, like  the Ceroma, with which the limbs of
 wrestlers, and others delighting in like exercises, were
 rubbpd, especially alter bathing ; an account of which
 mny bo met with in Radius DieThermis.
  Illuta'no.   (From in, andlulitm,miid.)*Illutation.
 A  besmearing any  pari of ihe body with mud, and re-
 newing ii as it grows dry, with a view of heating, dry 
IMF
IND
 lug, and discussing.  It was -teiefly done with tlie mud
 found at the bottom of mineral springs.
  I'llys.  (From iXXos,  Ihe eye.)   A person who
 squints, or with distorted eyes.
  I lys.   (From iXus,  mud.)   1. The faeces of wine.
 An obsolete term.
  2. The sediment in stools which resemble faeces of
 wine.
  3. The sediments  in urine, when  it resembles the
 same.
  Imbeci t lotas  oculorum.  Celsus speaks of the
 Nyctalopia by this name.
  Imbibitio.  (From imbibo, to receive into.)  An ob-
 solete term.   In chemistry for a kind of cohobation,
 when the liquor ascends and descends upon a solid sub-
 stance, till it is fixed therewith.
  1MBR1CATUS. Imbricated: like tiles upon a house.
 A term applied to leaves as  tliose of tlie  Euphorbia
paralia,
  IMM ERS US.   Immersed:  plunged under water—
 folia immersa; leaves  which  are naturally under the
 water, and are different from tliose  wliich naturally
 float.  See Leaf.
  Il is remarked by Linnaeus, that aquatic plants have
 their lower, and mountainous  ones llieir upper, leaves
 most divided,  by which they belter resist the action of
 the stream in one case, and of  the wind in the oilier.
  I.mmk  rsus.  A term given by Bartlioline, aud some
 ither  anatomists to the  Subscapular^ muscle, because
 it was hidden, or, as it were, sunk.
  IMPATIENS.   (From in, not, and potior, to suffer;
 because its leaves recede from the hand with a crack-
 ing noise, as impatient of tbe  touch, or from the great
 elasticity of the sutures of its seed vessel wliich is com-
 pletely impatient  of  the  touch, curling  up with the
 greatest velocity, and scattering round tbe seeds, the
 instant any extraneous body comes in  contact with it.)
 Tlie name of a genus of plants.  Class, Pentandria;
 Order, Monogynia.
  IMPERATO'RIA.   (From impero,  to overcome: so
 named biecause its leaves exteud and overwhelm the
 less lierbswhich grow near it.)   1.  The nanieof a genus
 of plants in the Linnaean system.   Class, Pentandria;
 Order, Monogynia.
  2  The pharmacopceial name  of the  master-wort.
 See Impcratoria ostrutltium.
  I.hperatoria ostruthium.  The systematic name
 of  the   master-wort.   Imperatoria; Magistrantia.
 The roots of this plant are imported from the Alps and
 Pyrenees, notwithstanding  it is  indigenous  to  this
 island:  they have a fragrant smell, and a bitterish pun-
 gent taste. The  plant, as its name imports, was for-
 merly thought lo  be of singular efficacy;  and its great
 success, il is said,  caused it to  be distinguished by the
 name of divinium remedium.   At present, it is consi-
 dered merely as an aromatic, and consequently is super-
 seded by many of that class wiiich possess superior
 qualities.
  IMPETI'GINES.  (The  plural of impetigo; from
 impeto,  to infest.)  An order in the class Cachexia of
 Cullen,  the genera  of which are characterized  by
 cachexia deforming the external parts of the body with
 turnout s, eruptions, &c.
  IMPETI'GO.   Ignis sylvaticus;  Ignis volagrius.
 A disease of the  skin, variously described by authors,
 but mostly as one in which several red, hard, dry, pru-
 rient  spots arise in the face and neck, and sometimes all
 over the body, and disappear by furfuracebus or tender
 scales.
  Impetum faciens.  See Vis vita.
  IMPETUSA.   Force or motion.
  I'mpia  herba.  (From  in,  not, and  pius,  good;
 because  it grows only on  barren ground.)  A name
 given to cudweed. See Gnaphalium.
  IMPLICATED. Celsus, Scribonius, and some others,
 call those parts of physic so, which have a necessary
 dependence on one  another;  but the term has been
 more significantly applied, by  Bellini, to fevers, where
 two at a time afflict a person,  either of the same kind,
 as a double tortian; or, of different kinds, as an inter-
 mittent   tertian,  and  a quotidian,  called  a Semi-
 tertian.
  Implu'vium. (From impluo, to shower upon.)  1.
 The shower-bath.
  2. An embrocntion.
  IMPOSTHUMA.  A term corrupted from impostem
 and apostcm.   An abscess.
  IMPREGNATION.  Impregnate  SeeConccptw*
and Generation.
  1NANITIO.   (From inanio, to empty.)  Inanition
Applied to the body or vessels, it means emptiness;
applied to the mind, it means a defect of its powers.
  INCANTATION. Incantatio; Ineantamentum,  A
way of curing diseases by charms, defended by Para-
celsus, Helmont, nnd some other chemical enthusiasts.
  INCANUS. Hoary.  Applied  to stems  which are
covered with a kind of scaly mealiness, as that of the
A-temiiia absinthium, and Atriplex portulacoides.
  Ince'ndiuh.  (From  incendo, to burn.)  A burning
fever, or heat.
  Inck'nsio.  1.  A burning fever.
  2. A hot inflammatory tumour.
  Incehni'culum.  (From incerno, to sift.j
  1. A strainer, or sieve.
  2. A  name for tlie pelvis of the kidney, from  iu
office as a strainer.
  Incide'ntia.   (From  incido, to cut.)   Medicines
wliich consist of pointed and sharp particles, as acids
and most salts, which  are said lo incide  or cut tin
phlegm, when they break it, so as to occasion its dis
charge.
  INCINERATION.   (From  tncinero,  to reduce to
ashes.*)  Incineratio.  The combusiion  of vegetable
and animal substances, for the purpose  of obtaining
their ashes or fixed residue.
  INCISI'VUS.  (From incirfo, to cut.) A name given
to some muscles,  &c.
  Iscisivus inferior.  See levator  labii inferior-it.
  Incisivus lateralis.   See Levator labii superioris
ataque nasi.
  Incisivus medius.  See Depressor labii superioris
alaque nasi.
  KNCI'SOR.  (Dentes incisores ; from incido, to cat,
from their use in cutting the  food.)  The four front
teeth of both jaws are called incisors, because they cu
the food.  See 'Teeth.
  INCISO'RIUM.  (From  incido, to cut.) A tabl
whereon a patient is laid for an operation.
  Incisoriu.m foramen.   A  name of tbe foramen,
which lies behind the dentes  incisores of the  uppe/
jaw.
  IN'CISUS.  (From incido, to cut.)  Cut.  A term
applied iu  botany, synonymously with  dissectus, to
leaves;  as those ofthe Geranium dissectum.
  INCONTINENTIA.  (From tn,  and continco, to
contain.)  Inability to retain ihe natural  evacuations.
Hence we say, incontinence of urine, Sec
  Incrassa'ntia.  (Incrassans;  from  incrasso,  to
make thick.)  Medicines which thicken the fluids.
  INCUBUS.  (From  incubo, to lie upon;  because
the patient fancies that something lies upon his chest.)
See Oneirodynia.
  INCURVUS.  Curved inwards: applied to leaves;
as in Erica empetnfolia.
  INCUS.  (A smith's anvil:  from  incudo, to  smite
upon: so named from its likeness in shape to an anvil)
The largest and strongest of the bones of the ear  in the
tympanum.  It is divided into a body and two crura.
Its body is situated anteriorly, is rather broad and
thick, and has two eminences and two  depression!?,
both covered with cartilage, and  intended  for the re-
ception  of the head of .the  malleus.  Its shorter crus
extends no farther than the cells of the mastoid apophy-
sis. Its longer crus, together with tlie manubrium of
the malleus, to which it is connected by a ligament, is
of the same extent as the shorter; but its extremity ia
curved inwards, to receive the os orbiculare, by the in-
tervention of which it is united with the stapes.
  I'NDEX.  (From  indico, to point out;  because it is
generally used for such purposes.)  The forefinger
  Indian arrow-root.  See Maranta.
  Indian cress.   See Tropaolum majus.
  Indian date-plum.   See Diospyros lotus
  Indian leaf. See Laurus cassia.
  Indian pink.  Sec Spigclia.
  Indian-rubber.  See Caoutchouc.
  Indian wheat.  See Zea mays.
  " Indian tobacco.  Lobelia.  The Lobelia inflata
is an annual American plant, found in a great variety
of soils throughout the United States.
  It is lactescent, like many others of its genus. When
chewed it communicates to the mouth a burning, pua-
gent sensation, which  remains long in the fauces, rB-
semblin  the effect of green tobacco.  The plant coit
                                        451 
mu
INF
tains caoutchouc, extractive, and an  acrid principle,
which is present in the tincture, decoction, and dis-
tilled water.
  The lobelia is a prompt emetic, attended with nar-
cotic effects during its operation.   If a leaf or capsule
be held in the mouth for a short time, it brings on gid-
diness, headache, a trembling agitation of the whole
body, sickness, and finally vomiting.  These effects are
analogous to those which tobacco produces in the un-
accustomed.  If swallowed  in  substance, it excites
speedy vomiting,  accompanied wilh distressing and
long-continued  sickness,  and even  with dangerous
symptoms, if the dose be large.  On account of the
violence of its operation, il is probable that this plant
will never come in use tor the common purpose of an
oiuetic.  It is, however, entitled to notice as a remedy
in asthma and some oilier pulmonary affections.  It
produces relief in asthmatic  cases,  sometimes  with-
out vomiting,  but  more frequently after  discharging
the contents of the  stomach.  On account of  the
harshness of its operation, it is reluctantly resorted to
by patients, who expect relief from any milder means.
It, however, certainly relieves some cases, in which
other emetic substances fail.  In small doses the lobe-
lia is found a good expectorant for pneumonia, in its
advanced stages, and for catarrh.  In rheumatism it
has also been found of service.
  The strength of the lobelia varies  with  its age, and
»ther circumstances.  In some instances, a grain will
produce vomiting. The  tincture  is most frequently
given in asthma, in doses of about a  fluid drachm."—
Big. Mat. Med.  A.]
  [Indian turnip.  Dragon root.   Arum.   " The
Arum triphyllum  is an American plant,  growing In
damp, shady situations,  and  sometimes called Indian
Turnip, and fVake robin.  The root islarge andfleshy,
consisting chiefly of foecula, which it affords, withoul
taste or smell in the form of  a white delicate, powder.
In its recent state, this root, and in  fact every part of
the plant, is violently acrid, and almost caustic.   Ap-
plied to the tongue, or to any secreting surface, it pro-
duces an effect like  that of Cayenne pepper, but far
more powerful, so  as to leave a permanent soreness
for many hours.  Its action  does  not readily extend
through the cuticle, since the bruised root may be worn
upon the skin till it becomes dry, without  occasioning
pain or rubefaction.  The acrimony  of this plant re-
sides in a highly volatile principle, which is driven off
by heat, and gradually disappears in  drying.  It is not
communicated to  water, alkohol, nor oil, but  maybe
obtained in the form of an inflammable gas or vapour,
by boiling the plant under an inverted receiver, filled
v ith water.  Arum is loo violently acrid to be a safe
medicine iu its recent state, though  it has sometimes
been given with impunity. The dried root, while it
retains a  slight portion of  acrimony, is sometimes
grated in milk, and given  as  a carminative and dia-
phoretic."—Big. Mat. Med.  A.]
  India'na radix.  Ipecacuanha.
  Indica camotes.  Potatoes.
  INDICANT.  (Indicans;  from indico, to show.)
That from which the indication is drawn, which is in
reality the proximate cause of a disease.
  Indicating days   Critical days.
  INDICATION.  (Indicatio; from  indico, to show.)
An indication is that which demonstrates in a disease
what ought to be done.  It is threefold: preservative,
Which preserves  health;  curative,  which expels a
present disease; .and vital, which  respects  the powers
and reasons of diet.  The scope from wliich indications
are taken, or determined, is comprehended in this dis-
tich:
    ------Ars, atas,  regio, complexio, virtus,
    Mos et symptoma, repletio, lempus, et nsus.
  INDICATOR.  (From  indico, to point: so named
from  i s office of extending the index, or forefinger)
An extensor muscle of the forefinger, situated chiefly
c  . the lower  and  posterior part of the forearm.   Ex-
it isor indicis of Cowper.  Extensor secundii inter-
nodii  indicts  proprius,  vulgo indicator of Douglas ;
and Cubitosus pholangetticn de I'indix of Dumas.   It
arises, by an acute fleshy beginning, from the middle of
I! o posterior part of the ulna; its lendon passes under
tl.e same ligament with the extensor digitorum commu-
nis, wilh part of which it is inserted into the posterior
Mil ofthe forefinger
  Indicum lionum.   Logwood
      4.V.!
   Indicus morbus.  The venereal disease.
   INDIGENOUS.   (Indigenus;  indigena ab  inaa.
 i. e. in et geno, i. e. gigno, to  beget.)  Applied to dis-
 eases, plants, and other objects which are peculiar tc
 any country.
   INDIGO.  A blue colouring matter extracted from
 the Indigofera tinctoria.  Anil, or the indigo plant.
   INDIGOFERA.  (From indigo, and fcro, to bear.i
 The name of a genus  of plants.  Class, Diadelphia ;
 Order, Decandria.
   Indigofera tinctoria. The systematic name of
 the plant which affords indigo.
   1NDUCIUM.  (From induco, to cover or diaw ovei  J
 A covering.   1. A shirt.
   2. The name of the amnios from  its covering  tiie
 foetus like a shirt.
   3. Wildenow and Swarfs name for the involucruin,
 or thin membraneous covering of the fructification ol
 ferns.
   Its varieties are,
   1. Inducium planum, flat;  as in the genus  Poly
 podium.
   2. I. peltatum,  connected with the seed  by a fila-
 ment or stalk;  as in Aspidium filixmas.
   3.  /. corniculatum, round and  hollow, as in Equi-
 setum.
   Indura'ntia.  (From induro, to harden.)  Medi
 cines which harden.
   INEQUALIS.  Unequal.  Applied to a leaf when
 the two halves are unequal in dimensions and the base
 end parallel; as in Eucalyptus resinifera,
   INERMIS.  (From tn, priv. and arma.)  Unarmei'-
 opposed, in designating leaves, to such as are spinous.
   Ine'sis.   (From ivau, to evacuate)  Inethus.  An
 evacuation of the humours.
   INFECTION.  See Contagion.
   INFERNAL.  A name given to a caustic, lapis in
 fernalis, from its strong burning property. See Argenti
 nitras.
   Infibula'tio.  (From ivfibulo, to button together.)
 An impediment to the retraction ofthe prepuce.
   INFLAMMABLE.  Chemists distinguish by this
 term such bodies as burn with facility, and flame in an
 increased temperature.
   Inflammable air.  See Hydrogen gas.
   Inflammable air, heavy.  See  Carburetted hydrogen
 gas.
   INFLAMMATION.  (Inflammatio, onis. f.; from in-
fiammo,  to burn.)   Phlogosis;  Phlegmasia.  A dis-
 ease  characterized  by  heat,  pain, redness, attended
 with more or less of tumefaction and fever. Inflam-
 mation is divided into two species, viz. phlegmonous and
 erysipelatous.
   Besides this division,  inflammation  is either acute of
 chronic,  local or general, simple or complicated with
 other diseases.
   1.  Phlegmonous inflammation is known by its blight
 red colour, tension,  heat, and a circumscribed, throb-
 bing, painful tumefaction of the part; tending to sup-
 puration.  Phlegmon is generally  used to denote an
 inflammatory tumour, situated in the skin or cellular
 membrane.  When the same disease affects the vis
 cera, it is usually called phlegmonous  inflammation.
   2.  Erysipelatous inflammation is considered  as an
 inflammation  of a  dull  red  colour,  vanishing  upon
 pressure, spreading unequally, with a burning pain,  the
 tumour scarcely perceptible, ending in vesicles, or des-
 quamation.  This species of inflammation admits of a
 division into erythema, when there is merely an  affec-
 tion  of the skin, with very Utile of ihe whole system;
 and  erysipelas, when there is general affection of  the
 system.
   The fever attending  erysipelatous  inflammation is
 generally synochus or typhus, excepting when il affects
 very vigoroushabits, and then it may besyuocha.  The
 fever attending phlegmonous  inflammation is almost
 always synocha. Persons in Ihe prime of life, and in full
 vigour with a plethoric  habitof body,  are most liable to
 the attacks nf a phlegmonous  inflammation; whereas
 those advanced in years, and those of a weak habit oi
 body, irritable, and lean, are most  apt td be attacked
 with erysipelatous inflammation.
   Phlegmonous inflammation terminates in resolution
 suppuration,  gangrene, and scirrhus, or induration
 Resolution jg known  to  be about to  take place  when
 the symptoms gradually abate; suppuration, when ihe
 inflammation docs not readily yield to proper rcmedfe* 
TNjN
INN
 tne Jirobbing increases, the tumour points externally,
 and rigors come on.  Gangrene is about lo take place,
 when the pain abates, the pulse  sinks, and cold per-
 spirations come on.  Schirrhus,or induration, isknown
 by the inflammation continuing  a  longer time than
 usual; the tumefaction continues, and a  considerable
 hardness remains.  This kind of tumour gives little or
 no | am,  and, when it takes place, it is usually thet-e-
 quel  of  inflammation  affecting glandular  parts.  It
 sometimes, however, is accompanied with lancinating
 pains, ulcerates, and becomes cancerous.
   Erythematous inflammation  terminates in  resolu-
 tion, suppuration, or gangrene.  The symptoms of in-
 flammation are accounted for iu the following way :—
   Tiie redness arises from the dilatation of the small
 vessels, which  become sufficiently large to admit the
 red particles  in large quantities; it appears also to
 occur, in  some cases, from (he generation  of new ves-
 sels.  The swelling is caused by ihe dilatation of the
 vessels, the plethoric slate of the arteiiesand veins, the
 exudation of coagulable lymph  inlo the cellular mem-
 brane, and the interruption of absorption.
  Iu regard to tbe  augmentation of  beat, as the ther-
 mometer  denotes very liltle increase of temperature, il
 appears lo be accounted for from the increased sensi-
 bility  of the nerves, wliich convey false  impressions
 to me seusoriuui.   The  pain is occasioned by a de-
 viation from the natural state of the parts, and the
 unusual condition into which tlie  nerves  are thrown.
 The throbbing depends on tiie action of the arteries.
   Blood taken  from a person labouring under  active
 iiitlammaiioii, exhibits a yellowish while crust on the
 surface ;  this is denominated the bully coriaceous, or
 inflammatory coat.   This consists of a layer of coagu-
 lable lymph, almost destitute of red particles.  Blood,
 in this slate, is often  termed sizy.  The colouring part
 of tlie blood is its heaviest  constituent;  and, as the
 blood of  a  person labouring under inflammation  is
 longer coagulating  than  healthy blood, it is supposed
 that ihe red particles have an opportunity to descend
 to a considerable depth from the surface before they
 become entangled.  The buffy coal of blood is gene-
 rally ttie best criterion of inflammation ; there are a low
 anomalous constitutions iu which this stale of blood is
 always found;  but these are rare.
  The occasional and exciting causes of inflammation
 are very numerous: they, hovfever,  may generally be
 classed  under  external  violence, produced either  by
 mechanical or chemical irritation, changes of temper a-
 ture, and  stimulating foods.   Fever often  seems lo be
 a remote  cause; the  inflammation thus  produced  is
 generally  considered as critical.  Spontaneous inflam-
 mation sometimes occurs when  no perceptible cause
 can  be  assigned  for its production.  Scrofula and
 syphilis uiay  be considered as exciting causes  of in-
 flammation.
  With regard  tc the  proximate cause, it has been the
 subject of much dispute.   Galen considered phlegmon
 to be produced by a superabundance of tlie  humor
 sanguineus.  Boerliaave referred the proximate cause
 to an  obstruction iu the small vessels, occasioned by a
 Icr.tor of  tlie blood.  Cullen  and  others attributed  il
 rather to an affection of the vessels than a change of the
 fluids.
  The proximate cause, at the present period, is gene-
 rally considered to be a morbid dilatation, and increased
 action of such arteries as lead and are distributed to
 tlie inflamed part
  Inflammation of the bladder.  See Cystitis.
  Inflammation of the brain.  See Phremtis.
  Inflammation of the eyes.  See  Ophthalmia.  '
  Inflammation of the intestines.   See Enteritis.
  Inflammation of the kidneys.  See Nephritis.
  Inflammation of the liver.  See Hepatitis.
  Inflammation of the lungs.  See Pneumonia,
  Inflammation of theperilonaum.  See Peritonitis.
  Inflammation of thepleura.  See Pleuritis.
  Inflammation of tlie stomach.   See Gastritis.
  Inflammation of the testicle.  See Orchitis.
  Inflammation of the uterus.  See Hysleritis.
  INFLATIO.  (From  inflo, to pufFup.) A windy
swelling.  See Pneumatosis.
  Infla'tiva.   (Inflativus; from inflo, to puff up wilh
wind.)  Medicines or food which cause flatulence.
  1NFLATUS.  Inflated.  In botany applied to vesi-
tulated parts,  which  naturally contain only air; as
legumen infiatum, seen in Astragalus vesicarius and
 the distended  and hollow perianths of ihe Cucubalw
 behen, and Physalis alkekriigi iu fruit.
   INFLEXUS.  Curved inwards; synonymous to in
 curvus, iis applied to leaves, petals. Sec.  See Incurvus.
 Tlie petals of  the Pimpinella, and Charopkyllum, are
 described as infirm.
   INFLORESCENCE.   (Infioresccntia; from inflo-
 rtsco, to flower  or blossom.)   A term used by  Lin-
 naeus to express the particular maimer in whicli flowed
 are situated uion  a  plant, denominated by preceding
 writers, modus ftorendi, or manner of flowering.
   It is divided into  simple, when solitary  md com-
 pound, when many floweis aie  placed together >n o: e
 place.
   The first affords the follow ing distinctions.
   1. Flos pedunculatus, furnished wilh a slalk  ; as in
 Gratiolus and Vinca.
   2. F. sessilis, adhering to the plant without a flowci
 stalk; as in Daphne  mczcrium, and  Zmia paueifiora
   3. F. cauttnus, when on Ihe stem.
   4. /'. nimcus, when on the branch.
   5. F. terminalis, when on tlie apex of the slem, or
 branch; as  Paris quadrifolia, and  Chrysanthemum
 leucanthemum.
   6. F. axillaris, ill the axilla; as in Convallaria mul-
 tiflora.
   7. F.foliaris, on the surface ofthe leaf; as in Phyl
 lantlius.
   8. F. radicalis,  on the  root;  as Carlina acaulis,
 Crocus, and Colchicum
   9.  F. lalitaiis, concealed in a  fleshy receptacle;  ai
 in Ficus carica.
   Again, it is said to be,
   1. Alternate; as in Polyanthes tubcrosa.
   2.  Opposite; as iu  Passifiora  hirsuta.
   3.  Unilateral, Itauging all lo one side; as Erica her-
 bacea, and Stlciie uiiiana.
   4. Solitary;  as in  Campanula speculum,  and Car-
 duus tuberosus.
   The second,  or compound inflorescence, has tlie fo'
 lowing kinds:
    1. The vertialius, or whirl.
    2. The capilulum, or tuft.
    3. The spica, or spike.
    4. The racemus, or cluster.
    5. The corymbos, or corymb.
    6. The umbella, or umbel.
    7. The cyma, or cyme.
    8. The fasciculus, or fascicle.
    9. The pantcitla, or panicle.
   10. The thyrsus, or bunch.
   11. The spadix, or sheath.
   12. The amentum, or calkin.
   LNFLUE'jNZA.  (The Italian word for influence.)
 The disease is so named because it was supposed lo be
 produced by a peculiar  influence of the  stars.  Sea
 Catarrhus a contagione.
   INI'RASCAPULA  RIS  (From infra, beneath, and
 scapula, the shoulder-blade.)  A muscle named frotn
 its position beneath the scapula.  See Subscapulars.
   INFRASPINATUS.  (From  infra, beneath, and
 spina, the spine.)   A muscle of the humerus, situated
 on the scapula.  It arises fleshy,  from  all thai part of
 the dorsum scapulae which is below its spine;  and fro: i
 the  spine itself, as far as the cervix scapula;.   T! •;
 fibres run obliquely towaids a tendon in the middle if
 a  muscle, wliich runs forwards, and adheres to  the
 capsular ligament.  It is inserted by a flat, thick tendon,
 into the upper and outer part of the large protuberan  e
 on the head of the os humeri.  Its use is to roll  the os
 humeri outwards, to assist in raising and supportir j
 it  when lai.-ed,  and lo puli the ligament from bclwee.i
 tbe  bones.  This  muscle and the supra spinatus  are
 covered by an aponeurosis, wliich extends between i/«j
 cosue, and edges of the spine of the scapula, and giv. j
 rise to many of the muscular fibres.
   INFUNDIBULIFORMIS.   Funnel-shaped.   Ap-
 plied to the corolla of  plants ; as  in Pulmonaria.
   INFUNDi BULUM.  (From  infundo, to pour i .)
 1.  A canal lhat proceeds  from the vulva of ihe  brain
 to  the pituitary  gland in the sella  turcica.
  2.  The beginnings of the excretory duct of the kid
ney, or cavities into which the urine is first received,
from the secretory cryptte, are called infundibula.
  INFUSION.  (Infusum; from infundo, to  pour in.'
 Infu.no.  A process that consists in pouring  water of*
any required degree of temperature on such substances 
INF                                              INN
as nave a loose texture, as thin bark, wood in shavings,
or small pieces, leaves, flowers, &c. and suffering it to
stand a certain time. The liquor obtained by the above
process  is called an infusion.  The following are among
the most approved infusions.
  INFU'SUM.   See Infusion.
  Infusum anthemidis. Infusion of chamomile. Take
ofcbaiiioniile-flowers,twodrachms; boiling-water, half
a pint.  Macerate for ten minutes  in a covered vessel,
and strain.  For ils  virtues, see Anthemis nobilis.
  Infusum armoraci/e compositum.  Compound in-
fusion of horse-radish.   Take of fresh horse-radish
root, sliced, mustard-seeds, bruised, of each one ounce;
boiling water, a pint.  Macerate for iwo hours, in a
covered vessel, and  strain ; then add compound spirit
of horse-radish, a fluid ounce.   See Cochlearia armo-
racia.
  Infusum aurantii  compositum.  Compound  in-
fusion of orange-peel.  Take  of orange-peel,  dried,
two drachms; lemon-peel, fresh,  a drachm;  cioves,
bruised, half a drachm; boiling water, half a pint.
Macerate  for a quarter of an hour, in a covered ves-
sel, and strain.  See Citrus aurantium.
  Infcsum calumba.  Infusion of calumba. Take of
ealumba-root, sliced, a drachm; boiling water, half a
pint.  Macerate for two hours, in a covered vessel, and
strain.  See  Calumba.
  Infusum caryophyllorum.   Infusion of cloves.
Take of cloves, bruised, a drachm; boiling water, half
a pint.  Macerate for  two hours, in a covered vessel,
and strain.  See Eugenia caryophyllata.
  Infusum cascarill*.  Infusion of cascarilla.  Take
of cascarilla bark,  bruised, half an ounce;  boiling
water, half a pint.  Macerate  for two hours, iu a co-
vered vessel, and strain.   See Croton cascarilla.
  Infusum catechu  compositumv   Compound  in-
fusion of catechu.   Take of extract of caiechu, two
drachms and a half;  cinnamon bark, bruised, half a
drachm  ; boiling waler, half a pint.  Maceiate for an
hour, in a covered vessel, and strain.  See Acacia
catechu.
  Infusum cinchon.e.  Infusion  of cinchona.  Take
of lance-leaved cinchona bark, bruised, half an ounce;
boiling water, half a pint.  Maceiate for two hours, iu
B covered vessel, and strain.  See Cinchona
  Infusum cuspari.v.   Infusion of cusparia.  Take
of cusparia bark, bruised, two drachms ; boiling wafer,
half  a pint.  Macerate '.'or two hours, iu a covered ves-
sel, and  strain.  See Cusparia febrifuga.
  Infusum digitalis.  Infusion of fox-glove.  Take
of purple fox-glove  leaves, dried,  a drachm; boiling
water, half a pint.   Macerate for  four hours, in a co-
vered vessel, and strain;  then add spirit of cinnamon,
half  a fluid ounce.   See Digitalis purpurea.
  Infusum gentian* compositum.  Compound in-
fusion of gentian.  Take of gentian-root, sliced, orange-
peel, dried,of each  a drachm;  lemon-peel, fresh, two
drachms; boiling water, twelve fluid ounces.  Mace-
rate for  an hour, in a covered vessel, and stiain.  See
Gentiana lutea.
  Infusum lini.  Infusion of linseed.  Take of lin-
seed, bruised, an ounce;  liquorice-roof, sliced, half  an
ounce;  boiling  water, two pints.  Macerate for two
hours, near  the fire, in a  covered vessel, and strain.
See Linum usitatissimum.
  Infusum quassi*.  Infusion of quassia.  Take  of
ipiassia  wood, a scruple;  boiling  water, half a  pint.
Aiacerate  for two hours and  strain.  See Quassia
amara
  Infusum riiei.   Infusion of rhubarb.  Take of
rhubarb-root, sliced, a drachm; boiling water, half a
pint.  Macerate for two hours, and strain.  See Rheum.
  Infusum ros.e.   Take  of the petals of red rose,
dried, half an ounce;  boiling water, two pints and a
!..-df; dilute sulphuric acid, three fluid drachms; double-
it lined sugar, an ounce and a  half.  Pour the watei
i.'pon the petals of ihe rose in a  glass vessel; then add
the acid,  and macerate  for half an hour.  Lastly,
strain the infusion, and add the sugar to it.  See Rosa
Callica.
  Infusum sennje.   Infusion  of senna.  Take  of
senna leaves, an ounce and a half; ginger-root, sliced,
a drachm; boiling  water, a pint.  Macerate for an
hour, in a covered vessel, and strain  the liquor.  See
Cassia senna.
  Infusum simaroub.b.  Infusion of sitnarouba.  Take
■A sunarouba bark   bruised,  half a urachm; boiling
      451
 water, half a pint.  Macerate for two hours, in a co-
 vered vessel, and strain.  Sec Quassia sitnarouba.
   Infusum tabaci.   Infusion of tobacco.   Take oi
 tobacco-leaves, a drachm; boing water, a pint.  Mace
 rale for an hour, in a covered veosel, and strain.  Se*
 Nicotiana.
   INGENHOUZ, John, was born at Breda, in 1730
 Little is known of his early life ; but in 1767, he cainfl
 to England to learn the Suttoniaii method of inocula-
 tion. Iu the following year he went to Vienna, tc
 inoculate some of the imperial family, for which ser-
 vice he  received ample  honours; and  shortly aftei
 performed the same operation on the Grand  Duke of
 Tuscany, when he returned to this country, and speni
 the remainder of his life iu scientific pursuits.  Iu 1779,
 he published " Experiments  on Vegetables,"  disco-
 vering their  great power of purifying  the air in sun-
 shine, but injuring it in the shade and night.  He was
 also author  of several papers in the Philosophical
 Transactions, being an active member of ihe  Royal
 Society.  He died in 1799.
   INGLUVIES. 1.  Gluttony.
  2. The claw, crop, or gorge of a bird.
   INGRASSIAS, John Philip, was born in Sicily,
 and graduated at Padua in 1537 with singular reputa-
 tion ; whence he was invited to a professorship in
 several of the Italian schools; bnt he gave the prefer-
 ence to Naples,  where he distinguished himself greatly
 by his learning and judgment. At length he returned
 lo his native  island, and settled in Palermo, where he
 was also highly esteemed; and in 1563 made first physi-
 cian lo that country by Philip  II. of Spain, to whom il
 then belonged.   This office enabled  him to  introduce
 excellent regulations into the  medical practice of the
 island, and when the plague  raged there in  1575, tht
 judicious measures adopted by him arrested ils pro-
 gress; whence  the magistrates decreed  him a  large
 reward, of which, however, he only accepted a part
 and applied that to religious uses.  He died in 158U, al
 the  age  of 70.   He  cultivated anatomy with  great
 assiduity, and is reckoned one of the improvers of that
 art, especially in regard to the structure of the cranium,
 and  the organ of hearing.   He is said also to  have dis-
 covered  the  seminal vesicles.  He  published several
 works, particularly an account of the plague,  and a
 treatise,  "De Tunioiibus praetor Naturam,"  which is
 chiefly a commentary qn Avicenna, but is  deserving
 of notice, as containing the first inoderiiljescription of
 Scarlatina, under the name of Rossalia; and perhaps
 the first account of varicella, which he called crystalli.
 But his principal work was" published by his  nephew,
 in 1603, entitled, "Commentaries on Galen's  Book
 concerning the Bones."
  Ingravidation. (From ingravidor, to be great with
 child.) The same as impregnation, or going with child.
  I'NGUEN.  (Inguen, inis. n.)   The  groin.   The
 lower and lateral part ofthe abdomen, above the thigh.
  I.N'GLINAL. Inguinalis. Appertaining lo the groin
  Inguinal hernia. See Hernia.
  Inguinal ligament.  See Poupart's ligament.
  IXHUM \TlON.  (From inhumo, to  put  into the
 ground.)  The burying a patient in warm  or medicated
 earth.  Some chemists have  fancied thus lo call that
 kind of  digest'on which  is  performed  by burying the
 materials in dung, or in the earth.
 . Inion.  (From ij, a nerve; as being the place where
 nerves originate.) The occiput.  Blancard says it is
 the beginning of the  spinal marrow; others say it is
 the back part of ihe neck.
  Injacula'tio.  (From injaculor, to shoot into.)  So
 Helmont calls a disorder which consists of a violent
spasmodic pain in the stomach, and  an immobility of
 the body.
  INJE'CTION. (Injectio ; from injicio, to cast into.
 A medicated liquor to throw into a natural or prefer
 natural cavity ofthe body by means of a  svringe.
  INNOMINATUS.  (From in, priv., and nomen, a
 name.)   Some parts of the body are so named:  thus,
 the pelvic bones, which in the young subject are three
in number, to wliich names were given, become one in
th* adult, which was without a name;  an artery from
the arch of the aorta,  and the fifth pair of nerves,
 because  they appeared to have been forgotten by lha
older anatomists.
  Inno.wi.nata arteria.  The first branch given oS
by tlie nrch of the aorta.  It soon divides into  the rigid
carotid and right suhcla  • n arteries. 
INN
INN
  Innominaii nervi.  The fiftf i pair of nerves.  Sec
 TVigemini.
  Innominatum os. (So called because the three bones
 of which it  originally was formed grew together, and
 formed one complete bone, which was then left name-
 less.)  A large irregular bone, situated al the side of the
 pelvis.  It is divided into three portions, viz. ihe iliac,
 ischiatic, and pubic, wliich are usually described  as
 Ihree distinct bones.
  The os ilium, or haunch-bone, is of a very irregular
 shape.  The lower part of it is thick and narrow";  its
 superior portion is broad and thin, terminating in a
 ridge, called the spine ofthe ilium, and more commonly
 known by the name of the haunch.  The spine rises
 up like an arch, being turned somewhat outward, and
 from this appearance,  the upper  part of the pelvis,
 when  viewed together, has nol been improperly com-
 pared  to the wings ot  a phaeton.  This spine, in ihe
 recent subject, appears as if tipped with cartilage; bul
this  appearance is nothing more  than the tendinous
fibres ofthe muscles that are inserted into it.  Exter-
nally, this bone is unequally prominent, and hollowed
for  the attachment of  muscles; and internally, at  its
broadest forepart,  it  is smooth and concave.  At  ils
lower  part, there is a considerable ridge on its Inner
surface. This ridge, which extends from the os sacrum,
and corresponds with a similar  prominence, both on
that boue and the ischium, forms, with ihe inner pari
ofthe ossa pubis, what  is called the brim ofthe pelvis.
The whole of the internal surface, behind this ridge, is
veiy unequal. The os  ilium  has  likewise  a smaller
surface posteriorly, by which  it is articulated lo the
sides of the os sacrum.  This surface has, by some,
been compared to the  human ear, and, by others, to
tbe head of  a bird :  but neither of these comparisons
 seem to convey any just idea of its form or appearance.
Its upper part is rough and porous; lower down it is
more solid.  It is  firml)  united to  the os sacrum  by a
cartilaginous substance,  and likewise by very strong
ligamentous fibres, which are  extended lo that bone
from the whole circumference of this irregular surface.
The spine of this bone, which is originally an epiphysis,
has two considerable tuberosities, one anteriorly, ami
the other posteriorly, which is the largest of the two.
 The ends of this spine too, from their projecting more
 than the parts of the bone below them, are called
spinal  processes.  Before the  anterior spinal process,
 the spine is  hollowed,  where  part of Ihe  Sartorius
 muscle is placed:  and  below the |iosterior spinal pro-
 cess, there is a very larpe niche in the  bone, which, in
 the recent subject,  has a strong  ligament stretched over
 its lower part, from ihe os sacrum to the sharp-pointed
 process ofthe ischium ; so thai a great hole is formed.
 through wliich pass the great sciatic nerve and  ihe
 posterior crural vessels under the pyril'orm  muscle,
 part of which is likewise  lodged  in this hole.  The
 lowest, thickest, and narrowest  part ofthe ilium,in con-
 junction with the other two portions of each os iuiioini
 nutum, helps to form the acetabulum for the os femoris.
  The os ischium,  or hip-bone, which is the lowest of
 the tliree portions of each os innominatum, is of a very
 irregular figure, aid usually divided into ils body, tu-
 berosity, and ramus. The body externally forms the
 inferior portion of the acetabulum, and sends a sharp-
 pointed process backward, called the spine of the
 ischium.  This is the p-ocess to which the ligament is
 attached, which was just now described as forming a
 great foramen for the passage of the sciatic nerve.
 The tuberosity is large and irregular, and is placed  at
 the inferior part of the bone,  giving origin to several
 muscles.  In the recent subject, it seems covered wilh
 a cartilaginous crust; but this appearance,  as in  the
spine of the ilium, is nothing more than the tendinous
 fibres of the muscles that are inserted into it.  This
 tuberosity, wliich  is the lowest portion of the tmr
 supports us when  we sit  Between the spine a-   ihe
 tuberosity is observed a sinuosity, covered witn a car-
tilaginous crust, which serves  as a pulley, on wliich
 Ihe obturator muscle plays.  From the tuberosity, the
 bone, becoming narrower and thinner, forms tlie ramus,
 >r branch,  which, passing forwards  and upwards,
 nakes, with the ramus of the os  pubis, a large hole,
 if an oval shape, the foramen magnum ischn, which
 Affords, through  its whole circumference, attachment
 w muscles.  This foramen is more particularly noticed
 hi describing the os pubis.
  The os pubis  or share-hone, which  i3 the smallest
 of the three portions of the ns innomi iRtu i, is placed
 al the upper and forepart ofthe pelvi', where the two
 ossa pubis meet, and are united to each other oy means
 of a  very strong cartilage, which constitutes what is
 called Ihe symphysis pubis.  Each os pubis may  be
 divided into its body, angle, and ramus.  The b"dy,
 which is  tho outer pari, is joined to the os ilium.  The
 angle comes forwaid io form the symphisis, and tho
 ramus isu thin apophysis, which,  uniting widi the
 ramus of the  ischium, forms the foramen magnum
 ischu, or thyroideum, as il has been sometimes culled,
 from its resemblance to a door or shield. This foramen
 is somewhat widei above than below, and its greatest
 diameter  is, from  above dovvnwaids, and  obliquely
 from within outwards   In the recent subieel,  it is
 almost completely closeo by a strong tibious membrane,
 called tlie ootarotflr ligament. Upwards and out wards.
 where we observe i> niche in Ihe hone, the tilues  of
 this ligament are separated, to allow a passage lo the
 posterior  crural nerve, an  artery and vein.  The irieal
 uses  of this torumcu seem lo bo to  lighten  the bones
 of the pelvis, and to afford a convenient lodgment lo
 the obturator muscles. The three bones now desci ibed
 as constituting the os iniiomiiiatuin on each side, all
 concur to form the great acetabulum, or cotyloid cavily,
 which receives the head ofthe Ihigli-bone, the os ilium
 and os ischium making each about two-fifths, and the
 os pubis  one-tilth,  of the cavity.  This acetabulum,
 which is  of considerable depth, is of a spherical shape.
 lis brims  are high, aud, iu Ihe recent subject, it is lipped
 with cartilage. These brims,  however,  are higher
 above and externally, lb.ui  they are  internally and
 below, where we observe a niche in Ihe bone (namely,
 the  ischium),  across which  is stretched a  ligament,
 forming a hole for the transmission of blood-vessels
 and  nerves to the cavity of the joint.  The cartilage
 which lines the acetabulum, is thickest at its circuiir^
 lerence, aud thinner within, where a little hole is to be
 observed, in which is placed the apparatus that  si m n
 lo lubricate the joint, and facilitate its motions.  \Vc
 are likewise able lo  discover the impression made by
 the  internal ligament ol* the os femoris, which,  by
 being attached both lo this cavity and lo  the head of
 the  os femoris, helps to secure the latter in the aceta-
 bulum.   The bones of the pelvis serve to support the
 spine aud upper parts of the body, to lodge the intes-
 tines, urinary bladder, and oilier viscera; and likewise
 to unite  the  trunk ;to the  lower  extremities.  But,
 besides these  uses, they-are destined, in the female
 subject,  for other  important purposes; and the ac-
 coucheur finds, in the study of these bones, the founda-
 tion  of all  midwifery knowledge.   Several eminent
 writers are of opinion, that in difficult parturition, all
 the  bones of the pelvis undergo a  certain degree  ol
 >ejiaiatioii.  Il has b en observed,  likewise, that the
 curtilage  uniting the o-sa pubis  is  thicker, and of a
 more spongy texture,  in women than  in men ; and
 therefore more likely to swell and enlarge during preg
 nancy.  That  many instances of a  partial sepaiation
 of these  bones, during labour, have happened,  there
 can  be no doubt; such a separation, however, ought
 by no means lo be considered as a uniform and salutary
 work of nature, as some writers seem to think, but as
 ihe effect of disease. But there is another circumstance
 in regard  lo this pail of osteology, wliich is well worthy
 of attention ; and this is, the different capacities ofthe,
 pelvis in  the male and female subject.  It has been'
 observed  that the os sacrum is shorter and broader in
 women than in men ; theossa ilia are also found more
 expanded;  whence it happens, that in women the cen-
 tre of gravity does not fall so directly on the upper part
 of the thigh as in men, and this seems to be the reason
 why, in general, they step with less firmness, and  move
 -iiteir hips forwaid in walking.   From these circum-
 stances, also, the brim of the female pelvis is  nearly
 of an oval shape, being considerably wider from side to
 side, than from the symphysis pubis to the os sacrum •
 whereas, in men, it is rounder, and everywhere of les ■
 diameter.  The inferior opening of  the pelvis is like-
 wise proportionably larger  in the femn'e subject, the
 ossa  ischia being more separated from each other, and
 ihe foramen ischii larger, so that, where the os ischium
 and os pubis are united together, they form « greatc
 circle; the os  sacrum is  also more hollowed, though
 shorter, and theos coccygis more loosely connected,aiid|
 therefore, capable of a "greater degree of motion thai
I in men.
                                         455 
INO                                              INS
   INOCULATION.  Inoculatio.  The insertion of a
 poison into any part of the body.  It was mostly prac-
 tised with that ofthe small-pox, because we had learned,
 from  experience, that by  so doing, we generally pro-
 cured fewer pustules, and a much milder disease, than
 when the small-pox was taken in a natural way.  Al-
 though  the  advantages  were evident, yet objections
 were raised  against inoculation,  on the notion that it
 exposed the  person to some risk, when he might have
 passed through life,  without ever  taking the disease
 naturally; but it is obvious that he  was exposed to
 much greater danger, from the intercourse which he
 must have with his fellow-creatures, by taking the dis-
 order in a natural way.  It has also been adduced, that
 a. person is liable to take the small-pox a second time,
 when produced  at first by artificial means ;  but such
 instances are very rare, besides not being sufficiently
 authentic.   We  may conjecture that,  in most of those
 cases,  the matter  used was not variolous, but that of
 some otlier eruptive disorder, such as the chicken-pox,
 which  has  often  been  mistaken for the  small-pox.
 However, since the discovery of the preventive power
 of the cow-pox, small-pox inoculation has been ra-
 pidly falling into disuse.   See Variola vaccina.
  To illustrate the benefits arising from inoculation, it
 has been calculated that  a third of the adults die who
 take the disease in a natural  way,  and about one-
 seventh  ofthe  children; whereas of those  who are
 inoculated, and  are properly treated afterward, the
 proportion is probably not greater than one in five or
 six hundred.
  Inoculation is  generally thought to have been intro-
 duced into Britain from Turkey, by Lady Mary Wort-
 ley Montague, about  the year 1721,  whose  son had
 been inoculated  at Constantinople, during her resi-
 dence there,  and  whose infant daughter was the firs!
 that underwent the operation in this  country.  It ap-
 pears, however,  to have been well known before this
 period, both  in the south of Wales and Highlands of
 Scotland. Mungo Park,  in his travels into the interior
 of Africa, found that inoculation had been long prac-
 tised by the Negroes on the Guinea coast; and nearly
 in the  same manner, and al the same time of life, as
 in Europe.   It is not clearly ascertained where inocu-
 lation  really originated.  Ir.  has been ascribed to the
 Circassians,  who employed it as the means of preserv-
 ing the beauty of their women.   It appears more pro-
 bable that accident first suggested the expedient among
 different nations, to whom the sinall-poxhad long been
 known, independently of any intercourse with each
 other;  and what adds to the probability of  this con-
jecture is, that in most places where inoculation can be
 traced back, for a considerable length of time, it seems
 to have been practised chiefly by old women, before it
 was adopted by regular practitioneis.
  Many  physicians held  inoculation  in the greatest
 contempt at  firsL from its supposed origin; others again
 discredited the fact of its utility ; while others, on the
 testimony of the success in distant countries, believed
 in the advantages it  afforded, but still did  not think
 themselves warranted to recommend it to the families
 they attended ; and it  was not until the experiment of
 it had been  made on six criminals (all of whom reco-
 vered from  the  disease  and  regained their  liberty),
 ihat it was  practised, in the year Vt26, on the royal
 •"atnily, and afterward adopted as a general thing.
  To ensure success  from inoculation, the following
 precautions should strictly be attended to.
  1. That the person should be of a good  habit of
 body, and free from any disease, apparent or latent, in
 order that he may not have the disease and a bad con-
 stitution, or perhaps another disorder,  to struggle with
 at the same  time.
  2. To enjoin a temperate diet  and proper regimen
 and, where the body is plethoric, or gross, lo make use
of gentle purges, together wilh mercurial and antimo-
 nial medicines.
  3. That the age of the person  be  as little advanced
 as possible, but not younger if it can be avoided, than
 fcur mouths.
  4 To choose a cool season ofthe year, and  to avoid
external heat, eilher by exposure to the sun, sitting by
fires, or iu warm  chambers, or by going too  warmly
clothed, or being  too much in bed.
  5. To lake the  matter from a young subject, who has
Hue small-pox in  a  favourable way,  and who is other-
 wise  lie.ilthy,  and  free  from  disease; and,  when
      LIU
 fresh  matter  can be procured,  to give it the prefer
 ence.
   Where matter of a benign kindcannot be procured,
 and the patient is evidently in  danger of the casual
 small-pox, we should not, however, hesitate a moment
 to inoculate from any kind of matter that can be pro-
 cured ; as what has been taken in malignant  kinds of
 small-pox has been found to produce a very mild dis-
 ease.  The mildness or malignity of the disease ap
 pears, therefore, to depend little or not at all on the
 inoculating matter.  Variolous  matter, as well as the
 vaccine, by being kept for a length of time, particularly
 in a warm place, is apt, however, to undergo decompo-
 sition, by putrefaction;  and then another kind of con
 tagious material has been  produced.
   In inoculating, the operator is  to make the  slightest
 puncture  or scratch imaginable in the arm of the per
 son, rubbing that part of the lancet which is besmeared
 with matter repeatedly over it, by way of ensuring the
 absorption; and in order to prevent ils being wiped off,
 the shirt sleeve ought not  lo be  pulled down until the
 part is dry.
   A singular  circumstance attending inoculation  is,
 lhat when this fails in producing the disease, the in-
 oculated  part nevertheless sometimes  inflames and
 suppurates, as in cases where  the  complaint  is about
 to follow; and the matter produced  in tliose cases, is
 as fit  for inoculation as  that taken from a  person
 actually labouring under the disease.   The same hap-
 pens very frequently  in   inoculation for  the cow
 pox.
  If, on the fourth or fifth day after the operation, no
 redness or inflammation is apparent on the edge of the
 wound, we ought  then  lo  inoculate in the other arm,
 in the same manner as before; or, for greater  certain-
 ty, we may do it in both.
  Some constitutions are incapable of having the dis-
 ease in any form.  Others  do not receive the disease at
 one  time, however  freely exposed  to its  contagion,
 even though repeatedly inoculated, and yel receive it
 afterward by  merely  approaching  ihose  labouring
 under it.
   On the  coming on of the febrile symptoms, which is
 generally  on the seventh day in  the inoculated small-
 pox, the  patient is not to  be suffered to lie abed, but
 should be kept cool, and  partake freely of antiseptic
 cooling drinks.  See Variola.
  INOSCULATION.   (Inosculatio;  from  in, and
 osculum,  a little mouth.)   The  running of the veins
 and  arteries into one another, or  the interunion of the
 extremities of the arteries  and veins.
  INSA'NIA.   (From  tn., not,  and  sanus,  sound.)
 Insanity, or deranged intellect.   A genus of disease in
 tlie class Neuroses, and order Vesania, characterized
 by erroneous judgment, from imaginary perceptions or
 recollections, attended with agreeable emotions in per-
 sons of a sanguine temperament.   See Mania.
  I.nse'ssus.   (From  insideo,  to sit upon.)  A hot-
 bath, simple or medicated, over which the patient
 sits.
  Insipie'ntia.  (From in, and sapientia, wisdom.;
 A delirium without fever.
  Insola'tio.   (From in,  upon, and sol, the sun.)  A
 disease which arises from  a too great  influence of the
 sun's heat upon the head, a coup  de soleil.
  INSPIRATION.  (Inspiratio ; from in, and spiro,
 to breathe.)  The act of drawing the air inlo the lungs
 See  Respiration.
  INSTINCT.  (Instinctus, us. m.)   Animals are
 not abandoned by nature  to themselves: Ihey are all
 employed  in a series of actions ;  whence results that
 marvellous whole that is seen among organized beings.
 To incline animals to the punctual execution of those
 actions which  are necessary for them, nature has pro-
 ■'-led them  with instinct; that  is, propensities inch-
 nai., •>«, wants, by whicli ihey are constantly  excited,
 and foiced to fulfil the intentions of nature.
  Instinct may excite in two different modes, w ith  oi
 without knowledge of the end.   The first is  enlight-
 f-ned  instinct,  the second  is blind instinct;  Ihe one
 is particularly the gift of man,  the  other belongs  lo
animals.
  In  examining carefully  the numerous phenomena
which depend  on instinct, we see that there is a double
desiirn in every animal:—1. The preservation ofthe
individual. 2.  The preservation ofthe species.  Every
animal fulfils this end in its own way, and according 
INT
INT
its  organization;  there  are  therefore as many  dif-
ferent instincts as there are different species;  and as
the organization varies in individuals, instinct pre-
sents individual differences sometimes strongly marked.
  We recognise two sorts of instinct in man :  the one
depends more  evidently  on  his organization, on his
animal state; he presents it in whatever  state he is
found.  This sort of instinct is nearly the same as that
of animals.  The  other kind ot instinct springs from
the social state ; and, without doubt, depends on orga-
nization : what vital phenomenon does not depend on
it t  BuJ  it does not display itself except when man
lives  in civilized society, and when he enjoys all the
advantages of that state.
  To the first, that may be called animal instinct,  be-
long hunger, thirst, the necessity of clothing, of a
covering from the weather; the desire of agreeable
sensations; the fear of pain and of death ; the desire
to injure  others, if there is any danger to  be feared
from  them, or any advantage to  arise from hurting
them  ; the venereal inclinations; the interest inspired
by children ; inclination to imitation ; to live in society,
which leads man to pass through the different degrees
of civilization, &c. These different instinctive feel-
ings incline him to concur in the established order of
organized beings.  Man is, of all tlie animals, the one
whose natural wants are  most numerous, and of the
greatest variety ; which is in pro|ioriion to the extent
of his intelligence: if  he had  only  these wants, he
would have  always a marked superiority  over  Ihe
animals.
  When man, living in society, can easily provide  for
all tlie wants which we have mentioned, he  has then
time and  powers of action  more than his original
wants require: then new wants  arise, that  may lie
called social wants: such is that of a lively percepiion
of existence : a want  wliich, the more it is  satisfied,
the more  difficult it becomes, because the sensations
become blunted by habit.
  This want of a vivid existence, added to the conti-
nually increasing feebleness ofthe sensations, causes a
mechanical restlessness, vague desires, excited by the
remembrance  of vivid sensations  formerly felt: in
order to escape from  this state,  man is continually
forced to change his object, or to overstrain sensations
of tbe same kind.  Thence  arises an  inconstancy
which never permits our desires to rest, and a progres-
sion of desires, which, always  annihilated  bv enjoy-
ment, and irritated by  remembrance, proceed forward
without end ; thence arises ennui, by which the civil-
ized idler is incessantly tormented.
  The want  of vivid  sensations is balanced  by  the
love of repose  and idleness in the opulent classes of
society.   These contradictory  feelings  modify each
other, and from their  reciprocal reaction  results  the
love of power, of consideration, of fortune, &c. which
gives us the means of satisfying both.
  These two instinctive  sensations  are not  the only-
ones which spring from the social state; a crowd of
others arise from il, equally real, though less important;
besides, the natural wants become  so changed as no
longer to  be  known; hunger is often replaced by a
capricious taste; the venereal desires by a  feeling of
quite  another nature, &c.
  The natural wants  have a considerable influence
upon  those which  crise from society; these,  in their
turn, modify the former;  and if we add age, tempera-
ment, sex, Sec. which tend to change every sort of want,
we will have an idea of the difficulty which the study
of the instinct of man presents. This part of physi-
ology is also  scarcely begun.   We remark, however,
that tlie social wants necessarily carry along with them
the enlargement of the  understanding;  there is no
comparison in regard to the capacity of the mind, be-
tween a man in the higher class of society, and a man
whose physical powers are scarcely sufficient to pro-
vide for his natural wants.
  INTEGER.   When applied to leaves, perianths,
petals, &c. folia Integra, means undivided; and is said
of the simple leaves  as those of  the orchises and
grasses.  The female flower of the oak affords an ex-
ample of the perianthium integrum, and the petals of
the  Nigella arvensis  and Silene quinquevulnera  are
described as pelala inlegra.
  INTEGERRIMUS.   Most perfect  or entire.  Ap-
plied  to leaves, the margin of which has no teeth,
•etches, or incisions.  It regards solely tlie margin-
whereas the folium integrum respects the whole shape
and has nothing to do with ihe margin.
  INTERCOSTAL.  (Intercostalis; from infer, be-
tween, and costa, a rib.)  A name given to muscles
vessels, Sec. which are between the ribs.
  Intercostal arteries.   Arteria  intercostales.
The arteries which run between the ribs.  The superior
Intercostal artery is a branch of the subclavian.  The
other intercostal arteries are given off from the aorta.
  Intercostal muscles.   Intercostales externi  et
inlerni.  Between the ribs  on  each side are eleven
double rows of muscles.  Those are the intercostales
externi, and interni. Galon has very properlyobsei ved,
that they decussate each otiier like the strokes of the
letter X.   The intercostales externi arise from the
lower edge of each superior rib, and, running obliquely
downwards and forwards, arc inserted into the upper
edge of each inferior rib, so as to occupy the Intervals
of the ribs, from as far back as the spine  to their car-
tilages; but from llieir cartilages to the sternum, there
is only a thin aponeurosis covering the internal inter-
costales.  The intercostales interni arise and are in-
serted in the same manner ns the external.  They begin
at the sternum, and extend as far as the angles of the
ribs, their fibres running obliquely  backwards.   Those
fibres ore spread over a considerable part of the inner
suiface of the ribs, so as to be longer than those ofthe
external intercostals.  Some of the posterior portions
of tlie internal  intercostals pass over one rib,  and are
inserted into Ihe rib below.  Verheyen first described
these portions as separate muscles, under the name of
infra costales.  Winslow has adopted the same name.
Cowper, and after him  Douglas,  call them custarum
depressores proprii.  These distinctions, however, are
altogether superfluous, as they  are evidently nothing
more than appendapes of the intercostals.  The num
ber of these portions varies in different subjects.  Most
comnionly there are only four, the first of which runs
from the second rib to the fourth, the second from the
third rib to the fifth, the third from the fourth rib to
the sixth, and the fourth from the fifth rib to the seventh.
The internal intercostals of the two inferior false ribs
are frequently so thin, as to be with difficulty separated
from the external; and,  in some subjects, one or both
of them seem  to be altogether wanting.  It was the
opinion of  the ancients,  that the external intercostaN
serve to elevate, and the internal  to depress the ribs.
Tbey were probably led to this opinion, by observing
the different direction of their fibres; but it is now well
known, that  both  have the  same use, which is thai
of raising the ribs equally during  inspiration.   Fallo-
pius was one of the first who ventured to call in ques-
tion the opinion of Galen on this subject, by contend-
ing that both layers of the intercostals serve to elevate
the ribs. In this opinion he was followed by Hierony-
mus Fabricius, our  countryman Mayow, and  Borelli.
But, towards the close of the last century, Bayle, a
writer of some eminence, and professor  at  Toulouse,
revived the opinion of the  ancients by the following
arguments:—lie observed, that  the oblique direction
ofthe  fibres of the internal intercostals  is such, that
in each inferior rib, these fibres are nearer to the verte-
bras Ihan they nre at their  superior extremities, or in
the rib immediately above; and that, of course, they
must serve to  draw the rib  downwards, as towards
the most fixed point.   This plausible doctrine was
adopted byseveral eminent writers, and among others,
by Nicholls, Hoadley, and Schreibcr; but above al),
by Hamberger,  who went so far as to assert, that not
only the ribs, but even the sternum, are pulled down
wards  by these muscles, and  constructed a parliculai
instrument to  illustrate  this  doctrine.  He pretended
likewise that the intervals of the ribs are increased by
their elevation, and diminished by their depression;
but he allowed  that, while those parts of the internal
intercostals that are placed between the  bony part of
the ribs pull them downwards, the anterior portions of
the muscle, which are situated between the cartilages,
concur with the external intercostals in  raising them
upwards.  These opinions gave rise to  a warm and
interesting controversy, in which Hamberger and Hal-
ler were the principal disputants.  The former argued
chiefly from theory, and the latter from experiments
on living animals, whicli demonstrate the fallacy of
Hambergcr's  arguments, and  prove, beyond a doubt,
that the internal intercostals  perform the same func-
tions us the external.
                                       137 
INT
INT
  Intercostal nervb.  Nervus inlercostalis.  Great
intercostal nerve.  Sympathetic nerve.  The greal in-
tercostal nerve arises in the cavily of the cranium,
from a branch of the sixth and one of the fifth pair,
uniting into one trunk, which passes outof the cranium
through the carotid canal, and descends by the sides
of the bodies of the vertebrae of the neck, thorax, loins,
and os sacrum: in its course, it receives the small ac-
cessory  branches  from all the thirty pair of  spinal
nerves.   In the neck, it gii es off three  cervical gan-
glions, the upper, middle, and lower;  from which the
cardiac and pulmonary nerves arise.  In  the thorax,
it gives oil" the splanchnic or anterior intercostal, which
peiforates the diaphragm, and forms the semilunar
ganglions, from which nerves pass to all the abdominal
viscera.  They also form in the abdomen ten peculiar
plexuses, distinguished by the nam'- of  the viscus, to
which ihey belong, as "the coeliac, splenic, hepatic,
superior, middle, and lower mesenteric, two renal, and
two  spermatic plexuses.   The posterior intercostal
nerve gives accessory  branches about the pelvis and
ischiatic nerve, and at length terminates.
  Intkrcostal veins.  The intercostal veins empty
Jieir blood into the vena azygos.
  INTERCURRENT.  Those fevers whicli happen
in certain seasons only, are called  stationary:  others
are called, by Sydenham, intercurrents.
  Ints'rcus.  (From inter,  between, and cutis, the
skin.)  A dropsy between the skin and the flesh. Sec
Anasarca.
  INTERDE'NTIUM.  (From inter, between, and
dens, a tooth.)  The intervals  between  teeth of the
same order.
  1NTERDIGITUM.   (From inter, between, and
digitus, a toe, or finger.)  A corn between the toes, or
wart between the fingers.
  INTERFiEMl'NEUM.  (From inter, between, and
famen,  the thigh.)   The perinaeum, or space between
the anus and pudendum.
  Interlu'nius.   (From  inter,  between, and luna,
the moon; because il was supposed to  affect those
who were born in the  wane of the  moon.)  The epi-
lepsy.
  Intermediate affinity.  See Affinity intermediate.
  INTERMITTENT.   (Intermittens;   from  inter,
between, and  mitto, to send away.)  A disease is so
called which docs not continue until it finishes one
way or the other, as most diseases do, but ceases and re-
turns againatregularoruncertainperiods; osagues,&.c.
  Intermittent fever.  See Febris intermittens.
  INTERNODIS.   Applied to a fiowerstalk or pedun-
culus, when it proceeds  from the  intermediate part
of a branch between two leaves; as in Ehrelia iuter-
nodis.
  Internu'ntii dies.   (From internuncio, to  go be-
tween.)  Applied lo  critical days, or such as stand
between the increase of  a disotder and its decrease.
  Intero'ssei manus.  (Interosseus; from inter, be-
tween, and os, the  bone.)  These  are small  muscles
situated between the metacarpal bones, and extending
from the bones of the  carpus to the  fingers. They are
divided into internal and external; the former  are to
be seen only on the palm of the hand, but the latter
are conspicuous both on the palm and  back  of the
hand.   The interossei interni are three iu number.
The  first,  whicli  Albinus names  posterior indicis,
arises tendinous and fleshy from the  basis and inner
part of the metacarpal bone  of the forefinger, and
likewise from the upper part of that whicli supports
the middle linger.  Its tendon passes over the articula-
tion of  this part of these bones wilh the forefinger,
and, uniting with the  tendinous expansion that  is sent
off from the extensor  digitorum communis, is inserted
iu to Ihe posterior convex surface of the first  phalanx
of that itiger.  The second and third, to which Albinus
gives tiie names of prior annularis, and  interrosscus
auricularis, arise, in the same manner, from the basis
of the oulsides of the metacarpal bones  that sustain
the ring-finger and tlie  Utile linger, nnd  are inserted
into the outside of the tendinous  expansion of the ex-
tensor digitorum communis that covers each of tliose
fingers.  These three muscles draw the fingers into
which they are inserted, towards  the  thumb.  The
inttrossci externi are  four in number; for among these
is included the small muscle that is situated  on the
outside of the metacarpal bone lhat supports the fore-
rtnger.   Douglas calls it extensor tertii internodii in-
      458
diets, and Winslow temi-interosseus indicis.  Albinus,
who describes it  among the interrossei, gives  it the
name of prior indicis.  This first interosseus externus
arises by two tendinous and fleshy portions. One of
these springs from the upper half of the inner side o'
the first bone of the thumb, and the other from the
ligaments that unite the os trapezoides to the metacar
pal bone of the forefinger, and  likewise from all the
outside of this latter bone.  These two  portions unite
as they descend, and terminate  in a tendon, which is
inserted into the outside of that  part of  the  tendinous
expansion from the extensor digitorum communis that
is spread over the posterior convex surface ofthe fore-
finger.   The second, to which Albinus gives the name
of prior medii, is not quite so thick as the last described
muscle.  It arises by two heads, one of  which springs
from the inner side of the metacarpal bone ofthe fore-
finger, chiefly towards its convex surface, and the otlier
arises from the adjacent ligaments, and from the  whole
outer side of the metacarpal bone that sustains Ihe
middle finger.  These two portions unite as they de-
scend, and terminate in  a tendon, wliich is inserted,
in the same manner, as the preceding muscle, into the
outside ofthe tendinous expansion that covers the pos-
terior part of the middle finger.  The third belongs
likewise to the middle finger, and is therefore named
posterior medii by Albinus.  It arises, like the last de-
scribed muscle, by two origins, which spring from the
roots of the metacarpal bones of the ring and middle
fingers, and from tiie adjacent  ligaments,  and  is  in-
serted into the inside of the same tendinous expansion
as the preceding muscle. The fourth, to which Albi-
nus gives the name of posterior annularis, differs from
the last two only in its situation, which is between the
metacarpal bones  of the  ring and little fingers. It is
inserted into the inside of the tendinous expansion of
the extensor digitorum communis, that covers the pos-
terior part of the ring-finger.   All these four muscles
serve to extend the fingers into which they are inserted,
and likewise  to  draw  them inwards, towards the
thumb, except the third, or posterii medii, which, from
its  situation and  insertion, is calculated  to pull the
middle finger outwards.
  Interossei pedis.  These small muscles, in their
situation between ihe metatarsal bones, resemble  the
interossei of the hand, and, like  them, are divided into
internal and external.  The interossei pedis  interni
are three in number.  They arise tendinous and fleshy,
from the basis and inside of the metatarsal bones of Ibc
middle, the third,  and little toes, in Ihe same manner
as those of the hand, and they each terminate in  a
tendon that runs to tlie inside of  the first joint of these
toes, and from thence to their upper surface, where it
loses itself in  the tendinous expansion that is sent off
from  the  extensors.  Each  of these  three muscles
serves to draw the toe into which it is inserted towards
the great toe.   The interossei externi are four in num-
ber.  The first arises tendinous and fleshy from  the
outside ofthe root of tbe metatarsal bone of the great
toe, from the os cuneiforme internum, and fiom  the
root ofthe inside ofthe metatarsal bone of the foretoc
Its tendon is inserted into the inside of the tendinous
expansion that covers the back part of the  toes.  The
second is  placed in a similar  manner between  ihe
metatarsal bones  of the fore and middle toes,  and is
inserted into the outside of the tendinous expansion
on the back part of  the foretoe.   The third  mid fourth
are placed between the two next metatarsal bones,  and
are inserted into  the outside of the middle and third
toes.  The first of  these  muscles draws  the  foretoe
inwards towards the great toe.  The three others  pull
the toes, inlo which they are inserted, outwards.  They
all assist in extending the toes.
   INTEROSSEOUS.  (Interosseus;  from  inter, be
tween,  and os, a bone.)  A name given  to muscles
ligaments, Sec whish are between bones.
   Interpella'tus.  (From interpello, to interrupt.)
A name given by Paracelsus to  a disease attended with
irregular or uncertain paroxysms.
   Interpolv'rus dies.  (From interpolo,  to  renew.";
 hi Paracelsus, these are the days interpolated between
two parowsuis.
   INTI-'.KSCAPU'LIUM.  (From inter, between, ar.d
scapula, the  shoulder-blade.)  That part of the spine
 which lies between the shoulders.
   INTEUSI'.TTUM.  (From inter, between, nnd»«p
 tum.an enclosure.i   Thcuviilaandtheser.tuninariuiii 
INT                                             1NV
   INTERSPINALS.  (From inter, between,  and
 spina, the spine.)   Muscles, nerves, Sec are so named
 Whicli are between the processes ofthe spine.
   Interspinales.  The fleshy portions between the
 spinous processes of the neck," back, and loins, distin-
 guished  by the names of  interspinales colli, dorsi et
 lumborum.  Those which connect  processes of the
 hack and loins, arc rather small tendons than muscles:
 they draw these processes nearer to each other.
   INTFRTRANSVERSA'LES.   Four distinct small
 bundles of flesh, which fill up the spaces between the
 transverse processes of the vertebrae of the loins, and
 serve to draw them towards each other
   INTERTRl'GO.  (From inter,  between, and tcro,
 to rub.)   An excoriation about the anus, groins,  axilla,
 or otlier parts of the body, attended with inflammation
 and moisture.  It is most commonly produced  by tlie
 irritation  of the urine, from riding, or some acrimony
 in children.
   INTE'STINE.   (Intcstinum; from intus, within.)
 The convoluted membraneous tube that extends from
 the stomach to the anus, receives the ingested food, re-
 ains it a certain time, mixes with  it the bile and pan-
 -eatic juice,  propels  the chyle into  the  lacteals, and
 covers the faeces wilh mucus, is so  called.  The intes-
 tines are situated in the cavity of tlie ahdomen, and
 are divided  into the small  and  large, which have, be-
 sides their size, other circumstances of distinction.
  The small  intestines are supplied  internally with
 folds, called valvula conniventcs, and have  no  bands
 on their externa! surface.  The large intestines have
 no folds internally;  are supplied externally with three
 strong muscular bands, which  run parallel  upon the
 surface, and give the intestines a saccated appearance;
 they have also small fatty appendages, called appendi-
 cula epiploic*.
  The first portion of the intestinal tube, for about the
 extent of twelve fingers' breadth, is called the duode-
 num; it  lies in the epigastric region;  makes  three
 turnings, and between the first and second flexure re-
 ceives by  a common opening, the pancreatic duct, and
 the  ductus  communis choledochus.  It is in this por-
 tion of the intestines that chylificaiion  is chiefly per-
 formed.  The remaining portion ofthe small intestines
 is distinguished by an imaginary division into the jeju-
 num and  ileum.
  The jejunum, which commences where the duode-
 num ends, is situated in the umbilical  region, and  is
 mostly found empty; hence its name: it is every v. here
 covered with red vessels, and, about an hour and a half
 after a meal, with destended lacteals.
  The ileum occupies the  hypogastric region and the
 pelvis, is of a more pallid colour than the former, and
 terminates by a transverse opening  into the large intes-
 tines, which is called the valve of the ileum, valve of
 the cacum, or the valve of Tulpius.
  The beginning of the large intestines is firmly tied
down in  the right iliac region, and for the extent of
 about four fingers' breadth is called the cacum, having
 adhering to it a worm-like process, called the processus
 caci vermiformis, or  appendicttla  caci  vermiformis.
 Tbe great intestine then commences colon, ascends to-
 wards the liver, passes across the abdomen,  under the
 stomach,  to llie'left side, where it  is contorted like the
 letters, and descends lo the pelvis: hence it is divided
 in this course into the ascending portion, the transverse
 arch, and the sigmoid flexure.  When  it has reached
 the pelvis, it is called the rectum, from whence it pro-
 ceeds in a straight line to the anus.
  The intestinal canal is  composed of  three  mem-
 branes, or coals; a common  one from the peritoneum, a
 muscular coat, and a villous coat, the villi being formed
 ofthe fine terminations of arteries  and nerves, and the
 origins of lacteals and lymphatics.  The intestines are
 connected to the body by the mesentery; the duodenum
 has  also  a  peculiar collecting cellular  substance, as
 have likewise  the colon and rectum, by  whose means
 the former is firmly accreted to the back, the colon to
 the kidneys, and the  latter to the  os coccygis, and, in
 women, to the vagina.  The remaining portion of the
 Cube is loose in the cavity of the abdomen.  The arte-
 ries of this canal are branches of the superior and infe-
rior mesenteric, and the duodenal.  The veins evacu-
ate the'r  blood into the vena portae.  The nerves are
branches  of the eiaht pair and intercostals.  The
lacteal vessels, win-h originate principally  from the
jejunum, proceed to tnc glands in the mesentery.
   INTRAFOLIACEUS.  Applied to stipule, whicr
are above the footstalk,  and internal with respect tc
Ihe leaf; as in Ficus carica and Morus nigra.
   Intrica'tus.  (From intrico, to  entangle; so called
from its intricate folds.)   A muscle ofthe ear.
   Intri'nsecis.  (From  intra, wJthin, and secus, to-
wards.)  A painful disorder of an internal part
   Introce'ssio.  (Fiom  introccdo, to go in.)   Deprts
sio.  A depression or sinking of any part inwards.
   INTUSSUSCEPTION.  (Intus susceptio, nnd in-
tro-susceptio; from intus, within, and suscipio, to re
ceive.)  A disease of the  intestinal tube, aud'most fre
quently of the small intestines;  it consists in a portion
of gut passing for some length within another portion.
   INTVBUS.   (From in, "and tuAa,  a hollow  insliu-
nient:  so named from the hollowness of its stalk.)  See
CicAorium endivia.
   1 NULA.  (Contracted or corrupted from helenium,
r/Xtviov, fabled to have sprung from the tears of Helen.)
1. The name of a neuus  of plants in the Linna-an sys-
tem.  Class, Syngcncsia: Order, Polygamia superflua.
   2. The herb inula, or elecampane.   See Inula hele-
nium.
   Inula, common.  Sec Inula helenium.
   Inulacrithmoides.   Caaponga ofthe Biazilians
Trifolia spica;  Crithmum  marinum von  sjiiiusuvi.
The leaves and young stalks of this plant are pickled for
the use of the table;  they are gently diuretic.
   Inula dysenterica.  The systematic name of the
smaller inula, Conyza media.  Arnica Suedensi3, Arnica
spurio,  Conyza : Inula—amplcxicaulibus, corduto ob-
long is ; caule villoso, paniculato;  squamis calycinis,
setaccis, of Linnaeus   This  indigenous  plant  was
once considered as possessing great antidysentei ic vir-
tues.  The whole herb is  to the  taste acrid,  and at the
same lime rather aromatic.  It  is now fallen into dis-
use.
   Inula helenium.  The  systematic name  of the
common inula or elecampane.   Enula campana : He
lenium.  Inula—foliis amplcxicaulibus ovatis  rugosii
subtus tomentosis, calycum  squamis ovatis, of Lin-
naeus.  This  plant, though a native of Britain, is sel-
dom met with in its wild state, but  mostly cultivated.
The root, wliich is the part employed medicinally,  in
its recent  state, has a weaker and  less grateful smell
than when thoroughly dried, and kept for a length of
time, by which it is greatly improved; ils odour then ap-
proaching to that of Florentineorris-root. It was former-
ly in high estimation in dyspepsia, pulmonary affections,
ond uterine obstructions,  but is now fallen into disuse.
From the root of this plant, Rose  first extracted the
peculiar vegetable principle culled inulin-  F'nike has
since given the following as the analysis of elecampane
root:—A crystallizable volatile oil; inulin; extractive;
acetic acid;  a crystallizable resin:  gluten: a fibrous
matter.  Sec  Inulin.
  INULIN    In examining the Inula  helenium, or
Elecampanc,Wose imagined he discovered a new vege-
table product, to which the name of Inulin has hcen
triven.  It is white and pulverulent, like starch.  When
thrown  on red-hot coals, it melts, diffusing  a white
smoke, with the smell of  burning sugar.   Ii  yields, on
distillation in a retort, all the products furnished  by
gum.  It dissolves  readily in hot water;  and precipi-
tates almost entirely on cooling,  in Ihe form of a white
powder; but before falling down, it gives the liquid n
mucilaginous consistence.  It precipitates quickly on
the addition of alkohol.
  The above substance is obtained oy boiling the root
of this plant  in  four times ils weight of water, and
leaving  the liquid  in repose.  Pellelier and Caventou
have found the same starch-like matter in abundance
in the root of colchicum: andGautier in the  root of
pellitory.
  Inustion.  (From tn, and uro, to burn.)  It is some
times  used for hot and dry seasons;  and formerly by
surgeons for the operation ofthe cautery.
  Inverecu'ndum os. (From in, not, and verecundus
modest.)   An obsolete name of the ftontal  bones
from its beina regarded as the seat of impudence.
  INVERSION.  Inversio.  Turned inside outward
  INVOLUCELLUM.  A  partial involucrum.  See
Involucrum.
  INVOLU'CRUM  (From in, and volvo, to wraj
up; because parts are enclosed  by it.)  In anatouiv
1.  A nanieof the pericardium.
  2. A membrane which rovers any part
                                        450 
IOD
IOD
   n botany.  A leafy calyx, remote from the flower,
 applied particularly to umbelliferous plants.
   From the part of the umbel in which it is placed, it
 is called,
   1. Involucrum universale, being at the base of the
 whole umbel;  as in Coriandrum sativum,  Scandix
 cerefolium., and Cornus mascula.
   2. I. partiale, called involucellum ;  at the bottom of
 each  uinbellula, or  partial stalk of the umbel; as in
 Daucus carota.
   3. 1.  dimidiatum, surroundintr the middle  of the
 stalk  at the  base of the umbel", as in JEthusa cy-
 napium.
   From the number ofthe involucre leaves,
   4. Monophyllous ; as in Coriander  and Hcrmas.
   5.  Tryphillons ; as in Bupleurum junceum.
   6. Polyphillcus; as in Bunium bulbocastanum, and
 Sium.
   7. Pinnatifid; as in Daucus carota, and Sium an-
 guslifolium.
   8. Reflex,  turned back; as in Selinum monnieri.
   Solitary flowers rarely have an involucrum; yet it
 is found in the anemones.
   INVOLUTUS.   Involute.   Rolled inwards.  Ap-
 plied  to leaves, petals, &c. when their margins are
 turned inward; as  in the leaves of  Pinguicula, and
 petals of Ancthum, Pastinaca, and Bupleurum.
   IODATE.   A  compound of iodine with oxygen,
 and a metallic basis. The oxiodes of Davy.
   Iodes.  (Frouuoj, verdigris.)  Green matter thrown
 off by vomiting.
   IODIC  ACID.   Acidum iodicum.   Oxiodic acid.
 " When barytes water is made to act on iodine, a so-
 luble  hydriodate, and an insoluble iodate of barytes,
 are formed.   On the latter, well washed, poui sulphu-
 ric acid, equivalent to the barytes present, diluted with
 twice its weight of water, and heat the mixture.  The
 'odic  acid quickly abandons a portion of its base, and
combines with the water; hut though even less than
the equivalent proportion of sulphuric acid has been
used, a liltle of it will be found mixed with the liquid
acid.  If we endeavour to separate  this portion, by
adding  barytes water,  the two acids precipitate to-
gether.
  The above economical process is that of Gny Lus-
sac; but Sir H. Davy, who is the first discoverer of
this acid, invented one more elegant, and which yields
a  purer acid.  Into a long glass  tube, bent  like the
letter L  inverted, ('i) shut at one end, put 100 grains
of chloiate of potassa, and pour over it 400 grains of
mui iatic acid, specific gravity 1.103.   Pul 40 grains of
iodine into a thin long-necked receiver.  Into  the open
end of the bent tube put some  muriate of lime, and
then connect it with the receiver.  Apply a gentle heat
to the sealed end ofthe former.  Protoxide of chlorine
is evolved, which, as ii comes in contact with the
iodine, produces combustion, and two new compounds,
a compound of iodine and oxygen, and one of  iodine
and chlorine.  The latter is easily separated  by heat,
while the former remains in a state of purity.
  The iodic acid of Sir H. Davy is a white semitrans-
fiarcnt solid.  It has a strong acido-astiiugent taste,
 tut no smell.  Its density is considerably greater than
(hat of  sulphuric  acid, in wliich it rapidly sinks.  It
melts, and is decomposed into iodine and oxygen, at a
temperature of about 620°. A grain of iodic acid gives
out 170.1, grain measure, of oxygen gas.  It would ap-
pear from this, that iodic acid consists of 15.5 iodine,
to 5 oxygen.
  Iodic ncid  deliquesces in the air, and is, of course,
 lory soluble  in  water.   It first reddens and  then de-
stroys the  blues of vegetable Infusions.   It blanches
Ather  vegetable colours.   Between the acid prepared
by Gay Lussac, and that of Sir H. Davy, there is one
important  difference.   The  latter, being  dissolved,
may, by evaporation ofthe water, pass nol only to the
inspissated syrup state, but can  be made to assume a
pasty  consistence; and, finally,  by u stronger heat,
Yield* the solid substance unaltered.  When a mixture
of it,  with charcoal, sulphur, resin, sugar, or the com-
bustible metals, in a finely divided state, is heated, de-
tonations are produced;  and its solution rapidly cor-
rodes all the  metals to which Sir  H. Davy exposed it,
both gold  and platinum, bul much more  intensely the
first of these metals.
  It appears to form combinations with all the fluid or
solid acids whicli It does not decompose. When sul-
      400
 phuric acid  is dropped tito a concentrated solution ol
 it in hot water, a solid substance is precipitated, which
 consists of the acid and the compound; for, on evapo-
 rating the solution by a gentle heat, nothing rises but
 water.  On  increasing the heat in an experiment of
 this kind, the solid substance formed  fused ; and on
 cooling the  mixture, rhomboidal crystals formed of  a
 pale  yellow colour, which were very fusible, and
 which did not change at the heat at which the com-
 pound of oxygen and iodine decomposes, but sublimed
 unaltered.   When urged by a much stronger heat,  it
 partially sublimed, and partially decomposed, afford-
 ing oxygen, iodine, and sulphuric acid.
  With hydro-phosphoric, the compound presents phe-
 nomena precisely  similar,  and they form  together  a
 solid, yellow, crystalline combination.
  With hydro-nitric acid, it yields white crystals in
 rhomboidal  plates, which, at a lower  heat  than the
 preceding acid compounds, are  resolved into hydro-
 nitric acid, oxygen, and iodine.   By liquid muriatic
 acid, the substance is immediately decomposed, and
 the compound of chlorine and iodine is formed. All
 these acid compounds redden vegetable  blues,  taste
 sour, and dissolve gold and platinum. From  these
 curious researches Sir H. Davy infers, that Gay Lus-
 sac's iodic acid is a sulpho-iodic acid, and  probably a
 definite compound.   However minute the quantity
 of sulphuric acid  made to act on the iodide of ba-
 rium may  be, a  part of it is  always  employed to
 form the compound acid; and the residual fluid con-
 tains both the compound  acid and a certain quantity
 of the original salt."—Ure.
  IODIDE.    lode; lodure.   A compound of iodine
 wilh a metal; as Iodide of potassium.
  IODINE.   (lodina;  from iuivs, a violet colour, so
 termed  from its beautiful colour.)  A  peculiar or un
 decompounded principle.
  " Iodine was accidentally discovered, in  1812,  by
 De Courtois, a manufacturer of saltpetre at Paris.  In
 his processes for procuring soda from the ashes of sea-
 weeds,  he found  the metallic vessels much corroded;
 and, in  searching for  the cause of the corrosion, he
 made this important discovery.  But for this circum
 stance,  nearly accidental, one of the most curicus of
 substances might  have remained for ages unknown,
 since nature has not distributed it, in either a simple or
 compound state, through her different  kingdoms, but
 has confined it to what the Roman satirist considers as
 the most worthless of things, tlie vile seaweed.
  Iodine derived its first illustration from Clement and
 Desormes.   In their memoir, read al a  meeting of the
 Institute, these able chemists  described its  principal
 properties.  They staled its sp. gr. to be about 4; that
it becomes a violet-«- doured gas at a temperature he-
low that of boiling w iter,—whence its  name; that  it
combines with the metals, and with phosphorus and
sulphur, and  likew .re w ith  the alkalies and metallic
oxides;  that it forms a detonating compound with am-
monia ;  that it is  soluble  in alkohol, and  still  more
soluble in ether; and that, by its action upon phospho-
rus and upon hydrogen, a substance having the cha-
racters nf muriatic  acid is formed.  In  this communi-
cation they offered no decided opinion respecting its
nature.
  In 1813, Sir  H. Davy happened to be on a visit lo
Paris, receiving, amid the  political convulsions of
 France, the tranquil homage due to his genius. 'When
Clement showed iodine lo me," says Sir 11. Davy, ' he
believed that the  hydriodic acid was  muriatic  acid;
and  Gay Lussac, after his  early experiments,  made
originally with Clement, formed the same opinion, and
maintained it, when I first stated to  him  my belief,
that it was a new  and peculiar acid, and  that iodine
 was a substance analogous in ils chemical relations to
chlorine.'
  Iodine has been found  in the following  seaweeds.
the Alga aquatica of Linnaeus:—
Fucus cartilaginous,      Fucus palmatus,
      membranaceus,         filum,
      filainentosus,            digitatus,
      rubens,                 saccharinus,
      nodosus,          Ulva umbilicalis,
      serratus,                pavonia,
      siliquosus,               linzn, and in sponge.
   It is  from the  incinerated seaweed, or  kelp, tha
 iodine in quantities is to be obtained.   Dr. Wollaston
 lir.-t communicated a precise formula for extracting it. 
iOD
IOD
 Dissolve  the soluble part of kelp in water.  Concen-
 trate the liquid by ev uporation, and separate all  the
 crystals that  can be obtained.  Pour the remaining
 liquid into a clean vessel, and mix with it an excess of
 sulphuric acid.  Boil this  liquid for some lime.  Sul-
 phur is precipitated,  and  muriatic acid  driven  off.
 Decant off the clear liquid, and strain it through wool.
 rut it into  a small flask, and mix it with  us much
 black oxide of manganese as we used before of sulphu-
 ric acid.  Apply to the  top of the  flask  a glass tube,
 tshut at one end.  Then  heat the mixture in ihe flask.
 The iodine sublimes into the glass tube.  None can be
 obtained from sea-water.
   Iodine is  a  solid, of a  grayish-black  colour and me-
 tallic lustre.  It is  often in  scales  similar  to those of
 micaceous iron ore, sometimes in  rhomboidal plates,
 very large and very brilliant.  It has been obtained in
 elongated octohedrons, nearly half an  inch in length;
 the axes of which were shown by Dr. WoMaston to be
 to each other, as the  numbers -2, 3, and 4, at least so
 nearly,  that in a body so  volatile, il  is scarcely possible
 to detect  an error  in this estimate, by the reflective
 goniometer.   Its fracture is lamellated, and il is soft
 and friable to the touch.  Its taste is very  acrid, though
 it be very sparingly soluble in water.  It is a deadly
 poison.   It gives a deep brown stain to the skin, which
 soon vanishes  by evaporation.  Iu odour,  aud power of
 destroying vegetable  colours, it resembles very dilute
 aqueous chlorine.  The sp.gr. of iodine at62A°is4.iM8.
 It dissolves in  7000 parts  of water.  The  solution is of"
 nn oiauge-yellow colour, and in small  quantity tinges
 raw- starch of  a purple hue.
   It melts, according lo Gay Lussac, at 227° F., and is
 volatilized under ihe common pressure of  the atmos-
 phere, at the temperature of 350°.  It evaporates pretty
 quickly at ordinary temperatures.   Boiling water aids
 its sublimation, as is shown in the above process of ex-
 traction.  The sp. gr. of its violet vapour is 8.078.   Itis
 a non-conductor  of electricity.  When the voltaic
 chain is interrupted by a small fragment of il, tbe  de-
 composition of water instantly ceases.
   Iodine is incombustible,  but with azote  it forms a
 curious detonating compound ;  and  iu combining with
 several bodies, the intensity of mutual action is such as
 to produce the phenomena  of combustion.  Its combi-
 nations with oxygen and  chlorine are described, under
 iodic and chloriodic acids.
   With a view of determining whether it  was a simple
 or compound form of mailer, Sir H.  Davy exposed it to
 the action of  the highly inflammable metals.  When
 its vapour is passed over potassium heated in a glass
 tube, inflammation lakes place, and  the  potassium
 burns slowly with a pale blue light.  There was no gas
 disengaged when the experiment was repeated in a
 mercurial apparatus.  The iodideof potassium is white,
 fusible at  a  red heat, and  soluble  in water.  It has a
 peculiar acrid taste.   When acted on  by sulphuric
 acid, it effervesces,and iodine appears.   It is evident
 lhat in this experiment there had been no decomposi-
 tion; the result deluding merely on the combination of
 iodinewith potassium.  By passing tlie vapour of iodide
 over  dry  red-hot potassa,  formed  from potassium,
 oxygen is expelled, and the above iodine results. Hence,
 we see, that at the temperature of ignition, tiie affinity
 between iodine aud potassium is superior  to lhat ofthe
 latter for oxygen.  But iodine in its turn is displaced by
 chlorine, at a moderate heat, and if  ihe latter be in ex-
 cess, chloriodic acid is formed. Gay Lussac passed
 vapour of iodine in a red  heat over melted subcar-
 bonate of potassa;  and he obtained carbonic acid and
 oxygen gases, in the proportions of two in volume of the
 first, and one of the second, precisely those wliich exist
 in the salt.
  The oxide of sodium, and the suocarbonate of soda,
 are also completely decomposed  by iodine.   From
 these experiments it would seem, that  this substance
 ought to disengage oxygen from most of the oxides; but
 this  happens only in  a small number of cases.  The
 protoxides of lead and bismuth are the only oxides not
reducible  by mere heat,  with which it exhibited that
power.   Barytes, strontian,  and lime  combine with
 iodine, without giving out oxygen gas, and the oxides
of zinc and iron undergo  no alteration  in this respect.
From these facts we must conclude, that the decompo-
sition of the oxides by iodine depends less on the con-
densed  state of the o.xvgen, than upon the affinity of
the metal  for  iodine  Except barytes, strontian, and
lime, no oxide can remain in combination with iodine"
at a red heat.  For a more particular account of soms
iodides, see Hydriodic acid;  the compounds of whicl^
in the liquid or moist state, are hydriodutcs, bul change,
on drying, into iodides, in the same way as ihe muri-
ates become chlorides.
  From the  proportion ofthe constituents in hydriodic
acid, 15.5 has been deduced ns the prime equivalent of
iodine.
  Iodine forms with sulphur  a  feeble compound, of a
grayish-black colour, radiated like sulphuret of antimo
ny.   When  it is distilled with water, iodine separates.
  Iodine and phosphorus combine with great inpidity
at common temperatures, producing heat without light.
From the presence of a little  moisture, small quantities
of hydriodic acid gas are exhaled.
  Oxygen expels  iodine from both sulphur and phos-
phorus.
   Hydrogen, whether dry or moist, did  not seem to
have any action on  iodine  al  the  ordinary lenipeiu-
ture; but if we expose  a mixture of hydrogen  and
iodine to a red heat in a tube, they unite together, and
hydriodic acid is  produced, which gives  a reddish
brown colour to water.  Sir  H.  Davy threw ihe violet-
coloured gas upon  the flame of  hydrogen,  when  it
seemed to support  its combustion.  He also  formed a
compound of iodine wilh hydrogen, by healing to red-
ness the two bodies in a glass lube.
  Charcoal has no action upon iodine, either nt a high
or low  temperature.   Several of the common metals,
on  the  contrary, as zinc, iron,  tin, mercury, attack  it
readily, even at alow temperature,provided they be in
a  divided stale.   Though  these  combinations  take
place rapidly, they produce  but  little heat, and bul
rarely any light.
  The compound of iodine and zinc, or iodide of zinc,
is white.  It melts readily, and is sublimed in the slate
of fine, acicular, four-sided prisms.   It is very soluble in
waler, and rapidly deliquesces in the air.  ltdissolves in
water without the evolution  of any gas.   The solution
is slightly acid, and docs not crystallize.  The alkalies
precipitate from it white oxide of  zinc; while concen-
trated sulphuric acid disengages  hydriodic  ai id  and
iodine, because sulphurous acid is produced.  The so-
lution is a hydriodate of oxideof zinc.  When iodine and
zinc are made to  act on each other under water in
vessels  hermetically sealed, on the application  of  a
slight heat, the water assumes  a  deep reddish-brown
colour, because, as soon as hydriodic acid is produced,
it dissolves iodine  in abundance.   But by degrees the
zinc, supposed lo be  in excess,  combines  with the
whole iodine, and the solution becomes colourless like
water.
  Iron is acted on by iodine  in  ihe same way as zinc!
and  a brown iodide  results, whicli is fusible at a red
heat. It dissolves  in water, forming a light green so-
lution, like  that of muriate of iron.  When the dry
iodide was heated, by  Sir H. Davy, in a small retort
containing pure aminoniacal gas, il combined with the
ammonia and formed  a compound which volatilized
without leaving any oxide.
  The iodide of tin is very fusible.   When in powder,
its colour is a dirty orange-yellow, not  unlike that of
glass of antimony.  When   put inlo a  considerable
quantity of  water, it is completely decomposed.   Hy-
driodic acid is formed, which remains in solution in ihe
water, and the oxide of tin precipitates in white floc-
culi.  If ihe quantity of  waler  be small, the acid,
being more concentrated, retains u portion of oxide of
tin and  forms a silky orange-coloured salt, whicli  may
be almost entirely decomposed by water.  Iodine and
tin act very well on each other, in water ofthe tempe-
rature of 212°.  By employing an  excess of tin, we
may obtain  pure  hydriodic  acid,  or at least an  acid
containing only traces of the metal.  The tin must be
in considerable quantity, because the oxide which pre-
cipitaiot.011 its surface, diminishes very much its action
on iodine.
  Antimony  presents with iodine ihe same phenomena
as tin; so thai we might employ  either for the prepara-
tion of hydriodic acid, if we were not acquainted with
preferable methods.
  The iodides of lead, copper, bismuth, silver, and mer-
cury, are insoluble in water, while the iodides of the
very oxidizable metals  are soluble in  that liquid.  Il
we mix  a hydriodate with the  metallic- solutions, all
the petals which  do not decompose water will  giv«
                                        461 
IOD
IOD
Myelin tares, while thusc which decompose that liquid
will give  none.   This is at least the case with the
above-mentioned metals
  There are two iodides  of mercury; the one yellow,
the other red;  both are fusible and volatile.  The yel-
low or prot-iodide, contains  one half less iodine than
ihe deut-iodide.  The latter when crystallized is a bright
crimson.  In general, there ought to be for each metal
as many iodides as there are oxides and chlorides.  All
the iodides are decomposed by concentrated sulphuric
and nitric acids.   The metal isconverted into an oxide,
nnd iodine is disengaged.  They are likewise decom-
posed by oxygen at a red heat, if we except the iodides
vf potassium,  sodiun.,  lead, and  bismuth.  Chlorine
likewise separates iodine from all the iodides;  but
iodine, on the otlier hand, decomposes most of the sul-
phurets and phosphurets.
  When iodine and oxides act upon each other in con-
tact with water, very different results take place from
tliose above described.  The water is decomposed; its
hydrogen  unites with iodine, to form hydriodic acid;
while its  oxygen,  on tlie  other hand, produces with
iodine,  iodic acid.  All  the oxides,  however, do not
give the same results.   We obtain them  only with
potassa, soda, barytes, sirontian, lime, and  magnesia.
The oxide  of zinc, precipitated by ammonia  from its
solution in sulphuric acid, and well washed, gives no
trace  of iodate and hydriodate.
  From all the above-recited facts, we are warranted
in concluding  iodine to bn an undecompounded body.
Iu  its specific gravity, lustre, and  magnitude  of  its
prime equivalent,  it resembles the metals; but in all
its chemical agencies, It  is  anaiagous to oxygen  and
chlorine.  It is a non-conductor of electricity, and pos-
sesses, like these two bodies, the negative electrical
energy with regard to metals, inflammable and alkaline
substances; and hence, when combined with these sub-
stances  in aqueous solution, and electrised in the voltaic
circuit,  ii separates at the positive surface.  But it has
a positive energy with respect to chlorine: for when
united to chlorine,  in the chloriodic acid, it separates at
the negative surface.  This likewise corresponds with
their  relative attractive energy, since chlorine expels
iodine from all its combinations.   Iodine dissolves in
carburet of sulphur, giving, in very minute quantities,
a fine amethystine  tint to the liquid.
  Iodide of mercury has been proposed for a pigment.
Orfila swallowed 6 grain?  of iodine; and was imme-
diately affected with heat, constriction of the throat,
nausea, eructation, salivation, and cardialgia.   In  ten
minutes he had  copious bilious vomitings, and slight
colic pains.  His pulse rose from 70 to about 90 beats iii
a minute.  By swallowing large quantities of  muci-
lage,  and  emollient  clysters, he recovered,  and  felt
nothing next day but slight fatigue.   About 70 or 80
grains proved a fatal dose to dogs.   They usually died
on the fourth or fifth day.
  Dr. Ooindet of Geneva has recommended the use of
iodine in the form  of tincture, and also hydriodate of
potassaor soda, as an efficacious remedy for the cureof
glandular  swellings,  of the goitrous  and scrofulous
kind.   I have  found an ointment composed of 1  oz.
hog's  lard, and 1  drachm of iodide of  ftinc, a powerful
external application in such cases.  About a drachm
of this ointment should be used in friction on the swell-
ing once or twice a-day."— Ure's C-kem. Diet.
  [This powerful  remedy, wliich  has recently been
introduced into practice,  is  obtained from the plants
affording soda, or the vegetables called " Varccks,"
by  the  French,  or from  other species of the  algre or
seaweeds.  A  species furnishing n more considerable
portion  of iodine than ils  congeners is the Fucus sac-
charinus,  or Sugar-seateccd, belonging to  the  class
Cryptogamia, order Alga.
  In tile year  1815, Dr. Mitchill received fiom Mr. G.
De  Claubry, of Paris, his researches upon t.iis subject.
His particular objects were to find whether Iodine ex-
isted in ocean-water, and the condition and mariner of
Its  evolution from the vegetables that furnished the
soda or salt of Varccks.   He ascribes the dlncovery of
this substance  to Messrs. Macquer  and De  La Sidle,
who,  in their  experiments upon  the Varecks or sea-
weeds,  discovered Iodine in the mother-water of the
soda  they afforded.  This fact he deemed surticiently
important to encourage chemists to  look for it in the
vegetables  themselves,  from which that kind of code
wrus obtained  He made a journey to the west of Nor
      102
 mandy t.in Franco) for the express purpose of examin-
 ing  upon the spot the different speciesof Fucus; and
 he obtained  from the able  botanist of Caen,  various
 kinds  of these marine  plants, which he submitted to
 experiment.  His analyses were chiefly made upon the
 following sorts, viz.
   I. Of the Family of the Ulvte.
         1. The Uivasaccharina.
         2.     ..    digitata.
         3. The Fucus saccharinus,  » „f T ,„„„„„
         4.     ..     digitatus,     jofLInnwii
   II. Of the Family of the Varecks.
         1. The Fucus vesiculosus.
         2.     ..     serratus.
         3.     ..     siliquosus.
   III.  Of the Family of the Ceramium.
         1. The Ceramium filum, or tlTc Fucus filturi,
             of Linnaeus.
   Such and other seaweeds are gathered on the shores
 of the ocean, among other purposes, for that of being
 bumed to ashes, for the preparation of the fixed alkali,
 called  the soda or salt of Varecks by the French  and
 Dutch, as distinguished from the soda or barilla, made
 by burning the maritime plant called salsola.  The
 product of the above-mentioned seaweeds is a compli-
 cated mixture of things, such as,
   1. A small quantity of the subcarbonate of soda.
   2. A good deal of the hydro-chlorate of soda.
   3.         ..        sulphate of soda.
   4. Sulphate of  magnesia.
   5. Hydro-chlorate of potash and magnesia
   6. Subcarbonate of potash.
   7. A little sulphuretted sulphate of soda, and
   8. A minute portion of the hydro-iodate of potash.
   The poverty of this sort of soda gives it but little
 value in commerce, its chief consumption being in the
 glass manufactures.   It is  called kelp, and contains
 much less soda than barilla.
   It was in the mother waters of the leys or lixiviums
 of kelp that iodine was first discovered, as  is said by
 Mr.  Courtois. All the  foresoing products were conse-
 quent upon the preceding  incineration of the fuci.  As
 a number of these fuci are  employed  in their recent
 state as human food, (as is (he fucus edulis) the  several
 sorts acquired  an interest corresponding to their use-
 fulness, as  applicable for  manure, for making kelp or
 iodine, or for food.
  On burning the fucus  saccharinus, one of the results
 of a most elaborate  and complicated analysis of the
 residue, was that potash was associated with iodine in
 the form of a hydro-iodate, the kyd-> o- iodate of potash.
 As a general remark, he says, tha' the species of fuci
 which  contain the most mucilage, contain more Iodine
 than the others, by a large difference.
  This  analysis of ocean or sea-water, proved that il
 contained no iodine ; therefore it may be fairly con-
 cluded, that the peculiar article under consideration, is
 prepared, or elaborated,  by the living economy of thest
 marine vegetables.  Of the fuci he analyzed, the fuctw
saccharinus which contained more of it than the other
species.  This species,  treated wilh  sulphuric acid.
yielded immediately  the iodine it contained, without
the process of burning to ashes.  This saves the trou
bio of resorting to the eau mere, or mother water, to ob-
tain  it.  The iodine has an affinity to  oxygen, ami
under convenient circumstances,  forms the hydro-iodic
acid.
  Iodine is particularly acted upon by starch, and otlier
vegetable feculre, whereby  it acquires, in the cool and
dry way by trituration,  a  violet  colour,  passing into
blue and black, according to the relative proportions
of the iodine  and  starch employed.  The hue  is red-
dish  if the starch  predominates;  a superb blue, if thn
ingredients are duly apportioned;  and  black, If the
iodine is in excess; as also violets of different shades,
between  the reds and blues.  By a particular process,
Iodine may be obtained white.  This is shown in the
memoir oi Messrs. Colin and Claubry, on the  combi-
nation  of iodine with  vegetable nnd animal  sub
stances, as contained in the  Annals of Chemistry  for
1814.
  It has lately been discovered, that todtne existed in
small quantity, with a  portion of carbon, and of the
other muriate and carbonate of soda, in the officinal
preparation  called burnt sponge,  or pnlvis spovgim
nstat.
  The  sponges nre 'in modern zoology, classed among 
IOD
1R1
the zoophytes.  They nre  marine productions, of  a
fibrous and tough constitution, covered withasliiny
matter, in vv liich it has not yet been iMissible to disco-
ver either polypes, or other moveable parts, nor any
decided proofs of mutuality.  It seems,' nevertheless,
that living sponges evince a kind of shrinking, or con-
traction, on being touched, and that there  is a  sort of
palpitation in the pores  with which  the body ol" the
sponge is pierced.
  From such feeble evidence of the animal nature of
the sponge,  it has been doubted by some naturalists,
whether they ought to be referred to the mutual king-
dom.   Ily others they have been roundly pronounced
to be  vegetables.   Dr. Mitchill's opinion  is, that from
tlie analysis of sponge, the  proximity of the  results to
tliose  01  varecks and other seaweeds, and more espe-
cially  the detection and presence of iodine, is in favour
of ihe vegetable character of sponge.
  Burnt sponge  was admitted inlo  the  Edinburgh
New Dispensatory, for the first time, in 17w5, by reason
ofthe reputation ii had acquired as a remedy for scio-
fulous and cutaneous diseases, for removing obstruc-
tions in the glands, and among others, for lessening and
removing  the bronchocele.  There  the  process for re-
ducing it to ashes is detailed.  The dose  is a  scruple
several times a day.
  Now, since the discovery of iodine  in the ashes of
sponge, modern physicians have ascribed the chief vir-
tue, against the aforesaid disorders, to this ingredient.
The conjecture is a rational one; for it is more probable
its efficacy proceeds  from  the iodine  than from  the
charcoal and neutral salts.
  Upon tlie faith of ihis interpretation,  it was con-
ceived belter to prescribe  the iodine  by  ilself, or in
known and exact combination, than in form of burnt
sponge, and ns s|K>nge contained this active principle,
it was naturally  concluded, that the iodine would be
in all respects as good  when prepared from the sea-
wrecks as from sponges.
  In  lliat ugly and obstinate disorder, the goitre, Dr.
Coindel, of Geneva,  (iu Switzerland,)  has prescribed
iodine with remarkable success.  The  preparation he
employs requires explanation, by reason of its chemi-
cal intricacy.  To understand the receipt  we must
recapitulate.  Tho forms of iodine are,
  1. Simple iodine.  2. Oxide of iodine,  by  starch or
otlier fibulae.  3. lodic-acid.  4.  Hydro-iodic acid.   5.
Hydro-iodate of  potash, by burning, &c.
  Dr. Coindel prescribes what is  termed " lodurctled
hydro-iodate of potash."  To prepare this the hydro-
iodic  acid must first be procured, which is done ihns .
Take of alkoholic spirit,  pure  iodine,  any quantities.
Then pass sulphuretted hydrogen through tlie solution.
This forms the hydro-iodic acid.  The  next process is,
lo take pmash and hydro-iodic acid, and combine them
to sanitation. 'Phis forms Dr. Coindel's medicine.  The
hydro-iodate of potash.—To reduce this  into  a form
for medicinal prescription, he proceeds  as follows:
Take of  the  hydio-iodate of potash,  grs. 30. Pure
iodine, grs. 10.   Distilled water, ">j. in.
  This is  ihe ioduretted hydro-iodate »f potash. Il  is
so active a preparation, lhat a full dose is from 5 to 10
dropu ihree times a-day in syrup.  The  dose may be
gradually increased, according  to  circumslances,  but
with  great camion, to the extent of 20 drops.   It must
be remeiiibered,  whenever  il is administered, an over-
dose miisi be avoided, as it acts with an extreme and
dangerous effect upon the constitution.
  They say, that alter a few weeks' skilful administra-
tion,  the  external swelling will gradually disappear.
Should the patient, while under a course  of it, exig-
ence any considerable quickening of the pulse, a rapid
loss of flesh,  palpitation of the  heart, a dry cough,
restlessness, and want of sleep, and in certain tas.es
with an increase of appetite for food, though the swell-
ing shall undergo diminution, it will be necessary  to
intermit  the medicine for  some days; and afterward
resume the use of it  when the health and satiety of the
paiient will permit —Notes from Mitchill's  l.ccls. on
Mat.  Med.  A]
  IODOSULPHURIC ACID.  "When sulphuric acid
Is poured, drop by drop, into a concentrated  and hot
aqueous solution of" iodic  acid, there  immediately re
•suits a precipitate  of iodo-Milphuric arid, possessed  of
peculiar properties.  Exposed gradually to iheaciiinol
a gentle heat, the iodo-sulphuiic acid  melts, and civs
taliizos on  cooling into rhomboids of a pale yellow
colour.   When strongly heated, It sublimes, and ta
parlially decomposed; the latter portion being converted
into oxygen, iodine, and sulphuric acid.
  Phosphoric and  nitric acids exhibit similar pheno-
mena.   These  compound  acids act with great energy
on the metals.  They dissolve gold and platinum."
  IOL1TE.   Dichroite. Frismato-rhomboidal quartz
of Mohs.  This is of a colour Intermediate between
black, blue, and  violet-blue.  When viewed in the
direction of the axis of the crystals, the colour is dark
indigo-blue; but perpendicular to the axis of the crys-
tals, pale brownish-yellow.  It comes from  Finland.
  Ionis.  (Fromio* a violet.) Acaibuncleof a violel
colour.
  IO'NTHUS.  (From iov, a violet, and avBos, a flower.)
A pimple in the face, of a violet colour.
  IOTACI SMUS.   (From tura, the Greek letter -.'
A defect in tlie  tongue or organs of speech, which rcn-
dtrs a person Incapable of pronouncing his letters.
  IPKCACUA'NHA.  (An, Indian word.)  See Colli
cocca ipecacuanha.
  [Ipecacuanha spuroe.   See  Euphorbia  ipecacu-
anha.   AA
  ll'OMCEA.   (Socalled by Linmrus from  id/, which
he unaccountably mistakes for the convolvulus plant,
whereas il means a creeping sort of woimthai infests
and corrodes vines, and opotos, like.  By this appella-
tion he evidently intended to express the close resem-
blance  of  Ipoma-a  to the genus Convolvulus, with
which it agrees in habit altogether) The  iinnie of a
genus of plants in the Linnu-an sysicm.  Class, Pen-
tandria: Older, Monogynia.
  Ipomcea  quvmoclit.  Batata  peregrinu.  The ca-
thartic potato.  If about two ounces are eaten at bed-
time, they gently open the bowels by morning.
  Uheta'ia.   The inhabitants of the Brazils give ihis
name to the Scrophularia aquatica, whicli  is  there
celebrated as a corrector of the ill flavour of senna.
  IRACU'NDUS.  (From ira, anger: so called because
it forms the angry look.)  A muscle of the eye.
  IRIDIUM.   A metal found with another, called os-
mium,  in the black powder left after dissolving  plali
num.   See Platinum.
  IRIS.  (A rainbow: so called because of the variety
of  its colours.)   1. The anterior portion of tlu. continu-
ation of the choroid membrane  of Ihe eye, which  is
perforated in the middle by the pupil.  Il  is of various
colours.  The posterior surface of the iris is termed the
uvea.  See Choroid membrane.
  2. The flower-de-luce, from  the resemblance of its
flowers to the rainbow.
  3. The name of a genus  of plants in  the Linna-an
system.  Class, Triandiia; Older, Monogynia.
  Iius  flore.itina.  Florentine  orris, or  iris.  The
root of tills plant, Iris—corollis barbatis, caule fidiis
altiore  subbifioro,  fioribus sessilibus,  of Linnaeus,
which is indigenous to Italy, in ils recent state is ex-
tremely acrid,  and, when  chewed,  excites  a  pungent
heat in the mouth, that continues seveial  hours: on
being dried, this acrimony is almost wholly dissipated ;
ihe taste is slightly bitter, and ihe smell agreeable, and
approaching to that ol violets.  The fresh root  is ca-
thartic, and for this purpose  has been  employed in
drojisies.  It is now chiefly used  in its dried siaie, and
ranked as a pectoral and expectorant; and hcnci has a
place iu the trochisci amy li ofthe pharmacopoeias.
  Iris, florcntine.   See Iris fiorentnia.
  Iris oermanica.  The systematic name of the com
mon ins, or orris,or flower-de-luce.  Iris nostra.  The
Iresh rooL- of this plant, Iris—cortdlts barbatis, caule
foliis altiori niultifloro, fioribus inj'criorilius peduncu
latis, of Linnaeus,  have a strong, disagreeable smell,
and an acrid,  nauseous taste.  They are  powerfully
cathartic, and  are  given in dropsical diseases, where
sucli remedies  are indicated.
  Iris  nostras.  Sec Iris germanica.
   Iris  palustris.  See Iris pseudacorus.
   Iris  pseudacorus.   The  systematic  name of the
yellow water-flag.  Iris palustris ;  Gladiolus lutcus;
Acorus vulgaris.   This indigenous plant, Iris—im-
berbis, foliis ensiformibits, pclalis alternis, stigmati-
bus minoribus, is common in marshes, and on the
hanks o""' rivers.  It formerly had a place in the London
Pharmacopoeia, under  the  name  of Gladiolus latent
The root is without smell, but has an aci id styptic taste,
and i.s juice, on being snuffed up the nostrils, piodttcea
a burning heat in the nose and mouth, accompanied by
                                         4(13 
IRO
IRO
  copious discharge  from these organs: hence  it is
recommended both as an errhine and sialugogue. Given
internally, when perfectly dry, its adstringent qualities
are such as to cure diarrhoeas.  The expressed juice Is
likewise said to be a useful application lo serpiginous
eruptions and scrofulous tumours.
  Irish Slate.   See Lapis Hybernicus.
  IRITIS.  (Iritis, idis. f.; from iris, the name ofthe
membrane.)  Inflammation of the iris: it produces the
symptoms of deep seated or internal  inflammation of
the eye.  See Ophthalmia,
  IRON.  Ferrum.  Of all the metals, there  is none
which is so copiously and so variously dispersed through
nature  ns iron.  In animals, in vegetables,  and in all
parts of the mineral kingdom, we detect  its presence.
Mineralogists are not agreed with respect to the exist-
ence of native iron, though immense masses of it have
been discovered, which could not have been the products
of art;  hut there is much in favour of the notion that
Ihesc specimens have been extracted by subterraneous
fire. A niassof native iron* of KiOOpounds weight, was
found by Palla3, on the  river Denisei, in Siberia; and
another mass of 300 pounds was found in Paraguay, of
which  specimens have been  distributed  everywhere.
A piece of native iron, of two pounds weight, has been
also met wilh at Kamsdorf, in  tlie territories of Neu-
stadt, which  is still  preserved  there.  These  masses
evidently did  not originate in  the places where  they
were found.
  [Specimens of native iron have been found in several
places in America, in situations which give rise to the
conjecture, that ihey were of meteoric origin.  One of
Ihe largest of these lias been deposited  by  its  owner,
Colonel Gibs, in the Cabinet of the New-York Lyceum
of Natural History.  Il is an irregular mass, weighing
upwards of 3000 lbs.  " Its surface, whicli  is covered
by a blackish crust, is greatly indented, from which it
would  appear that this mass had been in a soft slate.
On removing  the crust, the  iron,  on   exposure  to
moisture, soon becomes oxidated. Sp. gr.7.400.
  '- It  appears  to consist entirely  of iron,  which
possesses a high degree of malleability; experiments
have been made without detecting nickel or any other
metal.   This  enormous mass of iron is said  to have
been found near the Red river, in Louisiana."—Brute's
Min. Journal.  A.]
  There are  a  vast variety of iron ores: they may,
however, be all arranged under the following  genera;
namely, sulphurets, carburets, oxides, and salts of iron.
The sulphurets of iron  form the ores called  Pyrites,
of wliich there  are many varieties.  Their colour is, in
general, a straw-yellow, with a metallic  lustre; fcoine-
times biownish, which sort is attracted by the magnet.
They are often  amorphous, and often also crystallized.
Iron, in the state of a carburet, forms  the graphite of
Werner tplumbago).  This mineral occurs  in kidney-
form lumps of various sizes.  Its colour is a dark iron-
gray, or brownish-black; when cut,  bluish-gray.   It
litis a metallic lustre.   Its texture is  fine-grained.  It
is very brittle.   The combination of iron  with oxy-
gen is  very abundant.   The common magnetic iron-
stone,  or loadstone,  belongs  to this class; as does
specular iron ore, and all thedifferentores called hama-
'Ales,  or blood-stone.  Iron, united to carbonic acid,
exists in the sparry iron ore.  Joined to arsenic acid,
it exists in the ores called arseniate of iron, and arse-
niate of iron and copper.
  [The different varieties of the ores of iron are ar-
ranged as follows in Cleavolaud's Mineralogy, wliich is
a standard work on the subject in the United States:—
Species 1.  Native iron.
        2. Arsenical iron.
            a.  Argentiferous arsenical iron.
        3. Sulphuret of iron.   Iron Syrites.
            a.  Common sulphuret of iron.
            b.  Radiated
            c.  Hepatic
            Sub-species 1. Magnetic sulphuret of iron.
                       2. Arsenical
        4. Magnetic oxide of iron
            a. Native magnet.
            b. Iron sand.
    ..   5. Specular oxide of iron.
            Sub-species 1. Micaceous oxide of iron.
        6. Red oxide of iron.
            a. Scaly red oxide of iron.
            b. Red hematite.
       484
            c. Compact red oxide of Iron-
            d. Ochrey red oxide,
Species 7  Brown oxide of iron.
            a. Scaly red oxide of iron
            b. Hematitic  ••
            c. Compact
            d. Ochrey
        8. Argillaceous oxide of iron.
            a. Columnar argillaceous oxide of iroii
            b. Granular
            c. Lenticular     ..        ••      ..
            d. Nodular       ..        ..      .
            e. Common      ..        ..
            f. Bog ore.
        0. Carbonate of iron.
   ..  10. Sulphate of iron.
   ..  11. Phosphate of iron.
            a. Foliated phosphate of iron.
            b. Earthy
            c. Green iron earth.
   ..  12. Arseniate of iron.
   ..  13. Chromate of iron.
            a. Crystallized chromate of iron.
            b. Granular
            c. Amorphous     ..           A.)
  Properties of iron.—Iron is distinguished from every
other metal by  its magnetical properties.   It is attracted
by the magnet, and acquires, under various conditions,
the property of attracting other iron.  Pure iron is of a
whitish gray,  or rather bluish colour  very slightly
livid; but when polished,  it has a great deal of bril-
liancy.  Its texture is either fibrous, fine-grained, or in
dense plates.   Its specific gravity varies from 7.6  to
7.8.  It is the hardest and most elastic of all the metals.
It is extremely ductile, and may therefore be drawn into
wire as fine as a human  hair; it is also more tena-
cious than any other metal, mid yields with facility to
pressure.   It is extremely infusible, and when not  in
contact with the fuel,  it cannot be melted by the  heat
which  any furnace can excite; il is, however, softened
by heat, still preserving its ductility; and when  thus
softened, different  pieces may be  uniled; this consti-
tutes the  valuable property of welding.   Ii is  very
dilatable by heat.  It is the only metal which takes fire
by the  collision of flint.  Healed  in contain with air
it becomes oxidized.  If intensely and briskly healed,
it takes fire wilh  scintillation, and becomes a black
oxide.  It combines with  carbon, and forms what is
called steel. It combines with phosphorus in a direct
andnn indirect manner, and unites with sulphur readily
by fusion.  It decomposes water in the cold slowly, but
rapidly when ignited.   Ii decomposes most of the me
tallic oxides.   All acids act upon  iron.   Very concen-
trated sulphuric acid has little or no effect upon it, but
when diluted  it oxidizes it rapidly.  The nitric acid
oxidizes it with great vehemence. Muriate of ammonia
is decomposed  by it.  Nitrate of potassa detonates very
vigorously with it.   Iron is likewise dissolved by alka-
line sulphurets.  Il is capable  of combining wilh a
number of metals.   It does not unite with lead or bis-
muth, and very feebly with mercury.  It detonates  by
percussion with the oxygenated muriates.
  Method of obtaining iron.—The general process by
which  iron is  extracted from its  ore?, is first to roast
them by a  strong heat, to  expel the sulphui, carbonic
acid, and other mineralizers which can be separated  by
heat.   The remaining  ore, being reduced to small
pieces, is  mixed with  charcoal, or coke; and  is then
exposed to an  intense  hent, in a close furnace, excited
by bellows; the oxygen then combines with the carbon,
forming carbonic acid gas during the process, and the
oxide is reduced to its metallic state.  There are like-
wise some fluxes necessary in  order to facilitate the
separation of  the melted  metal.  The matrix of the
iron ore is generally either argillaceous or calcareous,
or sometimes a portion of  siliceous earth; but which-
ever of these earths is present, the addition of one or
both of the others  makes a proper flux.   These are
therefore  added in due proportion, according to the
nature of the  ores; and this mixture, in contact with
the fuel, is exposed to a heat sufficient  to reduce the
oxide to its metallic state.
  The  metal thus obtained, and called smelted, pig, or
cast iron, is far from being pure,  always  retaining a
considerable quantity of carbon nnd oxygen, as well
as several  heterogeneous  ingredients.   According  as
one or  other of these  predominates, the property  of 
mo
mo
Jie metal  differs.  Where tlie oxygen is present in a
arge proportion, the colour of the iron is whitish gray;
It is extremely brittle, and its fracture exhibits an ap-
pearance of crystallization: where the carbon exceeds,
It is of a dark gray, inclining to blue,  or black, and is
tess brittle.  The former  is  the white, the latter the
black crude iron  of commerce.  The gray is interme-
diate  to  both.  In many of these  states, the  iron  is
much more fusible than  when pure; hence it can be
fused and  cast into any form; and when suffered to
cool slowly, it crystallizes in octahedra:  it  is also
much more brittle,  and  cannot therefore  be either
flattened under the hammer, or  by  the   laminating
rollers.
  To obtain the iron more pure, or to free it from the
carbon with which it is combined in this state, it must
be refined by subjecting it  to the operations of  melting
and forging.  By the former, in which the metal  is
kept in fusion for some time, and  constantly kneaded
and stirred, the  carbon  and oxygen it contains are
partly combined, and the produced carbonic acid gas
is expelled: the metal at length becomes  viscid and
stiff; it is then subjected to the action of a very  large
hammer, or to  the more equal, but less forcible  pres-
sure of targe rollers, by which tlie  remaining oxide of
iron, and other impurities, not consumed by the fusion,
are pressed out.   The iron is now no longer granular
nor crystallized in its texture; il is fibrous, soft, duc-
tile, malleable, and totally  infusible.  It  is  termed
forged, wrought, or bar  iron, and is the metal in a
purer state, though far from being absolutely pure.
  The compounds of iron are the following :
  1. Oxides ; of which there are two, or  perhaps three.
  1st, The oxide, obtained either by digesting  an ex-
cess of iron filings in water, by the  combustion of iron
wire in oxygen, or by adding pure ammonia  to solution
of green copperas, and drying the   precipitate  out  of
contact of air, is of a black colour, becoming white by
its union with water, in the hydrate, attractible by the
magnet, but more feebly than iron.  By  a mean of the
experiments of several chemists, its composition seems
lobe,
        Iron,       100      77.82      3.5
        Oxygen,    28.5     22.18     1.0
  2d,  Deutoxide of Gay Lussac.   He forms it by ex-
posing a coil  of fine iron wire, placed in an ignited
porcelain tube, to a current of steam, as  long as any
hydrogen comes over. There is  no  danger, he says,
31" generating peroxide in this experiment, because iron,
ance in the state of deutoxide, ha3  no such  affinity  for
sxygen as  to  enable it to decompose water.  It may
also, he states, be procured  by  calcining  strongly a
mixture  of 1 part of iron and 3 parts of the red oxide
in a stoneware crucible, to the neck of which a tube
is adapted to cutoff the contact of air.  But this pro-
cess  is less certain than the first, because a portion of
peroxide may escape the reaction of the iron.  But we
■nay dispense with  the  trouble of making it,  adds
Thenard, because it is found abundantly in  nature.
He refers to this oxide, the crystallized  specular iron
ore of Elba, Corsica, Dalecarlia,  and  Sweden.  He
also classes under this oxide all the  magnetic iron  ores;
and says, that the abovo-described  protoxide does not
exist in nature.  From the synthesis of  this oxide  by
steam, Gay Lussac has determined  its composition
to be,
              Iron,      100      72.72
              Oxygen,    37.5  •   27.28
  3d, The  red  oxide.  It  may be obtained  by  igniting
the nitrate, or carbonate; by calcining iron  in open
vessels;  or simply by treating the metal with strong
nitric acid, then  washing and drying  the  residuum.
Colcothar  of vitriol,  or  thorough  calcined copperas,
may  be considered as peroxide  of  iron.  It exists
abundantly native in the red  iron ores.  It seems to be
a compound of,
         Iron,      100      70 = 4 primes.
         Oxygen,    43      30 = 3 primes.
  2. Chlorides of iron; of which  there are two, first
examined in detail by Dr. John Davy.
  The protochloride  may be procured  by heating  to
redness,  in a glass lube wilh a very small orifice,  the
residue which is obtained by evaporating to dryness the
green muriate of iron.   It is a fixed  substance, re-
quiring a red heat for ita fusion. It has a  grayish, varie-
gated colour, a metallic splendour, and a lamellar tcx-

lUrft                                     G  8
  The deutochloridc maybe formed by the combustlM-
of iron wire in chlorine gas, or by gent y heating the
green muriate  in  a glass tube.  It is the volatile com-
pound  described  by  Sir II. Davy in his celebrated
Bakcrian  lecture on oxymuriatie acid.  It condenses
after sublimation, in the  form of small brilliant iri-
descent plates.
  3. For the iodide of iron, see Iodine.
  4.  Sulphurets of iron; of which, according to Poi
rett, there are four, though only two are usually de-
scribed, his protosulphuret and pcreulphuret.
  5.  Carburets of it on.  These compounds form steel,
and probably cast-iron; though the latter contains also
some other ingredients. The latest practical researches
on the constituiion of these  carburets, arc  those  of
Daniel.
  6.  Salts of iron.
  1.  Protacetate of iron forms  small prismatic crya
tals, of a green colour, a sweetish styptic taste.
  2.  Pcracetate of iron forms  a reddish-brown, un-
crystallizable solution, much used by the calico-print
ers, and prepared by keeping iron turnings,  or pieces
of old  iron, for six  months  immersed in redistilled
pyrolignous acid.
  3.  Protarseniate of iron exists native in  crystals,
nnd may be  formed in a pulverulent state, by pouring
arseniate of ammonia into sulphate of iron.
  4.  Perarscniate of iron  may  be formed by pouring
arseniate of ammonia into peracetate of iron; or  by
boiling nitric  acid on the protarseniate.   It is inso
lublc.
  5.  Antimoniate of iron is white, becoming yellow
Insoluble.
   6. Borate, pale yellow, insoluble.
   7. Benzoate, yellow,     do.
   8. Protocarbonate, greenish, soluble
   9. Percarbonate, brown, insoluble.
  10. Chromate, blackish,      do.
  11. Protocitrate, brown crystals, soluble.
  12. Protoferroprttssiate, white, insoluble
  13. Perferroprussiate, white,      do.
  This constitutes the beautiful pigment called Pius
sian blue.
   14. Protogallate, colourless, soluble.
   15. Pcrgallate, purple, insoluble.
   16. Protomuriate, green crystals, very soluble.
  17. Pcrmuriatc, brown, uncryslallizable,  very so
luble.
  18. Protonitrate, pale green, soluble.
   19. Pernilrale, brown,        do.
  20. Protoxalate, green prisms, do.
  21. Peroxalite, yellow, scarcely soluble
  22. Protophosphate, blue, insoluble.
  23. Perphosphate, white,    do.
  24. Protosuccinate, brown crystals, soluble.
  25. Persuccmale, brownish-red, insoluble.
  26. Prolosulphate, green vitriol, or copperas   It is
generally formed by exposing  native pyrites to air and
moisture, when  the sulphur and iron both  absorb
oxygen, and form the salt.
  27. Persulphate.   Of this salt there scorns  to be four
or more varieties, having a ferreous base, which con
sists, bv  Porrett, of 4 primes iron + 3 oxygen = IC
in  weight,  from which  their constitution  may  be
learned.
  The tartrate and  pertartrate of iron may also  te
formed ; or by digesting cream of tartar with water or
iron filings, a triple salt may  be obtained,  formerly
called tartarized tincture of Mars.
   These salts have the following general characters :—
   1.  Most of them are soluble in water; those wilh
the protoxide'for a base are  generally crystallizable;
those with the peroxide are generally not; the former
are insoluble, the latter soluble in alkohol.
   2. Ferroprussiate of potassa throws down .a blue
precipitate, or one becoming blue in the air.
   3. Infusion  of  galls gives a dark purple precipitate,
or one becoming so in the air.
   4. Hydrosulphuret  of potassa or ammonia gives a
black precipitate; but sulphuretted hydrogen merely
deprives the solutions of iron of their yellow-brown
colour.
   5. Phosphate of soda gives a whitish precipitate.
   6. Benzoate of ammonia, yellow.
   7. Succinate of ammonia, flesh-coloured  with the
peroxide.
   The  general medicinal virtues of  iron,  and the
                                         46S 
1RR
1RR
several preparations of it,  are to constringe the fibres,
to quicken  the circulation, to promote the different
secretions in the remoter  parts, and at the same time
to repress inordinate  discharges  into  the  intestinal
tube.  By the use of chalybeates, the pulse is very sen-
sibly raised, the colour of the face, though before pale,
changes to a florid red ; the alvine, urinary, and cuti-
cular excretions, are increased.
  When given improperly, or to excess, iron produces
headache, anxiety, heats the body, and often causes
haemorrhages, or even vomiting, pains in the stomach,
spasms, and pains of the bowels.
  Iron is given in most case* of debility  and  relax-
ation ; in passive haemorrhages; in dyspepsia, hysteria,
and chlorosis; in most of the cachexia;;  and it has
lately been  recommended  as  a specific in cancer.
Where either a preternatural discharge, or suppression
of natural  secretions, proceeds from  a languor, or
sluggishness of the fluids,  and  weakness of the solids,
this metal, by increasing the motion of ihe former and
the strength of the latter, will suppress the flux, or re-
move the suppression; but where the circulation is
already too quick, the solids too tense and rigid, where
there is any stricture, or spasmodic contraction of the
vessels, iron, and all the preparations of it, will aggra-
vate both diseases.  Iron  probably  has no action on
the body when taken  inlo  the stomach, unless it be
oxidized.  But during ils oxidizement, hydrogen gas is
evolved, and accordingly  we  find that foetid eructa-
tions and black faces are considered as proofs of the
medicine hav ing taken effect.  It can only be exhibited
internally in the state of  filings, which may be given
in doses from five to twenty  grains.  Iron wire is to
be preferred for pharmaceutical preparations, both
because it is the most  convenient form, and because it
is the purest iron.
  The medicinal preparations of  iron now in use
are:—
  1. Subcarbonas ferri. See Ferri subcarbonas.
  2. Sulphas ferri.  See Ferri  sulphas.
  3. Fet-ruin tartarizatum.   See Ferrum tartariiatum.
  4. Liquor ferri alkalmi.   See Ferri alkalini liquor.
  5. Tinctura acetatis  ferri.    See  Tinctura   ferri
acetatis.
  6. Tinctura inuriatis ferri. See Tinctura ferri mu-
rialis.
  7. Tinctura ferri ammoninti.   See Tinctura ferri
ammoniali.
  8. Vinum ferri.  See  Vinum ferri.
  9. Ferrum ammoniatum.  See Ferrum  ammonia-
tnm.
  10.  Oxidum ferri rubrum.   See Oxidum ferri ru-
brum.
  11.  Oxidum ferri nigrum.  See  Oxidum ferri ni-
grum.
  IRON-FLINT.  This occurs in veins of ironstone,
and in  trap-rocks, near Bristol, and in many parts of
Germany.
  IRRITABILITY.   (Irritabilitas;  from irrito, to
provoke.)   Vis insita of Haller.  Vis vitalis of Goer-
ter.  Oscillation of Boerhaave.   Tonic power of Stahl.
Muscular power of Bell.   Inherent power of Cullen.
The contractility of muscular  fibres, or a property pe-
culiar to muscles, by wliich they contract upon the
application of certain stimuli, without a consciousness
of action.   This power may be seen in the tremulous
contraction of muscles when  lacerated, or when en-
tirely separated  from the  body in operations.    Even
when the  body is dead  to all appearance,  and the
nervous power is gone, this contractile power  remains
till the organization yielis, and begins to be dissolved.
It is by this inherent power  that a cut -muscle con-
tracts, and leaves a gap ; that a cut artery shrinks and
grows stiffafterdeath.  This irritability of muscles is
so far independent of nerves,  and so little connected
with feeling, which is the  province of the nerves, that,
upon stimulating any muscle by touching it with caus-
tic, or  irritating it with a sharp point, or  driving the
electric spark- through it, or exciting with the metallic
conductors, ns those of silver, or zinc,  the muscle in-
 ftanlly contracts, although the nerve of that muscle be
 tied; although the nerve be cut so  as to separate the
 muscle entirely from all connexion with the (.ystem;
 although the muscle be separated from the body; al-
 though the creature upon which the experiment  is per-
 formed may hove lost  all sense of feeling, and  have
 been long apparently dead. Thus a muscle, cut from
       406
the limb, trembles and palpitates along time after; the
heart, separated from the body, contracts when irri-
tated ; the bowels, when torn from the body, continue
their peristaltic motion, so as to roll upon the table,
ceasing  to  answer to stimuli only when  they become
stiff and cold; and too often, in the human body the
vis insita loses the exciting power of the nerves, and
then palsy ensues;  or, losing  all governance of the
nerves,  the vis  insita, acting without the regulating
power, falls into partial or general convulsions.  Even
in vegetables, as in the sensitive plant, this contractile
power lives.  Thence  comes the distinction between
the irritability of muscles and the sensibility of nerves:
for the irritability of muscles survives the animals, as
when it is active after death; survives the life of the
part, or the feelings  of the whole system, .is in uni-
versal palsy, where the vital motions continue entire
and perfect, and where the muscles, though not  obe-
dient  to the will, are subject to irregular and violent
actions; and it  survives the connexion with the  rest
ofthe system, as when animals, very tenacious of life,
are cut  into parts: but sensibility, tbe property of the
nerves, gives the various modifications of sense, ss vi-
sion, hearing, and the  rest;  gives  also the general
sense of pleasure or  pain, and  makes the system, ac-
cording  to  its various  conditions, feel vigorous and
healthy, or weary and low.   And thus the eye feels,
and the skin feels:  but their appointed stimuli produce
no emotions in these parts; ihey are  sensible, but not
irritable.  The heart, the intestines, the urinary blad-
der, and all the muscles of voluntary motion, answer
to stimuli with a quick and forcible contraction; and
yet they hardly feel the stimuli by which  these con-
tractions are produced, or, al least, they do not convey
lhat feeling to the brain.  There is no consciousness
of present stimulus in those parts which are called into
action by the impulse of the nerves, and at the com-
mand of the will:  so that muscular parts have all the
irritability  of the system, with bul little feeling,  and
that little owing to the nerves which enter into their
substance; while nerves have all tbe sensibility of the
system, but no motion.
 " The discovery of this singular property belongs to our
countryman Glisson; but Baron Haller must be con-
sidered as the first who clearly pointed out its existence,
and proved it to be the cause of muscular motion.
  The laws of irritability, according to Dr. Crichton,
are, 1. After every action in an irritable part, a state
of rest,  or cessation from motion, must take place be-
fore Ihe irritable part can be again  incited to action.
If, by an act of volition, we throw any of our muscles
into  action, that action can only be continued for a
certain  space of time; the  muscle becomes relaxed,
notwithstanding all  our endeavours to the contrary,
and remains a certain time in that relaxed state,before'
it can be again thrown into action.   2. Each irritable
part  has a  certain portion or quantity of the principle
of irritability which  is natural to it, part of which it
loses during action, or from the application  of stimuli.
3. By p  process wholly  unknown lo us, it regains ihis
lost quantity, during its repose, or state of rest.  In
order to express  the  different quantities of irritability
in any part, we  say that it is either more  or less re-
dundant, or more  or less defective.   It becomes re-
dundant in a part when the stimuli whicli are calcu-
lated to act on lhat  part are withdrawn, or withheld
for a certain length of time, because then lio action can
take ptace: while, on the other hand, the application
of stimuli causes it to be exhausted, or to be deficient,
not only by exciting  action, hut by some secret influ
ence, the nature of which has not yet  been detected,
for it is a circumstance extremely deserving of atten-
tion, thai an irritable part, or body, may be suddenly
deprived of ils irritability by powerful stimuli, and yet
no apparent muscular or vascular action lakes place
at the time.   A certain quantity of spirits, taken  at
once into the stomach, kills almost as instantaneously
as lightning does:  the same thing may be observed of
some  poisons,  as  opium, distilled laurel-water, the
juice  of the cerbera ahovai, Sec.   4. Each  irritable
part has stimuli which are peculiar to it, and which
are in tended to support ils natural action: thus, blood
which is the stimulus proper to the heart, and aiterii s,
if, by any accident, it gets into the siniiinch, produc-s
sickness, or vomiting.  If the gall, which is  the natural
stimulus to the duels of Ihe liver, the galMiladder. and
the iutcstiuc3, is by any aciident effused into 1110 ta- 
ISA
ISC
  •tty of the  peritonaeum, it excites too great action of
  tbe  vessels  of lhat  part, and induces inflammation.
  The urine does not irritate the tender fabric of the kid-
  neys, ureters, or bladder, except in such a degree tu to
  preserve their healthy action;  but if it be effused into
  the cellular membrane, it brings on such a violent ac-
  tion of the vessels of these parts, as to produce gan-
  grene    Sttch stimuli  are called  habitual stimuli  of
  parts   5. Each irritable part differs from the  rest in
  regard to the quantity of irritability which it possesses.
  This law explains  to us the reason of the great di-
  versity which we observe in the action of various irri-
  table parts;  thus, the muscles of voluntary motion can
  remain a long time in a state of action, and  if  it  be
  continued as long as possible, another considerable
  portion of time is required before they regain the irri-
  tability they lost; but the heart and arteries have a
  more short and sudden action, and their state of rest
  ia equally so.  The circular muscles of the intestines
  have also a quick action and short rest.  The urinary
  bladder does not fully regain the irritability it loses
 during its contraction for a considerable space of time;
 the vessels which separate aud throw out the men-
 strual discbarge, act, in general, for three or four days,
 and do not regain the irritability they lose for a lunar
 month.  6.  All stimuli produce action in proportion to
 their irritating powers.   As a person approaches his
 hand to the  fire, the action  of all the vessels  in the
 skin is increased, ami il glows with heat; if the hand
 be approached still nearer, the action is increased to
 such an  unusual  degree  as to occasion redness  and
 pain; and if it be continued too long, real  inflamma-
 tion  takes place; but if this  heat be continued, the
 part at last loses its irritability, and a sphacelus or gan-
 grene ensues.  7. The action of every stimulus is in
 an inverse ratio to the frequency of its application. A
 small quantity of spirits taken into the stomach, in-
 creases the action of its muscular coat, and also of its
 various vessels, so that digestion is thereby facilitated.
 If the same quantity, however, be taken frequently, it
 loses its effect.  In order to produce the same effect as
 at first, a larger quantity is necessary; and hence the
 origin of dram-drinking.  8.  The more the irritability
 of a part is accumulated, the moru lhat part is disposed
 to be acted upon.  It is on this account that the ac-
 tivity of all animals, while in perfect health, is much
 livelier in the morning  than at any other part of the
 day; for, during the night, the irritability ofthe whole
 frame, arid especially that of the muscles destined for
 iabour, viz. the muscles for voluntary action, is reac-
 cumulated.   The same law explains  why digestion
 goes on more rapidly the first hour afier food is swal-
 lowed than at any other  time; and it also accounts
 for the great danger thai accrues to a famished person
 upon first taking in food.  9. If the stimuli which keep
 up the action of any  irritable body be withdrawn for
 too great a length of time, that process on which  the
 formation of Ihe principle depends is gradually dimi-
 nished, and at last entirely destroyed.  When the irri-
 tability of the system is too quickly  exhausted by heat,
 as is the case in certain warm climates, the application
 of cold invigorates the frame, because cold is a mere
 diminution ofthe overplus of that stimulus which was
 causing the rapid consumption ofthe principle.  Under
 such or similar circumstances, therefore, cold is a tonic
 remedy; bul if, in a  climate naturally cold,  a person
 were to go into a cold bath, and not  soon return inlo
 a warmer atmosphere, it would destroy life just  in the
 same manner as many poor people who have no com-
 fortable dwellings are often destroyed, from being  too
 long exposed to the cold in winter.   Upon the first ap-
 plication of cold tbe  irritability is accumulated,  and
 the vascular system therefore is exposed  to  great
 action; but, after a certain time, all action is so  much
 diminished, that the process, whatever it be, on which
 the formation of the irritable principle depends, is en-
 tirely lost.  For further information on this interesting
subject, see Dr. Crichton on Mental Derangement.
  IRRITATION.   Irritatio.   The  action  produced
by any stimulus.
  ISATIS.   ds-arts  of  Dioscorides, and  Isatis of
Pliny, the derivation of which is unknown.)   The
name of a genus of plants  in the Linnaean system.
Class, Tetradynamia; Order, Siliquosa.
  Isatis tinctoria.  Glastum. The systematic name
of the plant used for dying called woad.  It is said to
he adstringent
   I'sca.   A sort  of fungous excrescence of the oak,
 or of the hazel,  fcc.  The ancients used it as Mm
 moderns used moxa.
   ISCHiE'MON.  (From toxta, to restrain, and atpa,
 blood.)  A name for any medicine which restrains ot
 stops bleeding.
   Isch t m u i*. A species of Andropogon.
   I'SCHIAS.   (loxtas;  from ioviov, the hip.)  A
 rheumatic affection of the hip-joint.   See  Rheuma-
 tismus.
   ISCHIATOCE'LE.   (From  toxtov, the  hip, and
 E^Xif, a rupture.)   Isckioeele.  An intestinal rupture,
 through the sciatic ligaments.
   Iscuio-cavernosus.  See Erector penis.
   Ischioce'le.  See Isekialocele.
   ISCHIUM.  (From  ioxts, the loin: so named be-
 cause it is near the loin.)  A bone of the pelvis of tbe
 foetus, and a part of the os innominatum of the adult.
 See Innominatum os.
   ISCHNOPHO'NIA.   (From  iovpoj, slender, and
 0fc<f», the voice.)   1. A shrillness ot  the voice.
   2.  A hesitation of speech, or a stammering.
   Ischurb'tica.  (From tnxovpia, a  suppression  of
 the urine.)  Medicines which relieve a suppression of
 the urine.
   ISCHU'RIA.  (From i<rx«i to restrain, and ovpov,
 the urine.) A suppression of urine.  A genus of dis-
 ease  in the class  Locales, and  order Epischeses, ot
 Cullen.  There are four species of ischuria:
   1.  Ischuria renalis, coming after  a disease of the
 kidneys, with a troublesome sense of weight or pain.
 in that part.
   2. Ischuria ureterica, after a disease of the kidneys,
 with a sense of pain or uneasiness  in the course  of
 the ureters.
   3. Ischuria vesicalis, marked by  a frequent desire to
 make water, with a swelling of the hypogastrium, and
 pain at the neck of the bladder.
   4. Ischuria urethralis, marked by a  frequent desire
 lo make water, with a  swelling of the hypogastrium
 and pain of some part of the urethra.
   When there is a frequent desire of making water,
 attended with much difficulty in voiding it,  the com- '
 plaint is called a dysury, or strangury; and when there
 is a total suppression of urine, it is known by the name'
 of an ischuiy.  Both ischuria and dysuria are distin-
 guished into acute, when arising in consequence of
 inflammation,  and chronic, when proceeding front
 any other cause, such as calculus, Sec
   The causes which give rise to  these diseases, are
 an inflammation of the urethra, occasioned either by
 venereal sores or by a use of acrid injections, tumour
 or ulcer of the prostate gland, inflammation of tbe
 bladder or kidneys, considerable enlargements of the
 haemorrhoidal veins, a  lodgment of  indurated  faeces
 in the rectum, spasm at the neck of the bladder, the
 absorption of cantharides applied externally, or taken
 internally,  and excess in drinking either spirituous or
 vinous liquors; but particles of gravel sticking at the
 neck  of  the bladder, or lodging  hi the urethra, and
 thereby producing  irritation, prove  the most frequent
 cause.  Gouty matter falling on the neck of the blad-
 der, will sometimes occasion these complaints.
  In dysury there  is a frequent inclination to make
 water, attended with a smarting pain, heat, aud diffi-
 culty in voiding it, together with a sense of fulness in
 the region of the bladder.  The symptoms often vary,
 however, according to the cause which has given rise
 to it  If it proceeds from a calcuius in the kidney, oi
 ureter, besides the affections mentioned, it will be ac-
 companied with nausea, vomiting, and  acute pains in
 the loins and regions of the  ureter  and kidney of the
 side affected.   When a stone in the bladder, or gravel
 in the urethra, is the cause, an acute  pain will be fell
 at the end of the penis, particularly on voiding the last
 drops of urine, and the stream of water will either be
 divided into two, or be discharged in a twisted manner,
 not unlike a cork-screw.  If a scirrhus of the prostate
 gland has occasioned the suppression or difficulty of
 urine, a hard indolent  tumour, unattended with any
 acute pain, may readily be felt in the perinaeum, or by
 u.traducing the finger in ano.
  Dysury is seldom attended with much danger, unless,
 by neglect, it should terminate in a total obstruction.
 Ischuiy may always be regarded as a dangerous com-'
 plaint, when it continues for any length of time,  from
the great distention and often consequent inrtammatic*
                                        4t>7 
JAS                                            JEB
which ensue.  In those cases where neither a bougie
nor a catheter can be introduced, the event in all pro-
liability, will be  fatal, as  few patients will submit to
the only other  means of drawing off the  urine before
it considerable degree of inflammation and tendency to
gangrene have taken place.
  ISERINE.   (So called from the river Iser, near the
OTeinofwhichitisfound.)  Anironblack-colouredore.
  ISINGLASS.  See Ichthyocolla.
  IBO'CHRONOS.   (From  taos, equal,  and xpovos,
lime.)  Preserving an equal distance of time between
tht beats; applied to the pulse.
  Iso' crates.  (From taos,  equal,  and xcpavwpi, to
mix.)  Wine mixed  with an equal quantity of water.
  ISO'DROMUS.   (From taos, equal, and ipopos, a
course.)  The same as Isochronos.
  Isopy'rum.  (From taos, equal,  and  jrep,  fire: so
named from its  flame-coloured flower.)   The Aqui-
legia vulgaris.
 ISO'TONUS.  (From taos, equal, and rovos, exten-
sion.)  Applied to fevers whicli  are of equal strength
during the whole of  the paroxysm.
  I'SSUE.   Fonticulus.   An artificial ulcer  made by
cutting a portion of the skin, and  burying a pea or
some other substance in it, so as to produce a discharge
ofpurulent matter.
  TSTHMION.   (From  taBpos, a  narrow  piece of
land between two sea3.)  The fauces narrow passage
between the mouth and gullet.
  Isthmus vieussenii.   The ridge surrounding the
remains of the foramen ovale, in the right auricle of
Ihe human heart.
VV A CEA.  (Quia prodcsl hominibus tristitia jacen-
•*  tibus; because it resists sorrow; or from taopat,
to heal.)  The herb pansey, or heart's-eass. See Viola
tricolor.
  Jaceranta tinqa.  See Acorus calamus.
  Jaci'nthus.   See Hyacinthus.
  Jack-by-the-hedge.  See Erysimum alliaria,
  JACOBjE'A.  (Named because it was dedicated
to St. James, or because it was directed to be gathered
about the feast of that saint.)  See Senecio Jacobaa.
  JADE.  See Nephrite.
  Jagged leaf.  See Erosus.
  JALAP.  See Convolvulus jalapa.
  JALA'PA.  See Convolvulus jalapa.
  JALA'PIUM.    (From Chalapa,  or  Xalapa,  in
New Spain, whence it is brought.)  See Convolvulus
ittlapa.
  Jalappa alba.  White jalap.  See  Convolvulus
mtcoacan.
  JAMAICA BARK.   See Cinchona caribaa,
  JAMAICA PEPPER.  See  Myrtus pimento.
  Ja'mblicih sales.  A preparation with sal-ammo-
niac, some aromatic ingredients, &c.  so called from
Jamblichus, the inventor.
  JANITOR.  (From janua, a gate.)   The pylorus,
so called from its being, as it were, the door or entrance
of the intestines.
  Japan earth.   See Acacia catechu.
  Japonica terra.   (So called  from  the  place  it
:ame from.)   See Acacia catechu.
  JARGON.   See  Zircon.
  JA'SMINUM.   (Jasminum; from jasmen, Arab.;
or from tov, a violet, and oapri, odour, on account of
the fine odour of Ihe flowers.)  1. The name of a genus
of plants in  the Linnaean system.  Class, Diandria;
Order, Monogynia.
  8. The pharmacopceial name of the jessamine.  See
Jasminum officinale.
  Jasminum officinale.  The  systematic name  of
rite jessamine-tree.  The flowers of this beautiful plant
have a very fragrant smell,  and a bitter  taste.  They
afford, by distillation, an essential oil, whicli  is much
esteemed in Italy to rub paralytic limbs, and  in the
cure of rheumatic pains.
  JASPER.   A subspecies of rhomboidal quait.x,
      Ada
  Ithmoi'des.  Sec Ethmoides.
  Itiner a'rium.  (From iter, a way.)  The catheter,
also a staff used in cutting for the stone.
  ITIS.  From the time of Boerhaave, visceral in-
flammations have been generally distinguished by ana-
tomical terms derived from the organ affected, with the
Greek  term ills, added as a suffix; as cephalitis, Sec
His is  sufficiently significant of its purpose; it is im-
mediately derived from izpat, which is itself a ramifica-
tion from tu, and imports, not merely action, "putting
or going forth," which is the strict and simple meaning
of roi,  but action in its  fullest urgency, " violent or
impetuous action."  When  this term then is added tc
the genitive case of the  Greek name of an organ, it
means inflammation of that viscus: hence, hepatitis,
nephritis, gastritis, carditis, mean inflammation of
the liver, kidney, stomach, heart.—Goad,
  Iva  fecakga.  See Smilax sarsaparilla.
  IVORY.   The tusk, or tooth of defence, of the male
elephant.  It is an intermediate  substance  between
bone and born.  Tbe dust is occasionally boiled to
form jelly, instead of isinglass, for wliich it is a bad
substitute.  In 100 parts there are 24 gelatin, 134 phos-
phate of lime, and 0.1 carbonate of lime.
  IVY.  See Hedera helix.
  Ivy, ground.  See Gitcoma hedcracea.
  Ivy-gum.  See Hedera helix.
  I'xia.  (From ijjoj, glue.)   1. A name of Ihe Carina
gummifera, from its viscous juice.
  2. (From t\ppat, to proceed from.)  A preternatural
distention of the veins.
  Ixine.  See Carlina gummifera.
 according to Jameson, who enumerates  five kfa-is:
 Egyptian, striped, porcelain, common, agate jasper.
  JATROPHA.  (Most probably from i*]pos, » phy
 sician.)  The name of a genus of plants in  the Lin-
 naean system.  Class, Monacia; Order, Monadelphia.
  Jatropha curcas.  The systematic name of a p  nt,
 the seeds of which resemble the castor-oil seeds.  Ri-
 cinus major; Ricinoides ; Pineus purgans ; Pinhones
 indici;  Faba  cathartica;  Nux  cathartica; Ameri-
 cana ; Nux barbadensis.   The seed or nut so called in
 the pharmacopoeias is oblong and black, tlie produce of
 the Jatropha—foliis cordatis angulatis of Linnius.
 It affords a quantity of oil, which is given, in many
 places, as the castor-oil is in this country, to which it
 is very nearly allied.  The seeds of the Jatropha multi-
 fida are of an oval and triangular shape, of a pale brown
 colour, are called purging-nuts, and  give out a similar
 oil.
  Jatropha elastica. The juice of this plant affords
 an elastic gum.  See Caoutchouc.
  Jatropha manihot.  This is the  plant which  af-
 fords the Cassada root.  Cassada;  Cacavi; Cassave;
 Cassava;  Pain de  Madagascar; Ricinus minor;
 Maniot ;  Yucca ; Manibar ; Aipi ; Aipima  coxera;
 Aipipoca; Janipha.   The leaves are boiled, and eaten
 as we do  spinach.  The root abounds with  a  milky
juice, and every part, when raw, is  a fatal poison.   Il
 is remarkable that  the  poisonous quality is destroyed
 by heat: hence the juice is boiled with meat, pepper,
 Sec into a wholesome soup, and what remains after
 expressing the juice, is formed into cakes or meal, the
 principal food of the inhabitants.  This plant, which is
 a native of three quarters of the world, is one of the
 most  advantageous  gifts of Providence, entering into
 the composition of innumerable preparations  of  an
 economical nature.
  Cassada roots yield a great quantity of starch, called
 tapioca, exported in little lumps by the Brazilians, and
 now well known to us as  a diet for sick  and weakly
 persons.
  J EBB, John, wns born at London in 1730.  He was
 originally devoted to the church, and alter studvina at
 Cambridge, entered into orders, and obtained ii living
 In Norfolk in 17G4.   The year following, he published
 in conjunction wilh two friends, a selection from New
J 
JON
JON
 on s Principia,  with notes,  which was highly es-
 eemed.   He soon  afterward  returned to Cambridge,
 ind engaged warmly as an advocate for a reform in
 rhurch and state, as well as in the discipline of lhat
 university.  At length, in 1775, he resigned all his of-
 fices in the church, the established doctrines of which
 he did not approve; and determined upon entering into
 the Medical profession  He soon  qualified himself for
 this, obtained a diploma from St. Andrews, and was
 admitted a licentiate of the London College of Physi-
 cians ; and in the same year, 1778, he was elected a
 fellow of the Royal  Society. In 1782 he published
 " Select Cases of Paralysis of the Lower Extremities;"
 which tend to support the  practice of Pott, of applying
 caustics near the spine.  To this work is added an in-
 teresting description of a  very rare disease, catalepsy.
 The warmth of his  political sentiments, however, ob-
 structed his professional career;  nnd the various fa-
 tigues and anxieties to which be exposed himself, in
 order to further his  benevolent designs, exhausted his
 constitution so much, that  he sunk a premature victim
 in 1766.
  Jecora'ria.   (From jccur,the liver: sonamedfrom
 ils supposed efficacy in diseases of the liver.)  1.  The
 name of a plant.  See Marchantia polymorpha.
  2.  A name given lo a vein in the right hand, because
 it was usually opened  in diseases of tlie liver.
  JE'CUR.  (Jecur, oris., or jecinoris, neut.)   The
 liver.  See Liver.
  Jecur  uterinum.  The placenta is, by some, thus
 called, from the supposed similitude of  its office with
 that  of the liver.
  JEJUNUM.   (Fwmjtjunus, empty.)   Jejunum in-
 testmum.  The second portion of  the small intestines,
 so called because it is mostly found empty.  See Intes-
 tine.
  JELLY.  See Gelatin.
  JENITE.  See Liecrtte.
  Jerusalem cowslips.   See Pulmonaria officinalis
  Jerusalem oak.  See Chenopodium botrys.
  Jerusalem sage.  See Pulmonaria officinalis.
  JESSAMINE.  See Jasminum.
  Jesuita'nus cortex.   (Fromjcsuita, a Jesuit.)   A
 name of the Peruvian bark, because il was first intro-
 duced into Europe  by Father de Lugo, a Jesuit.  See
 Cinchona.
  Jesui'ticus cortex.  See Cinchona.
  Jesuit's bark.   See Ci'ncAona.
  JET.  (So called from  the  river Gaza In Lesser
 Asia, from whence it came.)  A black bituminous
 :oal, hard and compact, found in  great abundance in
 various partsof" France, Sweden .Germany, and Ireland.
 It is brilliant and  vitreous  in its fracture, and capable
of taking a good polish by friction; it attracts light sub-
stances, and appears to be  electric like  amber;  hence
it has been called black amber.  It tins no smell, but
when heated, it acquires one like bitumen judaicum.
  Jew's Pitch.  See Bitumen judaicum.
  JOHN'S WORT.  See Hypericum.
  Jointed Leaf.  See Articulatus.
  ["' JONES, John, M. D.  The family of Dr. Jones
 was of Welsh extraction, and  of the religious society
 of Friends.   He was  born in the town of Jamaica,
 (Long Island,) in Queen's county, New-York, in the
 year 1729; and received his education partly from his
 excellent parents, but chiefly at a private school in the
 city  of  New-York.   He  was  early led, both by the
 advice of his father, and  his own inclination, to the
 study of medicine.
  Dr Jones early indicated an attachment  for that
 profession which, at a subsequent period, he cultivated
 with so much ardour,  by his fondness for anatomical
 researches; and though, as it may be readily supposed,
 these could only be of the comparative kind, yel it is a
 remarkable fact, that this love for pursuits of the same
 nature has been noticed in  the youth of  some of the
 most distinguished anatomists that ever lived.
  After completing  his  studies in this country,  Dr.
 Jones visited Europe, in order to improve himself still
 farther in his profession.
  Upon the return  of Dr. Jones to this  country, he
settled in New-York, where his abilities soon procured
him extensive practice. To the profession of  surgery,
 in particular, he devoted much attention ; he was the
first who performed  the operation  of lithotomy in thai
city, and succeeded so well  in several cases that offered
 shortly after his return that  his fame as an  o;.<..-it<r
 became generally known throughout the middle and
 eastern states of America.
   Upon the institution of a medical school  in the col
 lege of New-York, Dr. Jones was appointed professor
 of Surgery, upon whicli branch he gave several courses
 of lectures,  and thereby diffused n taste for il among
 the students, and made  known ihe impioved methods
 of practice lately adopted in Euiope, with which most
 of the practitioners in this country were entirely unac-
 quainted.
   For a considerable part of the previous  life of Dr
 Jones, he had.been afflicted by the asthma, and for a
 long time had  struggled to overcome that painful dis-
 ease ; bul the exertions bolh of his own skill, and of
 the rest of his  medical  brethren in most parts ofthe
 continent, had  hitherto  proved ineffectual even to his
 relief.  He determined, therefore, io take a voyage tc
 Europe, and accordingly sailed for London  Here, in
 a thick smoke  and an impure atmosphere, where so
 many asthmatics have found such remarkable benefit,
 he also experienced  a considerable  alleviation of his
 complaint; and probably the  permanent alteration in
 his health which he afterward enjoyed, may  be in
 some measure attributed to the qflects of his residence
 in London.  He also employed himself during his con-
 tinuance in the metropolis, in collecting subscriptions
 for an hospital in New-York, which he had been chiefly
 instrumental in establishing.
   In London he again  had an opportunity of seeing
 his friend, Mr. Polt, at the head of his profession, and
 of renewing that intercourse which had been previously
 commenced between them.  He had now been for
 some years left to the guidance of his own  judgment;
 but unlike many who suppose all knowledge to become
 stationary at the time of their leaving college, he was
 still willing  to  be taught by those who had formerly
 been his instructors, and who, from the great opportu-
 nities they enjoyed, would be ennbled  to afford him
 much  information.  Eager for  the acquisition of
 knowledge,  whenever and wherever it could be ob-
 tained, he again attended the lectures of his old master,
 Dr. Hunter, and those of his friend, Mr. Pott, who lost
 no opportunity of showing the consistency between his
 profession and proofs of respect: during his short stay
 there, he  paid Dr. Jones the most particular attention,
 and presented him with a complete copy of his lectures,
 just before his departure fiom  London.  His kindness,
 however, did not end here: for in the frequent appli-
 cations which he received for  advice from all parts of
 this country, in difficult  and important cases, he never
 failed to recommend his old pupil, as capable of afford-
 ing any relief to be derived from surgical  assistance.
 In consequence of this, his  attendance was frequently
 desired in the different states; and while he showed,
 by his skill  and success, that the opinion which had
 been formed of him was just, his fame became thereby
 diffused throughout the continent of America.
   The following year he returned to his native country,
 the political situation of which, at that time, called
 loudly for the exertions of all her citizens.  He again
 resumed his  lectures, and  delivered  several courses,
 and in the autumn ofthe next year, 1775, published his
 " Plain Remarks upon Wounds and Fractures," wliich
 he inscribed  to  his old preceptor, Dr.  Cadwallader, in
 a neat dedication.  A work of this kind which would
 give  the young practitioner clear notions of the im-
 proved mode of treating disease, without embarrassing
 him with refined speculations or useless disquisitions,
 was  much wanted.   He attempted no systematic ar-
 rangements,  but simply treated of those subjects  to
 which the attention of the  surgeons of the  army and
 navy would  be most continually directed. No present
 could have been more acceptable to his country, and no
 gift more  opportunely made;  for in the situation of
 American affairs, many persons were chosen to act as
surgeons, who, from their few opportunities, and theii
 ignorance of the improvements  that had lately heel
 brought in practice, were but ill qualified for the office
 His well-meant  endeavours  were not lost; for the im
 provements which he had made known, though new Oi
 most practitioners and surgeons, were readily adopted
 when recommended by such authority.  I his was the
only work ever published by Dr. Jones; it might have,
 indeed, been readily supposed, lhat more would have
come from his pen, considering how well qualified he
 was to make observations, and impart lo others soma
portion  of that knowledge of  which  he himself
                                        4(i9 
JUD                                              'JJQ
 possessed so great a share.  Such was actually his in-
 tention ;  and he had  prepared another work for the
 press,  but was prevented  by the most base treachery
 from giving it to the world.
  He died 1791, in the 63d year of his age.  As a Sur-
  .on, Dr. Jones stood at the head of the profession in
 tnis country ; and he may  be deservedly considered as
 the chief instrument in effecting the remarkable re-
 volution in that branch of the healing art, which is now
 so apparent, by laying aside the former complicated
 modes  of practice, and substituting  tliose which are
 plain and simple.   The operation to which he princi-
 pally confined himself for many ofthe last years of his
 life, was  lithotomy; and  his success in  this difficult
 and important object  of a surgeon's duty, was great
 indeed. Even in the month before his death, in a most
 capital and nice operation, there did not appear to be j
 any diminution of that dexterity nnd steadiness of
 hand, for which he had always been remarkable, and
of whicli those not hnlf his age might have boasted.
  Connected with this part of his professional charac-
ter, was his merit, as an accoucheur; and  in this diffi-
cult and important branch his success was great.
  The  merit of Dr. Jones as a physician was likewise
considerable.  Though educated in the school of Boer-
haave, he never professed an implicit faith in that, or
any otlier system.  He was guided by just principles,
and he varied his  practice like every judicious phy-
sician,  with the varying circumstances of the case.
The success of his practice was the best proof of the
 truth of his principles, and of the judgment which di-
rected their application."—Thach. Med. Biog.  A.]
  [" JONES, Walter, M. D., one ofthe most eminent
physicians of our country, was  born in Virginia, and
received  his medical education at the University of
 Edinburgh, where he was graduated about the year
 1770.   While at this institution he became a favourite
of the  school,  and enjoyed the particular friendship
and esteem of Cullen, and the other professors of that
time.
  On his return to his native country, he settled in
Northumberland county, Virginia, where  he acquired
an extensive practice, and sustained throughout life the
highest standing both as a scholar and physician.   ' He
was,' (says a distinguished gentleman, who  for some
lime enjoyed his acquaintance,) ' for the  variety and
extent of his learning, theoriginality and strength of his
mind, the sagacity  of  his observations, and the capti-
vating  powers of his conversation, one of the most ex-
traordinary men I have ever known.  He was an ac-
curate observerof nature and of human character; and
seemed to possess intuitively the faculty of discerning
the hidden cause of disease, and of applying, with a
promptness and decision peculiar to  himself, the ap-
propriate remedies.' For a few years Jie was returned
a member ofthe national legislature; but he spent the
most of his  life in the  practice of that  profession of
which he waj a distinguished ornament."—Thach.Med.
 Biog.  A.]
  JUDGMENT. The judgment is tho most important
nf the intellectual faculties.  We  acquire  till  our
knowledge  by this faculty; without it our life would
be merely vegetative; we would have no idea either
of the existence of  other bodies, or  of our own; for
these two sorts of notions,  like our knowledge, are the
consequence of our faculty of judging.
  To judge is to establish a relation between two ideas,
or between two groups of ideas.  When I judge of the
goodness  of a work, I feel Hint the idea of goodness
belongs to the book which I have read ; I  establish a
 relation, I form to myself an idea of a different kind
 from lhat wliich arises from sensibility and memory.
  A continuation of judgments linked together form an
inference, or process of reasoning.
  We see how important it is to judge justly, that is, to
establish  only tliose relations which  really exist.  If 1
 judge Hint a |x>isoiious substance is salutary, I am in
danger of losing my life; my false judgment  is there-
 fore hurtful.  It is the same with all those of the same
 kind.   Almost all the misfortunes which oppress man
 in a moral sense, nrisc from errors of judgment; crimes,
 vices, bad conduct, spring  from false judgment.
  The  seieiico of logic has  for i's end the  teaching of
just reasoning: but pure judgment, or good sense, and
 false judgment, or wrong-headedness, depend on organi-
 zation.  We cannot change in this  respect; we  must
 ".-main ns nature has made us.  Theio aie men en-
      470
dovved with tlie precious gift of finding relations of
things which have never been  perceived before.  If
these relations are very important,  and  beneficial to
humanity, the authors are men of genius: if the rela-
tions are of less importance, they are considered men
of wit,  imagination.  Men differ principally by their
manner of feeling different relations, or  of judging
The judgment seems to be injured by  au extreme
vivacity of sensations; hence we see that facnlty be-
come more perfect with age.—Magendic's Physiology
  Judicatorius.  (From judico, to discern.)  An ob-
solete term applied to a synocha of four days, because
its termination may certainly be foreseen.
  JUGA'LE OS.  (Jugalis; from  jugum,  a  yoke.
from its resemblance, or because it is articulated, to the
bone  of the upper jaw, like  a yoke.)  Os mala;  Os
zygomaticum.  The ossa malarum are the prominent
square bones whicli form the upper part of the cheeks.
They are situated close under the eyes, and make part
ofthe orbit.  Each of these bones have tliree surfaces
to be considered.  Onf» of these  is exterior and some-
what convex.  The second is superior and concave,
serving io form the lower and lateral parts ofthe orbit.
The third, which is posterior, is very unequal and con-
cave, for the lodgment of the lower part of the lemporal
muscle.  Each  of these  bones  may be  described as
having fourprocesses formed by their four angles.  Two
of these may be called orbitar processes.  The superior
one is connected  with the orbitar  process of the os
frontis;  and the inferior one wilh the malar process of
the maxillary bone.  The third is connected with the
temporal processor the sphenoid bone; and the  fourth
forms a bony arch, by its connexion with tlie zygomatic
process of the temporal bone.  In infants, these bones
are entire and completely ossified.
  JU'GLANS.   (Quasi Jovis glans, the royal fruit,
from its magnitude.)  1. The name of a genus of plants
in the Linnaean system.  Class, Monacia; Order, Poly
andria.  The walnut-tree.
  2. The pharmacopoeia! name of  the walnut.  See
Juglans regia,
  Juglans regia.  The systematic name of the wal-
nut-tree.  The  tree which bears  the walnut  is the
Juglans—foliolis ovalibus glabris  sttbscrratis suba-
qualibus of  Linnaeus.  It Is a  native of Persia, bul
cultivated in this country.  The  unripe fruit, wliich
has an  astringent bitterish taste, and has  been long
employed ns a pickle, is the part which was directed
for medical use by the London College, on account of
its athelminlic virtues.  An  extract of the green fruit
is the most convenient preparation, as it may be kept for
a suflicient length of time, and made agreeable to the sto-
mach of the patient, by mixing it with cinnamon water
  The putamen, or green rind of the walnut, has been
celebrated as  a powerful anti-venereal remedy, for
more than a century and a half; and Petrus Borcllus
has given directions for a decoction not unlike that
which is commonly called the  Lisbon diet-drink, in
wliich tl.e walnut, with its green bark, forms a  princi
pal ingredient.  Ramazzini,  whose  works were pub-
lished early  in the present  century, has likewise in-
formed us, that in his time, the green rind of the wal
nut was esteemed a good anti-v inercal remedy in Eng
laud.  This part of the walnut has been much used in
decoctions, during the last fifty years, both in the green
and dried state;  it has been greatly recommended by
writers on the continent, as well as by  tliose of our
own country ; and ia, without doubt, a very useful addi-
tion to the decoction of the woods.  Pearson has em
ployed it during many years, in those cases where pains
iu the limbs  and indurations of the membranes have
remained, after the venereal disease has been cured by
mercury;  nnd he informs us  that he has seldom direct-
id it without manifest advantage.
  Brambilla and Girtanner also contend for the anti
venereal virtues of the green bark of the walnut: bul
the result of Pearson's experience will not permit him
to add his testimony to  theirs.  I have given it, says
he, iu as lnrge doses as the stomach could retain, and
for as long a time as the strength of the  patients, and
the nature of their complaints would permit; but  I
have uniformly observed, that if they who take it be
not previously cured of lues  venerea,   the pcculiai
symptoms will appear, and proceed in their usua-
course, in defiance ofthe powersof this medicine.  Th«
Decoctum /.usitiinicum may be given with great lid
vnntnge in many of those cutaneous diseases, whicl1 
JUN
JUN
ire attended with aridity of the skin; and I have had
some opportunities of observing lhat when the putamcn
of the walnut has been omitted, either intentionally or
by accident, the same good effects have not followed
tho taking of the decoction, as when it  contained this
ingredient.  See Juglans.
  JUGULAR.  (Jugularis; from jugul urn, the throat.)
Belonging to the throat.
  Jugular veins.  The veins so called run from the
head down the sides of the neck, and are divided, from
their situation, into external and internal.  The exter-
nal, or superficial jugular vein, receives  the blood
from the frontal, angular, temporal, auricular, sublin-
gual or ranine, and occipital veins.  Tbe internal, or
deep-seated jugular vein, receives the  blood  from the
lateral sinuses of the dura mater, the laryngeal and pha-
ryngeal veins.   Both jugulars unite, and form, wilh the
subclavian vein, the superior vena cava, which termi-
nates in the superior pari of the right auricle of the heart.
  JU'GULUM.  (From jugum, a yoke; because the
yoke is fastened to this pari.)  The'throat or anterior
part of the neck.
  JUJUBA. (An Arabian word.) Jujube. SeefiAam-
tus ztzyphus.
  JUJUBE.  See Rhamnus zizyphus.
  JULY-FLOWER.  See Dianthus Caryophyllus.
  JUNCKER, Gottlob John, was born in 16(30 at
Londorff, in Hesse.  After the proper studies he gradu-
ated at Halle in 1718;  and became afterward a distin-
guished professor there, as well as physician  to the
public hospital.   His works, which are chiefly compi-
lations, have been much  esteemed, and are still occa-
sionally referred to; especially as giving a compendious
view of tlie doctrines of Stahl, which he espoused and
taught. He has given a " Conspectus" of medicine, of
surgery, of chemistry, and of several other departments
of professional knowledge: also many academical theses
on medical, chirurgical, and philosophical subjects. He
died in 175-2.
  JU'NCUS.  (An old Latin word, a jungendo, say
the etymologists, from the use of the plants which bear
this name iu joining or binding things together.) The
name  of  a genus of plants in  ihe Linnaean system.
Class, Hexandria; Order, Monogynia.
  Jusgus odoratus.  See Andropogon schananthus.
  JUNIPER.   See Juniperus communis.
  Juniper gum.  See Juniperus communis.
  JUNT'PERUS.  (From juvenis, young, and pario,
to bring forth: so called because it produces its young
terries while the old ones are ripening.)   1. The name
af a  genus of plants.  Class, Diacia ; Order, Mono-
iclphia.
  2. The pharmacopceial name of the common juniper.
See Juniperus communis.
  Juniperus communis.  The systematic name of the
juniper-tiee.  Juniperus—foliis ternis patentibus mu-
cronalis, baccis lovgioribus, of Linnaeus. Both the tops
and berries  of this indigenous plant are directed in
our pharmacopoeias, but the latter are usually preferred.
and are brought chiefly from Holland and Italy.  Of
their efficacy as a stomachic, carminative, diaphoretic,
and diu>etic, there are several relations by physicians
of great authority:  and medical writers have also
spoken of the utility of the juniper in nephritic cases,
uterine obstructions, scorbutic  affections, and some
cutaneous diseases.  Our pharmacopoeias direct  the
essential oil, and a spirituous distillation of the berries,
to be kept in the shops.  From Ihis tree is also obtained
a concrete resin, which  has been  called sandarach, or
gum juniper.   Il exudes in white  tears, mote transpa-
rent than  mastich.  It Is almost totally soluble in alko-
hol, with  whicli it forms a white varnish  that dries
speedily.  Reduced to powder it is called pounce, wliich
prevents ink  from sinking into  paper from which  the
•xterior coating of size has been scraped away.
  Juniperus  lycia.   The systematic  name  of  the
plant which aflbrds ihe true frankincense.  Olibanum;
Thus.  Frankincense has received different appella-
tions, according to its different appearances;  the single
tears  are  called simply olibanum, or thus,  when two
are joined together, iAms masculum ; and when two are
very large, tints femininum; if tevernl  adhere to the
bark, thus corticosum ; the fine powder which rubs off
from  ihe  tears, mica tkuris • and  the  coarsei, manna
thuris. Tliegum-resin, that is so called, is the juice of
the Juniperus—foliis ternis uvdiqnc imbricats ovalis
 btusts, and is brought from Turkey  and the East
Indies; but that which comes from India is less es-
teemed.  It is said to ooze spontaneously from the
bark of the tree, appearing in drops, or tears, of a tale
yellowish, and sometimes of a reddish colour.  Olba-
num has a moderately strong  and not very agreeable
smell, and  a bitterish, somewhat  pungent taste: In
chewing, it sticks to the teeth, becomes white, and ren-
ders the saliva milky.  Laid on a red-hot iron, it readily
catches flame, and  burns with a strong diffusive and
not unpleasant smell.  On trituration with water, thi
greatest part dissolves into a milky liquor, which, on
standing, deposites a portion of resinous matter.   The
gummy and resinous pnrts are nearly in equal propor-
tions ; and though rectified spirit dissolves  less  of the
olibanum than water, it extracts nearly all its  active
matter.   In ancient times,  olibanum seems to have
been in great repute in affections of the head and breast,
coughs, haemoptysis, and in various fluxes, both uterine
and intestinal; it was also much employed externally.
Recourse is now seldom had to this medicine, which ia
superseded by myrrh, and other articles of ihe resinous
kind.  It is, however, esteemed by many as an adstrin-
gent, and though not in general use, is considered as u
valuable medicine  in  fluor albus, and debilities of the
stomach and intestines: applied externally in the form
of plaster, it is said to be corroborant, &ec and vviihthii
intention it forms the basis of the emplastrum tkuris.
  Jumpervs  sabina.   The systematic name  of the
common or barren  savin-tree.  Sabina;  Savina; Sa
bina stcrilis;  Brathu.   Juniperus—foliis oppositis
ercctis decurrentibus, oppositionibus pyxidatis, of Lin-
naeus.  Savin is a native of the south of Europe and
the Levant; it has long been cultivated in our gardens,
and from producing male and female flowers on sepa-
rate plants, it was formerly distinguished into the barren
and berry-bearing savin.  The  leaves and  tops of ihis
plant have a moderately strong smell of the disagreea
hie kind, and a hot, bitterish, acrid taste.   They give
out great part of their active matter to watery liquors,
and the whole to rectified spirit.   Distilled with water
they yield a large quantity of  essential oil.   Decoctions
of the leaves,  freed from the volatile principle by in
spissation to the consistence of an extract, retain a
considerable share of their pungency and warmth along
with their bitterness, and have some degree of smell,
but not resembling that of the plant itself.  On  inspis-
sating the spirituous tincture, there remains an extract
consisting of two distinct substances, of" which one is
yellow, unctuous, or oily, bitterish, and very pungini;
the other black, resinous, less pungent, and sub-astrin-
gent.  Savin  is a powerful and active medicine, and
has been long reputed the most efficacious in the materia
medica. for  producing a determination to the uterus,
and thereby proving eniiiienagogiie; it heats and stimu.
lates the whole system very considerably, and  is said
to promote the fluid secretions.  The power which this
plant possesses (observes Dr. Woodville) in opening ute-
rine obstructions, is  considered  to be so greal, that we
nre told it has been  frequently  employed, and with loo
much success, for  purposes the  most infamous and
unnatural.   It seems probable,  however, that its effects
in this way have been somewhat overrated,  as it is
found, very  frequently, to fail as  an  emmenngogiie,
though this, in some measure, may be ascribed  to the
smallness of ihe dose in which it hxs been usually pic-
scribed by physicians; for Dr.Cullen observes, "that
savin is a very acrid and heating substance, and I have
been often, on account of  these qualfies, prevented
from employing it in the quantity necessary to  lender
it cmiiieiiagogue.  I must own, however, that it shows
a more powerful determination to the litems than any
other plant I have employed;  but 1 have been frequently
disappointed  in this, and its ^eating qualities always
require a greal deal  of caution."   Dr. Home appears io
have had very great success with IhU medicine, for in
live cases of amenorrhea.-., which occurred at the Royal
Infirmary at Edinburgh, four were cured by the snbina,
which he gave in  powder from a scruple to a d.achm
iwice a-day.  Hesavs it iswellsui cd to lhedebile,bul
improper in plethoric  habits, and therefore orders re-
peated bleedings before its exhibitions.  Country people
give the juice from  the leave* and young lops of savin
mixed with milk to their children, in  oider to destroy
the worms; it Generally operates by stool, and  brings
them away with ii. The leaves cut small, and given
to  hones." mixed with  their  corn, desiioy the  bots.
 Externally, savin is recommended as  an eschnrotic tc
                                         471 
                     JUR

foul ulcers, syphilitic warts, Sec.  A strong decoction of
the plant in lard and wax forms a useful ointment to
keep up a constant discharge, from  blisters. Sec.  See
Ceratum sabina.
  JUPITER.   The  ancient chemical name of tin,
because supposed under the government of that planet.
  JURIN, James, was, during several years, an active
member and Secretary of the Royal Society, and at his
deathinl750,PresidentofiJieCollegeofPhysicians. He
distinguished himself by a series of seventeen disserta-
tions, printed in the Philosophical Transactions, and
afterward a3 a separate work, in which mathematical
science was applied  with  considerable  acuteness to
physiological subjects.   These  papers,  however, in-
volved him in several philosophical controversies con-
     473
ElfD or
                     JUX

cerning  the force of the heart, &c.  He Was a wmm
advocate for  the practice of Inoculation,  which he
proved greatly to lessen the violence of the small-pox •
but he did not anticipate that it would increase the
mortality upon the whole, by keeping up the infection,
while many retained their prejudices against adoptingit.
  JUSTICIA.  (So named in honour of Mr. Justice,
who published the British Gardener's Director.)  Tho
name of a genus of plants. Class, Diandria: Order
Monogynia.
  JUVA'NTIA.  (From juvo, to assist)  Whatcvti
assists in relieving a disease.
  JUVENTUS. See ./•tee.
  Juxtanqi'na.  (From juxta,  near, and angina, b
quinsy.)   A disease resembling a quinsy
VOL. I. 
LEXICON  MEDICUM,
OR,
MEDICAL   DICTIONARY;
         CONTAINING AN EXPLANATION OF THE TERMS IN
ANATOMY,
BOTANY,
CHEMISTRY,
MATERIA MEDICA,
MIDWIFERY,
MINERALOGY,
PHARMACY,
PHYSIOLOGY,
PRACTICE OF PHYSIC,
SURGERY,
          AND THE VARIOUS BRANCHES OF

 NATURAL PHILOSOPHY CONNECTED WITH MEDICINE.

SELECTED, ARRANGED, AND COMPILED FROM TIIE BEST AUTHORS.
        " Nee aranearum sane texus idco melior, quia ex se fila gignunt, nee
        noster vilior quia ex alienis libamus ut apes."
                    Just. Lips., Monk. Polit., lib. L, cap. L


         BY ROBERT HOOPER, M.D., F.L.S.

    SIXTEENTH AMERICAN, FROM THE LAST LONDON EDITION,
WITH ADDITIONS FROM AMERICAN AUTHORS ON BOTANY, CHEMISTRY, MATERIA MEDICA, MINERALOGY, ETO,


          BY SAMUEL AKERLY, M.D.,

FORMERLY PHYSICIAN TO THE NEW YORK CITY DISPENSARY, RESIDENT PHYSICIAN TO THE CITY HOSPITAL,
  LATE HOSPITAL SURGEON UNITED STATES' ABMY, PHYSICIAN TO THE NEW YOF.K INSTITUT10N
         FOR THE INSTRUCTION OF THE DEAF AND DUMB, ETC., ETC.
IN TWO VOLUMES.

    V O L. I I.
        N E W V 0 R K :

HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS.

             1856. 
Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year one thousand
              eight hundred and forty-seven, by
                   Harper & Brothers,
in the Clerk's Office ofthe District Court ofthe Southern District
                        of New York. 
                             A  NEW

MEDICAL,   DICTIONARY.
K
KEI
KID
    Kaath.  Pee Acacia catechu.
     KiEMPFER, F.m;ei.bert, was bora m 1C51 at
Lippe, iu  Westphalia.  lie was educalod in Sweden,
and being eager lo travel, accompanied (he Swedish
ambassador, Fahricius,  to  Persia, as secretary: on
whose departure from Ispahan, after two years, lie ob-
tained the a|i[H)iiitiiicnl of chief surgeon to  the Dutch
East India ('uni|iany ; and was thus enabled to pene-
trate as  tar as Sinm ard Japan, and cleared up the
e ography of these countries, whicli was very iniper-
"eeily known before.  On  his return to  Euu pe, in
itilM, he graduated at Leyden, and settled ir. his own
country; he was afterward  appointed physician to his
sovereign, and continued  encased in  practice, and in
composing several works, till his death, in 1716.   In his
inaugural dissertation, anions other subjects relating
lo medicine, he notices a method of curing colic anions
the Japanese by puncture with a needle. Bul his great
work, entitled " AniiEnitates Exotica," is more espe-
cially esteemed  for ils botanical information, and au-
theiric details, relating to the history and manner!; of
Persia, Sec.  His History of Japan, of which there is an
English  translation iu folio, is highly valued for ils
accuracy and fidelity.
   KjEMPFE'RIA.   (Named  aftei   Kaeinpfer,  tlie
Westphalian  naturalist.) The name of a  genus of
plants.  Class, Monandria ; Order, Monogynia.
   K.ftMPFERiA galanga.   The  plant which  affords
tlie greater palangal mot.
   K.ihpferia roti-nda.  The systematic  name of
Ihe plan; which affords the officinal zedoary.  Zedoa-
ria.   Kampferia—foliis lancccdalispctioliitis, of Lin-
naeus.  The roots of this  plant are brought  to  us in
long pieces, zedoaria longa,  about the  thickness of the
little finger, two or three inches in length, bent, rough,
and angular; or in roundish pieces, zedoaria rotunda,
about an inch in d;ameter,of an ash colour on the out-
side, and  white within.   They have an  acreeahle
cainphotaceous  smell, and a bitterish  aromatic  taste.
Though  formerly  much  esteemed against rheumatic
affections, they are at present  thought to  possess very
liltle medicinal  powers, although  they had a place iu
the confectk) aromatica of the London Pharmacopoeia.
   Ka'jepit oleum.  lieee Melaleuca.
  KA'LI.  (Au Arabian word.) The vegetable alkali.
See Potassa.
  Kali  acetatum.  Pee Potassa acetas.
  Kali  aeratim.  See Potassa carbonas.
  Kali  arsenicatitm.   A preparation of arsenic,
composed of tlie vegetable alkali and  the acid of
arsenic.
  Kali  citratum.  See Potassa eitras.
  Kali  pr.ghaRatcm.  Sec Potassa  subcarbonas.
  Kali  puri'M.   See Potassa fvsa.
  Kali  bulphi'Ratom.  See Sulphuretum potassa.
  Kali  tariaRIZatum.  See Potassa tarlras.
  Kali  vitriolati m.  See Potassa  sulphas.
  KARPHOLITE.  A  yellow mineral winch occurs
n thin prismatic concretions.
  KEEL.  See  Carina.
  Keeled leaf.  See Carinattis.
  KE1LL, James, was born in Scotland, 1673.  After
going  through  the proper studies abroad, and especi
ally attending to anatomy,  he  was enabled  in lecture
ra -Jiat subject with great reputation  in both tlie Eng-
                                     H h
 lish universities, and  received un honorary degree al
 Cambridge.  During this period he published a Com-
 pendium of Anatomy, chiefly from Cowper   In 1703-
 he settled iu practice at  Northampton;  and ihi?e
 years after sent to ihe Royal Society an account oflhc
 dissection of a man, reputed to have been 1110 years ,f
 age; which agreed very much  with what  Harvey
 found iu old I'arr.  He was well skilled  in  mathce.a-
 lics, which he applied to the explanation of ihe hr.vej
 of the animal economy.   In 170b, he  published '■ An
 Account of Animal Secretion, the Quantity of Gw.\l
 in the  Human  Cody, and  Muscular Motion."   '.i'o
 which, in  a second edition,  he added an Essay on  the
 Force of the Heart. This engaged him in a contro-
 versy with  Dr. Jurin, which  was carried  on in  the
 Philosophical Transactions  (Dr.  Keil! being then a
 member of the Royal Society) till the  period  ol* 'efl
 premature death in 1719,occasioned by a cancer in the
 mouth, to which he had applied the cautery, but with-
 out any relief.
   Kki'ri.  See Cheiranthus cheiri
   KF.I.P.   Incinerated seaweed.
   KI'NEANl'IA.  (From xcvos, empty, and  ayyctay,
 a vessel.)  I. A state of inaction ofthe blood or oU^'i
 vessels.
   2.  A deficiency of blood in the vessels.
   KERATE.  The third mineral order of Mohs.
   Kkrato-pnaryno.ei's.  (From xtpas, a horn, E;:d
 ibapvyl, the pharynx.)  A muscle so'named  from it*
 sha|ie, and insertion in the pharynx.
   KERMES.   (Chermah, Arabian.)  Granum tine
 torkim ; Coccus baphir.a.   Rnuud reddish grains, nhi el
 the size of peas, found in Spain, Italy, aud the sou-h
 of France, adhering to the branches of Ihe scarlet oak.
 They are the nidus of a minute red animalcule, cai'd
 Coccus quercus  ilia's.  The confectio alkermes, nr.-.v
 obsolete, was prepared with these, which possess cor-
 roborant and adstringent virtues.
   Kermes minerals.  A  preparation  of antimony,
 solermcd  from its resemblance in colour to the insrit
 of that name.  It  is now disused in medicine, r.tid
 gives place to the other prcpaiations of antimony. See
j Hydro.iulpliuretum slibii rubrum.
   KERNEL WORT.  Sec Scrophularia nodosa.
   Ke'rva.  (h'ervah, Arabian.)   The Ricinus ca.i
 mums
   KETCHUP.   The  prepared  liquor of the nnn-'i
 room, made by sprinkling salt  on that vegetable, .-.i.d
 collecting the fluid  whicn escapes.
   Keyseb's pills.  A once celebrated mercurial me-
 dicine, the method  nf preparing which was ptirchas-.f
 by the French  government,  and  has  since been pi.lj
 lished by Richard.  The hydrargyrus acelatus is con
 sidered as an adequate substitute for the more elaborate
 form of  Kteyser.  Richard concludes  his account it'
 Keyser's pills with observing, that he considers it to be,
 without exception,  the most effectual remedy  foi  the
 venereal  disease hitherto  discovered.   But  furtfeei
 trials nf this remedy do not justify  the sanguine ac-
 counts of its properties; though it may sometimes suc-
 ceed when some of the  other mercurial preparation*
 have failed.
   Kibes.  A name for chilblains.
   KinRu  tlrrestris.  Barbadoes  tar.
   KIDXEY.   (Ren. nies. tu.)  An abdixninal  visctij.
                                           3 
LAB                                            LAC
 shaped like a  kidney-bean, that secretes the  urine.
 There are two kidneys.  One is situated in each lum-
 bar region, near the first lumbar vertebra, behind the
 j  ritonaeum.  This organ  is composed of three sub-
 stnuces;  a cortical, which  is external, and very vas-
 cular; a tubulous, which consists of small tubes;  and
 a  papil!ous substance, which is the innermost.  Tlie
 kidneys are generally surrounded with  more or less
 adipose metubiaue, and  ihey have also a pioper mem-
 biane, membrana  propria, which is closely accreted to
 tiie conical substance.  1 he renal arteries, called also
 cniulgents, proceed from the aorta.  The veins eva-
 cuate their blond into the ascending cava. The absor-
 bents accompany  the blood-vessels, and terminate in
 the thoracic  duct. The nerves of the kidneys are
 branches of the eighth pair and greal intercostal. The
 excretory duct of this viscus is called the ureter.   At
 the middle of the kidney, where the blood-vessels enter
 it, is a large membraneous bag. called the pelvis, which
 diminishes like a  funnel,  and forms a long canal, the
 ureter, that conveys the uiine from the kidney to the
 bladder, which it perforates obliquely.
  Kidncy-shnpedlcof.  See Remformis.
  K1FFEKILL.  See Meerschaum.
  Kik.kkune.malo.  A  pure resin,  very similar  to
copal, but of a more beautiful whiteness and transpa-
rency. It is brought from America, where it is said to
be used  medicinally in  the cure of hysteria, tetanus,
fix.  It forms the most beautiful of ail varnishes.
  Ki'ki.  (Kike, Arabian.)  Sec Ricinus.
  Ki'na kina.  See Cinchona.
  KIN ATE.  Kinas.  A compound of the Kinic acid,
with a sal.Sable base.
  KINIC ACID.   (Acidum kinicum; from kinia, the
 French name of cinckona, from which it is obtained.)
" A peouliar  acid extracted from cinchona.  Let  a
 iva.ery extract from hot infusions of the bark in pow-
der bo made.  Alkohol removes the resinous part of
this extract, and leaves  a  viscid residue, of a brown
colour, which has hardly any bitter taste, and which
consists of kinaie of lime and a mucilaginous matter.
This residue is dissolved m  waler, the liquor is filtered
and left to spontaneous evaporation in a warm place.
 It  becomes thick like syrup, and then deposites by de-
grees  crystalline plates,  sometimes hexaedral, some-
times rhomboidal, sometimes  square,  and always
coloured slightly of a reddish-brown.  These plates of
Kiuate of lime must be purified by a second crystalliza-
tion.  They are then dissolved  in  ten or twelve times
llieir weight of waler, and very dilute  aqueous oxalic
acid is poured into the solution, till no more precipitate
is formed.  By  filtration, the oxalate of lime is sepa-
rated, and the kinic acid being concentrated by spon-
taneous evaporation, yields  regular crystals.   It is de-
composed by heat.   While it forms a soluble salt wilh
lime,  it does  not  precipitate lead or silver from their
solutions.  These are characters sufficiently distinctive.
The kinates are scarcely known; that of lime congtt
lutes seven per cent, of cinchona."
  Kinki'na.   See Cinchona.
  KINO.   (An  Indian  word.)  Gummi gambiense,
Gummi rubrum adstringens gambiense.  The tree
from which this resin is obtained, though not botani-
cally ascertained, is known to grow on the banks of
Ihe river Gambia, in  Africa.  On  wounding its bark
the fluid kino immediately issues drop  by drop, and,
by the heat of the sun, is formed into hard masses.  Il
is in appearance  very  like the resin called Sanguis
draconis; much tedder, more firm,  resinous,  and ad-
stringent than catechu.  It is now in common use, and
is one of the  most efficacious vegetable adstringents,
or strptics, in the  materia  medica.  Its dose is from
twenty lo thirty grains.
  KNEE-HOLLY. See Ruscus.
  KNEE-PAN.   See Patella.
  KOLLYRITE.  A light greasy mineral of a while
colour, wiiich adheres to the tongue.
  Kolto.  (A Polonese word.)  The plica polonica,
or plaited hair.
  K0UA1I3.  A vinous liquid which tho Tartars make
by fermenting mare's  milk.   Something similar  is
prepared in the Orkneys and Shetland.
  KRAMERIA.  (So named in commemoration of
two German botanists, who flourished about the mid-
dle  of  the last century.)  The name  of a genus of
plants  in tlie Linnaean system.  Cla5s, Telrandria
Order,  Monogynia.
  Krameria  triandria. The systematic name of the
tree, Ihe root of which is called rhatania, a suostance
which  has been  long known to the manufacturers of
port wine; it  is the production of Peru, and was long
thought to be  the root of the cinchona cordifoiia.   It is
described as  externally  resembling  the root of the
rubia tiuctornm  to the taste, being  aromatic, bitter,
aud very astringent; its infusion or decoction turns
black with sulphate of iron, and precipitates tannin.
The  principal virtues appear lo reside in the cortical
part  of the root, which is thick and resinous.  An
opinion prevails that the substance sold  in the shops
under  the name of foreign extract  of bark, is made
from this root.
  It  is well known that the medical virtues of this
root arc powerfully tonic.  In debility of the digestive
organs, in chronic rheumatisms, fluor albus, and in
intcrmiltenl fevers, it  has been employed  with  good
effect.  While given in  doses similar  to cinchona, i
has the advantage of being only one-third the price of
lhat substance.
  KRAMERIC ACID.  (Acidum  kramcricum;  from
krameria, the name of the plant from which it is ob-
tained.)  An  acid obtained by Pcschier from the root
of the Krumeria triandria
  Kvamte.  See Cyanite.
  Kyna'nche.  See Cynanche.
Ii
T A'BDANUM.  See Cistus creticus.
•*-*  LABELLUM.  A liltle lip.  Applied in botany tn
the barba, or inferior  lip, of ringent  and  personate
plants.  See Corolla.
  LABIUM.   (Labium, i. n.; airo rov Xa6ttv.)
  1. The lip of animals.
,  2. Applied in botany to coroils of plants, which are
termed unilabiale, bilabiate, Sec.; and from their posi-
!'on in certain flowers, superior, inferior, Sec
  La'biom i.kporiniim.  See Hare-lip.
  LABORATO'ltlUM.   (From  lahoro, labour.)  A
place properly fitted up for the performance of chemi-
cal operations.
  LABRADOR  STONE.  See Felspar.
  LA'HYRINTH.   Labyrinthiis.  That part of the
internal ear which is behind the cavity of ihe tympa-
num; it is constituted by the cochlea, vesiibulum, aud
semicircular canals.  See Ear
   LAO.  (Lac.tis.n.)  1. Milk.  See Milk.
   2.  The name of a vegetable substance.  See Lacco,
   Lac ammoniaci.  See Mistura ammoniaci.
   Lac amyqdal.f..  See Mistura amygdala.
   Lau assafietid.e.  See Mistura assafatida.
   Lac sulpiii'Ris.   See Sujpnur pracipitatum.
   LA'CCA.  (From lakah, Arabian.)  Gummi lacca.
 Stick-lac: Gum-lac;  Seed-lac; Shell-lac.  The im-
 proper name of gum lac is  given lo a concrete biittle
 substance, of a dark red colour, brought from the East
 Indies, iucrusta.ed on the twigs of the Cretan laccifc-
 rum; foliis  ovatis  tomentosis  serrulat.s petiolatis,
 calycibus tomentosis, of Linnaeu-, where it is deposited
 by a small Insect, ni present not scientifically known.
 It is found in very greal quantities on the uncultivated
 mountains on both sides the Ganges, and is of great
 use to the natives in various works of art, as varnish,
 painting, dying, &.c.   When the resinous mailer ik
, broken off the wood into small pieces or grams, it U 
LAC
LAC
  tevniell seed-lac, and when melted and formed into flat
  plates, shcll-lac.  This substance  is chiefly employed
  for making sealing-wax.  A tincture of il is recoin-
  mended as an antiscoibutic to wash the gums.
    LACHRV'MA.  A tear.  A limpid fluid secreted by
  the lachrymal gland, aud flowing on the surface ofthe
  eye.  See Tear.
    Lacuryma abiegna.  See Tcrcbinthina argentora-
  tensis.
    LACHRYMAL.   Lachrymalis.  Of or belonging
  to tears, or parts near where they are secreted.
    Lachrymal bone.  See Unguis os.
    Lachrymal duct.  Ductus lachrymalis.  The ex-
  cretory duct ofthe lachrymal gland, which opens upon
  the internal surface of the upper eyelid.
    Lachrymal gland.  Glandula lachrymalis.   A
  glomerate gland, situated above  the external angle of
  the orbit, iu n peculiar depression of the frontal bone.
  It secretes the tears, and conveys them lo the eye by its
  excretory duels, which nre six or eight in number.
   Lachrymal nerve.  The fifth pair of nerves from
  the head  is  divided into several  brandies, the first of
  which is called the orbitary  branch;  this is  divided
  into three more, the  third of whicli is called the tachry-
  malbranch ; it goes  off chiefly to the lachrymal gland.
   LACCIC ACID.   (Acidum laccicum; from lacca,
  the substance in which it exists.)  " Dr. John made a
  watery extract of powdered stick-lac, and evaporated it
  to dryness.   He digested alkohol on this extract, and
  evaporated the alkoholic extract to  dryness.  He then
  digested this mass in ether, and evaporated the ethereal
  solution; when  he obtained a syrupy mass of a light
 yellow colour, which was again dissolved in alkohol.
 On adding water to this solution, a  liltle resin fell.  A
 peculiar acid uniled  to potassa  and lime remains in
 the solutioii, which is obtained free, by forming with
  acetate of lead an insoluble lacoate, and decomposing
  this with the  equivalent quantity  of  sulphuric acid.
  Laccic acid crystallizes; it has a wine-yellow colour,
 a sour taste, aud is soluble, as we have seen, in waler,
 alkohol, and ether.  It precipitates  lead and mercury
 white; but it does not affect lime, barytes, or silver, in
  their  solutions.  It  throws  down  the sails of iron
 white. With lime,  soda,  and potassa, it forms deli-
  quescent salt, soluble in alkohol."
   LACINIATUS.   Laciniale,  fringe-like: cut into
  numerous irregular portions ; applied to leaves, petals,
 Sec.;  as the leaves of the Ranunculus parvifiorus, and
  Geranium columbinmn, the petals of tlie Reseda.
   Laoo'nioum.  (Because they were much used by the
 Deople of Laconia.)   A stove, or  sweating-rooin.
   Lacquer.  A solution of lac in alkohol.
   LACTATE.  Lactas. A definite  compound, formed
 by the union of the acid of sour whey, or lactic acid,
 with salifiable bases; thus lactate of potassa, Sec
   LACTATION. (Lactatio; from laclco, to suckle.)
 The giving suck.
   LACTEAL.  (Lacteus; from  lac, milk;  because
 the fluid they absorb looks like milk.)
   1. Milky.
   2. In anatomy, this term is applied to the vasa lactea.
 The absorbents of the mesentery, which originate in
 Hie small intestines, and convey the  chyle from thence
 to the  thoracic duct.   They are very tender and trans-
 parent vessels, possessed of an infinite number of valves,
 wliich, when distended  with chyle,  a milky or lacteal
 fluid,  give them a knotty appearance.  They arise
 from the internal surface of tbe villous coat  of the
 small intestine, perforate the other  coats, and form a
 kind of not-work, while the greater number unite one
 with another between the muscular and  external coats.
 From thence they proceed between  the laminae of the
 mesentery to the conglobate glands. In their course
 they constitute the greater part of  the gland through
 which  they  pass, being  distributed through them
several limes, and cm led in various directions.  The
lacteals having passed these  glands, go to others, and
at length seek those nearest  the mesentery.   From
these glands, which  are only four or five, or perhaps
more, the lacteals pass out and ascend wilh the mesen-
teric artery, and unite with thelymphaticsof the lower
extremities, and those of the abdominal viscera, and
then form a common trunk, the thoracic duct, whicli,
in some subjects, is dilated at its origin, forming the
receptaculum chyli.  See Nutrition.
  LACTESCENS.   (From lac,  milk.)  Lactescent
or milky.                                          I
    LACTiC ACID, iAcidum lacticiim; front lac millt.j
  " By evnporating sour whey to one-eighth, fl -ciihk,
  precipitating with lime-water, and separating ti.e .ime
  by oxalic acid, Scheele obtained an aqueous solution
  of what  he supposed to be u peculiar acid, wludi ha?
  accordingly been termed  the lactic.   To procure il
  separate, he evaporated the solution to the consistence
  of honey, poured on it alkohol, filtered this solution,
  nnd evaporated the alkohol.  The residuum was an
  acid of a yellow colour, incapable of being crystallized,
  attracting the humidity if the  air, and forming  deli
  qucscent salts with the earths and alkalies.
    Bouillon Lagrange since examined it more narrowly,
  and from a series of experiments concluded, that it con-
  sists of acetic acid, muriate of potassa, a small portic.i
  of iron  probably dissolved in the acetic acid, and r.-i
  animal matter.
   This judgment of Lagrange was afterward supported
  by the opinions of Fourcroy and Vauquelin.  Hut since
  ihen, Bertelius has investigated its nature very fully,
  and has  obtained, by  means of a long and often-re-
  peated series of different experiments, a complete  con-
  viction that Scheele was in the right, and lhat the lactic
  acid is a peculiar acid,  very distinct from all others.
   The lactic acid, purified, has a brown-yellow colour,
  and a  sharp sour taste, which  is much weakened by
  diluting it with water.  It is without smell in the cold,
  but emits, when heated, a sharp sour  smell, not unlike
  lhat of sublimed oxalic acid.  It  cannot be made to
  crystallize, and does not  exhibit the  slightest appeai-
  ance of a saline substance; but dries inlo a thick and
  smooth varnish, which slowly attracts moisture :'■ ::i
  the air.   It is very easily soluble in alkohol.  Hea:;-!
  in  a  gold spoon over  the  flame of a candle, it  fi,-t
  boils, and then its pungent acid smell  becomes very
  manifest, but extremely distinct from that ofthe acetic
  acid ; afterward it is charred, and has an empyreuma-
  tic, but by no means an animal, smell.  A porous char-
  coal  is left  behind, which does not  readily burn to
  ashes.  When distilled, it gives  an empyreumatic oil,
  water, empyreumatic vinegar, carbonic acid, and  in-
  flammable gases.  With alkalies, earths, and metallic
  oxides, it affords peculiar  salts; and  these aredistiti
  guished by being soluble in alkohol, and in general by
  not having the least disposition to crystallize, but dry
  ing into a mass like gum, which  slowly becomes mois-'
  in  the air.
   La'ctica.  The Arabian name  for the fever v,'.;-.l
 the Greeks call Typhos.
   LACTI'FUGA.  (From lac,m\u\, and fugo, to drive
 away.)   A medicine or other means which dispel milk.
  LACTU'CA.  (From lac,  milk; named from  the
 milky juice  which exudes upon its being wounded.)
 1. The name of a genus of plants in the Linnaean sys
 tern.  Class, Syngcnesia ; Order, Polygamia aqualis
 The lettuce.
  2. The pharmacopceial name of the garden-lettuce,
 the Lactuca sativa.
  Lactuca oraveolens.  See Lactuca virosa.
  Lactuca sativa.  The systematic  name of  the
 lettuce.   It i3 esteemed as a wholesome, aperient, bitter
 anodyne, easy of digestion, but affording no nutriment.
 Lettuces appear to agree belter with hot, bilious, me-
 lancholic  temperaments, than the phlegmatic.  The
 seeds pos>e.--! a quantity of oily substance, whic'ij
 triturated with water, forms an emulsion esteemed by
 some in ardor urinae, and some diseases of the urinary
 passages.  Lettuce was famous  for the cure of  tbe
 emperor Augustus, and formed the opiate of Galen,
 in his old age; a proof that, in the warmer climates,
 it must acquire an exaltation of its virtues above what
 is met with in this country.
  Lactuca scariola.  Lactuca sylvestris ; Scariola,
 Scariola gallorum.  This species possesses a stronger
 degree of bitterness than the  Lactuca sativa, and ia
 said to bo moie aperient and  laxative.  It is nearly
 similar, in virtue as in taste, to endive  unblanched.
  Lactuca  sylvestris.  See Lactuca scariola.
  Lactuca  virosa.   The systematic name of the
 opium, or strong-scented lettuce.  Lactuca graveolcns.
 Lactuca—foliis horizontalibus carino aculealis den-
 tatis, of LinntEus.  A common  plan! in our hedge
 and ditches.  It has a strong, ungrateful smell, resem
 bling that of opium, and  a bitterish  acrid taste:  t|
 abounds with a milky  juice,  in which  its  sensible
qualities seem to reside, and which appears to  have
 been noticed by Dioscorides, who describes the odour 
LiEV
I.AM
ana taste of the juice as nearly agreeing with lhat of the
white poppy. Itscit'ecisarealsosuid, according to Haller,
to be powerfully narcotic.   Dr. Collin, at Vienna, first
brought the Iticluca virosa  into medical  repute, and its
character has lately induced the College of Physicians at
EJinburgh, to insert it in the catalogue of the  materia
r  dica. More than twenty-fourcases of dropsy are said,
by Collin, to have been successfully treated by employ ing
b:i extract prepared  from  the expressed juice of this
plant, which is slated not only to be powerfully diuretic,
but, by attenuating the viscid humours  to promote all
tie secretions, and to remove visceral obstructions.  In
life more simple cases, proceeding from debility, the
cxtiact, in doses  of  eighteen to thirty grains a-day,
proved sufficient to accomplish a cure; but when the
disease was inveterate, and accompanied with visceral
obstructions, the quantity of extract was increased to
thee drachms; nor did "larger doses, though they ex-
cited nausea, ever produce any other bad effect; and
tlie patient continued so strong under the use of this
remedy, lhat it was seldom  necessary lo  employ any
tenic medicines.  Though  Dr. Collin began his experi-
n ents with the  lactuca at the Pazman hospital, at ihe
time he was trying the arnica, 1771, yet very few phy-
sicians, even al Vienna, have since adopted  the use of
this plant.  Plenciz, indeed, has published  a  solitary
instance of its efficacy, while Quarin informs us lhat
he never experienced any good  effect  from  its use;
alleging, that tliose who were desirous of supporting
Its character, mixed  it with a quantity of extractum
scilla;.  Under these circumstances we shall only say,
that the recommendation of  this medicine by  Dr.  Col-
lin will be  scarcely thought  sufficient to establish its
use in  England.
  [" Lactuca elonoata.  This is a tall, lactescent,
native  plant.  It is substituted tor the Lactuca virosa
of Europe, which it somewhat resembles iu its proper-
ties, though of inferior strength.   I have  no personal
experience wilh this plant, hut am informed by physi-
cians who have tried it, that it is anodyne, and  pro-
motes the excretion of* the skin and kidneys.  An ex-
tract made  by inspissating the expressed juice may he
given in doses of from five to fifteen grains.  The con-
crete, lactescent juice would probably be  found much
stronger."—Big. Mat. Med.  A.]
  [" I.actucarium.   Common  garden-lettuce,  like
many plants of its class, exudes a milky juice 0:1 being
wounded after it is fully grown.  This juice concretes
on exposure to the air, into a brownish, bitter  sub-
stance, resembling opium in  some of its  characters.  It
is most abundant when  the plant is in  flower, and
least so while the leaves are young, or when they are
etiolated by heading.  Laotucarium has the colour,
and in some degree ihe taste and odour, of opium, for
which it has been proposed as a substitute by Dr. Coxe
and Dr. Duncan.   Il has been said lo contain morphia
in addition, to its other component parts.  It acts as a
soporific, and has been thought useful iu phthisis as a
palliative.   Dose, one or  two  grains."—Big. Mat.
Med.  A.]
   Lactuce'lla.   (Diminutive of lactuca, the lettuce;
so named from  its milky juice.)  The sow-thistle.  The
Sonchus arvensis.
   Lactuci'mina.  (From  lactco, to suckle: so called
because  Ihey happen chiefly to children while at the
breast.)  The thrush, and little ulcers, or crusty scabs
on the skin, which happen during the time the child is
at the breast.
   LACTU'MEN. (t'romlac, milk; so named  because
it is covered with a white crust.)   The achor, or scald-
head ;. also a liltle crusty  scab on the  skin, affecting
Children at the breast.
   LACU'NA.  (From tacit* a channel.)  The mouth
Or opening of the excretory duct of a muciparous gland,
as those of the urethra, and other parts.
   LADANUM.   (From  ladon, Arab.)  See Cistus
C> rticus.
   Ladies' bed-straw. See Galium.
   Ladies' mantle.  See Alchemilla.
   Ladies' smock.  See Cardamine.
   "L*tifica'ktia.  (From latifico, to make glad ) This
 term has been applied to many compositions under Ihe
 intention of cordials; but both the medicines and dis-
 tinctions are now quite disused.
   LiEVlS.  Smooth and  even.   Applied 10 stems of
 plains, and  is opposed lo  atl roughness and  inequality
 whatever.
       fi
  LeEViTxs iNTKane.oRUM.  A  name of the iientcry
See Diarrhaa.
  La'oaros.  (Aayapos, lax; so named from its com-
parative laxity.)  The right ventricle of the heart.
  LAGENjEFORMIS.   Bottle-shaped.  Applied  tc
the gourd ;  as iu Cucurbita lagenana.
  LAGNES19.  (From Xayvrjs, libidinous.) The name
of a genus of diseases.   Class,  Genetica ; Older, Or-
gastic*; in Good's Nosology: lust.  It embraces two
species, viz. Lagnesis salacitas, and L. furor.
  LAGOPHTHA'LMIA.   (From Xayuos, a hare, and
oqidaXpos, an eye; because it  is believed 'hat  hares
sleep with  their eyes open.)   Lagophthalmos.  The
hare's eye.   A disease in wliich the eye cannot be shut.
The following complaints may arise from it: a constant
weeping of the organ, in consequence of the interrup-
tion of the alternate closure and opening of the eyelids,
which motions so  materially contribute to piopelliug
the tears into the nose; blindness in a strong light, in
consequence of the inability to moderate the rays which
fall on the eye;  on  ihe same account, the -igju becomes
gradually very  much weakened; incapacity to  sleep
where there is any light; irritation, pain,  aud redness
of the eye,  from this organ being exposed to ihe ex-
traneous substances  in  the atmosphere,  without the
eyelids having the power of washing them  away  in
the natural  manner.
  An enlargement or protrusion of the whole eye, or a
staphyloma, may obviously produce lagopluhahiios
But  affections of the upper eyelids are the  common
causes. Heister says, he has seen  the complaint ori-
ginate from a disease of the lower one. Now and
then  lagophthalmos depends on paralysis of line orhi
cularis muscle.   A cicatrix after a wound, ulcer,  or
burn, is the most frequent cause.
  LAGOPO'DIUM.  (From Xayuos, a hare, and irovs,
a foot: so called because it has narrow hairy leaves,
like the foot of a hare.)   The herb hare's-foot tiefoil.
  LAGO'STO.MA.   (From Xayuos, a hare, and  g-opa,
the mouth:  so called because the upper lip is divided
in the middle like that of a hare.)  See Hare Up.
  LAKE WEED.  See Polygonum hydropiper.
  LALLANS.   See  LalUlto.
  IiALLATTO.  That species of vicious pronuncia-
tion  in which the letter I is rendered unduly liquid  01
substituted  for  an r.   The  Greeks denominated il
lambdacismus, from the letter X, lambda.
  La'mac.   Gum-arabic.
  LAMBDACISMUS.   A defect in speech,  which
consists in an inability to pronounce  certain conso-
nants ; or that stammering or difficulty of speech  when
the letter I  is pronounced too liquid, and  often  in  the
place of r.   See Pscllismus lullans.
  LAMBDOIDAL.   (Lamhdvidalis;  from A. and
ttios, resemblance, because it is shaped like ihe  teller
A.)   Belonging to the suture so called.
  Lambdoidal  si;tl'Re.   (Sutura  lambdoidalis;  be-
cause it is shaped like the letter A)  Occipital suture.
The suture that unites  the occipital bono lo the i-.vo
parietal bones.
  LAMBITIVUM.   (From tnmbo, to lick  up.)   A
linctus or medicine to be licked up.
  LA ME'LLA.  (Dim.  of lamina, a plate of roeial.)
1.  A thin plate of metal.
  2.  The parallel gills or plates in the inferior surface
of the agaric family only
  LAMINA.  (From tXau, to  beat off.)   A Sone, or
membrane, or any substance resembling a  thin plate of
metal.
  2.  The lap of the ear.
  3.  The parts of the corolla of a ptilypetalous flower,
are named  the unguis, or claw, and lamina, or border.
  LAMINABILITY.  A property possessed hy some
bodies of being extended in dimensions by a gradually-
applied pressure   See Ductility.
  LAMIUM.  (From Lamium, a  mountain of  Ionia,
where il grew; or from lama, a ditch, because it usually
grows about ditches and neglected places.)  The name
nf a genus of plants in  the Linnaeaii system.   Class,
Didynamia; Order,  Gymnospcrmia.  The nettle.
  Lamium  album.   Urtica  mortua; Archangclica,
Galeobilolon; st.ickys fatida:  Urtica  iners magna
fatidissima.  Dead nettle; White archangel  nellle
Uterine hfinoiihages and fluor albus nre said to bfi
relieved by infusions of this plant, fiom whose sensible
qualities very little benefit can br expected.
   LAMPIC ACID.  {Acidumlampsicum  from Ann™ 
LAJ*
LAP
 to shine)   "Sir H. Davy,  during  his admirable re-
 searches on  the nature and properties of flame, an-
 nounced the singular fact, that combustible bodies might
 be made to combine rapidly with oxygen, at temperatures
 below what were necessary  to their visible inflamma-
 tion.  Among the phenomena tesulting from these new
 combinations, he remarked the production of a peculiar
 acid and pungent vapour from the slow combustion of
 ether;  and from its obvious qualities he was Jed to
 suspect, that  it might be a product yet new  to the
 chemical catalogue.  Faraday, in the 3d volume ofthe
 Journal of Science  and the  Arts, has  given some ac-
 count of the properties of this new acid ; but from the
 very small  quantities in which he was able to collect
 it, was prevented from performing any decisive expe-
 riments upon it.
  In  the 6th volume of the same Journal, we have a
 pretty ctepious investigation of the properties and com-
 pounds of this new acid, by  Daniell.   From the slow
 combustion of ether during  six weeks, by means of a
 coil of platina wire sitting on the cotton  wick of tlie
 lamp, he condensed with the head of an alembic, whose
 beak was inserted  in a receiver, a pint and a half of
 the lampic  acid liquor.
  When first collected, it is a colourless fluid, of an in-
 tensely  sour taste, and pungent odour.   Its vapour,
 When heated, is extremely irritating  and disagreeable,
 and, when  received into the lungs, produces an  op-
 pression at  the chest very much resembling the efli-ct
 of chlorine.  Its specific gravity varies according to the
 care wilh which it has been prepared, from less than
 1.000 to 1.00;\   It may lie purified by careful evapora-
 tion ;  and  il is worthy of remark,  lhat the vapour
 which rises from it is that of alkohol, with which it ia
 slightly contaminated, and not of ether.   Thus recti-
 fied, its specific gravity  is 1.015.   It reddens vegetable
 blues, and decomposes all the earthy and alkaline car-
 bonates, forming neutral salts wilh their bases,  which
 are more or less deliquescent."— Ure's Chem. Diet.
  ["Lamp, safety. Thesafety-lampasrecommended
 for  general use by Sir  H. Davy, is a cylinder of wire
 gauze with adouble top, securely and carefully fastened.
 The whole  is  protected and rendered convenient for
 parrying by a  frame and ring.  If the cylinder be of
 twilled  wire-gauze the wire  should be at  least  of the
 thickness of one-fortieth cf an inch,  and of iron or
 copper, and 30 in the warp, and 16 or 18  in the weft.
 If of plain wire-gauze the wire should not  be less than
 one-sixtieth of an inch  in thickness, and from 28 to 30
 both warp and woof.
  The operation of this  lamp may be shown on a small
 scale by suspending it in a glass jar, and then admitting
 a sufficient  stream of coal gas to render the enclosed
 atmosphere explosive.  The flame of the lamp first en-
 larges, and  is then extinguished, the whole of the cage
 being filled with a lambent blue light; on fuming off
the supply of the gas this appearance gradually ceases
 and the wick becomes rekindled, when the atmosphere
returns to its natural slate."—Web. Man. of Chem. A.]
  LA'MPSANA.  See  Laps ana.
  LANA.  Wool.  In botany, applied  to a species of
hairy pubescence, consisting of white, long, somewhat
 crisp hair,  like wool.   Il is applied to sterns, leaves,
 seeds, &c.
  Lana PHiLosormcA.   The snowy  flakes of white
 oxide, which rise and float in the air from tbe combus-
 tion of zinc.
  LANATUS.   Woolly.    Applied   to  the  stems,
 leaves, seeds, &c. of plants.   The Verbascum thapsus
 is a good example of the Caulis lanatus;  the Siachys
 lanata of the leaves; and the Gossypium of the seed.
  LANCEOLATUS.  Lanceolate, lance-shaped. Ap-
 plied to leaves, petals, seeds, Sec. of a narrow, oblong
 form, tapering towards each end;  as the leaves in
 Plantaeo lanceolata, and petals of Narcissus minor,
 and seeds ofthe Fraxinus.
  LANCE'TTA.   (Dim. of lancca,  a  spear.)  A
 lancet.  An instrument used for bleeding ani  other
purposes.
  LANCISI, John Maria, was born at Rome, in 1G54.
He was intended for the church, but a taste for natural
history led him to the study of medicine, wliich he pur-
sued with great ardour, and took his degree at the age
of 18.  After some minor appointments, whicli  ena-
bled  him to display his talents and acquirements, he
was appointed professor of anatomy in 1684;  and con-
tinued  his duties for 13 years, with great reputation
 He was made physician to three succeeding popes, and
 attained the age of 65.  He had great knowledge of
 mankind, with very engaging manners; and his zea.
 for the advancement of medici le was extreme and un
 ceasing.  He  collected a  library of above 20,1100 vo
 lumes, which  he devoted to the use of the public, and
 particularly of medical students: it was opened four
 years  before his  death. He left a  considerable num-
 ber of work*, several  of  which were printed, other*'
 remain in  manuscript  in  that library.  His more im
 portant publications are,  a treatise, " De  Subitanein
 Mortibus;" "The Anatomical Plates of Eustachius,
 with a Preface and Notes, in folio;" and  a disserta
 tion, " De  Noxiis Paludum Effluviis," referring itucr
 mittents to the marsh miasmata, printed  in 1717. Allot
 his death, n treatise, " Do Motu Cordis et Aneuiysnia-
 tibus," and a collection of cases from his manuscript,
 were given to the public.
   LANGR1SI1, Browne,  a physician of the last cen-
 tury, distinguished himself as nn advocate for the me-
 chanical theories of physiology and medicine, which
 he supported by numerous experiments.  He had the
 merit of ascertaining several interesting fucts in respect
 (o the  nature of the circulating powers. He died in
 London, in 1759.  His  publications  arc, "A New Es
 say on  Muscular  Motion, Sec.;" "Modern  Theory of
 Physic;" "Physical Experiments upon Brutes;" and
 "Croonian Lectures on Muscular Motion."
  Lao'nica curatio.  A method of curing the gout,
 by evaporating tlie morbid maltcr  by topical applica-
 tions.
  Lapa'ctica.   (From Xairafr, to evacuate.)   Pur
 gative  medicines.
  LA'PARA.   (From  Xairagu, to empty;  so named
 from ils concave and empty appearance.)  The flank
  LAPAROCE'LE.   (From Xarrapa, the flank, and
 xriXn, a rupture.)  A rupture  through the side of the
 belly.
  LA PATHUM.  (From Xairafui, to evacuate:  so
 named because it purges gently.)   The dock  See
 Rumex.
  Lapathum acetosum.  See Rumex acctosa.
  Lapathum acutum.  See Rumex aculus.
  Lapathum  ao.uaticum.  See Rumex hydrolapa
 thum.
  Lapide'llum.  (From lapis, a stone.)  Lapidellus.
 The name of a kind of spoon, formerly  used tn take
 out small stones and fragments from the bladder.
  LAP1DEUS.  Stony. Applied to seeds of plant*
 as those of the Lithospermum and Ostcosperma.
  La'pides cancrorum.   See Cancer.
  Lapi'lli cancrorum.  See Cancer.
  LA'PIS.   (Lapis, idis.  m.; of  uncertain deriva
 tion.)  A stone.
  Lapis aoeratus.  See Ageratus.
  Lapis bezoar.   See  Bezoar.
  Lapis cjeruleus.  See  Lapis lazuli.
  Lapis calaminaris.  See Calamine.
  Lapis calcaruus.  A carbonate  of lime.
  Lapis cyanus.  See  Lapis lazuli.
  Lapis hjematites.   See Hamatites.
  Lapis hibernicus.   Tegula  hiberniea.   Ardesia
hibernica.   Hardesia.   Irish slate.   A kind of slate,
or very hard stone, found in different parts of Ireland,
in a mass of a bluish-black colour, which stains the
hands.   When dried and powdered, it is pale, or of a
whitish blue, and, by keeping, grows black. In the
fire it  yields a sulphureous gas, and acquires a pale-
red colour,  wilh additional hardness.  It is occasion-
ally powdered  by the common people, and  taken  in
spruce  beer, against inward bruises.
  Lapis hystricis.  See Bezoar hystricis-
  Lapis infernalis.  An  old name  for the caustic
potassa.  See Potassa fusa.
  Lapis lazuli.   Lapis  cyanus.   Azure stone.   A
combination of 46 silica, 28 lime, 14.5 alumina, 3 oxide
of iron, 6.5 sulphate of lime, and 2 water, according
to Klaproth. This singular mixture forms a stone, of
a beautiful azure blue, which it preseives in a strong
heat, and does  not suffer any alteration by the contact
of air.   The finest specimens come from China Per
sia, and Great Bucharia. It was formerly exhibited it
a purgative and vomit, and given in epilepsy.
  Lapis malacensis.   See Bezoar hystricis
  Lapis ollaris.  Potstone.
  Lapis porcinus.  See Bezoar hystricis
  Lapis simi.e.  Sue Bezoar sunia. 
LAT
LAU
  LAPPA.   (Lappa, airo iv XaSttv, from its seizing
the garments of passengers.)  See Arctium lappa.
  Lappa major.  See Arctium lappa.
  LA'PSANA.  (Aaipavq, from Lampsacus, the town
near which it  flourished; or from Xairafa, to evacu-
ate ;  because it was said  to  relax the bowels.)  The
name of a genus of plants.  Class, Syngenesia; Order,
Polygamia aqualcs.
  Laps an a  communis.  Lampsana;  Napium; Pa-
villaris   herba.  Dock-cresses.    Nipplewort.   This
plant is a lactescent bitter, and nearly similar in vir-
tues  to  the cichory, dandelion, and endive.  It has
been employed chiefly for external purposes, against
wounds and ulcerations, whence the name of nipple-
wort and papillaris.
  La'ques outturis.  A malignant inflammation of
the'tonsils, in which the patient appears as if he were
suffocated with a noose.
  LARCH.  See Pinus iarix.
  LARD.  The English name of hog's fat,  when
melted d«wn.  See Adeps suilla.
  [Larkspur. See Delphinium.   A.]
  LARYNGISMUS. Thenaineof a genus of diseases,
Class, Pneumatica;  Order,  Pncumonica,  in Good's
Nosology.  Laryngic suffocation.  It has only one
species,  stridulus, the spasmodic croup.
  LARYNGOTOMY.   (Laryngotomia;  from Xa-
pvy\, the  larynx, and rtpvu, to  out.)  See Broncho-
to my.
  LARYNX.  (Larynx,  gis. f.;  a Greek primitive.)
A cartilaginous cavity, situated behind the tongue, in
the anteiior part  of  the fauces, and lined with an ex
quisitely sensible membrane.  It is composed of the
annular or cricoid cartilage, the scutiform or thyroid,
the epiglottis  and two  arytaenoid cartilages.   The
superior opening  of the larynx is called  the glottis.
The laryngeal arteries are branches ot  the external
carotids.  The laryngeal  veins evacuate their  blood
into the external jugulars.  The nerves of the larynx
arc from the eighth pair.   The use of the larynx is to
constitute the organ of voice, aud to serve also i'oi
respiration.
  LASCI'VUS.   (Fiom lacio, to ensnare; upon ac-
count of its irregular motions.)
  1.  Lascivious.
  2.  An epithet used by Paracelsus for  the chorea
sancti viti.
  LA'SER.  (A term used  by the Cyrenians.)  The
herb laserwort, or assafoetida.
  LASERPITIUM.  (Lac serpitium, alluding to its
milky juice.)  The name of a  genus of plants  in the
Linnaean system;  Class, Pentandria;  Older,  Di-
gynia.
  Laserpitium  cihronium.  Panax.  Hercules'  all-
heal, or woundwort.  The seeds and roots of this plant
arc warm, and similar iu flavour and quality to tliose
of the parsnip.  The  roots  and  stalks have a much
stronger smell, which resembles that of opoponax ; and
Boerhaave relates, that,on wounding ihe plant  in the
tuinmer, he obtained a yellow juice, which, being in-
spissated a Utile in the sun, agreed perfectly in both re-
spects with that exotic gum resin.
   Laserpitium  latifolium.  The systematic  name
of tlie white gentian.  Gentiana alba.  The rool of
this plant, Laserpitium foliis cordatis, inciso-serratis,
bf Linnaeus, possesses stomachic, corroborant, and de-
obstruent virtues.  It is seldom used.
   Laserpitium siler.   The systematic name  of the
licartwort.  Sescli;  Siler montanum.  Sermuuntuiii.
The seeds and roots of this plant, which  grows in the
southern parts of Europe, are directed  as olficinals.
They have an agreeable  smell, mid a warm, glowing,
aromatic taste; and though  neglected iu this country,
do not appear lo be deservedly  so.
   LATERAL.   (Lateralis;  from latus, the side.)
On the  side.   A  term  in  general use, applied lo parts
of the  body, operations,  and  lo flower-stalks, w hen
situated on the  side of a stein or stalk; as in Erica
vagans.
   Lateral operation.   A name given to an opera-
tion. One mode of cutting for the stone, because it is
performed on the side of the pelvis.   See Lithotomy.
   Lateral sinus.   See Sinus.
   LATER1TIOUS. (Lalcntius, from later, a brick.)
 A term applied to the brick-like sediment occasionally
 deposited in the urine of people afflicted with fever.
   LA'TEX.  (Latex, quod in  venis  terra latcat.)
Water, or juice.  A term sometimes  applied to tns
blood,  as being the  spring or source of all the hu-
mours.
  La'thyris.   (From XaOu, to forget; because it was
thought to affect the memory.)  A term given by some
author lo a species of lithymal  or spurge, commonly
known  by the name of Titkymalus latifolius, the
broad-leaved  spurge, and called by  some also Cata-
putia.
  LA'THYRUS. (A name adopted from Theophras
tus, whose X.aBvpos, appears evidently to be like  ours
something ofthe pea or vetch kind, though it is impos-
sible precisely  to determine what.)   The  name of a
genus of plants in the Linnaean system.  Class, Diadel-
phia; Order,  Decandria. The vetch.
  Lati'bulu.m.  (From laleo, lo lie hid.)   The foinca
or hidden matter of  infectious diseases.
  LATISSIMUS.  A term applied to a muscle from
its great breadth.
  Latissimus  colli.  See Plutysma myoides
  Latissimus dorsi. Aniscalptor, of Cowper. Dcrsi
lumbo  sacro  humeral, of Dumas.  A  muscle of the
humerus, situated on the posterior part of the trunk.
It is a very broad, thin, and, for the  most part, fleshy
muscle, which  is placed immediately under tlie skin
except where it is covered by the lower  extremity of
the trapezius.  Il arises tendinous from  the posterior
half of the upper edge of the spine of the os ilium,
from the spinous processes of the os sacrum and lum-
bar vertebrae, and from five or six, and sometimes from
seven, and even eight,  of the lowermost ones of the
back;  also tendinous and fleshy from the upper edges
and external surface ofthe four inferior false ribs, near
their cartilages, by as many distinct slips.  From  these
different origins the fibres ol" the muscle run in differenl
directions; those from the ilium and false  ribs run
almost perpendicularly upwards; those  from the  sa-
crum and lumbar vertebrae,  obliquely upwards and
forwards; and those from the vertebrie of the back,
transversely outwards and  forwards, over the inferior
angle of the scapula, where they receive a small thin
bundle of" fleshy fibres, which  arise tendinous  from
that angle, and ate  inserted with the rest of  the mus-
cle, by a strong,  flat, and thin tendon, of about two
 inches in length, into the forepart of the posterior edge
of the groove observed between the  two tuberosities
of the os Humeri, fur lodging the tendon of the lung
head of the biceps.   In dissection, therefore, this mus-
cle ought not to be  followed to its insertion,  till  soma
of the other muscles of the os humeri have  been first
 raised.  Its use is to pull the os humeri downwards
 and backwards, and lo turn it upon its axis.  Riolanus,
from its use on certain occasions, gave il the name of
 ani tersor.  When we raise ourselves upon our hands,
 as in rising from oil' an arm-chair, wo may easily per-
 ceive the contraction of this muscle.  A bursa mucosa
 is found between the tendon of this muscle and the oa
 humeri, inlo whicli it is inserted.
   Lauca'ma.  (From Aueu, to  receive: so called be
cause  it receives and conveys food.)   The oesophagus
   LATi DANUM.   (From tau.*, praise: so named
 from its valuable properties.)  Sec Tinctura  opii.
   LAUMONITE.   Diprismatic zeolite.
   LAUREL.  See  Laurus.
   Laurel, cherry.  See Prunus lauroccrasus.
   Laurel, spurge.  See Daphne laureola.
   LAUREOLA.   (Dim. of laurus, Ihe laurel: named
 from  ils resemblance to the laurel.)   See Daphne
 laureola.
   Lauro-cerasus.   (From laurus,  the laurel,  and
 cerasus, the cherry-tree: so called because it  has
 leaves like the laurel.)  See Prunus laurocei-asus.
    Lauro'sis.  (So called fiom Mount Laurus, where
 there  were silver mines.)   The spodiuin of silver.
   LAU'RUS.   (From tans, praise;  because it  wat
 usual to crown the heads of eminent men with bianchoa
 of it.)  1. The name of a genus of plants in tlie Lin-
 naean system.  Class, Enncandria; Order, Monogynia
 The laurel.
   2. The pharmacopceial name of the sweet bay.  See
 Laurus nobilis.
   Laurus camphora. The systematic name  of the
 camphire-tree.  Laurus—foliis triplincrins lancco-
 lato-ovatis.  Il affords the substance called Camphora
 Camphura;  Caf; Cafar; Ligatura veneris;  Caphora;
 Cupur; Alkosor; Attesor.  Camphire, or camphor, ia
 a peculiar concrete substance prepared by distillation 
LAU
LAU
 The tree is indigenous and grows abundantly.  The
 camphire is found to  lodge  everywhere in tho inter-
 stices of the fibres of the wood, pith, and knots of the
 tree.  The  crude  camphire, exported from Japan, ap-
 pears in small grayish  pieces, and is intermixed with
 various extraneous matters;  m this state it is received
 by the Dutch, and purified by a second sublimation; it
 is then formed into loaves, in which state il is sent to
 England.
   "Purified camphor is a white concrete crystalline
 substance, not brittle,  but  easily crumbled, having a
 peculiar consistence resembling that  of  spermaceti,
 but haider.  It has a strong lively smell, and an acrid
 taste;  is so volatile as totally to exhale when  left ex-
 posed in a warm air; is light enough to swim on water;
 and  is very inflammable, burning with a very white
 flame and smoke, without any residue.
   The roots nf zedoary, thwue, rosemary, sage, the
 inula helleniuin, the anemone, the pasque  flower or
 Pulsatilla, and other vegetables, afford camphor hy dis-
 tillation.  It is observable, lhat all these plants afford
 a much larger quantity of camphor, when the sap has
 been suffered to pass to the  concrete state by several
 months' drying. Thyme and peppermint, slow ly dried,
 afford much camphor; and Achard has observed that
 a smell of camphor is disengaged when volatile oil  of
 fennel is treated wilh acids.
  Kind, a German chemist, endeavouring to incorpo-
 rate murialic acid gas with oil of turpentine, by putting
 this oil into Ihe vessels in which the  cas was received
 when extricated, found  the oil change,  first yellow,
 then brown, and, lastly, lo be almost wholly coagulated
 inlo a crystalline mass, which comported itself iu every
 respect like camphor.   Tromsdorf and Boullay  con-
 firm this.   A small quantity of camphor may bo ob-
 tained from oil of  turpentine  by simple distillation at
 a very gentle  heat.   Oilier  essential  oils,  however,
 afford more.  Dy  evaporation in shallow vessels, at a
 heat not exceeding 57° F., Proust obtained from oil of
 lavender .25, of sage .21, of marjoram .1014, of rose-
 mary .0625.  He  conducted the operation on a pretty
 large scale.
  Camphor is not  soluble in water in any perceptible
 degrees, though  it communicates its smell to that
 fluid, aud may be burned as it floats  on  its surface.
 Il is said, however, thai a  surgeon at  Madrid has
 effected its solution  in water by means of the caibo-
 nic acid.
  Camphor  may  be powdered  by moistening  it with
 alkohol, and triturating il till dry.  It may be formed
 into an emulsion hy previous grinding w ith near three
 times its wfight of almonds,  and  afterward gradually
 adding the  water.   Yelk of egg and  mucilages  are
 also effectual for  this purpose;  but sugar does not
 answer well.
  It has been observed by Romieu, that small pieces
 of camphor floating on water have a rotatory motion.
  Alkohol, ethers,  and oils, dissolve camphor.
  The addition of  water to tlie spirituous or acid solu-
 tions of camphor, instantly separates it.
  Hatchett  has particularly examined the action of
 sulphuric acid on camphor.  A hundred grains of cam-
 phor were digested in  an ounce of concentrated sul-
 phui ic acid  for two days.  A gentle heat was then ap-
 plied, and the digestion continued for two days longer.
 Six ounces of water were then added, and  tiie'whole
 distilled to dryness.  Three grains of an essential oil,
  aving a mixed odour of lavender and  peppermint,
 ca*ie over with ihe water. The residuum being treated
 twice  with  two ounces of alkohol each time, fifty-
 three grains of a compact  coal  in  small  fragments
 remained undissolved.   The alkohol, being evaporated
 in a wa.er-baih, yielded forty-nine grains of a blackish
 brown  substance,  which was bitter, astringent, had
 the smell of caromel, and formed a dark brown solu-
 lion wilh '.va:er.  This solution threw down very dark
 brown precipitates, with sulphate of iron, acetate of
 lead,  muriate of tin, and nitrate of lime.  It precipi-
 tated gold in the metallic state.  Isinglass threw down
 the  whole of what was dissolved in a nearly black
 precipi ate.
  When nitric acid is  distilled  repeatedly in large
 quantities from camphor, it converts it into a peculiar
acid."   See  Camphoric acid.
  The use  of this important medicine,  in different
diseases, is verv consiileiable.  It has been much em-
 uloved, with great advantage, *>n levers of all kinds,
 particularly in nervous fevers, attended with delirium
 and much watchfulness.  The experienced Werlholf
 has witnessed  its utility in several inflammatory dis-
 eases, and speaks  highly in  favour of its rel'iiueianl
| qualities.  The benefit derived from it in putrid fevers,
| where bark and acids are contra-indicated, is lemiuka-
I ble.  In spasmodic and convulsive affections it is also
 of much service, and even  in epilepsy.   In  chronic
 diseases  this medicine  is  likewise employed;  and
 against rheumatism, arthritis, and mania, we  have
 several accounts of Its efficacy.   Nor is it less effica-
 cious when applied externally in cerkiin  diseases: il
 dissipates inflammatory tumours iu a shoit time; and
 its antiseptic quality, in resisting and curing gangrene.
 is  very considerable.   Another property  peculiar to
j this medicine, must  not, however,  be omitted; the
 power it possesses of obviating the strangury ihai is
I produced by cantharides, when sprinkled over a blister.
' The preparations of camphor are, spiritus camphora,
 liittmcittum camphora, tinctura  camphora composita,
 and the  mistura camphora.  Camphor, dissolved in
 acetic acid w ith some essential oils, forms the aromatic
 vinegar.
   Laurus taSsia.   Cassia  ligncii: Canella malaba
 rica;  Cassia lignea malabitrica ; Xylocussia; Canilla
 malabarica et javensis; Karen;  Canella cubana;
 Arbor judaica;  Cassia canella; Cancilifira malaba-
 rica;  Cinnamomum vuilabaricum :  Calihucha  cuncla.
 Wild cinnamon tree; Malabar cinuamoii-iree, or cas
 tin lignea-trce.   Cassia lignea is tlie bark ofthe Laurus
 tree, the  foliis  triplinerviis  lanceolatis,  of Linnaeus.
 The leaves are called folia malabathri in the shots.
 The bark aud  leaves abound with the  flavour of
 cinnamon, for which they  may be  substituted; but
 in   much larger doses,  as they  are consideiahly
 weaker.
   Laurus cinnamomum.   The systematic name of
 the cinnamon-tree.   Cinnamomum.  This  tree affords
 ihe true cinnahion, whicli is its inner bark.  Jaequin
 describes the tree thus: Laurus cinnamomum ; foliis
 trincrvtis ovuto-oblongis; nervis versus upicem cva-
 nescentibus  Cinnamon bark is one ofthe most grate-
 ful of the aromatics;  of a fragrant smell, and a mode-
 rately pungent, glowing, hut  not fiery taste, accompa-
 nied with considerable sweetness, and some degree of
 adstrineency.   It is one of the best cordial carminative
 and restorative spices we are in possession of,  and is
 generally mixed with  the diet of the sick.   The e.-sen
 tial oil, on account of its high price, ia seldom used: 7
 tincture, simple and spirituous water, are  directed U
 be  kept in the shops.   The watery infusion of cinna.
 mon is given with  advantage to relieve nausea  and
 check  vomiting.
  Laurus ciililawan.  The systematic name of the
 plant, the bark of which is called cortex culiluwan in
 the shops.   Cullitlawan;   Cortex  caryophulloides.
 Laurus—fuliis  triplinerviis  oppositis, of  Linnaeus
 This bark very much resembles cinnamon  iu appear-
 ance and  properties.
  Laurus nobilis.  The systematic  name of (he
 sweet  bay-tree.   Laurus—foliis  venosis  lanceolatis
perennantibus, fioribus ouadnfidis, of Linnaeus.  This
 tree is a native of Italy, but cultivated in our gardens
 and shrubberies, as  a handsome evergreen.   The
 leaves and berries  possess the same medicinal quali
 ties, both  having a sweet fragrant smoll, and an  am
 matic adstringent taste.  The laurus of honoraiy me-
 mory, the distinguished favourite of Apollo, may be
 naturally  suppostd to have  had no   inconsiderable
 fame as a medicine;  but its  pharmaceutical uses arc
so limited in ihe practice ot  the present day, that this
dignified plant is now rarely  etnploved, except  in ihe
 way of enema, or us an external application: thus the
leaves  are directed in the decoctum pro fomento, and
 Ihe berries in the emplastrum cumini.
  Laurus pekska.  This species affords the Avigalo
pear, which, when ripe, melts in the mouth like mar-
row, whicli it greatly  resembles in flavour   li is  sup-
 posed to be the'mosi nutritious of all the tropical fruits,
 and grows iu vast abundance in  the West Indies and
New Spain.  The unripe  fruit have but  Utile laste;
yet, being verv salubrious, are often eaten with salt
and pepper.  The sailors, when they arrive ut the Ha-
vana, and those parts, purchase  them  in great quan-
tities;  and, chopping them  into small pieces,  with
green cap-icums, and a little salt, regale themselves
heartily with them.  They are esteemed also for their 
LAX                                            LEA
 Mltidysenteric qualities, and are prepared in a variety
 nt  ways for the tables of the rich.
   Laurus sassafras.  The systematic name of the
 sassafras-tree.   Sassafras;  Cornus  mas  odorata;
 Lignum pavanum;  Anhuiba.  Tile wood of'tliis tree,
 Laurus—foliis  trilobis intcgrisquc,  of Linnaeus,  is
 imported from North America, in long straight pieces,
 veiy light, and of a spongy texture, and covered with ]
 a rough, fungous bark.  It has a fragrant smell, and a
 sweetish  aromatic,  subacrid taste;  the root, wood,
 and bark agree iu their medicinal qualities,  and are
 all  mentioned in the pharmacopoeias ; but ihe bark  is
 [he most 1'rngrnnt, and thought lo he  more efficacious
 tiian the woody part; and the branches are preferred
 lo the large  pieces   The medical  character of this
 drug was formerly hold in great estimation, and publi-
 cations were  professedly written on the subject.  It  is
 now, however, thought to beof little importance, and
 seldom used but in conjunction with other medicines,
 as a collector ofthe fluids.   It is an ingredient in the
 decoctum sarsaparilla compositum, or decoctum ligno-
 ruin; but the only officinal preparation of  it is the
 essential oil, which is carminative and stimulant, a
 jvliich may he given iu the dose of two drops to ten
  LAVA.  The cinders or product of volcanoes.
  Lavandula.  See Lavcndula.
  LAVKNDER.   See Lavcndula.
  Lavender, French.   See Luvendula  stadias.
  LAVE'NDULA.  (From  lavo, to wash: so culled,
 because, on account of its  fragrancy, it was  used  in
 baths.)  1  The name of n genus of plants in the Lin
 nueati  system.   Class, Didynamia;  Order,   Gymne-
 spcrmia.  Lavender.
  2. The pharmacopoteial name of the common laven-
 Jer. See Luvendula spica.
  Lavkndula spioa.  The  systematic name of the
 common lavender.  Nardus  itulica.  Luvendula—
foliis sessilibus lanceolato-lincaribus marginc rcvolu-
 tis, spica interrupta nuda, of Linnaeus.  A native of
 the southern  pjrts of Europe, but cultivated iu our
 gardens on account of the  fragrance of its  flowers.
 Their  laste is bitter, warm,  and somewhat pungent;
 the leaves are weaker and less grateful.  The essen-
 tial oil, obtained by distillation, is of a bright yellow
 colour, of a very pungent taste, and possesses, if care-
 fully distilled, the  fragiunce of the  lavender in per-
 fection.  Lavender  has been long  recommended  in
 nervous debilities, and various affections proceeding
 from a want of entogy in the animal functions.   The
 College directs an essential oil, a simple spirit, and  a
 compound tincture, lo be kept in the shops.
  Lavendula stcechas.  The systematic name of
 the French  lavender.   Stcechas; Slachas arabiea;
 Spica hortulana; Stucadore.  This plant is much loss
grateful in smell and flavour than the common laven-
der, to which it 's allied  in its properties.
  LA'VER.  (From lavo, to w ash: so named  because
 It is found in brooks, where it is constantly washed by
 Ihe stream.)
  1. The brook-lime.
  2. The English name of a  speciesof fucus which is
 eaten as a delicacy.
  LAVIPE'DIUM.  (From  lavo, to wash, and  pes,
 the foot.)  A  bath  for the feet.
  LAWSONIA.  (After  Mr. Lawson, a  Scotchman,
 who published an  excellent  account of his voyage to
 Carolina, containing much information concerning the
 plants  of that country.)   The  name of a genus of
 plants  in the Linnaean system.  Cl.iss,  Octandria;
 Order, Monogynia.
  Lawsonia  inkrmis. The systematic name of the
 true alkanua.   Alkanna vera,  alkanna orientalis.
 An oriental  plant; the Lawsonia—ramis inermibus,
 of Linnaeus;  principally employed, in its native place,
 as a dye.   Tlie root is the officinal part; wh'ch, how-
 ever, is rarely met with in the shops.   It possesses ad-
 stringent properties, and may be used  as a substitute
 for  the anchusa.
  LAXATl'VA.   (From  laxo, to  loosen.)   Gentle
 purgatives.
  LAXATOR.  (From laxo, to loosen: socailedfrom
 its office to  relax.)  A name applied  to muscles, the
office of which is to telax parts Into which  they are
 inserted.
  Laxator tympani.  F.xternus  mallei, of Albinus;
 Anterior mallei, of  Winslow;  Obliquus auris, of
 Douglas;  Externus  auris  vcl  laxator  intc<nus of
      10
 Coil per; and Spheni salpingo millien, of Duma?.   A
 mubcle of the internal ear, lhat draws the malleus
 obliquely forwards towards its origin;  consequently the
 membrana tympani is made less concave, or is relaxed.
   LAXUS.  Lax or diffused.  Applied by botanists i>
 opposition to rectus and strictus ; as in the stein of thi
 Bunias cakile, or sea rocket, the stem of which is du
 scribed as caulis taxus.
   LAZUL1TE.  See Azurite.
   LA'ZULUS.   (From azul, Arabian.)  A precloui
 stone, of a blue colour.   See Lapis lazuli.
   LEAD.  Plumbum.  A metal found in cor.siderablt
 quantity in many parts of the earth, in different states
 seldom, if at all, in the metallic slate.  It is found  in
 that of oxide, red lead ore, mixed with a portion of iron,
 clay, and other earths. • The colour of this ore is aurora
 red, resembling red arsenic.  It is found in small lumps,
 of an indeterminate figure, and  also crystallized  in
 four-sided rhomboidal prisms.
   Combined with carbonic acid, it forms the sparry lead
 ore, so called because it has the texture and crystalliza-
 tion of certain spars.   There are a great many varieties
 of this kind.  It is found  also united with  sulphuric
 phosphoric, arsenic,  molybdic,  and  chromic  acids
 Lastly, lead is found mineralized hy sulphur, forming
 what is called galena (sulphuret. of lead), which is by
 far its most abundant ore.  This  ore, which  is very
 common, is found both in masses and crystals. The pri-
 mitive form of its crystals is a cube.  Its colour  isof a
 bluish lead gray.  It has a considerable metallic lustre, its
 texture is  foliated. It stains the fingers, and often feels
 greasy. It contains in general a minutequantity of silver.
   Properties of  Lead.—Lead is of a bluish-white co-
 lour, and very brilliant when fresh cut.  It is malleable.
 It soon tarnishes in the atmosphere.  It  may easily be
 cut wilh  a  knife, and stains  the  fingers  bluish-gray
 when  rubbed.    It fuses  al 612° Fahr. and renders
 otlier more refractory metals fusible.  It becomes vit-
 rified in a strong and  continued heat, and vitrifies
 various otlier metals.  It is the least elastic of all the
 metals.  It is very laminable, but it possesses very little
 ductility.  Its specific gravity is 11.435.  It crystallizes
 by cooling in small octahedra.  When fused in contacf
 with air, its surface first becomes yellow, and then red.
 It unites by fusion with phosphorus and sulphur.  The
 greater part of the acids act upon  it.  The sulphuric
 acid requires the assistance of a boiling heat.   Nitric
 acid is decomposed by it  Murialic acid acts very weakly
 on it. Acetic acid dissolves it.  Fluoric acid attacks it by
 heat, and  slightly in the cold.  It combines with othei
 metals, but few  of its alloys are applied to any use.
 When combined with mercury, it forms a crystallizable
 alloy which becomes  fluid when triturated  with lhat
 of bismuth.
  Method  of obtaining Lead__In order to obtain lead
 in a great way, the ore is picked from among the  extra-
 neous matter with which it was naturally mixed,  ltis
 then pulverized and washed.  It is  next roasted in  a
 reverberatory furnace, in which it is to he agitated, in
order to bring the whole in contact with the air.  When
the external parts begin to soften, or assume the form
of a paste, it is covered with charcoal, the mixture  is
stirred, and the heat increased gradually; the lead then
 runs on all sides, and is collected at the bottom of the
 furnace, which is perforated so as to permit the metal to
flow into a receptacle defended by a lining of charcoal
  The scoriae remaining  above in the  furnace still re-
tain  a considerable proportion of lead; in oider to
extract it,  the scoria? must be fused in a blast furnace.
The lead is by that means separated, and cast into ii«n
 moulds, each of which contains a portion called a pig
of lead. These pigs are sold under the nanieof ore leaf.
  In order to obtain  perfectly pure lead, the lead of
commerce may be dissolved in pure nitric arid, and tl e
solution be  decomposed  by adding  to it, gradually, a
solution of sulphate  of soda, so long a«* a precipitate
 ensues.  This precipitate, which is sulphate of lead,
 must then be collected on a filter, washed rer cafedly in
 distilled water, and then dried.  In order lo reduce  if.
 to ils  metallic state, let it be mixed with two or three
 times its weight of black flux, introduce the mixture
 into n crucible, and expose it briskly to a red heat.
  "There are certainly two, and perhaps thiee oxides
 of lead:—
  1.  The  powder precipitated by potassa  from the
 solution of the nitrate of lead, being dried, forms tlw
 vellow protoxide   When somewhat vitrified, it con- 
LEA
LEA
iutules litharge,  and combined  with carbonic  acid,
While-lead or ceruse.
  2.  When  massicot  has been exposed  for about 48
hours  to the flame of a reverbeiat-.ny furnace, it be-
comes red-lead, or minium.
  3. if upon  100 parts of led lead  we digest nitric acid
of thesp.gr.  1.26,'J2.5 parts will  be  dissolved, but 7.5
of a dark brown powder will remain insoluble.  This
is tin- peroxide of lead.
  Chloride of lead is formed, either by placing lend  in
chlorine, or by exposing the muriate lo  a moderate
heat.  It  is  a  semi-transparent,  grayish-white mass,
somewhat  like horn, whence Ihe old name of plumbum
corneum.
  The iodide is easily formed, by heating the two con-
stituents   It has a fine yellow  colour.  It precipitates
when we pour hydriodate of potassa into a solution of
nitrate of lead.
  The salts of lead have  the protoxide for their base,
and are distinguishable by the  following geueial cha-
racters :—
  1. The salts  which dissolve  in water, usually give
rolourless solutions, which have tin astringent sweetish
taste.
  2. Placed on charcoal they all yield, by the blowpipe,
a button of lead.
  3. Ferroprussiate of potassa occasions in their solu-
tions a white precipitate.
  4. Hydiosulpliiiiet nf potassa, n black precipitate.
  5. Sulphuretted hydrogen, a black  precipitate.
  6. Gallic  acid, and infusion  of galls, a  white pre-
cipitate.
  7. A plate  of zinc, a white piecipitatc, or metallic
■ead.
  Mot of  the acids attack lead.  The sulphuric does
not act upon  it, unless it be concentrated and boiling.
Siiluhurou* acid  gas escapes during ihis process, and
the arid is decomposed.  Win n the distillation is car-
ried on lo diyness,  a  saline white  mass  remains, a
small portion of  wliich is soluble in  water, and is the
sulphate of lead : it atfoiris crystals.  The residue of
the while mass is an insoluble sulphate of lead.
  Nitric acid acts strongly on lead.
  The nitrate solution, by evaporation, yields tetrahe-
dral crystals, wiiich are vvlme, opaque, and  possess
considerable lustre.
  A «iitmi(ra{f-mny"ne formed in pearl-coloured scales,
by  boiling  iu water equal weights of the nitrate and
 irotoxide.
  Muiiatic acid nets directly on lead by heat, oxidizing
It, and dissolving part of its oxide.
  The acetic acid dissolves lead and its oxides: though
probably the access of air may  be  necessary to the
solution of the  metal itself in  ihis acid, white-lead, or
ceruse, is made by rolling leaden plates  spirally up,
so as to leave the «paccof a Hiut an inch between each
coil, and placing them vertically in earthen pots, at the
bottom of which is some good vinegar.  The pots are
to be covered, and exposed for  a  length of tune to a
gentle heat in a sand-bath, or by bedding them iu dung.
The vapour of" the vinegar, assisted  by the tendency
of the lead tn combine with the oxygen which is pre-
sent, corrodes the lead, and converts  the external por-
tion into a white substance which comes off in flakes,
when the lead is uncoiled.  The plates are thus treated
repeatedly, until  Ihey are  corroded  through.  Ceruse
is the only  white used  in nil paintings.  Commonly it
's adulterated with a mixture of chalk in the shops.   It
,.   y be dissolved without difficulty in the acetic  acid,
a.  ' affords a crystallizable salt, called sugar of lead,
from its sweet taste  This, like all the preparations of
lead, is a deadly poison.  The common sugar of lead is
an  acetate; and  Goulard's extract,  made  by boiling
litharge in viniega*, a subacetate.  The power of this
salt, as a coagulator of mucus, is superior to the other.
If a bit of zinc be suspended by  brass or iron wire, or a
threid, in a mixture of water and the acetate of lead,
the lead will be revived and form an arbor saturni.
  The acetate, or smear of lead, is usually crystallized
in needles, whicli have a silky appearance.
  The subacetate crystallizes in plates.  The sulphu-
ret, sulphate,  carbonate,  phosphate, arseniate,  and
chromate of lead are found native.
  When lead is  alloyed with an equal weight of tin,
or  perhaps even less, it  ceases  to  be  acted  on by
vinegar.   Acetate and subacetate of lead in solution,
has been used as externa! applications to inflamed sur-
faces, and  scrofulous sores, nnu  as  eye-washes,   tn
some extreme cases of hremorrhagy from the lungs nnd
bowels, and ulerus, the former sail has been pi escribed,
but rarely,  and  in minute doses, as a coriugaut or as-
tringent.   The colic ofthe painters, and that formerly
prevalent in certain counties ol England, fiom llie lead
used in the cider  presses, show the very deleterious
operation ofthe oxide, or salts of this metal, w hen ha-
bitually introduced inlo the  system  In the minutest-:
quantities at a  lime.  Contraction of the thumbs, pa
rnlysis of the hand, or even of the ex'remitii s, have
not unfrequently supervened.  A course of sulphuretted
hydrogen waters, laxatives, of which sul| hur,  castor
oil, sulphate of magnesia, or calomel, should be pre-
ferred, a mercurial course, the hot sea bath, and elec-
tricity, are  the appropriate remedies.
  Dealers in wines huve occasionally sweetened them,
whpii acescent, with litharge or its salts.  This delete-
rious adulteration  may be detected  hy  sulplunetled
hydrogen wator, which will throw down ihe lead in
the state of a dark brown sulphuret.   Or, subcm bonate
of ammonia, which is a ve-y delicate test, may be em-
ployed to precipitate  the lend in  the suite of n  white
caibonate ; which, on being washed and digested with
sulphuretted hydrogen water, will  instantly become
black.  If ihe white precipitate be gently heated, it will
become yellow, and, on charcoal before the blnwpi|ie,
it will  yield a  globule of lead,  eliminate of potassa
will throw  down from saturnine solutions, a beautiful
orange-yellow powder  Burgundy wine, and all sucn
as contain tartar, will  nol hold  lead  in solution, in
consequence of the insolubility of the tarn aie.
  The proper counter-poison for a dangerous dose of
sugar of lead, is a solution of Epsom or Glauber salt,
liberally  swallowed ;  either of which medicines  in-
stantly converts the poisonous acetate of lead into the
inert aud innoxious sulphate.   The sulpliuiet of potim
sa, so much extolled  hy Navier,  instead of being an
antidote, acts itself as a poison on the stomach.
  Oils dissolve the oxide of lend, nnd become thick  and
consistent; in whicli state thry are used ns the basis
of plasters, cements for water-works, pninls, &c.
  Sulphur  readily  dissolves lead iu the dry wuy,  and
produces a brittle compound, of" a dee)) gray colour and
biilliant appearance, which is  much less fusible than
lead itself;  a property which is common to all  the com-
binations of sulphur with the  more fusible meials.
  The phosphoric acid, exposed to heat together with
charcoal and lead, becomes convened into phosphorus,
which combines with the metal.  This combination
does not greatly differ from ordinary lead: it is mal-
leable, and easily cut wilh a knife; but il loses its bril
liancy more speedily than pure lead/;  and when fused
upon charcoal with the blowpipe, the phosphorus bums,
and leaves  the lead behind.
  Litharge fused with common salt decomposes it;  the
lead unites with the muriatic  acid, and  forms a yellow
compound, used as a pigment.  The same decompo-
sition takes place in the humid w ay, if common  salt be
macerated  wilh litharge; and the  solution will contain
caustic alkali.
  Lead unites  with most  of the metals.  Gold and
silver nre dissolved by it in a slight red heat.  Both
these metals are said to be rendered  brittle by a small
admixture of lead, though lead itself is rendered more
ductile by a small quuntity of them.  Platina forms a
brittle  compound with  lead; mercury amalgamates
with it; but the lead is separated  from the mercury by
agitation, in the form of an impalpable black powder,
oxygen being at the same time absorbed.  Copper  and
lead do not unite  but with a strong heat.  If lend be
heated so as to boil and smoke, it soon dissolves pieces
of copper thrown into it; the mixture, when cold, is
brittle.  The union of these two metals is remarkably
slight; f<»r, upon exposing the mass to a heat no greater
than that in which lead melts, Ihe lead almost entirely
tuns off by itself.  This process  is called cliquation.
The coarser sorts of lead, which owe their brittleness
and granulated  texture  to aii  admixture of copper,
throw  it up to the surface on being melted by a small
heat.  Iron does not  unite with lead, as  long as botn
substances retain their metallic form. Tin unites very
easily with this metal, and forms  a compound,  wluch
is much more  fusible than lead  by itself, and  is.  fot
Ihis reason, used as a solder  for lead   Two  psits of
lead and one of tin,  form an ailoy more fusible than
eithe: metal alone: this is the solder  of" the plumbers
                                           11 
LEA
LEA
Btsmulli combines readily with lead, and affords a
metal of a time close grain, but very brittle.  A mixture
of eight parts bismuth,  five lead, and three tin, will
melt in a heat which is not sufficient to cause water to
boil. Antimony forms a brittle alloy with lead. Nickel,
cobalt, manganese, and zinc,do not unite with lead hy
fusion."
  The preparations of lead used in medicines are:—
  J.  Plumbi subcarbonas.  See Plumbi subcarbonas.
  2.  Oxidum plumbi rubrum.  See Minium.
  3.  Oxidum plumbi semiviirciiin.  See Lithargyrus.
  4.  Acetas plumbi.  See Plumbi acetas.
  5.  Liquor plumbi acetatis. See Plumbi acetatis liquor.
  6.  Liquor plumbi acetatis dilutus. SeePlumfri acetatis
liquor dilutus.
  Lead, white.  See Plumbi subcarbonas.
  LEAF.   Folium.  A  laminar expansion of a plant
generally of a green colour.
  It  is difficult,  how ever, to define this universal and
important organ of vegetables.
  They  are considered  as  the respiratory organs of
plants.
  Leaves  are, for the most part, remarkable  for their
expanded  form;  their  colour is  almost universally
green, their internal substance pulpy and vascular,
sometimes very succulent, and their upper and under
surfaces differ commonly in  hue, as well as in kind or
degree of" roughness.
  In discriminating the species of  plants, a knowledge
of the various  forms of haves is of ihe inmost  im-
portance.   Botanists, therefore, have paid  particular
attention to iheir names, which are derived either from
their origin, distribution, situation, direction, insertion,
form, base, point,  margin, surface, distribution of its
vessels,  nerves, expansion,  substance, duration, com-
position, &c.
  A  loaf consists of a thin and expanded part, which,
in common language, is named the  leaf, and a staik
called the petiole or petiolus.  The surface of a  leaf,
superficies, or pagina, is distinguished into the upper
part, or face, and the under part, or back, of the leaf.
The base, or origin  of  the leaf, is that part next the
stem or branch; the apex'u the termination of the leaf;
the  margin  or edge, the  circumference;  the disk,
discum, is the middle part of the surfaces within the
margin.
  From their origin, we have the following terms —
  1.  Seminal; folia  seminalia, which are  the  first
leaves of the majority of plants, proceeding from seeds
that have  more than one seed-lobe;  they aie seen in
Raphamis sativus, anil Cannabis sativa.
  2.  Radical, which  spring directly from the root; as
in Leonlodon taraxacum, and Viola odorata.
  3.  Cauline, or stem-leaf.  The  Valeriana phu  has
Its  radical leaves  undivided, and the cauline leaves
pinnate.
  4. Ramial, or branch-leaf, which are only described
when they differ from those of the stein.  The Sison
ammi has ils radical leaves, linear; its cauline, setous;
and  its branch leaves, tripinnate.
  5. Axillary, when  sealed  on juints or axillae; as in
Parlheniuui integiifolium.
  0. Floral, when next the flower, and like the other
leaves;  as in Lonicera caprifolium.
  From tneir distribution on tlie stem and branches,
leaves are named,
  7. Alternate, when not in pairs, and are given off in
various directions, one  after another; as in Malva ro-
tundifolia.
  8. Opposite, when they appear directly on opposite
Bides of the stem, in pairs ;  as in Lamium album, and
Urtica dioica.
  9.  Two-ranked; folia disticha, which implies that
they spread in two directions, and yet are not regularly
opposite at their  insertion ; as in Cupressus disticha,
Taxus baccata,  Pinus picca, and Lonicera symphori-
carpos.
  II). Bifarial, that is, two-ranked, but given off from
the side only of the branch ;  as in Caipinus betulus,
and Fagus sylvatica.
   11. Unilateral,  looking to one side only ; as in Con-
vallaria multiflora.
   12. Scattered, irregular or without  any order; as in
 Re::eda luteola, and Sedum refloxum.
   Ill Decussate, crossing each  oilier  in pairs; cross-
  ike; as  in  Euphorbia "lnthytis,  and Crassula tctra-
 fona.
       19
  14.  Imbricate, like tiles upon a house;  as in Cupres-
sus sempervirens, and Aloe spiralis.
  15.  Fasciculate, or tufted, when several spring from
the same point; as in Pinus larix, and  Betberis vul-
garis.
  16.  Stellate,  star-leaved, whirled; several leaevs
growing in a circle round the stem, without any refer-
ence  to ihe precise  number;  as in Kubia linctorum,
Lilium martagon, Asperula odorata.   In large natural
genera it is necessary to mention the number; as in
Galium.
  17. Remote, when at an unusual  distance from each
other.
  18. Clustered; crowded together; as in Antirrhinum
linaria, and Trientalis europea.
  19. Binat, when theie'isonly two on a plant; as in
Galanthus  nivalis, Scilla  bilolia, and Convallaiia
magalis.
  20. Ternal, three together; as in Verbena triphylla
  21. Quatcrnal,  Qunial,  Sec, when four, five,  or
more ate situated together; as in  various species of
Erica.
  From their determinate direction, leaves are distin
guished into,
  22. Close-pressed; adpressa;  when their upper sur
face is close to the stem ; as in Tlilaspi  campestris, and
Xeranthemum sesamoides.
  23. Erect, when nearly perpendicular, or forming a
very acute angle  wilh the stem ; as in Juncus articu-
latis,  and Bryum  unqiiiculatum.
  24. Spreading,  forming  a moderately acute angle
with the stein ;  as in  Atriplex portulacoides, Nerium
oleander, and Veronica beccabunga.
  25. Horizontal,  spreading iu Ihe greatest possible
degree; as in Gentiana campestris, and Pelargonium
paiulum.
  26. Ascending, rising gently, so as to be somewhat
arched; ns in Geranium niiifolium.
  27. Recurved,  reflexed,  curved backward; as  in
Eiioa retorta, and Bryum pellucidum.
  28. Reclined, depending, hanging downward towards
the  earth; as  in Cichorium intybus, and Leonurus
cardiaca.
  29. Oblique, twisted, so that one  part is vertical, the
other horizontal; as Allium obliquum, and Fritallaria
obliqua.
  30. Adverse,  the upper surface  turned to the meri-
dian, not the sky; as in Lactuca scariola.
  31. Resupinatc, or reversed, when Ihe upper surface
is turned downward ; as in Alstromeria pelegrina, nnd
Sicebe prostrata.
  32. Revolute, having a  spiral apex;  as  Dianthus
carthusianorum, and barbatus.
  33. Rooting,  sending rootlets into the earth ; as As-
plenium rhizophyilu.
  34. Floating on the  surface of the  water; as  in
Potamogeton natans, and Nympluea alba.
  35. Submersed, demersed, immersed,  under water;
as Hottonin palustris, and Ranunculus aqualilis.
  From their insertion, into,
  36. Petiolats, leaves on footstalks; as  Prunus cera-
sus, and Verbascum nigrum.
  37. Sessile, without  footstalk, lying  immediately on
•he stem  ; as in Saponaria officinalis, and Pinguicula
vulgaris.
  38. Adnate, the upper surface adhering a little way
to the branch;  as in Xeranthemum vesiitum.
  39. Decurrent, when a lamellar part of tho leaf runs
down the stem, or branch; as iu  Caiduus spinusus,
and Verbascum thapsus.
  40. Connate,  when  two opposite leaves  embrace,
and are united  at their bases; as in Ccrastium perfo-
liatum, and Dipsacus laciniatus.
  41. Connato-pcrfoliate, when the  union  is in  the
whole or nearly the whole  breadth of  the leaves, so as
to give the two leaves the appearance of bung united
into but one leaf; as in Eupatorium perfoliatum, and
Lonicera dioica.  Connate leaves are, in  some in-
stances, united by a membrane, which, stretching from
the margins of  the opposed leaves, nearthe base, forms
a kind of pitcher around the slem,  iu which the rain is
retained; as in Dipsacus fullonium.
  42. Embracing, clasping the stem with their bases ;
as in Carduus inarianiis, aud Papaver somniferum
   43. Vuginatc, sheathing the fiem at their bases, as in
Canna indica, and Polygonum bistorta.
   44. Peltate, when ilic  footstalk  is inserted, not 'me 
lea                                             li;a
 the basis, but into the disk of the  loaf, as in Drosera
 peltata, and Tropaeolum majus.
  45. Perfoliate, when the stem runs through the leaf;
 as in Jiupleurum rotitndifolium,  and L'vularia perfo-
 liata.
  4(5. Articulate, one leaf growing  out of the apex of
 another;  as Cactus opuntia, and Cactus ficus indica.
  Fiom the basis of the leaf, it is called,
  47. < 'ordate, heart-shaped, or ovate, hollowed out at
 'lie base; as Arctium lappa, and Tamus communis.
  48.  Irrowshapcd, tiiangtilar,  hollowed out very
 much  at the base; as Rumex acetosa, and Sagittaria
 sagittif ilia.
  49.  Hastate,  halberd shaped, triangular, hollowed
 out at the base and sides, bin with spreading lobes; as
 in Arum maculatum, and Rumex acelosella.
  50. Rentform, kidney-shaped, a short, broad, round-
 ish leaf, the base of wliich  is hollowed out; as Asarum
 europeum, and Glecoina hcderacea.
  51. Aitrieled,  furnished  at  its  base  with a pair of
 leaflets, properly distinct, but occasionally joined with
 it; as in Citrus aurantium.
  Linnaeus uses  tlie term appendiculalum, which is
 correct.
  52. Unequal, the  basis  larger on  one side ihan the
 olber;  as in Tiliaeuropea, and Piper tuberculatum.
  The form of the  apex of a  leaf,  gives rise  to ihe
 following names.
  53. Acute, sharp, ending in an acute angle, w hich is
 common to a great numlier of plants; example in Li-
 lium angustifolium, and Campanula tiachelium.
  54. Acuminate, pointed, having  a taper, or  awl-
 shaped  point;  as Arundo  phragmitis, and Syring.i
 vulgaris.
  55. Cuspidatc,or  mucrvnate, sharp pointed,  tipped
 with a rigid  spine, as in the thistles, and Ficus reli-
 giosa.
  50  Obtuse, blunt,  tei urinating in a  segment of a
 circle:  as  Rumex oblusifohus, and  Hypericum  quad-
 rangulum.
  57. Retusc, ending in a broad, shallow notch ;  as in
 Ervum ervilia, and Rumex digynus.
  53. Pramorse, jagged pointed, as  if bitten off; very
 olunt, with various irregular notches;  as in Hibiscus
 praemnrsus, and Swartz's genus Aferide.
  59. Truncate, au abrupt leaf, with ihe extremity cut
 off, as it were, by a transverse line ;  as in Liriodoudrou
 tulipifera.
  60. Dedaleous, with  a  broad, incised,  and  crisp
 apex ;  as in Asplenium scolopendrum.
  61. F.marginate, nicked, having a small notch at the
 summit; as  Hydrocotile vulgaris, and  Euphorbia tu-
 beros.i.
  62 Summit-cut,—folia apicc incisa; as  in Glinko
 bil'jha.
  63. Cirrhose, tipped with a tendril; as in Lathyrus
 arliculatus, and Gloriosa superba.
  04.  Tridentate, three-toothed; an  obtuse point, be-
set  with three teeth; as  in Buchera a-thiopica, and
 Genista tridentata.
  65. Ascidiate,  or pitcher-leaf,  a  cylindrical  tube,
 filled wilh water; as in Nepenthes  distillatoria, and
 Saracenia.
  The  names derived from the margin of the loaf, are,
  66. Entire, not divided;  as in Tragopogon pratense,
 and porrifolium.
  67. Very entire, integerrima, the margin void of
 irregularity;  as Citrus aurantium.
  68. Undulate,  when the disk near ihe  margin is
 waved obtusely up and down ; as in Panicum hiitel-
 lum, and Reseda  lutea.
  69. Crenate, notched, when the teeth are rounded,
 and  not directed  towards either end of the leaf;  as in
 Betonica officinalis, and Scutellaria galericulata.
  70. Doubly  crenate, the greater teeth, notched with
 smaller ones; as in Salvia sclara,  and Ranunculus
 auricomus.
  71. Serrate, when the teeth are sharp, and resemble
 those of a saw, pointing towards the extremity of lite
leaf; as in Sedum telephium.
  72. Acutely serrate ; as in Thymus acinos.
  73. Obtusely serrate;  as in Ballola nigra.
  74. Doubly serrate, having a series of smaller sen a-
 lures intermixed wilh the larger;  as in Rubus frutico-
sus,"and Campanula trachelium.
  75. Dentate, toothed, beset with protecting, horizon-
 tal, rather distant, teeth of its own  substance;  as the
 lower loaves of the Centaurea cyanus, and Ciimpaiiull
 urachelium.
   76 Jagged, irregularly  cut  or notched, c»i<'cmlly
 when otherwise also divided;  as in  Salvia iviliiopia,
 and Senecio squalidus.
   77. Cart il u ij-i nous-edged, hard, and  hoary:  as in
 Saxifragai tillosa, and Yueca gloriosa.
   78. Prickle ed^id, beset wilh  prick.es; as in Car
 duus lanceolatus, and Ilex  aquifolium.
   79. Fringed, bordered with soil parallel hairs; ns in
 Scinpcivivum teclorum, and Galium cruciaimu.
   From the openings, or sinuses, in ihe  mnie-in.
   80. Sinuu.led,iMl as  it were into rounded, or wide
 openings ; as in Uueictis robur, and Alcea rosea.
j   81. Repand, wavy, bordered  with numerous  angles
 and segments of circles, alternately ; as in Menyanlhes
| nymphoides, and Erysimum alliaiia.
   82. Ptnnatifid, cut transveisely into several oblong
 parallel segments; as  in  Centaurea culciii'ni.n, and
 Scabiosa am iisis.
   83. Bipinnatijiu, doubly  pinnalifid; as in  Papaver
 nrgemonc.
   84. I.yrale. lyre-shaped, cut into several  tranversc
 segments, gradually larger towards tlieextioinily of the
 leaf, which is rounded ; as iu Geum uibanum, and Ei y-
 simum b.-wbarea.
   85. Panduriform, fiddle-shaped, oblong, broad at the
 two extremities, ar.-J contracted  in ihe  midd'c ;  as in
 F.umox pulcher, and Convolvulus pamiuratus.
   bo'. Runcinate, lion-toothed,  cut into several trans-
 verse, acule, segments,  pointing btvekwards;  as  in Le-
 ontodon taraxacum, and Erysimum officinale.
   87. I.ncinuite, cut into numerous irregular portions;
 as in Ranunculus parviflorus, and Geranium i oluinbi
 nuiii, and Cotyledon laciniaia.
   88. Squarrose, the margin beset with a rough Ii inge ;
 as iu Centaurea inlcitrapa, and Caiduus maiianus.
   c'.t. Partite, deeply divided nearly lo  ihe  basis; as
 in Helleborus viridis; bipartite, tripartite, and multi-
 partite, according !c the number of the divisions.
   DO.  Tnfid, divided into three ; as in  Bid ens tripartita.
   91. Quinquifid,  divided  into five;  as in Geranium
 maculatum.
   92. Mult.fi.il, the margin of round leaves cut from the
 apex almost lo the base, without leaving any great in-
 termediate sinuses; as in Aconitum napellus, and Cu
 cumis colocynthis.
   From the angles in the margin of the  leaf,
   93. Rounded, the margin not having any angle.
   94. Angulatc, the margin having acute angles.
   a.  Triangular;  as in Chenopodium Donus henricus,
 and Atriplex horlensis.
   b.  Quinqueangular;  as  in Geranium peltntum.
   c. Septangular; as in Hibiscus abehnoschus.
   95. Rhomboid,  trapczifurm,  or approaching  to  a
 square;  as  in  Chenopodium vulvaria. and Trapa
 nutans.
   £6. Quadrangular, with four  angles; as  in  Lirio
 dendron tulipifera.
   97. Deltoid, trowel-shaped,  having  three nnales, of
 which the terminal one is much farther from the base,
 than the lateral ones; as in Mesembryanthemum del-
 toideum, and Populus nigra.
   98. Lobatc, when the margins of deep  segments are
 rounded, hence:
   a.  Two-lobed;  as in Bauhinia porresta.
   b. Three-lobcd;  as in Anemone hepatica.
   c. Fivc-lobcd;  as iu  Humulus lupulus, and  Acer
 pseudo-plalanus.
   99. Palmate, cut into several oblong,  nearly equal
 segments, about half way, or rather more, towards the
 base, leaving an entire space like ihe palm of the hand;
 as in Passifiora ccerulea, and Alcea ficil'olia.
   From the figure of the circumference, are derived the
 following names.
   100. Orbiculate, circular, the  length and breadth of
 which are equal, and  the  circumference in  an even
 circular line;  as in Cotyledon orbiculata and Hydioco-
 tyle vulgaris.
   101. Subrolund, roundish; as in Pyrola, and Malva
 rotundifolia.
   102. Oblong, three or four times longer than broad,
 as in Musasapientum, and  Elaeagnus orieutnlis.
   103.  Ovate, of the  shape of an egg, cut length
 wise, ihe base being rounded, and broader than th*
 extremity;  as in  Origanum vulgare, and Inula he
 leuiutn.
                                          13 
lea  •
LEA
  1U4. Obovote, of the same figure, with the broader
end  uppermost; as in  Primula veiis,  and Samulus
valeraudi.
  104*. Oval, ovate, but each end has the same round-
ness; as in Rhus catinus, and Mammea americana.
  105.  Elliptical, oval, the longitudinal diameter being
greater ihan the transverse.
  100.  Parabolic, oblong,  the  summit narrow and
round ; as iu Marrubium psoudodictamuus.
  107.  Cuneiform, wedge-shaped, broad  and abrupt at
tne summit, and  tapering down  to the base; as Saxi-
fiasii cuneii'olia, and Iberis semperflorens.
  10>*.  Spatuluie, of a  roundish figure, tapering to an
iiblong base;  as in Cotyledon  spuria, and Cucubalus
olites.
  109.  Lanceolate, of  a narrow, oblong form, layering
towards each end ; as in Plantago lanceolata.
  110.  Linear, narrow, wilh parallel sides; as in Se-
necio linilolius.
  111.  Capillary, long, fine, and  flexible, resembling a
hair; as in Anethum foeuiculuin, and Graveolens.
  112.  Setaceous, bristly; as in  Asparagus officinalis,
and Scirpussetaceus.
  113. .necrose, needle-shaped, linear, and evergreen,
generally acute and rigid; as in  Pinus sylvestris, and
Juniperus communis.
  From the difference of the surface of leaves:
  114.  Glabrous, smooth, without  roughness; as the
leaves of most plants.
  115.  Nitid, smooth and  shining; as in Laurus no-
bilis, aud Canna indica.
  116.  Lucid,  as if  covered  with  a  varnish; as in
Angelica lucida, and Royeua lucida.
  117.  Viscid, covered with a clammy  juice: as in
Penecio viscosus, and F-ygeron visoosum.
  118.  Naked, without bristles, or hairs; as the leaves
of many plains.
  119.  Scabrous, or asperous, with little  roughness
visible,  as  well  as tangible; as iu Morus nigra, and
Hamulus lupulus.
  120.  Punctuate,dotted, perforated with little holes;
as iu Hypericum peiforatuiu.
  121.  Perluse, bored, Milurally having  largo perfora-
tions; as in Dracontium pertusum.
  122.  Maculate, spotted; as in Orchis maculata, and
Pulmonaria officinalis.
  123.  Coloured, being of  any other than  a  green
colour; as iu Amaranthus tricolor, and  Atriplex hor-
tensis rubra.
  12i.  Hoary, having a whitish  mealy surface; as in
Populus alba.
  125.  Lincate, having superficial lines: as in Scripus
maritimus.
  126.  Striate, marked with coloured lines; as in Pha-
laris aruudinacea.
  127.  Sulcale, furrowed, having broad  and deep fur-
rows;  as in Digitalis ferruginea.
  128.  Rugose, rugged; as in Salviasclara.
  129  Bu/.lute, blistered, a greater degree of the  last;
as iu Brassita oleracea.
  130.  Papulous, or vesiculous, covered wilh hollow
vesicles ; as iu Meseiiihryautheinuni crystallinum.
  131.  Papillose, or Varicose, covered with solid wart-
like tubercles; asin Aloe margaritifera.
  132.  Glandular,  covered  with  small glandiform
bodies; as in  Salix alba, and Prunus padus.
  From line distributions of the vessels on the swface
ofthe leaf,
  Nerves arc white,  elevated chords, which originate
from the base of the leaf.
  A  rib is the middle nerve, thick, and  extending from
the basis to the apex of the leaf.
  Veins are anastomosing vessels which are given off
from thecostaor rib.
  The greater clusters of vessels are generally called
nerei or casta, nerves or ribs, and  the  smaller vena,
whether they are  branched or  reticulate,  simple or
Atlicrwisc.
  133. A nervous or ribbed leaf is where they extend in
"'uiple lines from the base to the point; ati in the  Con-
vallaria, aud Heliantlius annuus.  The  Laurus cam-
phora isan example of a trinerve; the Smilax tetragona
has live nerves ; the Dioscorea sepleinloha, seven.
  134. When a pair of large ribs branch off from the
main one above the base, and run  in  a straight line
towards the apex, as in Heliantlius luberosus, the leaf is
said to be triple nerved.
       U
   135.  When two go from the base and four from tne
 C03ta in a straight  line, it is termed folium quintupli-
 nervum.
   136.  Venous, veiny, when the vessels by which the
 leaf is nourished are branched,subdivided, and more or
 less prominent, forming a net-work over either, or both
 its surfaces; as in  Clusia venosa,  and  Verbascum
 lychritis.
   137.  Avenial, or veinless, when without veins;  as is
 Clusia alba, and rosea.
   138.  Enervous, ribless,  when  no nerve is given off
 from the base ; as in  Asperula levigata.
   The  termsfromthe expansion ofthe leaves are,
   139.  Flat, as most leaves are.
   140.  Concave, hollow, depressed in the middle; asm
 Saxifraga stolonifera.
   141.  Convex, the reverse of the former;  as  in Ocy-
 nium basilicum majus.
   142.  Canaliculate, channelled, having a longitudinal
 furrow ;  as in  Plantago maritima.
   143.  Cucullate, hooded, when the edges meet in the
 lower parts, and expand in the upper;  as in Geranium
 cucullatum, and lhat curious genus Saracenia.
   144. Plicate, plaited, when'ihe disk of the leaf, espe-
 cially towards the margin, is acutely folded  up and
 down ;  as in Ae Malvas, aud Alchemilla vulgaris.
   145.  Undulate, waved, when Ihedish near Ihe margin
 is waved obtusely up and down; as in Reseda lutea,
 and lxia undulata.
   146. Crisp, curled, when  the border  of the  leaf be-
 comes  more expanded  than the di-!;, so  as  to grow
 elegantly, curled, and twisted ; as in Malva crispa.
   From the internal substance:
   147.  Membranaceous, when  there is scarcely  any
 pulp between ihe external membranes ofthe leaf; as in
 Citrus aurantium, and ihe leaves of many plants.
   148.  Thick, the membranes being rather  more than
 usually firm ; as in Seduin telephium.
   1M. Corneous, fleshy, of a thick substance, as in all
 those called succulent plants;  as Crassula lactea,  and
 Sempervivum teclorjin.
   150. Pulpy, very thick, and of the consistence of a
 plumb; as in Mesembryanihemuin verruculHlum.
   151.  Tubular,  hollow within; as in  Allium cepa
 The leaf  of the Lobelia dortmanna is very peculiar, io
 consisting of a double tube.
   152. Compact, not hollow.
   153. Rigid, easily broken  on being bent;  as in Sta
 pelia.
   The  thick leaves, folia  crassa, afford the following
 distinctions:
   154. Gibbous, swelling  on one side,  or  both, from
 excessive abundance of pulp; as iu Crassula cotyledon
 and Aloe retusa.-
   155.  Round, cylindrical; as in Allium schcenoprasum
 and Salsola sativa.
   156.  Subulate,  awl-shaped, tapering  from a thickish
 base to a point; as in Allium ascalonicum, aud  Naicis-
 sus jonquilla.
   157.  Compressed, flattened laterally; as  in Cacalia
 ficoides.
   158.  Depressed, flattened vertically;  as in Crassula
 letragona.
   159.   triquetral, thick and  triangular; as in Buto-
 mtis umhellatus. -
   160.  Tetragonal, quadrangular and awl-shaped ; as
 in Gladiolus trislis.
   161.   Lmgulale,  tongue-shaped,  a  thick,  oblong,
 blunt figure,  and  a little convex on its inferior surface;
 as in Mesembryanthemuui lingutforme.
   162.  Ancipital, two-edged; as in Typha latifolia.
   163. Ensiform, sword-shaped, <\vo  edges tapering
 to a point, slightly convex on both surfaces, neither ot
 which can properly be  called upper or under; as in
 Iris germanica, and Gladiolus communis.
   164. (annate, keeled, when the batU is longitudinally
 prominent; as iu Allium carinatum,  and  Narcissus
 biflorus.
  "165. Acinaeiform, scimitar-shaped, compressed with
 one thick and straight edge, the other thin and cuived;
 as in Mesembryaiilhemuin ucinaciformc.
   166. Dolabriform, hatchet-shaped, compressed wilh
 a very  prominent dilated  keel, and a cylindrical base,
 as in Mesembryanthemuui dolabriforme.
   167.  Uncinate, hooked,  flat above, compressed at its
 sides, and turned hack at  the apex, forming a hook.
i.   When  the  shape  of  membranaceous   leave* h 
bEA
LED
  imperfect, the particle sub is attached, as juJ-sessile,
  suA-ovate, su6-pilous, &c
    When the shape  is  reversed, by the 'prefixing the
  preposition ob, as oi-cordate, when the point is in-
  serted into the petiole, ofr-ovatc, See
    From the coadunntion, leaves are designated by pre-
  fixing the prominent shape, as lanceotato-orate ; as in
  Nicotiana tabacum:  and ovato-lanceolate, lanceolate,
  but swelling  out in the middle; as in Saponaria offi-
  cinalis.
    From their duration, leaves are termed,
    168. Deciduous, falling off at the approach of w inter,
  as in most European trees and shrubs.
    169. Caducous, falling off in the middle of summer.
    170. Perennial, green the  whole vear, and falling
  off as the new ones appear.
    171. Persistant, lasting  many years, and always
  green; as in Pinus and Taxus.
    All the foregoing terms belong to simple leaves, or
  those which have one leaf only on the petiole or "foot-
  stalk.
    The following regard compound leaves, or such as
  consist of two or  any greater number  of foliola, or
  leaflets, connected by a common footstalk.
    172.  Digitate, fingered, when several leaflets pro-
  ceed from the summit of a common footstalk; as in
  Trifolium pratense.
    173.  Pinnate, when several leaflets  proceed late-
  rally from one footstalk, instead of being supported at
  the top;  as in Acacia pseudaencia.
    A digitate leaf is called, after its mode  of dtgitation,
   174. Conjugate, or yoked, when there is one pair of
 leaflets, or pinna; as  in Zygophillum fabago.
   175. Bmate. when the  pair  of leaflets unite some-
  what at their base;  as in  Lathyrus sylvestris.
   176.  Ternate, where there are three leaflets; as in
  Tiifolium pratensis, and Oxalis acetoselia.
   177. Quinate, there being five leaflets; as in Potcn-
 tilla rsptaus, and Lupinus albus.
   178. Septenate, wilh seven; as in vEsculus hippo-
 castanum.
   179. Novenate, nine; as in  Sterculia foetida.
   180. Pedate, a peculiar kind of leaf, being ternate,
 with its lateral leaflets compounded  in their forepart;
 or a  leaf with a bifid footstalk, divided into two di-
 verging branches, wilh  au intermediate leaflet,  and
 each supporting two or more lateral leaflets on their
 anterior edge; sfs in Helleborus niger.
   181. Articulate, jointed, when one, or a pair of leaf-
 lets, grows out of the summit of another, with a son
 of joint;  as in Cactus ficus indica,  and Fagara  tra-
 godes.
   Pinnate leaves  are called  from  their number of
 pinna,
   182. Bipinnate, or duplicato-pinnate,  doubly pin-
 nate ; as in Tanacetum vulgare.
   183. Tripinnate, or triplicate-pinnate, three pinnate;
 as  in Scandix odorata.
  From the number  of pairs,  pinnate  leaves  are
 termed,
   184. Biguga; as in  Mimosa nodosa.
   185. Triguga; as in Cassia emarginata.
   186. Qnadriguga; as in Cassia longisiliqua.
   187. Quinquiguga;  as in Cassia occidentalis.
   188. Multiguga; as in Cassia javanica.
  The difference in the termination of a  pinnate leaf,
   189. Impari-pinnate, with an odd or terminal leaflet;
 as Rosa centifolia.
  190. Abmpti-pinnaU, with a terminal  leaflet, as in
 Orobus tuberosus.
  191. Cirrhosi-pinnate, when  furnished with a ten-
 dril in place of an odd leaflet;  as in the pea and vetch
 tribe.
  From the mode of adhesion of the leaflets arise,
  192. Oppositely-pinnate, when the  leaflets are oppo-
 site, or in pairs. as in  Sium angustifolimn.
  193. Alternately-pinnate, when alternate; as in Vi-
 cia saliva.
  194. Interruptedly-pinnate, when the principal leaf-
 lets are arranged alternately  with   an  intermediate
series of smaller ones; as in Spiraea ulmaria.
  195. Deeurrently-pinnate, when the leaflets are de-
eurrent; as in Eryngium campestre.
  196. Jointedly-pinnate, with apparent joints in the
common footstalk; a<* in Fagara tragodes.
  197. Petiolato-pinnate, the leaflets on footstalks;  as
In Robinia pseudacacis.
    198.  Alatc-pinnate, when the  footstalk  has  little
  wings between ihe leaflets.
    199. Sissile-pinnate,  wilh leaflets  within any pe-
  tiole.
    200. Conjugate pinnate, confluent: the leaflets grow-
  ing somewhat together at their margins.
    From their bipinnation, pinnate leaves are,
    201. Bigeminate, two-paired; as iu Mimosa unguis
  cate.
    202.  Trigeminate, or triplicato-gcmmit.--, thrico-
  paired ;  as in Mimosa teigemina.
    From  the tripmnation,
    203. Dottbly-ternatc, or duplicato-tcrnate. when the
  common footstalk supports tnese secondary petioles on
  its apex, and each of these supports three' leaflets; as
  in Epimedium alpinum.
    204.  'lriternate, or triplicato-ternate, when  the
  common petiole supports on its apex three secondary
  footstalks, each of which supports three ternary one
  and every one of these three leaflets;  as in  Aquilcgia
  vulgaris, and Fumaria cmieaphylla.
    2nj. Multiplie.ato pinnate,  there being more than
  three orders; ns in Ruta hortensis.
    Pinna are the leaflets of pinnate leaves.
   206. Pinulla, the leaflets  of the double and triple
 range of | innate leaves.
    LEjENA.  (From Xtaiva, a lioness.)
    1.  The lioness
   2.  The name of a piaster, so called from its greal
 pow or.
   LEAKE,  John, was born in Cumberland,and, aftei
 qualifying himself ns a suigeon in Loudon, travelled
 to Portugal and Italy.  On his return he settled in  the
 metropolis, and published a dissertation on the Lisbon
 Diet Di ink.   He nol  long alter became a licentiate of
 the College of  Physicians, and began to lecture on
 Midwifery.   In 1765, he originated the plan for Ihe
 Westminster Lying-in Hospital, and purchased a piece
 of ground for ihe  purpose.   His death occurred in
 1792.   He published a volume of " Practical Observa-
 tions  on Child-bed Fever:"  " Medical Instructions,
 concerning the Diseases of Women ;" i.ilv.o volumes,
 which passed through several editions; and some
 other works.
   LE CLERC,  Daniel, was born at Geneva, in 1652.
 His father being professor in the Greek language, in-
 structed him in the rudiments of knowledge, and gave
 him  a taste for lesearches into antiquity.  He after-
 ward studied at different universities, and look his me-
 dical degree at Valence, at the age of  20.  Returning
 to his native city, he soon got into considerable prac-
 tice; wliich  he at length relinquished  in 1704, on be-
 ing appointed a member nf the council of state, mid
 that  he  might complete his various  literary under
 takings, wliich had already greatly distinguished him
 His death occurred in 1728.  He had published, in con-
 junction wilh Man.-ets, a ''Pibhotheca Auntomica,"
 in two volumes, 1685.  Km his  most celebrated work
 is the  " Histoire de la M£d£cine,"  from the earliest
 limes to lhat nf Galen, which evinces immense erudi-
 tion.   He afterward addcu a plan for continuing it to
 the middle of the 17th century.   But Dr. Freind has
 completed this part of Ihe task on a much better me-
 thod.   Le Clerc also published  an account of certain
 worms occurring in men and animals.
  LE  DRAN, Henry Fbancis, was born at Paris, in
 1685, and  educated under his father, who had acquired
 reputation as an operator, particularly in removing
 cancers of the breast.  The young surgeon turned hia
 attention principally to lithotomy, which he performed
 in tbe lateral method, and made some valuable im-
 provements;  which he communicated to the public in
 1730, giving an accurate description  of  the parts: the
 work  was favourably received,  has been frequently
 reprinted, and translated into most modem languages.
 His surgical observations contain also much valuable
 practical  matter:  and  his  Treatise  on  Gun-shot
 Wounds  is remarkable for  the bold and successful
 measures  which he adopted.   He published likewise r
 Treatise on Operations, another called Surgical Con-
 sultations, and sent several papers of considerable
 merit  to the  academy of surgeons,  which appear in
 their memoirs.  He died in 1770.
  LE'DUM.   (A name adopted from the  Greeks,
whose Xriiov  is generally believed to he a species or
 Cistus.)   The nanieof a genus of plants in  the L.n
mean systeilT  Class Dtcandna; Order, Monogynia
                                         1.1 
LEE    •
LEG
  Lkdl'm i-alcstrk   Tlie systematic name of the
Rosmarinus sylvestris, and Cistus ledonof the shops.
The plant has a bitter subastringent taste, and was
formerly used in Switzerland iu the place of hops.  Its
medicinal use is confined lo Ihe Continent, where it is
occasionally given in  the cure of  hooping-cough, sore
throat, dysentery, and exanthemntous diseases.
  I" LEE, Arthur, M. D. was a native of Virginia, and
brother to Richard Henry Lee the celebrated patriot of
tin revolution.  Dr. Leu received his classical educa-
tion at Edinburgh, and afterward  studied medicine in
thai University.   As soon as he was graduated he re-
turned to his native state, and settled at Williamsburgh,
where he practised medicine lor several years ; but af-
terward  abandoned the  profession, went  to England,
and commenced the study of the law in the Temple.
  He soon after entered into political life, and rendered
important services to  his country during the Revolu-
tionary war.  To the  abilities of the statesman, he is
said to have uniled the acquisitions of the scholar,  in
the year  1775, Dr. Lee was  in London as ihe agent of
Virginia, and lie presented in August the second petition
to the king. All his exertions were now  directed to the
good of  his country.  He was ap|>oiiiled  minister to
France in 1776; and he was for many subsequent years
engaged in the affairs of" the public until the close of
life, which, after a short illness, took place December
14th, 1792, at Urbauna, in Middlesex county, Virginia.
  He was a man of uniform patriotism, of sound un-
derstanding, of great  probity, of  plain manners aud
strong passions.  During his  residence in England
for a number of years  he was indefatigable in his exer-
tions lo promote the interests of his country. He was
a member of the American Philosophical Society.   He
published the  Monitor's Letters in vindication of the
colonial rights in  1769; Extracts from  a  letter to the
President of Congress in answer  to a  libel by Silas
Deane, 1780;  and observations on certain commercial
transactions in France laid before Congress, 1780."—
Thach. Med. Biog.  A.]
  LEECH.  Hirudo.  A genus of insects of the order
Vermes.   The body moves either forward  or hack-
ward.  There are several species, principally distin-
guished by their colour; but that  most  known lo me-
dical  men is  the hirudo  medicinalis,  or  medicinal
leech,  which grows to  the length of  two  or three
inches.   The  body is of a blackish-brcwn colour,
marked on the back with six yellow spots, and edged
with a yellow line  on each side; but bolh the spots
and lines grow faint,  and almost disappear at some
seasons.  The head is smaller than the tail, which fixes
■tself very firmly to any thing the creature pleases.   It
is viviparous, and produces but o.ie young one  at a
Lime, which is in the month of July. It is an inhabitant
of clear running waters, and is well known for its use
in bleeding.  The species  most nearly approaching
this, and which it is  necessary to  distinguish,  is the
hirudo sanguisuga, or  horse-leech.  This is larger
than the former; its-skin is smooth and glossy; the
body'is depressed, the  back is dusky; and the belly is
of a yellowish-green, having a  yeilow lateral margin.
It inhabits stagnant waters.
  The leech's head is  armed with  a sharp  instrument
that makes three wounds at once.  They are three
sharp tubercles, strong enough to cut through the skin
of a man, or even of an  ox, or  horse.  The mouth is,
as it were, the body of the  pump, and the tongue, or
fleshy  nipple,  the suckei.   By the working of  this
piece of mechanism, the blood is made lorise up to the
conduit which conveys  it to the  animal's stomach,
which is  n membranaceous skin, divided into twenty-
four small cells.  The blood which is  sucked out is
Viere  preserved  for several months, almost without
coagulating, and  proves a store of provision for the
ntiimal.  The nutritious parts, absorbed  after digestion
by animals, need not in this to he disengaged from the
heterogeneous substances, nor indeed is there au anus'
discoverable in the leech: mere transpiration seems to
he all  that il peiforms, the matter fixing  on the suiface
of the body, mid afterwaid coming otl'iu small threads.
Of this, au experiment may he tried, by putting a leech
jnio oil, where it  kee|>s alive for  several days;  u|ion
being  taken out, and put into water, there apiicars  to
loosen from its body a kind of slough, shaped like the
creature's body.  Thn organ  of respiration though
unascertained, seems to be situated in thejuoiitli, for
if, like an insect, it drew breath through fent-holes, it
       16
would not  subsist in  oil, as, by it, these would  ne
stopped up.
  The hirudo medicinalis is the only species used in
medicine; being applied to the skin iu order to draw
off blood.  With this view they are employed to bletd
young children, and for the purposes of topical bleeding,
in cases of inflammation,  fullness or pain.  They may
be employed in every case where topical bleedings atf
thought  necessary, or  where venesection cannot  be
performed.  If the leech  does not  fasten, a drop  of
sugared milk is put on the spot it is wished to fix on,
or a little blood is drawn by means of a slight puncture,
after which il immediately settles.  The leech, when
fixed,should be watched, lest it should find its way into
the anus, when used for the haemorrhoids,or penetrate
into the oesophagus, if employed to draw the gums,
otherwise it might fix upon the stomach, or intestines.
In such  a case, the best  and quickest remedy is to
swallow some salt; whicli is the method practised to
make it  loose its  hold, when it sucks  longer than is
intended. Vegetable or volatile alkali, pepper, or acids,
also make it leave the part on whicli it was applied.
Cows and horses have been known to receive leeches,
when drinking, into the throat; and the usual remedy
is to force down some salt, which makes them fall off
If it is intended  that the leech  shall  diaw a target
quantity of blood,  the end of the tail is cut off; and it
then sucks continually, to make up the loss it sustains.
The discharge occasioned by the  puncture of a leech
after the animal  falls off, is usually of more service
than the process itself.  When too abundant, it is easily
slopped with brandy, vinegar,or other styptics, or with
a compress  of dry linen  rags, bound  sirongly on the
bleeding orifice.  They are said to be very restless be-
fore a change of weather, if confined in glasses, and to
fix themselves above the water on the  approach of a
fine  day.
  As these Utile animals are depended  on  for the re-
moval of very dangerous  diseases, and as they often
seem capriciously determined to resist the endeavours
made to cause them to adhere, the following directions
are added, by which their assistance may, with more
certainty, be obtained.
  The introducing a hand, to which any ill-flavoured
medicine adheres, into the waler in which they are
kept, w ill be often sufficient to deprive them of life,
the application of a small quantity ol" any saline matter
to their skin, immediately occasions ihe expulsion of
tlie contents  of their stomach ; and what is most to our
purpose, Ihe least flavour of any medicament that has
been applied remaining on the skin, or even the accu-
mulation of the mailer of peispiration, will prevent
them from fastening. The skin should, therefore, pre-
vious to  their application, be very carefully cleansed
from  any foulness, and moistened with a  liltle milk.
The method of applying them is  by retaining them  to
tlie skin by a small wine-glass, or the bottom of a large
pill-box  wh-n .hey will, in general, in a  liltle time,
fasten themselves  to the skin. On their removal, the
rejection  of  the blood ihey have drawn may  be ob-
tained by the application of salt  externally : but  it is
lo be remarked, that a few grains of salt aie sufficient
for this purpose ; and that covering them with it. as is
sometimes done, generally  destroys them.
  LEEK. See Allium porrum.
  Le'una.   (From Xcyvov, a  fringed edge.)  The ex
tremities of the pudenda muliebria.
  LEGU'MEN.    (From  lego, to gather:  so called
because they are  usually  gathered  by  the hand.)  A
legume.  A  peculiar solitary fruit  of  the pea kind
formed of two oblong valves, without any longitudina
partition, and bearing tlie seeds along  one of ils mar
gins only.
  From the  figure, the legumen is called,
  1. Teres, round; as in Phaseolus radialus.
  2. Lincarc ; as in Phaseolus vexillatus.
  3. Comprcssum ; as in Pisum sativum.
  4  Capitatum;  asin Phaseolus mungo.
  b. Aciiiiforme;  as in Phaseolus lunatvs
  6. Ovatum;  as  iu Lotus hirsutus, and graces.
  7. Inflatum,  a cavity filled with air; as in Astraga
tits vesicarius, ^nd exsenpus.
  8. Cochlcatum, spiral; as  in Mcdicago t dyvorii ■
and marina.
  9. Lunalum ; as in Mcdicago fale ala.
  10. Obcordatum ; as iu Poly gala.
  II. Contortum;  ns ill Medicogs s^'ivT. 
LEM
LEO
       Quadrangulati'.m;  as in Dolychos letragonolo-
 ius.
   13.  Canaii'cutatnm,the uppcrsuturedeeplyhollowed;
 as in Lathyrus sativus.
   14.  Isthmisinlerccptum; as in Coronilla.
   15  Echinatum ;  as in Glycyrrhiza eckina'.a.
   16. Rhombeum; as in Cicer arietinum.
   From its insertion,
   1 Pendulum ; as in Phaseolus vulgaris.
   2. Pedicellatum; asin  Viscia sapium.
   From ils-substance,
   I Mcmbran accum ; as  in Pkaseolus vulgaris
   '• Carnosum,  as  iu Cynomctra caulifiora.
   3. Coriaceum, dry and fleshy; aa in Ceratonia sili-
 fua and Lupinus.
   Fnnn the number of seeds,
   1 Mviiospermum; as in Medicago lupulina.
   2 Dispcrmum; as in Glycine tornentosa.
   3. Trispcrmum ; as in Trifolium refiexum.
   4. Tetraspcrmum ; as in Trifolium repens.
   5. Potysperimim ;  as ill  Trifolium lupinaster.
   [-*"- Legumint is a  particular vegetable principle, ob-
 tained by M. H. Braconnot,  from pease.  When well
 washed it res nibled paste ; exposed lo heat il liquefied
 without coagulating  Iodine, mixed with it in water,
 appeared to dissolve.  It was insoluble in boiling waler,
 anil produced a deep blue colour with  starch."—H'cb.
 Man. of Chem.   A.)
   LEGUMINOUS.  Appertaining to a legume.
   Leichkn.  See Lichen.
   Leiknte'ria.  See Lienteria.
   LEIFOPSY CIIIA.  (From Xttiru, to leave,  and
 ipv%n,  li'e.)  A swoon.  See Syncope.
   Lkipohy'ria.  (From Ajitu, to leave, and imp, heat)
 An ardent fever, in which the internal parts  are much
 heated, while the external  parts  are cold.
   LEIPOTHY MIA. (FromXaffw,toleavc,aud$iM«>t,
 the mind.) See Lipothymia.
   L^'mk.  (From Aa, much, and pvu, to wink.) A
 constant winking of lie eyes.
   LEMERY, Nn iiolas, w;.s born at Rouen in 1645,
 and brought up to the business of pharmacy.   He went
 to Paris at the age of 21 to .improve himself, particu-
 larly in chemistry : and then travelled for some years :
 after which, in  1072, he began to give chemical lectures
 at Paris, and became very popular.  Three years after
 he published his '' Cours  de Chymie," whicli passed
 rapidly through numerous editions; and so  great was
 his reputation, that  lie  acquired a fortune by the sale
 of his preparations, some of which he kept secret.  In
 1681, he was interdicted from lecturing on account of
 his religious principles, and took shelter in this country;
 but shortly after obtained the degree of doctor  of phy-
 sic at Caen, and got considerable practice in the French
 metropolis;  the revocation of the edict of Nantes,
 however, forbidding this employment also, he was re-
 duced to such difficulties, that lie at length adopted the
 Catholic religion.  He  then  flourished again, and in
 IC97 published  his •• Pharmacopee Universrlle," fol-
 lowed  the year after by his " Dictiommire  Universel
 des Drogues simples," which, though with many im-
 perfections, proved of considerable utility.   On the
 re-establishment of the Academy of Sciences, he was
 made associate chemist, and read before that body his
 papers on antimony, which were printed in 1*07.   He
 died in 1715.
  LEMERY, Loris, son of the preceding, was born at
 Paris iu 1677, and intended for the law, but adopted
 such a partiality for  his father's  pursuits, that he was
 allowed to indulge it, and graduated in his native city
 in 1690.  Two years after, he was  admitted into  the
 Academy of Sciences;  and in 1708 began to lecture on
 chemistry, in the  royal garden : he  was appointed
 physician to the HAtel Dieu in 1710: and  twelve years
after purchased the  office of King's physician, which
soon led him to the appointment of consulting  physician
to the  Queen of Spain.  In 1731 he was appointed
professor of chemistry in the royal garden ; and subse-
quently communicated several papers to the  Academy
of Sciences, which  appeared  in their Memoirs.   He
published also "Trait* des Aliments,"  which was fre-
quently reprinted; " A Dissertation on the Nourishment
of Bones, refuting the Idea of its being effected by the
Marrow;  and " Three Letters  on  the Generation of
 Worms."  He died in 1743.
  Lemithocho'rton.  See Corallina corsicana.
     '  "    'From Xtrru, to decorticate.)
   1.  The hark of a tree.
   2.  Tie skin.
   Le'mnil-s.   (From Lemnos, whence it Is brought./
 See Bole.
   LEMON.  See Citrus.
   Lemon scurvy-grass.  See Cochlearia officinalis
   LENIE'NTIA.   (From  lenio, to assuage.;  Modi-
 cines which abate irritation.
   LENITIVE. (From lenis, gentle.) Medicines which
 gently palliate diseases.  A gentle purgative.
   Lenitive electuary.   A preparation composed chiefly
 of senna and some aromatics, with Ihe pulp of tama
 rinds.  See Confectio senna.      >
   LENS.   (A lentore; from itsglutinous quality.)  1
 The lentil.  See Ervum lens.
   2. See Crystalline lens.
   LENTICULA.  (Dim. of lens, a lentil.)
   1. A smaller sort of  lentil.
   2. A freckle, or small pustule, resembling the seeds
 of lentil.
   LENTICULAR.  (Lenticularis; fromlenticulaire,
 doubly convex.)  A surgical instrument employed for
 removing tlie jagged particles of bone from the edge of
 the perforation made in the cranium with the trephine
   LENTICULA'RIA.  (From  lenticula.)   A  species
 of lentil.
   LEN'TI'GO.  (From {ens, a lentil:  so named from
 its likeness lo  lentil-seeds.)  A freckle on the skin.
   LENTIL.  Au annual vegetable of the pulse kind,
 much  used for improving  the flavour of soups.  See
 Ervum lens.
   LENTI'SCUS.  (From lentesco, to become clammy;
 so called from the gummiuess of its juice.)   The mas-
 tich-lree.
   LE'NTOR.  (From  lentus, clammy.)  A viscidity
 to siziness of any fluid.
   LEONI'NUS.  (From leo, the lion.)  An  epithet of
 that sort of leprosy called leonliasis.
   LEONTl'ASIS.  (From Xtuv, a  lion: so  called  be-
 cause it is  said lions are subject lo it.)  A species of
 leprosy resembling the elephantiasis.
   LEONTODON.   (From Xtuv, the lion, and oiovs, a
 toolh: so called from its supposed resemblance.) The
 name of a  genus of plants in  the Linnaean system.
 Class, Syngenesia,  Order, Polygamia aqualis. The
 dandelion.
   Leontodon taraxacum.  Dens  leonis.   The dan-
 delion or pissabed.  Leontodon—caule squamis inferne.
 reflexis, foliis runcinatis, denticulatis, lavibus,  of
 Linnaeus.  The young leaves of this plant in a blanched
 suite have the taste of  endive, and  make an excellent
 addition to those plants eaten early in the  spring as
 salads ; and Murray informs us, that at Gofittingin, the
 roots  are roasted and  substiluted  lor coffee by the
 poorer inhabitants, who find that an infusion prepared
 in this way, can hardly he distinguished from that of
 the coffee-berry. The expressed juice  of dandelion is
 bitler and somewhat acrid; but that of the root is bit-
 terer, and possesses more medicinal power than any
 other part of the plant.   It has been long in repute as a
 detergent and aperient, and its diuretic effects may be
 inferred from the vulgar name it bears in most of the
 European languages,  quasi lecti minga et  urinaria
 herba dicitur; and  there  are  various proofs of  its
 efficacy in jaundice, dropsy, consumption, and some
 cutaneous disorders.  The leaves, roots, flowers, stalks,
 and  juice  of dandelion,  have  all been  separately
 employed for  medical  purposes, and  seem  to differ
 rather in degree of strength than  in any essential pro-
 perty ; therefore the expressed juice, or a strong deooc-
 lion of the roots have most commonly been pi escribed,
 from one ounce to four, two or three times a-day.  The
 plant should be always used fresh ;  even extracts pre-
 pared from it appear to  lose much of their  power  by
 keeping.
   LEONTOPO'DIIJM.  (From Xtuv, a lion, and trout,
 a foot: so named from its supposed resemblance.)  The
 herb lion's foot, or Filago leontopodium.
   LEONU'RUS.  (From Xtuv, a lion, and ovpa, a tail:
 so named from its likeness /  1. The name of a genus
 of plants in the  Linnaean system.  Class, Didynamia;
 Order, Gymnospcrmia.   Lion's tail.
  2. The name, in some pharmacopoeias, for Hie lion's
 tail.  See Leonurus cardiaca.
   Lkonurus cardiaca.  The mother-wort.   Agri-
palma gallis;  Marrubium; Cardiaca crispa; Leo
 nw     t'oiiis caulinis lanceolatis, trdubis, of Linnaeus 
L.1-..F
LETJ
The lea yes of this plant have a disagreeable smell and
a bitter taste, and are said to be serviceable in disorders
of the stomachs of children, to promote the uterine dis-
charge, and to allay palpitation of the heart.
  Leopard's bane.  See Arnica montana.
  LEFT DIUM.  (From Xtms, a scale: so named from
its supposed usefulness in cleansing the skin from
scales and impurities.)  The name of a genus of plants
in the Linnaean system.  Class Tetradynamia ;  Order,
Siliculosa.
  Lspuhum  ibkris.   Iberis;  Cardamantica.   Scia-
tica cresses.  This plant possesses a warm, penetrating,
pungent taste, like unto  other cresses, and  is  recom-
mended as an antiscorbutic, antiseptic,  and stomachic.
  Lkpidium  sativum.  Nasturtium hortense.  Dit-
fander. This plant  possesses  warm, nervine,  and
stimulating qualities, and is given  as an antiscorbutic
antiseptic,  and stomachic, especially by the  lower
orders.
  Lefidosarco'ma.  (From Xtms, a scale,  and oap\,
flesh.)  A scaly tumour.
  LEPIDOSES.  (From  Xtvts-ios, squama, a  scale.)
The name of a genus of diseases   Class, Eccritica;
Order, Acrotica; in  Good's Nosology.  Scale-skin.
It contains  four species, Lepidosis pityriasis, lepri-
asis, psoriasis, icthyasis.
  LE'PISMA.  (From Xtmgu, to decorticate.)   Decor-
tication.   A peeling off of the skin.
  LEPORINUS. (From lepus, a hare.)  Leporine or
hare-like.   Applied to some malformations, diseases,
and  parts, fiom  their resemblance to labium lepori-
num, Sec.
  LE PR A.  (From Xcirpos, scabcr,vel asper ex squam-
matis decedentibus; named from its appeaiance.)  The
leprosy.  A disease in the class Cachexia,  and order
Impetigincs, of Cullen.  Dr. Willan describes this dis-
ease  as characterized  by scaly patches, of different
^izes, but  having always  nearly a circular form.   In
this country, uhree varieties of the disease are observed,
which he has described under the names of Lepra vul-
garis, Lepra alphas, Lepra nigricans.
   1. The Lepra vulgaris, exhibits first small  distinct
elevations of the cuticle,  wliich are reddish and shin-
ing, but  never contain any fluid ; these  patches con-
tinue  to enlarge  gradually, till  they nearly equal the
dimensions of a crown-piece.  They have always  an
orbicular, or oval form;  are covered with dry scales,
and surrounded by a red  border.  The scales accumu-
late on them, so as  lo form a thick prominent crust,
wiiich is quickly reproduced, whether it  fali off spon-
taneously, or may have been forcibly detached.  This
species of lepra sometimes appears first at the elbow, or
on the forearm; but more generally about the knee.  In
 Ihe  latter case, the primary patch forms immediately
 below the  patella; within a few weeks,  several other
 icaly circles appear along tlie fore part of the  leg nnd
 thigh, increasing by degrees till  they come nearly into
 contact.  The disease is then often  stationary for a
 considerable length of lime.  If il advance farther, the
 progress is towards the  hip and  loins; afterward  to
 the sides, back, and shouldeis, and about the same
 time to the arms and hands.  In ihe greater number of
 tnses,the hairy scalp is the pari last affected ; although
 the circles formed on it t eninin for some time distinct, yet
 they finally unite, and cover the whole surface on which
 Jhe hair grows with a white scaly incrustation.  This
 appearance is attended, more especially in hot weather,
 with  a troublesome  itching, nnd with  a watery dis-
 charge for several hours, when any portion of the crust
 Is detached, which  lakes place from  very slight  im-
 pressions.  The  pubes in adults is sometimes  affected
 in the same manner ns the head :  and if  the subject be
 a female, there is usually an internal pruritus pudendi.
 In some cases  of the disorder, Ihe nails, both of the
 fingers and toes, are  thickened,  nnd deeply indented
 longitudinally.  When the lepra extends universally, il
 becomes highly disgusting in its appearance, and incon
 venient from the stillness and  torpor occasioned by ii
 in the limbs. The disease, however, even In  this ad-
 vanced stage, is seldom disposed to terminate sponta-
 neously.   It continues nearly in the same state  foi seve-
 ral years,  or sometimes during the whole life of ihe
 person affected, not  being  apparently connected with
 any disorder nf the constitution.
   2.  Lrpra alphas.  The scaly patches  in the alphos
  are smaller than those of the lepra vulgaris, and  also
  differ from them in having their central parts depressed
or indented.  This disorder  usually begins about  W
elbow, with distinct, eminent asperities, of a dull  red
colour, and not much longer than papillae.   These, in a
short time, dilate to nearly the size of a silver  penny.
Two or three days afterward, the central part of them
suffers a depression, within which small  white pow-
dery scales may be observed.  The surrounding border,
however, still continues to be raised, bul  retains the
same  size,  and the same red colour as at first.  The
whole of the  forearm, and sometimes the hack of the
hand, is spotted wilh  similar  patches : they  seldom
become confluent, excepting  round the elbow,  which
iu that case, is covered with a uniform crust. This af
lection appears in the same manner upon  the joint oi
the knee, but without spreading far along the thigh 01
leg.  Dr. Willan has seldom seen it on the trunk of
the body, and never on the face.   It is a disease of
long duration, and not less difficult to cure than the
foregoing species of lepra: even when the .-caly patches
have been removed  by persevering in the use of suita-
ble applications, the cuticle still remains red, lender, and
brittle, very slowly recovering its  usual texture.  The
alphos, as above described, frequently occurs  in this
country.
  3. The Lepra nigricans differs little from the lepra
vulgaris, as to its form and distribution.  The most strik-
ing difference is in the colour of the patches, which are
dark and livid. They appear first on the legs and fore-
arms, extending  afterward to  the thighs,  loins, neck,
and hands.  Their central part is  not  depressed, as in
the alphos.  They are somewhatsmalier in size than the
patches ofthe lepra vulgaris, and nol only is the bordei
livid or purplish, but the livid colour of the base  like-
wise appears through the scaly incrustation, wliich is
seldom very thick.  It  is further  to be observed, lhat
the scales are more easily detached than  in the othei
forms of lepra, and Ibat the surface remains longer ex-
coriated, discharging lymph, often with an intermix-
ture of blond, till  a new incrustation forms, which is
usually hard, brittle, and irregular.  The  lepra nigri-
cans, affects  persons whose occupation  is attended
with much fatigue, and exposes them to cold or damp,
and W a precarious or improper mode of  diet, as sol-
diers, brewers, labourers,  butchers,  stage-coachmen,
scullermen, &c; some women are also liable to it, who
are habituated to poor living and constant Imrd labour.
   Lepra gr^corum.  The lepra vulgaris, alphos, and
nigricans have all been so denominated.  See Lepra.
   LEPRIASIS.   (From Xtirpos, scabcr.-j  The  specific
name of a speciesof leprosis in Good's Nosology, wliich
embraces the severnl kinds of leprosy.
   LEPROSY.  See Lepra.
   Leptu'.ntica.  (From Xtirros, thin.)   Attenuating
medicines.
   Lepty'smus.   (From  Xtirros, slender.)  Attenua-
tion,  or the making n substance less solid.
   LEPUS.   The name of a genus of animals of the
order Glircs, in  the class Mammalia.  The hoie.
   Lepus cumculus.  The  systematic name  of the
rabbit, the flesh of which, when young and tender, is
easy of digestion.
   Lepus timidvs.  The systematic name  of the com-
mon hnre ; the flesh of which is considered as a deli-
cacy, nnd easy of digestion.
   Le'ros.   (From Xnotu, to trifle.)  A slight  de-
 lirium.
   LETHARGY.   (I.ethargus• from Xnfln, foigelful
 ncss  so called because with it the person  is forgetful.)
 A heavy and constant sleep, wilh scairely any inli r-
 vals of waking; when awakened, the person answers,
 but ignorant or forgetful of  what ne said,  imim-diately
 sinks into the same stale of sleep.   It i< considered as
 an imperfect apoplexy, and is mostly symptomatic
   Lkthk'a.  The name of Ihe poppy
   LETTUCE.  See Lactuca.
   LEl'CAi'A N'l'IIA.   (From Xtvxos,  wime,  and
 axavOa, a iliorn: so named from iLs white blosnouu;
 The eotton-lhistle.
   LEUCA'NTHEMUM.  (From Xtvxos,  while, and
 ai«tpos, n flow er: so called from its while  floret.)  See
  Chrysanthemum leucanthcmiim.
   LEUCASMUS.  (Atvxaopos, whiteness: so nnmed
 from its appearance.)  The specific name, Epichrosi*
 Icuccsmus, veal skin, in Good's Nosology,  for the Viti
 ligo of Willan.                          ,  ,
   LF.UCE.   (Atintof, white.)  A species of  lejvoeof
| See Alphus. 
LFU
LEV
  LEUCELE CTRUM.   (From Xsvxos,  white,  and
aX.txrpov, amber.)   White amber.
  LEUCINE  (From Xtvxos, white ;  from its appear-
ance.)   The name given by Braconnot  to a white
pulverulent master obtained  by  digesting  equal parts
of be<ef  fibre and sulphuric  acid together, and alter
sepmating the fat, diluting the acid mixture, and satu-
rating with chalk, filtering aud evaporating.   A sub-
stance tasting like ozmazome is thus procured, wliich
is lo  be  boiled in different portions of alkohol.  The
alkoholic solutions, on cooling, deposite the white pul-
verulent matter, or leucine.
  Leucola ciiANtM.   (From Xtvxos, while, nnd Xaxa-
k*, an herb: so named from its colour.) The Valeriana
tylvcstris.
  LEUCO'MA.  (From Xtvxos, white.) Leucoma  and
albugo are often used synonymously, to denote a white
opacity of the cornea of tlie  eye.  Both of them, ac-
cording to Scarpa, arc essentially different from  the
nebula, for they aro not ihe  consequence of chronic
ophthalmy, attended with varicose veins, and an effu-
sion of a milky serum into the texture of the delicate
coiiiinuaiion of the conjunctiva  over  the  cornea,  but
are ihe result of violent acute  ophthalmy.   In this
state,  a dense coagulating lymph is extravasated from
the arteries; sometimes  superficially, al  other times
deeply, into the substance of ihe cornea.  On oilier
occasions, the disease consists of a firm callous cicatrix
on this membrane, the effect of an ulcer, or wound,
with  loss of substance.   The term albugo,  strictly
belongs to the first form of the disease; leucoma, to ihe
last, more particularly when the opacity occupies  the
whole, or the chief" pan, of the cornea.
  LELCONYMPH.E A.  (From Xtvxos- white, and
voptpaia,  the water-hlv.)  See Nympkaa alba.
  LEUCOPHAG1L.M.   iFrom  Xtvxos,  white, and
payu, to  eat.)  A medicated white food.
  LEUCOPHLF.GMA SIA.   (From Xrofcoj, white, and
tbXcypa, phlegm.)   L^mn-phlcgmatic.   A tendency in
the system to a dropsical  state known by a pale colour
of the skin, a  flabby condition of tlie solids, and a re-
dundancy of serum in the blood.
  LEUCO PIPER. (From Xtvxos, white,  and ire-cpt,
pepper.)   White pepper.   See Piper nigrum.
  LKUCORRHOB'A.  (From Xtvxos,  white, and pr.u,
to flow.)   Fluor albus.   The whites.  A secretion of
whitish or milky mucus  from the vagina  of women,
arising from debility and  not  from the venereal virus.
This disease is marked by the discharge of'a thin white
nr yellow matter from the uterus and vagina, attended
likewise wilh some degree of foetor, smarting in making
water, pains in tlie back and loins, anoiexia and atro-
phy.  In some cases,  the discharge is of  so  acrid a
nature, as to produce effects  on lliosc who are con-
nected with tlie woman, somewhat similar to venereal
matter, giving rise to excoriations about the  glans penis
aud pra-putium, and occasioning a weeping from  the
urethra.
  To  distinguish leucorrhoea  from gonorrhoea, it will
be very necessary to attend to the symptoms.   In  the
latter  the running is constant,  but in a small quantity;
there  is much ardor urine,  itching of the pudenda,
swelling of the labia,  increased inclination to venery,
and very frequently an enlargement of the glands iu  the
groin; whereas, in the former the discharge is irregular,
and iu considerable quantities, and is neither preceded
by, nor accompanied with, any inflammatory affection
of the pudenda.
  Immoderate coition, injury done to the parts by diffi-
cult and tedious labours, frequent miscarriages, immo-
derate flowings of the menses,  profuse evacuations,
poor diet, an abuse of tea, and other causes, giving
rise to general debility, or to a laxity of the parts more
immediately concerned, are those which usually pro-
duce the whites, vulgarly so called, from the discharge
being  commonly of a milky white colour.
  Fluor albus, in some cases,  indicates that there is a
disposition to disease in the uterus, or  parts connected
with it, especially where the quantity of the discharge
ia very copious, and its quality highly acrimonious.  By
some  the disease has  been considered  as never  arising
tiorn  debility of the  system, but as  being always a
primary  affection  of  the uterus.   Delicate women,
with  lax fibres, who remove  from a cold climate to a
warm one, are very apt to be attacked with it, w'.thout
the parts having previously  sustained any  kind of
  The disease  shows itself by an irregular discharge
from the uterus and vagina of a fluid which, in differ
•fit women, varies much in colour, being either of a
white, green, yellow, or brown hue. In the beginning,
it is, however, most usually white and pellucid, and in
Ihe progress of  the complaint acquires the various d)8
colorations, nnd different degrees of acrimony,  from
whence proceeds a slight degree of smarting in making
water.  Besides the discharge, the peticnt is frequently
afflicted with severe and constant pains in the back and
loins, loss of strength, failure of appetite, dejection  off
spirits, \ aleness of the countenance, chilliness, and
languor.   Where the disease has been of long con
tiuuance,  and very severe, a slow fever, attended with
difficult respiration, palpitations, faintings, and swell-
ings of the lower extremities, often ensues.
  A perfect removal of the disorder will at all times be
a difficult matter to procure; but it will be much more
so in cases of long standing, and where  the discharge
is accompanied with a high degree of acrimony.  In
these cases, many disorders, such as prolapsus uteri,
ulcerations of the organ, atrophy, and dropsy, arc apt
to take place, which  in the  end prove fatal.
  Where the disease  terminates in dealh, the internal
surface of the uterus  appears, on dissection, to be pale,
flabby, nnd relaxed ; nnd where organic affections have
arisen, much the same appearances are to be  met with
as have been noticed uudfer the head of monorrhagia.
  LEUCO'RRHOIS.  (From Xmikoc, white,  and ptu,
lo flow.)  A discharge of mucus from the urethra of
vagina.
  LEVA'TOR.  (From levo, to  lift up.)  A muscle,
the office of which is to lift  up the part  to which it ir
attached.
  Levator anguli  oris.    Abducens labiorum, of
Spigelius;  Elevator labiorum  communis, of  Douglas
Caniitus, of Winslow , and  Sms maxillo labial, of Du
mas.  A muscle situated above the mouth, which drawi
the corner of the mouth upwards, and makes that pars
of the cheek opposite to the chin prominent, as  in
smiling.   It arises thin and  fleshy from  the hollow of
the superior maxillary bone, between the root of the
socket ol' the first grinder and the foramen infra orbita-
lium, and is inserted  into the angle of the mouth and
under lip, where it joins with its antagonist.
  Levator ani.   Levator magnus, seu internus, of
Douglas;  Pubo coccigi annulairc, of Dumas.   A mus-
cle of the  rectum.  It arises from  the os pubis, within
ihe pelvis, as far up as the  upper edge of the foramen
fhyroideum, and joining of the os pubis with  the  oa
ischium, from ihe thin tendinous membrane that covers
lite obturator internus and coccygieus muscles, and  from
the spinous process ofthe ischium.  From these origins
all round  the inside of the  pelvis, its fibres run down
like  ia\.-»from  ihe circumference to a centre, to  be
inserted into ihe sphincter ani,  acceleratores  urina?,
and anterior part of the two last  bones of the os coc-
cvgis, surrounding the extremity of the  rectum, neck
of the bladder,  prostrate  gland, and part of  the vcsl-
culae seminales. Its  fibres, joining with those of its
fellow, form a funnel-shaped hole, that draws the rec-
tum  upwards after the evacuation of the  faeces, and
assists in shutting it.  The levatores ani also sustain
the contents of the pelvis,  and assist in ejecting iho
semen, urine, and contents ofthe rectum, and  perhaps,
by pressing upon the veins, contribute  greatly to the
erection of the penis.
  Levator labii inferioris. A muscle ofthe mouth
situated below  the lips.  Levator menti, of Albinus.
Incisivus  inferior, of Winslow.  Elevator labii infe-
rioris proprius, of Douglas.  It arises from the lower
jaw, at the roots of the alveoli of tv/o incisor teeth and
the cuspidatus,  and is inserted into the under lip and
skin of the chin.
  Levator labii superioris al.eque nasi. Elevator
labii superioris proprius, of Douglas; Incisivus  late-
ralis el pyramidalis, of Winslow.  A muscle of the
mouth and lips, that raises the upper lip towards the
orbit, and  a  little outwards; it serves also to draw *ia
skin of the nose upwards and outwards, by which tlw
nostril is dilated.  It arises ny two distinct origins; tho
first, broad and fleshy, from  the external  part of the
orbitar process of the superior maxillary bone, irnme
diately above the foramen infra orbitarium ; the second,
from the nasal process of the superior maxillary bone,
where it joins the os frontis.  The first portion is ia
sorted into the  upper I'p and  orbicularis muscle, Uv 
LIB
LIC
 second  into the upper lip and outer part of the ala
 nasi
   Levator labii superioris  proprius.   Musculus
 incisivus.  A muscle of the upper lip.  It arises under
 the edge of the orbit, and is inserted into the middle of
 the lip.
   Levator ocui.i.  See Rectus superior oculi.
   Levator palati.  A muscle situated between the
 "rower jaw and the os hyoides laterally.   Levator
 palati mollis, of Albinus; Petrosalpingo-staphitinus,
 vel salpingo-staphilinus internus, of Winslow;  Sal-
 pingo-staphilinus, of Valsalva; Pterigo-staphilinus ex-
 ternus vulgo, of Douglas; Spheno-staphilinus, of Cow-
 per.  It arises tendinous and fleshy from the extremity
 of the petrous  portion of the temporal bone, where it
 is perforated by the Eustachian tube, and also from the
 membraneous part of the same tube, and is inserted into
 the whole length of the velum pendulum palati, as far
 as the root of the uvula, and  unites with its  fellow.
 Its use is lo draw the velum pendulum palati upwards
 and backwards, so as to shut  the passage frmi the
 fauces inlo the mouth  and nose.
   Levator palati mollis.  See Levator palati.
   Levator palpebrje superioris.   Apniens  pal-
 pebrarum rectus; Apertor oculi.  A proper muscle of
 the upper eyelid, that opens  the eyes, by drawing the
 eyelid upwards.  It arises from Ihe upper part of the
 foramen opticum of  the sphenoid  bone,  above the
 rectus superior  oculi, near the trochlearis, and is in-
 serted by a broad thin tendon  into the cartilage  that
 supports the upper eyelid.
   Levator parvus.  See Transverus perinei.
   Levator scapula:.   A muscle situated on the  pos-
 terior part ofthe neck, that pulls the scapula upwards
 and a little forwards.   This  name, which was  first
 given to it by Riolanus, has been adopted by Albinus.
 Douglas calls it elevator seu musculus patienlia;  and
 Winslow, angularis, vulgo levator proprius.   It is a
 long muscle, nearly two inches iu breadth, and is situ-
 ated obliquely under the anterior edge of Ihe trapezius.
 It arises tendinous and fleshy from the transverse  pro-
 cesses of the four and sometimes five superior vertebrae
 colli, by so many distltict slips, which soon unite to
 form a  muscle that runs  obliquely downwards  and
 outwards, and  is inserted by a flat tendon  into the
 upper angle of the scapula.  Its use is to raise the
 scapula upwards and a little forwards.
   LEVIGATION.  (Lavigatio; from lavigo, to make
 smooth.)  The reduction of a hard substance, by tri-
 ture, to  an impalpable powder.
   LEVI'STICUM.  (From leva, to assuage: so called
 'rom the relief it gives in  painful flatulencies.)   See
 Ligusticum levisticum.
   LEVRET, Andrew, a French surgeon and accou-
 cheur, was admitted into the Royal Academy of Sur-
 gery, at Paris, in 1742.  He obtained considerable re-
 putation by the improvements which he made in some
 of the instruments used in difficult cases, and  by the
 great number of pupils whom he instructed.   He  was
 employed  and honoured with official appointments by
 all the female branches of the royal family.   He pub-
 lished several  works, which went  through various
editions and translations, mostly on obstetrical sub-
 jects; but there is one on the Radical Cure of Polypi
 in different parts of the body.
  LEXIPHA'RMACA.   (From Xriyu,  to  terminate,
 and  oappaxov,  poison.)   Medicines which resist or
 destroy the power of poison.
 1 LEXIPY'RETA. (From Xnyui, to make cease, and
 rvperos, a fever.)   Febrifuge medicines.
  Liba'pii'm.  (From Aifiugu), to make moist: so called
 Decnuae it grows in watery  places.)   The less  cen-
 taury.   Hee Chironia centaurium:
 ' LIBA.N'O'TIS.    (From AiSuvof, frankincense: so
 -ailed from its resemblance in smell to frankincense.)
 Rosonitiiy.
  LI'llANl'S.   (From Libanon,a mountain iu Syria,
 where it grows.)  1. The Pinus cedrus,  or  cedar of
 Lebanon.
  2.  The frankincense tree, or Pinus abies.
  LIBER.  Bark.  Immediately under the cuticle of
plants and trees is a succulent cellular substance, for
the most part of n green colour, at least of the leaves
and branches, called by Du Hamel enveloppe ccllulaire,
tfeid by Mirbel tissue herbaii.  Under this is the bark,
poiisiuing'of but one layer in plants or branches only
 "Mie year old.   In the  older branches and  trunks of
     20
 trees, U consists of as many layers as they are yearn
 old, the innermost being called the liber; and it is this
 layer only that the essential vital functions are carried
 on for the time  being, after whicli  il is pushed out
 wards with the cellular integument, and becomes, like
 that, a lifeless crust.—Smith.
   Li'bos.  (From XetBu, to distil.)  A rheum  or de
 fluxion from the eyes, or nose.
   LIBU'RNUM.  (From Liburnia,lhe country where
 it flourished.)  The mealy-tree.  See Viburnum Ian
 tana.
   LICETO, Fortitmo, was son of a Genoese  physi-
 cian, and born in 1577.  After prosecuting wall dili
 gence the requisite studies, he settled at Pisa at the age
 of twenty-two, and soon obtained the professorship of
 philosophy tliere; and in 1609 he received a similar
 appointment at Padua.   Thence, after twenty seven
 years,  he removed to Bologna, being disappoiuied of
 the medical chair; but on a vacancy occurring i|j 1C45,
 he was induced,  by the pressing invitations m ide lo
 him, to accept the office, in  which he continue I till his
 death in  1657.   He was a very copious wriivr, having
 published above fifty treatises on different sv tjaets, and
 displayed much erudition;  but no greal a< t-trness or
 originality.  His  treatise,  "De Monstrorit-i  Causis,
 Natura, et Differentiis," is best known, and ?fit wg liim
 to have been very credulous; which app<. r< farther
 from his belief, that  the ancients had a  n> thod of
 making lamps,  which should burn for eur v ithout a
 fresh supply of  fuel, and that such had htc n found in
 sepulchres.
  LI'CIIANUS.  (From Aetyu, to lick: so called be-
 cause it is commonly used  in  licking up any thing.)
 The forefinger.
  LICHEN.  (Attxriv, or  Xtxnv,  n tetter, or  ring-
 worm.)  Tetter, or ringworm.
  I.  The name of a  disease, defined, by Dr. Willan,
 an extensive eruption of papulae affecting adults, con-
 nected  with internal disorder,  usually terminating in,
 scurf, recurrent,  not  contagious.   The varieties of
 lichen he considers under the denominations of Lichen
 simplex, Lichen agrius, Lichen pilaris, Lichen lividus
 and Lichen tropicus.
  The  Lichen simplex usually commences wilh head-
 ache, flushing of the face, ioss of appetite,  general
 languor, and inci eased quickness ofthe pulse. Distinct
 red papulae arise first about the cheeks and chin, or on
 the arms; and,  in the course of tliree or four days, the
 same appearance  takes place on the  neck, body, and
 lower extremities, accompanied with an unpleasant
sensation of tingling, which  is  somewhat aggravated
 during  the night  In about  a week, the colour of the
eruption fades, and the cuticle begins to separate; the
 whole surface is at length covered with scurvy exfolia-
tions, which are particularly large, and continue longest
in the flexures of ihe joints.   The duration of the com-
 plaint is seldom in any two cases alike; ten, fourteen,
seventeen, or sometimes twenty days intervene bet wee"
the eruption and  ihe renovation of the cuticle.  The
 febrile state, or rather the state of irritation  at ihe be-
ginning of this disorder, is seldom considerable enough
to confine the patient to the  house.  After remaining
 live or six days, it is generally relieved on the appear-
ance of the eruption.  This, as well as  some  otlier
species of the lichen, occurs about the beginning o.
summer, or in autumn, more especially affecting "pee
sons of a weak  and irritable habit; henee women are
 more liable to it than men.  Lichen simplex is also a
 frequent sequel of acute diseases, particularly  fever
 and catarrhal inflammation, of which it seems to pro-
 duce a crisis.   In these cases  the eruption has been
 termed, by medical  writers, scabies critica.   Many
 instances of il are collected under lhat title bv Sau-
 vages,  Nosol. Method.  Class  x.   Order 5.  jmpeti-
gincs.
  The  Lichen agrius is preceded  by nausea, pain in
 the stomach, headache, loss of strength, and  dee|>-
 sealcd  pains  in the  limbs, wilh Mis of coldness and
 shivering; which symptoms continue several days, and
 are sometimes relieved by the papulous eruption.  The
 papulae  are distributed in  clusters, or often in  large
 patches,  chiefly on the arms,  the  upjier  pari of the
 breast, the neck, face, back  nnd sides of the abdomen,
 they are of a vivid red colour, and have a redness, or
some degree of  inflammation, diffused round ihem to
 a considerable extent, and attended with itching, heat,
 and a  painful tingling.  Dr. Willan has observed, in 
                        l.fA.

ante ov two cases where it was produced from impru-
dent exposure to cold, that nn  acute disease ensued,
with great quickness of the pulse, heat, lliirst, pains
of the  bowels, frequent vomiting, headache, and deli-
rium.   Alter ihese symptoms had continued ten days,
oc soniew hul longei,"the jialic'-l recoveied, though the
erupiimi did nol return.  Tin diffuse ledness connect-
ing the papula-, and the tendency lo become pustular,
distinguish the lichen agiius from the lichen simplex,
and Ihe oilier varieties of this complaint, in whicli the
inflammation dues not extend beyond the basis of tile
papule, and terminates in scurf, or scales.
  lAcht-i pilnis.  This is  merely a  modification  of
tlie first species of* lichen, and, like it, often alternates
With complaints of the head, or stomach,  in irritable
habius.   Tlie  peculiarity of the eruption is, that the
small tubercles or aspeiiiies appear only nt the  roots
of Hie  hairs of the skin, being probably occasioned by
au eiilaigeineui of llieir bulbs, or an unusual  fulness
of the  blood-vessels distributed to them.  This affec-
tion  is distinguishable from the  cutis anseriun, by its
permanency, by ils red papula-, and by the troublesome
itching or tingling whicli  attends  il.  If a part thus
affected be violently rubbed, some o  the papulae en-
large to the size of wheals, but  the  tumour soon sub-
sides age in.   The eruption continues  more or less
vivid fur about leu days, and terminates, as usual, in
small exfoliations of the cuticle,  one of which sur-
rounds the base of each hair.  This complaint,  as
likewise the lichen agrius, frequently occurs  in persons
accustomed to drink largely of spinluous liquors un-
diluted.
  Lichen licidus.   The papula;  characterizing this
eruptiou are of a dark red, or livid hue, and somewhat
more permanent than iu the foregoing species of lichen.
They appear chiefly on  the  arms and legs,  but some-
limes extend lo otlier parts of the body.  They are
finally succeeded, though at very uncertain periods, by
slight exfoliations of the culicle, after which a fresh
eruption is not  preceded  or attended by any febrile
symptoms.  It principally affects persons of a weak
constitution, who live on a poor diet, and are engaged
in laborious occupations.   Young persons, and of leu
children  living in confined  situations, or  Using little
exercise, are also subject to the  lichen lividt.s; and iu
tbein, ihe papulae are  generally intermixed with  pete-
chia, or larger purple  spots, resembling vibiccs.   This
circumstance poi uts out ihe affinity of the lichen Ii vidus
with the purpura, or  land scurvy, and the  connexion
is further proved by the exciting causes, which are Ihe
same iu both complaints.  The same method of treat-
ment is  likewise  successful in  both cases.   They
are oresently  cured  by nourishing  food,  moderate
exercise in the open  air, along with the use of Peru-
vian bark and  vitriolic acid, or the  tincture of muri-
ated steel.
  Lichen tropicus.   By this term is expressed the
prickly heat, a papulous eruption, almost universally
affecting Europeans settled in tropical climates.  The
prickly heal appears without any  preceding disorder
of the constitution.  It consists of numerous papula-,
about the size  of a small pin's head, and elevated  so
as io produce  a considerable roughness on the skin.
The papulae are of a  vivid red colour, and  often ex-
hibit an irregular form, two or tliree of them being
in many places united together; but no redness or in-
flammation extends to the skin in ihe interstices of the
papulie.
  2.  The name of a  genus of plants (applied by the
Romans to  a  plai>*. which  was supposed by them to
cure the lichen, or tetter,) iu the Linnaean system.
Class, Cryptogamia; Order, Alga.  There are several
species, some of whicli are used in medicine.
  Lichen aphthosus.  Muscus camatilis.  This plant
is said  to iiave  a decided  good effect in some  com-
plaints of the  intestines, but is not used iu the practice
of this  country.
  Lichen camnus.  The systematic name ofthe ash-
coloured ground liverwort.  Lichen cinereus terrestris;
Muscus  caninus.  This  cryptogamous  plant  has a
weak,  faint smell, and a sharpish taste.  It  was  for a
long time highly extolled as a medicine of singular vir-
tue, in preventing and  curing  that dreadful disorder
which  is produced by  the bite of rabid animals, but it is
now deservedly forgotten.
  Lichen cinereus terrestris. See Lichen caninus.
  Lichen coccifep.ub-   See Lichenpyxidatus.
                       L1C

  Lichen islandicus  The medicinal qualities of this
plant have lately been so well established  at Vienna,
ihut it is now admitted into the materia medica ofthe
London pharmacopoeia.  It is extremely mucilaginous,
and to the taste bilter, and somewhat astringent.  Its
bitterness, ns  well as  the purgative quality which it
manifests in its recent slate, are inn great measure dis-
sipated  on drying, or may be e.vtiacled  hy a slight
infusion  iu water, so  lhat the inhabitants nf Iceland
convert it into a tolerably grateful and nutritive food.
An ounce of this lichen, boiled n quarter of au  hour in
a pint of water, yielded seven ounces of a mucilage as
thick  as that  procured  by the solution of one  |<arl of
gum-arabic in three of wnter.
  The  medical virtues of this lichen were probably
fust learned from the Icelanders, who employ it in  its
fresh slate as  a laxative; but  when depiivcd  of thin
quality, and properly prepared, we  are told that it is
an efficacious remedy in consumptions, coughs, dysen-
teries, and dim ihieas.  Scopoli seems to have been the
first who, of lale-  years,  called Ihe attention of  phy-
sicians to this  remedy iu consumptive disoideis: and
further  instances  ot  its success  me  related by Herz,
Cramer, Tromsdorff,  Eliding, Pnulisky,  Stoll, and
others, who  bear  testimony lo ils efficacy in most of
ihe other complaints above mentioned,  lie Heizsays.
that since he first used the lichen in dytenteiy, he found
it so successful, that he never had occasion to  uuii/'-y
any oilier remedy ; it must be observed, how ever, th: t
cathartics and emetics wi re always repeatedly ad
ministered befoie he had recourse  to the lichen, to
w Inch  he also occasionally added opium. Dr. Ci icliton
informs us,  that  during seven mouths' residence nt
Vienna, he had frequent opportunities of seeing Ihe
lichen  islandicus  tiled iu phthisis puhiionalis  at the
general hospitals,  and confesses,  "that it by no meaiu
answered the  expectation he had formed of it."  He
adds, however, " from w hat I have seen, I am  fully
convinced in my own  mind, that there are only two
species of this disease where this sort of  lichen pro
mises  a cure.  The two species  I  hint  at are  the
phthisis  huemoptoica, and  ihe  phthisis pituitosa, or
mucosa.  In several cases of ihese, I have seen the
patients so far get the better of their complaints as to
be dismissed the hospital cured, but whether they re-
mained long so or not,  I cannot take upon me to say."
That this lichen strengthens the digestive powers, and
proves extremely nutritious, there can be no doubt; bul
the great medicinal efficacy attiibuted to it nt Vienna,
will not readily becredited at London. It is commonly
given in the form of a decoction : an ounce and a half
ofthe lichen being boiled in a quart of milk. Of this,
a feacupful is directed to be drank  frequently iu the
course ofthe day.  If milk disagree with the stomach,
a simple decoctionof tho lichen in water is to be used.
fare ought to  be taken  lhat it  be boiled over a slow
lire, and uot longer ihan a quarter of an hour.
  Lichen pi.icatus.   The systematic  name  of the
muscus arboreuc.   This plant, we are infoimed by the
great botanist Linnaeus, is applied  by the  Laplanders
to parts which are excoriated by a long journey.  It is
slightly astringent, and is applied  with lhat intention tn
bleeding vessels.
  Lichen pi i.monarus.  The systematic narffe of the
officinal muscuspulmonarius quercinus.  Pulmonariii
arborea.  This subastringeiit  and rather acid plant
was once in high estimation in the cure of diseases of
the lungs, especially coughs, asthmas, and catarrhs
Its virtues are similar, and in no way inferior, to these
of the lichen islandicus.
  Lichen pyxidatus.  The systematic name af tii*
cup-moss.  Muscus  pyxidatus;  Musculus pyxoides
terrestris ; Lichen pyxidatus major.  These very con
mon liltle plants, Lichen  coccifcrus, and pyxidatus, . f
Linna-us, for both are used indifferently, are cmployi 1
by the  common people in this country in  the  cure cf
hooping-cough, in the form of decoction.
  Lichen roccella.  The systematic name of the
roccella of tlie shops.  Roccella,  It has been employed
medicinally with success in allaying the cough  attend
ant on phthisis, and in hysterical coughs.   The princ)
pal use is as  a blue dye.  It is imported to us as it1
gathered: those who prepare it for the use of the dyer.
grind it between stones, so as thoroughly to bruise r:.'
not to reduce it into powder, and then moisten  it occa-
sionally with a strong spirit of urine, or  urine its^'f
mixed  with quicklime:  in a few  days it acquires i
                                          -21 
LIF
LIG
 purplish red, and at length a blue colour; in the first
 fctale it is called archil, iu the latter lacmus or litmus.
   Litmus is used in chemistry as a test, either staining
 paper wilh it, or by infusing it iu water, when it is very
 commonly, but with great impropriety, culled tincture
 cf turnsole.  The  persons by whom this article was
 prepared formerly, gave it the name of turnsole, pre-
 tending lhat it was extracted from the turnsole hcliotro-
piuin tricoccum, in order to  keep  its true  source a
i-ecret.  The tincture should not be too strong, other-
 \  ise it will have a  violet tinge, which, however, may
 I e removed by dilution.  The light of the sun turns it
 red even iu close vessels.  It may be made with spirit
instead of water.  This tincture, or paper stained with
 i'., is presently  turned red by acids; and if it be first
reddened by a small quantity of vinegar, or some weak
a. .id, its blue colour will be restored by an alkali.
   Lichkn saxatilis.  The systematic name of  the
nuscus craiai  humuni.   Usnca.   This moss,  when
grow ing on the human skull, was formerly in high  es-
timation, but is now deservedly forgotten.
   LIEN.  (From Xctos, soft, or smooth.)  The spleen.
See Spleen.
   Lien sinarum. The Faba ajgyptia.  See Nymphaa
nelumbo.
   LIENTE'RIA.  (From  Xtioc, smooth, and tvrtpov,
ihe intestine.)   Lientery.  See Diarrhaa.
   L1EUTAUD, Joseph, was born at Aix, in Provence,
in 170X  A taste for botany induced him to travel into
the countries which Tournefort had visited: and he
brought back many plants unnoticed by that distin-
guished botanist: this gained him great applause, aud
ite obtained  the reversion of the chaiis of Botany and
Anatomy, which his maternal uncle had long filled.
lie was  also appointed physician  to  the hospital at
Aix, which  led him lo turn his attention chiefly to
anatomy.  His audience soon became numerous, and
in 17 i2 he published a syllabus, entitled, "Essuis Ana-
tomiques," which was many times reprinted, with im-
provements.  He coiiimunieafcd also several papers
on morbid anatomy, and on physiology, to the Academy
of Sciences,  of which he was elected a corresponding
member.  In 1749 lie went to Versailles, Senao having
obtained for him the appointment of physician to the
Royal Infirmary; which act of" friendship is ascribed to
a liberal private communication of some errors com-
i.litted by Senac. He there continued his investigations
with great zeal, and was soon elected assistant anato-
mist to the Royal Academy, which he presented with
many valuable memoirs  He also printed a volume,
" Elementa Physiologiae,"  composed  for his  class at
Aix.  In 1755 he was nominated physician to the royal
family, and20 years after, first physician to Louis XVI.
I-i 175i> his "Precis de la Meolecine  Pratique," ap-
peared,  which  went  through several editions; and
Keven years after, his " Precis de la Matiire M&licale."
Dut his most important work, which still ranks high in
tho estimation  of  physicians, is  entitled, " Historia
Anatomico Medica," in 2 vols, quarto, 1767, contain-
ing numerous dissections of morbid  bodies.  His death
occurred in 1780.
   LIEVRITE.   Ycnite.   A blackish  green-coloured
mineral,  composed  of silica, alumina, lime, oxide  of
iron, aiul oxide of manganese, found in primitive lime-
stone, aling wilh epidote, quartz, &c. in the isle of Elba.
   LIFE.  A peculiar condition, or mode of existence,
of living beings.  Surrounding matter is. divided into
two great classes, living and dead.  The latter is sub-
ject to physical  laws, which the former also obeys in
a  groat degree.  Living matter exhibits also physical
pro|ierlies, which are found equally  in dead matter.
But living bodies are endowed likewise with  a set of
Lioperties altogether different from these, aud contrast-
ing with litem  in a very remarkable way; these are
tailed vital  properties, actions,  powers, faculties, or
forces.  The-e  animate living matter  so long  as it
continues alive, and are ihe source of the various phe-
nomena whicli  constitute  the functions of the  living
H.iimal body, and which distinguish its history from
t' at of dead  mailer.  The study of life is the object of
the science of physiology  which includes an inquiry
inlo tlie properties that characterize living matter, and
an investigation of the functions wliich the vnrious
•J.-gaus, by virtue of these properties,  are enabled to
execute.  The vital principle diffused throughout these
organs induces a mode of union in the elements, widely
suffering from that which arises from the common laws
 of chemical affinify.  By the aid of this principle, na-
 ture produces the animal fluids, as blood, bile, semen,
 and the rest, which can  never be produced by tlie art
 of chemistry.  But if, in consequence of  deaih, the
 laws of vital  attraction, or  affinity, cease to operate,
 then the elements, recovering their physical properties,
 become again obedient to the common laws of chemi-
 cal affinity, and enter into new combinations, from
 which  new principles, in the process of  putrefaction.
 are produced.  Thus the hydrogen, combining itself
 with the azote, forms volatile afkali; and  the carbu-
 retted hydrogen, with the azote, putrid air,  into whicn
 the whole body is converted.   It  also appears from
 hence,  why organized bodies  alone, namely, animal
 and vegetable, are subject to putridity; to whicli inor-
 ganic or mineral substances are in no degree liable, the
 latter not being compounded according to tlie laws of
 vital affinity,  but only according to those of chemical
 affinity.  For the  fatiscence, or resolution  of  pyrites,
 or sulphuret of iron, in atmospheric air, is  not putre-
 faction, but only the oxygen, furnished by the air, com-
 bining with the sulphur, and forming iron and sulphate
 of iron.
   Tlie life of an  animal  body  appears to  be three-
 fold.
   1. Its chemical life, which consists in that attraction
 of the elements, by which the vital principle, diffused
 through Ihe solids  and fluids, defends all  the parts of
 the body from putrefaction.  In this sense  it may be
 said, that every atom of our body lives chemically, and
 that life is destroyed by putrefaction alone.
   2. Its physical life, which consists in the iiritability
 of the parts.  This physical property remains for some
 time after death. Thus the heart or intestines removed
 fiom the body, while still warm, contract themselves
 on the application of a stimulus.  In like manner the
 serpent  or eel, being cut into pieces, each  part  moves
 and palpitates for a long time afterward.  Hence these
 parts may be said to live physically, as long as they are
 warm and soft.
   3. Its physiological life, consists in the  action of
 inorganic parts proper to each, as the action of the
 heart and vessels;  so that these actions  ceasing, the
 body is said to be physiologically dead.  The physiolo-
 gical life ceases first, next tlie physical, and finally the
 chemical perishes.
   LIGAMENT.   (Ligamentum; from tigo, to bind.)
 An elastic and strong membrane connecting the extre-
 mities of the moveable bones.  Ligaments are divided
 into capsular, which surround joints  like a  bag, and
 connecting ligaments.  The  use of the capsular liga-
 ments is to connect the extremities  of the moveable
 bones, and prevent the efflux of  synovia; the external
 and internal connecting ligaments strengthen the union
of the extremities of the moveable bones.
  Ligamentum annulare.   The angular  ligament.
 A strong ligament on each ankle and each wrist.
  Ligamentum arteriosu.m.  The ductus arteriosus
of the foetus becomes  a  ligament after birth, which is
so called.
  Ligamentum ciliare.  Behind  the  uvea  of tlie
human  eye, there arise out of the choroid membrane,
 from the ciliary circle, white complicated striie, cover-
ed with  a black matter.   The fluctuating extremities
of these  stria: are spread abroad even  to  the crys-
talline lens, upon  which they  lie, but are not affixed.
Taken together, they are  called ligamentum ciliare.
   Ligamentum dbnticulatum.  A small ligament
supporting the spinal marrow.
  Ligamentum fallopii.  The round ligament of the
 uterus has been so called.   See also LigamentKin pou-
parti.
  Ligamentum interosseum.  The  ligament uniting
 the radius aud ulna, and  also that between the tibia
 and fibula.
  Ligamentum latum.  The broad ligament of the
 liver, and that of the uterus.   See Liver and Uterus.
  Ligamentum nuciije.   A  strong  ligainei*-,  of the
 neck, which proceeds from one spinous pree^ess to an
other.
  Ligamentum ovarii.  The thick, round portion of
 the broad ligament of the uterus, by which the ova
 rium is connected  with the uterus.
  Ligamentum pouparti. Fallopian ligament. Peu
part's ligament. A ligament extending from the ante
rior superior spinous process of Hie  ilium  to the crista
of tbe os pubis. 
L1G
L1G
   Ligamentum ron n-dum.  The round ligament of
  he uterus.  See Uterus.
   LIGATURE.  (Ligatura; from ligo, to bind.)  A
 .''.read, or silk, of various thickness, covered  wilh
 white wax, for the purpose of tying arteries, or veins,
 or other parts.   Ligatures should be  round and  very
 firm, so  as to allow their being tied wilh some force,
 without r.sk of breaking.
   The immediate effect of a tight ligature on an artery
 is to cut through  its middle  and internal coals, a cir-
 cumstance that tends very much to promote the adhe-
 sion of the opposite sides of the vessel lo each other.
 Hence the form and mode of  applying a ligature to an
 artery should be such as are  most certain  of dividing
 the above  coats of the vessel in the most favourable
 manner.   A broad flat ligature docs  not  promise to
 answer the purpose in the best manner;  because  it is
 scarcely possible to  tie it smoothly round the artery,
 which is very likely to be thrown into folds, or to be
 puckered by it, and consequently to have nu irregular
 bruised wound made in its middle and internal coats.
 A ligature of an irregular form is likely to cul through
 these coats more completely  at some paits than al
 others; and if it does not perfectly divide lliini no nd
 hesion can take place, and secondary ha-uiorrhage will
 follow.   A  fear of lying the  ligature  loo  tight may
 often lead to the same consequences.
   LIGHT. Lux. The nature of light has occupied much
 of the attention of philosophers, aud numerous opinions
 havebeen entertained concerning it.  It hasjbeeii some-
 times considered as a distinct substance, at other times
 as a quality; sometimes as a cause, frequently as an
 effect; by some it has been considered as a compound,
 by others as a simple substance.   Philosophers of the
 present day are mostly agreed as  to the independent
 existence of light, or the cause by  which we see.
   Nature of light.—Light is that wliich proceeds from
 any body producing the sensation of % ision, or percep-
 tion of other bodies, by  depicting an image of external
 objects  on the retina of the eye.   Hence it announces
 to animals the presence of the bodies which surround
 them, aud enables ihemtndistinguish these  bodies into
 transparent, opaque, and coloured.  These  properties
 are so essentially connected with the presence of light,
 that bodies lose them in the dark, and become uiidis-
 tinguishablo.
   Light is regarded by philosophers as a substance con-
 sisting of a vast  number of exceedingly small parti-
 cles, wliich are actually projected from luminous  bo-
 dies and  which  probably  never  return  again to the
 body from which they were emitted.
   It is universally expanded through space. It exerts
 peculiar actions, and is obedient to the laws of attrac-
 tion, and other properties of  matter.
   Explanation of  certain tcrmi of light.—In order
 to facilitate  the doctrine of light,  we shall shortly ex-
 plain a few  terms made use of hy  philosophers when
 treating of it;  namely,
  A  ray of light is an  exceedingly small portion of
light as it comes from a luminous body.
  A medium is a body which affords a passage  for the
rays of light.
  A  beam of light is a body of  parallel rays.
   A pencil of rays is a body of diverging or converging
 rays.
   Converging rays are  rays wliich tend to a common
 point.
  Diverging rays are those which come from a point,
 and continually separate as they proceed.
  The rays of light are parallel, when the lines wliich
 they describe are so.
  The radiant point is the point from which diverging
 rays proceed.
  The focus is the point to which the converging rays
are directed.
  Sources of light—Light is  emitted  from the  sun
the fixed stars, and other luminous bodies.  It  is pro-
duced  by  percussion, during  electrization, combus-
tion, and in various other chemical  processes.
  VVhy the sun and stars are constantly emitting light,
Is a question which probably  will for  ever baffle  hu-
man understanding.
  The light emitted during combustion exists previ-
eusly, either combined with the combustible body, or
with the substance  which supports the  combustion.
The light  liberated during chemical action, formed
a constituent part of the bodies which acton ««ch -jther
   Chemical properties of light.—The chemical effects
 of light have much engaged  the attention of philoso-
 phers.   Its influence upon animal, vegetable, and othe.
 substances, is ns follows :
   1.  On vegetables.—Every body  (mows that most of
 the discous (lowers follow the win in his course ; lhat
 Ihey nllend him to his  evening  retreat, and meet his
 rising lustre in  the  morning with the same unci ring
 law.  It is also well known thai ihe change of position
 in the leaves of plants, at different periods of the day,
 is entirely owing to the agency of light, and thai plains
 whicli grow in  windows, in the inside of  houses, aie,
 as it were, solicitous to  turn llieir loaves  to winds the
 lighl. Natural philosophers have long been aware of
 the influence ot  light on vegetation.   It was first ob
 served thai plants growing iu tho shade, or daikness,
 are  pale and  without colour.  The  term etmlutujii
 has been given lo this  pin nonienou, and the plants, in
 which il takes place, are- said  io  be etiolated, or
 blanched.  Gardeners avail themselves of  the know-
 ledge of this fact, to furnish our  tables with white and
 lender vegetables.  When  the plants have nuuiind a
 certain height, ihey compress the leaves, by tying litem
 together,  nnd by these means  (or by laying earth over
 lliem,) deprive them of the contact of light: and  thus
 it is that our white celery, lettuce, cabbages endive.
 Sec. arc obtained.  For the same  reason, wood is while
 under the green bark; and  roots are lest, coloured than
 plants; some of them alter their taste, Sec ; they even
 acquire a deleterious quality  when suffered to  grow
 exposed to light.  Potatoes are  of this  kind.   Heibs
 lhat grow beneath stones, or iu places utterly dark, are
 white, soft, aqueous, and of a  mild and insipid  taste
 The  more plants are exposed  to the light, the more
 colour they acquire.  Though plants are capable of
 being nourished exceedingly well in  the dark, and in
 lhat  state grow  much  more  rapidly  than in the sun,
 (provided the air that surrounds them is fit lor vegeta-
 tion,) they are colourless and unfit for use.
   Professor Davy found, by experiment, that red rose-
 trees, carefully excluded from  light, produce  roses
 almost while. He likewise ascertained that this flower
 owes its colour to light  entering into its composition;
 that pink, orange, and yellow flowers imbibe a smaller
 portion of light than red ones, and that white flowers
 contain no light  But vegetables are not only indebted
 to the light for their colour: taste and odour are like-
 wise derived from the same source.
   Light contributes  greatly to the maturity of  fruits
 and seeds. This seems to be the cause why, under the
 burning sun of Africa, vegetables are in general more
 odoriferous, of a stronger lasle,  aud more abounding
 with  resin.  From the same cause  it happens, that hot
 climates seem to be the native countries of perfumes,
 odoriferous fruits, and aromatic  resins.
   The action of light is  so powerful on the organs of
 vegetables, as to cause them io pour forth torrents of
 pure  air  from  the  surface of their leaves into the
 atmosphere, while exposed to the sun; whereas, on
 the contrary, when in the shade, Ihey emit an air of a
 noxious quality.   Take a few  handfuls of  fresh-
 gathered leaves  of mint, cabbage,  or any other plant;
 place them in a hell-glass, filled with fresh  water, and
 invert il into a basin with the same fluid. If the whole
 be then  exposed to the direct rays of the sun, small nir
 bubbles will appear on the surface of the leaves, whicli
 will gradually grow  larger, and  at last detach  them
 selves and become collected at ihe surface of Ihe vva
 ter.  This is oxygen gas, or  vital air.
  All plants do not emit this air with the same facility
 there are some which yield it the moment the sun acts
 upon them; as the jacoboea  or  ragwort, lavender, pep-
 permint, and some other aromatic plants.  The leaves
 afford more air when attached  to the plant  than when
 gathered;  the quantity is also greater, the fresher and
 sounder they are, and if full grown and collected during
 dry weather.  Green plants  afford more air than those
 whici, areof a yellowish or while colour. Green fruits
 afford likewise oxygen gas ; bul it is not so plentifully
 furnished by those which are ripe.  Flowers in geueial
render the air noxious.   The Nasturtium indicium in
the space of a few hours, gives out more  air than is
equal  to the bulk of all its leaves.   On the contrary, it
a like bell-glass, prepared in the same manner, be kept
in  the dark, another kind  of air wj.ll be disengaged, of
an opposite quality.
  Thma is ri'Jt a substance which, in well-closed glasi
                                         23 
LIIjt
LIM
 vessels, and exposed to the  sun's light, does not expe-
  ience some alteration.
   Camphor, kept in glass bottles, exposed to light, crys
 tallizes into the most beautiful symmetrical figures, on
 that side of the glass which is exposed to the light.
   Yellow wax, exposed to the light, loses its colour  and
 becomes bleached.  Gum guaiacum, reduced to pow-
, der, becomes green on exposure to  light.  Vegetable
 colours, such as those of saffron, logwood, Sec. become
 pale, or white, &c.
   2  On animals.—The human  being is equally de-
 pendent on the influence of light.  Animals in general
 droop when deprived of light, they become unhealthy,
 and even sometimes die.  When  a man has been long
 confined in a dark dungeon (though well airedl, his
 whole complexion becomes sallow; pustules, filled with
 aqueous humours, break out on hi3 skin;  and the per-
 son, who has been thus deprived  of light, becomes
 languid, and frequently dropsical.  Worms, grubs,  and
 caterpillars, which live in the earth, or in wood,  are of
 a whitish colour; moths, and other insects ofthe night,
 are likewise distinguishable from those wliich fly by
 day oy tne want of brilliancy in their colour.  The dil-
 ference between those insects, in northern and southern
 parts, is still more obvious.
   The parts of fish which are exposed to  light, as  tlie
 back, fins, &x. are  uniformly coloured, but the  belly,
 which is deprived of light, is white in all of them.
   Birds which inhabit  the tropical countries have
 much brighter plumage than  thoseof the north.  Those
 parts of the birds which are not exposed to the light  are
 uniformly pale.  The  feathers on the  belly of a bird
 are generally pale, or white; the back, which  is  ex-
 posed to the light, is almost always  coloured;  the
 breast, which is particularly exposed to light in most
 birds, is brighter than the belly.
   Butterflies, and various other animals of equatorial
 countries, are brighter coloured than those of the polar
 regions.  Some of the northern animals are even darker
 iu summer and paler in winter.
   3.  On  other  substances.—Certain  metallic oxides
 become combustible when exposed to light; and acids,
 as the  nitric, Sec are decomposed by its  contact? and
 various other substances change their nature.
   Light carbonated hydrogen.   See Carburetted  hy-
 drogen gas.
   LfGNEUS.   Woody.  Applied in botany to pods,
 barks, &c. which areola hard membraneous, or woody
 texture ; as the strobilus of the Pinus sylvestris.
   LIGNUM.   Wood.
   Lignum agallochi  veri.  See Lignum aloes.
   Lignum aloes.  Lignum agallochi veri; Agalluge;
 Agallugum; Lignum  aquila ;  Lignum calambac;
 Lignum  aspalathi; Xylo aloes; Agalloclium;  Ca-
 lambac.  Aloes wood.   The tree, the wood of which
 bears this name, is not yet scientifically known. It is
 by some supposed to be the Excctaria  agallocha,  the
 bark as well as the milk of  which is purgative.  It is
 imported from  China in small, compact, ponderous
 pieces, of a yellow rusty brown colour, with black or
 purplish veins,  and sometimes of a black colour.   It
 has a bitterish  resinous taste, and a slight  aromatic
 smell.  It is used to fumigate rooms in eastern countries.
   Lignum aquila.  See Lignum aloes.
   Lignum aspalathi.  See Lignum aloes.
   Lignum calambac.   See Lignum aloes.
   Lignum campechense.   (Campechensis:  so  called
 because it was Drought from Campeachy, in the bay of
 lloiiuuras.  See Hamatoxylon campcchianum.
   Lionum indicum.  See Guaiacum.
   Lmnum moluccensk.  See Croton tiglium.
   Lignum  nephriticum.  See Guilandina moringo.
   Lignum pavan/e. See Croton tiglium.
   [Lignum quassi.e.  See Quassia amara.  A.]
   Lignum rhodium.  Sec Aspalathus Canartensis.
   Lignum sanctum.  See Guaiacum.
   Lignum  santali RUBRl.  See Ptcrocarpus santa-
 linnr                                      .
   Liunim sappan.  See Hamatoxylon campcchianum.
   Lionum  seri-entum.   See Ophioxylum  scrpenti-
 num.                           , .  ,     .
   ""Lignum vit*  The  tree whicli produces this
 wood "rows in thn West Indies and tropical parts of
 America.   It attains to the height of forty  feet, and its
 tiunh is four or five feet in otrcumference.
   Lignum vitae U brought iu logs or masses, consisting
 of a dark greenish heart, covered with a yellowish al-
burnum.  It  is excetcrngly hard, sinks in water, has
little smell except when heated, and possesses a lirtte*
and pungent taste.
  The medicinal properties of the wood are princi-
pally derived from its resinous particles.  It is, however,
used as an ingredient in some decoctions, to which it
imparts a certain portion of extractive matter of a tonic
and stimulating nature.  It was formerly much cele-
brated as an antisyphilitic.  The hardness and solidity
of  lignum vitae render it of great importance ;ii the
mechanic arts."—Big. Mat. Med.  A."|
  LIGULA.   (Ligula, a strap.) 1. The clavic e.
  2. The glottis.
  3. The name of a measure and a weight.
  3. A genus ofthe Mollusca order.
  5. Tlie small transparent  membrane on the margin
ofthe sheath and base ofthe leaves of grasses.
  LIGULATUS.  Shaped like a straw or ribband; a
term applied to a kind of floret of a compound flower,
which is so shaped; as those of the Tragopogon and
Taraxacum.
  LIGUSTICUM.   (Aiyvs-txov of  Dioscorides;  so
called from Liguria, in Italy, its native country.)  The
name of a genus of plants.  Class Pentandria; Order,
Digynia.
  Liousticum levisticcm.   The systematic name
of lovage.  Jsevisticum.  The odour of this plant, it
gusticum—foliis multiplicibus, foliolis svperne incisis,
of LinuiEUS, is very strong, and particularly ungrateful;
its tasie is warm and aromatic.  It abounds with a yel
lowish gummy resinous juice, very much resembling
opoponax.  Its virtues are supposed to be  similar to
those  of angelica and masterwort, in expelling flatu
lencies, exciting sweat, and openingobstructions; there
fore it is chiefly used in hysterical disorders and uterine
obstructions.  The leaves, eaten in salad, are accounted
emmenagogue.  The root, which is less ungrateful than
the leaves, is  said to possess similar virtues, and may
be employed in powder.
  LIGU'STRUM.   (From ligo, to  bind:  so named
from its use in making bands.)
  1. The name of a genus  of  plants in the Linnaean
system.  Class, Diandria ; Order, Monogynia.
  2. The pharmacopceial name of the  herb  privet
The Ligustrum vulgare.
  Ll'LALITE.  The mineral lipidolile.
  LILIACEUS.  (From lilium, a lily.)  Liliaceous, oi
resembling the lily.
  Liliaceje.   The name of an order of plants in Lin-
naeus's Fragments of  a Natural Method, consisting of
such as have  liliaceous coioliae, and a llirce-lobed stig-
ma; as colchicum, lilium, crocus, Sec.
  LILIA'GO.  (Diminutiveof iifiuem, the lily: sonanied
from the resemblance of its flower to that of a  lily.)
Liliastrum.  Spiderwort.  The  Anthericum  lilias-
trum of Linnaeus, formerly said to be alexipharniic and
carminative.
  LI'LIUM.  (From Xtios, smooth, graceful: so named
from the beauly of its leaf.)  The name of a genus of
plants  in the  Linnaean  system.  Class, Hexandria;
Order, Monogynia.  The lily.
  Lilium album.  The white lily.  See Lilium  can
didum.
  Lilium  candidum.   The systematic name of the
white  lily.  Lilium  album.  Lilium—foliis sparsis,
corollis campanulalis, intus  glabris, of   Linnaeus.
The roots  are directed  by :he Edinburgh pharma
copoeia; they  are extremely mucilaginous, and chiefly
used, boiled in milk and water, in emollient and sup-
purating cataplasms, to inflammatory tumours.  These
lily-roots afford a good substitute, in times of scarcity,
for  bread.  The distilled  water has been sometimes
used as a cosmetic.
  Lilium convallium.  See Convallaria majalis.
  Lilium martaoon.  The martagon lily.  Linnaeus
tells us lhat the root of this plant forms a  part of tha
ordinary food of the Siberians.
  LILY.  See Lilium and Nymphaa.
  Lily, May.   See Convallaria majalis.
  Lily, water.  See  Nymphaa alba,  and  Nymphea
lutea.
  Lily, white.  See Lilium candidum.
  Lily of the valley.  See Convallaria majalis.
  LIMATU'RA.  (From lima, a  file.)  File dust oi
powder.
  Limatura ferri.   Steel filings are considered  as
possessing stimulating and strengthening qualities, and 
LIM                                             LIN
are exhibited in woim cases, ataxia, leucorrhoea, dlar-
rhcea, chlorosis, Sec.
  UMAX,  iFrom lunus, slime:  so named  from  its
sliminess.)   Cochlea terrestris.   The snail.   This
animal  abounds with a viscid slimy juice, which is
readily given out by  boiling, to milk or water, so as to
render them thick and glutinous.   These decoctions
are apparently very nutritious and  demulcent, and are
recommended iu consumptive cases and emaciations.
  LIM BUS.  The brim or border.  Applied to a part
of the corolla in botany.  See Corolla.
  LIME.   Calx.  1.  The oxide of calcium, one of the
primitive  earths.  It is found in great abundance in
nature, though  never pure, or in an uncombined state.
It is always united to  an acid, and very frequently to
the carbonic acid, as  in chalk, common lime-stone,
marble, calcareous spar, &o. It is contained in the
waters of the ocean; it is found  in vegetables; and is
the basis of the bones, shells, and  otlier hard parts of
animals   Its combination with sulphuric acid is known
by the nameof sulphate of lime (gypsum, or plaster of
Paris).  Combined with flouric acid it constitutes fluate
of lime, or Derbyshire spar.
  Properties.—Lime is in  solid masses,  of a  white
colour, moderately hard, but easily reducible to powder.
Its  taste  is bitter,  urinous, and burning.   It changes
blue cabbage juice to a green.  It is unalterable by the
heat of our furnaces.   It splits and falls into powder in
the air, and loses its  strong taste.   It is augmented in
weight and in size by slowly absorbing waler and car-
bonic acid from the atmosphere.  Its speciiic gravity is
2.3.  It combines wilh pliosphorus by heat.  It unites
lo sulphur both in the dry and humid way.  It absorbs
sulphuretted hydrogen gas.   It unites with some of the
metallic oxides.  Its slaking by water is attended with
heat, hissing, splitting, and swelling up, while the water
is partly consolidated and partly converted  into vapour;
and the lime is reduced into a very voluminous dry
powder, when it has  been  sprinkled with only a small
quantity of  water.  It is soluble when well prepared
in about 450 parts of water.   It unites to acids.  It ren-
ders silex and alumine fusible, and more  particularly
these two earths together.
  Method of obtaining Lime.—Since the carbonic acid
may be separated  from the  native  carbonate of lime,
this becomes a means of exhibiting; the lime in a slate
of tolerable purity.  For this purpose, introduce inlo
a porcelain, or earthen retort, or rather into a tube of
green glass, well coated over with lute, and placed
across a furnace, some powdered Carara marble,  or
oyster-shell  powder.   Adapt to its lower extremity a
bent tube of glass, conveyed under a bell.   If we then
heat the tube, we obtain carbonic acid gas; and lime
will be found remaining in the tube or retort.
  The burning of lime in  the large way, depends on
the disengagement  of the carbonic acid by heat;  nnd,
as lime is infusible  in our furnaces,  there would  be no
danger from too violent a heat, if the native carbonate
of lime were  perfectly pure; but as this is seldom the
case, an extreme degree of heat produces a commence-
ment of vitrification iu the  mixed stone, and enables it
lo preserve its solidity, and it no  longer retains the
qualities of lime, for it  is covered wilh a sort  of crust,
which prevents the absorption ofthe water when it is
attempted to be slaked.  This is  called over-burnt
lime.
  In order to obtain lime in a state of great purity, the
following  method may be had recourse to.
  Take Carara marble, or oyster-shells; reduce them
to powder, and dissolve the powder  in  pure acetic
acid; precipitate the solution by carbonate of ammo-
nia. Let  the  precipitate subside, wash it repeatedly
in distilled water,  let it dry, and then expose it lo a
white heat for some  hours.
  The acetic acid, in this operation, unites to the lime,
and  forms acetate of lime,  disengaging at the same
time the carbonic acid, which flies  off in  the gaseous
state: on  adding to the acetate of lime carbonate of
ammonia, acetate of ammonia, and an artificial car-
bonate of lime  are  formed; from  the latter the car-
bonic acid is again expelled, by exposure  to heat, and
the lime is left behind in a state of perfect  purity. See

  2. A fruit like a small lemon, the juice of which is a
very strong  acid, and very much used in the making
of punch. "Externally, the same acid is applied in the
cutaneous affections of warm climates, and also as a
 remedy against the pains that precede the appcaianc*
 of yaws.  Sec Tilia.
  Lime, chloride of.  The bleaching salt or bleach
 Ing powder, sold  under  the name of oxymurialte oi
 lime.
  LIMESTONE.  A genus of minerals which  Pro
 fessor Jameson divides into the four following species:
  1. Rhombspar.  2. Dolomite.   3. Limestone.   4.
 Arragonite.
  Limestone has twelve aub-species.
  1. Foliated  limestone.  Of this there are two kinds,
 calcareous spar, and foliated granular limestone.
  2. Compact  limestone,  of which there are  three
 kinds, common compact limestone, blue Vesuvian, ani
 rosestouc.
  3. Chalk.
  4. Agaric-mineral, or Rock milk.
  St Fibrous limestone, to which belong the satin spar
 and the fibrous calc-sinter.
  6. Tufaceous limestone, or calc-tuff.
  7. Pisiform  limestone, or peas tone.
  8. Slatespar.
  9. Aphrite.
  10. Luculite, of which there  are three kinds, com
 pact, prismatic, and foliated.
  11.  Marie,  of which  there  are two species, the
 earthy and compact.
  12. Bituminous marie slate.
  Limestone, bituminous.  See Bituminous limestone
  LIME-TREE.   See Tilia.
  Lime-water. See  Calcis  liquor.
  LI MON.   (Hebrew.)  See Citrus medica
  LIMO'NIUM.   (From Xttpuv,  a green  field; so
 called from its colour.)  This name has been applied
 to,
  1. The Valeriana rubra.
  2. The Polygonum fagopyrum.
  3. The Pyroli rotundifolia.
  4. More commonly to the sea-lavender, or Statue
 limonium, of Linnaeus, which is said to possess astrin-
 gent properties.
  LIMO'NUM.    (From Xttpuv,  a green  field: so
 calletfYrom the colour of its unripe fruit.)  The lemon-
 tree.  See Citrus medica.
  LIMOSIS.  (From Xtposv hunger.)  The name of
 a genus of diseases in Good's Nosology.  Class, Cali-
 aca; Order, Enterica.  Morbid appetite.   It has seven
 species, viz.  Limosis avens, cxpers, pica, cardialgia,
flatus, emesis,  dyspepsia.
  LINACRE,  Thomas, was  born  at  Canterbury,
 about the year 1460. After studying  at Oxford, he
 travelled to Italy, where he  acquired a perfect know-
 ledge of the Latin and Greek  languages; and after-
 ward devoted  his attention to  medicine and natural
 philosophy at Rome.  On his return, he graduated at
 Oxford, and gave lectures there on physic, as well aa
taught  the Greek language.   His reputation soon  be-
came so high, that he was called to court by Hemy
VII. who not  only intrusted him with the education
of his children, but also appointed him his physician;
which office he likewise enjoyed under his successor
Henry VIII.    He appears in this monarch's reign to
have stood, above all rivalship, at the head of his pro-
 fession; and evinced his attachment to its interests, as
 well as to the public good, by founding medical lec-
 tures at the two universities, and obtaining the institu-
 tion, in  1518, of the royal college of physicians in Lon-
don. The practice of medicine was then occupied by
 illiterate monks and empirics, who were licensed by
 the bishops, whence much mischief must have arisen.
 A  corporate body of regularly  bred  physicians  was
 therefore established, in  whom  was vested  the  sole
 right of examining and admitting persons to  practice,
 as well as of examining apothecaries' shops.  Linacre
 was the first president, which office he retained during
 the remainder of his life;  and, at  his death, in 1524,
 bequeathed his house to the college.   He had relin-
quished practice, and entered into  holy orders, about
five years before, being greatly afflicted with the stone,
which was the cause of his dissolution.  In his literary
character, Linacre stands  eminently  distinguished,
having been one of the first to introduce the learning
of the ancients into this country.  He translated seve-
 ral of the  most valuable  works of  Galen into Lat'n;
and his style is remarkable for its purity and elegance;
he had  indeed devoted great time  to Latin composi
lion, on which  he published  a large  philosonb.rej
                                         23 
LIN
LIN
 treatise.  His- professional skill was universally al-
 lowed among his contemporaries, as well as the ho-
 nour and humanity with which he exercised the medi-
 cal art;  and  the celebrated Erasmus has bestowed
 upon him the highest commendation.  He was buried
 in St. Paul's Cathedral, where a monument was after-
 waid erected to his memory, with a Latin inscription,
 by Dr. Caius.
  LINAGRO'STIS. (From Xtvov, cotton, and aypufis,
 grass:  so called from tlie softness of its lexture.)  Col-
 ton-grass.   The Eriophvrum of Linnaeus, four species
 of which are found in Britain.
  LINANGI'NA.   (From linum, flax,  and  ango, to
strangle:  so called because, if it grows among flax or
/wmp.  it  twists round  it, and chokes it.) The herb
dodder. The Cuscuta europaa of Linnaeus.
  LINA'RIA.  (From  linum, flax: named from the
resemblance of its leaves to those of flax.)  See An-
 tirrhinum linaria.
  LINCTUS.  (Linctus,us. in.;  from lingo, to lick.)
Lohoc; Eclcgma; I.lexis; Elegma; Ecleclos; Eclei-
tos;  lllinctus.  A loch, a  lambative.   A  term  in
pharmacy, that is generally applied to a soft and some-
what oily substance, of the consistence of honey,
which is licked oil' the spoon, it being loo solid and
adhesive to betaken otherwise.
  LI'N^EA.  (From linum, a thread.)  This term is
 applied to some parts wiiich have a thread or line-like
appearance, as the long tendiuous appearance  of the
muscles in the abdomen, Sec.
  Linea  alba.   Linea centralis.   An  aponeurosis
that extends from the scrobiculus cordis straight down
to the navel,  and from thence lo the  pubes.  It is
formed by the tendinous fibres of the internal oblique
ascending and the external obliquedescending muscles,
and the transversalis, interlaced with those of the op-
posite side.
  Line.e  semilunares.   The lines which  bound
the outer margin of the recti muscles, formed  by the
 union of the abdominal tendons.
  Line.e transveus.e.  The  lines which cross the
recti muscles of the abdomen.
  LINEARIS.  Linear.   Applied to leaves,  petals,
leaf-stalks,  seeds,  &c.  of plants, which are  narrow,
with parallel sides, as the leaves of most  grasses, those
of the Narcissus,  Pseudo-narcissus, and the petals of
the Tussilago farfara, leaf-stalk of the Citrus me-
dica, and seeds of  the Crucianella.
  L1NEATUS.  Lineate.  See Linearis.
  LI'NGUA.  (From lingo, to lick up.)  The tongue.
See Tongue.
  Lingua avis.  The  seeds of the Fraxinus, or ash,
are so called, from their supposed  resemblance to a
 bird's tongue.
  Lingua canina.  So called  from the resemblance
of its leaves to a dog's tongue.  See Cynoglossum.
  Lingua cerviva.  See Asplenium  Scolopendrium.
  LINGUA'LIS.  (From lingua, the tongue.)  Basio-
glossus, of Cowper.  A muscle of Hie tongue.  Itarises
from  the root of  the longuo laterally, and runs for-
ward between Ihe hyo-glossus andgenio-glossus, to be
 inserted into the lip of the tongue, along wilh part of
 the stylo-glossus.  lis use is to contract  the substance
of the tongue, and to bring it backwards.
  LINGU1FORMIS.  See Lingulatus.
  LINGULATUS. (From lingua, a tongue.)  Tongue-
shaped.  A term applied to a leaf of a thick, oblong,
 blunt figure, generally cartilaginous at the edges: as in
tlie Mescmbryanlhemum linguiforme.
  LINIMPINT. See Liiiimenlum.
  LINIMENTUM.   (From  lino, to anoint.)   A lini-
ment.  An  oily substance  of a mediate consistence,
between an ointment and  oil, but so thin ns to drop.
Tht  following arc some of the  most approved forms.
  Linimentum *ruoinis.   Liniment  of verdigris,
 formerly called oxyuiel oeruginis, mel aegyptiacum, and
unguentum a-gyptiacum:—Take  of  verdigris, pow-
dered, an ounce; vinegar,seven fluid ounces; clarified
honey, fourteen ounces.  Dissolve the verdigris in the
vinegar, and strain il through  a linen cloth; having
idded  the honey, gradually boil it down to a  projier
consistence.
  Linimentum ammoni* fortius.   Strong liniment
of ammonia.—Take of solution of  ammonia, a  fluid
ounce ; olive oil, two fluid ounces.   Shake them toge-
ther  until they unite.  A more powerful stimulating
application than the former, acting as a rubefacient
      2ti
  n pleurodynia, indolent  tumours, stiffness of  the
 joints, and anihritic pains, it is to be preferred to the
 milder one.
   Linimentum ammonia subcarbonatis.  Liniment
 of subcarbonate of ammonia, formerly called linimen-
 tum aumiouiae and linimentum volatile.—Take of so
 lutionof subcarbonate of ammonia, a fluid ounce; olive
 oil, three fluid  ounces.  Shake them  together antil
 they unite.  A stimulating liniment, mostly  used to
 relieve rheumatic  pains, bruises, and paralytic numb-
 ness.
   Linimentum  aqu.*:  calcis.   Liniment  or  lime-
 water.  Take of lime-water, olive oil, of each eight
 ounces,  rectified  spirit of  wine, one  ounce.  Mix.
 This lias been lung in use as an application to burns
 and scalds.
   Linimentum camphor.*:. Camphor liniment. Take
 of camphor, half an ounce ; olive oil, two fluid ounces.
 Dissolve the camphor in the oil.  In  .retentions  ot
 urine,  rheumatic pains,  distentions of  tlie abdomen
 from ascites, and tension of the skin from abscess, this
 is an excellent application.
   Linimentum ca.mphorx compositum. Compound
 camphor liniment.  Take of camphor,  two ounces;
 solution of ammonia, six fluid ounces; spirit of laven-
 der, a pint.  Mix the  solution of  ammonia with  the
 spirit in a glass retort; then, by the heat of a slow fire,
 distil a pint.  Lastly,  in this distilled  liquor dissolve
 the camphor.  Au  elegant and  useful stimulant appli-
 cation iu paralytic, spasmodic, and  rheumatic diseases.
 Also, for bruises, sprains, rigidities of tho  joints, incipi-
 ent chilblains, Sec Sec
  Linimentum hydrargyri.   Mercurial  liniment.
 Take of strong mercurial ointment, prepared  lard, of
 each four ounces, camphor an ounce; rectified spirit,
 fifteen minims; solutioii of ammonia, four fluid ounces.
 First powder the  camphor, with Ihe addition of  the
 spirit, then rub it with the mercurial ointment  and  the
 lard; lastly, add gradually  tlie solution  of ammonia,
 and mix the whole together.  An excellent formula for
 all surgical cases, in which the object is to quicken  the
 action of the absorbents, and gently stimulate the sur
 faces of parts.   It is a useful application  for  diminish-
 ing the  indurated state of particular muscles, a pecu-
 liar affection every now and then met with in practice-
 and it  is peculiarly wejl calculated for  lessening  the
 stiffness and chronic ttiickening often noticed in the
 joints.   If it be frequently or largelv applied, it  af-
 fects the mouth more rapidly than  the mercurial oint-
 ment.
  Linimentum opiatum.   A resolvent anodyne em-
 brocation, adapted to remove indolent tumours of die
joints, and  those  weaknesses  w hich  remain after
 strains and chilblains before they break.
  Linimentum  saponis compositum.   Compound
 soap liniment.  Linimentum saponis.  Take of hard
 soap, three ounces;  camphor, au ounce; spirit of rose-
 mary, a pint.   Dissolve the camphor in the spirit, then
 add the  soap, and macerate in the heat of a sand-bath,
 until it  be  melted.  The basis of this form was first
 proposed by Riverius, and it is now commonly used
 under the name of opodeldoc.  This is a more pleasant
 preparation, to rub parts affected with rheumatic pains,
 swellings of the joints, &c. than any of the foregoing,
 and at  the  same  lime not inferior,  except where a
 rubefacient is required.
   Linimentum saponis  cum  opio.  Soap liniment,
 with opium. Take of  compound soap liniment,  six
 ounces; tincture of opium, two ounces.  Mix.  For
 dispersing indurations and swellings, attended with
 pain, but no acute inflammation.
   Linimentum terebinthinje.  Turpentine liniment.
 Take of resin cerate, a pound; oil of turpentine, half
 a  pint.  Add the oil of  turpentine to the cerate, pre
 viously  melted, and mix.  This liniment is very com
 monly  applied tn bums, and was first introduced by
 Mr. Kentish, of Newcastle.
   Linimentum tereiiintiiinje vitriolicum.  Vitri-
 olic  liniment of turpentine.  Take of olive  oil,  ten
 ounces; oil of turpentine, four ounces;  vitriolic acid,
 three drachms.   Mix.  This preparation  is said to "be
 efficacious  in chronic  affections of the joints, and in
 the removal of  long-existing  effects of  sprains and
 bruises.
   Liniment of ammonia.  See Linimentum ammo\iat
   Liniment of camphire.   See Linimentum camphora
   Liniment of mercury.  See Linimentum hydrargyri 
LIN                                               LIP
  litnimcnt of turpentine.  See Linimentum tcrebin-
 ihinu.
  Liniment of verdigris.  See Linimentum aruginis.
  LINNjE'A.  1S0  named iu honour  of Linua-us.)
 The name of a genus of plants in the Lininean system.
 Class, Didynamia; Order, Angiospermia.
  Linnca borealis.  The systematic  name  of the
 plant  named in  honour  of  the immortal  Linnaeus,
 which has a bitter, subastriugeut taste, and is used iy
 some places iu  tlie form of fomentation, to rheumatic
 pains, and an infusion with milk is much esteemed in
 Switzerland in the cure of sciatica.
  LINNAEUS. Charles, was born In Sweden, in 1707.
 He derived al a very early age from his father, that at-
 tachment to the  study of nature, hy which he after-
 ward so eminently distinguished himself.  He was in-
 tended for ihe church, but made so  little  improvement
 in the requisite learning, that this was soon abandoned
 for the profession of medicine,   lie appears lo have
 had a singular inaptitude  for  learning  languages;
 though lie was sufficiently versed in Latin.  His scanty
 finances much embarrassed his  progress at first;  but
 his taste for botany at length having procured him the
 patronage of Dr. Celsius, professor of divinity at Upsal,
 he was enabled lo pursue his studies to  uiore advan-
tage.   In  1730, he was  ap|K>inted to give  lectures in
the botanic garden, and  began to  compose some of
those works, by which he rendered his favourite science
 more philosophical,  and mo.e jwpular than it had
ever been before.   Two years afterward he was com-
missioned to make a tour through Lapland.of which
 he subsequently published an interesting account; and
having learned the art of assaying metals, he gave lec-
 tures  on this subject also on his return.   In 1735, he
took his degree in physic at Harderwyck,  and  in  his
inaugural  dissertation advanced a strange  hypothesis,
 that intermittent fevers are owing to particles of clay,
 taken in with ihe food, obstructing the minute arteries.
 Soon after this, his Systema  Naturae first appeared;
 which was greatly enlarged and improved in numerous
 successive editions.  In  Holland,  he fortunately  ob-
 tained the support of a .Mr. Clifford, an opulent banker,
 whereby he was  enabled to visit  England  also;  but
 his great exertions afterward impaired his  health, nnd
 b:ing attacked wilh a severe intermittent, he could not
 resist ihe desire, when somewhat recoveied, of return-
 ing to his native country.  Arriving tliere  in 173^, he
 settled at Stockholm, where his leputatiou soon pro-
 cured him some medical practice, and the appointment
 of physician to the navy, as wejl as  lecturer on botany
 and mineralogy; a literary society was also established,
 of which  he was the first president, and  by which nu-
 merous volumes of transactions have since been pub-
 lished.  Iu 1740, he was chosen professor of medicine
 at Upsal, having been admitted a member of that aca-
demy on his return to Sweden;  he also shared with Dr.
 Rosen the botanical duties, and considerably improved
 the garden; he was afterward made secretary, and on
some public occasions did  the honours of the univer-
sity.  He  received likewise marks of distinction from
several foreign societies.  About the year 1740, he was
 appointed Archiater; and it became an object ol" na-
 tional interest to make additions to his collection from
 every part of the world.   A systematic treatise on  the
 Materia Medica was published by him  in 1749; and
 two years after his  Philosophia Botanica, composed
 during a severe fit of the gout, in wliich he supposed
 himself to have derived greal benefit from taking a
 large quantity of  wood strawberries. This was soon
 followed  by  hU  great work, the Species Plantarum;
 after which he was honoured with the order of the Polar
 Star, never before conferred foi literary  merit; and
 having declined a splended inviiation to Spain, he was
 raised'io  the rank of nobility.   In  1703  his son was
 allowed to assist him in the botanical duties.  About
 this tune he published  his Genera Morborum, and
 three years after  his Clavis Medicius.  His medical
 lectures, though too-theoretical, were very' much es-
 teemed ;  but he had  declined general practice  on his
 establishment at Upsal.   As he advanced in life, the
 fati"iiin"  occupations in wliich he was engaged  im-
 paired Ins health, notwithstanding his temperate and
 regular habits; and  at length  brought on  his dissolu-
 tion iu 1778.   This was regarded as a  loss  to  the
 nation, and even to the world.  About ten  years after,
 a society,  adopting his name, was formed in this coun-
 try, which has  published many valuable  volumes of
transactions, and the president purchased Linnaeus t
collections of his widow;  similar institutions have alto
been established in otlier parts ofthe world.
  Linn.kan system.  This name is applied particularly
to lhat  arrangement of  plants, which Linnaeus has
founded on the fructification or sexes of plants.  See
Sexual system of plants.
  LINOSPE RMUM.   (From Xnov, flax, and oirtppa,
seed.)  See Linum usitatissimum.
  Linozostris.  A name given by the ancient  Greek
writers to two plains, very different from one another.
The one is the Mtnurialis, ot British mercury; the
other the F.pilinum, or dodder.
  LINSEED.   See Linum usitatissimum.
  LINT.  See Linteum.
  Ll'NTEl'M. Lint.   A soft, woolly substance, made
by scraping old linen cloth, nnd employed in surgery as
the coinmondiessing in all cases of wounds and  ulcers,
either simply or covered with different unctuous  sub-
stances.
  Ll'NUM.  (From Atioc, soft, smooth: so called from
its soft, smooth texture.)  1. The name of n genus of
plants in  the  Linnaean system.  Cl;:sg, Pentandria.
Order, Peutagynia.
  2.  The pharmacopceial name of the common  flax.
See Linum usitatissimum.
  Linum cathartioum.   Linum minimum ; Cliaina-
lium. Purging flax, or  mill-mountain.  This small
plant, Linum—foliis oppositis ovSto-lanceolutis, caule
dichotomo, corollis acutts, of Linna-us, is an effectual
and safe calhartic.  It has a bitterish and disagreeable
taste.  A  handful infused in hah" a pint  of boiling
water is the dose for an idult.
  Linum usitatissimum.  The systematic  nanieof
the common flax.  Linum sylvestre.  Linum—calyci-
bus  capsulisque mucronalis, petalis crcnatis,  foliis
lanceolatis alternis,  caule subsolitario,  of  Linna-us.
The seeds of this useful plant, called linseed, have an
unctuous, mucilaginous, sweetish taste, but no remark-
able smell; on expression they yield a huge quantity
of oil, which, when cnrefully drawn without the appli
cation of  heat, has no particular taste  or flavour:
boiled in water, they yield a large proportion of strong
flavourless mucilage, whicli is in use as an emollient or
demulcent in cough, hoarseness, and pleuritic  symp-
toms, that frequently  prevail in catarrhal affections
and it is likewise recommended  in nephritic  pains anu
stranguries.  The meal ofthe seeds is also much used
externally, in  emollient and maturating cataplasms.
The expressed  oil is an  officinal  preparation,  and  is
supposed to be of a mote healing nnd balsamic  nature
than the other oils of this class:  It has, therefore, been
very generally employed in pulmonary complaints, and
in colics and constipations of the bowels.   The cake
which remains after the expression of the oil, contains
the farinaceous part of the seed, and is used in fatten-
ing cattle under the name cf oil-cake.
  Lion-toothed leaf.  See Runcinalns.
  LITARIS.   (From Aiiroc, fat:  so named from its
unctuous quality.)   See Pinguicula.
  LIPAROCE'LE.   (From Amo?, fnt, and xnXi], a tu-
mour.)  That f |iccies of sarcocele in whicli Ihe sub-
stance constituting thedisease very much resembles fat.
  LIPOMA.    (From Aijtoc,  fat.)   A solitary, soft,
unequal, indolent tumour, arising from n luxuriancy of
adeps iu the cellular membrane.  The adipose  struc-
ture forming the tumour is sometimes diseased towards
its centre,  and more fluid  than the rest.  At other times
it does not appear to differ in any respect from adipose
membrane, except in the enlargement of the cells con-
taining the fat.  These tumours are always many years
before they arrive at any size.
  LIPOPSY'CHIA.  (From Xwru, to leave, and divxi
the soul, or life.)  A swoon, or fainting.   See Syncope
  LIPOTHY'MIA.   (From Xttiru, to leave, and  Ovpos
the mind.)  Fainting.   See Syncope.
  LIPPITU'DO.  (Prom lippus,  blear-eyed.)   Epi-
phora; Xerophthalmia.   Bleai-eyodness.  An exuda-
tion of a  puriform  humour from the margin ot the
eyelids.  The  proximate cause is a deposition of acri-
mony on the glandiiloe uieiboinianae  in Ihe margin of
the eyelids.  This humour in the night glues the tarsi
of the eyelids  together.   The margins of the eyelids
are red and tumefy, aie irritated, mid excite pain.  An
opthalmia, fistula lachrymalis, and sometimes an ectro
pium, are the consequences.  The species of the lippi
tudo are, 
L1Q
LIS
   1. Lippiludo infantum, which is familial to children,
 particularly of an acrimonious habit.  The lippitudo of
 infants  is  mostly accompanied with tinea, or some
 scabby  eruption, wliich  points out that the  disease
 originates, not from a local, but general or constitu-
 tional affection.
  2. Lippitudo adultorum, or senilis. This arises from
 various acrimonies, and is likewise common to hard
 drinkers.
  3. Lippitudo venerea, which arises from a suppressed
 gonorrh'Ea, or fluor albus, and is likewise observed of
 children born of parents with  venereal complaints.
  4. Lippitudo scrophulosa, which accompanies other
 ierofulous symptoms.
  5. Lippitudo scorbutica, wliich affects the scorbutic.
  Lipy'ria.  (From Xttiru, io leave, and imp, heat.)
 A sort of fever, where tlie heat is drawn to the inward
 parts, while the externals are cold.
  LIQUIDA'MBAR.  (From  tiquidum, fluid, and  am-
 bar, a fragrant substance, generally taken for amber-
 gris; alluding to the aromatic  liquid gum whicli distils
 from this tree.)  The name of a genus of  plants in the
 Linna-an system. Class, Monacia ; Order, Polyandria.
  Liquidambar styraciflua.  The systematic name
 ofthe tree which affords both the liquid amber and  sto-
 rax liquida, or liquid  storax.  The liquid amber  is  a
 resinous juice of a yellow colour, inclining lo red, al
 first aboul the consistence of turpentine,  by age hard-
 ened into a solid brittle mass.   It is obtained by wound-
 ing the bark of this tree, which is  described by Lin-
 l.ieus the   Liquidambar—foliis  palmato-angulutis ;
foliis indivists, acutis.  The juice  has a moderately
 pungent, warm, balsamic taste, and a very flagrant
 smell, not unlike thai  of Ihe Styrax calamtta  height-
 ened by a little ambergris.  It is seldom used medi-
 cinally.  The Styrax liquida is also obtained from  this
 plant by boiling.  There are two sorts distinguished by
 authors; the one the purer part of the resinous  matter,
 that rises to the surface in boiling, separated by  a
 strainer, of the consistence of honey, tenacious like  tur-
 pentine, of a reddish or ash-brown colour, moderately
 transparent, of au acrid unctuous taste and a fragrant
 smell, faintly resembling that  of the solid slyrax, but
 somewhat disagreeable.  The other, the more  impure
 part, which remains on tlie strainer, uiitrausparcnt, and
 in smell and taste much weaker than the former.  Their
 use is chiefly as stomachics, in the-ftinn of plaster.
  L10.UIFACTION.  A chemical term, in  some in-
 stances synonymous with/a.«ton, in others with the word
 deliquescence, and in others with the word solution.
  LIQUIRI'TIA.  (From liquor,  juice,  or  from  eli-
 koris, Welsh.)  See Glycyrrhiza.
  Ll'WUOR.  A liquor.  This term is applied in the
 last editions of the London Pharmacopoeia to some
 preparations, before improperly called waters ;  as  the
 aqua ammonia,Sec
  Liquor  acetatis  plumbi.  See  Plumbi acetatis
 liquor.
  Liquor acetatis plumbi dilutus.   See Plumbi
 acetatis liquor dilutus.
  Liquor jEthereus  vitriolicus.  See JEthcr sul-
 plturicus.
  Liquor aluminis compositus.  Compound solution
 of alum.   Take of alum, sulphate of zinc, of each
 half an ounce ; boiling water two pints.  Dissolve al
 the same time the alum nnd  sulphate of zinc in  the
 water, and then strain  the solutioii through  paper.
 This water was  long known in our shops under  the
 title of Aqua aluminosa batcana.  It is used for cleans-
 ing and healing ulcers  and wounds, and for removing
 cutaneous  eruptions,ihe part being bathed with it hot
 three or four times a-day.  It is sometimes likewise
 employed  as a collyrium ; and as an injection in fluor
 albus and  gonorrhoea, when  not  accompanied wilh
 \ ii ulence.
   Liquor ammonia.   See Ammonia.
  Liquor ammoni* acetatis. See Ammonia acetatis
 liquor.
  Liquor ammonia  carbonatis.  See Ammonia sub-
 carbonatis liquor.
  Liquor ammoni.e subcarbokatis. See  Ammonia
 subcarbonatis liquor.
   Liquor of ammonia.  Sec Ammonia.
  Liquor amnh.  All that fluid which is  contained in
 the  inemorauaccous ovum  surrounding  the foetus in
 uter,  is rn.ied by the general name of the waters, the
 waler of the  amnion,  orovum, or liquor  amnii.  The
 quantity, in proportion to the size of the different part*
 of the ovum, is greatest by far iu early pregnancy. At
 the time of parturition, in some cases, it amounts tour
 exceeds four pints ;  and, in others, il is scarcely equal
 to as many ounces.   It is usually in the largestquantity
 when the child has  been some time dead, or is born iii
 a weakly state.   This fluid is generally transparent,
 often milky, and sometimes of a yellow or light-brown
 colour, and very  different in consistence; and these
 alterations  seem to depend upon the state of ihe consti-
 tution of the parent   It does not coagulate with heat,
 like the serum of the blood,  and chemically examined,
 it  is found to be composed of phlegm, earthy matter,
 and  sea-salt, in different proportions  in different  sub-
jects, by which  the varieties  in its  appearance  aud
 consistence are produced.  It has been supposed to be
 excrementitious;  but it is generally  thought  to be
 secreted from the  internal surface of the ovum, aud to
 be circulatory as  in other ct.vities.   It was formerly
 imagined that the foetus was nourished by this fluid, of
 which  it was said to swallow some part frequently ;
 and it was  then asserted, that the qualities of the fluid
 were adapted for its  nourishment.  But there have been
 many examples of children  born without any passage
 to  the  stomach; and a few of children in  which the
 head was wanting, and  which have  nevertheless ar
 rived at the full size.  These cases fully prove that this
opinion is not just, and that there must be some other
 medium  by which the child is nourished, besides the
 waters.  The incontrovertible uses of this fluid are, to
serve the purpose of affording a soft tied for the tesi-
dence of the foetus, io which it allowsfiee motion,and
 prevents any external injury  during  pregnancy ;  and
enclosed in  the membranes, ii procures the most gentle,
yel efficacious, dilatation of theos uteri, and soft parts, at
tne time of  parturition.   Instances have been recorded,
 in which the waters  of the ovum are said lo have been
 voided so early as in the sixth month of pregnancy,
 wilhout prejudice either to the child or parent.  The
 truth of these reports seems to be doubtful:  because
 when  the  membranes nre  intentionally broken, ihe
 action  of the uterus never  fails to come on, when all
 the water is evacuated.  A few cases have occurred to
 me, says Dr. Denman, in practice, which might have
 been construed to  tie of this  kind; for there was n daily
discharge of some colourless fluid from the vagina, for
 several mouths before delivery;  but there being no
diminution  ofthe  size of the abdomen, and the wafers
 being regularly discharged at the lime of labour, il was
judged  that some lympfratic vessel near the os uteri had
 been ruptured, and did not close again till the  p&tient
 was delivered.  He  also  met with one case, in which,
afier the expulsion of the placenta, there was no san-
guineous discharge,  but a profusion of lymph, to the
quantity of several pints, in a few horns after delivery;
but the patient suffered no inconvenience except from
surprise.
  Liquor antimonii tartarizati.  See  Antimonii
tartarizati  liquor.
  Liquor arsunicai.is.  See Arsenicalis liquor.
  Liquor CALns. See Calcis liquor.
  Liquor cupri ammoniati.   See Cupri  ammoniatt
liquor.
  Liquor ferri alkalini.  See Ferri alkalini liquor
  Liquor hydrargyri oxymuriatis.  See llydrar
gyri oxymurias.
  Liquor mineralis anodynus iioffmanni.  Huff
mann's anodyne liquor.  See Spiritus atheris sulphu
rici compositi.
  Liquor potass.*:.  See Potassa liquor.
  Liquor  subcarbonatis  potassa.  See Potassa
subcarbonatis liquor.
  Liquor volatilis cornu cervi.  This preparation
of the fluid  volatile alkali, commonly termed hartshorn
is in common use to smell at iu faintings, Sec.  See
Ammonia subcarbonas.
  LIUUORICE.  Sec Glycyrrhiza.
  Liquorice, Spanish.  See Glycyrrhiza.
  L1RELLA.  (A diminutive of lire, a ridge between
 two furrows.)  Acharius's name for  the black letter
 like receptacles of the genus Opegrapha.
  LISTER, Martin, was born nboul 1638,  of a York-
 shire family, settled  in  "Buckinghamshire, which  pro-
 duced  many medical practitioners of  leputation ;  and
 his uncle Sir Matthew Lister, was physician to Charles
 I. and  president  of the college.   After studying at
 Cambridge, where lie was  made  fellow of St. John'; 
LIT                                             LIT
 mllegc, by royal mandate, he travelled to the Continent
 for impioN t ment.  On his retuin, in 1670, he settled at
 York, wheie he practised lor  many years with consi-
 derable success.  Ha\ ing communicated many papers
 on  the natural history and antiquities of  the north of
 England to the Royal Society, he was elected a fellow
 of thai body ;  and lie likewise enriched theAshinolean
 Museum ai Oxford.  He came  hy  the solicitation of
 his friends, to London in KW4,  having received a diplo-
 ma at Oxiord ;  and soon alter was admitted a fellow of
 the College of Physicians.   In  lO'.-f; he accompanied
 the embassy lo Frauce, and  published an  account of
 this journey on his ieturn.  He was made  physician to
 Um-cu Aune about three years before his death, whicli
 happened iu the beginning  of 1712.  He wrote on the
 English medicinal w aters, on  small-pox, and some
 otlier diseases,  but his writings,  though containing
 some valuable practical  observations, are marked by
 too much hypothesis aud attachment to ancient doc-
 trines ; and he particularly condemned the  cooling plan
 of treatment iu febrile diseases, introduced  by the saga-
 cious Sydenham.  His reputation is principally founded
 on Ids researches in natural  history and couioaiaiive
 anaiomy, ou whicli  he  published  several  separate
 works, as  well  as  nearly forty papers in tlie Philoso-
 phical Transactions.
   HTHAGO'G.4    vFroni XtQos, a  stone,  and ayu, to
 bring away.)   Medicines which expel the stone.
   LITHARGE.  See  Lithuigyrus.
   Litharge plaster.   See Emplastrum lithargyri.
   L1THA RGYRUS.    (From  Xt6o(,  a  stone, and
 apyvpos, silver.)  Lithargyrum.  Lilhaige.  An oxide
 of lead,  in an imperfect slate of  \ iiritication.   When
 silver is refined by cupcllalion with lead, this  latter
 metal, which  is scoriiied, and causes the scoriticaiion
 of tlie imperfect inttais alloyed  with the silver, is trans-
 formed into a matter composed of small, seniitranspa-
 renl, shining plates, resembli gmica; which is litharge.
 Lithargt is mure or less while  or red, according lo Ihe
 metals with which the silver is alloyed.  The white is
 called litharge of silver; and the red has been impro-
 perly called litharge of gold.   Sej Lead, and Plumbi
 eubacetatis liquor.
   LITHIA.  (Lithia, from XtQttos, lapideus.)  Lithion;
 TAthina.   1. A new  alkali.   It was discovered  by
 'Vrlrtdson, a young chemist  of great merit, employed
 in  the  laboratory of  lierzelius.   It was  found in a
 mineral  from the mine of L ten in Sweden  called peta-
 lite by D'Audiada, who  fiist distinguished it.  Sir H.
 Davy demonstrated by Voltaic electricity, that the basis
 of this alkali is a metal, to wliich tiie name of lithium
 has been given.
   Beruelius gives the following simple process as a  test
 for lithia in inineials:—
   A fragment of ihe mineral, the size of a  pin's head,
 is to be heated with a small excess of soda, on a piece
 of platinum foil, by a blowpipe for a couple of minutes.
 The stone is decomposed, tiie soda liberates the lithia,
 and  ihe excess of alkali preserving the whole fluid al
 this temperature, il spreads over the foil, and surrounds
 the decomposed mineral.  That  part of the platinum
 Hear lo  the fused alkali  becomes of a  dark colour,
 which is more  intense, and spreads over a  larger sur-
 face, in proportion as there is more lithia in the mineral.
 The oxidation ol' the  platinum  does not  lake  place
 beneath  Ihe alkali, but only around it, where the meial
 is in contact wilh both air and lilhia.   Potassa destroys
 the reaction of Ihe platinum on the lilhia, if the lilhia
 lie.not redundant.  The  platina  resumes its metallic
 surface,  after having been washed and healed.
   Caustic  lithia has a very sharp, burning lasle.   It
 destroys  the cuticle of the tongue  like potassa  It does
 not dissolve with great facility in water, and appears
 not lo be much more soluble in hot than in  cold water.
 In this respect il has an analory with lime.   Heat is
 evolved during its solution in waler.
   When exposed io the air it does not attract moist-
 jre but absoibs carbonic acid, and  becomes opaque.
 When exposed for an hour to a white heat in a cover-
ed platinum  crucible,  its bulk  does  not appear to  be
diminished: but:'. has absorbed a quantity  of carbonic
acid.
  2.  Tho name of a genus of  diseases in Good's No-
twlogy.   Class, Eccritica; Order, Calotica.  Urinary
calculus.
  Ll'THIAS.  A lithiate, or salt, formed by the union
of the lithic acid or acid of tlie stone sometimes found
 in the,, bladder of animals with salifiable Lnsei; thus
 lithiate of ammonia, Sec.
   LITHl ASIS.  (From Xtdos, a stone.)
   1. The formation of store or gravel.
   2. A tumour of" the tyehd, under which is a hard
 concretion resembling a stone.
   LITHIC  ACID.  (Acidum lithicum;  from Xiflof, a
 stone, because it is obtained from the  stones of Ihe
 bladder.)  Acidum uncum.  This was discovered in
 analyzing human calculi, of many of which ii consti-
 tutes the greater part, and of some, particularly that
 which resembles wood iu appearance, it forms almost
 the whole.  It is likewise present in human urine, and
 in that of the camel.  It is found in those arthritic
 concretions commonly called chulkstones.   It is often
 called unc acid.
   The following are the results of Scheele's experi-
 ments on calculi, which were found to consist almost
 wholly  of this acid.
   I. Dilute sulphuric acid  produced no etlect on ihe
 caloulus,  but  the concentrated  dissolved it; and the
 solution, distilled to dryness, left a black coal, giving
 off sulphurous acid  fumes.  2. The  muiiaiic  acid,
 either diluted  or concentrated, had no etlect on ii even
 u ilh ebullition.  3. Dilute nitric acid attacked it cold ;
 and wilh tlie assistance of heat, produced au eff'erves
 cence and red vapour, carbonic acid was evolved, and
 Ihe calculus was entirely dissolved. The solution was
 acid, even when saturated w ith the calculus, and gave
 a beautiful red colour to the skin in half an  hour alter
 it was applied; when evaporated, it became ol a blood-
 red, bul tlie colour was destroyed by adding a drop of
 acid: it did  not precipitate muriate of barytes, or
 metallic solutions, even with the addition of an alkali;
 alkalies rendered it more yellow, and if supeiubuudant,
 changed it by  a strong digesting  heat to a rose colour;
 and this mixture imparts a  similar colour to the  skin,
 and is capable of precipitating sulphate of iron black,
 sulphate of  copper green, nitiate of silver gray, super
 oxygenated muriate of mercury, and solutions of lead
 and zinc, white.  Lime-water produced in  the  nitric
 solution  u while precipitate, which dissolved in  the
 nitric and muriatic acids without effervescence, and
 without destroying their acidity.   Oxalic acid did not
 precipitate it.   4. Carbonate of po.assa did not dissolve
 it, either cold  or  hot, but a  solution of perfectly pure
 potassa dissolved it even cold.  The solution was yel
 low; sweetish to the laste; precipitated by all the acids
 even the carbonic; did not  render lime-water turbid;
 decomposed and precipitated solution of iron  brown,
 of copper gray, of silver black, of zinc, ineicuiy, and
 lead,  white;  and exhaled  a smell of ammonia. S.
 About200 partsof lime-water dissolved the calculus
 by digestion, and  lost its acrid taste.  The solution was
 partly precipitated by acids.  6.  Pure water dissolved
 il entirely, but  il  was necessary to boil  for some time
 360 parts wilh one of the palculus iu powder.  This
 solution reddened tinctuie of litmus, did not render
 lime-water turbid, and  on cooling  deposited in small
 crystals almost the whole of what it had taken up.  7.
 Seventy-two grains distilled  in a small glass retort over
 an open fire, and  gradually brought lo a red heal, pro-
duced water of ammonia mixed wilh  a little  animal
oil, and a brown sublimate, weighing 28 grains, and 12
 grains of  coal remained, whicli preserved  its black
 colour on red-hot iron in the open air.   The brown
 sublimate was rendered white by a second sublimation;
 was destitute  of smell, even when moistened by an
 alkali; was acid to the laste;  dissolved in  boiling
 water, and also in alkohol, bul  iu less quantity; did
 nol precipitate lime-water; and  appeared lo resemble
 succinic acid.
   Fourcroy has found, lhat this acid is almost entirely
 soluble in 2000 limes its weight of cold water, when
 Ihe powder  is repeatedly treated with it.    From his
 experiments he infers, that it contains azote, with a
 considerable portion of carbon, and but little hydrogen,
 aud little oxygen.
   Of  its combinations with the basis  we know but
 little.
   Much additional  information  has  been obtained
 within these few years on the nature and  habitudes of
 the lithic acid.   Dr. Henry wrote a medical thesiB, and
afterward published a paper on the subject, in Die
second volume of the new series of the Manchester
memoirs, both  of which contain many important facts.
He procured the acid in the maimer above descnoed
                                          93 
LIT
LIT
 by Fourcroy.  it has the form of white shining^ilates,
 which nre denser than water.  Has no taste nor smell.
 It dissolves in about 1400 parts of boiling water.  It
 reddens the infusion of litmus.   When  dissolved in
 nitric acid, and evaporated to dryness, it leaves a pink
 sediment.  The dry acid is not acted  on nor dissolved
 by the alkaline carbonates, or sub-carbonates.  It de-
 composes soap when assisted by heat;  as it does also
 the alkaline sulphurets and hydrosulphurets.   No acid
 acts on it, except those that occasion its decomposition.
 It dissolves in hot solutions  of potassa and soda, and
 likewise  in ammonia, but less readily.  The lithates
 may be formed, either by mutually saturating  the two
 r.onsliluents, or we may dissolve the acid in an excess
 of base, and we may then precipitate by carbonate of"
 ammonia.  The lithates are  all tasteless, and resemble
 in appearance lithic acid itself.  They are not altered
 by exposure to the atmosphere. They are very sparing-
 ly soluble in water.  They are decomposed by a red
 heat, which destroys the acid.  The lithic acid is pre-
tipitated  from these salts by all the acids, except tho
 prussic and carbonic.  They aie decomposed by the
 nitrates, muriates, and  acetates of barytes, strontites,
 lime, magnesia, and alumina.  They are precipitated
 by all the metallic solutions except that of gold.   When
 lithic acid  is exposed to heat, the products are car-
 buretted  hydrogen, and carbonic acid, prussic acid,
 carbonate of ammonia, a sublimate, consisting of am-
 monia combined with a peculiar acid, which  has the
 following properties:—
  Its colour is yellow, and it has a cooling, bitter taste.
 ft dissolves readily in water,  and  in alkaline solutions,
 from which it is not precipitated by acids.  It dissolves
 also  sparingly in  alkohol.   It is  volatile, and wlien
 sublimed a second  time, becomes  much whiter.   The
 watery solution  reddens vegetable blues, but a very
 small quantity of ammonia destroys this property.  It
 does not cause effervescence  with alkaline carbonates.
 By evaporation it yields permanent crystals, bul  ill
 defined, fiom adhering animal matter.  These redden
 vegetable blues.  Potassa, when  added to these crys-
 tals, disengages ammonia. When dissolved in nitiic
 acid, they do not leave a red stain, as happens with
 uric acid; hor does their solution in water decompose
 Ihe earthy salts, as happens with alkaline lithates (or
 uiHtos).   Neither  has  it any action on the salts of
 copper, iron, gold, platinum, tin,  or  mercury.    With
 nitrates of silver, and mercury, and acetate of lead, it
 forms a while precipitate, soluble in an excess of nitric
 acid.   Muriatic acid occasions no precipitate in  the
 solution of these crystals iu water.  These properties
 show, lhat the acid of the sublimate is  different from
 the in ic, and from every other known acid.  Dr. Austin
 found, that by repeated distillations lithic acid was re-
 solved into ammonia, nitrogen, and prusvic acid.
  When  lithic acid is projected into a flask with chlo-
 rine, there is formed, in a lit*- time, muriate of ammo-
 nia, oxalate of ammonia, carbonic acid, muriatic acid,
 ind  malic  acid;  ihe same  results  are obtained by
 passing chlorine through water,  holding  this  acid in
 suspension.
  LITHIUM.  The metallic basis of lithia. See Lithia.
  LITHOIDES.   (From Xtdos, a stone, and  ctios, a
 likeness ; so called from its  hardness.)  The  petrous
 portion of the temporal bone.
  Litho'labum.  (Fropi Xtdos, a stone, and XauSavu,
 '.o seize.)  An instrument for extracting the stone from j
 Ihe hlndder.
   LIT HO'LOGY.  (Lithologia;  from XtOos,  n stone,
 and  Aoyoc, a discourse.)  A discourse, or treatise on
 stones.
   Lithoma'rga.   See Lilkomarge.
  L1TIIOMARGE.  Stone-marrow.  A mineral, of
 which there ate  two  kinds, the friable  and the in-
 durated.
   I.ITHONTRIPTIC.   (I.ithonlripticus;  from XtOos,
 a stone,  and rpt6u,  to  bear away.)   Lithontryplic.
 From the strict sense and common acceptation of the
 word,  this class of medicine  should comprehend such
 as possess a power of dissolving calculi in ihe urinary
 passages.  It is, however, doubted by many, whether
 lliere be In nature any such substances.  Hy this term,
 Ihen, is meant those substances which possess  a power
 of removing a disposition in the body to the formation
 of calculi.  The researches of modern chemists have
 proved, that these  calculi consist mostly of a  peculiar
 *cid, named the lithic or uric  acid.  Willi this sub
       30
stance, the alkalies are capable of uniting, and form-
ing a soluble compound; and these are, accordingly.
almost the Eole lithontriptics.  From the exhibition or
alkaline remedies, the symptoms arising from stone in
Ihe bladder are very generally alleviated; and they
can be given to such au extent that the  urine becomes
very sensibly alkaline, and is even capable of exerting
a solvent power on these concretions.  Their adminis-
tration, however, cannot  be continued  to this extent
for any length of time, from the irritation they produce
on the stomach and urinary organs.  The use, there-
fore, ofthe alkalies, as solvents, or lithontriptics, is now
scarcely ever attempted; they are employed merely to
prevent the inciease of the concretion, and to palliate
the painful  symptoms,  which they do  apj arently by
preventing the generation of lithic acid,  or the separa-
tion of it  by the kidneys; the urine is  thus rendered
less irritating, and the surface ofthe calculus is allowed
to become smooth.
  When the alkalies are employed with this view, they
are generally given neutralized, or with  excess of car
bonic acid.   This renders them much less irritating
It at the  same time, indeed, diminishes their  solvent
power ; for the alkaline carbonates exert no action on
urinary calculi; but they are still capable of correcting
that acidity in the primae viae, Wjiich is the cause of the
deposition ofthe lithic acid from the urine, and, there-
fore, serve equally to palliate the disease.  And when
their acrimony is  thus diminished, their use can  be
continued for any length of time.
  It  appears, from the  experiments of Fourcroy and
others, that some other ingredients of calculi, as well
as the lithic acid, nre dissolved by the caustic alkali,
and various experiments have shown, that most calculi
yield to its power.  It is obvious, however, lhat what
is taken by the mouth is subject lo many changes in the
alimentary canal, and also the lymphatic and vascular
systems; and in this way it must be exceedingly diffi
cult to get such substances (even were they not liable
to alterations) in  sufficient quantity into the bladder.
Indeed, there are very few authenticated cases of the
urine being so changed as to become a menstruum for
the stone.  Excepting the  case  of Dr. Newcombe,
recorded  by Dr. Whylt, the instance of Mr. Home is
almost the only one.  Though lithontriptics, however,
may not in general dissolve the stone in the bladder,
yet it is an incontrovertible fact, that  they frequently
mitigate the pain: and  to lessen  such torture as that
of the stone  in the bladder, is surely au object of  no
little importance.  Lime was long ago known as a
remedy lor urinary calculi, and different methods were
employed  to administer it.   One of these plans tell into
Ihe hands of a Mrs. Steevens, and her success caused
great  anxiety for the discovery of the secret.  At last
Parliament bought the secret for the sum of 5000/.   In
many instances, stones which had been unquestionably
fell, were  no longer to be discovered; and as the same
persons were examined by surgeons of the greatest skill
and eminence, both before and after the  exhibition  of
her medicines, it was no wonder  that the conclusion
was  drawn,  that  the stones really were dissolved.
From the cessation of such success, and from its now
being known thai the stones are occasionally protruded
between the fasciculi ofthe muscular fibres of the blad-
der, so as to be lodged in a kind of cyst  on the outside
of the muscular coat, and  cause no longer any griev-
ances, surgeons of ihe present day ni e inclined to suspect
that this must have happened in Mrs. Stcevens's cases.
This was  certainly what happened in one ofthe cases
on whom  the medicine  had been  tried.  It is evident
that a stone, so situated, would not any longer produce
irritation,  but would also  be quite indiscovetable by
the sound, for, in fuel, it is no longer in the cavity of
the bladder.
  As soap was, with reason, supposed to increase the
virtues ol" the lime, it led to the use of caustic alkali,
taken in  mucilage, or veal broth.  Take of pure po-
lassa, *§ viij; of quick-lime, 5 iv; of distilled water, Ibij.
Mix them well together  in a large bottle, and let them
stand for  twenty-four hours.  Then pour off the ley,
filter it through paper, and keep it in well-stopped vinl«
for use.  Of this, Ihe dose  is from thirty drops to  3 ij,
which Is to be repeated two or three limes a-dny, iu a
pint of veal broth, early in the morning, nt noon, and
in the evening.  Continue  this plan for tliree  oi fou*
months, living, during the courre, on such tilings ai
least counteract the effect of the medie»*ic. 
L1V                                              LIV
   Pile common fixed  alkalies, or cmbonated  alkali,
and the acidulous soda-water, have of late been used
ns lithontriptics.  Honey has also been given ; and Mr.
Home, surgeon at tht Savoy, has recorded its utility in
his own and in his father's cases.  Diners have  like-
wise been tried.
   Dismissing  all  theories,  lime-water, soap, acidulous
soda-water, caustic, alkali, and bitters,  tire useful in
cases of stone. Ofthe soap, as much may be laken as
Ihe stomach will hear, or as much as will prove gently
laxative; but of the lime-water, few can take more
Ihhu n pint daily.
   The acidulous soda-water may be  taken in larger
quantities, as it is more agreeable.
   There is a  remedy celebruted in Holland, under the
name of  liquor lilhrntriptica Loosii, which contains,
according lo  an  accurate  analysis,  muriate of lime.
This, professor Hufeland recommends in the following
form:
        ft Calcis muriate  3 j.
           Aquae disiillatae, 5 ij. ft. solutio.
   Thirty drops are to be taken four times a-day, which
may be increased as far as  the stomach will  bear.
   For curing stone patients, little  reliance can be
placed in  any lilhnntriplics hitherto discovered, though
they may  rationally be given, with a confident hope of
procuring an  alleviation of the tils of pain attending
the presence ol" stone  in the bladder.  After all, the
only certain method of getting rid of the calculus is the
operation, ^ee LithvUt-ny.
   [" LiTHOvrRipioR.   (From  XiOos,  a  stone,  and
Spvnrw, lo break.)   The name ol an  instrument, In-
vented by Dr. Civiale of Paris, for reducing  calculi  in
the bladder into small particles or a  powder, which is
voided wuh the  urine,  and lithotomy thus rendered
unnecessary.  The liliionlriplor consists of  a straight
silver catheter, of considerable diameter, and enclosing
another of steei, the lower extremity of which consists
of three branches, calculated to grasp the stone on with-
drawing the steel cailielera sh.irt way within the outer
one, when they become approximated.  The cavity of
the inner  catheter is capable of admitting a slcel rod,
to winch  may be affixed,  at the surgeon's option, a
simple quadrangular drill, or astrawb  riy-sliaped file,
or a trephine.  By means of a spring, the Inner part of
the apparatus is prrssed evenly inwards, and it is made
to revolve with velocity through the medium of a bow,
alter the  maimer of a common hand drill."—Coop
Sur. Die.  A.l
   LITHONTRY PTIC.   (From XiSos, a stone, and
Spvirju, lo break.)   Sei Lithontriptic.
   LITHOSPERMU.M.  (From A16V1J, a stone, and
T-tppa, seed;  named from the hardness of its seed.)
1. 'i'iie name of a genus of plants in the Linnaean sys-
tem.  Class, Pentandria; Order, Monngyitia.
   2. The pharmacopieial name of common gromwell.
See Lithospermum officinale.
   Liihospkrmum officinale.  The systematic name
of the officinal gromwell.  The seeds of this officinal
plant, Lithiispirmiim—semimbas lacibus, corollis viz
ealycem superantibus, foliis lanceolatis, of  Linnaeus,
were formerly supposed, from their stony hardness, lo
be efficacious in calculous  and gravelly disorders.
Little credit  is given in their lithontriptic character,
vet th<"y arc occasionally used as diuretic for clearing
■ he urinary pass-agp.-. and for obviating strangury, in
the form of emulsion.
   LITHO TOM V.  (l.ithotomia; from Ai&>s, a stone,
and rtpvu, to cut ;   Cystomia.  The operation of cut-
ting into  the bladder,  in  order  to  extract a  stone.
Several methods have been' recommended for perform-
ing this operation, bin  there are only two which can
be practised with any  propriety.  One is, where the
operation  is to be performed  immediately above the
pubes, in that part of the bladder which is not covered
with  peritonieum, called   the high  operation.   The
other, where it is done iu the periuieum, by laying open
the neck and lateral part of the bladder, so as lo allow
ofthe extraction ofthe stone, called the lateral opera-
tion, from the  prostate gland ofthe neck of the bladder
being laterally cut.       .....
  LJTMl'S.   The  beautiful  blue  prepared from  a
white lichen.   See Lichen  roccella.
  Li tR'in.  See Nitre.
  Li'tus.   A  liuim'-iii.
  LIVER.  (Hepar,Sjirnp.) A large viscus, of a deep
red coin...  ofg ea; siz.etind weigh', situated  mder the
| diaphragm, in the right hypnchondr.um, Us finaller
 portion occupying part of the epigastric region.  In the
 human body, the liver  is divided  into two principal
 lobes, the right of which is hy far the greatest.  They
 are divided on the upper side by a broad ligament, and
 on Ihe other side by a considerable depression 01 fossil.
 Between and  below these two lobes is  a smaller lobe,
 called lebulus spigelii.  in describing this viscus, it is
 necessary to attend to seven principal circumstances :—
 its ligaments; its surfaces; Its margins; its tubercles;
 its fl«*iire ; its sinus;  and the pori biliarii.
   The ligaments of the liver  are five  in number, all
 arising from the peritonaeum.  I.  The right  lateral
 ligament, whicli connects the thick  light lobe with the
 posterior pail of the diaphragm.  '2. The left  lateral
 ligament, which connects the convex surface and mar-
 gm-of the left lobe  with Ihe diaphragm, and, in those
 of whom the liver is  very large, with the oesophagus
 nnd spleen.  3. The broad or middle suspensory liga-
 ment, which passes from the  diaphragm into the con
 vex surface, and separates the right lobe of ihe liver
 from tlie left. It descends from above through the large
 fissure to the concave surface, and  ia then distributed
 over the whole liver.  4.  The. round ligament, which
 in adults consists nf the  umbilical vein, indurated into
 a ligament.  5.  The coronary ligament.
   The liver has two surfacrn,  one superior, which Is
 convex and  smooth, and  one inferior, wliich is con-
 cave,  aud has holes and  depressions to  receive, nol
 ntily the contiguous viscera, hut the vessels running
 into the liver.
   The margins of the liver arc also two  in number;
 the one, whicli is posterior and superior is obtuse, the
 other, situated anteriorly and inferiorly, is acute
   The tubercles of the liver are likewise two in num
 ber, viz. lobulut anovymus, aud lobului caudal us, and
 are found near the vena portae.
   Upon looking 011 ihe concave surface of this viscus,
 a considerable fissure  is obvious, known by the name
 of the .fissure of the liver.
   In order to expose the sinus, it is necessary to re-
 move Ihe gall-bladder, when a considerable sinus, be
 fore occupied by the gall-bladder, will be apparent.
   The blood-vessels of ihe liver are the hepatic artery,
 Ihe venn portse, and the vena cava hepaticae, which
 are described under their proper  names.  The absor-
 bents of the  liver are  very numerous.  The liver has
 nerves,  from ihe great intei costal and eighth  pair,
 which arise from the hepatic plexus, and proceed along
 wilh ihe hepatic arleiy and vena portae into ihe sub-
 stance of the liver.  With regard lo the substance of
 the liver, various opinions have been entertained.  Il
 is, however, now pretty  well ascertained to he a large
 gland, coui|H)sed of lesser glands connected together by
 cellular structure.   The small glands wliich  thus com-
 pose the substance of the  liver, are termed  peuicilli,
 from the arrangement  of the minute ramifications of
 the vena porta composing each gland, resembling that
 of the hairs of a  pencil.   The  chief use of this large
 viscus is to supply a  fluid, named bile, to the intes-
 tines, which is of the  utmost importance in chylifica-
 lion.  The small peuicilli  perform  this function by a
 specific actional! the  blood they contain,  by  which
 they secrete in their very minute ends the fluid termed
 hepatic bile;  but whether  they pour it into what is
 called  a fidlicle, or not, is yet undecided, and is the
 cause of the difference of opinion respecting the sub-
 stance of ihe liver.  If it be secreted  into a follicle, the
 substance is truly glandular, according to the notion of
 the older anatomists :  bul if it be  secreted merely info
 a  small vessel,  called a biliary pore (the existence of
 which can be demonstrated) corresponding lo ihe end
 of eachnf the peuicilli, without any intervening folli-
 cle, its substance is then, in their opinion, vascular. Ac-
 cording to our notions in  the  present day, in either
 case, the liver is said to be glandular; for we have the
 idea of a gland when any arrangement of  vessels per
 forms the office of separating from the blood a fluid 01
 substance different in its nature from the blood.   The
 small vessels which receive the  bile secreted by the
 penicilli, arc called  pori biliarii;  these converge toge-
 ther throughout the substance of the liver towards its
 under surface, nnd, at length, form one trunk,  called
 ductus hepaticas, which convey* the bite  intoeitherthp
 ductus communis choledochus. or ductus cysticus.  See
 Gallbladder.
   Liver, inflammation of.   See Hepatitis. 
LOB
LON
  Liver of sulphur.  Soe Potassa sulphuretum.
  LIVERWORT.  See Marchantia polymorpha.
  Liverwort, ash-coloured.  See Lichen caninus.
  Liverwort, ground.  See Lichen caninus.
  Liverwort, Iceland.   See Lichen islandicus.
  Liverwort, noble.  See Marchantia polymorpha.
  Ll'VOR. (From liveo, to be black and blue.) Livid-
ness.  A black  mark, from a  blow.   A  dark circle
under the eye.
  LIX.   (From Xts, light.)  Woodash.
  LIX'IVIAL.   Salts are 60 called which are extract-
ed by lixiviation.
  LIXIVlATiON.  (Lixivialis ; from lix, woodash.)
Lesstvc.   The process  employed  by  chemists of dis-
solving, by means of  warm water, the saline and solu-
ble particles of cinders, ihe residues of distillation and
combustion, coals, and natural earths.  Salts thus  ob-
tained are called Lixivial salts.
  LIXI'VIUM.   (From lix, woodash.)  The liquor in
which  saline and soluble particles of the residues of
distillation and combustion are dissolved.
  Lixivium  saponakium.  See Potassa  liquor.
  Lixivium  tartari.   See Potassa subcarbonatis
liquor.
  LOBATUS.  (From  lobus, a lobe.)  Lobed.  Ap-
plied to"  leaves which  have the  margins of the seg-
ments lobed, as in Anemone hepatica, and to such as
are lobed like the vine thistle, and many geraniums.
  LOBB, Thkofhilus, practised  as  a physician in
London with considerable reputation, and left several
works on medical topics.  He died in 1763, in the 85lh
year of his age.  He  wrote  on fevers, small-pox, and
some other diseases ;  but his most celebrated publica-
tion was, " A Treatise  on Solvents of the Stone, and
on  curing the  Stone aud the Gout by  Aliments,"
which passed through several editions, and was trans-
lated into Lalin and French ; he considcied the mor-
bid matter of an alkaline nature, and vegetable acids
as the lemedy.  He was author also of " A  Compen-
dium of the  Practice of Physic," and of several papers
in the Gentleman's Magazine.
  Lobed leaf.  See Lobatus.
  LOBE'LIA.  (Named in honour of Lobcl, a botan-
ist.)  1. The name of  a genus of plants  in the Lin-
naean system. Class, Syngcnesia; Order, Monogamia.
  2. The  pharmacopceial name of the blue lobelia.
See ljohelia syphilitica.
  Lobki.ia syphilitica.  The systematic name of the
blue lobelia of the pharmacopoeias. The  root is  the
part directed by Ihe Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia for me-
dicinal use ;  in taste it resembles tobacco, and is apt to
excile vomiting.  It derived the  name of syphilitica
from its efficacy in the cure of syphilis, as expeiienced
by the North American Indians, who considered it as
a specific in that disease, and with whom  it  was long
an important  secret,  which was purchased  by  Sir
William Johnson,  and since  published  by  different
authors.   The method  of employing this medicine is
stated as  follows: a  decoction  is  made of a handful
of the roots  in three measures of water.  Of this half
a measure is taken in  the morning fasting, and repeated
in the evening;  and  the dose  is gradually increased,
till ils purgative effects become too violent, when  the
deooclion is to be intermitted for a day or two, and then
renewed, until  a perfect cure is effected.   During the
use of this medicine, a proper regimen is to be enjoined,
and the ulcers are also  to be frequently washed with
the decoction, or if deep and foul, to be sprinkled with
the  powder of the inner bark of the New-Jersey tea-
tree, Ceanothus  americanus.   Although  the plant
thus used is said lo cure Ihe disease in a very short
lime, yet it is not found lhat ihe autisyjihilitic powers
of the lobelia have been confirmed in any instance of
European practice.
  [Lobklia inflata.  See Indian tobacco.  A.]
  LO'BULUS.   (Dim.  of lobus, a lobe.)   A small
lobe, as lobulus spigclii.
  Lobulus  acokssorius.  See Lobulus anonymus.
  Lobulus  anonymus. Lobulus accessorius anterior-
quadratus.  The anterior point of the right lobe of the
liver.  Others define it to be that space of the great
lobe between the fossa  of the umbilical vein and gall-
bladder,  and  extending forwaid from the fossa for the
lodgment of the vena portae, to the anterior margin of
Ihe liver.
  Lobulus  caudatus. Piocessus caudatus.  A tail-
like process ofthe liver, stretching downward from the I
      32
middle of the great right lobe to the lobulus spigein.  i
is behind the gall-bladder, and between the fossa ven-x
portarum, and the fissure for the lodgment of the ven'i
cava.
  Lobulus spioblh.   Lebulus posterior; Lobulus
posticus papillatus.  A lobe of the liver between the
two greater  lobes, but rather belonging to the right
great lobe.   From its situation deep behind, and from
its having a perpendicular papilla-like projection, it is
called lobulus posterior, or papillatus.   To the left side
it has the fissure for the lodgment  of the ductus veno-
sus ; on the  right, the  fissure for Ihe vena cava; and
above, it has the great transverse fissure of the liver
for the lodgment of the cylinder of the porta; obliquely
to the right, and upwards, it has a connexion with th*
lower concave surface of the  great lobe, by the pro
cessus caudatus, which  "Wrinslow calls one of the root*
of the lobulus spigelii.  It is received into  the bosom
of the less curve of the stomach.
  LOCA'LES.   (Locales, the plural of localis.)  The
fourth class of Cullen's  Nosology, which comprehend*
morbid affections that are partial,  and includes eight
orders, viz. dysaesthesiaee, dysorexiae,  dyscinesiae, apo-
cenoses, epischeses, tumores, ectopia, and dialyses.
  LOCA'LIS.  Local.   Belonging to a part and not
the whole.   A  common division of diseases is into
general  and local.
  Localis membrana.  The pia mater.
  LOCHIA.  (From Xoxtvu, to  bring forth.)  Tlie
cleansings.   The serous, and for the most part green-
coloured, discharge that takes place  from  the uterus
and vagina of women, during the first four days after
delivery.
  LOCHIORRH03'A.   (From Xoxta,  and ptw,  M
flow.)   An excessive  discharge of the lochia.
  LOCKED-JAW.   See Tetanus.
  LOCULAMENTUM.  In botany  means the space
or cell between the valves and partitions of  a capsule,
distinguished from their number into unilocular, bilo
cular, Sec  See Capsvla.
  LOCUSTA.  A term sometimes applied  to  ths
spikelet of grasses. See Spicula.
  LOGWOOD.  See Hamatoxylon campcchianum.
  LOMENTACE^E.  (From  lomentum;  in allusion
to the pulse-tike nature  of the plants in question, so as
to keep  in view their analogy  with the popilionacca.)
The name of an order  of plants  in Linnaeus's  Frag-
ments of" a Natural Method, consisting of such as have
a bivalve pericarpium or legume, and not  papiliona-
ceous corolls; as Cassia, Fumaria, Ceretonia, &c.
  LOMENTUM.   1.  A word used by old writers on
medicine, to expiess a  meal i.:ade of beans, or  bread
made of this meal, and  used as a wash.
  2.  A bivalve pericarpium, divided into cells by veiy
small partitions, never lateral like  tliose of the legume
  From its  figure it is termed,
  1.  Articulatum, when the partitions arc visible ex
ternally; as in Hedysarum argenteum.
  2.  Moniliforme, necklace-like, consisting of n nuir.-
ber of little globules;  as in Hedysarum moliferum.
  3.  Aculeatum; as in Hedysarum onobrychis.
  4.  Ciystatum; as in Hedysarum caput galli.
  5.  Ist/imis  interceptum, when  the  cells  are  much
narrower than the joints ; as in Hippocrepis.
  6.  Corticosum, the  external  bark boing woody, and
the inside pulpy; ns in Cassia  fistula.
  LOMMIUS, Jodocus,  was born  in Guelderland,
about the commencement of the 10th century. Having
received from his father a good classical education, he
turned his  attention  to medicine, whicli  he studied
chiefly at Paris.  He  practised for a considerable time
at Jl'ournay, where he  was pensionary physician :'n
1557; and,  three years after, he removed  to Brussels.
The period of his death is not known.  He left three
small works, which ate still  valued from  the  purity
and elegance of their  Latinily;  a Commentary  on
Celsus; Medicinal Observations,  in three  hooks; and
a Treatise on the Cure  of Continued Fevers; the two
latter having been several times  reprinted  and  trans-
lated.
  LOMONITE.  Diphrismatic zeolite.
  LONCHITIS.  (From Xoyxv, a  lance: so named
because the leaves resemble the headrof a lance.) The
I herb spleenwort.  The Ceterach officinalis.
  Longa'num.   (From longus, long: so named from
its length.)  The intestiiium rectum.
   LONGING.  A desiie peculiar to the female, nn-l 
LON
LOW
  only during pregnancy, and those states in which tlie
  uterine discharge is suppressed.
   I.ONGISSIMUS.  The longest.  Parts are so named
  from their length, compared to that of others;  as lon-
  gissimus dorsi, Sec
   Lonoissimus dorsi.  Lumbo  dorso trachelicn, of
  Dumas.  This muscle, which  is somewhat thicker
  th n the sacrolumbalis, greatly resembles it, however,
  in its  shape aud extent, and arises, in common with
  that muscle, between it and ilie spine.  It ascends up-
  wards along the spine, and is inserted by small double
  tendons into the posterior and inferior part of  all the
  transverse processes  of the vertebrae of the back, and
  sometimes of the last vertebra of  the neck.  From its
  outside it sends off several bundles of fleshy fibres, in-
  terspersed wilh a few tendinous filaments, which are
  usually inserted  into the lower edge of the ten  upper-
  most ribs, not far from their tubercles.  In some sub-
 jects, however, they are found inserted in a less num-
 ber, and in others, though more rarely, into every one
 of tlie  ribs.  Towards  tlie upper  pnrt of this muscle
 is observed a broad and thin portion of fleshy fibres,
 which  cross  and intimately adhere to tlie fibres of the
 longissimus dorsi. This portion arises from the upper
 and posterior part of the transverse processes  of the
 five or  six uppermost vertebra ofthe back, by as many
 tendinous origins, and is usually inserted by six tendi-
 nous and fleshy slips, into the transverse processes of
 the six  inferior vertebrae of the neck.  This portion is
 described, by Winslow and Albinus, as a distinct mus-
 cle;  by the former under the name of transversalis
 major colli, and  by  the lalter under tliat  of trans-
 versalis cervices.  But its fibres are so intimately con-
 nected  with tliose of the longissimus dorsi, that it may
 very  properly be considered as an appendage to the
 latter.  The  use of this muscle is to extend Die  verte-
 brae  of  the back, and to keep tlie trunk of the body
 erect; by means of its appendage, it likewise serves to
 turn the neck obliquely  backwards, and a little to one
 ride
   Longissimus  manus.   See Flexor tertii internodii
 pollicis.
   Longissimus oculi.   See Obliquus superior oculi.
   LONGITUDINAL.  Longitudinalis.   Partsareeo
 ntmed  from  their direction.
   Longitudinal sinus.  Longitudinal  sinus of the
 dura mater.   A triangular canal, proceeding in the
 falciform process of  the dura mater, immediately un-
 der the  bones of the skull, from the crista galli  to the
 tentorium, where it branches into  the lateral sinuses.
 The longitudinal sinus has a number of trabecule or
 fibres crossing  it.  Its  use  is to  receive  the  blood
 from the veins ofthe pia mater, and convey it into tbe
 lateral sinuses, to be carried through the internal jugu-
 lars to the heart.
  LONGUS Long.  Some parts are so named from
 their comparative length; as longus colli, Sec.
  Longus colli.  Pra dorso cervical, of Dumas.
 This is  a pretty considerable muscle, situated close to
 the anterior  and lateral part of the vertebra; of the
 neck.  Its outer edge  is  in part covered by the rectus
 internus major.  It arises tendinous and fleshy within
 the thorax, from the bodies ofthe three superior verte-
 brae ofthe back, laterally; from the bottom and fore-
 part ofthe transverse  processes of Use 'irst and second
 vertebrae of the back, and of the last vertebra of the
 neck: and likewise from the upper  and anterior points
 of the transverse processes of the  sixth, fifth, fourth,
 and third vertebre of  the neck, by as many small dis-
 tinct tendons; and is inserted tendinous into the fore-
 part of the second vertebra of the  neck, near its fellow.
 This  muscle, when it acts singly, moves the neck to
 one side; but when both act, the neck is brought di-
 rectly forwards.
  LONICERA.  The name of a genus of plants in
 the Linnaean  system.  Class. Pentandria; Order, Mo-
 nogynia.
  Lonicera  diervilla.  The systematic name of a
species  of honeysuckle.  Diervilla.   The young
branches of this species, Lonicera—racemis termina-
libus, foliis serratis, of Linnaeus, are employed in
North America as a certain remedy in gonorrhoea and
suppression of urine.  It has not yet been exhibited in
Europe.
  Lonicera  periclimenum.   Honeysuckle.   This
beautiful and common plant was formerly used in the
sure  of  asthma, for  cleansing serdid ulcers, and re-
  moving diseases of the skin, virtues it does not now
  appear to possess.
    LOOSENESS.  See Diarrhaa.
    LOPEZ.   Radix lopeziana;  Radix indica lopeii
  ana.   The root of an unknown tree, growing, accord
  ing to some, at Goa.  It is met with in pieces of differ
  ent thickness, some nt least of  two inches diainetei-
  The  woody part is whitish, and very light;  softer,
  more  spongy, and whiter next the bark, including  a
  denser, somewhat reddish, medullary part.  The bark
  is rough,  wrinkled, brown, soft, and, as  it  were,
  woolly, pretty thick, covered with a thin paler cuticle.
  Neither the woody nor cortical part has any remarka-
  ble smell or taste, nor any appearance of resinous mat
  ter.   It appears that this medicine has been remai ka
  bly effectual in stopping colliquative diarrhoeas, which
  had resisted the usual remedies.  Those attending the
  last stage of consumption were particularly relieved
  by its use.  It*feem*.d to act, not by an astringent
  power, but by a faculty of restraining and appeasing
  spasmodic and inordinate motions of the intestines.
  Dr. (.aubius,  who  gives  this  account, compares its
  action to that  of Simaruuba, but thinks it more effica-
  cious than this medicine.
    Lopez root.   See Lopez.
    Loi-kziana  radix.   See Lopez.
    Lopha'dia.   (From  Xoifio;, the  hinder part of the
  neck.)  Lophia.  The  first vertebra of the neck.
    LORDO SIS.   (From  Xopios, curved, bent.)   An
  affection af the spine, in wliich it is bent inwards.
    Lo'rica.  (From lorico, lo crust over.)  A kind of
  lute, w ith which vessels are coated befoie they are put
  into ihe fire.
    LORICA'TION.  Coating. Nicholson recommends
 the following composition for the coating of glass ves-
 sels, to prevent their breaking when exposed to heat.
 Take of sand and clay,  equal parts; make them into a
 thin  paste, with fresh  bloud, prevented  from coagu-
  lating by agitation, till  il is cold, and diluted with wa-
 ter; add to this some hair, and  powdered glass; with
 a  brush, dipped in  this mixture,  besmear the  glass;
 and when this layer is  dry, let the same operation be
  repeated twice, oroftener, till the coat applied is about
 one-third part of an  inch in thickness.
   LORRY, Anne-Charles, was born near Paris, in
  1725   He  studied and practised as a physician, with
 unremitting zeal and peculiar modesty, and obtained
 a high reputation.  At  23,  he was admitted doctor nf
 medicine at Paris, and subsequently became doctor
 regent of the faculty.  He was author of several works,
 some of whicli still maintain  their value ; particularly
 his Treatise on Cutaneous Diseases, which combines
 much  erudition and accurate observation, with great
 clearness of" arrangement, and perspicuity of language.
 He died in 17e3.
   LOTION.  (Lotto; ftom lavo,  to wash.)  An ex
 ternal  fluid application. Lotions are usually applied
 by wetting linen in them, and keeping it on the part
 affected.
   LO'TUS.  (From  Au,  to  desire.)  1. A tree,  tbe
 fruit of which was said tn be so delicious as to make
 those who  tasted it  forsake  all other desires; hence
 the proverb, Aurov  td-ayov,  lotum gustavi: I  have
 lasted  lotus.
   2. The name of  a  genus  of plants in the Linnaean
 system.  Class, Diad'elphia; Order, Decandria.
   LOUIS,  Anthony, was born at Metz, in 1723.   lie
 attained great reputation as a surgeon, and was  ho-
 noured wilh numerous  appointments, and  marks of
'distinction, as well iu his own as in foreign countries.
 He wrote the surgical part of the " Encyclopedic," and
 presented several interesting papers to me Royal Aca-
 demy of Surgery, of wmch  he was secretary: besides
 which,, he  was author of several works on anatomi-
 cal, medical, nnd other subjects.  In a memoir, on  the
 legitimacy of retarded births, he  maintains that  the
 detention ofthe foetus, more than ten days beyond the
 ninth month, is physically impossible.
   LOVAGE.  See I.igusticum levisticum.
  LOVE-APPLE.  See Sulanum li/coper,icum
  LOWER, Richard, was born  in Cornwall, about
 Ihe year 1G31.  He graduated at Oxford, and  having
 materially assisted the  celebrated  Dr. Willis, in  his
 dissections, he was introduced into practice by that
 physician.' In 1065, he publish! d a defence of Willis's
 work on Fevers, displaying much  learning and  inge-
 nuity.   But his  most important performance was en- 
LUM
LUN
 titled,  " Tractalus de Cotde, item ae mom et calore
 Sanguinis,  el Chyli in cum transitu,"  printed four
 year's after.  He demonstrated the dependence of the
 motions of the heart upon the nervous influence, and
 referred the red colour of arterial blood to the  action
 of the air in the lungs; he also gave an account of his
 experiments, made at Oxford "in February, 1665, on
 the transfusion of blood from one  living animal to
 another, of which an abstract had before appeared in
 tlie Philosophical Transactions.   He afterward prac-
 tised this upon an insane person, before the Royal So-
 ciety, of which he was admitted a fellow in 1667, as
 well as of the College  of Physicians.  The reputation
 acquired by these, and some other minor publications,
 procured him extensive practice, particularly after the
 death of Dr. Willis; but his political opinions brought
 him into discredit at court, and he declined considera-
 bly before the close of his life, in 1691.  The operation
of transfusion was soon exploded, experience  having
shown  that it  was  attended with pernicious  conse-
 quences.
  Loxa'rtiiros.  (From Xv\os, oblique, and apOpov, a
joint.)  Loxarthrus.   An obliquity of tlie joint, with-
 out spasm or luxation.
  LOXIA.  (From Aei-oj, oblique.) The specific name
in the genus JEnCasiaof Good's Nosology, for wry neck.
 [" Also, in Ornithology, the name of  a genus of" birds,
 including the Grosbeaks, or Crossbills, of which there
 are numerous species."  A.]
  LUCULLITE. A species of limestone.
  Lu'dus helmontii.   Ludus paracelsi.  The waxen
 vein.  A stony matter said to be serviceable in calculus.
  LUDWIG,  Christian  Theophilus, was  born in
 Silesia in 1709, and educated for  the medical profes-
 sion.  Having a strong  bias towards natural history, he
 went on an expedition to the north of Africa: and soon
 after his return, in 1733, he became professor of medi-
 cine at Leipsic.  The first thesis defended there under
 lis  presidency related to Ihe manner in which  marine
 plants  are nourished; which he showed not to be by
 the root, as is the case in the generality of the vegetable
 kingdom.  He  afterward published several botanical
 works, in wliich he  finds many objections to the Lin-
 naean arrangement, rather preferring that of Rivinus;
 but on very unsatisfactory grounds.  Elementary works
 were likewise written by him on the different branches
of medical  knowledge.  A  more important work is
entitled " Adversaria Medico-practica," in three octavo
 volumes.  He  has given an  account of  his  trials of
 Stramonium and Belladonna in epilepsy, by no means
 favourable to either.  He died in 1773.
  LUES.   (Lues, is. f.\ from Aua>, to dissolve, because
 t produces dissolution.)  A pestilence, poison,  plague.
  Lues deifica.  One of the many  pompous names
 formerly given to epilepsy.
  Lues neuroses.  A typhus fever.
  Lues venerea.  The plague of Venus, or the vene-
 real disease.  See Syphilis.
  LUISINUS, Louis, was  born  at Udina, where he
 obtained considerable  reputation  about the middle of
 the 16lh century.  He translated Hippocrates's aphor-
 isms into Latin hexameters:  and  published a treatise
 on regulating the affections of the mind  by moral phi-
 losophy and the medical art: but his most celebrated
 work is entitled " Aphrodisiacus," printed at Venice, in
 two folio volumes: the first containing  an account of
 preceding  treatises on syphilis,  the  second compre-
 hended  principally the manuscript works on the sub-
 ject which had not then been committed to the press.
  LU'JULA.  (Corrupted or contracted from  Allelu-
jah, Praise the Lord; so called from ils many virtues.)
 See Oxalis ascetosella.
  LUMBA'GO.  (From lumbus,  the  loin.)  A rheu-
 matic affection of the muscles about the loins. See
 Rheumatismus.
  LUMBAR.  Lumbalis.  Belonging to thn loins.
  Lumbar  abscess.   Psoas abscess.   A  species of
 arthropuosis, that receives its name from the situation
 in which the matter is found, namely, upon the side
 of the  psoas muscle, or between that and  the iliacus
 internus.  Between these muscles, there lies a quantity
 of loose cellular membrane, in which an inflammation
 often takes place, either  spontaneously or from me-
 chanical injuries. This terminates in an abscess that
 can  procure no  outlet but  by a  circuitous course in
 which it generally produces irreparable mischief, with-
 out any  violent symptoms occurring  to  alarm  the
      34
patient.  The abscess sometimes forms  a swelling
above Poupart's ligament: sometimes below it; and
frequently the maucr glides  under the fascia of the
thigh.  Occasionally,  it makes its way through the
sacro-ischiatic foramen, and  assumes  rather the ap-
pearance of a fistula  in ano.  The uneasiness in the
loins, and the impulse communicated to the tumour by
coughing, evince that the disease arises in  the lumbar
region ; but it must be confessed, that  we can hardly
ever know  the existence of the disorder, before the tu-
mour, by presenting itself  externally, leads us to such
information.  The lumbar abscess is sonietimes con-
nected with diseased vertebrae, which may either be a
cause or effect of the collection of matter. The disease,
however, is frequently unattended with this complica-
tion.
  The situation  of the symptoms  of lumbar abscess
renders this affection liable to be mistaken for some
other, viz. lumbago and nephritic pains, and, towards
its termination, for crural or femoral hernia.  The first,
however, is not attended with the shivering that occurs
here; and nephritic complaints are generally discover
able by attention to the state of the urine.   The dis-
tinction from crural hernia is more difficult.  In both,
a soft inelastic swelling is felt in the same situation;
but in hernia, it is attended  with obstructed faeces,
vomiting, Sec and  its  appearance  is  always sudden,
while the lumbar tumour is preceded by various com-
plaints before its appearance in the thigh.  In a hori
zontal posture, the abscess also totally disappears, white
the hernia does not.
  Lumbar regions. The loins.
  Lumbaris externus.  See  Quadratus lumborum.
  Lumbaris internus.  See Psoas rnagnua.
  LUMBIUCA'LIS.  (Lumbricalis musculus ;  frorn
its resemblance to the  lumbricus, or earth woim.) A
name given to some muscles from their resemblance W
a worm.
  Lumbricalis manus. Fidicinales. Flexor primi in
ternodii digitorum  manus,  vcl perforatus lumbricalis,
of Cowper;  Anuli tendino-phalangiens, of Dumat
The small flexors of the fingers wliich assist the bend-
ing the fingers when the long flexors are in  full action
They arise ihin  and  fleshy  from  the  outside of tht
tendons ofthe flexor profundus, a little above the lowe
edge of the carpal ligaments, and are  inserted by lorn
slender tendons into the outer sides of the  broad ton
dons of the interosseal muscles, about the middle of ih
first joints ofthe fingers.
  Lumbricales pedis. Plantitendino-phalangien, o'
Dumas.  Four muscles like the  former, that incrcas
the flexion of the toes, and draw them inwards.
  LUMERI'CUS.  (A* Lubricitate; from its slipper,
ness.)  Ascaris lumbricoides ;  Lumbricus teres  Th<
long round worm.  A species of worm which inhabit
occasionally the human  intestines. It  has three nip
pies at its head, and a triangular mouth in  its middle
Its length is from four to twelve inches, and its thick
ness, when twelve  inches long, about that of a goosi
quill.   They are sometimes solitary, at other lime
very numerous.  See Worms.
  Lumbricus terrestris.  Vermis terrestris.  Th
earth worm.  Formerly  given internally when  driei
aud pulverized as a diuretic.
  Lumbus  veneris.  See Achillea millefolium.
  LU'NA.   (Luna, a. f. ;  ii lucendo.)   1.  The mooi
  2. The old alchemisiical  name of silver.
  Luna cornea.   Muriate of silver.
  Luna plena.  A term used  by the old alchemists i
the transmutation ol metals.
  Lunar caustic.   See . Ir^enti nitras.
  LUN ARE OS.  One of the bones of the wrist.
  Lunaria rediviva.  Bulbonach of  the  Germane
Satin and honesty. It was formerly esteemed  as n
warm diuretic.
  LUNA'TICUS.   (From tuna the moon; so calle*
because the malady returns, or is aggravated, or infill
enced by the moon.)
  1. A lunatic.
  2. A disease whicli appears  to  be influenced by the
moon.
  LUNG.  Pulmo.  The lungs arc two viscera situated
in the chest, by means of which wo breathe.  The lung
in the right cavity of the  chest is divided into three
lobes, that in the left cavity into  two.   They hang In
the chest, attached at their superior part to the neck,
by  means of the trachea, and are separated by tin 
LUS
LYC
  mediastinum.  They are also attached to the heart by
  means of the pulmonary vessels.  The  substance of
  the  lungs is of four  kinds, viz. vesicular, vascular,
  bronchial, and parenchymatous.  The vesicular sub-
  stance is composed of the air-cells.  The vascular in-
  vests tliose  cells  like a net-work.  The  bronchial  is
  formed by the ramifications of the bronchia throughout
  the lungs, having the air-cells at their extremities ; and
  the spongy substance that connects these parts is termed
  the parenchyma.  The lungs are covered with a fine
  membrane,  a reflection  of tlie pleura, called pleura
  piilmonadis.   The  internal surface of the air-cells is
  covered  with a veiy fine, delicate, and sensible mem-
  brane, wliich is continued from the larnyx through the
  trachea and bronchia.   The arteries of  the lungs are
  the bronchial, a branch  of the  aorta, which carries
  blood to the  lungs for their nourishment;  and the pul-
  monary,  which circulates the blood through the air-
  cells to undergo a  certain change.  The pulmonary-
  veins return  the blood that has undergone this change,
  by four trunks, into the left auricle ofthe heart.   The
  bronchial veins terminate in the vena azygos.   The
  nerves of the lungs are from the eighth pair and  great
  intercostal.   The absorbents are of two  orders ; the
  superficial, and deep-seated: the former are more readily
  delected than the latter.  The glands of these viscera
 are called bronchial. They are muciparous, and situ-
 ated about the bronchia.  See Respiration.
   LUNG WORT.   Sec Pulmonaria officinalis.
   LUNULATUS.   Crescent-shaped,  or  half-moon-
 like: a term  applied to leaves, pods, Sec. which are so
 shaped, whether the points are  directed  towards the
 stalk, or from it; as in the leaves of Passifiora lunula,
 and legumen of Me die ago fvliata.
   LU'PlA.   (From Xvirtu, to molest.)
   1. A genus of disease, including encysted tumours,
 Ihe contents of  whicli are very thick, "and sometimes
 solid ; as  meliceris, atheroma, steatoma, and ganglion.
   2. (From lupus, a wolf: so called because il does not
 cease to destroy the part it seizes.) A malignant ulcer
 which eats  away the soft parts on which  it appears,
 laying bare  tbe bones  and cartilages, and which is
 equally fatal  with the cancer.
   LUP'INUS.  (So called by Pliny and other ancient
 writers.   Professor  Martin says the  word owes ils
 origin to Lupus, a wolf, because plants of this genus
 ravage the ground by overrunning it, after the manner
 of that animal. It is also derived from  Xvxq, grief:
 whence Virgil's epithet, tristes  lupini; from the fan-
 ciful idea of  its acrid juices, when tasted, producing a
 sorrowful appearance on the countenance.)  The name
 of a genus of plants.  Class, Diadelphia, Order, De-
 candria.
   2. Under this term tlie white  lupin  is  directed in
 some pharmacopoeias.
   Lupinus albus.   The systematic name ofthe white
 uipin.  The seed, tbe ordinary food of mankind in the
 days of Galen and Pliny, is now forgotten.  Its fari-
 naceous and bitter meal  is  occasionally exhibited to
 remove worms from tlie intestines, and made into poul-
 tices to resolve indolent tumours.
   LUPULIN.   Lupuline.  The  name given by Dr.
 Ives, of New  York, to an impalpable yellow powder, in
 wiiich he  believes  the virtue of tlie hop to reside, and
 which may be obtained by beating and sifting the hops
 used in brewing. It appears to be peculiar to the fe-
 male plant, and  is probably secreted by the nectaria.
 In preserving beer  from  the acetous fermentation, and
 in communicating  an agreeable flavour to it, lupulin
 was found to be equivalent to ten times its weight of
 hop leaves.
  LU'PULUS.  (From Auinj, dislike: so named from
 its bitterness.) See Humulus.
  LU'PUS.   1. The wolf, so named from its rapacity.
  2. The cancer is also so called, because it eats away
 the flesh like a wolf.
  Lurid*.  The name of an order of  plants in Lin-
 naeus's Fragments of a  Natural Method, consisting of
those  which  prove some  deadly poison;  the corolla
mostly monopetalous; as  Datura, Solanum, Nico-
tiana.
  Lustra'oo.  (From lustro, to  expiate:  so called
because it was used in the ancient purifications.)  Flat
or base vervain.
  LUSUS. A sport.
  Lusus NATUR.E.    A  sport of nature;  a monster.
See Monster
    LUTE.  See Lutum.
    Lu'tea corpora.  SeeCorpui lutaim.
    LUTE'OLA.  (Fromlutum, mud ;  because it gi >w«
  in muddy places, oris of the colour of mud.)   See
  Reseda lutcola.
    LU'TUM.    (From  Xvros,  soluble.)   Camentum
  Mud.  Lute.   A  composition with which  chemical
  vessels nre covered, to preserve them from the violence
  of the fire, and to close exactly their joinings to  each
  other, to retain thn substances which they contain
  when they are volatile and reduced to vapour.
    LUXATION.  (Luxaiio; from  luxo, to put out oi
  joint.)  A dislocation of a bone from its proper cavity.
    Lvca'nche.  (From Xvxas, a  wolf, and  ayx<*i to
  strangle.) A species of quincy, in which the patient
  makes a noise like the howling of a wolf.
    Lvcanthro'pia. (From Xvxos, a wolf, and avdpunos,
  a man.)  A species of insanity, in which the paliciila
  leave their houses in the night, and wander about like
  wolves, in unfrequented places.
    LYCHNIS.  (From Xvxvos, a  torch; because the
  ancients used  its  leaves rolled up  for torches.)   1. A
  name of several vegetable productions.
   2.  The name of a genus of plants.  Class, Dccan
  dria; Order,  Pentagynia.
   Lychnis segetum.  See Agrostcmma githago.
   l.YCHNOIDES.   (From lychnis, the name of  a
  plant, and tiios, resemblance.)  Like the herb lychnis
   Lychnoides  segetum.  See Agrostcmma githago
   LYCO'CTONUM. (FromAuiroc, a wolf, and xrcivu,
  to slay : so called  because it was ihe custom of hunt-
  ers to secrete  it in raw flesh, for the  purpose of de-
  stroying wolves.)  The Aconitum lycoctonum.
   L YCOPE'RDON.  (From Xvxos, a wolf, and zztpdi,
  to break wind: so named because it was supposed to
  spring from the dung of wolves.)   1.  The name  C:r  i
 genus of plants in the Linnaean system.  Class, Cryp-
  togamia ; Order, Fungi.
   2.  The pharmacopceial  name of the puff ball.  See
  Lycoperdon bovista.
   Lycoperdon bovista.   Tiia systematic name of
  Ihe puff-ball.  Crepitus lupi.  A round or egg-shaped
  fungus, the Lycoperdon ; eubrotundum, lacerato dchis-
 cens, of Linnaeus;  when fresh, of a white colour, wilh
 a very short,  or scarcely any pedicle,  growing in dry
 pasture grounds.  When young, it is sometimes cover-
 ed with  tubercles on the outside, and is pulpy within.
 By age it becomes smooth externally, and dries inter-
 nally into a very  fine, light, brownish dust,  which is
 used  by the common people to stop haemorrhages.  See
 Lycoperdon.
   Lycoperdon  tubiir. The systematic name of the
 truffle.  Tuber cibarium, of Dr. Withering.  A solid
 fungus of a globular figure, which  grows  under the
 surface of the ground without any roots or the access
 of light, and attains a  size from a pea to the largest
 potato.  It has a rough, blackish coat, and is destitute
 of fibres.  Cooks are well acquainted with its use and
 qualities.  It  is found in woods and pastures in some
 parts  of Kent,  but is not  very common in England.
 In France and Spain, truffles are very frequent,  and
 grow  to a much larger size  than they do here.  In these
 places the peasants find it worth their while to search
 for them, and they train up dogs and  swine for this
 purpose, who, after they have been inured  to their
 smell  by their masters frequently placing them in llieir
 way, will readily scrape them  up as they ramble the
 fields  and woods.
  LYCOPE'RSICUM.   (From Xvxos, a wolf, and
 irepotxov, a peach:  so called from its exciting a violent
 degree of lust.)   Lycopersicon.  WolFs peach.  Love
 apple.   See Solanum lycopersicon.
  LYCOPODIUM.  (From Xvxos,  a wolf, and irovs,
 a foot: so called from its supposed resemblance.)   ].
 The name of a genus of plants in the Linnaean sys-
 tem.  Class, Cryptogamia ; Order, Musci.
  2. The pharmacopceial name of the club-moss.  See
 Lycopodium clavatum.
  Lycopodium  clavatum.  The systematic name of
 the club-moss.  Wolfs claw. Muscus clavatus. This
 plant affords a great quantity of pollen, which  is much
 esteemed in some places to sprinkle on young children,
 to prevent, and in the curing parts which are fretting.
 A decoction of the herb is said to be a specific in  the
cure of the plica polonica.
  Lycopodium selago. The  systematic  name  of
the  upright club-moss.  Muscus ereetus. The decoc
                                        35 
LYM                                             LYM
tion  of this  plant acts violently as a vomit and a pui ■
cative, and was formerly on that account employed to
produce abortions.
  LYCO'PSIS.  (From Xixos, a  wolf, and oi//ij, an
aspect: so called from  its being  of the  colour of  a
wolf, or from the circumstance of the flowers being
lingent, and having the  appearance of" a grinning
Biouth.  The herbage is  also furnished, says Ambro-
t-'.nus, with a sort of rigid hairiness similar to the coat
of a  wolf.)  1. The nanieof a genus of plants.  Class,
Pentandria;  Order, Monogynia.
  2.  The pharniacopoeial  name of the Wall-bugloss,
Echium agypliacum, the Asperugo agyptiaca of VVil-
ifenow.
  LY'COPUS.  (From Xvxos, a wolf, and  novs,  a foot:
so named from its likeness.)  The name of a genus of
plants in  the  Linnaean  system.    Class, Dtandria;
Order, Monogynia.   VVolfs-elaw,  or  water hoar-
hound.
  Lycopus europeus. This plant is sometimes used
as an astringent.
  [Lycopus  virqinica.   See Bugle weed.  A.]
  Lydian stone.  A fliuty slate.
  Lygi'smus.  (From Xvyt^u,  to distort.) A disloca-
tion.
  Ly'gus.   (From XvyiC,u, to bend: so called from its
flexibility.)  The agnus castus.
  LYMPH.   Lympka.  The liquid  contained  in the
lymphatic vessels.  Two processes may be employed
to procure lymph.   One is to lay bare a lymphatic ves-
sel, divide it, and receive the liquid that flows from it;
but  this is a method difficult to execute, and besides,
as the lymphatic vessels  are not  always filled with
lymph, it is  uncertain : the other consists in letting an
animal fast during four or five days, and then extract-
ing the fluid contained in the thoracic duct.
  The liquid obtained in either way has at  first  a
blightly opaline rose colour.   It has a strong spermatic
odour; a  salt taste; it sometimes  presents a slight
yellow tinge, and at other  times a red madder colour.
  But lymph does not long remain liquid  ; it congeals.
Its rose colour becomes more deep, an immense num-
ber of reddish filaments are developed, irregularly ar-
borescent, and very  analogous in  appeaiance  to the
vessels spread in the tissue of organs.
  When we examine carefully the mass of lymph thus
coagulated, we find  it formed of two  parts;  the one
solid, and forming a great many cells, in which the
other remains in a liquid state. If the  solid part be
separated, the liquid congeals again.
  The quantity of lymph procured from one  animal
is but small;  a  dog of a large size scarcely yields an
ounce.  Ils quantity  appears to increase according to
the time of fasting.
  The solid part of the lymph, which may  be called
clot, has much analogy with that of the blood.   It be-
comes scarlet-red  by the contact of oxygen gas, and
purple when plunged in carbonic acid.
   This specific gravity of  lymph is to that of distilled
water as 1022-28:  100000.
  Chevreuil analyzed the lymph of the dog:
    norm,.............................»^.-
    Albumen,............................  610
    Muriate of Soda,.....................   6.1
    Carbonate of Soda,...................   18
    Phosphate of Lime,................. i
    Phosphate of Magnesia,............. >   0-5
    Carbonate of Lime.................)

             Total.......................10000

  lis  specific gravity is greater than water; incon-
sistence, it  is thin  and somewhat viscid.  The quan-
tity in the human body appeals to be very great, as the
system #f the lymphatic vessels forms no small  part
if it.   Its constituent principles appear  to be albumi-
nous  water and a little salt.  The lymphatic vessels
ubsorb this fluid from the tela cellulosa of the whole
body, from all the  viscera and the cavities of the vis-
cera ; and convey  it to the thoracic duct, to be mixed
with the chyle.
  The use of the lymph is to return  the superfluous
nutritious jelly from every part, and to mix it with the
chyle in the thoiacic duct, there to be further convert-
ed into the  nature  of the animal; and, lastly, it has
mixed with it the superfluous aqueous vapour, wliich
      36
is effused into the cavities of the cranium, thorax, »fr
domen, &c.
   LYMPHATIC.   (Lymphaticus;  lrom  lympha,
lymph.)  1. Of the nature of lymph.
  2. An absorbent vessel, that carries a transparent
fluid, or lymph.  The lymphatic vessels of the human
body are small and transparent, and originate in every
part of the body.   Wilh  the  lacteal vessels of the in-
testines, they form what is termed the absorbent sys-
tem.  Their termination is in the thoracic duct.  See
Absorbent, Lacteal, and Thoracic duct.'
  Lymphatics of the head and neck.—Absorbents are
found on the scalp and about the viscera of the neck
which unite into a  considerable branch, that accom
panies the jugular vein.   Absorbents have not been
detected in  the human  biain:  yet there can be no
doubt of there  being such vessels: it is probable that
they pass  out of the cranium  through the  canalis
caroticus and foramen lacerum in basi cranii, on each
side, and join the above jugular branch, which passes
through some glands as it proceeds into the chest to the
angle of the subclavian and jugular veins.
  The absorbents from the right side of the head and
neck, and  from  the right arm, do not run across the
neck, to unite wilh ihe great trunk of the system; they
have an equal opportunity of dropping their contents
into the angle between the right subclavian and the
jugular  vein.  These  vessels then uniting,  form  a
trunk, whicli is little more than an inch, nay, some-
times not a quarter of an inch, in length, but which has
nearly as great a diameter as the proper trunk of the
leftside.
  This vessel lies upon the right subclavian vein, and
receives a very considerable number of lymphatic ves-
sels ; not only does it receive the lymphatics from the
right side of the head, thyroid gland, neck, &c.  and the
lymphatics of the arm, but it leceives also those from
the right side of the thorax and diaphragm, from the
lungs of this side, and from the parts supplied by the
mammary artery.  Both in this and in the great trunk,
there are many valves.
   Of the upper extremities.—The absorbents of tlie
upper extremities are divided into superficial and deep-
seated.   The superficial absorbents ascend under the
skin of the hand in every direction to the wrist, from
whence a branch proceeds upon the posterior  surface
of  the fore-arm to the head of the  radius, over the
internal condyle of  the  humerus, up  to tlie axilla,
receiving several branches as it proceeds.  Another
branch proceeds from the wrist along the anterior part
of the fore-arm,  and forms a  net-work, with a branch
coming over the ulna from the posterior part,  and as-
cends on the inside of the humerus to the glands ofthe
axilla.    The deep seated absorbents  accompany the
larger blood-vessels, and pass through two glands about
the middle of the humerus, and ascend to the glands
of the axilla.  The superficial and deep-seated alisor
bents having passed through the axillary glands, form
two trunks, which unite  into one, to be inserted with
the jugular absorbents into the thoracic duct, at the
angle formed by the union of the subclavian with the
jugular  vein.
  Lymphatics of the inferior extremities.—These are
also superficial and deep-seated.  The superficial ones
lie  between  the skin and muscles.  Those of  the toes
and foot form a branch, which ascends upon the back
of the foot, over the tendon  of the cruraeus  amicus,
forms with other branches a plexus above the ankles,
then proceeds along tlie tibia over the knee, sometimes
passes through a gland, and proceeds up  the inside of
the thigh, to the subinguinal glands.   The deep-seated
absorbents follow the course  of the arteries,  and  ac
company tlie femoral artery, in wliich course they pass
through some glands in the leg and above  the knee,
and then  proceed to some   deep-seated subinguinal
glands.   The absorbents from about ihe external parts
of the pubes, as the penis and perineum, and from '.he
external parts of the pelvis, iu general, proceed to the
inguinal glands.   The subinguinal and inguinal glands
send forth several branches, which pass through the
abdominal ring into the cavity of the abdomen.
   Of the abdominal and  thoracic vicera.—The absor
bents of tlie lower extremities accompany the external
iliac artery, where they are joined by many branches
from the uterus, urinary bladder, spermatic chord, and
some branches accompanying the internal iliac artery;
they then  ascend to the sacrum, where they form a 
MAC                                            MAC
plexus, which proceeds over the psoas muscles, and
meeting with the lacteals of the mesentery, form the
thoracic duct, or trunk of the absorbents, which is of a
serpentine form, about the size of a crow-quill, and runs
up the dorsal vertebrae, through  the posterior opening
of the diaphragm, between the aorta and vena azygos,
to the angle formed by tlie union of* tlie left subclavian
and  jugular veins.   In this course  it receives:—the
absorbents of the kidnei/s, which are superficial and
deep-seated, and unite as they proceed towards the
thoracic duct: and the absorbents of tke spleen, which
are upon its peritoneal coat, nnd unite with those of
the pancreas:—a branch from  the plexus of vessels
passing above  and below the duodenum, and formed
by the absorbents of the stomach, whicli come from tlie
less  and  greater curvature, and aie uniled  about the
pylorus with those of the pancreas and liver, which
converge from the external surface and internal parts
towards  the porta; of  Ihe liver, and also  by several
branches from the gall-bladder.
  Use of lymphatics.—The office  of these vessels is
to take up substances which  are  applied  to  their
mouths;  thus the vapour of circumscribed cavities, and
of the cells of the cellular membrane, are  removed by
the lymphatics of those parts ;  and thus mercury and
other substances are taken into the system when rubbed
011 the skin.
  The principle by which  this absorption lakes place,
is a power  inherent in the mouths of absorbing vessels,
a vis insita, dependent on the high degree of irritability
of their internal membrane  by which the vessels con-
tract and propel the fluid forwards.  Hence the use of
this  f motion appears to be of the  utmost  importance,
viz. 11 supply the blood wilh chyle; to remove the su-
perfluous vapour of circumsbribed cavities, othe.wisc
dropsies, as hydrocephalus, hydrothorax, hydrocardia,
ascites, hydrocele, tc. would  constantly be taking
place: to remove tlie  su[icrfluous vapour from the cells
of the cellular-membrane dispersed throughout every
part of the body, lhat anasarca may not take place: to
remove the hard and soft parts of the body, and to
convey into the system medicines which are applied to
the surface of the body.
  Lymphatic  gla>:ds.  Glandula lymphatica.  See
 Conglobate gland.
       This letter has two significations.  When herbs,
    * flowers, chips, or such-like substances  are or-
dered in a prescription, and M. follows them, it signifies
manipulus, a  handful;  and when several ingredients
have been directed, it is a contraction of misce;  thus,
m.f. haust. signifies mix and let a draught be made.
  Maca'ndon.  (Indian.)  A tree growing in Malabar,
the fruit of which is roasted and eaten as a cure for
dysenteries, and in cholera  morbus,  and other  com-
plaints.
  Macapa'tli.  Sarsaparilla.
  Macaxocotli'fera.  Tbe name of  a tree in the
West Indies,  tlie fruit of which is sweet and laxative.
A decoction of the bark of this tree cures the itch, and
ihe powder thereof heal ulcers.
  MACBRIDE, David, was bom  in the county of
Antrim, of an ancient  Scotch family, in 1726.  After
serving his apprenticeship to a surgeon,  he went into
the navy, where he remained some years.   At this
period he was led to investigate particularly the treat-
ment of scurvy, upon which he  afterward published
a treatise.  After the peace of Aix-!a-Chapelle, he at-
tended the lectures in Edinburgh and London; and
about the end of 1749, settled in  Dublin  as a  surgeon
and accoucheur, but  his youth  and modesty greatly
retarded his  advancement  at first.   In 1764, he pub-
lished  his  Experimental Essays, whicli were every
where received with great applause; and the University
of Glaigow conferred on him a Doctor's degree.  For
several years after this he gave private lectures on
physic; whicfl he published in 1772: this work dis-
played great acuteness of observation, and verv nhilo-
  Lvpo'ma  See Lipoma.
  LY'RA.   (From  Awpa,  a  lyre,  or  musical  Instru-
ment.)   Psaiterium.  The triangular  medullary spacie
between  the iwslerior crura  of the fornix of the cere-
brum, which is marked with prominent  medullary
fibres that give ihe appearance of a lyre.
  LYRATl'S.   (From lyra, a musical  instrument.i
Lyrate or lyre-shaped.  A leaf is  so named whicli is
cut into transverse segments, generally longer toward*
the extremities of the leaf,  which is  rounded as in
Erysimum barbaria.
  I.y'rus.  (From lyra, the lyre: so called because i'h
leaves are divided like the strings of a lyre.)  See Ar
nica muntana.
  Lysiov'ia.   (From Xvu,  lo loosen,  and yvtov,  a
member.)  The relaxation of limbs.
  LYSIMA'CHIA.   (From Lysimackus,wlu, firstdis-
coveiedit.) The name of a geiiusof plant- in the Lite
naennsystem.  Class, Pentandria ;  Order, Mniiui'ijnii
  Lysimachia  numi laria.  The  systematic name nf
the money-wort.  Ni.mmularia; liirun-luinria. Cm-
limorbia.  Money -wort.  This plant is very common
in our ditches.  It was formei ly accounti d vulnerary ;
and was said to possess antiscorbutic and/-rt stringent
qualities.  Bocrhaavc looks upon it as similar  to n
mixture of scurvy-grnss will: sorrel.
  Lysimachia purpurea.  See l.ythrum salicaric.
  LYSSA.  (Avcoui rabies.)  The specific name  i i
Good's N< sology for hydrophobia.   Entasia lyssa.
  Lyssode'ctus.   (From Avffira, canine madness., :iad
iaxvvpt, to bite.)  One who  is mad in consequence of
having been bitten by a mad  animal.
  LYTHRODES.  See Scapolite.
  LY'TIIKI M.  (From Ai;0pov, blood: so called from
i;s  resemblance in  colour.)  The  name of a genus of
plaents  in the Linna-an system.  Class, Dodccandiia.
Order, Digijnia.
  Lythrum paLICaRIA. Lysimachia purpurea.  The
systematic name of the common or purple willow-herb.
The herb, root,  and flowers  possess a  considerable
degree of astringency, and are used medicinally in the
cure of diarrhoeas  and dysenteries,  fluor albus, and
haemoptysis.
   LYTTA.  (The  name of a genus  of insects.)  S'
 Cantharis.
sophical  views of pathology;  and contained a ne
arrangement of diseases, wliich appeared to Dr. Cullei:
of sufficient importance to be introduced intohissyste.i
of nosology.   His merit being thus displayed,  lie lo
into very extensive practice  indeed, he was so mmi
harassed, that he suffered for some time an almost totn
incapacity for sleep; when an accidental cold brotlgh
on high fever and delirium, which terminated his e .
istence towards the close of 1778.
  MACE.  See Myristica moschala.
  Macedonian parsley.  See Bubon mticcdonicum.
  Macedoni'sium semen.   See Smyrniitm oliisntriy,
  Ma'cer.  (From  masa, Hebrew.)  Ciecian  maivr
or mace.   The root which is imported from Barbary i-y
this name, and is supposed to be the slmarouba, and it
said to be anti-dysenteric.
  MACERA'TION.   (Maceratio;  from macero,  Vi
•often by water.)  In a pharmaceutical sense, this tor i
implies an infusion either with or without heat, whet r' n
the ingredients are intended to be  almost wholly dh
solved in order to extract their virtues.
  Macero'na.  See Smyrnium olitsatrnm.
  MAtn/E'RioN.  Maeharis.  The amputating km  '.-
  MACHA'ON.  The  proper  name  of nn aticiei
physician, said to be one of the sons of jEsculapius
whence some  authors hnve fancied to dignify thaii
own inventions with  his name, as particularly a col
lyrium, described by Scribonius, intituled, Asclepias
Machaonis; and hence ilso, medii me in general ia by
some called Ars Machaonia.
  MAriuNAME'.NTUM aristioms.   A. machine for re
duciug dislocation. 
MAG                                             MAG
   MA'CIES.  Emaciation.  See Atrophy and Tabes.
   MA'CIS.  Mace.  See Myristica.
   MAOKAREL.  This delicious fish is the Scomber
 scomber of Linnaeus.  When fresh it is of easy diges-
 tion, and very nutritious.  Pickled and salted, it be-
 comes hard and difficult for the stomach to manage.
   [The Scomber genus forms a family of fish, most of
 which are remarkable for their beauty and elegance, as
 well as for their qualities of being generally good food.
 The New-York markets are supplied wilh abundance
 of mackarel in their season.  There are eight species
 fi -quenting the ocean and waters adjacent to this city,
 a..d ihey are all eatable ; some of  them, however, are
 more abundant than others.   We  have the following,
 wz
        Scomber grex,
                vernalis,
                plumbeus,
                ductor,
                crysos,
                maculatus,
                 zonatos, and
                sarda.—A.]
   MACOUER, Joseph,  was born at Paris, in 1710,
 where he became doctor of medicine, professor of phar-
 macy, and censor royal.  He was  likewise a member
 of some foreign academies, and conducted the medi
 i al and chemical department of the Journal des Sea-
 vans.  He pursued chemistry, not so much with a view
 of multiplying pharmaceutical preparations,  as  had
 been mostly the case before, but, rather as a branch of
 natural philosophy ; and gained a considerable reputa-
 uon by publishing  several useful  and popular works
 on the subject.  The most laborious of these was a
 dictionary in two octavo volumes;  subsequently trans-
 lated  into English by Keir, with great improvements.
 lie published also " Formulae Medicamentorum Magis-
 lialium,"  and had  a share in the  composition of ihe
 ?.iaruiacopoeia Parisiensis of 1758.  His death occur-
 red in 1784.
   MACROCE'PHALUS.   (From paxpos, long, and
 xtQaXq, the head.)   The name of a whale fish.   See
 Piiyseler microcephalus.
   MACROPHYSOCE PHALUS.  (From ^aitpoc, long,
 Quais, nature, and xtqjaXn, the head, so called from the
 length of the head.)   One who has a head unnaturally
 L.ig and  large.  This word, according  to Turton, is
 oi.ly used by Ambrose Pare.
   MACRO'PIPER.  (From paxpos, long, and irtirtpt,
 pepper.)  See Piper longum.
   MACKOPNCE'A.  (From paxpos,  'ong, and -xvtu,
 to breathe.)   A difficulty  of breathing, where the in-
 spirations are at long intervals.
   MA'CULA.  A  spot, a permanent discoloration of
 some portion of  the skin, often with a  change of its
 texture, but not connected with any  disorder of  the
 constitution.
   Macula matricis.  A mother's mark.  SeeMavus
 n.'.itcrnus.
   MACULATUS.    Spotted: applied in botany  to
 senilis, petals, Sec as the stein of  the common hem-
 lock, Conium maculatum; the petals of the Digitalis
 purpurea.
   Mad-apple.  See Solanum mclongena.
   MADARO'SIS.   (From paios, bald, without  hair.)
 A defect or loss of eyebrows or eyelashes, causing a
 disagreeable deformity, and painful sensation  of  the
 ev es, in a  strong light.
   MADDER.  SeeRubia.
   MADNESS.  See Melancholia, and Mania.
   Madness, canine.   See Hydrophobia.
   MA'DOR.  Moisture.  A sweating.
   MADREPORA.   Madrepore.   1. A genus in natu-
 inl history, of Ihe class, Vermes; and order, Zoophyta.
 .'.n animal resembling a Medusa.
  2. A species of coral.   Il consists of carbonate  of
 lime, and  a little animal membraneous substance.
  MaGATTI, Ciesar, was born in 1579, in the dutchy
of Reggio. He distinguished himself by his early pro-
ficiency in philosophy and medicine at Bologna, where
he graduated in  his 18th year;  and  afterward went
to Rome.  Returning at last to his  native country,  he
eoon acquired so much repufation in his  profession,
that he was invited, as professor of surgery, to Ferrara;
end after greatly distinguishing himself in that  capa-
city, he was induced, during a severe  illness, to enter
Into the fraternity of Capuchins.    He still continued.
  however, to practise, and acquired the confidence of
  persons of the first rank, especially the duke of Modena
  But suffering severely from the stone,  he underwent an
  operation at Bologna in 1647,  which he did not long
  survive. He was author of a considerable improve-
  ment in the art of surgery, by his work entitled, " De
  rara Medicatione Vulncrum,"  condemning the  use or
  tents, and  recommending a simple,  easy method of
  dressing, without the irritation of frequently cleansing
  and rubbing the tender granulations:  and in an appen-
  dix he refutes  the notion of  gun-shot wounds  being
  envenomed, or attended with cauterization.  He after-
  ward published a defence of this work against some
 objections of Sennertus.
   Magda'leo.n.  (From paoau, to knead.)   A  mass
 of plaster, or other composition, reduced to a cylindri
 cal form.
   Maoella'nicus coRTnx.  See IVintera aromatica.
   MA'GISTERY. (Magisterium; from magister, a
 master.)  An obsolete term used by ancient chemists
 to signify a peculiar and secret method of preparing
 any medicine, as it were,  by a masterly process.  The
 term was also long applied to all precipitates.
   MAGISTRA'LIA.  (From magister, a master.) Ap-
 plied,  by way of eminence, to  such medicines as are
 extemporaneous, or in common use.
   Magistra'ntia. (From mugistro, to rule: so called,
 by way of eminence, as exceeding all others in virtue.)
 See Imperatoria.
   MA'GMA.    (From  paacru,  to  blend together.)
 Ecpiesma.  I. A thick ointment.
   2. The faeces of an ointment after the thinner parts
 are strained off.
   3. A confection.
   MA'GNES.   (From Magncs, its inventor.)   The
 magnet,  or  loadstone.   A muddy iron ore, in which
 the iron is modified in such a  manner as to afford a
 passage to a fluid called the magnetic fluid.  The mag-
 net exhibits  certain phenomena; it is known by its pro-
 perty of attracting steel filings, and is found in Au
 vergne, in Biscay, in Spain, in Sweden, and Siberia.
   Magnes arsenicalis.  Arsenical magnet.  It is a
 composition of equal parts of antimony, sulphur, and
 arsenic, mixed and melted together, so  as to become a
 glassy body.
   Magnes epilepsia.  An old and obsolete name of
 native cinnahar.
   MAGNESIA.  1. The ancient chemists gave this
 name to such substances as they conceived lo have the
 power of attracting any principle from the air.  Thus
 an earth which, on being exposed to the air, increased
 in weight, and yielded vitriol, they called magnesia
 vitriolata: and later chemists, observing in their  pro-
 cess for obtaining magnesia, that nitrous acid  was
 separated, and an  earth left behind, supposing it  had
 attracted the acid, called it magnesia nitri, which,
 from its colour, soon obtained the name of magnesia
 alba.
  2.  The name of one of the primitive earths, having
 a metallic basis, called magnesium.  It has been found
 native in the state of hydrate.
  Magnesia  may be obtained by pouring into a  solu-
 tion of its sulphate a solution of subcarbonate of soda,
 washing the precipiiate, drying it, and  exposing it to a
 red heat.  It is usually procured in commerce, by act-
 ing on  magnesian limestone wilh the impure muriate
 of magnesia, or bittern of  the sea-salt  manufactories.
 The muriatic acid  goes to  the lime, forming a soluble
 salt,  and leaves  behind the magnesia of both the bit-
 tern  and limestone. Or the bittern is  decomposed by
 a crude subcarbonate of ammonia, obtained from the
 distillation of bones in iron cylinders.   Muriate of am.
 monia  and  subcarbonate  of magnesia result.   The
 former is evaporated to dryness, mixed  with chalk, and
 sublimed.  Subcarbonate of ammonia  is thus recover-
 ed, with wliich a new quantity of bittern may be de-
 composed ; and  thus, iu  ceaseless repetition,  forming
 an elegant and economical process.  100 parts of crys-
 tallized Epsom salt, require for complete decomposition
56 of subcarbonate of potassa, or 44 dry subedrbo-
 nate of soda, and yield 16 of pure magnesia after cal-
cination.
  Magnesia  is a white, soft pow der.   lis sp. gr. is 2.3
by Kirwan.   It renders the  syrup of violets, and infu-
sion of red cabbage, green, and reddens turmeric.  Il
 is infusible, except by the hydroxvgen blow-pi|>c. It has
scarcely any  taste, and no smell   It is nearly insoluble 
MAG
MAG
Ji water; but it absorbs a quantity of that liquid wilh
the production of heat.  And when it is thrown down
from the sulphate by a caustic alkali,  it  is combined
Willi water constituting a  hydrate, which, however,
separates at a red heat.  It contains about one  fourth
its weight of water.
  When magnesia is exposed to the air, it very slowly
attracts carbonic acid.  It combines with sulphur, form-
ing a sulphuret.
  The metallic basis, or magnesium, may be obtain-
ed  in the state of amalgam with  mercury by electri-
zation.
  When magnesia is strongly heated in  contact with
2 volumes of chlorine, this  gas is absorbed, and 1  vo-
lume of oxygen is disengaged.  Hence it is evident that
there exists a combination of magnesium and chlorine,
or a true chloride. The salt called  muriate of mag-
nesia, is a compound of the chloride and water.  When
it is acted on by a strong heat, by far the greatest part
of the chlorine unites to the hydrogen of the water,
and rises in the form of muriatic acid gas; while the
oxygen  of  the  decomposed water  combines  with  the
magnesium to form magnesia.
  Magnesia is often associated with lime  in minerals,
and their perfect separation  becomes  an inteiesting
problem in analysis.
  Properties.   Pure magnesia does not form with
water an adhesive ductile mass.   It is in  the form of
a very white spongy powder, soft to the touch, and
perfectly tasteless.  It is very slightly  soluble in water.
It absorbs carbonic acid gradually from the atmosphere.
It changes very delicate blue vegetable colours to green.
Its attraction to the acids is weaker than  those of the
alkalies.   Ils salts are partially decomposed by ammo-
nia, one part of the magnesia being precipitated, and
the otlier forming a triple compound.  Iu  specific gra-
vity is about 2.3.   It is infusible even by  the most in-
tense heat; but when mixed with some  of the other
earths it becomes fusible.  It combines with sulphur.
It  does  not  unite to phosphorus or carbon.  It is not
dissolved by alkalies in the humid way.  When heated
strongly, it becomes phosphorescent.   With the dense
acids it  becomes ignited.  With all the acids it forms
salts of a bitter taste, mostly very soluble.
  The magnesia of the present London Pharmacopoeia
was formerly called Magnesia calcinata; usta ; pura.
It is directed to be made thus:—Take of carbonate of
magnesia, four ounces; burn il in a very strong fire,
for two hours,  or until acetic acid being dropped in,
extricates no bubbles of gas.  It is given as an absorb-
ent, antacid, and eccoprotic, in cardialgia,  spasms, con-
vulsions, and tormina of the bowels of infants; pyro-
sis, flatulencies, and otlier diseases  of the primae viae;
obstipation, leucorrhoea, rickets, scrofula, crusta lactea,
and podagra.  The dose is from half  a  drachm to  a
drachm.
  Magnesia calcinata. See Magnesia.
  Magnesia, hydrate of.   A mineral found in New-
Jersey, consisting of magnesia and  water.
  [" The structure of this new and  interesting mineral
Is very  distinctly  foliated;  and the  folia? frequently
radiate  from a centre.  Their lustre is more or less
shining and pearly; and they are somewhat.elastic.
  The laniinie  when separate are transparent;  in the
mass only semi-transparent;  and by exposure to the
weather, their surface becomes dull and opaque.
  It is soft, and may be scratched by the finger nail,
like talc.  It slightly adheres to the tongue; and its
sp.  gr. is 2.13.  Its colour is white, often tiuged with
green; its powder is a pure white.
  It becomes opaque and friable before the blow-pipe,
and its weight is diminished.  In diluted sulphuric acid,
it nearly dissolves without  effervescence,  and yields  a
limpid solution extremely bitter to the taste.   Accord-
ing to Prof. Bruce, to whom we  are indebted for  a
knowledge of  this mineral,  it is  composed of pure
magnesia 70, water 30.
  It is sufficiently distinguished from talc by its solu-
bility a acids.                        ...
  It is found at Hoboken, New-Jersey, in veins, a few-
lines to  two inches in thickness; they traverse serpen-
tine in  various directions,  and, near the  sides of the
veins the serpentine is sometimes intermixed with the
foliae of the magnesia."—Cleav. Min.
  Specimens of this hydrate, or native magnesia, have
also been found in the veins of the  serpentine at Hobo-
ken, and on Staten Island,  in a pulverulent form-and
when collected has the appearance of the magnesia
alba of the shops, a specimen of which is in  my pos-
session.  A.]
  Magnesia usta.  See Magnesia.'.
  Magnesia vitriolata.   See Magnesia sulphas.
  Magnesia; suhcarbonas. .1/ugiicsiacarbonas;Mag-
nesia alba.  Subcarbonate of Magnesia.  The London
College direct it to be made as  follows;—Take of sul-
phate of magnesia, a pound ; subcarbonate of potassa,
nine ounces; water, three gallons.  Dissolve  the sub
carbonate of potassa in three pints of the water,  nnd
strain; dissolve also the sulphate of magnesia separately
in five pints of the water, and strain; ihen add the  rest
of the water to this lalter  solution, apply heat,  and
when it boils, pour in the former solution, stirring them
well  together; next, strain through a  linen e'oih;
lastly, wash the powder repealedly with boiling w titer,
and dry it upon bibulous paper, in a heat of 200°.  It
is in form of very fine powder, considerably resembling
flour in its appearance nnd feel;  it has no sensible
taste on the tongue;  it gives a faint greenish colour tu
the tincture of  violets, und converts turnsole to a blue.
It is employed medicinally  as an absoibent,  antacid,
and purgative, in doses from half  a drachm to twu
drachms.
  Maunesi.e sulphas.  Sulphas magnesia;  Sulphas
magnesia purificata;  Magnesia  vitriolata; Sal ca-
tharticus  amarus.   Sal calharticuni amarum.  Sul-
phate of magnesia.  Epsom salt.   Bitter purging salt.
  The sulphate of" magnesia exists in several minora.
springs, and in sea-water.
  Il is  from these saline solutions that  the salt is ob-
tained ; the method generally adopted for obtaining it
is evaporation, which causes the salt to crystallize in
tetrahedral prisms.  It  has a very bitter taste, and is
soluble in its own weight of water at 60°, and  in three-
fourths of its weight of boiling water.   Sulphate of
magnesia,  when  perfectly pure, effloresces;  but that
of commerce generally contains foreign salts, such as
the muriate of magnesia, which renders it so deliques-
cent, that it must be kept in a close vessel or  bladder.
By tlie action of heat it undergoes the  watery fusion,
and loses its water of crystallization, but does not part
with its acid.   One hundred parts of crystallized  sul-
phate of magnesia consist of 29.35 pans of" acid, 17 of
earth, and 53.65 of water.  The alkalies, stronlian,
barytes, and all  the salts formed by these salifiable
bases, excepting the alkaline muriates, decompose sul-
phate  of magnesia.  It  is  also decomposed by  the
nitrate, carbonate, and muriate of lime.
  Epsom salt is a mild and gentle  purgative, operating
with suflicient efficacy, and in general  with ease and
safety,  rarely occasioning any gripes, or the other in-
conveniences  of  resinous  purgatives.   Six  or eight
drachms may be dissolved in a proper quantity of com-
mon water; or four, five, or more in a pint or quart of
the purging  mineral  waters.  These solutions  may
likewise be so managed, in small doses, as to produce
evacuation from the otlier einunctories; if the patient
he  kept warm, they increase  perspiration,  and  by-
moderate exercise in  the cool air, the urinary  dis-
charge. Some allege lhat this salt has a peculiar effect
in allaying pain, as  in colic, even independently of
evacuation.
  It is, however, principally used for the preparation
ofthe subcarbonate of magnesia.
  [Magnesian limestone.   This is a magnesian  car-
bonate  of lime,  of  which  there  are  two varieties;
common magnesian  limestone, or bitter-spar, and do-
lomite ; both of which have been found in abundance
in Pennsylvania,  New-York, and  Connecticut.  Some
of the quarries supplying this limestone may hereafter
become important iu the manufacture of Epsom salts,
or sulphate of magnesia.  A.]
  MAGNESITE. A yellowish gray or white mineral,
composed of magnesia, carbonic acid, alumina, a ferru-
ginous manganese, lime, and water, found in serpentine
rocks, in Moravia.
  MAGNESIUM.  The metallic basis of magnesia.
See Magnesia.
  MAGNET.  See Magnes.
  MAGNETISM.  The property which iron possesses
of  attracting or repelling other iron, according to cir-
cumstances, that is, similar poles of magnets repel, bui
opposite poles attract each otlier.
  Magnetism, animal.  A sympathy lately supposed,
i bv some persons, to exist between Ihe magnet and the
                                           39 
                       MAL

 human body; by means of wlux  die former became
 capable of curing many diseases in an unknown way,
 somewhat resembling the performances of the old ma-
 gicians.  Animal magnetism is now entirely exploded.
  Magnum os.  The third bone of the lower row of
 bones of Ihe carpus, reckoning from the thumb towards
 the little finger.
  MAGNUS.  The term is applied to parts from their
 relative size; and to  diseases and remedies from their
 importance; as magnum os, magnus morbus, magnum
 da donum, Sec
  Magnum dei donum.  So Dr. Mead calls the Peru-
 vian bark.
  Magnus mordus.  The great disease.  So Hippo-
 crates calls the epilepsy.
  Maoy'daris.  The root of the laserwort.
  Mahagoni.  See Swietenia.
  Maiialkb. A species of Prunus.
  Mahmou'dy.  Scammonium.
  MAIDENHAIR.  See Adianthum.
  Maidenhair, Canada.  See Adianthum pedatum.
  Maidenhair, common.  See Asplenium trichomancs.
  Maidenhair, English.  See Adianthum.
  Maidenhair, golden.  See Polytrichum.
  Maidenhair-tree. Ginan itsio. The Ginkobiloba.
 In China and Japan, where  this tree grows, the fruit
 acquires the size of a damask plumb, and contains a
 kernel  resembling that of our apricot.  These kernels
 always make part of the desert  at all public feasts and
 entertainments.  They are said to  promote digestion,
 and to cleanse the stomach and  bowels.  The oil is
 used at the table.
  Majanthemum.  See Convallaria majalis.
  MAJORA'NA.   (Quodmense Maiofioreat, because
 it flowers in  May.)   See Origanum majoruna.
  Majorana syriaca.  See Teucrium marum.
  MA'LA.  (From malus, an apple: so called from Its
 roundness.)  A prominent  part of the cheek.  See
 Jug ale os.
  Mala -kthiopica. A species of love-apple.  See
 Solanum lycopersicum.
  Mala Assyria.  The citron.
  Mala aurantia.  See Citrus aurantium.
  Mala cotonea.  The quince.
  Mala insana nigra.   See Solanum mclongena.
  Malabar plum.  See Eugenia jambos^
  Malabathri oleum.  Oil of cassia.
  Malaba'thrinum.  (From   paXaffaQpov,  malaba-
 rhrum.) Ointment of malabathrum. It is compounded
 of myrrh,  spikenard, malabathrum, and ninny other
 aromatic ingredients.
  Malaba'thrum.  (MaXa6a9pov: from Malabar, in
 India, whence it was brought, and btlre, a leaf, Ind.)
 See Laurus  cassia.
  Ma'laca radix.  See Sagittaria alexipharmaca.
  Malacca bean.   See Aviccnnia tomentosa.
  Ma'lache. (Malache, es. f.; from paXaxos, soft: so
 called from the softness of its leaf.)  The mallow. See
 Main a.
  MALACHITE.   (From paXaxn, the mallow: from
its resemblance in colour to the mallow.)  Mountain
 blue, a carbonate of copper ore found in Siberia.
  MALACHOLITE.  See Sahlite.
  Mala'cta.  (From uaAax<ov, a ravenous fish.)  De-
 praved appetite, when such things are coveted as are
 not proper for food.  See Pica.
  MALACO'STEON. (From paXaxos, soft, and o^tor,
  bone.)  A softness of the bones.  Mollities ossium.
 A disease ofthe bones, wherein they can be bent with-
 out fracturing them, in consequence cither of the inor-
 dinate absorption of the phosphate of lime, from which
 their natural solidity is derived, or else of this matter
 not being duly secreted  and deposited  in their fabric.
 In rickets, the bones only yield  and become distorted
 Ay slow degrees;  but in  the present disease they may
 be at once bent in any direction. The mollifies ossium
 e rare, and  Its causes not well understood.  All the
cases of mollities ossium yet on record  have proved
fatal, and no means of cure are yet known. On dissec
lion of those who  have died, all the bones, except the
teeth, have been found unusually fcoft, so  that scarcely
any of them  could resist the knife, the periosteum  has
be»n found thicker  than usual, and the bones hnvc
 been found to contain a great quantity of oily matter
and little earth.
  Mala'ctica.  (From  paXaaau,  to soften )  Emol-
lient medicines.
     40
                       MAL

    Malagfue 'tta.  G rains of paradise.
    Malaguetta. Grains of paradise.
    MALA'GMA.  (From paXaoou, to soften }  A poaJ
  tice.
    Malamiris.   A species of Piper.
    MALA'RIA.  The name in Italy of an endemic in-
  termittent, which attacks people in the neighbourhood
  of Rome, and especially about the Pontine marshes,
  which have often been drained to carry off the decom-
  posing animal and vegetable materials that spread their
  Aria  cattiva, as  it is called, over the whole ofthe cam-
  pagna.
    [The Malaria of Rome is  an  infected atmosphere
  arising from marsh-miasmata, producing an endemic
  disease.  We have, in the United  States,  many similar
  instances of malaria producing also local and endemic
  diseases.  The Pontine marshes in the neighbourhood
  of Rome are very extensive, and infect the atmosphere
  over  a large tract of  country. Lancisi  has ably de-
  scribed the condition and effects of the marsh-miasma
  of Rome, in his work De  noxiis paludum effluviis.
  The Malaria returns annually  during the height of the
  warm season, and is destroyed with the  approach  of
  winter, producing in this country what we call a sea-
  sonable disease.   The term marsh-miasma, has become
  rather unfashionable,  as perhaps its  meaning is  too
  indefinite, but it is nut  more so than Malaria.  In fact,
  they both mean  the same thing, or the same state of
  the atmosphere, both producing seasonable, and local
  or endemic diseases.   One is an Italian word, meaning
  bad air, or a sickening state of the atmosphere.   Mias
  ma is a Greek word, from piatvu, to infect, importing
  a polluted, corrupted, or infected  stale  of the atmos
  phere. A.]
   Malari h ossa.  See Jugate os.
   MA'LATE.  Malas.  A salt formed  by the union
  of the malic  u  d, or  acid of apples wilh salifiable
  bases  ; thus mniate of copper^ malale of lead, Sec
   Ma'le.  The arm-pit.
   Male fern. See Folypodium filix mas.
   Male orchis. See  Orchis mascula.
   Male speedwell.  See Veronica  officinalis.
   MALIC ACID. Acidum malicum. This acid is ob-
  tained by saturating the juice of apples with  alkali,
  and pouring in  the acetous solution of lead,  until it
  occasions no more precipitate.  The precipitate is then
  to be edulcorated and sulphuric acid poured on  it,
  until the liquor has acquired a fresh acid taste,  with
  out any mixture  of sweetness.  The whole is  then to
  be filtered, to separate  the sulphate of lead.  The fil-
 tered  liquor is the malic acid, which is very  pure,
 remains always in a fluid state, and cannot be rendered
 concrete.  See Sorbic acid.
  _ MALIASMl'S. (From pdXts, cutaneous vermina
 tion.)  Breeding animalcules on the skin, as the louse,
 flea, tick, &c.
   MALIGNANT.   (Malignus;  from  mains.)   A
 term which may be applied to  any disease, the symp
 tonis of which are so aggravated as  to  threaten the
 destruction of the patient.  It is frequently used to sig
 nify a dangerous epidemic.
   Malignant fever.  See Typhus.
   Malignant sore throat.  Sec Cynanche maligna.
   M.VL1S.   (MaAis, and paXtaapos, are Gleet   iouns
 composing cutaneous vermination.)  The nan e of a
 genus of diseases in Good's Nosology. Class, Ec.-nica
 Order, Acrotica.  Cutaneous vermination. It L'js six
 species, vix. Malis pediculi ; pulicis ; acari; filaria.,
 astri; gordii.
   MALLEABILITY.   (Malleabilitas; from malleus,
 a hammer.)  The property which  several metals pos-
 sess of being extended under the hammer into thin
 plates, without cracking. The thin leaves of silver
 and gold  arc the best  examples of malleability.  See
 Ductility.
   Malleamothe.  Pavettc;  Paratc; Erysipelas cu
 rans arbor.  A shrub wliich grows in Malabar.  The
 leaves, boiled in palm oil, cure the impetigo; tlie root,
 powdered and mixed with ginger,  Is diuretic.
   MALLEATIO. A species of St. Vitus's dance,  iu
 w f.ich the person has  a convulsive action of one  or
 both hands, which strike the knee like n hammer
   Mallei anterior.   See Laxator tympani.
   Mallei externus.   See Laxator tympani.
   Mallei internus.  See Tensor tympani.
   MALLEOLUS.   (Dim.  of malleus,  a mallet: so
i called  from  its supposed resemblance to a mallet.) 
MAL                                            MAL
 The ankie, distinguished into external and internal, or
 malleolus externus and internus.
   MA LLEUS. (Malleus quasi molleus; from mollio,
 to soften;  a hammer.)  A bone of the  internal ear is
 so tetmed  from its resemblance.   It is distinguished
 into a  head,  neck, and manubrium.   The  head  is
 round,  and incrusted  with a thin cartilage, and an-
 nexed to another bone of the  ear, the incus, by gingly-
 mus.  Its  neck is  narrow, and situated between the
 head and  manubrium, or handle; from which a long
 slender process arises, adheres to a furrow in the au-
 ditory canal, and is continued as  far as the fissure in
 the  articular cavity of the temporal bone. The ma-
 nubrium is terminated by an enlarged extremity, and
 connected  to the membrana tympani by a short conoid
 process.
   .MALLOW.   See Malva.
   Mallow, rdXnd-learcd.   See Malva rotundifolia.
   Mallow, vervain.  See Malva alcea.
  Malograna'ti-m.   vFrom malum, an  apple, and
 granum, a grain : so named from ils grain-like seeds.)
 The pomegranate.
  MALPIGHI,  Marcello, was born near Bologna,
 in 1628.   He went  through  his  preliminary studies
 with great  eclat, and especially distinguished  himself
 by his  zealous  pursuit of anatomy. His merit pro-
 cured him, in  1653, the degree of doctor in medicine,
 and, three years after, the appointment of professor of
 physic,  at  Bologna; but he * as soou invited  to Pisa,
 by the Grand Duke ol"Tuscany.  However, the air of
 this place injuring his health,  which was naturally de-
 licate, he was obliged, in 1659, to return to his office at
 Bologna.   Three years after, he was tempted by the
 magistrates of Messina to accept the medical  profes-
 sorship  there;  but his little  deference to ancient au-
 thorities involved  him in controversies with  his col-
 leagues, which forced him to return  again to Bologna,
 in 1666.  His reputation  rapidly extended  throughout
 Europe, as a  philosophical  inquirer,  and  lie was
 chosen  a member  of the Royal Society of London,
 which  afterward printed his works at  their own ex-
 pense.  In 1691, Pope Innocent XII., on his election,
 chose Malpighi for his chief  physician  and chamber-
 lain, when he  removed to Rome;  but, three  years
 after, he was carried off by an apoplectic stroke.  He
 joined,  with an indefatigable  pursuit of knowledge, a
 remarkable degieeof candour and modesty; and ranks
 very high among the philosophers of the physiological
 age in which he lived.  He was the first to employ the
 microscope in examining the circulation of the blood;
 and  the same instrument  assisted him in exploring the
 minute  structure of various organs, as is evident from
 his first  publication on the lungs, in 1661; and this was
 followed by successive treatises on  many other parts.
 In 1669, his essay, " De Formationc Pulli in Ovo,"
 was  printed at  London, with  his remarks on the silk-
 worm, and on the conglobate  glands: much light was
 thrown  by  these investigations on the obscure subject
 of generation,  and other  important  points of physio-
 logy.  He was  thence led to  the consideration of the
 structure and functions of plants, and evinced himself
 an original, as well a3 a very profound observer.  His
 "Anatome Plantarum" was  published  Ly The Royal
 Society, in  1675 and 1679, with some observations on
 the incubation  of  the  egg.  His only medical work,
 "Consultatiorum Medicinalium Centuria Prima," did
 not appear till  1713: be was not distinguished  as a
 practitioner, but deserves praise for pointing out the
 mischief of bleeding,  in the malignant  epidemics
 which prevailed in Italy in his time.
  MALPI'GHIA.  (So named in honour of Malpighi,
 the celebrated vegetable anatomist.)  The name of a
 genus of plants in the Linnaean system.   Class, De-
 candria; Order, Trigynia.
  Malpighia  olabra.   The systematic name  of a
 tree which  affords an esculent cherry.
  MALT.  Grain which  has  become sweet, from the
 conversion of its starch into sugar, by an incipient
growth  or  germination,  artificially  induced, called
malting
  Ma'ltha.  (From paXaoau, to soften.)  Maltha-
 icdes. 1. A medicine softened and tempered with wax.
  2. The name  of  the mineral tallow of Kir-ran,
which resembles wax, and is said to have been found
on the coast of Finland.
  Maltha'ctica. (From paXdaxt^u, to soften.)  Emol-
lient medicines
   Maltheorum.  Common salt
   MALUM.  1.  A disease.
  2. An apple.
   Malum mortuum.   A disease that appears in tna
form of a  pustule, which soon forms a dry,  brown,
hard, and  broad crust.  It is seldom attended  with
pain, and remains fixed for a long time before it can
be detached.  It is mostly observed on the tibia and os
coccygis, and sometimes the face.
   M vlcm pilare.  See Plica.
   MA'LUS.  See Pyrus malus.
   Mai.us indica.   Bilumbi biting-Hug, of Bontius.
The Malus indica—fructu pentagono, of Europeans.
It is carefully cultivated in the gardens ofthe East In-
dies, where it flowers throughout the year.  The juice
of the root is cooling, and drank as n cure for fevers
The leaves, boiled and made into n cataplasm with
rice, are famed in all sorts of tumours, and the  juice
of the fruit is used in almost all external heats, dipping
linen rags in it, and applying them to ihe parts.  It is
drank, mixed with arrack, to cure diarrhoeas; and the
dried leaves, mixed with  betel leaves, and given in
arrack, are said to promote delivery.  The ripe fruil in
eaten as a delicacy, and the unripe made into a pickle
for the use ofthe table.
   MALVA.   (Malva quasi molva; from mollis, soft:
named from the softness of its leaves.)   1.  The name
of a genus of plants in the Linnaean system.  Clas*,
Monadelphia; Order, Polyandria.
  2. The pharmacopceial  name of the common mal-
low  See Malva sylvestris.
   Malva  alcea.  Malva  vcrbenaca.  The vervain
mallow.  This plant is distinguished from the common
mallow by its leaves being jagged, or cut in about the
edges. It agrees in virtues with the other mallows,
but it is the least mucilaginous of any.   This, like to
the other mallows, abounds with u  mucilage, and is
good for pecioral drinks.
   Malva arborea.  See Alcea rosea.
   Malva  rotundifolia. Round-leaved mallow. The
whole herb and root possess similar virtues lo the com-
mon mallow.  See Malva sylvestris.
   Malva sylvestris.   The systematic name of the
common mallow.  Malva  vulgaris;  Malva—cairie
erecto herbaceo, foliis septemlobatis cculis, pedunculis
petiolisque pilosis.  This  indigenous  plant has  n
strong affinity to the althaea, both in a  botanical and
a  medical respect.  See  Althaa.   The leaves and
flowers  are principally used in fomentations, cata-
plasms,  and emollient enemas.  The internal use of
the leaves seems to be wholly superseded by the radix
althaea.
  Malva verbenaca.  See Malva alcea.
  Malva vulgaris.  Sec  Malva sylvestris.
  Malvavi'scus.   (From  malva, the  mallow, and
viscus, glue:  so named from its viscidity.) See Al-
thaa officinalis.
  MALVERN.   The village of Great  Malvern has,
for many years, been celebrated for a spring of re-
markable purity, whicli has acquired the name of the
holy well, from the reputed sanctity of ils waters, and
the real  and extensive benefit long derived in various
cases from ils use.
  The holy well  water, when  first drawn, appears
quite clear and pellucid, and does not become sensibly
turbid on  standing.  It  possesses  somewhat of an
agreeable pungency to the taste; but this is not consi
derable.   In other respects it does uot  differ in tasu
from pure good water.
  The contents of Malvern holy well are:—some car
bonic acid,  which is in an  uncombined state, capabli
of acting upon iron, and of giving a  little taste to th«
water; but the exact quantity of which has not beer
ascertained:—a very small portion  of  earth, eilhei
lime or magnesia, united with  the carbonic and  ma
rine acids;  perhaps a little neutral  alkaline salt, and
a very large  proportion of water:—for we may  add
that, the carbonic acid perhaps excepted, the foreign
matter is less than that of any spring-water which we
use.  No iron or metal of any kind is found in it,
though there are chalybeates in the neighbourhood.
  It  is singular that, notwithstanding  its apparent
purity, this waler  is said not to keep well, and soon
acquires a foetid smell, by standing in open vessels.
  Malvern water,  like ninny others, was at first  only
employed as an external application;  and this, indeed
is still its principal use, though it is extended, with 
MAM
MAN
 some advantage, to a few internal diseases.  It has
 been found highly efficacious  in painful and deep ul-
 cerations, the consequence of a scrofulous habit of
 body, and which are always attended with much local
 irritation, and often general fever.  Applied to the sore,
 it moderates the profuseness of the discharge, corrects
 the foetor, which so  peculiarly marks a caries  of the
 bone, promotes the granulating process, and a salutary
 exfoliation of the carious  part; and by a  long perse-
 verance in  this course, very dangerous and obstinate
 cases have at last been cured. Inflammation  of the
 eye, especially the ophthalmia, which is  so trouble-
 some in  scrofulous habits, often  yields to  this  simple
 application, and we find, that, for a great number of
 years, persons afflicted with sore eyes have been in the
 habit of resorting to Malvern holy well.  Another order
 of external  diseases, for which this water  is greatly
 celebrated, is cutaneous eruptions; even those obsti-
 nate cases of dry desquamations, that  frequently fol-
 low a sudden application of cold iu irritable  habits,
 are often cured by ihis remedy.  Where the skin is hot
 and dry, it remarkably relieves the intolerable itching
 of herpetic disorders, and renders the  surface  of the
 body more cool and perspirable.  It appears, however,
 from a nice observation of Dr. Wall, that this method
 of treatment is not  so successful  in  the cutaneous
 eruptions of very lax leucophlegmatic  habits,  where
 the extremities are cold and the circulation languid;
but that it succeeds best where there is  unusual irrita-
 tion of the skin, and where it is apt to break in painful
 fissures, that ooze out a watery acrid  lymph. On the
first application of this water to an inflamed surface, it
will often, for a time, increase  the pain  and irritation,
but these effects go off in a few days.
  The great benefit arising from using Malvern waters
 as an external remedy, in diseases of the skin and sur-
 face of the  body, has led  to its employment in some
 internal "disorders, and often with considerable advan-
 tage.  Of these, the most important are painful affec-
 tions of the kidneys and  bladder, attended  with the
discharge of bloody, purulent, or foetid urine, the hectic
 fever, produced by scrofulous ulceration of the lungs,
or very extensive and irritating sores on  the surface of
 tlie body, and also fistulas of long standing, that have
 been neglected, and have become constant and trouble-
some sores.
  The Malvern water is in general a perfectly safe ap-
 plication, and may be used with the utmost freedom,
 both as an external dressing for sores, and as a common
drink.
  The internal  use of Malvern waters is  sometimes
attended  at  first wilh a slight nausea,  and not unfre-
quently, for the first day or two,  it occasions some
degree of drowsiness, vertigo, or slight pain ofthe head,
which comes on a few minutes after drinking it.  These
 symptoms go off spontaneously, after a few days, or
 may readily  be removed  by a mild purgative.  The
 effects of this water on the bowels are not  at all con-
 stant ; frequently it purges briskly for  a  few days, but
 it is not uncommon for the body to be rendered costive
 by its use, especially, as Dr. Wall observes, with those
 who are  accustomed to malt liquors.   In all cases, it
 decidedly increases the flow of urine,  and the general
 health of the  patient.  The duration of a course of
 Malvern  waters must vaiy very considerably on ac-
 count of the different kinds of disease for  which  this
 spring is resorted to.
  Mamk'i.   The mammoe,  momin,  or  toddy-tree.
 This tree is found in different parts of the West Indies,
 but tliose on the Island of  Hispaniola are the best.
 From incisions made in the  branches,  a copious dis-
 charge of pellucid liquor is  obtained, which is called
 momin, or toddy-wine. It must be drank very sparingly,
 because of its very diuretic quality.  It  is esteemed as
 an effectual preservative from  the stone, as also a sol-
 vent of it when generated.  Tliere are two species.
  MAMI'LLA.  (Diminutive of mamma, the breast.)
 I. The breast of man.
  2.  The nipple of the male and female breasts.
  Mami'ra.  It is said, by Paulus .rEgineta, to be the
 root of a plant which  is of a detergent quality.  Some
 think it  is the root of  the  doionicani; but what it
 really is cannot be ascertained.
  MA'MMA.  See Breast.
  M A'MMARY.  Belonging to the breast.
  Mammary artbry.  Arteria mammillans.   The
 siternal mamillary artery is a branch of the subclavian,
      42
 and gives off the mediastinal, thymal, and pericardial
 arteries.  The external mammary is a branch of the
 axillary artery.
  Mammary vein.   Vena mamillaris.  These vessels-
 accompany the arteries, and evacuate  their blood intc
 the subclavian vein.
  MAMMEA.  (So called from its vernacular appella
 tion in the West Indies, mamei, and allowed by Lin
 naeus, because of its affinity to mamma, a breast, allud-
 ing to the shape of its fruit.)   The  name  of a genus
 of plants.  Class, Polyandria; Order Monogynia.
  Mammea  americana.  The systematic name of a
 tree, which aflbrds a delicious fruit called mammea.   It
 has  a very  grateful flavour when ripe, and is much
 cultivated in Jamaica, where it is generally sold in the
 markets for one of the best fruits ofthe island.
  MAN.  Homo.  Man is compounded of solids, fluids,
 a vital  principle, and, what distinguishes  him from
 every other animal, a soul.   See Animal.
  Ma'ncoron.   According  to  Oribasius, a  kind of
 sugar found  in a sort of cane.
  Mancura'na.  See  Origanum vulgare.
  MANDI'BULA.   (From  mando,  to  chew.)  The
jaw.  See Maxilla inferior.
  MANDRAGORA.    (From  r;avipa, a  den, and
ayttpu, to collect;  because it grows  about caves and
dens of beasts;  or from  the  German  man  dragen,
bearing man.)  See Atropa mandragora.
  Mandragori'tes.   (From  pavipayopa, the man-
drake.)  Wine, in which the roots of the male man.
drake are infused.
  MANDRAKE.   See Atropa mandragora.
  MANDUCA'TOR.   (From manduco, to chew ,  A
muscle wliich assists in the action of chewing.
  Ma'noa.  (Indian.)  The  mango-tree.
  MANGANESE.  This  metallic substance  seems
after iron, to be the  most frequently  diffused meia
through the  earth;  its ores are very common.  As  a
peculiar metal, it was first noticed by Gahn aud Schceie,
in the years 1774 and 1777.  It is always found in the
state of an oxide, varying in the degree of oxidisement.
 La Peyrouse  affirmed that he had found manganese in
 a metallic stale; but there was probably some mistake
 in his  observation.  The ores are distinguished into
gray oxide of manganese, black oxide  of manganese,
reddish white oxide of manganese, and carbonate of man-
ganese. All  these combinations have  an earthy tex-
ture ;  they are very  ponderous; they occur both amor-
phous and crystallized; and generally contain a largo
quantity of  iron.   Their colour is  black,  blackish-
brown, or gray, seldom white.  They soil the fingers
like soot.  They are sometimes crystallized in prisms,
tetrahedral, rhomboidal, or striated.
  Properties.—Manganese is of a whitish gray colour.
Its fracture is granulated, irregular, and  uneven.  It is
of a metallic brilliancy, whicli it, however, soon loses
in the air.  Its specific gravity is about 8.  It is very
hard, and extremely brittle. It is one of the most refrac-
tory metals, and most difficult to fuse, requiring at least
160° of Wedgwood's pyrometer.  Its attraction of oxy-
gen is so rapid, that exposure to the air is sufficient lo
render it red, brown, black, and friable,  in a very short
time; it can,  therefore, only  be kept  under water, oil,
or ardent spirits.  It is the most combustible of all the
metals.  It decomposes waler by means of heat, very
 rapidly, as well as the greater part of the metallic ox
ides.  It decomposes sulphuric  acid.   It is  soluble in
nitric acid.  It is fusible with earths,  and colours them
brown, violet, or red, according to its state of oxidise-
ment.  It frees from colour  glasses tinged by iron.  It
does not  readily unite with  sulphur.   It combines
with phosphorus.   It unites  with gold, silver, and cop-
per, and renders them  brittle.  It unites to arsenic in
close vessels, but does  not enter into union with mer-
cury.
  Manganese, heated in oxygen or chlorine, takes fire
and forms an oxide or chloride. It has been thought dif
ficult to decide on the oxides of manganese.
  According to Sir II. Daw  there are two oxides only,
 the olive  and the  black; Mr.  Brnnde  has  three, tlie
 olive, dark  red, and  black; Thenard  has  four, the
 green, the white (in the state of hydrate), the chesnut-
 hrown, and the black;  Berzelius has five, the first gray
 the second green, the third and fourth aie not well de-
 fined, and the fifth is the black.
  Th o oxides, however, are well defined.
  1. The first oxide may be obtained by dissolving com 
MAN
MAJN
  toon black manganese in sulphuric or nitric acid, add-
  ing a little sugar, and precipitating by solution of po-
  tassa. A while powder is obtained, which being heated
  lo  redness out of the contact of air, becomes yellow,
  puce-coloured, and,  lastly,  red-brown.   To be pre-
  served, it should  be washed iu boiling water, previously
  freed from air, and then dried by distilling off the moist-
  ure in a retort filled  with hydrogen.   The dark olive
  oxide, when examined in large quantities, appears al-
  most black; but when spread upon  white paper, its
  olive tint is apparent. It takes fire when gently heated,
  increases in  weight,  and acquires  a browner tint.  It
  slowly absorbs oxygen from  the air, even at common
  temperatures.  It dissolves in acids without efferves-
  cence.  The white powder obtained above,  is the  hy-
  drated protoxide.  The different lints which  it assumes
  by  exposure to air, ate supposed by Sir H. Davy to de-
  pend  on the formation of variable quantities of  the
  black-brown oxide, which probably retains tlie water
  contained  in  the white  hydrate,  and is hence deep
  puce-coloured.
   2. The black peroxide.  Itssp.gr. is 4.  It does  not
  combine with any ofthe acids./ It'yields oxygen when
  heated ;  and  by intense ignition passes in a groat mea-
  sure into the protoxide.
   Method of obtaining Manganese.—This metal is ob-
  tained by mixing the black oxide, finely powdered, with
  pitch; making it  into a ball, and putting this  into a
  crucible, with powdered charcoal, one-tenth of an inch
  thick at the sides, and one-fourth of an inch deep at the
  bottom.   The empty  space is then to be filled  with
  powdered charcoal; a cover is to be luted on ; and Ihe
 crucible exposed, for an hour, to the strongest heat that
 can be raised  Or, digest the black oxide of manga-
  nese repeatedly, with the addition of one-sixteenth of
 sugar, in nitric acid;  dilute the mixture with three
  times  its bulk of  water; filter it, and decompose it by
 the  addition of potassa ; collect the precipitate, form it
  inlo a paste with oil, and put it into a crucible, well
  lined  with charcoal.  Expose the crucible for at least
  two hours to the strongest heat of a forge.
   MANGANESIC  ACID.   (Acidum manganesium;
  from manganese, its base.)   Chevillott and  Edwards
  have ascertained that  the  carnelion mineral, which is
 formed by  igniting a  mixture of the  black  oxide of
 manganese and nitre, has th;  property of making a
 neutral manganesate of potassa.
   Mangel wursel.   The root of scarcity.  The Beta
 hybrida  of Linnaeus.  A plant of great importance, as
 a substitute for bread in periods of famine.  It is culti-
 vated  here as green food for cattle, especially  milch
 cows.   It has not, however, succeeded so well in this
 country as in Germany.
   MANGET, John James, was born  at  Geneva in
 1652.  He originally studied for the clerical profession,
 but,  after five years' labour, his inclination to medical
 pursuits prevailed, and he made such progress, without
 the aid of any teacher, that he was admitted to the de-
 gree of doctor at Valence iii'1678.  He then commenced
 practice in his native city, and obtained considerable
 reputa'ion, and refused many invitations to go toother
 countries.   In 1699 he was appointed chief physician
 to Frederick III. afterward first King of Prussia.  In
 his literary labours he was indefatigable even to the
 end  of his  life, which terminated  in his 91st  year.
 Among the numerous works of compilation,  executed
 by him, originality is not to be expected;  nor  are they
 remarkable for  judgment  or accuracy, though still
 sometimes useful  for  reference.  He published ample
 collections on almost every subject connected with me-
 dicine, besides  improved  editions of the  works  of
 others; but the most important of his productions is
 entitled "  Bibliotheca Scriptorum Medicorum veterum
 et necentiorum," at which  he  laboured when at least
 eighty years of age.
  MA NGI'FERA. (From mango, the name of the fruit
 which  it bears.)  The name of a genus of plants in the
 Linnaean  system.   Class  Pentandria;  Order, Mono-
 gynia.  The Mango-tre -.
  "Mangifera indica.  The systematic name of the
 mango-tree, wliich is cultivated  all over .Asia.  Man-
goes, when ripe, are juiry, of  a good flavour, and so
fragiant as to perfume the air to a considerable  dis-
tance.  They are eaten either raw or preserved with
sugar.  Their  taste is so luscious, that they soon  pall
the appetite.  The unripe fruits are pickled in  the milk
of the cocoa-nut, that has  stood  until sow, with  salt,
  capsicum, and garlick.  From the expressed juice to
  prepared a w inc ;  and the remainder of the kernel can
  be leduced to an excellent flour for the making of bread
    MANGO.   See .Mangifera indica.
    MaNGOstana.  See Garcinia mangostana.
    Manoostekn.  See Garcinin mangostana.
    MANIA.   (From paivopat, to  rage.)   Raving oi
  furious madness.  A genus of disease in the class Neu
  roses;  and order Vesania, of Cullen.  The definition
  of mania is delirium, unaccompanied with fever; but
  this does  not seem altogether correct, as a delirium
  may prevail without any frequency of pulse or fever:
  as happens sometimes with women in the hysteric
  disease.  In mania, the mind is not perfectly master of
  all  its  functions;   it  receives impressions  from the
  senses, which are very different from tliose \ roduccd in
  health;  the judgment and memory are both  lost, or
  impaired, and the irritability of  the body is  much  di
  minished, being capable, as is supposed,  of resisting the
  usual mobid effects of cold, hunger, and watching, and
  being likewise loss susceptible of other diseases than
  before.
    Mania may be said to be a false perception of things,
  marked hy an incoherence, or raving, and a resistance
  of the passions  to the command of the will, accom-
  panied, for Ihe most part, with  a violence of aciion.
  and  furious resentment at restraint.
    There are two species of madness, viz. the melan-
  cholic and furious.
    Madness is occasioned by affections of the mind, such
  as anxiety, grief, love, leligion, terror, or enthusiasm ;
  the frequent and uncurbed indulgence in any passion,
  or emotions, and by abstruse study.   In short, It may be
  produced by any thing that affects the mind so forcibly
  as to take off its attention from all other affairs.  Vio-
  lent  exercise,  frequent intoxication, a  sedentary lite,
  the suppression of periodical and  occasional discharges
  and  secretions, excessive evacuations, and  paralytic
  seizures, are likewise enumerated  as remote causes
  Certain diseases of the febrile kind have been found to
  occasion madness, where their action  has been  very
  violent.  In some cases it proceeds from an hereditary
  predisposition.  Two constitutions are particularly the
  victims of madness ; the sanguine  and melancholic:
  by the difference of which its appearance is somewhat
  modified.   Each speciesof mania is accompanied with
  particular  symptoms.   Those which attend on the
  melancholic are sadness, dejection  of  spirits, and it?
  attendants.  Those wliich  accompany  an attack of
  furious madness, are severe pains in the head, leduess
 of the face, noise iu the ears, wildncss of the counte-
 nance,  rolling  and  glistening of the  eyOs, grinding of
 the teeth, loud roaring, violent exertion of strength,
 absurd incoherent discourse, unaccountable malice to
 certain persons, particularly to the nearest relatives and
 friends, a dislike to such places and scenes as formerly
 afforded particular pleasure, a diminution of the irrita
 bility of the body, with respect to  the morbid effects of
 cold,  hunger, and watching, together  with a full, quick
 pul«e.
   Mania comes on at different  periods of life: but, in
 the greater number of cases, it makes  its attack be-
 tween thirty and forty years of age.  Females appear
 to be  more subject to mania than males.
   Dissections of maniacal cases, Dr. Thomas obscves
 most  generally show an effusion of water into  the
 cavities of the brain; but in  some cases, we are able to
 discover evident marks of previous inflammation, such
 as thickening and opacity of the tunica  arachonoides
 and pia mater.  In a few instances, a preternatual hard-
 ness of the substance of the brain.
   From Dr. Greding's observations, it appears that the
 skulls of the greater number of such  persons are com
 nionly very thick.  Some he found of a most extraor-
 dinary degree of thickness; but it  appears that  the
 greater number of insane people  die of atrophy and
 hydrothorax.
  The treatment of  madness is partly corporeal, partly
 mental.   The leading indications  under  the fiist head
 are: to diminish vascular or nervous  excitement when
 excessive, as in  mania; to increase them when defec-
 tive, as  in melancholia; at the same time guarding
 against the several exciting causes, and removing any-
 obvious fault in the constitution, or in particular parts
 by which the brain  may be  sympathetically affected.
Among the most powerful means  of  lessening excite-
ment is ihe abstractioi of blood, which, freely practised
                                         43 
MAN
MAK
has been often an effectual remedy in recent cases and
robust habits;  but repeated small bleedings are rather
likely to confirm the disease; and  in those who have
long laboured under it, the object should merely be to
obviate dangerous accumulation in the head,  by occa-
sionally  withdrawing the  requisite quantity locally.
Purging is much more  extensively applicable :  where
the strength will admit, it may be useful to make very
large evacuations in this way; and in  all  cases it
should be a rule to procure regular discharges  from the
towels, which are generally torpid.  Calomel is mostly
proper, as it may evacuate bile more freely, and have
other beneficial effects; but it usually requires the as-
sistance of other cathartics.  The application of cold
to the head is materially serviceable under increased
excitement, and some have advised it to  the body gene-
rally; at any rate, the accumulation of  heat should be
avoided, and Ihe antiphlogistic regimen  steadily  ob-
served.  Emetics have sometimes had  n good effect,
especially as influencing the mind of the patient;  but
to diminish excitement, and induce diaphoresis, il will
generally be better  to give merely nauseating doses;
and  occasionally their operation may be promoted by
the tepid bath; even the hot bath has been  found use-
ful, producing  great relaxation, and rendering the  pa-
tient more tractable.  Digitalis may be employed with
advantage from its sedative power, excited especially
on the circulation, pushing it till some obvious effect is
produced.  Narcotics, particularly opium, have been
much used, but certainly are not indiscriminately pro-
per ; where there is fulness of the vessels of the head,
they may even do mischief; and where organic disease
exists, they will probably only palliate:  Whenever re-
sorted to, the dose should be large, such as may induce
sleep, and if no mitigation of the disease  appear, it may
be belter not to persevere in them.  Camphor has been
sometimes decidedly useful carried gradually to a very
considerable  extent.   Blisters and other means of
lessening fulness and irritation in the brain, should not
be neglected, w here circumstances indicate their use.—
In the melancholic, on the other hand, where there is
rather a deficiency  of excitement, il is necessary to
direct a more generous diet, nutritious and easy of
digestion,  as the stomach is  usually  weak, with a
modei ale quantity of some fermented liquor, and medi-
cines of a tonic  or  even  stimulant  nature, especially
ammonia, to relieve flatulence and icidity. Attention
should be  paid  to  the bowels, and to maintain  the
function of the skin, Sec.   Tho utility of the cold bath
seems questionable in  melancholies; though it may
occasionally arrest  a paroxysm of mania.  Regular
exercise  may contribute   materially to improve  the
health;  and even hard labour has been often signally
useful in a convalescent slate, particularly to those ac-
customed toit.- Ifthementalderangemeiitsupervened
on the stoppage  of  any evacuation, or the metastasis
of any other disorder; or appear connected with a
scrofulous or syphilitic taint; proper remedies to restore
the former, or remove the latter, should be exhibited :
and in some instances trepanning has relieved the brain
from local  irritation.   In  the management of the in-
sane, it is necessary to inspire a certain degree of awe
from a conviction of superior power, and at the same
time seek  to  gain their confidence and affection by
steadiness  and humanity.  Some restraint  is  often
necessary for the security of the patient, or of others,
carefully watching, or even confining  them, if they
threaten the  lives  of their attendants.   When they
refuse to take food, or medicine, or any thing which
appears  absolutely  necessary,  coercion is proper, or
sometimes these caprices may be overcome by strata-
gem ; or exciting uneasy sensations by  the motion of
a swing, whirling chair, &c.  In order to remove any
deranged association of ideas, it will be  right to  en-
deavour to occupy their  minds with some agreeable
and  regular  train of thought, cheerful  music, poetry,
narrative, the elementary parts of geometry, Sec.  ac-
cording to their previous inclinations; to lead them
gradually to Iheir former habits, and  the society of
their friends, engage them in rural sports, take them to
public amusements, the watering places, &c.  but with
as little appearance of design as possible.
   Maniouetta.  See Amomum granum Paradisi.
   MANIHOT.   See Jatropha manihot.
   MANIT'ULUS.  (Quod manum impleat, because it
 fills the hand.)  A  handful.
   Manjapu'meram.  A common tree in the West
      44
Indies,  the  flowers  of  which are distilled, ani tne
waters used against inflammation of the eyes.
  MA'NNA.  (Frommano,a gift,Syrian ; itbeingthe
food given by God to the children of Israel in the wil-
derness; or  from mahna, what is it? an exclamation
occasioned by their wonder at its appearance.)  See
Fraxinus ornus.
  Manna brigantiaca.   A species cf manna brought
from the neighbourhood of Brianconois, in Dauphiny.
  Manna calabrina.  Calabrian manna.
  Manna canulata.  Flaky manna, or manna  con-
creted on straw, or chips.
  Manna thuris. A coarse powder of olibanum-
  Manmfera  arbor.   (From manna, and fero,  to
bear.)   See Fraxinus ornus.
  Manso'rius.   (From mando, to chew.)  The mas-
seter muscle.
  Manti'le. The name of a  bandage.
  MANUS.  The hand.  This consists of the carpus,
metacarpus, and fingers.
  Ma'nus del  1. A name of  a resolvent plaster, de-
scribed by Lemery.
  2.  An old name of opium.
  MAPLE.  See Acer pseudoplalanus, and acer sac-
charinum.
  Mara'nda.  A species of myrtle,  growing in the
island of Ceylon, a decoction of the leaves of which
is said to be excellent against the venereal disease.
  MARANTA.  1. The name of a genus of plants
in  the  Linnaean system.  Class, Monandria; Order,
Monogynia.
  2.  The name of the  Indian  arrow root, of which
there are three species, the Arundinacea, Galanga,
and  Comesa, all of them hetbaceous, perennial exotics
of the Indies, kept here in  hot-houses  for curiosity;
they have thick, knotty, creeping roots,  crow nod with
long, broad,  atundinnceous  leaves, ending in points,
and  upright 6talks half a yard high, terminated by
bunches of monopetalous, ringent, five-parted flowers.
They are propagated by parting the roots in spring, and
planting them in pots of light rich earth,  and then
plunging them in the bark-bed.
  Maranta arundinacea.  The root of this species,
commonly called arrow-root, is used by the Indians to
extract  the  virus  communicated by their  poisoned
arrows, from whence it has obtained its name.   It is
cultivated in gardens ahd  provision-grounds in the
West Indies: and the starch is obtained from it by the
following process:—The roots, when a year old, are
dug  up, well washed in water, and then beaten in a
large deep wooden mortar, to  a pulp ;  this is thrown
info  a large tub of clean water: the whole is then well
stirred, and the  fibrous part wrung out by the hands,
and  thrown away.  The  milky liquor being passed
through a hair sieve, or coarse cloth, is suffered to settle,
and the clear waler drained off.  AI the bottom of Ihe
vessel is a white mass, which is again mixed  with
clean w ater, and drained: lastly, the mass is dried on
sheets in the sun, and is pure starch.
  Arrow- root contains, in small bulk, a greater piopor
tion  of nourishment than any other yet known.  The
powder, boiled in  water, forms a very pleasant trans-
parent jelly, very superior lo that of sago or tapioca,
and is much  recommended as a nutritious diet for chil-
dren and invalids.  The jelly is made in the following
manner:—to a dessert spoonful of powder, add as much
cold  water as will make  it into a paste; then pour on
half a pint of boiling water: stir it briskly, and boil it
a few minutes, when it will become a clear smooth
jelly ; a little sugar and sherry wine may be added for
debilitated patients, but  for infants  a drop or two of
essence  of caraway-seeds  or  cinnamon,  is  prefer-
able, wine being very liable to  become acescent in the
stomachs of infants, and thus disagree with the bowels'.
Fresh milk, either alone or diluted with water, may  bo
substituted for tho water. For very debilitated frames,
and  especially for rickelty children, this jelly, blended
with an  animal jelly, as that  of Ihe stag's  horn (ra-
sura cornu  cervi), affords a more nutritious diet than
arrow-root alone, whicli may be done in the following
manner :—Boil  half an ounce of stag's horn  shavings,
in a pint of water, for fifteen minutes; then  strain
and  add two dessert-spoonfuls  of arrow-root powder
previously well-mixed with a tea cupful of water; stit
them briskly together, and boil them for a low minutes.
If the child should be much troubled with flatulency,
two or three drops of essence  of caraway-seeds, or a 
MAR
MAR
little grated nutmeg may be added; but for adults,
port wine, or brandy, will answer best.
  Maranta galanga.  The smaller galangal.  The
roots ol' this plant aie used medicinally ; two kinds of
galangal are mentioned in  tlie pharmacopoeias; the
gitater galangal obtained from the Kampferiagalanga
of Linnaeus, aud tlie smaller galangal, the root of the
Maranta galanga; caulino simplici foliis lanceolatis
subsessilibus of Linna-us. The dried root is brought
from China, iu pieces from  an inch to two  in length,
scarcely half so thick,  branched, full of knots and
joints,  with several circular rings of a reddish-brow n
colour on the outside, and brownish within.  It has an
aromatic smell, no'  <-rry grateful, and  an unpleasant,
oitlerish, hot, biting ' .ste.  It was formerly much used
re> .1 warm stomachic bitter, and generally ordeied
in bitter infusions.   Il is now, however, seldom em-
ployed.
  MARA'SMUS.    (From  papaivu, to  grow lean.)
Emaciation.  1. A wasting aw ay of ihe flesh, without
fever or apparent disease.  See Atrophia.
  2. The name of a genus of diseases in Good's Noso-
logy.  Class, Hamatica ; Order, Dysthi tica.   Emaci-
ation.  It embraces four species, viz. Marasmus  atro-
phia, climacli-rieus, tabes, phthisis.
  Marathri'tks.   (From papadpov, fennel.)   A \i
nous infusion of fennel; or  wine impregnated  wilh
fennel.
  MARATHROPIIY l.LUM.  (From papaOpov, fen-
nel, and <pv\\ov, a leaf: so named because  its Ii aves
resemble tliose of the Cummuii fennel.  See Ptuceda-
num officinale.
  Mara'thrum.   (From papaivu, to wither: so called
liecause its stalk and flowers wither iu the  autumn.)
See Anethum faniculum.
  Maraturum sylvestrk.   See Peucedanum offici-
nale.
  MARBLE.  A species of limestone or carbonate of
ihiie.   Powdered marble is  used iu  pneumatic medi-
cine, to give out carbonic acid gas.
  MARCAS1TE.   See Bismuth.
  MARCESCENS.  Withering, decaying: applied to
Ihe perianths of tlie Pyrus communis, and  Mespilus
germanica.
  "MARCHANTIA.   (Named after Marchant,  who
wrote several Essays on tlie Memoirs of the Academy
of Science, 1713.)   The name of a  genus  of plants.
Class,  Cryptogamia;  Order, Alga.
  Marchantia polymorpha.  The  systematic name
of the liverwort.  Hepatica terrestris ; Jetoraria.  A
plant very common in this country.   It has a penetra-
ting though mild pungency,  and bitter  taste, sinking,
ns it were, into the tongue.   It is recommended as an
aperient, resolvent, and antiscorbutic ; and, though sel-
dom u«ed in this country, appears to be a plant of no
inconsiderable  virtue.
  MARCORES.   [Marcorcs, pi. of  mareir;  from
marceo, to  become  lean.)   Universal  emaciation.
1 he first order  in tlie class Cachexia, of Cullen's No-
sology.
  MARESTAIL.   See Hippuris vulgaris.
  MARGARITA.    (From  margalith, Rnb.)   The
pearl.  1. The pearl.  Perla  ; Unio.  A small, calca-
reous concretion, of a bright transparent whiteness,
found on the inside of the shell, Concha margarilif era
of Linnaeus, or mother-of-pearl fish.   Pearls are very
highly prized.  They consist of alternating concentric
layers of membrane and carbonate  of lime.   They
were foi merry exhibited as antacids.
  2. A tumour upon the eye resembling a pearl.
  MARGARITIC  ACID.   (Acidum margariticum ;
from margarita, the pearl:  so called from  its pearly
appearance.)   Margaric  acid.  When we immerse
soap made of pork-grease nnd potassa in a large quan-
tity of water, one part is dissolved, while  another part
Is precipitated  in the  form of several brilliant pellets.
These are separated, dried, washed in a large quantity
of water,  and then dried on a  filter.  They are now
dissolved in boiling alkohol, sp. gr. 0.820, from wliich,
as it cools, the pearly substance falls down pure.  On
acting on this with dilute muriatic acid, a  substance of
a peculiar kind, which Chevreuil, the discoverer, calls
margarine, or margaric acid,  is separated.  It must be
well washed with water, dissolved in •>"'ling alkohol,
from which it is  recovered  in  the  same crystalline
pearly form, when the solution cool?.
  Maruaric acid is pearly white, and taste'ess.  Its
smell  Is feeble,  am  a little similar to that of mel'.ta
wax.   Its specific  gravity is inferior  to  water.   II
melts  at  134° F. ii to a very limpid, colourless liquid,
which crystallizes, on cooling, mto brilliant needles of
the finest while.  It is  insoluble  «i water, but very
soluble in alkohol, sp. gr. 0>00.  Cold  .niiigaric  acid
has no action on Ihe colour of litmus; but when heated
so as to soften without melting, the tilue was redden-
ed. It combines with the salifiable bases, and tonus
neutral compounds.  Two orders  of margaiales are
formed, the margarales and the svpermnrgarates, the
former being converted  into  the lalter, by pouring n
large quantity of water on them.   Other fats besides
that of tlie hog yield this substance.
  That of mun  is obtained under Ihree different forms.
1. In very tine long needles,  disposed in flat stais.  2
In very fine and very short needles, funning waved
figures, like those of the margaric acid of caicusies.  3.
Iu very lorge brilliant  crystals disposed in stais, simi-
lar to the margaric acid of  the hog.  The  margaric
acidB of man and the hog resemble each other; as do
tliose of the o\  and the sheep ; and of the goose and
the jaguar   The compounds, with  the  bases, are real
soaps.  The solution in alkohol affoidsthe transparent
soap of this country.
  MARIGOLD.  See Calendula officinalis.
  Mangold, marsh.  See Caltha palustris.
  MARINE. (Marinus; from marc, the sea.)  Ap-
pertaining to the sea.
  ./Murine acid.  See Muriatic acid.
  Marine salt.  See Soda murius.
  Maripe'ndam.   A plant in the  island of St. Do
mlngo: a distilled water  from the tops is held in great
esteem against pains in the stomach.
  MARl'SCA.  An excrescence about the anus, or the
piles in a state of tumefaction.
  Mari'sicum.  The Mcrcurialis frulicosa.
  MARJORAM.  See Origanum.
  MARJORA NA.  Sec Origanum.
  MARLE.   See Limestone.
  MARMALADE.  The pulpof<quinces, Dr any othei
fruit, builcd  inlo a consistence with honey.
  Marmary'g.f..   (From  pappatpu, to shine.)  An
appeaiance of sparks,  or coruscations, flashing before
the eyes.
  Marmola'ria.  (From marmor, marble : so named
because  it  is spotted  like  marble).   See Acanthus
mollis.
  MARMOR.   Marble.
  Marmor metalicum.   Native sulphate of barytes.
  Marmora'ta aurium.  (From  marmor, marble.)
The wax of the ear.
  Marmo'reuh  tartarus.  The  hardest species of
human calculus.
  Marmorioe.   An affection of  the eyes, In which
sparks and flashes of fire are supposed to present thein
stives.
  Maroco'stinum.   A  purgative  extract made of
tlie martini  and costus; originally made by Mindc
rerus.
  MARROW.  Medulla.  The fat substance secreted
by the small arteries of its proper membrane; and con
tained in  tne medullary cavities of the long cylindrical
bones.  See  Bone.
  Marrow, spinal.  See  Medulla spinalis.
  Marrubia'8TRUm.   The Bulote  nigra,  or slinking
hoarhound.
  MARRUBIUM.   (From  marrob, a  bitter juice,
Hob.)   Hoarhound.  1. The name of a genus of plants
in the  Linnaean system.  Class, Didynamia: Order
Gymnospermia.
  2. The pharmacopceial name of the common hoar-
hound.  See Marrubium vulgare.
  Marrubium album.   See  Marrubium vm«■ arc.
  Marrubium alysson.   Alyssum.   Galen's mad-
wort.   It is supposed to be diaphoretic.
  Marrubium aquaticum.  Water hoarhound ; open-
ing, corroborant.
  Marrubium  hispanicum,  or Spanish hoarhound
See Marrubium verticillatum.
  Marrubium nigrum foetidum.   The black, stink-
ing hoarhound, or Balnte nigra.
  Marrubium verticillatum.  Marrubium hispani
cum.  The Sideritis syriaca, or base hoarhound.
  Marrubium vulgare.  The systematic name of
the common  hoarhound.   Marrubium album; Marru
bium—dentibue  calycinis, eetaceis  iineinatis of Lin
                                         15 
MAR                                           MAS
 nrus.  The leaves of  this indigenous plant have a
 moderately strong smell  of the aromatic kind, but not
 agreeable; which, by drying, is  improved; and  in
 keeping for some months is, in great part, dissipated ;
 their taste is very bitter, penetrating, diffusive, and
 durable in the mouth. That hoarhound possesses some
 share of medicinal power, may be inferred from its
 sensible qualities; but its virtues do not appear to be
 clearly ascertained.  It is a favourite remedy with the
 common people in coughs and asthmas.  The  usual
 dose is from half an ounce to an ounce, in  infusion,
 two  or three times a day.  The dose of the extract is
 from gr. x. lo 3 ss.
  MARS   The mythological and alchetnistical name
 of iron.
  Mars alkalizatus.   One of the alkalies with an
 admixture of iron.
  Mars saccharatus.  Iron mixed with starch and
 melted sugar.
  Mars solubilis.  Ferrum tartarizatum.
  Mars sulphurates.   Iron  filings, and sulphur de-
 flagrated.
  Marseilles hart-wort.  See Seseli tortuosum.
  Marsh-mallow.  See Althaa officinalis.
  Marsh trefoil.   See Menyanlhes trifoliata.
  MARSUPIA'LIS.   (From marsupium, a purse:
so named  from  its resemblance.)   See Obturator in-
 ternus.
  Martagon lily.  See Lilium marlagon.
  MARTIAL. (Martialis; from Mars, iron.) Some-
times used to express preparations  of iron, or such as
are impregnated  therewith; as the Martial  Hegulus
of antimony, &c.
  Martial etliiops.  The protoxide of iron.
  Martial salts.  Salts of iron.
  Martia'tum  unguentum.   Soldiers' ointment.
Ointment of laurel, rue, marjoram, &c.
  Ma'rtis limatura  pr/eparata.   Purified  filings
of iron.
  MARTYN, John, was born in 1699.  His father,
being in a mercantile station in London, he was in-
 tended to succeed in this, which he does not appear to
 have neglected;  but his taste for literature led him to
devote much of the night to  study.  His partiality,
however, was particularly directed" to botany, and he
made many experiments  on the germination of seeds,
&c.  When about 22 years of age, he became  secre-
tary of a botanical society, and proved one of its most
active members: three years after, he was admitted
into  the Royal Society, and many  of his papers ap-
 peared in  the Philosophical Transactions, of which
he subsequently took a  part in the abridgment.  At
What period he  changed to the medical profession is
not known.  In 1726, he published his tables  of offici-
nal plants, disposed according lo Ray'ssystem. Having
given public lectures on botany in London with much
 approbation, he was thought qualified to  teach  that
 science at  Cambridge; and accordingly, in the follow-
 ing year, he delivered  the first course ever heard in
 that university.   In 1730, he entered at Emanuel col-
 lege, with  an intention  of graduating  in  physic; but
 this was soon abandoned on his marriage, and  from
 the necessary attendance to his profession iu  London.
 On the death of the botanical professor at Cambridge,
 Mr. Martyn was appointed to succeed him in the be-
 ginning of 1733;  but he continued  lecturing only two
 or ihree years, owing to the want of sufficient encou-
 ragement,  and -.specially of a botanic garden there.  In
 1741, he- published asplendid quarto addition of Virgil's
 Georgics. in which much new light was thrown on ihe
 natural history  of that  author.  Dr. Halley having
 assisted him  in the astronomical  part; this  was fol-
 lowed by the Bucolics, on the eame plan.  In 1752, he
 retired from practice, and  about nine years  after re-
 signed his  professorship in favour of his son,  the Rev.
 Thomas Martyn; in consequence  of whose election
 he presented his botanical library, of above 200 vo-
 lumes, with his drawings, herbarium, &c. to  the  uni-
 versity. He died in 1768.
  MA'RUM.   (From mar,  Hebrew for bitter: so
 •amed from its taste.)   Several species of teucrium
 were so named.
  Marum creticum.  See Teucrium marum.
  Marum  syriacum.   (From  mar, bitter, Hebrew.)
 Bee  Teucrium marum.
  Marum verum.  See Teucrium marum.
  Marum vuloakk.  See Thymus mastichina.
      46
   Ma rvisum.  Malmsey wine.
   MA'SCHALE.  Macx<*M-  The armpit
   Maschali'ster.  (From paaxaXtsiP)  The second
 vertebra of the back.
   M ASCULUS.  There are two sexes; of animals and
 vegetables, the male and the  female.   The male  of
 animals is distinguished by his peculiar genital organs,
 and the analogy is carried to vegetables.   A flower ii
 called a male flower, which has stamina only, which
 are reckoned by the sexualists to be the male organ.
   Ma'slach.   A medicine of the  opiate kind, in use
 among the Turks.
   Maspetum.  The leaf of the asafoetida plant.
   MA'SSA.  (From paacu, to blend together.)   A
 mass.  A term generally applied to the compound out
 of whicli pills are to be formed.
   Massa caRnea jacobi sylvii.  See. Flex or longus
 digitorum pedis.
   Ma'ssalis.  An old name for mercury.
   MASSE'TER.  (From pacaaopat,to chew; because
 it assists in chewing.)  Zigomato-maxillaire, of Dumas.
 A muscle of the lower jaw, situated on the side ofthe
 face.   It is a short, thick muscle, which arises, by
 fleshy and tendinous fibres, from the lower edge ofthe
 malar process of" the maxillary bone, the lower hori-
 zontal edge of the os malae, and the lower edge of the
 zygomatic process of the temporal  bone, as far back-
 wards as the eminence belonging to the articulation of
 the lower jaw.  From some little interruption  in the
 fibres of this muscle, at  their origin, some writers de-
 scribe it as arising by two, and others by three, distinct
 portions, or heads.  The two layers of fibres, of which
 it seems to be composed, cross each other as they de-
 stend, the external layer extending backwards, and
 the internal one slanting forwards.   It is inserted into
 the basis ofthe coronoid process, and into all that part
 of the lower jaw which supports the coronoid and con-
 dyloid processes.  Ils use  is to raise  the lower jaw,
 and, by means of the above-mentioned decussation, to
 move it a little forwards and backwards in the act of
 chewing.
   MASSICOT.  The yellow oxide of  lead.
  Ma'ssoy cortex.  See Cortex massoy.
  MASTERWORT.  See Imperatoria.
  MASTIC.  See Pistachia Itntiscus.
  MASTICATION.  (Masticatio; from masttco,  lo
 chew.)  Chewing.  A natural function. It embraces
 the seizing, catching, or taking the food, the chewing
 and the insalivation.   The organs for taking in food
 are the superior extremities and the mouth.
  The mouth is the oval cavity formed above, by the
 palate and  the  upper jaw ; below, by  the tongue and
 the lower jaw; on the sides, by the cheeks; behind, hy
 the velum of the palate and the pharynx; and in front
 by the lips.
  The dimensions of the mouth are variable in differ-
ent persons, and are susceptible  of an enlargement in
every direction; downwards, by lowering the tongue
and separating the jaws;  transversely, by the disten-
tion of the cheeks, and  from the front backward, by
the motion of the lips, nnd of the velum of the palate.
  The jaws determine most particularly the form and
dimensions of the mouth; the superior jaw makes an
essential  part of the face, and moves only along witli
the head; on the contrary, the inferior possesses a very
great mobility.
  The jaws are furnished w ith small, very hard bodies,
called teeth.
  The edge of the socket is covered wilh a thick layer,
 fibrous, resisting, denominated gum.
  We ought to consider in the parts that contribute to
 the apprehension of aliments, tlie muscles that move
 the jaws, and particularly the  inferior.   The same
 thing takes place with the  tongue, the numerous mo-
 tions of which have a great influence on  the dimen-
 sions of the mouth.
  Mechanism of the taking of food.—Nothing is sim
 pier than the taking in of aliments: it consists in the
 introduction of alimentary substances  into the mouth
 For this purpose the hands seize  the aliments, and
 divide them into  small portions susceptible of being
 contained in the mouth,  and introduce them  into it
 either directly or by means of proper instruments.
   But, in order to their being received  into this cavity
 the jaws must  separate; in  ciher words,  the  mouth
 opens.
   In many cases, when tlie food Is  ir-Uouticed Into the 
MAS
MAS
 mouth, the pws come together to retain it, and assist
 in mastication, or eleglutition; but frequently the ele-
 vation of the interior jaw contributes to the taking of
 the food.   We have an example of it when one bites
 into fruit: then  the incisors are thrust inlo the ali-
 mentary substance  in opposite directions,  and, acting
 a3thebladesofscissois,theydetachaportionofthema-s.
   This motion is produced, principally by ihe contrac-
 tion of the elevated muscles of the lower jaw, which
 represents a lever of the third kind, the power of which
 Is at the insertion of the ejevnting muscles, the point
 of support at the articulation teniporo-maxillary, and
 the resistance iu the substance upon which ihe teeth
 act.   The volume  of the  body placed between the
 incisors has an influence upon the force by which  it
 may be pressed.  If it is small, the power will be much
 greater, for all the elevating muscles are inserted |ier-
 pendicularly to the jaw, and the whole of their fore i
 is employed in moving the  lever that it represents; it
 the volumeof the body is such that it can hardlv enter
 the mouth, though it presents veiy little  resistance, the
 incisors will not enter it, for the masseter, the temporal,
 and the internal pterygoid muscles, are inserted very
 obliquely into the jaw, whence results Ihe loss of the
 greater part of the force that they develope in contract-
 ing.  When the efforts of the muscles of Ihe jaws arc
 not sufficient  to  detach  a portion of the alimentary
 mass, tlie hand so acts upon it as to separate  it from
 the portion retained  by the teeth. On the other hand,
 the posterior muscles of the neck draw the head strong-
 ly back, and from the combination of these efforts re-
 sults the separation  of a portion of the food whicli
 remains in the mouth. In this  mode the incisors and
 eye teeth ate generally  employed; the grinders aie
 rarely used.   By the succession of these motions of
 taking food the mouth is filled, and on account of the
 suppleness of  the cheeks, and the easy depression of
 the tongue, a considerable  quantity of food may be
 accumulated in it
   When ihe mouth  is full, the  velum of the  palate is
 lowered, its inferior edge is applied upon the most dis-
 tant pan of the base of the tongue, so that all commu-
 nication is intercepted between ihe mouth and the pha-
 rynx.
   Independently of what we have said of tlie mouth, in
 respect to taking the food, to conceive its uses ia inasti
 cation  and insalivation,  it  is  useful  to remark that
 fluids abound in  tlie mouth proceeding from different
 sources.  Fiist, the mucous membrane  which covers
 its sides  secretes  an abundant mucosity;  numerous
 isolated, or agglomerated follicles that are observed iu
 tlie interior of the cheeks, at the junction  of ihe lips
 with the gum-, upon the back ofthe tongue, on the an-
 terior aspect of the  velum aud  the uvula,  pour con-
 tinually the liquid thnt they form into the internal sur-
 face of  the mouth.  The  same thing takes  place with
 mucous glands, which exist in  great number iu the in-
 terior of the cheeks and palate.
   Lastly, there is poured  into the mouth, Ihe saliva se-
 creted  by  six glands,  three on  each side, and which
 bear the name of parotid, sub-maxillary, and sub-lin-
 gual.  The- first, placed between the external ear and
 the jaw, have each a secreting canal which opens on
 the level of the second small superior grinder ; each
 maxillary gland has one which terminates on the sides
 of the ligaments of the tongue, near whicli those of the
 sub-lingual glands open.
   These fluids are probably variable in their  physical
 and chemical properties according to the  organs by
 which they are formed; but  the distinction has not yet
 been established by chemistry by direct experiments:
 the mixture under the name  of saliva has been exactly
 analyzed.
   Among  the  alimentary substances deposited in the
 mouth,  the one sort only traverse this cavity without
 suffering any change ;  the others, on the contrary, re-
 main a considerable time in  it, and undergo important
 modifications.   The first  are the soft sorts  of food, or
 nearly liquid, of which the temperature is little differ-
ent from that ofthe body; the second are the aliments,
which are hard, dry, fibrous,  and those whose tem-
perature is more or less different from what is proper
for the animal economy.   They are both in common,
however, appreciated by the organs of taste  in passing
 through the mouth.
  We may attribute to three principal  modifications
 the changes that the food  undergoes in the mouth: 1st, |
 change of temperature; 2d, mixture with the fluids thai
 arepouied  into the mouth, and sometimes dissolution
 in these fluids; 3d, pressure more  or less strong, and
 very often division, which bruising destroys the cohe-
 sion of their parts.   It is besides easily and frequently
 transported from one  part  of this  cavity ti. another.
 These three modes of change do not take plnce  suc-
 cessively, but simultaneously, by mutually  favouring
 each other.
   The change of temperature of the food retained in
 the mouth is evident; the sensation w Inch it excites in
 it is sufficient to prove this.  If  it has a low tempera-
 ture, it produces a vivid impression of" cold, which
 continues until it has absorbed the caloric necessary to
 bring it  near to the temperature of the sides of the
 mouth ; the contrary takes place if the temperature is
 higher than that of  the mouth.
   It is the same with our judgment on this occasion, na
 with that wliich relates to the  temperature of bodies
 which touch the skin; we join to it, unknown to us, a
 comparison  wilh the temperature of the atmosphere
 and with that ofthe bodies which have been previously
 in contact with the  mouth ;  so that  a body preserving
 the same degree of heat will appear to us alternately
 hot or cold, according to the temperature of the bodies
 formerly in  the mouth.
   Tlie change of temperature that the food undergoes in
 the mouth is only an accessary phenomenon ; its tritu-
 ration and  its mixture more or less intimate with ihe
 fluids poured into this cavity, are what merit particular
 attention.
   As soon as an aliment is introduced inio the niouih
 it is  pressed by the tongue, applying  It against the
 palate, or against some other part of the sides of tht
 mouth.  If the aliment is soft, if its parts cohere bul
 little, this simple pressure is enough to break it;  if the
 alimentary substance is composed of liquid and solid,
 the liquid is expressed by this pressure, and the solid
 part only remains in the mouth.   The tongue produces
 the effect, of which we speak, so much  bettor in pro-
 portion as its membrane is muscular, and as a great
 number of muscles  are destined lo move it.
   It might astonish  its that the tongue, which is so soft,
 could be capable of breaking a body offei ing even small
 resistance;  but, on the one hand, it hardens in  con-
 tracting, like all the muscles, and, besides, it presents
 under ihe mucous membrane which  covers its superior
 aspect, a dense and thick fibrous  layer.
   Such are the phenomena that  take place if the food
 has but liltle resistance; but if it presents a considera
 ble resistance, it then undergoes tlie action of the mas-
 ticating organs.
   The essenlral agents of mastication are the muscles
 that move  Ihe jaws, the tongue, the cheeks, and the
 lips:  the maxillary bones and the teeth serve only na
 simple instruments.
  Though the motions of both jaws may contribute to
 mastication, il is produced almost always by those of
 the inferior one.  This bone may be lowered, raised,
 and pressed  strongly against the upper jaw ; carried
 forward, backward, and even directed a little towards
 the sides.  These different motions are produced by the
 numerous muscles which are attached to the jaw.
  But the jaws could never have produred the neces-
 sary effect in mastication if they had not been furnished
 wilh  teeth, the physical properties of which  are par
 ticularly suited to this digestive action.
  [There are exceptions to all rules, and although teeth
 are absolutely necessary in general, yet it is within out
 knowledge that a man, who has followed Ihe coasting
 trade from New-York, never had any teelh,  and could
 eat crackers, ship-bread, or any hard substance, break-
 ing and chewing it with his  gums, as well as any one
 with teeth.  A.J
  Mechanism ofmastication—-For the commencemenl
 of mastication, the  inferior jaw  must be  lowered, an
 effect which  is produced by the  relaxation of its ele
 vaiing, and the contraction of its depressing muscles
 The food must then be  placed  between ihe dental
 arches, either by the tongue  or some other agent; the
 inferior jaw  is then raised by the masseter.  internal
 pterygoid, and temporal muscles, the intensity of whose
contraction depends upon  the resistance of the food
This  being  pressed between two  unequal  surface!
whose asperities fit  into each other, is  divided into
small  portions, the number of which is in proportion tn
the facility wiili which the!  have given way. 
MAS                                            MAT
  Bat a motion of this kind reaches only a part of the
food contained in the mouth, and it must be all equally
divided.  This takes plate  by tlie successive motions
ofthe inferior jaw, and by the contraction ofthe mus-
cles ofthe cheeks, of those ofthe tongue and lips, which
bring the food  between the teeth successively and
promptly during the separation of tlie jaws, that it may
be bruised when they come together.
  When the alimentary substances are soft and easily
bruised, two or three masticatory motions are sufficient
to divide all that is in the mouth; the three kinds of
teeth are employed in it.  A longer continued mastica-
tion  is necessary when the substances are more resist-
ing, fibrous, or tough:  in this case we chew only with
the molares, and often only  with one side at a time, to
allow 'the other  to rest.  In employing the  grinders
there is an advantage of shortening the arm of the levi-r
represented by the jaw, and by so doing of rendering it
more advantageous for the power that moves it
  In the mastication, the teeth have sometimes to sup-
port very considerable efforts, which would inevitably
shake, or else displace them, were it not for the extreme
tsolidity of their articulation  with the jaws.  Each root
acts  like a wedge, in transmitting to tlie sides of the
sockets the force by which it is pressed.
  The advantage of the conical form of the roots is not
doubtful.  By reason of this form, the force by which
the tooth is  pressed, and which tends to thrust it into
the jaw, is decomposed;  one part tends to separate the
sides of the sockets, the other to lower them ; and the
transmission, instead of being carried to the extremity
of the root, which could not have failed to take place
in a  cylindric form, is distributed over all the  surface
if the socket. The grinders  that have more considera-
ble efforts to sustain, have a number of roots,  or nt
least one very large.  The incisors and eye teeth, that
have only one small root, have never any great pres-
sure to support.
  If the gums had not presented a smooth surface and
n dense tissue, placed as they are round the neck of the
teeth and filling their intervals, they would have been
torn every instant; for, in the mastication of hard and
irregular substances, they are constantly exposed to the
pressure of their edges and angles.  This inconvenience
happens whenever their tissue becomes soft, as in scor-
butic affections.
  During the time of mastication the mouth is shut be-
hind by tlie curtain of the palate, the anterior surface
of which is pressed against the base ofthe tongue; the
food is retained before by the teeth and the lips.
  Insalivalion of the aliments.—Whenever we have
an appetite, the view of food determines a considerable
afflux of saliva into the mouth ; in some people it is so
strong as to be  projected to the  distance of  several
feet.
  While the aliments are  bruised and triturated by
the masticating  organs, they imbibe, and are pene-
trated completely by the fluids that are poured into the
mouth, and particularly by ihe saliva. It is easy to con-
ceive that the division ofthe food and tne numerous
displacements  that it suffers during mastication, sin-
gularly favour ils mixture with the mucous and sali-
vary juices.
  Most of the alimentary substances submitted to the
action of the mouth are dissolved or suspended wholly
or in part in the saliva, and immediately they become
proper for being introduced  into the stomach, and are
forthwith swallowed.
  On account of its viscosity, the saliva absorbs air, by
which il is swept in the different motions necessary for
mastication; but the quantity of nir absorbed in this
circumstance is ineonsiderable, and has been generally
exaggerated.
  Of what use is the trituration of food and its mixture
with the saliva 1 Is it a simple division which  renders
the aliments more proper for the alterations wliich they
undergo  in the stomach, or  do they suffer tlie  first de-
gree of nnimnlization in the mouth 1 On this point there
is nothing certain known.
  Let us remark that  mastication  and  insalivalion
change the savour and odour of the food;  lhat masti-
cation, sufficiently prolonged, generally renders diges-
tion  u ore  quick and  easy; that, on  the contrary,
people who do not chew their food, have often on ihis
account very painful and slow digestion.—Magemlie's
Physiology.
      48
  MASTICATORY.  (Masticatorium; fiom mastieo
to chew.)  A medicine intended for chewing.
  MA'STICHE.  (From paaau, to express.)  See Pic
tacia lentiscus.
  Mastich-herb.  See Thymus mastichina.
  Mastich, Syrian.  See Teucrium marum,
  Mastich-tree.  See Pistacia lentiscus.
  Mastich wood.  See Pistacia lentiscus.
  Mastichel.e'um.   (From  pa^ixv,  mastich,  anu
tXatov, oil.)  Oil of mastich.
  Mastichina. (Diminutive of masliche.)  See Thy-
mus mastichina.
  Masticot.  See Massicot.
  Ma'stix.  See Pistacia lentiscus.
  MASTODY'NTA.   (From  pasvs,  a breast,  and
oivvn,  pain.)  Nacla.  Phlegmon of the  breast of
women.   This disease may take  place at any period
of life, but it most commonly affects those  who give
suck. It is characterized by tumefaction, tension, heat,
redness,  and pain;  and  comes sonietimes  in both
breasts, but most commouly in one. Pyrexia generally
attends the  disease.   It is sometimes very  quickly
formed, and in general without any thing preceding to
show it;  but now and then a slight shivering is the
forerunner.  This disease terminates  either in resolu-
tion, in suppuration, or scirrhus.  If the disease is left
to itself, it generally terminates in suppuration.
  The causes whicli give rise to this disease, are those
which give rise to most of the phleginasiae, as cold,
violent blows, &c.  In  women who are lying-in, or
giving suck, it mostly arises either from a suppression
of the lochia, or  a retention of milk.  Mastodynia is
often of long continuance; it is a very painful disease,
but  is seldom fatal, unless  when absolutely neglected,
when it may run into scirrhus,  and finally cancer. The
termination of the disease by gangrene is never to be
apprehended, at least few, if any, have seen the disease
terminate in this way.
  MASTOID.   (Mastoideus;   from /idj-o?,  a breast,
and ttios, resemblance.)  1. Those processies of bones
are  so  named that are shaped  like the nipple of the
breast, as tlie mastoid process of the temporal bone,
&c.
  2.  The  name of a muscle.   See Slerno-elcido-mas
loideus.
  Mastoid foramen.  A hole in the temporal bone of
the skull.
  Mastoideus lateralis. A name for the complexes
muscle.
  Matali'sta radix.  A root  said  to be  imported
from America, where it is given  as a purgative, its
action being rather milder than that of jalap.
  MA'TER.   (Murrjp,  a  mother:  so called by the
Arabians, who  thought  they gave  origin to all other
membranes of the body.)  1. Two membranes of the
brain had this epithet given them.  See Dura mater,
and Pia mater.
  2.  A name ofthe herb mugwort, because of its virtue
in disorders of the womb.
  Mater herbarum.  Common mugwort.   See Ar-
temisia vulgaris.
  Mater metallorum.  Quicksilver.
  Mater perlaRUM.  See Margarita.
  MATE'RIA.   A term given to  a substance that is
selected for a particular experiment or purpose, which
is expressed by  adding  the name of that purpose;
hence materia medica, materia chemicn, Sec
  Materia medica.  By  this term is  understood  a
general class of substances, both natural and artificial,
which are used in the cure of diseases.
  Carthcuser, Newman, Lewis, Gleditsch,  Linnaeus,
Vogel, Alston. Bergius,  Cullen, Murray, Paris, in  his
excellent work (<n pharmacology, and other writers on
the  Materia Medica, have been at much labour to con-
trive arrangements nf these articles.  Some  have dis-
posed them nccording to ihcir natural resemblances,
others  according  to their  real  or  supposed  virtues;
others according to their active  constituent principles.
These arrangements have their peculiar advantages.
The first mnv lie preferred bv the natural historian, the
second by the physiologist, and the last by the chemist
The pharmacopoeias, published by the Colleges ot Phy
sioians of London, Dublin, and Edinburgh, have the
articles of tine Materia Medica arranged in alphabetical
order;  this plnn is also adopted  by almost all the con
dnculal pharmacopoeias 
MATERIA MEDICA.
 Dr. Cullen nas arranged the Materia Medica as fol-
ows:—
   {Nutriments,  which are
               Food,
                Drinks,
               Condiments;
   Medicines which ac; on the
    f Solids,
    I                  Simple, as
                            Astringents,
                            7'onics,
                            Emollients,
                            Corrosives ;
   <                  Living, as
                            Stimulants,
  I                        Sedatives,
                                  Narcotics,
                                  Refrigerants,
   I  Fluids,                  Aiitispasmodtcs.

              The following is a list of articles which
 'Producing z>. change 01
    fluidity,
           Attenuants,
           Inspissants.
    Mixture,
           Correctors of Acrimony
               Demulcents,
               Antacids,
               Antalkalinet
•               Antiseptics.
  Evacuants; viz.
               Errhines,
               Sialagogues,
               Expectorants,
               Emetics,
               Cathartics,
               Diuretics,
               Diaphoretics,
(              Emmenagogucs
    I. NUTRIMENTS
 ,*  Frci-i s.
    a. Fresh, sweet, acidu-
         lous, as
    Prunes
    Oranges
    Lemons
    Raspberries
    Red and black currants
    Mulberries
    Grapes, Sec
    b. Dried, sweet, acidu
     lous, as
   Raisins
   Currants
   Figs.
fi. Oleraceois Herbs.
   Wuter-cresses
   Dandelion
   Parsley
   Artichoke.
y. Roots.
   Carrot
   Garlick
   Satyrion.
 S. Seeds and Nuts.
   Almonds,  sweet  and
     bilter
   Walnuts
   Olives.
   II. MEDICEYES.
 1. Astringents.
   Red rose
   Cinquefcul
   Tormentil
   Madder
   Sorrel
   Water-dock
   Bistort
   Fern
   Pomegranate
   Oak-bark
   Galls
   Logwood
   Quince
   Mulberry
   Sloe
  Gum-arabic
  Catechu
  Dragon's blood
  Alkanet
  Balaustine flower
  St. John's wort
  Mill.efoil
  Plantain
  Convallaria
  Bear's  berry.
2 Tonics.
  Gentian
  Lesser  centaury
  Quassia
  Simarouba
  Marsh trefoil
  Fumitory
  Camomile
  Tansy
  Wormwood
  Southernwood
  Sea-wormwood
  Water-germander
  Virginian snake-root
  Leopard's bane
  Peruvian bark.
3. Emollients.
  Columniferous,
  Marsh mallow
  Mallow.
  Farinaceous,
  Quince-seeds
  Fienug reek-seed
  Linseed
  Various emollients,
  Pellitory
  Verbascum
  White lily.
4. Corrosives.
5. Stimulants.
  Verticellated,
  Lavender
  Balm
  Marjoram
  Sweet marjoram
  Syrian herb mastich
  Rosemary
  Hvssop
  Ivy
  Mint
  Peppermint
  Pennyroyal
  Thyme
  Mother of thyme
  Sage.
  UmbeUated,
  Fennel
  Archangel
  Anise
  Caraway
  Coriander
  Cumin
  Dill
  Saxifrage.
  Siliquose,
  Horseradish
  Watercress
  Mustard
  Scurvy-graws.
 Alliaceous,
 Garlick.
 Coniferous,
 Fir
 Juniper.
 Balsamics,
 Venice turpentine
 Common turpentine
 Canada balsam
 Copaiba balsam
 Tolu balsam
 Balm of Gilead.
 Resinous,
 Guaiacum
 Ladanum
 Storax
            LI
  come under the preceding
     Benzoin.
     Aromatics,
     Cinnamon
     Nutmeg
     Mace
     Clove
     Allspice
     Canella
     Cascarilla
     Black pepper
     Long pepper
     Indian pepper
     Ginger
     Lesser cardamom
     Zedoary
     Virginian snake-root
     Ginseng
     Aromatic reed.
     Acrids,
     Wake-robin
     Pellitory
     Stavesacre.
  6.  Narcotics.
    Rhaadaceous,
    White poppy
    Red poppy.
     UmbeUated,
    Hemlock
    Water hemlock.
   Solanaceous,
   Belladonna
   Henbane
    Tobacco
   Bitter-sweet
   Stramonium
    Varia,
   Laurel
   Camphor
   Saffron
   Wine.
 7. Refrigerants.
   Fruits of plants
   Acidulous herbs and
     roots.
 8. Antispasmodics.
   Fatid herbs,
   Wormwood
   Foetid goosefoot
   Cumin
   Pennyroyal
   Rue
   Savine.
   Fatid gums,
   Asafiretida
   Galbanum
   Opo|K>nax
   Valerian.
 9. Diluents.
   Water.
10. Attknuants
   Alkalies
  Sugar
  Liquorice
  Dried  fruits.
11. Inspissants.
  Acids
classes:—
   Farinaceons and muc
     laginous demulcent*
12. Demulcents.
   Mucilaginous,
   Gum arable
   -—; tragacanth.
   farinaceous,
     Starch
     Bland oils.
  13. Antacids.
     Alkalies and earths
  14. Antalkalinks.
     Acids.
  15. Antiseptics.
    Acid parts of plants
    Acescent herbs
     Sugar
     Siliquose plants
    Alliaceous plants
    Astringents
    Bitters
    Aromatics
    Essential oils
    Camphor
    Gum tesins
    Saffron
    Contrayerva
    Valerian
    Opium
    Wine.
 16. Errhines.
    Asarabacca
    White hellebore
    Waler iria
    Pellitory.
 17. Sialagogues
    Archangel
    Cloves
    Masterwort
    Tobacco
    Pepper
    Pellitory.
 18. Expectorants
   Ivy
    Hoarhound
   Pennyroyal
    Elecampane
   Florentine orris-root
   Tobacco
   Squill
    Coltsfoot
    Benzoin
    Storax
   Canada balsam
   Tolu balsam.
 19. Emetics.
   Asarabacca
   Ipecacuan
   Tobacco
   Squill
   Mustard
   Horseradish
   Bitters.
20. Catharticus.
   Milder,
                4«J 
MATERIA MEDICA.
Mild acid fruits
Cassia pulp
Tamarind
Sugar
Manna
Sweet roots
Bland oils
Damask rose
Violet
Polypody
Mustard
Bitters
lialsamics.
Acrid,
Rhubarb
Seneka
Broom
Elder
   Castor oil
   Senna
   Black hellebore
   Jalap
   Scammony
   Buckthorn
   Tobacco
   White hellebore
   Coloquintida
   Elaterium.
21 Diuretics.
   Parsley
   Carrot
   Fennel
   Pimplncl
   Eryiigo
   Madder
   Burdock
a. Diffusible <
  The following is the  arrangement of the Materia
Medica, according to J. Murray, in his Elements of
Materia Medica and Pharmacy.
  a. General stimulants.
                         I Narcotics
                          Antispasmodics.

            6. Permanent 1^.^.
  b Local stimulants.     Emetics
                        Cathartics
                        Emmenagogues
                        Diuretics
                        Diaphoretics
                        Expectorants
                        Sialagogues
                        Errhines
                        Epispastics.
  o Chemical remedies.   Refrigerants
                        Antacids
                        Lithontriptics
                        Escharotics.
  D. Mechanical remedies. Anthelmintics
                        Demulcents
                        Diluents
                        Emollients.
  Under the head of Narcotics are included—
  Alkohol.   Ether. Camphor.  Papaver somniferum.
Hyoscyamus  niger.  Atropa belleidoima.   Aconitum
nupellus.  Conium maculatum.   Digitalis purpurea.
Nicotiana tabacum.   Lactuca virosn.   Datura stra-
monium. Rhododendron chrysanthemum.  Rhustoxi
codendron.   Arnica  montana.  Strychnos nux vo-
mica.  Prunus lauro-cerasus.
  Under  the  second class, Antispasmodics, are In-
cluded—Moschus.  Castoreum. Oleum animate em-
pyreumaticum. Petroleum.  Ammonia.  Ferula asa-
foelida.  Sagapenum.  Bubon  galbanum.  Valeriana
officinalis.  Crocus sativus.  Melaleuca leucadendron.
  Narcotics used as Antispasmodics—
  Ether.  Camphor.  Opium.
   Tonics used as Antispasmodics—
  Cuprum.  Zincum.  Hydrargyrus.  Cinchona.
  The head of Tonics embraces—
   1. From the mineral kingdom,
  Hydrargyrus.  Ferrum.   Zincum.  Cuprum.  Ar-
senicum.  Barytes.  Calx.  Acidum nitricum.  Oxy-
murins potassa;.
  2. From the vegetable kingdom,
  Cinchona officinalis. Cinchona^nribaea.  Cinchona
floribunda. Cusparia. Aristolophiaserpentaria.  Dors-
tenia  contrayerva.   Croton  eleutheria.   Calumba.
Quassia cxcelsa.   Quassia simarouba.   Swieienia
febrifuga. Swietemamahagoni. Gentiana lutea. An-
themis nobilis.  Artemisia absinthum.  Chironia cen-
taurium. Marrubium vulgare.  Mcnyanthcs trifoliata.
Centaurea benedicta.  Citrus aurantium.  Citrus me-
dica.  Lnurus cinnamomum.  Laurus cassia.  Ca-
nella alba.   Acorus calamus.  Amomuin zinziber.
Kamipferia rotunda.  Santalum album.  Pterocarpus
sar.talinus.  Myristica moschata.   Caryophyllus aro-
maticus.  Capelcum annuum.  Piper  nigrum.  Piper
longuoi.  Piper cubeba.  Myrtus pimenta.  Amomum
repens.  Carum carui.  Coriandrum sativum.  Pim-
pinella anisum.   Ancthum  fs-niculum.  Anethum
gruveolens.  Cuminum  cyminum   Angelica  archan-
gthca.   Mentha piperita.  Mentha viridis.  Mentha
pulegium.  Hysopus officinalis.
   The class of Astringents comprehends the follow-
 ing :-
   Contrayerva
   Serpentaria
   Sage
   Water germandci
   Guaiacum
   Sassafras
   Seneka
   Vegetable acids
   Essential oil
   Wine
   Diluents.
23. Emmenauogfbs
   Aloes
   Feet id gums
   Foetid plants
   Saffron.
   Bitter-sweet
   Wake-robin
   Asarabacca
   Foxglove
   Tobacco
   Rue
   Savine
   Snakeroot
   Squill
   Bitters
   Balsamics
   Siliquosae
   Alliaceae.
22. Diaphoretics
   Saffron
   Bitter-sweet
   Opium
   Camphor
  I.  From the vegetable kingdom,
  Quercus   robur.  Quercus  cerris.   Tormentilla
erecta. Polygonum bistorta. Anchusa tinctoria.  Hae
matoxylon campechianum.   Rosa gallica.  Arbutus
uva  ursi.  Mimosa  catechu.   Kino.  Plerocarpus
draco.  Ficus indica.   Pistachia lentiscus.
  2.  From the mineral kingdom,
  Acidum sulphuricum. Argilla.  Supersnlphas ar-
gillte et potass*.  Calx.  Carlionas calcis.  Plumbum.
Zincum.  Ferrum.  Cuprum.
  The articles which come under the head of Eme-
tics, are
  1.  From the vegetable kingdom,
  Calliocca ipecacuanha.   Scilla maritima.  Anthe
mis nobilis.  Sinapis alba.  Asarum europaeum.  Ni
coliana tabacum.
  2.  From the mineral kingdom.
  Antimonium.  Sulphas zinci.  Sulphas cupri.  Sub
acetas  cupri.  Ammonia.  Hydro-sulphuretum  am
moniie.
  Cathartics include
  Laxatives.   Manna.  Cassia fistula.  Tamarindui
indica.  Ricinus communis.  Sulphur.  Magnesia.
  Purgatives.   Cassia senna.  Rheum  palmatum
Convolvulus jalapa.  Helleborus niger. Bryonia  alba
Cucumis  colocynthis.   Momordica elaterium.  Rhani
nus catharticus.  Aloe perfoliata.  Convolvulus scam
mouia.   Gambojia  gulta.   Submurias  hydrargyri
Sulphas magnesia;.  Sulphas sodae.  Sulphns potassa
Supertartras poiassie.   Tartros potassae et sodae.  Mu
riassodae.  Terebinthina veneta.  Nicotiana tabacum
  The medicinesarranged under Emmenagogues, are
  1.  From the class of Antispasmodics.
  Castoreum.  Ferula asafoetida.  Bubon galbanum.
  2.  From the clnss of tonics.
  Ferrum.  Hydrargyrus.   Cinchona officinalis
  3.  From the class of Cathartics.
  Aloe.  Helleborus niger.   Sinapis alba.  Rnsmarinu
officinalis.  Rubia tinctorum.   Ruta gravcolens.  Ju
niperus sabina.
  The class of Diuretics includes,
  1.  Saline diuretics.
  Supertartras potassae.  Nitras potassae.  Murias am
monia-.  Acetas potassae.  Potassa.
  2.  From the vegetable kingdom,
  Scilla maritima.  Digitalis purpurea.  Nicotiana ta
bacum.  Solanum dulcamara.  Lactuca virosn.  Col
chicuin auiumnale.   Gratiola officinalis.   Spartiura
scoparium.   Juniperus  communis.   Copaifera offici-
nalis.  Pinus balsamea.  Pinus larix.
  3.  From the animal kingdom,
  Meloe vesicatorius.
  Under the class Diaphoretics, nre,
  Ammonia.  Murias  ammonia;.  Acetas  ammonite.
Citras ammoniie.  Submurias hydrargyri.  Aretinioni-
um.  Opium. Camphor. Guaiacum officinae. Daphne
mezereum.   Smilax sarsaparilla.  Laurus  sassafras
Cochlearia  armoracia.  Salvia officinalis.
  The class Expectorants comprehends,
  Antimonium.  Ipecacuanha.  Nicotiana tabacum
Digitalispurpurea.  Scilla maritima.  Allium sativum
Polygala  senega.   Aniinonincum.   Myrihn.  Styrax
benzoin.    Styrax  officinalis.   Toluifera balsamum
Myroxylon peruiferum.  Amyris gileadensis.
  The articles of the class Sialagogues are Hydrar-
gyrus.    Anthemis pyrethrum.   Arum mmeulntum
Amomum zinziber.  Daphne mezereum  Nicotians
tabacum.
  The class of Ekrhines are, Iris florentlna.  jtscu 
MATERIA MEDICA.
lus lilppocastanutn.  Origanum majorana.  Lavendula
spica.  Assarum europaeum.  Veratrum album.  "Si-
cotiana tabacum.  Euphorbia officinalis.
  In the class Epispastics, and Rubefacients are
Meloe  vesicatorius.   Ammonia   Pix Burgundica.
Sinapis alba.  Allium sativum.
  Refrigerants nre constituted by the following ar-
ticles.  Cilrus aurantium.  Citrus medica.  Tnmnrin-
dus indica.  Acidum acctosum. Supertartras potassa:.
Nitras potassa:.  Boras sodae.
  The list of articles that come under the class Ant-
acids  are, Potassa.  Soda.  Ammonia.  Calx. Car-
bonas calcis.  "Magnesia.
  In the class Lithontriptics are, Potassa.   Carbo-
nas  potassae.  Soda.  Carbonas sodae.   Sapo albus
Calx.
  In the class  Escuarotics arc,  Acida mineralla.
Potassa.  Nitras aigenti.  Murias antimonii.  Sulphas
eupri.  Acetas cupri.  Murias hydrargyri.  Subniiran
hydrargyri.  Oxydum arsenici album.  Juniperus sa-
bina.
  In the class Anthelmintics are, Dolichos prut:,ns.
Ferri limatura.  Staiiuum pulvcratum. Olea curopxa.
Artemisia santonica. Spigclia  marilandica.   Polypo-
dium filix mas. Tanacetum vulgare.  Geoffroea incrmis.
Gambojia gutta.  Submurias hydrargyri.
  Demulcents are, Mimosa nilotica.  Astragalus tra-
gacanlhus.   Linum usitatissimum.  Allhaeaothcinalis.
Malva sylvestris.  Glycyrrhiza glabra.  Cycas circi-
nails.  Orchis mascula.  Maranta arundinacea. Til-
ticum  hybernum.   Ichthyocolla.   Olea  euro;  ex
Amygdalus communis.   Sevum ceti.  Cera.
  Water is the principal  article of the class Diluents ;
and as for the last class,  Emollients, heat conjoined
wilh moisture is the principal, though all unctuous ap
plications may be included.
The New London Pharmacopoeia presents us with the following
 Abietis resina
 Absinthium
 Acacia: gummi
 Acetosae folia
 Acetosella
 Acetum
 Acidum aceticum fortius
 Acidum citricum
 Acidum sulphuricum
 Aconili folia
 Adeps             .
 iErugo
 Allii radix
 Aloes spicaUe extractum
 Althaea; folia et radix
 Alumen
 Ammoniacum
 Ammonia; murias
 Amygdala amara et dulcis
 Amy! urn
 A nethi semina
 Anisi semina
 Anthemidis floris
 Antimonii sulphuretum
 Antimonii  vilnim
 Argentum
 Arnioracue radix
 Arsenicum album
 Asara folia
 Asafoetidte gummi resina
 Aveiue semina
 Aurantii baccae
 Aurantii cortex
 Balsamum peruvianum
 Balsamum tolutanum
 Belladonna folia
 Benzoinum
 Bismuthum
 Bistorta radix
 Cajuputi oleum
 Calamina
 Calami radix
 Calumba
 Camphora
 Canella; cortex
 Cantharis
 Capsici baccee
 Carbo ligni
 Cardanunes flores
 Cardamomi semina
 Caries frnctus
 Carui semina
 Caryophilli
 Oaryophyllorum oleum
 Cascarilke cortex
 Cassiue pulpa
 Castorcum
Catechu extractum
 Centaurii cacumina
 Cera alba
Cera flava
Cerevisia; fermentum
Cetaceum
Coccus
Colchici radix et semina
Colocynthidis pulpa
Conii folia et semina
Contrayerva radix
Copaiba
Coriandri semina
Cornua
Creta
Croci stigmata
Cubeba
Cumini semina
Cupri sulphas
Cusparia;  cortex
Cydonhe semina
Dauci radix
Dauci semina
Digitalis folia et semina
Dolichi pubes
Dulcamara: caulis
Elaterii pepones
Elemi
Euphorbias gummi resina
Farina
Foeniculi semina
Ferrum
Filicis radix
Fucus
Galbani gummi resina
Gallae
Gentiana:  radix
Glycyrrhiza: radix
Grauati cortex
Guaiaca resina et  lignum
Haematoxyli lignum
Helenium
Hellebori foetidi folia
Hellebori nigri radix
Hordei semina
Humuli strubili
Hydrargyrum
Hyoscyami folia et semina
Ipecacuanha: radix
Jalaps radix
Juniperi baccae et semina
Kino
Kramerix radix
Lactuca
Lavendulae flores
Lauri baccie et folia
Lichen
Limoncs
Limonum cortex et oleum
Linum catharticum
Lini usilatissimi semina
Magnesia: subcarbonas
Magnesia: sulphas
Malva
Manna
Marmor aloum
Marrubium
Mastiche
Mel
Cinchona: lancifbliae, cordifolia et  Mentha piperita
  oblongifoliie cortex              Mentha viridis
Cinnamomi cortex                Menyanthes
Cinnamomi oleum                Mezerei cortex
Li
list for the Materia Medica :- -
 Mori baccie
 Moschus
 Myristica nuclei et oleum expressum
 Myrrha
 Olibanum
 Oliva: oleum
 Opium
 Opopanacis gummi resina
 Origanum
 Ovum
 Papaveris capsuls
 Petroleum
 Pimentae baccas
 Piperis longi fructus
 Piperis nigri baccie
 Pix abielina
 Pix liquida
 Pix nigra
 Plumbi subcarbonas
 Plumbi oxydum semivltreuro
 Porri radix
 Potassa impura
 Potassa: nitras
 Potassae sulphas
 Potassae supertartras
 Prima
 Pierocarpi lignum
 Pulcgium
 Pyrethri  radix
 Quassia: lignum
 Quercus  cortex
 Resina flava
 Rhamni baccie
 Rhei radix
 Rhoteados petala
 Ricini semina et oleum
 Rosa: canina: pulpa
 Ross centi folia: petala
 Rosa: gallicae petala
 Rosmartni cacumina
 Rubiae radix
 Ruta: folia
 Sabina; folia
 Saccharum
 ----------purificatum
 Salicis cortex
 Sagapenum
 Sambuci flores
 Sapo durus et mollis
 Sarsaparilla; radix
 Sassafras lignum et radix
 Scammoneee gummi resin?
 Scilla; radix
 Senegae radix
 Senna: folia
 Serpentaria; radix
 Sevum
 Simnroubae cortex
 Sinapis semina
 Sodaemurias
 Bodoe subboras
 Soda: sulphas
 Soda impura
 Spartii cacumina
 Spigelian radix
 Spiritus rcctificatus et tenuiot
 Spongia
                       a 
MAT
MAX
fltramonii folia et semina
Staiuium
S- iphisagriae semina
,-*, i acis balsamum
,--'  ccinum
f-  Iphur et sulphur sublimatum
Tabaci folia
Tamarindi  pulpa
Taiaxaci radix
Tartarum
Teiebinthina Canadensis
------------Chia
------------vulgaris
Terebinthina: oleum
Testae
Tiglii oleum
Tonnentilte radix
Toxicodendii folia
Tragacantha
Tussilago
Valerianae radix
Veratri radix
L'lmi cortex
Uva: passae
Uva: ursi folia
Zincum
Zingiberis radix.
  Materia perlata.  If, instead of crystallizing the
salts contained in the liquor separated from diaphoretic
antimony, an acid be poured into il, a white precipi-
tate is formed, which is nothing else hut a very refrac-
tory calx of antimony.
  Materiatu'ra.  Castellus explains morbi matcria-
ti.ra to be diseases of intemperance.
  -MATLOCK.  A village iu Deibyshire.   It affords a
mineral water of the acidulous class: which  issues
from a limestone rock, near the banks of the Derwent.
Several of the springs possess a temperature of G6°.
tlatloclc  water scarcely  differs from common  good
spring water, in sensible properties.  Il  is extremely
transparent, and exhales no vapour, excepting in cold
weather.  It holds little or no excess of a6i ial particles ;
St curdles soap when first taken up, but it loses this efiect
upon  long keeping,  perhaps  from the deposition of its
calcareous salts;  it appears to  differ very little  from
£Ood spring  water when lasted : and ils effects seem
lelerrible to  its temperature.  It is from this latter cir-
cumstance that it forms a proper tepid bath for Ihe ner-
vous and irritable, and those of  a debilitated constitu-
tion ;  hence it is usually recommended alter the use of
Bath  and Buxton waters, and  as preparatory to sea-
bathing.
  MATRICA'LIA.    (Matricalis;  from matrix, the
vouib.)  Medicines appropriated to disorders of the
uterus.
  MATRICA'RIA.    (From matrix, the womb:  so
called from its uses in disorders ofthe womb.) 1. The
name of" a genus of plants  in  the Linnaean system.
Class, Syngenesia ;  Order, Polygainiasupcrfi.ua.
  2. The phariiiacopceial name of the Matricaria par-
theniiim.  See Matricaria parthenium.
  Matricaria chamomilla. Chamamelum vulgare;
Chamomilla nostras;  Leucanthemum of Dioscorides.
Common wild corn, or dog's  camomile.  The plant di-
lected under this name in the  phamacopoeias,  is the
Matricaria—receptaculis conicis  radiis  patentibus;
squamis  calycinis,  margine aqualibus, of Linnaeus.
Its virtues are similar to tliose of the parthenium, but
in a much inferior degree.
  Matricaria parthenium.  The systematic  name
of Ihe fever-few.  Parthenium  febrifuga.   Common
fever-few, or febrifuge, and often, but very improperly,
feather-few.  Mother's wort.  The leaves and floweis
of this plant,  Matricaria—-foliis  compositis, planis;
foliolis ovalis, incisis; pedunculis  rumosis, have a
strong, not agreeable smell, and  a moderately bitter
taste, both which they communicate by warm infusion,
tn water and rectified spirit.  The watery infusions,
inspissated, leave an extract  of considerable bitterness,
and which discovers also a saline matter, both  to the
lisle, and in a more sensible  manner by throwing up to
the surface small  crystalline efflorescences iu keeping.
Ihe peculiar flavour of the  mairic.iria  exhales iu the
evaporation,  and impregnates the distilled water, on
which also a quantity of  essential oil is found floating.
The quantity of spirituous  extract, according lo Car-
Iheuser's  experiments,  is only about one sixth the
weight of the dry leaves, whereas Ihe  watery extract
amounts to near one-half. This plant is evidently the
I  rthenium of Dioscorides,  since  whose lime  it has
been  very  generally employed  for medical  purposes.
In natuial nihility, it ranks with camomile and tansy,
ai d ils sensible qualities show it to be nearly allied  to
them in its medicinal character.   Bergius states its vir-
tues lo be  ionic, stomachic, icsolvent, and enimeiia-
gogue'.' It has been given successfully as a vermifuge,
nnd lor the cure  of intermittents;  but its use is most
celebrated in female disorders, especially iu hysteria;
Rial hence  il is supposed  to have derived the name of
iiiauicatia.   Its smell, taste, and analysis, prove it to
he a medicine of considerable activity ;  we may, there-
Tme,  say, with Murray—Rurius  /iodic prascribitar,
quam dibctur.
       A:l
  Matrisy'lva.  See Aspcrula.
  MATRIX.   (Marnp.)   I. The womb  See Uterus
  2.  The earthy or stony matter which accompanies
ores, or envelopes them in the earth.
  MaTrona'lis.  iFioiii matrona, a matron : so called
because its smell :-■ grateful to women.)  The violet.
  MATTJIIOLCS, Peter Andrew, was born  at Si
enna  in 1501.   He  went  to study the law  at Padua;
nut disliking lhat pursuit,  he turned his attention to
medicine.   His father's death  interrupted  him  iu his
progiess; but  having conciliated  the good opinion of
the professors, the degree of doctor was conferred upon
him  before his departure.  He  speedily found  ample
employment in his native place, but afterward went
to Rome, and  in 1527 to the court of the prince bishop
of Trent.    During his residence of  fourteen  years
there, he acquired sucil general  esteem, that on his re-
moval, men, women, aud children, accompanied him,
calling him their father  and benefactor.  At Gorizia,
where he then settled as  public physician, he likewise
experienced a  signal mark of gratitude; a  fire having
consumed all his furniture, Ihe people flocked  to him
next day with  presents, which more ihan compensated
his loss, and the magistrates advanced him a year's sa-
lary.  After twelve years, he accepted an inviiation to
the Imperial court, where he was highly honoured, and
created aulic counsellor:  bul finding the weight of age
pressing upon him, he retired to Tient, where he shortly
die d  of the plague  in 1577.  He. left  several works,
chiefly relating to the virtues of plants: and that, by
which he principally distinguished himself, was a Com-
mentary  on the  writings of Dioscorides.   Tlfis was
first published  in Italian,  afterward translaied by him
into Lathi, wilh plates, and passed through numerous
editions.   He  certainly  contributed much to lay the
foundation of botanical  science, though lie was not
sufficiently scrupulous in consultii ig the original sources,
and examining the plants themselves.
  MATURA'NTIA.   (Maturaus; from  maturo, to
ripen.)  Medicines whicli promote the suppuration of
tumours.
  MATURATION.   (Maluratio;  from  maturo, to
make ripe.)  A term in surgery, signifying lhat pro-
cess wliich succeeds inflammation, by which pus iscol
lecled in mi abscess.
  MAUDLIN.  See Achillea ageratum.
  MAURICEAU, Francis, was born at Paris, where
he studied surgery with great industry  for many  years,
especially at the Hotel-Dieii. He had acquired so much
experience iu  midwifery, before he commenced  public
practice, that he rose almost at once to the  head of his
profession.  Ili.s reputation was farther increased  by
his writings, and maintained by  his prudent conduct
during a series of years , after which he retired into the
country, and died in 1709. He published several works,
relating to  the particular branch  of the art  which he
practised, containing  n  great   store  of useful  facts,
though not well arranged, nor free from  the false rea-
soning prevalent in his lime.
  Mauro-makson.  See M.irrubium.
  Maw-worm.  See Ascaris.
  MAXI'LLA.  (From naaoau, to chew.)   The jaw,
both upper and lower.
  Maxillare inperius os. Maxilla inferior.  Man-
dibula.  The maxilla inferior, or lower jaw, which, in
its figure, may be compared to n horse-shoe, is at first
composed of two distinct bones ; but these, soon after
birth, unile together nt Ihe middle of the chin, so as to
form only one bone.   The superior edge of this bone
has, like ihe upper jaw,  a process, called the alveolar
process.   This, as  well  as lhat ol the upper jaw, to
wliich it is in other  respects a good deal similai, is like
wise furnished with cavities for the reception  of the
teeth. The posterior part ofthe bone, on each side,
rises perpendicularly into two processes, 1411c of whirl;
is called the coronoid, and the otlier the condyloid pro- 
MAX
MAY
 ccess.  The first of these is the highest: it is thin and
 pointed ;  nnd  the temporal muscle, which is attached
 to it, serves to elevate the jaw.  The condyloid process
 is uiiriowei, thicker, and shoi lei thau Ihe oilier, termi-
 nating iu au oblong, rounded head, which is tunned fur
 a moveable  articulation with the cranium, and is re-
 ceived into  the forepart ol' the fossa described in Ihe
 temi.....al biuio.  Iu  this joinuthere is a moveable car-
 tilage, which, being  more closely connected lo the con-
 dyle than to the cavily, may be considered as belonging
 to the former.   This moveable oartiiiige  is connected
 wit.i both tlie articulating surface of the temporal bone
 and the condyle of. the jaw, by distinct ligaments aris-
 ing  from its edges all round.  These  attachments of
 the  cartilage are stieugtheued, and the whole articula-
 tion secured, by au  external  ligament, which  is com-
 mon lo both, and which is fixed lo the temporal bone,
 i».ud in the neck of the condy.e.  On  the inner surlace
 of the ligament, which  attaches the cartilage to the
 tcmpoial bone, aud backwaids in the cavity, is placed
 what  is  commonly  called the gland of the joint;  at
 least the ligament is there found tu be much more vas-
 cular than at any otlier part.   At the bottom of each
 coronoid process, on  its inner part, is a foramen, or ca-
 nal,  which extends under the roots of all the teeth, and
 terminates at the outer surface of the bone near the
 chin.  Each of tliese foramina affords a passage to an
 artery, vein, and nerve, which send off branches lo the
 several teeth.
  Tiiis bone is capable of a great many motions.  The
 condyles, by sliding from the cavily towards the emi-
 nences in  each side,  bring tlie jaw  horizontally lor-
 waids, as in the action of biting; or the condyles only
 may be brought forwards, w.hile the rest nf the jaw is
 tiln d  backwards, as is  the case when the mouth is
 open.  The condyles may also slide alternately  back-
 waids and forwards  from ihe  cavity to the eminence,
 aud  vice  versa; so that while one condyle advances,
 the  other moves backwards,  turning the body of the
 jaw  from side  to side, cs in grinding tbe teeth.   The
 great use of the cartilages seems to be that of securing
 the articulation, by adapting themselves lo the different
 inequalities in these  several motions of the jaw, and to
 prevent any  injuries from friction.  This  lost circum-
 stance is of great importance where there is so  much
 motion, and, accordingly, litis cartilage is found in the
 different tribes of carnivorous animals,  where  there
 is no  eminence and cavity, nor other apparatus  for
 grinding.
  Tiie alveolar processes  are formed of an external
 and  internal plate, united together by thin bony parti-
 tions, which divide the processes at the forepart of the
 jaw, into as many sockets as there are teeth.  But, at
 flic posterior part, where the teeth have more than one
root, each root  has a distinct cell.  These processes in
both jaws, begin to  be formed with tbe teeth, accom-
pany them in their  growth,  and disappear when the
teeth fall.   So that Ihe loss of ihe one seems constantly
lo be attended with the loss of the other.
  Maxillare superius os.  Maxilla superior.  The
superior  maxillary bones constitute tbe most consider-
able  portion of tlie upper jaw, are two in number, nnd
gene-Tally remain distinct through life.  Their figure is
exceedingly irregular, and not easily to be described.
 On each of these bones are observed several eminences.
 One of these is at the upper and forepart of the bone,
 and, from its making part of tbe nose,  is  called the
nasal  process.   Infernally, in the inferior portion of
 this process, is a fossa, whicli, with the os unguis, forms
 a passage  for the lachrymal  duct.   Into  this  nasal
 process, likewise, is inserted the short round tendon of
the  musculus orbicularis palpebrarum.   Backwards
and  outwards, from the root of the nasal  process, the
bone helps to form the lower side of the orbit, and this
part  is therefore called  the orbitar proeess.  Behind
this  orbitar process,  the bone forms a considerable tu-
berosity, and, at the upper part of this tuberosity, is a
channel,  which  is almost a complete hole.  In this
channel passes  a branch of the fifth  pair of nerves,
which, together with a small artery, is transmitted to
Ihe face through the external orbitar  foramen, wliich
opens immediately under the orbit.  Where the  bone
on each side is joined to theosmalae.and helps to form
the cheeks, is observed what is called ihe malar pro-
cess.   The lower and anterior parts of the bone make
s kind of circular sweep, in which are the alveoli, or
•octets for the  teeth; this is called the alvctdar pro-
 cess.  This alveoiar process has posteriorly a consider
 able tuberosity on its  internal surface.  Above thia
 nlveolnr process, and just behind the fore-teeth, is an
| irregular hole, called the foramen incisivum, which,
 separating inlo two, and sometimes more holes, servc-j
 to tiniisinii  small  arteries and veins,  and a minute
 branch of  the fifth  pair  of nerves to the nostrils.
 There are two horizontal  lamellae behind the alveolar
 process, which, uniting together, form part o  the root
 of the mouth, and divide it from the nose.   This par
 titioil, being seated somewhat  higher  ihan  the  lower
 edge of the al veolnr pi ocess, gives the roof of thenioutfe
 a considerable hollowness.  Where the ossa inaxillar.a
 are united to each otlier,  they project  somewhat for-
 wards, leaving between them a furrow, wliich receives
 the inferior portion of theseptiim nasi.  Each of thesrj
 bones is hollow, and forms u considerable sinus  niid'.r
 its oi hilar part.  This sinus, whicli is usually, though
 improperly, culled antrum Highmorianum,\slii\ed with
 ihe piluitoiy membrane. It answers ihe same purpose.-!
 as the other sinuses of the nose, and  communicate:
 with ihe nostiils by an opening, which appears to be a
 large one in  the skeleton, bul which, in Ihe tecout sub-
 ject, is much smaller.   In  Ihe  fuetus, instead of these
 sinuses, an oblong depression only is observed at  each
 side of the nostiils, nor is tlie tuberosity of the alveo
 lar process then formed.  On the side of Uie palate, in
 young suhjecis,a kind of fissure may be noticed, whic'i
 seems tu separate the portion of the bone which con-
 tains the denies incisures fiom that which contains the
 denies camni.  This fissure is sometimes apparent till
 the sixth year, hut after  lhat period it in general wholly
 disappears.
   The  ossa maxillaria not only serve to form th,:
 cheeks, bul likewise the palate, nose, and orbits; and,
 besides iheir union wilh each othei, they are connected
 with the greatest part ofthe bones of the face and crani-
 um, viz. with the ossa nasi, ossa malarum, ossa unguis,
 ossa palati, os frontis, os sphenoides, and os ellmioldes
   M AXILLARIS.  (From maxilla; the jaw.)   Max
 illary : appertaining to the jaw.
   Maxillary artery. Arteria maxillaris  A branch
 of the external carolid.   The external maxillary is the
 fourth branch of the  carolid ;  it proceeds anteriorly,
 and gives off the facial or mental, the coronary of ll.e.
 lips, and Ihe angular artery. The internal maxillai j
 is the next branch of the carotid; il gives off ihe spheno
 maxillary, the inferior alveolar, and the spinous artery.
   Maxillary  gland.   Glandula maxillaris.    The
 gland so called is conglomerate, and situated under the
 angles of the lower jaw.  The excretory ducts of these
 glands are called W.uthouian, after their discoverer.
   Maxillary  nerve.  Nervus maxillaris.  The s j-
 perior and inferior  maxillary nerves are branches of
 the fifth pair, or trigemiui.   The former is divided intu
 Ihe  sphenopalatine, posterior alveolar, and the  intra-
 orbital nerve.  The latter is divided into two blanches,
 the internal lingual, and one, more properly, called the
 inferior maxillary.
   [May-apple.  See Podophyllum peltatum.  A.]
   May-lily.  See Convallaria majalis.
   May-weed.  See Anthemis cotula.
   MA VERNE, Sir Theodore Turquet de, Bap.on
 D'Aubonne, was born at Geneva iu 1573, and grad.i
 ated at Montpelier.   He then went to Paris, and, i.y
 the influence of  Riverius, was appointed  in KiUO to
 attend the Duke de Rohan, in his embassy to  the  d'„t
 at Spire ; and also one of the physicians in ordinary to
 Henry IV.  On his return, he settled in Paris as physi-
cian, and gave lectures  in  anatomy and pharmacy, in
 whicli he  strongly  recommended various  chemicai
 remedies : this drew on  him the ill-will of Ihe faculty,
and he was anonymously attacked as an enemy to Hi:>
pocrates  and Galen,  whence in  his "Apologia," !•<■
cleared himself from this imputation, making also some
severe strictures on his opponents.  They consequently
issued a decree against consulting with  him: but the
esteem of the king supported him against this perse-
cution, and he would have  been appointed first phi-si.
cian, had  he not refused  to embrace the Catholc
religion.  After the assassination of Henry IV. in IClii,
he received an invitation from James I. of England, tc
whom he had been introduced three ? ears before: he
accepted the office of his first physician, and passed t>
remainder of his life in this country.  He  was ad
milted to ihe degree of doctor in both universities, and
into  the College of Physicians, and met with ver| 
ME A
MEC
 general respect.  He incurred some obloquy, indeed, on
 the death of the Pi ince of Wales, having differed in
 opinion from the other physicians, but his conduct  ob-
 tained the written approbation of the king and council.
 He was  knighted in 1624, and honoured with the  ap-
 pointment  of  physician  to the  two succeeding mo-
 narchs;  and accumulated a large fortune by nis exten-
 sive practice.   He died in 1G55, and bequeathed  his
 library to the College  of" Physicians.  Several papers,
 written by him, were published after his death: among
 which  are the  cases of many  of  his  distinguished
 patients, well drawn up.
  MA YOVV, John, was born in Cornwall in 1(345.  He
 studied at Oxford, and took a degree in civil  law,  but
 afterward changed  'o medicine, which  he practised
 chiefly at Bai'n ,  out ne died in London  at the age of
 34.  These are the only records of the life of a  man,
 v ho went before his age iu his views of chemical phy-
 siology, and anticipated, though obscurely, some of  the
 most remarkable discoveries in pneumatic chemistry,
 which  have since been made.  He published at Oxford
 ia 16G9 two tracts, one on Respiration,  the other on
 Rickets; which were reprinted five years after with
 three additional dissertations, one on the Respiration
 of the  Foetus in  Utero et Ovo, another  on Muscular
 Motion and the Auimal Spirits, and the remaining one
 on Saltpetre and the Nilro-agrial Spirit.  On this  latter
 his claim above-mentioned chiefly rests, the existence
 of the nitro-aSrial spirit being proved by many ingeni-
 ous experiments, as a constituent  of air, and of nitre,
 the food of life and flame, agreeing with the oxygen of
 modern chemists.  Much vague  speculation, indeed,
 occurs in the work: but he clearly maintains that this
 spirit is absorbed by  the blood in the lungs, and proves
 the Hource of the animal  heat, as also of the  nervous
 energy  and  of  muscular  motion.   He likewise antici-
 pated the mode of operating with aerial fluids in vessels
 inverted  over water, and  transferring them from one
 tj another.
  Mays, Indian.   See Zea mays.
  MEAD.  1.  Thenameof a physician,Dr. Richard,
 bun neai London in 1673.  After studying some time
 at Leyden, and in different parts of Italy, he graduated
 at Padua in 1695.  Then returning to his native country,
 lie settled in practice, and met with considerable suc-
 cess.  His first  publication, " A Mechanical Account of
 Prisons," appeared in 1702, and displayed much  inge-
 nuity ;  though  he afterward candidly retracted some of
 * - ■ 3 opinions, as inadequate to explain the functions of
a living body.  He was soon after elected  a member of
the Royal Society, aud in  the following year physician
to  St. Thomas's Hospital.  Iu 1704, "he  published a
treatise, maintaining the influence of the sun and moon
on the human body, arguing from the Newtonian theory
of the tides, and the changes effected by  those bodies
in  the  atmosphere.  In 1707, he  received a diploma
from Oxford, and about four years after he was ap-
 I linted to read the anatomical lectures at Surgeons'
 .'all, which  he continued for  some time with great
 p.pplause. In 1714, on the death of his patron Dr. Rad-
ciiff,', he  took his house, and being then a  fellow of the
 C .liege of Physicians, and having been called  into
 i.tmsultution, in the last illness of Queen  Anne, when
 lie displayed superior judgment, he seems  to have been
 regarded among  the first  of the profession, and  soon
 after, from  his extensive engagements,  resigned his
 »Ticeat St. Thomas's Hospital. The plague raging at
 Karspilles in 1719, he was officially consulted on the
 i..nans of prevention, which led loa publication by him,
 in  the following year, decidedly maintaining its infec-
t'ous nature, which had been questioned in France, and
 rteeommendingsuitable precautions: this  work passed
 rapidly through many editions. In 17-21,  he superin-
 tended  the experiment of innoculating the small-pox
 i-i the persons of some criminals;  and his report being
 ft vourable, the practice was rapidly diffused.  lie was
a .on after engaged in a controversy with Dr. Middle-
 ton, concerning the condition of physicians among the
 I. ittiana, which was, however, canied on in a manner
honourable to both parties.  About Ihe same period Dr.
 I'tvind  having been committed to the Tower for his
plitiral sentiments, Dr. Mend obtained his liberation
In a spirited manner, and presented him a  considerable
sum, received from his patients during his imprison-
i tent.  In 1727, he was appointed physician in ordinary
to George II. and his professional occupations  became
r-n extensive, that he  had no leisure for writing.  It was
     54
 not till 20 years after, therefore, that he printed his
 treatise on Small-pox and Measles, written iu a  jiurp
 Latin style, with a translation in the same language ot
 Rhazes' Commentary on tlie former disease.  In  1749,
 he published a treatise on  the Scurvy, ascribing the
 disease to moisture and putridity, and recommending
 Mr- Sutton's ventilator, which was, in consequence oi
 his interposition, received into the navy.  His " Medi-
 cina  Sacra," appeared iij the same  year, containing
 remarks on  the diseases montioned  in the Scripture
 His last work was a summary of his experience, en-
 titled  " Monita et Praecepla  Medica," in 1751; it was
 frequently reprinted, and translated into English.   His
 life terminated iu 1754; and  a monument  was erected
 to him in Westminster Abbey.   He distinguished  him-
 self, not only in his profession, but he was the greatest
 patron of science and polite literature of his time; and
 he made an ample collection of scarce and valuable
 books, manuscripts, and literary curiosities; to which
 all respectable persons had free access.
  2. An old English liquor made from the honey-combs,
 from  which honey has been drained  out by boiling in
 water, and then fermenting.  This is often confounded
 with metheglin.
  Meadow crowfoot.   See Ranunculus  acrts.
  Meadow, queen of the.  See Spiraa ulmaria.
  Meadow saffron.  See Colchicum.
  Meadow saxifrage.  See Peucedanum silaus.
  Meadow sweet.  See Spiraa ulmaria.
  Meadow thistle, round leaved.   See  Cnicus  ole-
 raceus.
  MEASLES. See Rubeola.
  MEASURE.  The  English measures of capacity,
 are according to the following table:
  One gallon,  wine measure, ) .        t
    is  equal to   -   -     J      H
  One quart,  -              two pints.
  One pint,   -              28.875 cubic inches.
  The pint is subdivided by chemists and apothecaries
 into 16 ounces
  MEATUS.  An opening which leads to a canal or
 duct.
  Meatus auditorius externus. The external  pas-
 sage of the ear is lined with the common integuments,
 under  which are a number of glands,  which secrete
 the wax.  The use of this duct is to admit the sound
 to the tympanum, wliich is at its extremity.
  Meatus auditorius internus.  The  internal au
 ditory  passage is a small  bnny  canal, beginning inter-
 nally by a longitudinal orifice at the posterior surface
 of the petrous portion of the temporal  bone, running
 towards the vestibulum and  cochlea,  and  there being
 divided into two less cavities by an eminence.  The
 superior nnd smaller of these is the orifice ofthe aque-
 duct of Fallopius, which receives the portio duta of
 the auditory nerve: the other  inferior and larger cavity
 is perforated by many small holes, through which the
 portio  mollis  of the  auditory nerve  passes into  the
 labyrinth.
  Meatus c.ecus.  A passage  in  tlie  throat to  the
ear, called Eustachian tube.
  Meatus coticulares.  The pores of the skin
  Meatus cysticus.  The gall-duct.
  Meatus urinarius. In women, this is situated in
the vagina, immediately below the symphisis of the
pubes,  and behind tlie  nymphs.  In men, it is at tlie
end of the glans penis.
  Mecca balsam.  See Amyris gileadensis.
  MECHOACAN. See Convolvulus  mechoacanna.
  Mechoaca'nna.   (From Mechoacan, a  province in
 Mexico, whence it is brought.)  See Convolvulus  me-
choacanna.
  Mechoacanna nigra.  See Convolvulus jalapa.
  Me'con.  (From unxos, bulk: so named from  the
largeness of its head.)   The papaver,  or poppy.
  MECONIC ACID.  (Acidum meconicum ; so called
from pnxuv, the poppy, from which  it is procured.)
This acid is a constituent of opium.   It was discover-
ed by  Sertuerner,  who procured it in  the following
way:  After precipitating the morphia, from a solutioii
of opium, by ammonia, he added to the residual fluid
a solution of the muriate of barytes.  A precipitate is
in this way formed, which is supposed to be a quadru-
 ple compound of barytes, morphia, extract, and  the
meconic acid.  The extract is removed by alkohol,  and
the barytes by sulphuric acid; when the meconic acid
 is left, merely in combination with a portion ol  the 
MED
MED
morphia; and from this it is  purified  hy successive
solutions and evaporations.  The acid, when sublimed,
forms long colourless needles; it bus a strong affinity
for the oxide of iron, so as to take it from the muriatic
solution, and form with it a cherry-red precipitate.  It
forms a crystallizable salt wilh lime, which is not de-
composed by sulphuric acid;  and what  is curious, it
seems to possess no particular power over the human
body, when received into the stomach.  The etseiitial
salt of opium, obtained in Derosne's original experi-
ments, was probably the meconiate of morphia.
  Robiquel has made a useful modification of the pro-
cess for extracting meconic acid.  He treats the opium
with magnesia, lo separate tlie morphia, while meco-
niate of magnesia is also formed.  The magnesia is
-emoved by adding muriate of barytes, and the ba-
rytes is afterwaid separated by dilute sulphuric acid.
k larger proportion of meconic acid is thus obtained.
  Mc'conis.   (From  pnxuv,  the poppy: so called
because ils juice  is soponterous, like the poppy.)  The
lettuce.
  MECONIUM. (From pyxuv, the poppy.)  1.  The
inspissated juice  of the poppy.  Opium.
  2. The green excrcmeiitiiious substance that is found
in the large intestines of the foetus.
  MEDIAN.  Medianus.  This term  ia applied to
vessels, Sec. from llieir situation between olliers.
  Median nerve.  The second branch of the brachial
plexus.
  Median vein.   The  situation of the veins of the
arms is extremely different in different individuals
When a branch  proceeds near the bend of the  arm,
inwardly from the basilic vein, it is termed the basilic
median;  and when a vein is given off from the cepha-
lic in tlie like manner, it is termed ihe cephalic median.
When  these two veins are present, they mostly unite
just below the bend ofthe arm, aud the couiinon trunk
proceeds to the cephalic vein.
  Media'mm.  The Mediastinum.
  MEDIAST1 NUM.  (Quasi in medio stans, as being
in the middle.)  Tbe  membraneous  septum, formed
by the duplicature of the pleura, that divides the cavity
of the chest inlo two pans.  It is divided into an ante-
rior and posterior portion.
  Mediastinum cerebri.  The falciform process of
the dura mater.
  ME'DICA.  (Medicus; from medico, to heal.)  1.
Belonging to medicine.
  2.  (From Media, its native soil.)  A sort of trefoil.
  MEDICA'GO.   (So called by Tourneforte;  from
medica, which is indeed the proper name of the plant—
pniixij, of  Dioscorides.)  The name of a genus  of
plants in the  Linnaean system.   Class, Diadelphia;
Order, Decandna.  The herb trefoil.
  MEDICAMENTA RIA.  Pharmacy,  or the art of
making and preparing  medicines.
  MEDlCAME NTUM.  (From medico, to heal.)  A
medicine.
  MEDIC A'STER.  A pretender to the know ledge of
medicine: the same as quack.
  MEDICINA.   (From medico, to heal.)   Medicine.
I. The medical art: applied to the profession generally.
  2. Any substance that  is exhibited with a view to
cure or allay the violence of a disease.  It is also very
frequently made use of  to express the healing art,
when it comprehends anatomy, physiology, and pa-
thology,     v
  Medicina dijetetica.  That department of medi-
cine which regards the regulation of regimen, or the
non-naturals.
  Medicina diasostica.  That part of medicine which
preserves health.
  Medicina qymnastica.  That part of medicine
which relates to exercise.
  Medicina hermetic*.  The application of chemi-
cal remedies.
  Medicina prophylactica   That part of medicine
wliich relates to preservation of health.
  Medicina tristiti*.  Common saffron.
  MEDICINAL.   (Medicinalis;  from medicina.)
Medicinal,  having a power to restore health, or re-
move disease.
  Medicinal  days.   Such days  were so called  by
some writers, wherein the crisis or change is expected,
so as to forbid the  use of medicines, in  order to wait
nature's effort, and require all the  assistance of art to
help forward, or prepare the humours for such a crisis:
but it  is most properly used for those days wherein
purging, or any other evacuation, is most conveniently
complied with.
  Medicinal hours.   Are those wherein it is  sup-
posed that medicines may be laken to the greatest ad-
vantage, commonly reckoned in the  morning fasting,
about an hour before dinner, about  four  hours  after
dinner, and  at going to bed;  but in acute cases, the
times are to be governed by the symptoms and aggra
vation uf the distemper.
  Medina.   A species of ulcer, mentioned by Para-
celsus.
  MEDINE'NSIS VENA.   (JWcdijK-nsis,- so calcd
because it is frequent at Medina, and improperly called
vena for vei-mis; and sometimes nervus  mcdinensis,
and  no one  knows why.)   Dracunculus, Gordius
mcdinensis, of Linnaeus.  The muscular  hair worm.
A very singular animal, which, in some countries, in-
habits  the cellular membrane between  the skin and
muscles. See Dracunculus.
  MEDITU'LLICM.   (From medius, the middle.)
See Diplot.
  Me'dius venter.   The middle venter, the thorax,
or chest.
  MEDLAR.  See Mespilus.
  MEDU'LLA.  (Quasi in medio ossis.)   1. Theinar
row.  See Marrow.
  2.  The pith or pulp of vegetables. The centre  or
heart of a vegetable within the wood.   "This," says
Dr. E. Smith, "in parts most endowed with  life, as
roots and young  growing stems or branches, is a tole-
rably firm juicy substance, of a uniform texture, and
commonly a pale green or yellowish colour.  In many
annual stems the petal, abundant aud very juicy while
they are growing, becomes little mote than a  web,
lining the hollow of the complete stem;  as in some
thistles.  Concerning the nature and functions of this
part various opinions have been held.  Du Hamel con-
sidered it as  merely cellular substance, connected  with
what is diffused through  the whole  plant, combining
its various parts, bul  not performing any remarkable
office in the vegetable economy.  Linnaeus, on the con-
trary, thought il the seat of life, and source of vegeta-
tion ; that its vigour was the main cause of the propul
sion  of the  branches, and that the seeds were more
especially formed from il.  This latter hypothesis is
not better founded than his idea of the pith adding
new layers to the wood.  In fact, the pith is soon ob-
literated in the trunk of many trees;  wliich, neverthe-
less,  keep increasing  for a long series  of years,  by
layers  of wood, added every year from the bark,
even after the heart of the tree is become hollow  from
decay.
  Some considerations have led Sir James Smith to
hold a medium opinion between  those two extremes.
There  is in  certain respects, he observes, an analogy
between the  medulla of plants and the nervous system
of animals.   It is  no less assiduously protected  than
the spinal marrow or principal ner>-e.  It is branched
off and diffused through the plant, as nerves are through
Ihe animal;  hence it is not absurd to presume that il
may, in like manner, give life and vigour to the whole,
though by no means any more than nerves, the organ
or source of  nourishment.
  It is certainly most vigorous and abundant in young
and growing branches, and must be supposed to be sub-
servient, in some way or other, to their increase.
  Mr. Lindsay, of Jamaica, thought  he demonstrated
the medulla in tbe leafstalk of the Mimosa pudica, oi
sensitive plant.
  Knight supposes the medulla may be a reservoir of
moisture, to supply the leaves whenever an excess of
perspiration  renders such assistance  necessary, but it
should be recollected that all the  moisture in the me-
dulla of a whole plant is, in some cases, too little  to
supply one hour's perspiration of a single leaf, and it in
not found that the moisture of the medulla varies, let
the leaves be ever so flaccid
  3.  The white substance of the brain  is called  me-
dulla, or the medullary part, to distinguish it from the
cortical.
  Medulla cassia.   Thepulpof the cassiae fistularis
Bee Cassiafistularis.
  Medulla oblongata.  Cerebrum elongatum.  The
medullary substance that lies within tiie cranium, upon
the basillary process of the occipital bone.  It is formed
by the connexion of the crura cerebri and crura cere
                                         55 
MEL                                              MEL
 belli, and terminates in the spinal marrow.  It has se-
 veral eminences, viz.  pons varolii, corpora pyrami-
 dalia, and corpora olivaria.
  Medulla spinalis. Cerebrum elongatum J£on. The
 spinal marrow.  A continuation ofthe medulla oblon-
 gata, which descends into the specus vertebralis from
 the foramen magnum occipitale, to the third vertebra
 of the loins, where it terminates in a number of nerves,
 wliich, from their resemblance, are called caudaequina.
 The spinal marrow is composed, like  the brain, of a
 cortical and medullary substance; the former is placed
 internally.  It is covered by a continuation of the dura
 mater, pia inatcr, and tunica arachnoidea. The use of
 the spinal marrow is to give off, through the lateral or
 intervertebral  foramina, thirty pairs of" nerves, called
cervical, dorsal, lumbar, and sacral nerves.
  MEDULLARY. (Medullaris; from medulla, mar-
row.)  Like unto marrow.
  Medullary substance.   The  white or internal
substance ofthe brain is so called.   See Cerebrum.
  MEDELLIN.   The name given  by Dr. John to  the
porous pith of the sun-flower.
  MEERSCHAM. Kessecil of Kirwan.  A mineral
composed of silica, magnesia,lime-water, and carbonic
acid, of a yellowish  and grayish white  colour, and
greasy  feel, and soft when first dry.  It  lathers like
soap, and is used by Ihe Tartars for washing.  In Tur-
key they make tobacco pipes from meerschaum, dug in
Natolia and near Thebes.
  Megalospla'nchnus.  (From ptyas,  great, and
atrXayxvov, a bowel.)  Having some of the viscera en-
laiged.
  MEGRIM.  A species of headache;  a pain gene-
rally affecting one side of ihe head, towards the eye, or
temple, and arising from the state ofthe stomach.
  MEIBOMIUS, Henry, was born at Lubeck in 1638.
 After studying in different universities, he graduated at
Angers, and afterward was appointed professor of me-
dicine at Hehnstadt, where he continued till his death
in 1700.  He published several works, and commenta-
ries on those of others.  That which chiefly illustrates
his name is entitled " De Vasis Palpebrarum novis,"
printed  in 1666.   He seems to have contemplated a
history of medicine, and published a letter on the sub-
ject, which indeed his father had begun ; but the diffi-
culties wliich  he met with in investigating the  medi-
cine ofthe Arabians, anested his progress.
  Meibomius's glands.  Mcibomii glandula.   The
sma'l glands which are situated between the conjunc-
tive membrane of the eye and the cartilage ofthe cyo-
 'id, first described by Meibomius.
  MEIONITE.  Prismatico-pyramidal felspar.  This
 nineral occurs along with ceylanite, and nephcline, in
granular limestone, at Monte Somna, near Naples.
  MEL.  Honey. A substance collected by bees from
the nectary of flowers, resembling sugar in its elemen-
mry properties.  It has a white or yellowish colour, a
soft and grained  consistence, and  a saccharine and
aromatic smell.  It is supposed to consist of sugar, mu-
cilage, and an acid.  Honey is an excellent food, and a
softening and  slightly aperient remedy:  mixed with
vinegar," it forms  oxymel, and is used in various forms,
in medicine and  pharmacy.   It is particularly recom-
mended to the asthmatic, and those subject to gravel
complaints, from its detergent nature.  Founded upon
the popular opinion of honey, as a pectoral remedy, Dr.
 II ill's balsam of honey, a quack medicine, was once in
demand; but this, besides honey, contained balsam  of
Tolu, or gum benjamin, in solution.
  Mel acetatum.  See Oxymel.
  Mel  boracis.  Honey of borax.—Take  of borax,
 powdered, a drachm; clarified honey, an ounce.   Mix.
This preparation is found very useful in aphthous affec-
tions of the fauces.
  Mel despumatum.   Clarified honey.  Molt honey
 in a water bath, then remove the scum.
  Mzt  rosje.  Rose honey.—Take of red-rose petals,
dried, four ounces;  boiling waler, tliree  pints; clari-
 fied honey, five pounds. Macerate the rose petals in the
 water for six hours, and strain; then add the honey to
 Ihe strained liquor, and, by means of a water-bath, boil
 it down U. a proper consistence.  An admirable prepa-
ration for the baseof various gargles and collutoi les. It
 may also be employed with advantage,  mixed with
 extract of bark, or otlier medicines, for children who
 have a natural disgust to medicines.
  Mel scillje.  See Oxymel scillui
      5(1
   Me'la.  (From pau, to search.)  A probe.
   MEL^E'NA.  (From ptXas, black.) The black vomit,
 The black disease.  MtXatva vovcros, of the Greek*.
 Hippocrates applies this name to two diseases.  In the
 first, the patient vomits black bile, which is sometimes
 bloody and sour; sometimes he throws up a thin sa-
 liva ; and at others a  green bile, &c.  In the  second,
 the patient is as described in the article Morbus niger.
 See Morbus niger.
   [The Malaria wliich produces intermittent, remittent,
 and other fevers, occasionally becomes so powerful, or
 produces such a corrupted, or infected state  of the
 atmosphere, as to induce black vomiting, and  yellow
 fevers, as was long since noticed by Hippocrates.
   " The morbus regius, or Icterus, of the first  section
 of his Coan Prognostics, is undoubtedly febrile yellow-
 ness, and not idiopathic  jaundice.  The epithet  ojuc,
 acute, is repeatedly applied by Hippocrates to denote a
 febrile jaundice, which soon destroys life, in contr* dis-
 tinction to the other kinds, which are of a more chi i-nic
 type, and less fatal.  The  like  interpretation is to be
 put upon the  sixty-third aphorism of the third book,
 which declares a yellowness (txrtpot) supervening in
 fevers, on the seventh, ninth, or fourteenth  day, to be
 a  good  symptom,  provided there is no hardness in
 the region of the liver.   In  the sixty-second  aphorism,
 he clearly means to be understood in the same manner,
 when he says that yellowness (txrepot again)  appearing
 in fevers before the  seventh day, is an unfavourable
 symptom.  A similar meaning must be intended in the
 ninth  section of his book on  Crises, where it  is  laid
 down as a maxim, that' in burning fevers, a yellow-
 ness (txrtpos) breaking  out on the fifth day, and ac-
 companied by  hiccough, is  a fatal  sign.'   (Ev roiat
 xavootmv tav tiriytvi/rat txrtpos «<" ^wltf irf/«rratcj tovrt,
 Bavaruits inos-potpat XapHavovrat)
   Let this sentence be particularly considered.  In the
 whole catalogue  of  diseases, there is  none but  that
 commonly called yellow fever to which  this aphorism
 can properly be applied.  And it would be exceedingly
 difficult,  in  so few words, to give a more expressive
 delineation of the disease  in question.  In the third
 section of the same book, he declares that yellowness
 appearing on, or after the seventh day, denotes a criti-
 cal sweating.   In  contradistinction to all which is the
 case mentioned in the  forty-second aphorism  of the
 sixth book, in which it is slated, that an indurated  liver
 following a  yellowness, is an unfavourable  occur-
 rence, because it is a case of idiopathic jaundice,  con-
 nected with a very morbid condition of that  important
 viscus.  Yellowness, as a symptom of fever, is men-
 tioned in other places.  I shall mention  but  one more,
 and that bears so direct an application to tlie subject,
 that it is impossible to mistake its meaning.   It is from
 his book De Ratione Victus  in Morbis aculis.  In a
bilious fever, yellowness coming on with shivering be-
 fore the seventh day, terminates the fever; bul  if it
come on abruptly (or unseasonably) without shivering,
 it is mortal.  (Ev irvpcru xoXuitt, npo rns tSioptis,  ptfa
PiJ'toj txrtpos  tirtytvoptvos, Xvtt rov itvptTov; avtv ii
 ptytos nv tirytvrf]at, t\u ruv xatpuv,  dXiOptov.)
  It will  not appear strange that  Hippocrates  should
 have been acquainted with the  disease called  yellow
 fever, if  we attend to the following account  of the
 Phasians, delivered in  his  book  on air, water,  and
situation.
  " As to the inhabitants of Phasis, their country is
 marshy, hot, watery, woody, and  subject to  many vio-
 lent showers  nt all seasons.  They also live  in the
 marshes, in houses or huts, built in the water, of wood
 and reeds; seldom walk to the city or the market, but
 pass from place to place, as they have many canals
 and ditches,  in boats cut out of one piece  of  timber.
 The waters they drink are hot nnd stagnant, corrupted
 by the sun, and supplied by the rain.  The river Phasis
 Itself is the most stagnant of all rivers, and the  stream
 the gentlest.  The fruits they have there never come to
 perfection, but are cramped in their growth, and, ns ii
 w-ere, effeminated by the vast quantity of water.  The
 air of the country is also  thick, and misty from so
 much water.  For these reasons the Phasians differ in
 their appearance from other people; for they are  large
 and thick to a prodigy, without any sign of joint or
 vessel.  Their colour is  a pale yellow like that  in  a
jaundice."  Tijv it XP"""7 wxPtfV exovotv,  uoircp ix»
 ixrcpov txoptvoi.
   Having found these facts in the works of  tlie fathei 
MEL
MEL
 a. pnysic, I turned over his pages with a view of find-
 ing wheihei he knew any thing of black vomiting.   I
 soon found the phrases pcXaiva xoXv, black bile, ptXava
 iptrov, black vomit, and ptXavuv tptjov, the vomiting
 ot black matter.  In the twelfth section of his prognos-
 tics, he affirms, thatif the matte1-vomited be of a livid or
 black  colour, it betokens ill.  So in the first section of
 the first book of his Coan Prognostics, he enumerates
 black vomiting among a number of the most desperate
 symptoms.   And also in the fourth section ofthe same
 book, he considers leek-green, livid, and black vomit-
 ing, as omens of sad import.  (E<  in eirj to tvptvptvov
 rrfiiooeiits, q irnXtoi, ij ptXav, av n rovltuv ruv xpuijia
 ruv, voptfytv  xtV rrcvnpcv ttrat.)  The passage in the
 eleventh paragraph ofthe first book of his Predictions
 indicatesstrongly the unfavourable issue of a fever aftei
 black vomiting.  The connexion between black vomit-
 ing and death is noticed likewise in the third paragiaph
 of the second section of his  Coan Prognostics.  The
 same symptom is mentioned  in the first paragraph of
 tlie first section of the  same book.   And you will find
 the like to occur in the fourth paragiaph of the third
 section.
   I have confined myself in citing the works of Hip-
 pocrates to some ofthe passages which contain pointed
 facts and opinions, relative to a yellowness of the skin,
 and a vomiting of dark or black  matter  in fevers.  My
 object is, to show that these are  by  no  means new
 symptoms: that ihey existed in the days of Artaxerxes,
 certainly among the Greeks, and probably among  the
 Persians ; that they had been observed more Ihan 2000
 years ago by  one of the most careful  of men  in  the
 southern parts of Europe;  and of course, since Ihey
 existed so long before the voyage of Columbus, there is
 no need of  resorting to the stale aud delusive  notion
 that the fevers with ihese symptoms are of modern ex-
 istence, and imported  solely  from America.   Unfor-
 tunately, fevers with these accompaniments were long,
 long before,  found to prostrate the strength and shorten
 the life of man.  This subject may be further illustrated
 by recollecting that Hippocrates practised physic, for a
 considerable portion of his life, in parts ol'Gieece, situ-
 ated nearly  in the same parallel of latitude with those
 in North America where the yellow fever has exhibited
 its greatest ravages," and where it has always been a
 seasonable and local disease and  not contagious.—
 Med. Repos. A.]
   Melaina  nosos.  See Milana.
  MELALEUCA.   (From peXas,  black, and Xtvxos,
 while:  so named by Linnaeus, because the  principal,
 and indeed original, species was called leucadendron,
 and arbor alba;  words synonymous with its  appel-
 lation in the Malay tongue, Caja-puti,  or wiiite tree,
 but it is not known why the idea of black was asso-
ciated with white.)   The mime of a genus of plants in
the Linnxan system.   Clas*, Polyandria; Order, Ico-
sandrio,
  Mklalelta leucadendron. The systematic name
of Die  plant which is  said to afford the cajeput oil.
 Oleum cajeputa ;  Oleum IVittnebianum ; Oleum vola-
tile melaleuca ; Oleum cajeput. Thunberg says cajeput
oil has  the appearance of inflammable spirit, is of a
green colour, and so completely volatile, that it evapo-
rates entirely, leaving no residuum ;  ils odour is of the
camphoraceouskind, with a tercbinthiuate admixture.
Goetz says it  is limpid, or rather yellowish.  Il is a
very powerful medicine, and  iu high esteem in India
and Germany, in the character of a general remedy in
chronic  and painful diseases: it is  used for the  same
purposes for which we employ the  officinal aethers, to
which  it seems to have a considerable affinity; the
cajepu , however, is more potent and pungent;  taken
into the stomach,  in the dose of five or six drops, it
heats and stimulates the whole system, proving, at the
same time, a very certain  diaphoretic,  by which pro-
bably the good effects it is said to have in dropsies and
intermittent  fevers, are to  be explained.  For its effi-
cacy in  various convulsive and spasmodic complaints,
it is highly esteemed.   It has also been used both  in-
ternally and  externally, with  much  advantage, in se-
veral other obstinate disorders: as  palsies, hypochon-
driacal  and hysterical affections, deafness,  defective
vision, toothache, gout, rheumatism, &c. The dose is
ir. ni two to six, or even twelve drops. The tree which
affords this oil, by distillation of its leaves, generally
was supposed to be  the Melaleuca leucadendron  of
 Linnaeus, but it appears from the specimens ofthe tree
 producing the true oil. sent home from India, by Chr:»
 toplier Smith, that it is another species, which is there-
 fore named Melaleuca cajaputi.
    Ml'.LAMEMA.   (From  psXas, black, and atpa,
 blood.)  A term applied to blood when it is of a mor-
 bidly dark colour.
   MELAMPIIV'LLUM.   (From psXas,  black, and
 tbvXXov,  a loaf: so  named from  the blackness of ill
 leaf.)  Sec Acanthus mollis.
   MELAMPO'DIUM.  (From Melampus, tho shep-
 herd who first used  it.)  Black hellebore.  See Helle-
 borus  niger.
   Melanaqo'oa.  (From ptXas, black, and ayui, to ex-
 pel.)  Medicines which purge off black bile.
   Melanchlo'rus.  MtXayxXupos-  I. A livid colour
 ofthe skin.
   2. The black jaundice.
   MELANC1IU LIA.   (From ptXas, black,andxoAj?,
 bile; because the ancients supposed that it proceeded
 from a redundance of black bile.)  Melancholy mad-
 ness.  A disease in the class Neuroses, and order Ve-
 sania, of Cullen, characterized  by  erroneous judg-
 ment, but not merely respecting health, from imaginary
 perceptions, or recollection influencing the conduct ami
 depressing the mind  with ill-grounded fears ; not com-
 bined with either pyrexia or comatose affections; oflen
 appearing without dyspepsia, yet attended with  cos-
 tiveness, chiefly in persons of rigid fibres and torpid in-
 sensibility.  See Jlfiinta.
   MELANITE.  A  velvet-black coloured mineral in
 roundish  or  crystallized grains, found  in  a rock at
 Frascate near Rome.
   MELANOMA.   (From ptXas, black.)  Melanosis.
 A rare disease which is found  under the common in-
 teguments, and in the viscera, in the form of a tuber-
 cle, of a dark soot-black colour.
   MELANO PIPER.  (From ptXas, black, and irtirtfi
 pepper.)   See Piper nigrum.
   Melanorriuzon.   (From ptXas, black, and  piC,a, a
 root.)  A species of hellebore  with  black routs.  See
 Helleborus niger.
   MELANOSIS.  See Melanoma.
   Melante'ria.   (From  pcXas, black: so called lie-
 cause it is used for blacking leather.)  Green vitriol, or
 sulphate of iron.
   Melanthbl.'e'um.  (From ptXas, black, and tXaiov,
 oil.)  Oil expressed from ihe black seeds of the Nigcila
 sativa.
   Mela'nthium.  (From ptXas, black: sonamedfrom
 its black seed.)  The Nigella  sativa, or hcib  feimel
 flower.
   ME'LAS.  (From ptXas, black.)   Vitiligo nigra,
 Morpka  nigra; Lepra maculosa nigra.  A disease
 that appears upon the skin in black  or brown spots,
 which  very frequently penetrate  deep,  even  to  the
 bone, and do not give any  pain, or uneasiness.   It is a
 disease very frequent in, and endemial  to, Arabia,
 where it is supposed to be  produced by a peculiar mi-
 asma.
  MELA'SMA.   (Prom ptXas, black.)   Melasmus.
 A  disease that appears not unfrequently upon the tibia
of  aged  persons, in form of • a  livid  black spot,
 which, in a  day or two, degenerates  into a very foul
 ulcer.
  MELASPE RMUM.   (From ptXas, black, and airtp-
pa, seed.)  See Nigella saliva.
  MELASSES.  Treacle.  The black empyreumatic
syrup which exists in raw sugar.
  MELASSIC ACID.  The acid present in melasses,
 which has been thought a peculiar acid by some ; by
others,  the acetic.
  Me'lca.  (From aptXyu, to milk.)  Milk.  A food
made of acidulated milk.
  Me'lk.  (From  pau, to search.)   A probe.
  MELEA'GRIS.  (From  Meleagcr, whose  sisters
were fabled to  have been turned  into this bird.)  1
The guinea fowl.
  2.  A species of fritillaria:  so  called because its
flowers are spotted  like a guinea-fowl.
  Melege'ta.  Grains of paradise.
  Meleguetta. Grains of paradise.  See Amomum
granum paradisi.
  Melei'os.  (From Melos, the  island where it is
made.)  A species of alum.
  MELI.  MsXi.  Honey.  See Mel.
  Meliceria.  See Mcliceris.
  MELl'CERIS. (From utXt, honey, and xtpos, wax. 
MEL
MEM
Meliceria.  An encysted tumour, the contents of which
resemble honey in consistence aud appearance.
  Mkli'craton.   (From ptXt, honey, and xtpavvvpi,
to mix.)  Wine impregnated wilh honey.
  Meligei'on.  (From ptXt, honey.)   A foetid  hu-
mour, discharged  from ulcers attended with a caries
of the bone, of the consistence of honey.
  MELILOT.  See Melilotus.
  MELILO'TUS.  (From ptXt, honey, and Xuros, the
lof-e: so called from its smell, being like  that of ho-
ney.)  See  Trifolium melilotus officinalis.
  Melime'lum.  (From ptXt, honey, and prfXov, an
apple: so named from its sweetness.)  Paradise apple,
the  produce of a dwarf wild apple-tree.
  Meli'num.   (From ptXov, an  apple.)   Oil made
from the flowers, or the fruit of the apple-tree.
  MELIPHY'LLUM.   (From ptXt, honey, and <bv\-
\ov, a leaf; so called from the sweet smell of its  leaf,
or because bees gather honey from it-;  See Melissa.
  MELI'SSA.  (From ptXtaoa, a  bee;  because  bees
gather honey  from it.)   The name of a genus of plants
in the Linnaean system.  Class, Didynamia;  Order,
Gymnospermia.  Balm.
  Melissa  calamintha. The systematic name of
the  common calamint.    Calamintka;  Calamintha
vulgaris; Calamintha officinarum; Melissa—pedun-
culis axillaribus, dickotomis, longitudine foliorum, of
Linnaeus.  This plant  smells strongly like  wild mint,
though more agreeable; and is often used by the com-
mon people, in form of tea, against weakness of the sto-
mach, flatulent colic, uterine obstructions, hysteria, Sec.
  Melissa  citrina.  See Melissa officinalis.
  Melissa  grandiflora.  The systematic name of
the  mountain calamint.  Calamintha magno flore;
Calamintha montana.   This plant has a  moderately
pungent  laste, and a more  agreeable aromatic smell
than the common calamint, and appears  to be more
eligible as a stomachic.
  Melissa  nepeta.  Field  calamint.  Spotted cala-
mint  Calamintha anglica;  Calamintha pulegii odore;
Nepeta  agrestis.   It  was  formerly used  as an  aro
malic.
  Melissa  officinalis.    The systematic name of
balm.   Citrago;  Citraria: Mclissophyllum;  Melli-
tis; Ccdrunclla; Apiastrum;  Melissa citrina; Ero-
tion.  A native of the southern parts of Europe,  but
very common in our gardens. In its recent slate, it
has a roughish aromatic taste, and  a pleasant smell of
the lemon kind.   It was  formerly much esteemed in
nervous diseases, and very generally recommended in
melancholic and hypochondriacal  affections; but, in
modern  practice, it is only employed when  prepared as
tea, as a giateful diluent drink in fevers, Sec.
  Melissa  turcica.  See Dracocephalum moldavica.
  Melissophy'llum.   (From ptXtaoa,   baum,  and
tbvXXov, a leaf.)  A species of melittis, with leaves re-
sembling baum.  See Melittis mclissophyllum.
  Meliti'smus.   (From pcXt, honey.)  A  linctus,
prepared with honey.
  MELI'TTIS.  (From piXirfa, wliich, in the Attic
dialect,  is the name of a  bee;  so that this word is, in
fact, equivalent to Melissa^ and was adopted by Lin-
naeus, Iheiefore, for the bastard bairn.)  The name of
a genus of plants.  Class, Didynamia;  Order, Gym-
nospermia.   Bastard balm.
  Melittis  melissophyllum.     The  systematic
name of the  mountain balm,  or nettle.  Sophyllum.
This elegant  plant is seldom used in the present day;
ft is said to be of service in uterine obstructions and
calculous diseases.
  Mklitto'ma.  (From  ptXt,  honey)  A confection
made with  honey.   Honey-dew.
  Mklizo'mum. (From ptXt, honey, and Z,upos, broth.)
Honey-broth.  A  drink  prepared  with  honey, like
mi nd.
  Mklla'go.  (From mcl,  honey.)  Any medicine
which has the consistence and sweetness of honey.
  MELLATE. A compound of  mellitic acid,  with
salifiable bases.
  Mklliceris. See Melicrris.
  Mbllilo'tus.   See Melilotut.
  Meli.i na.   (From  met, honey.)   Mead.  A sweet
drink prepared with honey.
  MELLI'TA.  (From met, honey.)  Preparations of
honey.
  MKLLITE.  Mellilite.   Honey-stone.   A  mineral
nf  a  honey-yellow colour, slightly rest no electric
by friction,  hitherto found only at Atern, in Thn
 ringia.
  MELLITIC  ACID.  (Acidum  mellilicum, Jrom
mellilite, the honey-stone,  from which it is obtained.)
" Klaptoth discovered in the mellilite, or honey-stone,
what he conceives to be a peculiar acid of the  vegeta-
ble kind, combined with alumina.   This acid is easily
obtained by  reducing, the stone to powder, and boiling
it  in about seventy  times  its weight of water; when
the acid will dissolve, and  may be separated from the
alumina by  filtration.  By evaporating the solution, it
may be obtained in the form of crystals.  The  follow
ing are its characters :—
  It crystallizes in fine needles or globules by the union
of these, or  small prisms.  Its taste is at first a sweet-
ish-sour, which leaves a bitterness behind. On a plate
of hot metal it is readily decomposed, and dissipated
in copious gray fumes, whicli affect  not  the smell,
leaving behind a small quantity of ashes, thai do nol
change  either red or blue tincture of litmus.  Neu-
tralized by potassa  it crystallizes  in groups of long
prisms: by soda, in cubes, or triangular laminae, some-
times in groups, sometimes single; and by ammonia,
in beautiful prisms with six  planes, which  soon lose
their transparency,and acquire a silver-white hue.  If
the mellitic acid be dissolved in lime-water, and  a solu-
tion of  calcined strontian or barytes be dropped into
it, a white precipitate is thrown down, which is redis-
solved on adding muriatic  acid.  With a solution of
acetate of barytes, it produces likewise a white preci-
pitate, which nitric  acid redissolves.  With solution
of muriate of barytes,  it produces  no precipitate, 01
even cloud;  but, after standing some time, fine trans
parent needly crystals  are deposited.   The mellitic
acid  produces no change in a solution of nitrate of
silver.  From a solution of nitrate of mercury, either
hot or cold, it throws down a copious white  precipi
tate, which an addition of  nitric acid immediately re-
dissolves.  Wilh nitrate of iron, it gives an abundant
precipitate of a dun-yellow colour,  which maybe re
dissolved  by muriatic acid. With a solution of ace
tate of lead, it produces an abundant precipitate, im-
mediately redissolved on  adding  nitric  acid.   With
acetate of copper, it gives a grayish-green precipitate;
but it does not affect a solution of muriate of  copper'
Lime-water, precipitated by it, is immediately redis
solved on adding nitric acid."—Ure's Chem. Diet.
  ME'LO.  See Cucumis melo.
  Meloca'rpus.  (From prfXov, an apple, and xapiros,
fruit; from  its resemblance to an apple.)  Tlie fruil
of the aristolochia, or its roots.
  ME'LOE.  An insect called the blossom-eater.  A
genus of the order  Coleoptera.  Some of its  species
were  formerly used  medicinally.
  Meloe vesicatorius.  See Cantharis.
  [Meloe vittata, or potato-fly.   See Cantharides
vittata.  A.]
  MELON.   See Cucumis melo.
  Melon, musk.  Sec Cucumis melo.
  Melon, water. See Cucurbita citrullus.
  Me'lon.  MijXov-  A disorder of the eye, in which
the ball of the eye is pressed forward from the  socket,
  MELO'NGENA.   Mala insana.   Solanum pomife-
rum.  Mad-apple.  The Spaniards  and Italians eat il
in sauce  and in sweetmeats. The taste somewhat
resembles citron.  See Solanum melongena.
  Melo'sis.  MijX(iktic. A term which frequently oc-
curs in Hippocrates, De Capitis Vulneribus, for that
search into  wounds which is made by surgeons with
the probe.
   Mklo'tis.  MrjXoinj.  A little probe, and that par-
ticular  instrument contrived to search or cleanse the
ear with, commonly called Auriscalpium.
   MELO'THRIA.  (A name borrowed bv Linna-us
in his  Hortus Cliffortianus; from the  ui/XuSpov, of
Dioscorides.)  The  name of a genus of plants.  'Class,
 Triandria; Order,  Monogynia.
   Melothria pendula.  The systematic name of the
small creeping cucumber plant.  The American bry
ony.  The inhabitants of the West Indies pickle the
berries of this plant, and use them as we do capers.
   Melyssophyllum.  (From ptXtaca, bnlm, and q>vX
Xov,  a leaf.)  See Melittis.
   MEMBRANA.  See Membrane.
   Membrana hyaloidea.  Membrana  arachnoidea
The transparent membrane which  includes the vitro
ous humour of the eye. 
MEN
MEM
   Memrrana pupiilaris.   Velum pupilla.  Avery
 dilicuic membrane of a thin and vascular texture, and
 an ash colour, arising from the internal  margin of tlie
 Iris, and totally covering the pupil in the foetus before
 the sixth month.
   Membrana  ruyschiana.   The celebrated anato-
 mist  Ruysch discovered that  the choroid membrane
 of the eye  w as composed of two laminae.  He  gave
 tho name of membrana  ruvschiana  to Iho internal
 lamina, leaving the old nanite of choroides  lo the ex-
 ternal.
   Membrana  schneideriana.  The very  vascular
 pituitary membrane which lines the nose and its cavi-
 ties ; secretes the mucus of Unit cavity, and is tlie bed
 of tiie olfactory nerves.
   Membrana tympani.  The membrane covering the
 cavily of the drum of the ear, and separating it  from
 the meatus auditorius externus.  It is of an oval form,
 convex below the middle, towards the-  hollow of the
 tympanum, and concave towaids the meatus audito-
 rius, and convex above the meatus, and concave to-
 wards the hollow of the tympanum.  According to the
 observations of anatomists, it consists of six laminae;
 the first and most external, is a production of the epi-
 dermis;  the second is a production of the skin lining
 the auditory passage ; the third is cellular membrane,
 in whicli the vessels  form  an elegant net-work; the
 fourth is shining,  thin, and transparent, arising from
 the periosteum of the meatus ; the tilth is  cellular mem-
 brane, with a plexus of vessels like the third; nnd the
 sixth lamina, which is tlie innermost, comes  from the
 periosteum of  the cavity of  tlie tympanum.  This
 membrane,  thus  composed  of several  lamina",  has
 lately been discovered to possess muscular fibres.
  MEMBRANACEL'S.  Membranaceous: Applied to
 leaves, pods, &c. of a thin and pliable texture, as the
 leaf of the  Magnolia purpurea, and several  capsules,
 ligaments, Sec.
  MEMBRANOLO'GIA.  (From membrana, a mem-
 brane, and Xoyos, a discourse.)  .Membranology.  That
 whicli relates to the common integuments and mem-
 branes.
  MEMBRANE.   M inbrana.  1.  In  anatomy.  A
 thin expanded substance, composed of cellular texture,
 the elastic fibres of which are so arranged and woven
 together, as to allow  of great  pliability.  The mem-
 branes of the body are various, as the skin, peritoneum,
 pleura, dura mater, Sec. Sec,
  2. In botany.  See  Testa.
  MEMBRANO'SUS.  See Tensor vagina femoris.
  Mr.MnRA'.NUS.  See Tensor vagina femoris.
  MtMo'RiiE os.   See Occipital bonr.
  MEMORY*.   Mrmoria.  The brain  is not only capa-
 ble of perceiving sensations, bul it possesses the faculty
 of reproducing those  it has already perceived.  This
 cerebral action is called remembrance, when  the ideas
 are reproduced which  have not been long received: it
 it  is  called recollection when  the ideas are of an
older date.  An old man who recalls the  events nf his
youlh, has recollecti >n ; he who recalls the sensations
which he had last year, has memory, or remembrance.
  Reminiscence is  an  idea produced which one does
 not remember having had before.
  In childhood and youth, memory is very  vivid as
 well as sensibility : it is therefore at this age, that the
 greatest variety of knowledge is acquired, particularly
 lhat sort which does not require much reflection ; such
 as  history,  languages, the  descriptive  science,   Sec
 Memory afterward weakens along with  age: in adult
 age it diminishes; in old age it fails almost completely.
 There are, however,  individuals who preserve their
 memory to a very advanced age ; but if this does not
 depend on great exercise, as happens with  actors, it
 exists often only to the detriment of the other intellec-
 tual faculties.
  The sensations are recalled with ease  in proportion
 as they are vivid.  The remembrance  of internal sen-
 sations is almost always confused ; certain diseases of
 the brain destroy the memory entirely.
  MENACHAN1TE.   A mineral of  a  grayish black
 colour, found accompanied with fine  quartz sand in
 the bed of a  rivulet, which enters th; valley of Manac-
 can, in Cornwall.
  MENAGOGUE.  See Emmenagogue.
  MENDO'SUS.   (From mendax, counterfeit.)  This
 term is used, by some, in the same sense ns-spurious,
 or illegitimate;  Mendosa casta false or spurious ribs;
 MernJosa sutura,  the squamous suture, or  bastnid
 suture of the skull.
   MENILITE.  A sub-species of indivisible quartz
 It is of two kinds,  the brown and the gray.
   Meninuo'phvlax.  (From pn.vty\, a membrane,and
 qivXaoau, to guard.)   An  instrument  to guard the
 membranes of the brain, while the  bone is cut, or
 rasped, after the operation of the trepan.
   ME'NINX.  (From ptvu, to remain.)   Before the
 timeof Galen, nicninx was the common term of all the
 membranes of  the body, afterward it  waa appropri-
 ated to those of the brain.  See Dura n.aicr, nnd Pia
 mater.
   MENTSPERMIC ACID.   (Acidum mcnispc~~«icum;
 from menispermum, the name of the plant in the ber-
 ries of which it exists.)  The seeds of Mcmspermum
 cocculus  being macerated for 24 hours in 5 times their
 weight of water, first cold, and  then boiling hot, yield
 an infusion, from which solution of subacetate of lead
 throws down a nienispeimate of lead.  This is to be
 washed and  drained, diffused through water, and de-
 composed by a current of sulphuretted hydrogen gas.
 The liquid, thus freed from lend, is to be  deprived of
 sulphuretted hydrogen by heat, and then forms solution
 of menispermic acid.  By repeated evapoiations and
 solutions in alkohol,  it loses its hitler taste, and be-
 comes a purer acid.  It occasions no precipitate with
 lime-water; with  nitrate of barytes it yields a gray
 precipitate; with nitrate of silver, a deep yellow; and
 with sulphate of magnesia, a copious precipitate.
   MENISPE'RMUM.  (From pnvn, the moon,  and
 oircppa, seed, in allusion  to  the crescent-like form of
 the seed.)   Moon-seed.  The  name  of  a genus of
 plants.  Class, Diacia; Order, Dodecandria.
   Menispermum  cocculus. The systematic name
 of the plant, the berries of  which are well known by
 the name of Cocculus indicus.  Indian berries, or In
 dian cockles; Coccus  indicus; Coccvla offir.inanum;
 Cocci orientates.  The berry, the pioduceot the Menis-
 permum—-foliis cordatis, retusis, mucronalis ;  caule
 lacero, of Linnaeus, is rugous and kidney-shaped, and
 contains  a white nucleus.  Ii is brought from Malabar
 and  the  East Indies.  It is poisonous  if swallowed,
 bringing  on nausea, fainting, and  convulsions.  The
 berries possess an inebriating quality; and are supposed
 to impart that  power to most of the London porter.
 While green, they are used by the Indians lo catch
 fish, whicli they have  the power of intoxicating and
 killing.  In the  same manner they catch birds, making
 the berry into a paste, forming it into small seeds, and
 putting the.-e in places where they frequent.  A pecu-
 liar acid  called menispermic, is obtained from these
 berries.
   By recent chemical analysis,  this seed  is found to
 contain, lsf, about one-half of ils weight of a concrete
 fixed oil; 2d, an albuminous vegeto-animal substance ;
 3d, a peculiar colouring  mailer; 4th, one-fiftieth of
picrotoxia; 5th, one-half its weight of fibrous matter:
 Gth,  bimalate of lime  and potasda; 7th, sulphate  of
 potassa;  8th, muriate of potassa;  9<A, phosphate of
 lime; iOth, a littlciron and silica.  It is poisonous; and
 is  frequently employed to intoxicate or poison fishes.
 The deleterious ingredient is the Picrotoxia.
  Tho pe>isonous principle called picrotoxia, is obtained
 in the following way : " To  the filtered decoction  of
 these berries, add acetate of lead, while any precipitate
 falls.   Filter  and  evaporate the liquid cautiously to
 the consistence of an extract.   Dissolve in alkohol
 of 0.817,  and evaporate the  solution to dryness.  By
 repeating the solutions and  evaporations, we at last
 obtain a substance equally soluble in waler and alko
 hoi.  The colouring matter  may ue removed  by agi
 tating it with  a little water. Crystals of pure picrotoxia
 now fall, which may be washed with a little alkohol.
  The crystals are four-sided pi isms, of a white colour,
 and intensely bitter lasle.  They are soluble in 2.» times
 their weight of wafer, and are not precipitable  by any
 known reagent.  Alkohol, sp. gr. 0.810, dissolves-one-
 third of ils weight of picrotoxia.   Pure sulphuric ether
 dissolves  two-fifths of its weight.
  Strong  sulphuric  acid dissolves  it, but not  when
 much diluted.   Nitric acid converts it into oxalic acid.
 If  dissolves and neutralizes  in acetic  acid,  and falls
 when this is saturated with  an  alkaff   It  may, there-
 fore  be regarded ns a vegeto-alkali itself.  Aqueous
 potassa dissolves  it, without evolving  any smell of
 ammonia.  It acts as an intoxicating poison.
                                         5!) 
MEN
MEN
   Sulphate of picrotoxia must be formed by dissolving
 picrotoxia in dilute sulphuric acid, for the strong acid
 chars and destroys it.  The solution  crystallizes on
 cooling.  The sulphate of picrotoxia dissolves in 120
 times its weight of boiling water.  The solution gradu-
 ally lets fall tlie salt in fine silky filaments disposed in
 bundles, and possessed of great beauty.
   Nitrate of picrotoxia.   Nitric acid, of the specific
 gravity 1.38, diluted with twice ils weight of water, dis-
 solves when assisted by heat, the fourth  of its weight
 of picrotoxia.  When  this solution is evaporated to
 one-half, il becomes viscid, and on cooling is converted
 into a transparent mass, similar to a solution of gum-
 ara'tic.  In this state the nitrate of picrotoxia is acid,
 ani' exceedingly bitter.
   Muriate of picrotoxia.  Muriatic acid, of the specific
 gravity 1.145, has little action on picrotoxia.  It dis-
 solves it when assisted by heat, but does not become
 entirely saturated.  Five parts of this acid, diluted with
 three times its weightof waler, dissolve about one part
 of picrotoxia  at a strong boiling temperature.   The
 liquor, on cooling, is converted into a grayish crystal-
 line  mass, composed  of confused crystals.   When
 these crystals  are well  washed, they are  almost desti-
 tute of taste, and feel elastic under tne teeth.
   Acetate of picrotoxia.  Acetic acid  dissolves picro-
 toxia very well, and may be nearly saturated with it
 by the assistance of a boiling heat.  On cooling, the
 acetate precipitates iu  well-defined prismatic needles.
 This acetate is soluble  in fifty times its  weight of boil-
 ing water.
   MENORRHA'GIA.   (From pijvta, the menses, and
 priyvvpi, to break out.)   Hamorrhagia uterina. Flood-
ing.  Au  immoderate  flow of the menses, or uterine
 haemorrhage.  A genus of diseases in the class Pyrexia,
 aud ordi-r Hamorrhagia, of Cullen, characterized by
 pains iu the back, loins, and belly, similar to  those of
 labour, attended with a preternatural flux  of blood from
 the  vagina, or a discharge of menses, more copious
 than natural.   He distinguishes six species:—
   1. Menorrhagia rubra; bloody, from women neither
 with child nor in child-birth.
   2. Menorrhagia alba, serous; the fluor albus.  See
 Lcucorrhaa.
   3. Menorrhagia vitorium, from some local disease.
   4. Menorrhagia lochialis, from women after de-
 livery.  Sec Lochia.
   5. Menorrhagia abortus.  See Abortion.
   6. Menorrhagia nubothi, when there is  a serous dis-
 charge from the vagina in pregnant women.
   This disease seldom occurs bei'oie the age of puberty,
 and is often tin attendant on pregnancy.  It is in gene-
 ral a  very dangerous disease, more particularly  if it
 occur at the latter period, as it is then often so rapid
 and violent as to destroy the female in  a  very short
 time,  where  proper means are not  soon adopted.
 Abortions often  give   rise to  floodings, and at any
 period of pregnancy, but more usually before  the fifth
 month than at any other time.  Moles, in consequence
 of an imperfect conception, becoming detached, often
 give rise lo a considerable degree of haemorrhage.
   The causes  which most frequently give rise  to flood-
 ings, are violent exertions of strength, sudden surprises
 and frights, violent fits of passion, great uneasiness of
 mind, uncommon longings during pregnancy, over ful-
 ness of blood, profuse  evacuations, general weakness
 of the system, external injuries, as blows and bruises,
 and the death of the child, in consequence of whicli
 the placenta becomes partially or wholly detached from
 the  uterus, leaving the mouths  of  the vessels of the
 lalter, whicli  anastomosed with  those  of the former,
 perfectly open.  It Is necessary to distinguish  between
 an approaching miscarriage and  a  common flooding,
 which may be readily done by inquiring whether or not
 the  haemorrhage  has   proceeded from  any  evident
 cause, and whether it flows gently or is  accompanied
 with unusual  pains.  The former usually arises from
 some fright, surprise, or accident, and does not flow
 gently and regularly  but bursts out of a sudden, and
 agaiii stops all at once,  and also is attended with severe
 pains in the back and the bottom ofthe belly ;  whereas
 the latter u marked with no such occurrence.   The
 further a woman is advanced in pregnancy, the greater
 will hethe danger if floodings take place, as the mouths
 of the vessels are much enlarged during  ihe last stage
 of pregnancy, and of  course a quantity  will  be dis-
 eharged iu u short time.
       00
   The treatment must differ according to the particulai
 causes of the disease, and  according to Ihe  different
 states  of constitution under which  it occurs.  The
 haemorrhage is more frequently of the active kind, and
 requires the antiphlogistic plan to be strictly enforced,
 especially obviating ihe accumulation of heat in every
 way, giving cold acidulated drink, and using cold loca.
 applications;  the patient must remain quiet in the
 horizontal posture; the diet be of the lightest and least
 stimulant description ; and the bowels kept freely open
 by cooling laxatives, as the neutral salts, &c.   It may
 be sometimes advisable  in  rouust,  plethoric  females,
 particularly in the  pregnant state, to take blood at an
 early period, especially where there is  much pain with
 a hard pulse; digitalis and antimonials  in  nauseating
 doses would  also be proper under such circumstances.
 But where the discharge is  rather of a passive  cha-
 racter,  tonic  and  astringent medicines ought to be
 given :  rest and the horizontal position are equally ne-
 cessary', costiveness must be obviated, and cold astrin-
 gent applications may be  materially useful, or  the
 escape  of the blood may be prevented mechanically.
 In alarming cases, perhaps the most powerful internal
 remedy is the  superacetate of lead,  combined with
 opium; which latter is often indicated by the  irritable
 state of the  patient.  A nourishing  diet, with gentle
 exercise in a carriage, and the prudent use of  the cold
 bath, may contribute to restore the  patient, when the
 discharge has subsided.
   Me'nsa.  The second lobe of the liver was so called
 by the ancients.
   ME'NSES.  (From mensis, a month.) See Menstru-
 ation.
   Menses,  immoderate flow of the.   See  Menor
 rhagia.
   Menses, interruption of.  See Amcnorrhaa.
   Menses, retention of.  See Amcnorrhaa.
   Mensis philosophicus.  A philosophical, or cheml
 cal month.  According to some, it is tliree days and
 nights; others say il is ten ; and there are who reckon
 it to be thirty or forty days.
   MENSTRUATION.  (Mcnstruatio; from menses.)
 From the uterus of every healthy woman who is  not
 pregnant, or who does not give suck, tliere is a discharge
 of a red fluid, at certain periods,  from the  time of
 puberty to the approach of old age; and from the pei iods
 or returns of this discharge being monthly,  it is called
 Menstruation.  There are several exceptions to this
 definition.  It is said that  some  women never men-
 struate ; some menstruate while they continue to give
 suck; and others are said to menstruate during preg-
 nancy ; some are said to menstruate in early infancy,
 and others in old age; but such discharges, Dr. Denman
 is of opinion, may, with more propriety, be called
 morbid, or symptomatic ;  and certainly Ihe  definition
 is generally true.
   At whatever time of life this discharge comes on,  a
 woman is said to be at puberty: though of this state  it
 is a consequence, and  not a cause.  The early or late
 appcaranceof the menses may depend upon the climate,
 the constitution, the delicacy or hardness of living, and
 upon the manners of those with whom young women
 converse.  In  Greece, and other  hot  countries, girls
 begin to  menstruate at eight, nine,  nnd ten years of
 age;  but, advancing to the northernclimates,"there  ia
 a gradual protraction ofthe time till  we come  to Lap-
 land, where women do not lnonstruaie till they arrive
 at maturer age, and then  in  small quantities, at  long
 intervals, and sometimes only in the summer.   But,  if
 tbey do not menstruate according to the  genius of the
 country, it is said they suffer equal  inconveniences as
 in warmer climates, where the  quantity discharged  is
 much greater, and the periods shorter.  In this country,
 girls begin to menstruate  from the  fourteenth to the
 eighteenth year of their age, and sometimes at a later
 period,  without any signs of disease; but if  they aie
 luxuriously educated,  sleeping upon down beds, and
 sitting in hot rooms, menstruation usually commences
 at a more early period.
   Many changes in the constitution and appearance oi
 women are produced at the time of their first beginning
 to menstruate.  Their complexion is  improved, their
 countenance  is more  expressive and  animated, t leir
 atlituues graceful, and  their conversation more intel-
 ligent and agreeable; the  lone of their voice becomes
 more harmonious, their whole frame, but particularly
.their breasts, arc expanded and  enlarged, and their 
ME IN
MEIN
 minds are no longer engaged in childish pursuits and
 amusements.
   Some  girls  begin  tc  menstruate without any pre-
 ceding indisposition ;  but  there are generally appear-
 ances or symptoms w hich indicate the change which is
 about to take place.  These are usually more severe
 at the first than in the succeeding periods;  and they
 are similar to those produced by uterine irritation from
 other causes, as pains in the back and inferior extremi-
 ties,  complaints ol" the viscera, wilh various hysteric
 and  nervous  affections.  These commence  with the
 fiisi disposition to menstruate, and continue till the dis-
 charge comes  on,  when  they abate, or  disappear, re-
 turning however with considerable violence in some
 women, at every period during life.  The quantity of
 fluid discharged at each evacuation, depends upon the
 climate, constitution, and manner of living;  but it
 varies  in  different women  in the same climate, or in
 tlie same woman at different  periods; in this country
 it amounts lo about five or six ounces.
   There is also a great difference  in the time required
 forthe completion of each period of menstruation.  In
 some women the discharge returns precisely to a day,
 or an hour, and in others tliere is a variation of several
 days  without inconvenience.  In some it is finished iu
 n few hours, and in otheis it continues from one to ten
 days , but the intermediate lime, from three to six days,
 is most usual.
   There has been an opinion,  probably derived from
 the Jewish legislature, afterward adopted by the Ara-
 bian physicians, and credited  iu otlier countries, that
 tlie menstruous blood possessed some  peculiar malig-
 nant  properties.  The severe  regulations which have
 been made in some countries for the conduct of women
 at the lime of menstruation; the ex pressiou used, Isaiah,
 chap. xxx. and  in Ezekiel: the disposal of tlie blood
 dischaiged, or  of any thing contaminated with it;—
 the complaints of w omen attributed to its retention :—
 and the effects enumerated  by grave writers, indicate
 the most dreadful apprehensions of its baneful influ-
 ence.   Under   peculiar  circumstances  of health, or
 states of the uterus, or in hot climates, if the evacuation
 be slowly made,  the  menstruous blood may become
 more acrimonious or offensive than the common mass,
 or any other secretion from it; but in this country  and
 age no malignity is suspected, the menstruous woman
 mixes in society as at all other times, and there is no
 reason for thinking otherwise than that this discharge
 is of tlie most inoffensive nature.
   At the approach of  old age, women cease to men-
 struate; but the time of cessation is  commonly regu-
 lated by tho original early or late appearance of the
 menses.   With those who began  to menstruate at ten
 or twelve years of age, the discharge will often  cease
 before they arrive at forty; but if the first appearance
 was protracted to  sixteen or eighteen years of age,
 independently of disease, such women  may continue
 to menstruate till they have passed the fiftieth, or even
 ipproach the sixtieth year of their age.  But  the most
 frequent time of the cessation of tlie menses in this
 jountry, is between the forty-fourth and  forty-eighth
 year; after which women never bear children.  By
 this constitutional regulation of the menses, the propa-
 gation of the species  is in every country confined to
 tbe most vigorous part of life; and bad it been  other-
 wise, children  might have become  parents,  and  old
 women mighihave had children when they were unable
 to supply them wilh proper or sufficient nourishment.
 See Catamenia.
   ME'NSTRUUM.  Solvent.  All liquors are  so called
 which are used as dissolvents, or to extract the virtues
 of ingredients by infusion, decoction, Sec.  The princi-
 pal menstrua made use of in Pharmacy, aie water, vi-
 nous spirits, oils, acid, and alkaline  liquors.  Waler is
 the menstruum, of all salts, of vegetable gums, and of
 animal jellies.   Of the first it dissolves  only a deter-
 minate quantity, though of one kind of salt more than
 nf another; and being thus saturated, leaves any addi-
 tional quantity  of the same salt untouched.  It is ne-
 ver saturated with the two latter, but unites readily
 with any  proportion of them, forming, with  different
quantities, liquors of different consistencies.  Il takes
up likewise, when  assisted  by trituration, the vegeta-
ble gummy resins, as ammoniacum and myrrh; the so-
lutions of which, though imperfect, that  is, not trans-
parent, but turbid and of a milky hue, are nevertheless
 applicable to valuable puipose-s in medicine.  Rectified
 spirit of wine is the menstruum of the essential oils and
 resins of vegetables; of the pure distilled oilb of ani
 mals, nnd of soups, though it does not act upon the ex-
 pressed nil,  aud fixed alkaline  salt, of whicli soap is
 composed.  Hence, if soup contains  any superfluous
 quantity of cither the oil or salt, il may, by means of
 Ihis menstruum, be excellently purified therefrom.  It
 dissolves, by the assistance of heat, volatile alkaline
 Baits, and  more  readily the neutral  ones, composed
 either of fixed alkali and the acetic acid, as the sul diu-
 reticus, or of volatile alkali and  the nitric uoid.   Oils
 dissolve vegetable resins  and balsams, wax, animal
 fats,  mineral  bitumens, sulphur, and  certain metallic
 substances, particularly load.   The  expressed oils arc,
 for most of these bodies, more powerful menstrua than
 those obtained by distillation, as the former are moic
 capable of sustaining, without  injury, a strong heat,
 which is, in most cases, necessary to enable them tu
 act.  All acids dissolve alkaline salts,  alkaline earths,
 and metallic substances.   The  dilleient acids  diller
 greatly in their action upon these Inst: one dissolving
 some particular metals, and  another others.  The ve-
 getable  acids dissolve a considerable quantity of zinc,
 iron, copper, and tin; and extract  so much from the me-
 tallic part of antimony as to become powerfully emetic;
 Ihey likewise dissolve lead, if previously calcined by
 fire;  but more copiously  if corroded  by their steam.
 The muriatic acid dissolves zinc, iron, and copper ; and
 though it scarcely acts on any oilier  metallic substance
 in the common way of making solutions, it may never-
 theless  be artfully combined  with them all.   The cor-
 rosive sublimate  and antimonial caustic of the shops,
 are combinations of it w ilh the oxides of mercury and
 antimony, effected by applying the acid in the lbrm of
 fume, to the subjects at the same time strongly heated.
 The nitric acid is the common menstruum of all metal-
 lic substances, except gold and antimony, which are so-
 luble only in a mixture uf ihe nitric aud'miii iutic.  The
 sulphuric  acid easily dissolves zinc, iron, and copper ;
 and may  be  made  to corrode or imperfectly dissolve
 most  of the oilier metals.   Alkaline  lixivia  dissolve
 oils, resinous substances, and  sulphur.   Their power is
 greatly  promoted by  the  addition  of  quicklime,  in-
 stances  of which occur in the preparation of soap and
 in the common caustic.  Thus assisted,  they reduce the
 flesh, bones,  and  other solid parts of animals, into
 a gelatinous matter.  Solutions  made in water and
 spirit of wine, possess the virtue of tlie body dissolved-
 while oils generally sheathe its activity, and acids and
 alkalies vary its quality.   Hence  watery and spii iiuous
 liquors arc the proper menstrua of the native virtues
 of vegetable and animal matters. Most of the forego-
 ing solutions are easily  effected, by pouring the  men-
 struum on the body to be dissolved, and suffering  them
 to stand together for some  time, exposed to  a suitable
 warmth. A strong heat is generally  requisite to enable
oils and alkaline liquors to perform their office; nor
 will acids act on some metallic bodies  without its as-
sistance. Tbe  action of watery and  spii iiuous  men-
strua is likewise expedited by a moderate heat, though
the quantity which ihey aflerwaid  keep dissolved, is
not, as  some  suppose, by  this means  increased.  All
that heat occasions these to take up,  more than they
would do in a  longer time in the cold, will, when the
heat ceases, subside again.   The action  of acids  on
the bodies whicli they dissolve, is generally accompa-
 nied with heat, effervescence, and a copious discharge
of fumes.   The fumes which  arise during the dissolu-
 tion of some metals, in the sulphuric  acid, prove  in-
 flammable ; hence, in the preparation of the artificial
 vitriols of iron and zinc, the operator ought to be  care-
 ful, especially where the solution is made in a narrow-
 mouthed vessel, lest, by the imprudent approach of a
 candle, the exhaling vapour be set on  fire.   There is
 another species of solution in wliich the moisture of air
 is the menstruum.  Fixed  alkaline salts, and those oi
 the neutral kind, composed of alkaline salts and cer-
 tain vegetable acids, or of alkaline earths, and any acid
except the sulphuric, and some metallic sails, on  being
 exposed for some time to a moist air, gradually attract
 its humidity, and at length  become liquid.  Some sub
stances, not dissoluble in water  in its  grosser form, as
 the butter of antimony, are easily liquefied by this slow
 action of the aerial moisture.  This process is termed
 Deliquation.   The cause of solution assigned by some
 naturalists, namely, the admission of the fine  particlea
 of one body into the pores of another, whose figure fits
                                          61 
MEN
MER
Ohem for their reception, is not just, or adequate, but
hypolhetic.il and ill-presumed ; since it is found that
some bodies will dissolve their own quantity of others,
as water does of Epsom salt, alkohol of essential oils,
mercury of metals, one metal of another, Sec whereas
the sum of the  pores or vacuities of every body must
be necessarily less than the  body itself," and conse-
quently those pores cannot receive a quantity of matter
equal to the body wherein they reside.
  How a menstruum can suspend bodies much heavier
than  itself, which very often happens, may be con-
ceived by considering, that the parts of no fluids can be
bo easily separated, but they will a little resist or retard
the descent of any heavy bodies through them;  and
that this resistance is, cateris paribus, stUI  proportional
lo the surface of the descending bodies. But the sur-
faces of bodies do by no means increase  or decrease
in the same proportion as their solidities do: for the so-
lidity increases as the cube, but the surface only as the
square ofthe  diameter; wherefore it is  plain, very
small bodies will have much larger surfaces, in propor-
tion to their solid contents, than larger bodies will, and
consequently, when grown exceeding small, may easily
be buoyed up in the liquor.
  MENTA'GRA.  (From mentum, the chin, and aypa,
a prey.)  An eruption about the chin, forming a tena-
:ious crust, like that on scald heads.
  ME NTHA.  (From Mir.the, the harlot  who was
changed inlo this herb.)  Hedyosmus of  the Greeks.
The name of a genus of plants in the Linniean system.
Class, Didynamia; Order, Gymnospermia.  Mint.
  Mentha  aquatica.  Menthastrum;  Sisymbrium
menthrastrum;  Mentha rotundifolia palustris.  Wa-
termint.   This plant  is frequent in most meadows,
marshes, and on the banks of livers.  It is less agree-
able than the spearmint, aud in taste bitterer nnd more
pungent.  It may be used with the same intentions as
the spearmint, to which, however, it is much inferior.
  Mentha cataria.  See Nepeta cataria.
  Mentha cervina.  The systematic name of the
hart's  pennyroyal.  Pnlegium cervinnm.  This plant
possesses the virtues of pennyroyal in a very great de-
gree ; but is remarkably unpleasant.   It is seldom em-
ployed but  by the country people, who substitute it for
pennyroyal.
  Mentha crispa.  Colymbifera minor; Achillea age-
ratum.  This species of meutha  has a strong and f ra-
grant smell, it« taste is warm, aromatic, and slightly
bitter.  In flatulence of the  prime? viae, hypochondri-
acal and hysterical affections, it is given with ad-
vantage.
  Mentha piperita.  The systematic and pharniaco-
poeial name of  peppermint.   Mentha piperitis ; Men-
tha—fioribus  capitatis, foliis ovatis petiolatis, stami-
nibus corolla brevioribus, of Linnaeus.  The sponta-
neous growth of this  plant is said to be  peculiar to
Britain.  It has a more penetrating smell  than any of
the other mints; a strong pungent taste, glowing like
pepper, sinking, as it were, into  the tongue, and fol-
lowed by a sense of coolness. The stomachic,  anti-
spasmodic, and  carminative properties of  peppermint,
render it useful in flatulent colics, hysterical affections,
retchings, and other dyspeptic symptoms, acting as  a
cordial, and often producing an immediate relief. Its
officinal preparations are an essential oil, a simple wa-
ter, and a spirit.
  Mentha piperitis.  See Mentha piperita.
  Mentha puleoium.  The systematic name of the
pennyroyal.  Palegium; Pulegium regale;  Pnlegium
latifolium glechon.  Pudding-grass.  Mcnt/ta—-fioribus
vertictllatis, foliis ovatis oblnsis subcrenatis, caulibus
subteretibus repentibus,  of Linnaeus.  This plant is
considered  as a carminative, stomachic,  and cinme-
nagogue; and is in very common use in hysterical dis-
orders.   The officinal preparations of pennyroyal are,
a simple water, a spirit, and an essential oil.
  Mentha saracenica.  See Tanacetum  balsamita,
  Mentha sativa.  See Mentha  viridis.
  Mentha spicata.  See Mentha viridis.
  Mentha viridis. Spearmint.  Called also Mentha
vulgaris;  Mentha spicata; Mtntha—spicis oblongis,
foliis lanceolatis nudie serratis sessilibus, staminibus
corolla  longioribus, of Linnieus.   This plant grows
wild in many parts of England.  It is not  so warm to
tlie taste as peppermint, but has a more agreeable fla-
vour, and is therefore preferred for culinary purposes.
Its medicinal qualities are similar to tliose of peppcr-
      02
mint;  but  the  different preparations of the former
though more pleasant, are, perhaps, less efficacious.
The officinal preparations  of  spearmint are an essen
tial oil, a conserve, a simple water, and a spirit.
  Mentha'strum.   (Diminutive of  mentha.)   See
Mentha aquatica.
  Me'nti levator.  See Levator labii inferioris.
  ME'NTULA.  (From matah, a staff, Heb.)  The
penis.
  Mentula'qra.   (From  mentula,  the penis,  aud
aypa, a prey.)  A disorder of the penis, induced by a
contraction of the ereclores musculi, and causing im
potence.
  MEN YA'NTHES.  The name of a genus of plants
in the  Linnaean system.  Class, Pentandria; Order,
Monogynia.
  Menyanthes trifoliata.   The systematic name
of the buck-bean.   Trifolium paludosum :  Trifolium
aquaticum; Trifoliumfibrinum; Menyanthes.  Wa-
ter trefoil, or buck-bean.  Menyanthes—foliis lematis,
of Linnieus.  The whole  plant is so extremely bitter,
that in some countries  it  is used as a substitute for
hops, in the  preparation of malt liquor.  It is some-
limes employed in country places as an active eccopro-
tic bitter in hydropic and rheumatic affections.   Cases
are related of its good effects  in some cutaneous dis-
eases of the herpetic and seemingly cancerous kind.
  MEPHITIC.  Having a  disagreeable  noxious smell
or vapour.
  Mephilic acid. The carbonic acid.
  Mephitie air.   See Nitrogen.
  MEPHITIS.   (From  mephuhith, a blast, Syr.)   A
poisonous exhalation.
  MERCURIALl, Girolamo, was born at  Torli, in
Romogna, in 1530.   After taking the requisite degrees,
he settled as a physician  in  his native town;  and was
delegated, at the age of 32, on some public business to
Pope Pius IV. at Rome.  He evinced so much  talent
on this occasion, that  he was particularly  invited to
remain there; which he accepted, chiefly as it enabled
him to pursue his favourite studies to more advantage.
He produced, in 1569, a learned and elegant work,
" De Arte Gymnaslica," which  was many times re-
printed;  and the  reputation of this procured him the
appointment  to tlie first medical chair  at Padua.   In
1573, he was  called  to Vienna to attend the emperor
Maximilian II., and was  so successful, that he returned
loaded with valuable presents, and honoured with the
dignities of a knight and count  palatine.  In 1587, he
removed to Bologna, which is ascribed to a degree of
self-accusation, In  consequence of an  error of judg-
ment, into which he had been led, in pronouncing a
disease, about which he was consulted at Venice, not
contagious, whence much  mischief had arisen.   His
reputation, however, does not appear to have materi-
ally suffered from this; and he was invited, in 1599, by
the grand duke of Tuscany, to Pisa; but shortly after,
a severe calculous affection prevented the execution of
his duties, and he retired to his native place, where his
death happened in 1606.  He was a voluminous writer,
and, among many other publications, edited a classified
collection ofthe work6 of Hippocrates, with a learned
commentary : but he was too much bigoted to ancient
authority ana hypothesis.  He wrote on the diseases of
the skin, those  peculiar to women and children, on
poisons, and several other subjects.
  MERCURIA'LIS.  (From Mercurius,  its  disco-
verer.)
  1.  The name  of a genus of plants in the Linnaean
system.   Class,  Diacia; Order, Enneandria.
  2. The pharmacopceial name ofthe French mercury
See Mercurialis annua.
  Mercurialis annua. The systematic name < f the
French mercury.  The leaves of this  plant have nc
remarkable smell, and very little taste. It is ranked
among the emollient oleraceous herbs, and  is said to
be gently aperient.  Its principal use has been Ic
clysters.
  Mercurialis Montana. See  Mercurialisperennis.
  Mercurialis ferennis.  The systematic name of
dog's mercury.   Cynocrambe; Mercurialis  montana
sylvestris.  A  poisonous  plant, very common In  our
hedges.   It produces vomiting  and  purging, and  the
person then  goes to sleep, from wliich he  docs  not
often awake.
  Mercurialis sylvestris.   See  .Mei-curia/is  pe-
rennis. 
MER
mer
  MERCLRIUS.   (So called from  some supposed
•elation it bears to tlie planet of that name.) Mercury.
See Mercury.
  Mercurius acktatus.  See Hydrargyrusacctatus.
  Mercurius alkalizatus.  See Hydrargyrum cum
creta.
  Mercurius calcinates. See Hydrargyri oxydum
rubrum.
  Mercurius ciiemicorum.  Quicksilver.
  Mercurius cinnabarinus.   See Sulphuretum hy-
drargyri rubrum.
  Misrcurhs  corrosivus.  See  Hydrargyri ory-
murias.
  Mercurius corrosivus ruber.  See Hydrargyri
nitrico- oxydum.
  Mercurius corrosivus sublimatus.  See Hy-
drargyri oxymurias.
  Mercurius dulcis sudlimatus.  See Hyrdargyri
submurias.
  Mercirius kmeticus flavus.   See Hydrargyrus
vitriulutus.
  Mercurius mortis.  See Mercurius vita.
  Mercurius mujcipitatub aldus.  See Hydrargy-
rum prtcipitatum album.
  Mercurius prjscipitatus  dulcis.  See Hudrar-
gyri submurias.
  Mbrci-rius PR.ecipiTATUs ruber.   See Hydrar-
gyri nitrico-oxydum.
  MERCURY. Hydrargyrum ; Hydrargyrus : Mer-
curius.  A metal found in five different  states in na-
ture.  1. Native, (nafire mercury,) adhering iu  small
globules to tlie surface of cinnabar ores, or scattered
through the crevices, or over the surfaces of different
kinds of stones.  2. It is found uniled to silver, in the
ore called amalgam if silver,  or native amalgam of
silver.   This ore exhibits  thin places, or grains; it
sotnetinn s crystallizes in  cubes,  parallclopipeda, or
pyramids.  lis colour is of a silver white, or gray ; its
lustre is considerably metallic  3.  Combined with sul-
phur, it conslitutes native cinnabar, or sulphuret of
mercury.  This  ore is the most  common.  It  is fre-
quently found in veins, and sometimes crystallized in
tetrahedra, or three-sided pyramids.  Its colour is red.
Its  streak metallic.  4. Mercury oxidized, and united
either  to  muriatic  or sulphuric acid,  forms  the ore
called horn quicksilver, or  corneous mercury.   These
ores nre,  in  general, semi  transparent, of a  gray or
white colour, sonietimes crystallized,  but more  fre-
quently in grains.  5.  United to oxygen, ii constitutes
Ihe ore called native oxide of mercury.   Mercurial otes
particularly  abound in Spain, Hungary,  China, and
South America.
  Properties.—Mercury, or quicksilver, is  the only one
of the metals that  remains fluid at the ordinary tem-
perature of ihe atmosphere, but when its temperature
is reduced to —40 degrees below 0 on Fahrenheit's ther-
mometer; it  assumes a solid form.  Thin is a degree
of cold, however,  that only occurs in high northern
latitudes,  and, in our climate, mercury cannot be ex-
hibited in  a solid state, but by means of artificial cold.
When  rendered  solid, it possesses both ductility and
malleability.   It crystallizes in octahedra, and con-
tracts strongly during congelation.   It is divisible into
very small globules.  It presents a convex appearance
in vessels to which il has  little attraction, but is con
cave in those to which it  more strongly  adheres.  It
becomes electric and phosphorescent by rubbing upon
glass, and by agitation in a vacuum.  It is a very good
conductor of caloric, of electricity, and of galvanism.
The specific  gravity of mercury is 13.563.  Although
fluid, its  opacity is equal  to lhat of any other metal,
and iu surface, when clean, has  considerable  lustre.
Its colour is white, similar  to silver.  Exposed to Ihe
temperature  of somewhat nbove 600° Fah. it is vola-
tilized.  When agitated in the  air, especially in contact
with vL-.-.nn.* fluids, it becomes converted into a black
oxide.   At a temperature  nearly the same as that at
which it  boils,  it absorbs about  14 or 15 per cent, of
oxygen, aud  then becomes changed into a red crystal-
lizable oxide, which is spontaneously reducible by light
and caloric  at a  higher  temperature.  The  greater
number of the acids act upon mercury, or are at least
capable of combining with its oxides.  It combines
with sulphur by trituration,  but more intimately by
heat  It  is  acted on by  the  alkaline  sulphurets.  Il
combines with many of the metals; these compounds
are  brittle, or tuft  when  the mercu'V is  in large  pro-
portion.   There is a slight union between merrdrj
and phosphorus.  It does not unite with carbon, or lh«
earths.
  Method of obtaining Mercury.—Mercury may l« ob
tnined pure  by  decomposing cinnabar, by means of
iron filings.  For that purpose, take two  parts ot red
sulphuret of mercury (cinnabar"), reduce it to powder,
and mix it with one of iron filings, put the mixture
into a stone  reton, direct the  neck of it into a bottle,
or receiver,  filled with  water, and apply heat.   The
mercury will then be obtained in a state of purity.
  Iu this process,  the  sulphuret of meicury,  which
consists ol sulphur and mercury, is heated in contact
with iron, the sulphur  quits the mercury and unites)
to tlie iron, and the mercury becomes disengaged; the
residue in the retort is a sulphuret of iron.
  Mercury is a  very useful article both in the cure of
diseases  and the  art*.   There  is scarcely  a disease
against which some  of its  preparations are not exhi-
bited: and  over the venereal disease  il possesses a
specific power.  It is considered to have first gained
repute in curing this disease,  from the good effects it
produced in eruptive diseases.  In the times immedi-
ately following the venereal disease, practitioners only
attempted lo employ this remedy with timorous cau-
tion, so that, of several of their formule,  mercury
scarcely  composed a fourth part, and few cures were
effected.  On the other hand, empirics who  noticed
the  little etlicacy of  these small  doses, ran  into the
opposite extreme, and exhibited mercury in such large
quantities, and with such little care, that most of theii
patients became suddenly attacked with the most vio-
lent salivations, attended with dangerous consequences
From these two very opposite modes of practice, there
originated such uncertainty respecting what could be
expected from mercury, and such fears of th« conse-
quences which  might result from its employment, that
every plan was eagerly adopted which offered the least
chance of cure  without having recourse to this mi-
neral.  A medicine, however, so powerful, and whose
salutary  effects were seen  by attemive practitioners,
amid  all its inconveniences,  could  not sink  into
oblivion.  After efforts had been  made lo discover a
substitute for it, and it was seen how little confidence
those  means deserved  on which the  highest praises
had been lavished, the  attempts to discover its utility
ivcie tern-wed.  A medium was pursued, between the
too timid methods of those physicians who had first
administered it, and  the inconsiderate boldness of the
empirics.  Thus the causes from which both parties
failed were  avoided; the  character of the medicine
was revived in a more durable way, and  from this
period its reputation has always been maintained
  It was about this epoch that meicury began to be in
ternally given :  hitherto it  had  only  been externally
employed, which  was  done in  three  manners.  The
first, was in the form of liniment, or ointment; the
second, as a plaster; and the third, as a fumigation.
Of the three methods just described, only the first is at
present much in use, and even this is very much alter-
ed.  Mercurial  plasters are now only used as topical
discutient applications  to  tumours and  indurations.
Fumigations, as anciently  managed,  were liuble to
many objections, particularly from its  not being  possi-
ble to regulate the quantify of mercury to be used, and
from the effect of the vapour on the organs of respira-
tion  frequently occasioning  trembling, palsies, &c.
Frictions with  ointment have always been regaided
as ihe most efficacious mode of administering mercury.
  Mercury is carried into the constitution in the same
way as otlier substances, either by being absorbed from
the'surface of ihe body,  or  that of "the alimenlaiy
canal.  It cannot, however, In all cases, be taken Inlo
the constitution in both ways, for sometimes the ab-
sorbents ofthe skin will  not readily receive  It;  al
least  no effect  is  produced, either on the  disease or
constitution, from this mode of application.  On tho
other hand,  the internal absorbents will, sometimes,
not take up the  medicine, or, at least,  no effect is pro-
duced either on the disease or constitution.   In many
persons,  the bowels can hardly  bear  mercury at all.
and it should  then be given in the mildest form possi-
ble, conjoined with such medicines as will lessen or
coirectits violent effects, although not i~sspecific ones,
on thi- constitution.   When mercury  can be thrown
into the  constitution with  propriety, by the external
method,  it  is preferable to the internal pin i;  because 
MER                                             MER
khe skin is not nearly so essential to life as the stomach,
and is therefore in itself capable of bearing much more
than Ihe stomach.   The  constitution is  also less  in-
jured. Many courses of mercury would kill the patient
if the medicine were only given internally, because it
proves hurtful  to the stomach and intestines, when
given in any form, or joined wilh the  greatest cor-
rectors.
  Meicury has two effects: one as a stimulus on  the
constitution and particular parts, the other as a specific
on  a diseased action  of the whole body, or of parts.
The latler action can only be computed by the disease
disappearing.
  In giving mercury in the venereal disease, the first
attention should be to the quantity, and ils visible effects
in n given time; wliich, when brought to a proper pitch,
are only to be kept up, and the decline of the disease
io be watched;  for by this we judge of the invisible
or specific effects of the medicine, and know what  va-
riation in tl.e quantity may be necessary.  The visible
effects of mercury afitect cither the whole constitution,
or some parts capable of secretion.   In the first, it pro-
duct .3 universal 11 inability, making it more susceptible
ol all impressions.   It quickens the pulse, increases its
hardness,  and occasions  a kind of temporary fever.
In some constitutions  it operates  like a poison.  In
some it produces a hectic  fever; but such effiects  com-
monly diminish on the patient becoming accustomed
to the medicine.
  Meicury often products pains like those of rheuma-
tism, and nodes of a scrofulous nature.  The quantity
of mercury tn be thrown iu for the cure of any vene-
real complaint, must be proportioned to the violence
of the disease.   A small  quantity used quickly, will
have equal effects to  those of a large one employed
slowly ;  but  if these effects are merely local, that is,
upon the glands of the mouth, the constitution at large
not being equally stimulated, the effects upon the dis-
eased parts must be less,  which may be known by  the
local disease not giving way in proportion 10 the effects
of mercury on some particular part.  If it be given in
very small quantities, aud increased gradually, so as to
steal insensibly on the constitution, a vast quantity at
a lime may at length be thrown in, without any visible
effects at all.
  The constitution, or parts, are more susceptible of
mercuiy at first than afterward.
  Meicury occasionally attacks the bowels, and causes
violent purging, even of blood.  This effect is remedied
by intermitting the use of the medicine, and exhibiting
opium.  At  other times, it is suddenly determined to
the mouth, and produces inflammation, ulceration, and
an excessive  flow of saliva.  To obtain  relief in this
circumstance, purgatives,  nitre, sulphur, gum-arabic,
lime-water, camphor,  bark, sulphuret of  potassa, blis-
teis, &.c. have been  advised.  Pearson, however, does
not place much confidence  in the efficacy of such
means;  and, the mercury being discontinued for a
time, he recommends tiie patient to be freely exposed
to cold  air,  with  the occasional  use of cathartics,
mineral acids, Peruvian bark, and the assiduous appli-
cation of astringent gargles.  The  most  material  ob-
jection  (says Pearson) which I foresee against  the
method of  treatment I  have  recommended, is  the
hazaid to which the patient will be exposed of having
the saliva suddenly checked, and of suffering  some
other disease in consequence of it.
   The hasty suppression of a ptyalism may be followed
by serious inconveniences, as violent pains, vomiting,
and general convulsions.
   ( old liquids taken into the stomach, or exposure of
the body to the cold air, must be guarded against during
a course of  mercury.  Should  a suppression of  the
ptyalism take  place,  from any act  of indiscretion, a
quick introduction of mercury should be had recourse
lo, wilh the occasional use of the warm bath.
   Mercury,  when  it  falls on  the  mouth,  sometimes
produces inflammation, whicli  now and then termi-
nates in  mortification.  The ordinary  operation of
meicury does not permanently injure the constitution ;
but, 01 ensionally,  the impairment  is very material;
meicury may even produce local diseases,  aud retard
the cure of chancres, buboes, and certain effects of the
lues \ enerea, atler the poison has been destroyed.   Oc-
casionally mercury acts on the system  ns a poison,
quite unconnected with  its agency as a remedy,  and
neither proportionate lo the inflammation of the mouth
      G4
nor actual quantity of the mmera! absorbed.  Pearton
has termed this morbid state of the system crelhismus
it  is characterized by great  depression of strength, e
sense of anxiety about the praecordia, irregular action
of the heart, frequent sighing, trembling, a small, quick,
and  sometimes  intermitting pulse,  occasional vomit-
ing, a  pale contracted countenance, a  sense  of cold-
ness ; but the tongue is seldom furred, and neither the
natural nor vital functions are much disturbed.  When
this effect of mercury takes place, the use of mercury
should be discontinued,  whatever may be  the stage,
extent, or violence of the venereal disease.  The pa
tient should be exposed to a dry and cool air, in such a
way as not to give fatigue; in this way, the patient will
often recover in ten  or fourteen days.   In the early
stage, the crethismus may often be averted by leaving
off the mercury, and givingcamphor mixture with vola-
tile alkali.  Occasionally, the  use of mercury brings
on a peculiar eruption, which has received the names
of mercurial rash, eczema mercuiiale, lepra mercuri-
alis,  mercurial disease, and erythema mercuriale.
  In order that mercury should act on the human body,
it is necessary that it  should be oxidised, or combined
with an acid.  The mercury contained in the unguen-
tum  hydrargyri, is an oxide.  This, however, is  the
most simple and least combined form of all its prepara-
tions, and hence (says Mr. S.Cooper), it not only ope-
rates with more mildness on the system, but wilh more
specific effect on the disease.  Various salte of mercury
operate more quickly when given internally than mer-
curial frictions; but  few practitioners of the  present
day confide in the internal use  of  mercury alone;
particularly when  the  venereal  virus  has  produced
effeots in consequence of absorption.  Rubbing in mer-
curial ointment  is  the  mode of affecting the system
with mercury in the present day; and, as a substitute
for this mode of applying mercury, Mr. Abernethy re-
commends the  mercurial fumigation, where the patient
has not strength  10 rub in ointment, and whose bowels
will not bear the internal  exhibition of it.
  The preparations of mercury now in use are,
  1.  Nitrico-oxydum  hydrargyri.
  2.  Oxydum hydrargyri cinereum.
  3.  Oxydum hydrargyri  rubrum.
  4.  Oxy-murias hydrargyri.
  5.  Submurias hydrargyri.
  6.  Sulphuretum hydrargyri rubrum et nigrum.
  7.  Hydrargyrum cum creta.
  8.  Hydrargyrum precipitatum album.
  9.  Hydrargyrum purificatum.
  Mercury, dog's.  See Mercurialis.
  Mercury, English.  See Chenopodium bonus henricus
  Mercury, French.  See Mercurialis.
  Meroba'lanum. (From pepos, a part, and fiaX xvtioy
a bath.)  A partial bath.
  MEROCE'LE. (From jtirpoc, the thigh, and xijXr), a
tumour.)  A femoral hernia.   See Hernia.
  Me'ron.  Miypoc.  The thigh.
  MERRET, Christopher, was born atWinchcombe
in 16U.   After graduating at Oxford, he settled in
London, became a fellow of  the College of Physicians,
and one of the original members of the Philosophical
Society, which, after the  Restoration, was called  the
Royal Society.   He appears to have had a considerable
practice, and reached his 81st year.  His first publica-
tion  was a Collection  of Acts of Parliament, &c. in
proof of the exclusive  Rights  of the College, printed
in lGb'O;  wliich  afforded the  basis of Dr. Goodali's
history:  this was  followed  nine years  after by "A
Short View of the Frauds of Apothecaries," which
involved him in much controversy.  He published also
a Catalogue of the Natural Productions of this Ishu d,
of whicli  the botauical partis best executed; and he
communicated several papers to the Royal Society.
  ME'RUS.  Applied to several  things in the same
sense as genuine, or unadulterated;  as  merum vinum,
neat wine.
  MERY, John, was born  at Vntau,  in  France, in
1645.  His father being a surgeon, he determined upon
the same profession, and went accordingly to the Hotel
Dieu at Paris, where he studied with extraordinary
ardour, even passing the  night in  dissection in his bed-
room.    In  1681 he was appointed to the office of
queen's surgeon ; and two years  after, surgeon-major
to the invalids.   Soon  after  this he was chosen to
attend the Oucen of  Portugal, who died, however,
before his arrival; and he refused very advantageous 
ME&
MES
 offers to detain him at that, as well as the Sf.n.ish
 court.   He was now received  into the Academy of
 Sciences, and shortly alter sent on a secret journey to
 England; then chosen io attend upon the Duke of Bur-
 gundy, who was a child.   But these occupations were
 Irksome lo him, and he oven shunned privnte practice,
 and gcnei-,.1 Bociety, devoting  himself to the duties of
 Uio hospital of Invalids, and to the dissecting-room.
 In lain,  he was appointed  first surgeon to  the Hdtel
 Dieu, wliich gratified his utmost ambition; and he
 declined repeated soiiciNitions to give lectures thereon
 anatomy.   He procured, however, the erection of a
 theatie for the students, where they might hove more
 regular instruction.  It  was a  great part of the labour
 of his life to form an anatomical museum, yet he did
 not estimate ihese researches loo highly, and was very
 ■low in framing, or in receiving, new theories concern-
 ing tlie animal economy.  About the age of 75, he sud-
 denly lost the  use  of his legs, offer which his health
 declined, and he died in 17'J2.  Besides many valuable
 communications to the Academy of Sciences, he pub-
 lished a descripiion of the ear; Observations on Fie>e
 Jacques's Method of Culling for  tlie -Stone, the general
 principle of which he approved; a tract on the Foetal
 Circulation, controverting ihe received opinion, that
 pari ol" ihe blood passes from ihe right  to the left ven-
 tricle, through the loiamen ovale, and even  assigning
 it au opposite course; and physical problems, concern-
 ing the connexion of the foetus with tbe mother,  and
 its nuliition.
   MesaRE im.  (From pttros, the middle, and apata,
 the beliv.)  The mesentery.
   MKSEMBRYANTHE.SlUM.   (Socalled  from  the
 circuntc-tuuce of ils flowers expanding at  midday.
 The name of a vast genus of  plants.   Class, Icosan-
 dria ;  Order, Pivtagynta.
   Mesembryantiiemi m crystallinum.  The juice
 of this plant, in a dose of four spoonfuls every two
 hours, it is asserted, has rei.ioved  an obstinate spas-
 modic affection of lite neck  of the  bladder, wliich
 would not yield to other remedies.
   MESENTERIC.  Mesentertcus.  Belonging to  the
 mesentery.  See Mesentery.
   Mesenteric artery.  Arteria mesenteriea.  Two
 branches of the aorta in the abdomen are so called.
 The superior mesenteric is the  second branch; it is
 distributed upon the mesentery', and gives oft*the supe-
 rior or right colic artery.  The inferior mesenteric is
 the fifth  branch of the aorta; it sends qff the internal
 haemorrhoidal.
   Mesenteric  glands.    Glandula  mesenteriea.
 These aie conglobate, and are  situated  here and there
 in  the cellular  membrane of the mesentery.  The
 chyle from the intestines passes througu these glands
 to the tho'.icic duct.
  Mesenteric nerves.  Nervorum plexus mesente-
 ricus.  The superior, middle, and lower  mesenteric
 plexuses of nerves are formed  by the branches of  the
 great intercostal nerves.
  Mesenteric veins.  Vina  mesenteriea.  They all
 run into one trunk,  that evacuate its blood into  the
 vena portae.  See Vena porta.
  MESENTERI'TIS.  (From  ptocvlcpiov, the mesen-
 tery.)  An inflammation of the mesentery.   See  Peri-
 tonitis.
  MESENTERY.   (Mesenterium;  from ptoos,  the
 middle, and tv"]tpov, an intestine.1  A membrane iu
 the cavity ofthe abdomen attached to the vertebrae of
 the loins, and to whicli  the intestines adhere.  It is
 formed of a duplicative of the peritonaeum, and con-
 tains within it adipose membrane, lacteals, lymphatics,
 lacteal glands, mesenteric arteries, veins, and nerves.
 Its use is to sustain ihe intestines in such a manner that
 they possess both mobility and firmness;  to support
 and conduct with safety the blood-vessels, lacteals, and
 nerves; to fix the glands, and give an external coat to
 the intestines.
  It consists of  three parts: one  uniting the  small in-
 testines, which receives the proper name of mesentery ;
another connecting Ihe colon, termed mesocolon: and
ft third attached to the rectum,  termed inesorectum.
  MESERAIC.  The same as  mesenteric.
  Mese rion.   See Daphne mezereum.
  Me si're.   A disorder of the liver,  mentioned  by
 Aviccnna,  accompanied  with  a sense  of  heaviness,
 tumour, inflammation, pungent pain, and nlacancss of
 lie tongue
                                       M m
   MESOCO LON.   (From ptoos, the middle,  ana
 xuXov, the colon.)  The portion of the mesentery to
 which the colon is attached.  The mesentery and me-
 socolon are the most important of all the productions
 of the  peritonaeum.  In the pelvis,  the peritonaeum
 spreads Itself shortly hefoie the rectum.  But where
 that intestine becomes loose, and foims the semilunar
 curve, the perltono-uni  there rises considerably from
 the middle iliac vessels, and region ofthe psoas muscle,
 double, and with n figure adapted for receiving the hoi
 low colon.  But above, on  the  left side, the" colon  is
 connectied wilh almost no intermediate  loose produc-
 tion to the peritonaeum, spread upon the psoas muscle,
 as high as the spleen, whore this part of ihe perito-
 naeum, which gave a coat to the colon, being extended
 under tlie spleen, receives and sustains that viscus in
 a hollow  superior recess.
   Afterward ttie perilona-um, from the  loft  kidney
 from the  interval between the kidneys, from the large
 vessels, and from  the right kidney, emerges forwards
 under the pancreas, and forms a broad and sufficiently
 long continuous production, called the transverse me-
 socolon, which, like a partition, divides the upper part
 of the abdomen, containing the stomach, liver, spleen,
 nnd pancreas, from the lower part.  Tho lower plate
 of this transverse production  is continued singly from
 the right mesocolon lo the left, and serves as au exter-
 nal coat to a pretty laige portion of the liver, and de-
 scending part of the duodenum.  But the upper plate,
 less simple in the course, departs from the lumbar peri-
 tonaeum at the kidney, and  region of the vena cava,
 farther to the right than the duodenum, to which  it
 gives an external membrane, not quite to the valve of
 the pylorus; and beyond ihis intestine, and beyond the
 colon, it is joined with the lower plate, to lhat a large
 part of the duodenum  lies within the cavity of the
 mesocolon.   Afterwaid, in the region of the liver, the
 mesocolon is inflected, and descending over the kidney
 of the same side much shorter, it includes the  right of
 the colon, as far as the intestiiium co-cum, which rests
 upon the  iliac muscie and the appendix,  which is pro
 vided with a peculiar long curved mesentery.  Tliere
 the mesocolon terminates, almost at the bifurcation of
 the norla.
   The whole of the mesocolon and of the mesentery
 i- hollow, so that the air may be forced  in between ils
 two laminae, iu such a manner as to expand them into
 a bag.  At the place whore it sustains the colon, and
 also from  part nf the intestinuui rectum, the  mesoco-
 lon, continuous with the outer membrane of the intes-
 tine, forms itself into small slender  bags, resembling
 the omentum, for the most  part in  pairs, with their
 loose extremities  thicker and bifid, nnd capable of
 admitting  air blown in between the plates of the meso-
 colon.
   MESOCRA'NIUM.   (Frcm  ptoos, the middle.nnd
 icpavioi', the skull.)   The crown of ihe head, or vertex.
  MESOGA'STRIUM.  (From ptoos, the middle, and
yasvp, the  stomach.)  The concave pan of ihe stomach,
 wliich attaches itself to the adjacent parts.
  MESOGLO'SSUS.   (From  pesos, the middle, and
yXuooa, the tongue.)  A muscle inserted in the middle
of the tongue.
  MESOME'RA.   (From ptoos,the middle, and pnposi
the thigh.)  The parts between the thighs.
  MESOMPHALIUM.   (From ptoos, the middle.and
opqtaXos, the navel.)  The middle of the navel.
  MESO'PHRYUM.  (From ptoos, the middle,  and
ochpva, the eyebrows.)   The part between the eye-
brows.
  MESOPLEU'RUM.  (From ptoos, the middle, and
itXtvpov, a rib )  Tho space or muscles  between the
 ribs.
  MESORE CTI'M. (From  ptoos,  the  middle, and
rectum, the straight gut.)  The portion of peritonaeum
 which connects the rectum of the pelvis.
  MESO'THENAR.  (From ptoos, the  middle, and
Qtvap, the  palm of the hand.)  The muscle situated in
Ihe middle of the palm of the hand.
  MESOTICA.   (From ptoos, meaius.)   The name
of an order of diseases in the class Eccritica, in.Good's
 Nosology.   Diseases affecting the parenchyma.  Ita
genera are the following:  Polysarcia;  Emphyma;
 Parostia;  Cyrlosis ;  Oslhexia.
  MESOTYPE.  Prismatic zeolite.  A species of the
genus zeolite.
  ME'SPILUS.   (On tv tu  peou ittXos, because il
                                         65 
MET
MET
tjns a cap or crown in the middle of it.)   1. The name
of a genus of plants in the Linnaean system.  Class,
Tcosandria; Order, Penlagynia.
  2.  The pharmacopceial  name of the medlar.  See
Mespilus germanica.
  Mespilus oermanica.  The systematic name of
the medlar-tree.   This fruit, and also its seeds, have
been used medicinally.   The  immature fruit  is ser-
viceable  in checking diarrhoeas; and the seeds were
formerly  esteemed iu allaying  the pain attendant on
nephritic diseases.
  MESUE,  one  of the early  physicians among the
Arabians, was born in the province of Khorasan, and
flourished in the  beginning of the ninth century.  His
father was an apothecary at Nisaboar.   He was edu-
cated in  the  profession of physic by Gabriel, the son
of George Backtishua, and through his favour was ap-
pointed physician to the  hospital of his native city.
Although a Christian, he was  in great favour with
several successive Caliphs, being reputed the ,ablest
scholar and physician of his age.  When  Haroun al
Raschid appointed hUson viceroy of Khorasan,  Mesne
was  nominated  his bo.iy physician, and was  placed
by him at the head of a college of learned men, which
he instituted  there. When Almammon succeeded to
the throne  in 813, he  brought  Mesue to Bagdad, and
made him  a professor qf medicine  there, as well as
superintendent of the great hospital, wliich offices he
filled a great number of years.  He was also employed
in transferring the science of the Greeks to  his own
country,  by translating  their works.  He is supposed
by Freind to have written in the Syviac tongue.  He
was author of some works, which are cited by Rhazes,
and others, but appear to have perished; for those now
extant in his name do not correspond wilh these cita-
tions, nor with the character given  of them by Haly
Abbas, besides that Rhazes is  quoted  in them, who
lived  long  after  Mesue:  they  probably belonged to
another physician of the same name, who is mentioned
by Leo Africanus, and died in the beginning of the
eleventh  century.
  META'BASIS.   (FromptraHaivu, to digress.)  Me-
tabole.  A change of remedy, of practice, or disease;
or any change  from one thing to another, either in
the curative  indications, or  the symptoms of  a dis-
temper.
  Meta'bole.   See Metabasis.
  METACARPAL.  Belonging to the metacarpus.
  Metacarpal  bones.   The  five longitudinal bones
that  are  situated between the wrist and the fingers;
they are  distinguished into the metacarpal bone of the
thumb, forefinger, &c.
  METACARPUS.  (From urra, after, and xapiros,
the wrist)   Metaearpium.  That  part of the hand
which is between the wrist and the fingers.
  Metaca'rpeus.  A muscle of the carpus.  See Ad-
ductor metacarpi minimi digiti manus.
  Metacera's.ma.  (From ptra, after, and xtpavvvpt,
to mix.)   Cerasma.   A mixture tempered with any
additional substance.
  METACUE1RIXI3.   (From ptnixiipis", t0 per-
form by the hand.)  Surgery, or any manual operation.
  Metachore'sis.  (From ptraxuptu, to  digress.)
The translation of a disease from one part to another.
  Metacine'ma.  (From ptra, and xtvtu, to remove.)
A distortion of the pupil of the eye.
  Mktaco'ndylus.  (From ptra, after, and xovivXos,
a knuckle.)   The last joint of a finger, wliich contains
the nail.
  Meta'liaoe.   (From  ptraXXarfu, to change.  A
change in the state or treatment of a disease.
  METALLU'RGIA.  (From ptraXXov, n metal, nnd
tpyov, work, labour.)  Thai pint of chemistry which
concerns the operations of metals.
  METALS.  The most numerous class of uiidccom-
potuidcd  chemical bodies, distinguished by  the follow-
bg general characters:—
      Oi
  1.  They possess a peculiar lustre, which ccntmuei
in the streak, and in their smallest fragments.
  2.  They are fusible by heat; and  in fusion retain
their lustre and opacity.
  3.  They are all, except selenium, excellent conduc-
tors, both of electricity and caloric.
  4.  Many of them may be  extended under the ham-
mer, and ure  called malleable; or under the rolling
press, and are called laminable;  or drawn into wire,
and are called ductile.   This capability of extension
depends, in uome measure,  on a tenacity  peculiar  to
the metals, and which exists in the  different species
with veiy different degrees of force.
  5.  When their  saline  combinations are electrized,
the metals separate at the resino-electric  or negative
pole.
  6.  When exposed to the action of oxygen, chlorine,
or iodine, at an elevated temperature, they generally
take fire; and, combining with one or other of these
three elementaiy dissolvents iu definite proportions,
are converted into earthy  or  saline-looking  bodies,
devoid of metallic lustre and ductility, called oxides,
chlorides or iodides.
  7.  They are capable of combining in their melted
state with each other, hi  almost every proportion, con-
stituting the important  order of metallic alloys : in
which  the characteristic lustre and tenacity are pre-
served.
  8.  From this brilliancy and opacity conjointly, they
reflect the greater part ofthe light which falls on their
surface, and hence form excellent mirrors.
  9.  Most of them  combine in definite  proportions
with sulphur and phosphorus, forming bodies frequent-
ly of a semi-metallic aspect: and  others unite with
hydrogen, carbon,  and boron, giving rise to peculiar
gaseous or solid compounds.
  10. Many of the metals are capable of assuming, by
particular management, crystalline forms;  which are,
for the most part, either cubes or oclohedrons.
  The relations of the metals of*-the variousobjects of
chemistry, are so complex and diversified., as to render
their classification a task of peculiar difficulty.

  The first  12 are malleable ; and so are tbe 31st and
32d,  in their congealed stale.
  The first  16  yield oxides,  which are neutral  salifi-
able  bases.
  The metals 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, and 23, are acidifi-
able  by combination with oxygen.  Of the oxides of
the rest, up to the 30th, little is known. The remain
ing metals form, with oxygen, the alkaline and earthy
bases.
  All the metals are found in the bowels of tlie earth,
though sometimes they are on the surface.  They are
met with in different combinations with otlier matters,
such as sulphur, oxygen, nnd aeids; particularly with
the carbonic, muriatic, sulphuric, and phosphoric acids.
They are also found combined with each otlier, and
sometimes, though rarely, in a pure metallic state, dis-
tinguishable by the naked eye.
  In their different stales of combination, they are said
to be mineralized, and  are  called ores.  The ores of
metals are, for the most part, found in nature in moun-
tainous districts; and always in such as form a con-
tinued chain.   There are mountains which consist en-
tirely of iron ore, but, in general, the metallic part of a
mountain bears a very inconsiderable proportion lo ita
bulk.  Ores are also met with in the cavities or crevices
of rocks, forming what  are termed reins, wliicn  are
more easily discovered iu these situations than when
they lie level in plains.
  The  niettllic matter  of  ores is very  generally in-
crusted, and intermingled with some earthy substance,
different from the  rook in which the vein is situated;
which is tc(ined its matrix.  This, however, must nol
bo confounded with the iiiineiaiizing substai-e with
whicli the metal is combined, such as sulphur, (Stc 
MET
mhi
General Table of the  Metals.
\ NAMES.				Colour of	Precipitates by	- -4(
	*9- ST 21.47 19.30 10.45 118 19.6	Prccipitants.	Ferroprussiite of potassa	Intuition of galls.	Hydrc#ulphurets.	iSuIphurelted hydn.-pn.
1 PiaaUuum ! 2 Gold 1 3 Silver 4 Palladium t 5 Mjrrury 1 t O/pper		Mur. Amnion. ( Sulph. iron } Mtr. mercury Common salt Prus. mercury Common salt Heat	0 Yellowish white White Deep ornnge White passing to yellow	0 Green; met. Yellow-brown Orange-yellow	Yellow nia,-k lilackish-brown Brownish-blick	Black met powd. Yellow Black Black-brown Black
	8.9	Iron	Red brown	Brown	Black	Do.
1 7 fro-	7.7	Succin. soda	Blue, or while	Prolnjt. 0.		
;		wilh perox.	passing to blue	Perox. black	Black	0
! S Tin	7.29	Cor. sublim.	Wluto	0	Proton, black	Brown
i 9 Lad [10 Nickel |ll Cadmium	11.35 8.4 8.6	Sulph. soda Sulph. potassa? Zinc Alk. carbonates Water J Water	Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Wilh dilute solu-	White Gray-white	Perox. yclluw Black Do.	Black 0
|12 Zinc 113 Bismuth [14 Antimony	6.9 9.88 6.70			0 0 Yellow White from	Orange-yellow VVliite Black-brown	Orange-yellow Yellowish-white Black-brown
115 Manganese |lf Cobalt	8. 8.6	i Zinc	tions white	water	Orange	Orange
		Tatr. pot. Alk. carbonates	White Browu-yelbw	0 fellow-white	White Black Blackish Yellow	Milk mess 0 Yellow Brown
17 Teliur.um 13 Arsenic	6.115 (8.33? ";5.76?	( Water ( Antimony Mtr. lead	0 White	Yellow		
19 Chromium 20 Molybdenum 21 Tungsten 22 Coliuubimn	5.90 8.6 17.4 5.6?	Do. -Do.? Mur. lime? Zinc or inf. galls	Green Brown Dilute acids Olive	Brown Deep brown Orange	Green Chocolate	
23 Selenium	4.3?	I Iron / Sulphite amm.				
24 Osmium	?	Mercury		Purple passing to deep blue		
26 Rhodium	10.65	Zinc? Do. ?	0 0		0	
26 Iridium	18.68			0 Chocolate		
27 Uranium 23 Titanium 29 Cerijm	9.0	Ferropr. pot	liown-red		Brown-yellow	9
		Inf. galls.	Jrass-green	Red-brown	Grass-green	0
	?	Ozal. amm.	Milk-white	0	White	0
30 Potassium 31 Sodium	0.S65 0.972	J Mur. plat (Tart acid.	0	0	0	0
32 Lithium						
33 Calcium						
34 Barium						
3*> Strontium						
36 Magnesium						
37 Yttrium						
33 Glucinum						
39 Aluminum						
40 Thorinum						
41 Zirconium						
42 Silicium			1	'	'	
   METAMORPHO'PSIA.  (From ptrapopebuats, a
 rhanL-e,  and oxf/ts, sight.)   Visus defiguratus.  Dis-
 figured vision.   It is- a defect in vision, by which per-
 sons perceive objects changed in their figures.  The
 species are,
   1. Metamorphopsia acuta,  when objects  appear
 much larger than their size.
   2. Metamorphopsia diminuta,  when objects appear
 diminished in size, arising from the same causes as the
 brmer.
   3. Metamorphopsia mutans, when objects seem to
 be in motion: to tlie vertiginous and intoxicated per-
 sons, every thing seems to stagger.
   4. Metamorphopsia tortuosa seu flexuosa, when ob-
 'ects appear tortuous, or  bending.
   5. Metamorphopsia inversa, when all objects appear
 inverted.
   6. Metamorphopsia imaginaria, is the  vision of a
 thing not present, as may Be observed in the delirious,
 and in maniacs.
   7. Metamorphopsia from a remaining impression :
 it happens  to those who very attentively examine ob-
jects, particularly in  a great light, for some time after
to perceive the impression.
   Metape'dicm.  (From  ptra, after,  and  trovs, the
foot.)  The metatarsus.
  Meta'phrenum.   (From ptra, after, and <f>psi'tc, the
diaphragm.)  That part of the back which is behind
the diaphragm.
  Mbtaporopoie'sis.  (From ptra, iropoc, a duct, and
iroitu, to make.)   A change in the pores of the body.
  Metapto'sis.   (From  ptrairtirru, to  digress.)  A
chanec from one disease  to another.
  METASTASIS.   (From ptQiarnpt, to change,  to
translate.)  The translation of a disease from one place
to another.
  Metasy'ncricis.  (From  ptTaavyxptvu,  to trans
rr.*te.)   Any change of consi'tution.
   METATARSAL.  Belonging to the metatarsus.
   Metatarsal bones.  The five longitudinal bones
 between the tarsus and the toes; they are distinguished
 into the metatarsal bone of the great-toe, fore-toe, Sec,
   METATA'RSUS.  (From ptra, after,  arid rapoos,
 the tarsus.)   That part of the foot between the tarsus
 and toes.
   Mete'lla nux.  See Strychnos nux vomica.
   METEOKISMUS.  (From ptrtupos, a vapour.)  I.
 A dropsy of the belly, accompanied  by a considerable
 distention from wind in the bowels.
   2. A  tympanilic state  of the abdomen, that takes
 place in acute diseases suddenly and unexpectedly, as
 does the appearance of a meteor in the heavens.
   METEOROLITE.   Meteoric  stone.   A  peculiar
 solid compound of earthy and metallic matters, of sin-
 gular aspect  and composition, which occasionally de-
 scends from the atmosphere; usually from the bosom
 of a luminous meteor.
   Meteo'ros.  (Mtreuipoc; from ptja, and aeipu, to
 elevate.)  Elevated, suspended, erect, sublime, tumid.
 Galen expounds pains of this sort, as being those wiiich
 affect the peritoneum, or other more superficial parts
 of the body: these are opposed to the more deep seated
 ones.
   METIIE'GLIN.  A  drink prepared from honey by
 fermentation.  It is often confounded with mead.  It
 is made in the  following way.  Honey, one hundred
 weight; boiling water, enough to fill a thirty-two gal-
 lon cask, or half a hogshead: stir it well for a day or
 two, then add yeast and ferment.  Some boil the honey
 in water with one ounce of hops to each gallon, for au
 hour or  two, but this boiling hinders its fermentation.
   Methemeri'nus.  (From ptra, and  r^fitpa, a day.)
 A quotidian fever.
   Metho'dic medicine.  That practice wliich  was
conducted by rules, such  as are taught by Galen and
his followers, in opposition to the empirical practice 
MIC                                             Mil/
   ME'THODUS. (From pcra, and ooos- a way.)  The
 method, or latio, by which  any opeiaiimi or cure is
 Conducted.
   Meto'i-ion.  Mtr&iirioi'.   1. American sumach, a
 species of Rhus.
  2. A name of the bitter almond.
  S. An oil, or an  ointment,  made  by Dioscorides,
 which was thus called because it had galbanum in it,
 which was collected from a plant called Metopium.
  Mkto'pium.   Mtruirtov.   An  ointment  made of
 galbanum.
  Mkto'pum.   (From ptra,  after, and u*p, the eye.)
 The fbiehead.
  Meto'sis.  A kind of amaurosis, from an excess of
 short-sightedness.
  ME"OA.  (From pqrtip,  a  mother.)  The womb.
 See  Uterus.
  METRE'NCHYTA.  (From pnrpa, the womb, and
 eyxvu, to  pour into.)  Injections into the womb.
  METRE'N'CHYTES. (From pnrpa, the womb, and
 cyxvu, to  pour  in.)  A syringe to inject fluids into the
 womb.
  METRITIS. (From pnrpa, the womb.) Inflamma-
 tion ofthe womb.  See Hysteritis.
  METROCE'LIS.  (Metrocelis,idis.f.; from pqrr\p,
 a mother, and  xr/Xts, a  blemish.) A mole, or mark,
 impressed upon the child  by the mother's  imagina-
 tion.
  METROMA'NIA.  A race for  reciting Verses.  In
 the Acta SooietatisMedicae Havniensis, published 1779,
 is  an account of a tertian attended with remarkable
symptoms; one of which was the metro-mania, by
 which the patient spoke  verses  extempore,  having
 never before had the least taste for poetry ; when the
 fit was off, the patient became stupid, and remained so
 till  the  return  of  the paroxysm,  when the  poetical
 powers returned aaain.
  METROPTOSIS.  (From pnrpa,  the uterus, and
 mir'Ju, to fall down.)  Prolapsus  uteri.  The descent
Ofthe uterus through the vagina.
  Metrorrhagia.  (From pqtpa,  the womb, and
pvyvvpt, to break out.)  An  excessive discharge from
the womb.
  MRU.  Sec JEthusa meum.
  MEUM.  (From pttuv, less: so called, according to
 Minshew, from  ils diminutive size.)   See JEthusa
meum.
  Meum athamanticum.  See JEthusa meum.
  Mexico seed.  See Ricinus.
  Mexico tea.  See Chenopodium ambrosioidrs.       ,
  MEZEREON.  See Daphne mezereum.
  MEZE'REUM. (A word of some barbarous dialect.)
 Mezereon.  See Daphne mezereum.
  Mezerei'm acetatum.  Thin slices of the bark of
 fresh mezerenn  root are  to be steeped for twenty-four
 hours iu common vinegar.  Some practitioners direct
 this application  to issues, when a discharge from tlieui
 cannot he encouraged by the common means.  It ge-
 net ally answers this purpose very effectually iu the
 course of one  night, the pea  being removed,  and a
small portion of (he baik applied over tlie opening.
 fe-ne  Ijaphne gnidium.
  MIA'SMA.   (Miasma, th. n.;  from  ptaivu, to in-
 fect.)  Miasma  is a Greek word, importing pollution,
 corruption, or defilement generally; and contagion a
 Latin word, importing the application of such miasm
 or corruption to the body  by the medium of touch.
 There is,  hence, therefore, says Dr. Good, neithei pa-
 rallelism nor antagonism, in their respective significa-
 tions; there is nothing that necessarily connects them
either disjunctively, or conjunctively.  Roth equally
 apply to Ihe animal and vegetable worlds, or to any
■ource whatever of defilement or touch; and  cither
 may be predicated of the other; for we may speak cor-
 rectly ofthe miasm of contagion, or of contagion pro-
 duced by  miasm.  See Contagion.
  MICA.  A speciesof mineral which Professor Jame-
hoii subdivides  into ten  sub-species, viz. mica, piuife,
 I I'idoli e,  chlorite,  green earth, talc, nacrite, poistune,
Blemlte, aid figure stone.
  Mica comes in abuudiitice from  Siheria, where it is
used for window glass.
  Ml' Hoi-n'sMii: bezoar.  See Calculus.
  Mioroi osmio SAtT.   A triple salt of soda, ammonia,
ai;d  plu sphoric acid obtained  fiom mine, and  much
L?ed in assays wilh the blow-pipe.
  M-i-Roi.Kiu-oNYMPii*'*.  (From fiiKpor, small,Aci>*«c
  vV'.ile, and vvptpaia, ihe w.ue -lily.)  Tht small wniTS
  wa.er-lily.
    MICRONYMPHjE'A.   (From  ptxpos, small, and
  vvptbiua, the water-lily.)   Tlie smaller.water-lily.
    MICRO'ROHIS.  (From ptxpos, small, and opxn, a
  testicle.)  One whoso testicles aie unusually small.
    MICROSPHYXIA.  (Fiom ptxpos, small, uiul
  o<pv\ts, the  pulse.)   A debility and smalliies? of tlie
  pulse.
    [MIDDLETON, Peter, M.D.  This gentleman, a
  native of Scotland,  flourished in the profession nf
  medicine in  the ckyof New-York about the midi'ie of
  the last century, and was one of the very few  medical
  men of this country,  Who, at that early period weie
  distinguished equally for various and profound learn
  ing and  great  professional talents,  lie, with Hi. J
  Hard, iu 1750,  dissected a human body, and  inject- d
j  the blood-vessels, which was  the  fiist attempt of the
  kind to be found on medical record in Ame.ka, ami  in
  1767 he proffered his services for  carying into  eili-ci
  the establishment of a new medical school in  the city
  of New-York, of which  he was  appointed first pio
  fessorof Physiology and Pathology, and af.erwnrd way
  the instructer in  Materia Medica.
    In his profession lie  was learned and liberal,  nnd Ii -
  whole life was a practical illustration of hisdocoines.
  He wrote an able fetter on the cintip, aildiec-seil lo I)..
  Richard Buyley, which was published in  the Medicai
  Repository,  Volume IX.   He was also author of  a
  Medi-al Discourse, or historical Inquiries in.o ihe an-
 cient and present slate of  Medicine, the substance of
 which was delivered  at Ihe opening of the Medical
 School of New-York  ; il was published in 176!), nnd  is
  an  honourable  specimen  of  his  talents and attain-
 ments.
   This  highly respectable man,  for a considerable
  period, struggled  wilh an impai ed state of tieaiih, in-
 duced by the toils of a laborious  practice,  and alter
| en-during the severest bodily -uttering for mote than ten
  months, from a  slrictuie and scirrhous state  nf lite
  pvlcirus, died iu the ciiv of  New-York, in 1781.'—
  7 hneh. Mnl. Biog.  A.]"
   MIDRIFF.  See Diaphragma.
   MIEMITE.  A miiie'al found atMiemo in  Tuscany,
 and other places.  There are two  hinds, the granular
 and prismatic.
   Mi'oma.   (From utyvuu, to mix.)   A confection, o:
 ointment.
   Migra'ka.  A corruption of hemicrania.
   MILFOIL.  See Achillea millefolium.
   MILIA'UIA.  (1'ioni iiiiliu-ui, millet: so called lie
 cause the small vesicles upon the skin resemble inilet-
 seed.)  Miliary lever.  A genus  of disease in the eliis*
 Pyrexia, and ordti F.itnithrine.tii, of Cullen,  chnrnc-
 lerized by synoclius;  cold sta?e consult-able   hoi
 stage attended with anxiety a: ri frequent sighin";  per-
 spiration of a stiongand |< onliarsnipll;  ernptii n, pre-
 ceded  by a sense of  pricking, fi st on  the  neck  a: t\
 breast,of small red pimples, wliich in  two days beronle
 white  vesicles,  desquama e,  and  are sucoei ded by
 fresh pimples.  Miliary fever has been observed in af-
 fect both seves, and persons of all aces ami to, slim-
 lions : bin  females, of  a delicate habit, aie in- si liable
 to it, particularly  in child-bed.  Moist variable weather
 is most fa von i able to  its  appe.vance,  nud  it  occurs
 most usually in ihcsprini: aid autumn.   It is by vine
 said to he a contasiousdifeasu, and has been known to
 prevail epidemically.
   Yeiy violent symptoms, such as coma, delirium, and
 convulsive ti's, now and then  attend miliary fever, in
 which case it is apt to  prove fatal.   A numerous emp-
 tion indicates ino-e danger than n scanty nee.   The
 eruption being steady  is to he considered as more 'a-
  vourable than  its fiequently tlisappearine and  comma
 out again, and it is more favourable when the places
 eo\ ereil with the eruption appear swelled aad strefi lied
  than when ihey  tcumin fiacciil.   Aecoiriina  to llie se-
  verity of the synip'ouis, and depnssion of spirits, is the
 danser gieater.   See also Siidiimma.
   Mii.i'oi.cm. (Diminutive of milium, millet)  A small
  tunioni- on iheevelids, resembling it size a millet seed.
  MILITA'RIS.  (From ui,lcs,n soldier- so called I nun
  its rflioai-y ill curing fr?sli Wounds.)  See Arhillen mil
 lefi'liuiit.
    VlU'i Altts HERBA.   See Achllen millefolium.
    Ml I j 11  M   (From  m.llr, n ihousiiiul.  An  anricn
  name or a  suit  of com or c  a>s, iei>:a>kaMe  foi tin 
MIL
MIL
etmnidance of its seeds)  The name of a genus of
plains  in  the Linnaean system.   Class,  Triandria.
Order,  IHgynia.
   2. (From milium, a millet-seed.)   A very white and
hard tubercle, in size and  colour resembling a millet-
*eed. Its seat is immediately under the cuticle, so that,
when  pressed,  the contents  escape appearing of an
atheromatous nature.
   Milium  sons.  See Lithospermum.
   MILK.   Lac.  A fluid secreted by peculiar glands,
and designed to nourish animals iu Hie early part of
their life.  It is of*an opaque white colour, a mildsac-
rhariue taste, and a slightly atomatic smell.   It is se-
parated immediately from  the blood, in the breasts or
udders of female animals.  Man, quadrupeds, and ce-
taceous animals, are ihe only cteatuies which afloid
milk.   All other animals  are destitute ofthe organs
which secrete this fluid.  Miik differs greatly in me
several  animals.
   The following are the general Properties of animal
and human milk:—
   Milk separates spontaneously into cream, cheese, nnd
serum of milk; and that sooner in a warm situation
than in a cold one.  In a greater neinperatuie than that
of the air,  it acesces and coagulates, but more easily
and quicker by the  addition of acid -alls, or coagula-
ting plants.  I.ime-water coagulates milk imperfectly.
It  is not coagulated  by purr alkali;  whicli indei-d  dis-
solves its caseous part.   Wilh  carbonated alkali  the
caseous and cremoiaceous  parts of milk  tie changed
into a liquid  soap, which  separates in the form  of
white flakes; such  milk, by boiling, is changed into a
yel'ow aud then into a brown colour.  Milk, distilled tn
dryness, gives out an  insipid  water, and leaves  a
whitish brown exiract, tailed  tne  ertruct of milk;
which, diss ilvcd in water,  makes a  milk of less value.
Milk fresh  drawn, and often agitated in a warm place,
by dei-res  goes imo the vinous fermentation, so that
alkohol may he drawn  over by distillation, whicli  is
cal'ed spirit of milk.  It succeeds quicker if yest lie
added to the  milk. Mares*  milk,  as  it contains ihe
greatest quantity of the sugar of milk, is best calculated
for vinous  fermentation.
   The Principles of milk, or its integral parts, are,
   1. The Aroma, or odorous  vnlutilr principle, whicli
flies off* from fresh-drawn  milk in the  form of visible
vapour.
   2. Water, which  constitutes the  greatest  part  of
milk.  From one pound eleven ounces of water may
be extracted by distillation.   This  water, with  the
sugar of milk, forms the serum ofthe milk.
   3. Bland oil, which, from its lightness, swims on the
surface of milk after standing, and forms the cream of
milk.
  4  Cheese, separated by coagulating milk, falls to the
bottom ofthe vessel, and is the animal  gluten.
  5. Sugar, obtained from the serum of milk by evapo
ration.   It  unites the caseous and  bulyraceous  part
with the water ofthe milk.
  B. Some  neutral  salts, as the  muriate  of potassa
and  muriate of lime, which are accidental, not being
found at all times, nor in every milk.  These princi-
ples of  milk differ widely in  respect to quantity ami
quality, according to the diversity of ihe animals.
  The  aroma of the milk is of so different an odour,
lhat persons accustomed to  the smell, and those whose
olfactory nerves are very sensible,  can easily dis in-
guish whether milk be that ofthe cow, goal, mare, ass,
or human.   The same may be said of the serum ofthe
milk, which is properly the seat of the aroma.  The
serum of milk is thicker and more copious iu the milk
ofthe sheep and goat, than  in that ofthe ass, mare, or
human milk.  The butter of goats' and cows' milk is
easily separated, and will not again unite  itself with
the butter-milk.  Sheep's butter is soft, and not of the
consistence of that obtained from the  cow and goat.
Asses', mares', and  human butter, can only be sepa-
rated in the fo&m of cream ; which cream, hy  the as-
sistance of heat, is wilh ease again united  to the milk
from which it is separated.   The cheese of cows' and
goats' milk is solid and elastic, that from asses and
mares soft, and thai from sheep's milk  almost as soft
is gluten.  It  is never separated spontaneously from
ihe milk of a woman but  only by art, and is  wholly
fluid. The serum abounds  most Iu human, asses', and
mares' milk.  The  milk of the cow and eoat contain
em  and that of the sheep least of all  The sugar of
 milk  is  iu the  greatest quantity  tu  ihe ni.iiieV  and
 asses', and somewhat less in ihe himaii milk.
   When milk is tell in spontaneous ileiompositjon, at
 a due temperature, it is found lo becapab.e nf passing
 through the vinous, acetous, and puticfaciive leiiuin
 tat ions.  It appears, however, probably on account of
 the small quantify of alkohol it affords^ lhat ihe vinous
 fermentation lasts a  very short time, and can  scarcely
 be made to take  place in every pari  of the fluid at
 once, by tin- addition of any  ferment.   This seems to
 be the reason w hy the Tnr.ars, who make a fermented
 liquor, or wine, from mares' milk, called koumiss, suc-
 ceed  by using lagc quantities at a time, ami agitating
 it very frequently.  They add, as a fcrinciif, a >ixlh
 part oi' water, and au eighth part of the so.....-t  cow's
 milk  they can get, or a smaller portion of koumiss
 already preiwued: cover the vessel with a flunk cloth,
 and lei il stand  in a moderate warmth for'24 lioins:
 then beat il with a slick, lo mix the thicker and thinner
 parts, which  have separated :  lei it  stand aniiiii 24
 hours, in a high nairr w vessel, and repeal the heating;,
 till the liquor  is perfectly  liomngenenus.  This liquor
 will  keep some months,  in close  vessels, and a cold
 place; b  it iiiusl be well mixed hy beating, or shaking,
 eveiy time it is used.  They sometimes oxt act a spirit
 from  it by distillation.  The Arabs pepaiea similar
 liquor by the name of tcbnn, and Ihe Tuiks by lhat of
 yuourt.  Eaton niton..;- us. tha, when propcily pre-
 pared, it  may he left  lo -t:mi<i till it becomes quite dry :
 and in this  state  it  is kept iu  bags.and mixed with
 water when wanted  for use.
   The saccharine substance, upon which Hip ferment-
 ing property of milk depends, is held in solution by the
 whey, whicli remains a. ter the sepa at ion of the cm d
 in making cheese. This is sepaiated  by evaporation
 iu the large way, for phaiiuaceutical purposes, iu va
 rious  parts of;*w iizerlwid.  When the whey litis been
 evaporated by heat,  to the consistence of honey, il is
 poured into ptoper moulds, ami exposed to dry in ihe
 sun.  If this crude sugar of miik be dissolved in water,
 clai ified  wilh  whites of eggs, and  evaporated lo the
 consistence of syrup, white crystals, iu Ihe form  of
 rhomboidal parailelopipedons, arc obtained.
   Sugar  of peilk has a faint  saccharine taste, and is
 soluble in three or four parts of water. It yields  by
 distillation Hie same pioducts that other  sugars  do,
 only in somewhat different propoitions. It is rcmaika-
 ble, however, lhat the eiiipyreumatic oil has a smell
 resembling flowers of benzoin.  It contains mi acid
 frequently called the succolactic; bul as it is common
 to all mucilaginous  substances,  it  is  more generally
 termed mucic.   Sue Mucic acid.
   Milk, according to Berzelius, consists of,
     Water.............................9528.7.")
     Curd, with a little cream............   2H0U
     Sugar of milk......................   35.u0
     Muriate of potassa  ................    1.70
     Phosphate ot  potassa...............    0.e25
     Lactic acid, acetate of potassa, with (    .. ()fl
       a trace of lactate of iron........t    ''
     Earthy phosphates..................    0.30

                                        1000 00

   Milk,  asses'.  Asses' milk has a very strong  re-
 semblance tn human milk in colour, smell, and con-
 sistence.  When  left al  rest for a sufficient lime, a
 cream forms upon its surface, but by no means in such
 abundance as  on women's milk.  Asses' milk dill'ery
 from cows' miik, in its cream being less abundant and
 more  insipid;  iu  its  containing less curd; and in  its
 possessing a greater pio|rortion of sugar.
   Milk,  cows'.   The  milk of women, mares,  and
 asses, nearly agree in  their qualities; that of cows
 eoats, and sheep, possess properties rather different
 Of these, cows'  milk approaches ner rest lo thai
 yielded hy the female breast, but differs very much in
I respect to the aroma: it contains a larger  proportiou
j of cream and cheese,  and less   scrum than  hu
' man  milk; also  less sugar  ihan mares' and  asses
I milk.
   Cows'  milk  forms a very essential  part of human
I sustenance, being adapted to every s'ate and age of
 Ihe  body;  but particularly to  infants, after being
 weaned.
   M.lk. ewes'.   This resembles almost precisely thar
! of the cow ■ its cream, however, Is more  abundant
                                          m 
'MIL
MIL
and yields a butter not so consistent as cows' milk
butter.  It makes excellent cheese.
  Milk, ooats'.  It resembles cows', except in its
greater consistence: like that milk, it throws up abun-
dance of  cream,  from which  butter is easily ob-
tained.
  Milk, human.  The white, sweetish fluid, secreted
by the glandular fabric of the breasts of women.  The
secretory organ is constituted  by the great conglome-
rate glands situated in  the fat  of both breasts, above
the musculus pectoralis  major.  From each  acinus,
composing a mamillary gland, there arises a radical of
a lactiferous  or galactiferous duct.  All these canals,
gradually converging, are terminated without anasto-
mosis, in the papillae of the breasts, by many orifices,
which, upon pressure, pour forth milk.  The smell of
fresh-drawn milk is peculiar, animal, fatuous, and not
disagreeable.   Its taste sweetish, soft, bland,  agreea-
ble.  The specific gravity is greater than  that of wa-
ter, but it is lighter than blood; hence it swims on it.
Its colour  is white and opaque.  Ifi consistence it is
oily  and  aqueous.  A  drop, put on the  nail, flows
slowly  down, if the milk be good.
  Time of Secretion.—The  milk most frequently be-
gins to  be  secreted  in the last  months of  pregnancy;
but,  on the third day  after delivery, a serous milk,
..ailed  Colostrum, is separated;  and at length  pure
milk is secreted very copiously into the breasts, that,
from its abundance often spontaneously  drops  from
the nipples.
  If the secretion of milk be daily promoted by suck-
ling an infant, it often continues many years, unless a
fresh pregnancy supervene.   The  quantity  usually
secreted within twenty-four hour3,  by nurses, is va-
rious, according as  the  nourishment may  be more or
less  chylous.   It appears that not more than two
pounds of milk are obtained from five or  six  pounds
of meal.   But there  have  been  known nurses  who
have given from their breasts two, or even more than
tliree pounds, in addition to  that wliich their child has
sucked. That the origin  of the milk is derived  from
chyle carried with the blood of the mammary arteries
inlo the glandular fabric ofthe breasts, is evident from
its more copious secretion a little after meals; its di-
minished secretion from  fasting; from the smell and
taste of food or medicines in the secreted milk ; and,
lastly, from its occasional spontaneous accscence; for
humours perfectly animal become putrid.
  The milk of a woman differs: 1 In respect to food.
The milk of a woman who suckles, living upon vegelo-
aniinal food, never acesces  nor coagulates spontane-
ously, although exposed for many weeks  to the heat
of a furnace.  Bul it evaporates gradually in an  open
vessel,  and the last drop continues thin, sweet, and
bland.  The  reason appears to be,  that the caseous
and creuioraceous  pans cohere together by  means of
the. sugar, more intimately than  in the milk  of ani-
mals, and do not so easily  separate; hence its aces-
cence is prevented.  It  docs acesce, if mixed or boiled
with vinegar, juice of lemons, supertartrate of potassa,
dilute sulphuric acid, or with the human stomach.  It
U coagulated by the acid of salt, or nitre, and hy an
acid gastric juice of the infant; for infants often vomit
up the  coagulated milk of the  nurse.   The milk of a
Mickling woman, who lives upon vegetable food only,
like cows' milk, easily and of its own accord acesces,
end is acted upon by nil coagulating substances like
Ihe milk of animals. 2. In respect of the time of di-
rrstion.   During the first hours of digestion, the chyle
i>crude, and the milk less subacled; but towards the
twelfth hour after eating, the  chyle is changed into
blood, and then the milk becomes yellowish and nau-
seous, and is spit out by the infant.  Hence the best
lime for giving suck is about  the fourth or fifth hour
after meals.  3. In respect  of  the time after deli vei y.
The milk secreted immediately after delivery is serous,
I urges the bowels  of the infant, and is called colos-
trum.  But  in  the following dnys it becomes thicker
ind more pure, and  the  longer a  nurse  suckles,
:'ie thicker .he milk » secreted; thus new-born infants
t innot retain Ihe milk of a nurse who has given suck
fir a twelvemonth, on account of its spissitude.  4.
In  respect of food and medicines.  Thus, if a nurse
eat gorlic, the milk becomes highly impregnated with
Its odour, and is disagreeable.   If she indulge too freely
in  the use of w'.ne'or beer, the infant becomes  ill.
I'rom giving a puiging medicine to a nurse, the child
      70
 also is purged.  and, lastly, children affected with tor
 mina ofthe bowels, arising from acids, are often cure*
 by giving the nurse animal food.  5. In respect of ihe
 affections of the mind.  There are frequent examples of
 infants being seized with convulsions, from sucking
 mothers irritated by anger  An infant of one year old,
 while he sucked milk from his enraged mother, on a
 sudden was seized with a fatal haemorrhage, and died.
 Infants at the breast in a short time pine away . '•!' ihe
 nurse  be  afflicted  with grievous care; and there are
 also infants who, after every coition  of the  mother,
 or even if she menstruate, are taken ill.
  The use of the  mother's milk is, 1. It affords tlie
 natural aliment to the new-born infant, as milk differs
 little from chyle.  Tliose children are the strongest
 who are nourished the longest by the mother's milk.
 2. The colostrum should not be rejected; for it relaxes
 the bowels, which, in new-born infants,  ought to be
 open, to  clear them of the meconium.  3. Lactation
 defends the mother  from a dangerous reflux of the
 milk into the blood, whence lacteal metastasis, and
 leucorrhoea, are so frequent in lying-in women, who
 do not give suck.  The motion of the milk also being
 hastened through the breast  by the sucking of the
 child, prevents the very common induration of the
 breast, which arises in consequence of the milk being
stagnated.  4. Men may live  upon milk, unless  they
have been accustomed to the drinking of wine.  For
all nations, the Japanese alone excepted, use milk, and
many live upon  it alone.
  Milk,  mares'.  This is thinner than  that of  the
cow, but  scarcely so thin as human milk.  Its cream
cannot be  converted into butter  by agitation.  The
whey contains sugar.
  Milk-blotches.   An eruption  of white  vesicles
 which assume a dark colour,  resembling the blacken-
 ing of the small-pox, and are succeeded by scabs  pro-
ducing an ichorous matter, attended with considerable
itching.  It generally  appears on the forehead and
scalp, extending  half over the face, and at limes even
 proceeding farther.  The  period of its attack is tin
 time of teething; and it is probably the same disease
 as the crusta lactea.
  Milk-fever.  See Puerperal fever.
  Milk-teeth.  See Teeth.
  Milk-thistle.  See Carduus marianus.
  MILK-VETCH.  See Astragalus excapus
  MILK-WORT.  See Polygala vulgaris.
  Milk wort, rattle-snake root.  See Polygala senega.
  MlLLEFO LIUM.  (From mille, a thousand, and
folium, a leaf: named from its numerous leaves.) See
Achillea millefolium.
  Millemo'rdia.  (From mille, a thousand, and mor-
bus, a disease: so called from its use in many diseases.)
See Scrophularia nodosa.
  Mille'pkd.*-.  See Oniscus ascllus.
  MILLE'PES.  (From mille, a thousand, and pes, a
foot: named from their numerous feet.)  See Oniscus
asellus.
  [MILLER, Edward, M.D., was a native of Dover,
in the state of Delaware.  He was born on the 9th  of
May, 1760.   Dr. Miller, in  the year 1784, commenced
the practice of medicine in the village of Frederica, a
short distance from his native town, in Delaware ;  bat
soon afterward removed to Somerset county, in Mary-
land.  Here also his stay was short.   In 1786 he re-
turned  to Dover, and entered on  the  practice of bis
profession in his native place.
  In 179b* he removed from Dover to the city of New
York.  Here he soon conciliated the esteem and confi-
dence of his medical brethren : andnotw ithstaiidiugthe
 many disadvantages  under which a stranger  engages
 in the competition for medical practice in a great city,
 he succeeded beyond his most sanguine expectations.
 His business, in a few months, became such as to afford
 him an ample support, and continued to become mote
 and more extensive until his death.
  In a few weeks after his removal to New-Yo.k, Dr
 Miller, in connexion with  his friends, Dr. Mitchill and
the late llr. Elihu H. Smith, formed the plan of 1 peri-
odical  publication  to be devoted to medicai  si euco.
 Their prospectus was issued in November of thai year
 (1796); and  in the  month of August,  1797,  the  first
 number of the work appeared under  the title of the
 "Medical Repository."  The commencement  of  this
 publication undoubtedly forms au  eia in  the  litciary
 and medical  history of our country.  No wink of a 
MIN                                              MIN
nmilar kuui had ever  appeared iu the Tinted States.
Its influence in exciting and recording medical  inqui-
ries, and in improving  medical  science, soon became
apparent.  It led to the establishment of other similar
works iu different parts of our own country as well as
of Europe ; and may thus, wilh great truth, be said to
have contributed more  largely, than  anv other single
publication, to that lusie for medical investigation and
improvement, wliich has been  for  a number of years
so conspicuously and rapidly advancing on this side of
the Atlantic.  Dr. Miller lived lo see  the fifteenth vo-
lume of this work nearly brought to a close, and rejoiced
in the generous competition which it had been so evi-
dently the means t   (exciting.
  At the  close of t_e season of 1805, in  his official
character as resident physician,  lie addressed  to his
excellency Governor  Lewis a report of the  rise,  pro
gross,  and termination  of the yellow fever.  To this
detail  he added an exhibition  and  defence of tlie
doctrine concerning the origin of yellow lever, which,
alter much inquiry and long experience, he had adopted.
This report was shortly afterward laid before the pub-
lic; and has been  pronounced  by good judges to be
one of the most luminous,  forcible,  comprehensive,
and satisfactory defences ofthe  doctrine which it sup-
ports, lhat ever appeared, within the same compass, in
any language.
  He fell a victim to  an inflammatory attack upon the
lungs,  which, afier symptons of convalescence, de-
generated into a typhus  fever, which put an end to his
valuable life on the  17th day of March, 1812, in the
5id year of his age.
  Dr. Miller's published writings were not numerous.
A tew of them were originally printed  in  detached
pamphlets ;  but the greater part first appeared in the
Medical Repository.  Since his decease they have been
collected aud reprinted in one large octavo volume.
  The moral and social qualities of Dr. Miller were
worthy of no less praise than his talents, learning, and
professional skill.  His humanity and  practical benefi-
cence were  no  less conspicuous.  These were  mani-
fested throughout his professional life, and  especially
in his  attendance on the  poor  and  friendless,  to an
extent truly rare.
  His delicacy in conversation has been seldom equal-
led,  perhaps never exceeded.  Nothing  ever escaped
from his lips, even in his most unreserved moments, to
which the most refined and scrupulous might not listen
without offence.
  Nor was his  temperance less conspicuous than his
delicacy.   He  not  only avoided the use of ardent
spirits, with a scrupulousness which to some  might
appear excessive, but he was unusually sparing, a~hd
even  abstemious, in the use of every kind of drink
stronger than water.  He rejected the use of tobacco
iu every  form, not only as au odious and unhealthy
practice, but also as a most insidious provocation to the
love of drinking.— Thach. Med. Biog.  A.]
  MILLET.  See Panicum miliaceum.
  Millet, Indian. See Panicum italicum.
  MILL-MOUNTAIN.  See Limtm catharticum.
  Milpho'sis.  MiA^uktic.  A  baldness of  the eye-
brows.
  Mi'ltos.  MiArec.  Red-lead.
  MILTWASTE.  See Asplenium cetcrach.
  Milzade'lla.  (From milza, the Spanish for the
spleen: so called from its supposed virtues in diseases
of the spleen.)  The herb archangel.  See  Angelica
archangelica.
  MIMO'SA.   (From mimus, an actor, or  imitator,
meaning a sort of imitative plant, the motions of which
mimic the sensibility of animal life.)  The name of a
genus of plants in the Linnaean system.  Class, Poly-
gamia ; Order, Monacia.  The sensitive plant.
  Mimosa catechu.  The former  name of  the  tree
which aflbrds catechu.  See Acacia catechu.
  Mimosa nilotica.  See Acacia vera.
  Mimosa seneoal. The systematic name of the
tree from  which the  gum Senegal exudes.  The gum is
brought from  the country through which  the  river
Senegal runs, in loose or single drops, much  larger
than gum-arabic.  It is similar in virtue and quality
to the gum-arabic, and the gum which exudes in this
climate from the cherry-tree.  See Acacia vera.
  Mindererus spirit.  Sec Ammonia acetatis liquor.
  MINERAL.   (Mineralis; froji  mina,  a mine of
metal.)  A substance which does no. possess organiza-
tion, or is nol produced by an organized body, belongs
to the division of the production of nature called mi-
nerals.   Among this varied class of materials, which
require the attention of the chemist and manufacturer,
many are compounded of such principles, and forriied
under such circumstances and situations  in the eaith
that it  is difficult to distinguish them without having
recourse to the test of experiment; several are formed
with considerable regularity us  to the proportion of
their principle, their  fracture, their  colour, specific
gravity, and figure of crystallization.
  Mineral bodies which enter  into the composition of
the globe,  nre classed  by mineralogists  under  lour
heads:—1. Earths.  2.  Salts.  3. luflummnblefossils ,
and, 4.  Metals and their ores.  Under the term earths,
nre arranged stones  and earths, whicli have no taste,
and do not burn when healed with contact of air.
  t'nder the second, salts, or those  saline substances
which  melt in water and do  not bum, they require,
according to Kirwan, less ihan two hundred times theii
weight of waler to dissolve them.
  By inflammable fossils are to be understood all those
minerals not soluble in  water, and exhibiting a flame
more or less evident when exposed to tire in contact
with air.
  The  fourth class,or ores, are  compound  bodies.  Na-
ture has bestowed their proper  metallic appearance on
some substances, and when this is the case, or they are
alloyed  with other  metals, or seini-metals,  they  are
called native metals.  But such as are distinguished,
as ihey commonly are, in mines,  in combination with
some other unmetallic substances, are said to be mine-
ralized.  The substance  that sets them in  that state, is
called the mineralizer, aud the compound  of both an
ore.  For example, in the  common ore of copper, this
metal is found oxidized, and the oxide combined with
sulphur. The copper may be considered as mineral
ized with oxygen and sulphur, and  the compound ol"
the three bodies forms an ore of copper.
  [MINERALS, arrangement of.  The systematic
arrangement of minerals by  writers on the subject
differs  very materially.   The  only  elementary work
on mineralogy published in this country is by Parker
Cleaveland, professor in  Bowdoin College, State of
M aine.   As it is a work highly creditable to the author,
and much approved as astandard work, we give a tabu-
lar view of his arrangement.

               TABULAR VIEW.*
  CLASS. 1.—Substances not metallic, composed en-
            tirely, or in part, of an Acid.
  This class contains four orders.  In the first order,
the acid is free or not combined ; in the  second, it is
combined with an alkali; in the third, with an earth or
earths;  and in the fourth,  with both an alkali and an
earth.   Hence the presence of an acid, provided  it be
not united to a metallic base, characterizes this class
          ORDER I.—Acids not combined.
  The base of the acid determines tlie genus.  All th«
species in Ihis  order have oxygen, as a common ingre
dient, so combined with a base, as to produce an acid
                    GENUS I
Spec 1.  Sulphuric acid.
     2. Sulphurous acid
                   GENUS II.
Spec 1. Muriatic acid.
                   GENUS III.
      1. Carbonic acid.
                   GENUS IV.
      1. Boracic acid.
            ORDER II.—Alkaline sails.
  These salts are composed of an alkali, united to an
acid.  Hence an alkali, so combined as to form a salt,
characterizes  this order.   Each  alkali  designates  a
genus.
            GENUS I.—AMMONIA
Spec 1. Sulphate of Ammonia.
     2. Muriate of Ammonia.
            GENUS 11.-POTASH.
      1. Nitrate of Potash.

  * tn the tabular view, mbrpuia are iistinguished from varutm
by their position  in the column.  A nunibiir of species, recentl,
discovered, and concerning which little is yet known, are alphab»ti
cally arranged  in  an  appendix  to the earlhy daw.  Those speciei
which havS never been analvzed, are marked hy an asterisk.  Tho*
species which are printed in Italics, have not hitherto been observed
in crystals, nor even with a crystalline structure. 
MIN
MIN
              GENUS III.—SODA.
 Sfbc. 1. Sulphate of Soda.
      2. Muriate of Soda.
      3  Carbonate of Soda.
      4. Borate of Soda.
           ORDER III.—Earthy Salts.
  These consist of  au earth, or of earths, uniled to an
 acid  Hence an earth, so combined as to form a salt,
 characteiizes this order. Each genus is determined by
 the earth it contains.
               GENUS 1.—Barytes.
                        subspecies
                                and varieties
 Spec. 1. Sulphate of Barytes.
                                 lamellar
                                 columnar
                                 radiated
                                 tSbious
                                 concreted
                                 granular
                                 compact
                                 earthy
                             fetid
     2. Carbonate of Barytes.
           GENUS II.—STRONTIAN.
Spec. 1. Sulphate of Strontian.
                                foliated
                                fibrous
                             calcareous
     2. Carbonate of Strontian.
           GENUS III.—LIME.
fePEC 1. Arseniaieof Lime.
     2. Nitrate of Lime.
     3. Phosphate of Lime.
                                 Apatite.
                                Asparagus stone.
                                fibrous
                                 amorphous
                             siliceous
     4. Fluate of Lime.
                                Fluor spar.
                                compact
                                earthy
                             argillaceous
     5  Sulphate of Lime.
                             Selenite.
                                massive
                             Gypsum.
                                fibrous
                                granular
                                compact
                                branchy
                                snowy
                                earthy
                            Plaster stone.
     6  Anhydrous Sulphate of Lime.
                                sparry
                                compact
                            silica-anhydrous
     7  Carbonate of Lime.
                            c.vcareous spar
                                crystallized
                                laminated
                            granular
                            fibrous
                            compact
                                coarse grained
                            Chalk.
                            Agaric Mineral.
                                Fossil Farina.
                            concreted
                                Pisolite.
                                Oolite.
                                calcareous sinter.
                                Tufa.
                            Argentine.
                                Silvery chalk.
                            magnesian
                                common
                                Dolomite.
                            siliceous
                            Matlreporite.
                            Calp.
                            felid
                            binunlnous
                            ferruginous
                            Brown spar.
                         subspecies
 Spec.                            and varieties.
                              Marl.
                                  indurated
                                  common
                              Bituminous marlite
      B. Arragonite.
                                  fibrous
                                  coralloidal
      9. Siliceous Borate of Lime.
                                  Botryolite.
           GENUS IX.-MAGNES I A.
 Spec. 1. Sulphate of Magnesia.
      2.  Carbonate of Magnesia.
      3  Borate of Magnesia.
      4. Fluate of Magnesia.
            GENUS  V.—ALUMINE.
 Spec. 1.   Mellale of Alumine.
 ORDER IV.—Salts wilh an alkaline and earthy bate
 Spec 1. Alkaline sulphate of Alumine.
      2.  Finale cf Soda and Alumine.
      3.  Glauberite.
     CLASS II.—Earthy compounds, or stones
  The •■•inemls wi^'h l-elong  to this class, are com-
posed chiefly of eaA'-is, combined  wilh each other:
they frequently contain some metallic oxide, and some-
times an  alkali, or acid.
Alumine, si-
lex and fluor- •£ Spec 1. Topaz.
iC acid.
■
Alumine
nearly pure.
Alumine and |
water.      '

Alumine and
magnesia.

Alumine and S
silex.       j

Alumine,  si- (
lex and lime. (
Alumine,  si- i
lex and zinc, j
Ittriafc silex. j
Zirconia and }
silex.       j
Silex nearly<
pure.
         Pycnite.
 2. Sapphire.
         perfect
             blue
             violet
             red
             yellow
             limpid
         Corundum.
             Adamantine sxtrm
             Emery.
 3. Disaspore.
 4. Wavellite.
 5. Spinelle.
         Ruby.
         Ceylanite,
 6. Fibrolite.
 7. Cyanite.
 8. Staurotide.
 9. Chrysoberyl.

10. Gahnite.

11. Gadolinite.
leZ Zircon.

         Jargon,
         Hyacinth.
13. Quartz.
         common
             limpid
             smoky
             yellow
             blue
             rose red
             irrsed
             aventurinc
             milky
             greasy
             radiated
             tabular
             granular
             arenacec-ja
             pseudomorphow
         Amethyst.
         Prase.
         ferruginous
             yellow
             red
             greenish
         fetid
         Cat's eye.
        Chalcedony.
            common
             Cacholong
            Carnelian.
            Sardonyx.
            Plasma' 
MIN
MIN
SUBSPECIES		1 SUBSPECIES
AND VARIETIES.		AND VARIETlKai
Hyalite.		Spec 47. Byssolite.
Heliotrope.		48. Prehnilc.
Chryso prase		crystallized
Opal.		Koupholite
precious		fibrous
common		49. JF.deiitc.
Hydrophane.		50. Stilhite.
Girasole. Semi-opal. 1 Flint.	Silex, alu-mine, lime, and water	51. Zeoiite. / mealy 1 Crocalite.
swimming		Necdlestone
1 Hornstone.		52. *Laumoniie
' Silicicalce.		5J. *MeliIite.
, Buhrstone.	Silex, alu-	1 54. Sodalite.
Jasper. common	mine, soda, nnd muriatic	
1 striped I Egyptian	acid.	
		f 55. Natrolite.
Spec 14. Tripoli.	Silex, alu-	56. Analoime.
f 15. Porccllaaite. 16. Siliceous Slate.	mine, alkali,	i 57. Bildstcin.
	and water.	58. Naoriie.
Basanite.		[ 59. Uiabasie.
17. Petrosilez. 18. Clinkstone.	Silex, lime, and cerium.	j 60. Allenite. \ 01. Venite.
19. Pumice. £0. Obsidian	Silex, lime, and iron.	
vitreous	Silex, lime,	62. Schaalslein.
Pearlstone.	and waler.	63. lchihyophihahnlie
21. Pitchstonc.	Silex, bary-	
22. Spodumen.	tes, alumine,	64. Harmotome.
23. Lepidolite.	and water.	I
24. Mica.		65. Chrysolite.
laminated	Magnesia	| common
lamellar	and silex.	) Olivine.
prismatic		66. Labrador Stone.
25. Leucite.		67. Tremolite.
26. Fettstein.		common
27. Lapis Lazuli.		fibrous
Lazulite.		Baikalite.
28. Schor.		68. Asbestus.
common	Silex, mag , nesia,&. lime.	Amianthus
Tourmaline.		common
Indicolite.		Mountain Cork
Rubellite.		ligniform
29. Andaluzite.		compact
30. Feldspar.		69. Diopside.
common		70. Sahlite.
Adularia.		71. Amianthoide.
opalescent		72. Augite.
aveuturine		common
Petuntzc		Coccolite,
granular		73. Hornblende.
compact		common
31. Jade.		Basaltic
Nephrite.		lamellar
Saussurite.	Silex,magne-	fibrous
Axestone.	sia, alumine,<	slaty
32. Emerald.	and lime.	Actynolite.
precious		common
Beryl.		acicular
3a Euclase.		74. Diallage.
34. Basalt.		granular
columnar		resplendent
tabular		Bronzite.
globular		75. *Macle.
amorphous		76. Native Magnesia
35. *fVacke.		77. Magnesite.
3& Dipyre.		Keffekil.
37. Scapolite. 38. Wernerite. *		Argillo-murite,
		78. Serpentine.
39. Axinite.		precious
40. Garnet.		common
precious Pyrope.		79. Steatite.
		common
common Melanite. rr.anganesian	Silex, magne-sia, and alu-<	Potstone 80. Talc. common
41. Aplome.	mine.	indurated
42. Epidote.		81. Chlorite.
Zoisite.		common
Skorza.		slaty
manganesian		foliated
43. Cinnamon Stone.		Green earth
44. Allochroite. 45. Idocrase. 46 *Meionite.	Silex Se Mu-j mine. *)	82. Sommitc. 83. Anthophyllite. 84. finite.
73 
MIN
MIN
1	SUBSPECIES		SUBSPECIES
	AND ViRIETIES		AND VAUIETIla
"•pec 85. Argillaceoui Slate.			GENUS IV —MERCURY.
	Argillite.	Spec. 1.	Native Mercury.
	Shale.	2.	Argental Mercury.
	Novaculite. Aluminous Slate.	3.	Sulphuret of Mercury. common
	graphic		fibrous
86. Claystone.			bituminous
B7. Clay.	Native Argill. Collyrite. Kaolin.	4.	Muriate of Mercury. GENUS V.—COPPER.
		Spec 1.	Native Copper.
	Cimolite.	2.	Sulphuret of Copper.
	adhesive		pseudomorphou
	Potter's	3.	Pyiitous Copper. variegated Gray Copper.
	Llthomarge. Fuller's Earth.	4.	
	Bole.		arsenical
	Reddle.		aniimoiiial
88. Alum-stone.	Vellow Earth. Umber.	5.	Red Oxide of Copper. foliated capillary
Appendix. 80. *Bergmanite. 90. *Uiusite.		6.	compact ferruginous Azure Carbonate of Copper.
91. *Fuscite.			earthy
92. *Gabr<mile.		7.	Green Carbonate of Copper.
93. *H anyone.			fibrous
94. *lolite.			compact
95. *Petalite.			earthy
96. '■Pseudo-soriimite.			ferruginous
97. *Siderodepte. 98. *Spinelliiiie.		8. 9.	Dioptase. Muriate of Copper.
99. "-Spinthere. CLASS III.—Combustibles.		10.	sandy Sulphate of Copper.
"Spec 1. Hydrogen Gas.	carburetted	11. 12.	Phosphate of Copper. Arseniate of Copper.
	sulphuretted		obtuse octaedraV
2. Sulphur. '1 Bitumen.			acme octaedral foliated
	Naptha.		prismatic
	Petrolium.		fibrous
	Maltha.		ferruginous
	eltustic		GENUS VI.—IRON.
	Asphaltum.	Spec 1.	Native Iron.
	Retinasphaltum.	o	Arsenical Iron.
4. Amber.			argentiferous
5. Diamond.		3.	Sulphuret of Iron.
6 Anthracite.			common
	slaty		radiated
	granular		hepatic
	conchoidai		magnetic
	columnar		arsenical
7. Graphite.		4.	Magnetic Oxide of Iron.
	foliated		Native magnet
	grauulai		Iron sand.
8 CW.		5.	Specular Oxide of Iron.
	canncl		micaceous
	slaty	6.	Red Oxide of Iron.
	coarse		scaly
0 Lignite.			Hematite.
	Jet.		compact
	brittle		ochrey
	Bituminous Wood.	7	Brown Oxide of Iron.
	brown		scaly
	earthy		Hematite.
10. Peat.			compact
	fibrous		ochrey
	compact	8.	Argillaceous Oxide of Iron.
CLASS IV	—Ores.		t columnar
GENUS 1.-	GOLD.		granular
Spec 1. Nalive Goid.			lenticular
CENl'SII.—PLATINA.			nodular
Spec. 1. Native Platina.			common
GENUS III.-	SILVER.		Bog ore
Hpec 1. Nutive silver.		9.	Carbonate of Iron.
	auriferous	10.	Sulphate of Iron.
2. Antimonial Silver.		11.	Phosunate of Iron.
'3. Arsenical Silver.			foliated
4. Sulphuret of Silver.			earthy
5. Sulphuretted Anth	nonial Silver.		Green Iron earth.
	brittle	12	Arsenlnte of Iron.
6. Black Silver		13.	Chromate of Iron.
7. Carbonate of Silver.			crystallized
8. Muriate of Silver.			granular
	argillaceous		amorphous
 
MUN
MEN
Bpec
                    BUBsri:ciKs
                         AND  VARIETIES.
       GENUS VII.—LEAD.
I. NMice Lead.
2. Sulphuret of Lead.
                        common
                        compact
                        fibrous
                    nntinionial
                    argeniii antimonial
                    nrgenlo-bisiuullial
3  Oxide of Lead.
4. Carbonate of Lead.
earthy

crystallized
                               columnar
                               compact
                            black
       5. Carbonated Muriate of Lead.
       6. Sulphate of Lead.
       7. Phosphate of Lead.
                               acicular
                           arseniated
                           bluish
       8. Arseniate of Lead.
       9 eliminate of Lead.
      IU Molybd.-ue of Lead.
              GEM'S  VIII.—TIN
Spec 1. Oxide of Tin.
                               fibrous
       2. Pyntous Tin.
              GENTS  IX.—ZINC.
Spec.  1. Sulphuret of Zinc.
                               yellow
                               brnwn
                               black
                               fibrous
       2. Red Oxide of Zinc.
       3. Siliceous Oxide of Zinc.
                               foliated
                               common
       4. Carlxmaie of Zinc.
       5. Sulphate of Zinc.
              GENUS  X.—NICKEL.
Spec.  1. Native Nickel.
       2 Arsenical Nickel.
       3. Gzidi if Nickel.
             GEM'S XI.—COBALT.
Spec  1. Arsenical Cobalt.
2  Gray Cobalt.
3  .Sulpkiiret of Cobalt.
I  Oxide of Cobalt.
dull
black
biown
yellow
Spec
5.  Sulphate of Cobalt.
6.  A i-cniate of Cobalt.
                        acicular
                        earthy
                     awitifcroiis
   GENTS Xl\.- MANGANESE.
 1.  Oxide of Manganese.
                        radiated
                        compact
                        eaithy
                     ferruginous
2.  Sulphuret of Mauaam su.
3.  Carbonate of  Manganese.
4.  Phosphate of  Manuauese.
     GENUS  XIII.—ARSENIC.
1.  Native Arsenic.
                        concreted
                        specular
                         amorphous
2.  Sulphuret of Arsenic.
Oxide of Arsenic
Realgar.
Orpiment.
                           SUDSPELTEB
                                AND VARIETIES!
           GENUS  XIV.—BISMUTH
Spec  I. Native Uisiiiiuh.
       2. Sulphuret of llisinuih.
       3. Oxide of Bismuth.
          GE.NUS XX.—ANTIMONY
Spec.  1. Native Antimony.
                            arsenical
       2. Sulphuret of Antimony.
                               radiated
                               foliated
                               compact
                               plumous
       3. Oxide of Antimony.
                               earthy
       4. Sulphuretted Oxide of Antimony
         GEM S XVI —'TELLURIUM.
Spec  1. Native Tellurium.
                           auro-argentiferous
                           nuro-pluinbileious
           GEM'S  XVtI.—CHROME.
        GEM S  \\m.—MOLYBDENA
Spec.  1. Sul|>liurei ot Molybdena.
         GEM S XIX— TUNGSTEN.
Spec  1. Calcaieons Oxide of Tungsten.
       2, IVrruuinous Oxide of Tungsten.
           GEM S XX.—TITANIUM.
Spec.  ]. Red Oxide of Titanium.
       2. Ferruginous Oxide of Titanium.
                               Metiuchanite
                               Marine.
                               lsenne.
       3. Pilico-calcareous Oxide of Titanium
       4. Octaedral Oxide of Titanium.
           G EN U S  XX I.— ( RANI UM
Spec  1. Black Oxide of Uranium.
       2. Green Oxide of Uranium.
                               crystallized
                               earthy
         GENUS XXII.—COLUMBIUM.
Spec  1. Oxide of Coluusbium.
                               ferruginous
                               Ittrious
           GENUS  XXIII— CERIUM.
Spec.  1. Oxide of Cerium.
  Mineral caoutchouc.  See Caoutchouc.
  Mineral oil.  Petroleum.
  Mineral pitch.  Bitumen.
  Mineral poisons.  See Poisons.
  Mineral salts.  See Salts.
  Mineral waters.  Aqua minerales.  Aqua medr-
cinales.  Waters  holding minerals in solution  are
called mineral waters.  But as all wnter, in a minerai
state, is impregnated, either more or less, with some
mineral substances, the name mineral  waters, should
lie confined to such waters as are sufficiently impreg-
nated wilh mineral matters to produce some  sensible
efl'ecis on the  animal  economy, and eitlier to cure or
prevent some  of the diseases to which the human body
is liable.  On  this  account, these waters might be with
much more propriety called medicinal waters, were not
Ihe name by  which  they are commonly known  too
firmly established  by long use.
  The mineral waters which are the most esteemed.
and  consequently  the most resorted to  for the cure or
diseases, are those of,
 1. Aix.
 2. Barege.
 3. Bath.
 4. Bristol.
 5. Buxton.
 6. Borset.
 7. Cheltenham.
 8. Carlsbad.
 9. Epsom.
10. Harrowgale.
11. Martfell.
12. Holywell.
13. Malvern.
74. Matlock.
15. Morlat.
16. Pyrmont.
17. Scarborough.
18. Spa.
19. Seidlitz.
20. Sea-water.
21.  Seltzer.
22. Tuubridge.
23. Vichy, and others cf
  less note.
  For tiie properties and virtues of tbase, consult theii
respective neads-
                                        75 
A  SYNOPTICAL  TABLE, showing-  the Composition of  MINERAL  WATERS.
i CLASS.			Contained in an Engiisn Wine Pim of 2e*.0i."> L'nuu. indies.						
	NAME.	Highest Tempe-n.tare.	Azotic Gas.	Carbonic Acid Gas.	Sulphuretted Hydrogen.	Carbonated Soda.	Neutral j Seiemteand Earthy 1 r>viil» ,->r i.«n Purging Salts. | Carbonates. 1 Uxltle lf l on'		
		Falireiihi-ii.	Cubic Fncne^	Cill'ic Inch 'S.	Cubic Im lie-.	Grains.	'..rii.is. j Grains. Grains.		
Simple cold - - <	Malvern			uncertain	none	none	11 cert a n	uneer iiiii none	
	Holywell				none	none	uncertain	uncertain	none
Simple thermal - <, 1	Bristol	740	uncertain	3.75	none	none	2.81	3.16 1 none	
	Matlock	66°		uncertain	none	none	uncertain	uncertain	none
	Buxton	82°	0.474	uncertain	none	none	0.25	1.625	none
Simple saline - • - <	Seidlitz			1.	none	none	185.6	8.68	none
	Epsom				none	none	40.?	8.7	none
	Sea				none	none	237.5	6.	none
Highly carbonated alkaline	Seltzer			17.	none	4.	17.5	6.	none
Simple carbonated chalybeate	Tunbridge		0.675	1.325	none	none	0.344	H.156	0.125
Hot carbonated chalybeate	Bath	116°	1.7	1.7	none	none	10.1	10.7	uncertain
Highly carbonated chalybeate <	Spa			12.79	none	1.47	4.632	1.47	0.56
	Pyrmont			26.	none	none	7.13	23.075	0.56
Saline, carbonated chalybeate <	Cheltenham		uncertain	5.687	uncertain	none	62.125	6.85	0.625
	Scarborough			uncertain	none	none	JO.	10.	uncertain
Hot, saline, highly carbonated ) chalybeate - - - J	Vichy	120« 7		uncertain	none	uncertain		uncertain	uncertain
	Carlsbad	165"		uncertain	none	11.70	47.04	4.15	uncertain
Vitriolated chalybtate	Hartfell				none	none	none	none	4.815*
Cold sulphureous - - <	Harrowgate		0.875	1.	2.375	none	91.25	3.	none
	Moffat		0.5	0.(i25	1.25	none	4.5	none	none
Hot, alkaline, sulphureous • <	Aix l-»3°			uncertain uncertain	uncertain	12.	5.	4.75	none
	Borsct	132°			uncertain	uncertain	uncertain		none none
I	J Barege	120°			ii-icertain	2.5 0 5		uncertain	
w, 8.(14 contained in tits sulphate of Iron, (this salt vrhen crvstjlliaed. contajmni 28 cer cent of oxiiV of iron, according to Kirwan.} and 1.875 additional of oxide ot iron. 
                I
                        MIN

   foureroy divides all minera! and  medicinal waters
 Into nine orders, vix.
     1. Cold acidulous Waters.
     2. Hoi or thermal acidulous waters.
     3. Sulphuric saline wafers.
     4. Murialic saline  waters.
     5. Simple sulphureous waters.
     6. Sulphurated gaseous waters.
     7. Simple ferruginous waters.
     8. I'*ei i urinous and acidulous waters.
     9. Sulphuric ferruginous  water i.
   Dr. Saunders arranges miiicial waters Into the  fol-
 >oivingcl:is-i s :
     1. Si.iiplecold.
     'i    ..   thermal.
     3.    ..   saline.
     4. Highly ca.Donated alkaline.
     5. Simple carbonated chalybeate.
     6. Hoi carbonated chalybeate.
     7. Highly caibnuaicd chalybeate
    ■"'. s.illue carbonated chalybeate.
    9. Hoi saline iiiglily cariioiiated chalyoeate.
    10. \ iirio.aied chaiybeaie.
    11. Cold, sulphureous.
    12.  Hoi, alkaline, sulphureous.
  In order lo present the. reader, under one  point of
 vie-v, with the most conspicuous features iu the com
 po-i.iou of the mineral waters of this and some  other
 count, n -, the preceding Syuopiical Table has been sub-
 joined, from Dr. Saunders's work on mineral waters.
  The render will  please  to  observe,  lhat under the
 head ol' Neutral Purging S.;/'.-. are  includ.-d the sul-
 pluues of soda and  magm-siu,  and the muriate^ of lime,
 si.da, and magnesia.  The  power which the earthy
 muriate.- mav posse.-* ol acting mi the intestinal canal,
 is not quite a-certained,  b.u, from  their greal  solu-
 bility, and from analogy wiili salts, with similar com-
 poneul par.s, w<- may conclude liial this forms a prin-
 cipal pan ol their operation.
  The leader will  likewise  observe, thai  where the
 spaces are left blank,  it signifies that we are  ignorant
 ivheihe.  • iv of the substance ill the head of ihe co-
 lumn i-  contained in ihe water; thai ihe word  none,
 implies a certainly  of the absence of that substance:
 and the term  uncertain, iii-ans that  the substance  is
 coniai.ied, but thai the quantity is not known.
   llr. Henry, iu his epiioine of chemistry, gives the
 following concise aud accurate account for the analysis
 of miiieial w.l ers:
  Water is never presented by nature in a slate of com-
 plete purity.  E/eu when cullecti-d  as  il descends iu
 tin- form of rain, chemical tests detect iu it foreign in-
 gredients    .And when il has been  absorbed by the
 eanh, has traversed its different strata, and i- returned
 to us by Killings, it  is found to have acquited various
 impiegiia.lons.    The readies! method  of judging  of
 the contents of natural waters is by applying what are
 termed tests, or  reagents, i. c substances w Itich,  on
 being added to a water, exhiDit by the phenomena they
 produce, the nature  of the saline and other ingredients.
 For example, if, on adding an infusion nf litmus many
 water, its colour is changed to  red, we infer  that the
 waler contains  an  uiicombined acid; if this change
 ensue even after the water lias been boiled, we judge
 lhat the acid is a fixed  and not a volatile one; ;.nd if,
 on  adding the  muriate of baryies, a precipitate falls
 down, we salely conclude lhat  ihe peculiar acid piesetit
 in the water is either entirely or iu pan the sulphuric
 acid.   Or. Henry first  enumerates ihe  tests eeueially
 employed in examining mineral wattrs, aud describes
 their application, and  afterward indicate;  by what
 particular li Ms the substances generally found in wa-
 ters may he detected.
   A. Infusion of  Litmus.   Syrttv of  Violets, lire.
  As the  infusion of litmus is apt to spoil by keeping,
 some solid litmus should he kept.  The infusion is pre-
 pared by steeping this substance, first bruised iu a  mor-
 tal', and tied up  iu a thin tag,  iu distilled water, which
extracts its blue colour.  If tlie colour of the infusion
tends too much to purple, it may be amended by a drop
O'- two of pute ammonia; but of Ihis no more should
le added than what is barely sufficient, lest the delicacy
of the test should be unpaired.  The syrup of violets
i.i nol easily obtained pure.   The genuine syiup:>iayj
be distinguished from the spurious by  a solution  of I
 corrosive  sublimate, which  changes  flic  tormer to:
Srs-eu, while it reddens the latter.  When ii can  be!
                        Mi il

 procured genuine, it is au  excellent te-'t til* acids, and
 may be employed  in tlie same man .er hs the infusion
 of litmus.  Paper stained with >he juice of the marsh
 viotei, or Willi Unit of radishes, answers a simitar pur
 pose.  In staining papier lor  tlie  purpose  ol h u-m. it
 must be used unsized; or,  if sized, il must previously
 be wushed wilh warm waler; because the : iiiii which
 enters into the composition of the size wil otherwise
 change tbe vegetable colour to a red.
   infusion of litmus is a lest  of mosl  u mom bined
 acids.
   If the infusion redden the unboiled but not the boiled
 wafer  under examination, or if ihe red colour occa-
 sioned by adding Ihe infusion m a leceut wutei, letuiil
 to hlueon boiling, we may uiler thai the acid is a vola-
 tile one, and  oioi-l probably the cu.honic acid.   Sul-
 phuretted hydrogen gus,  dissolved in wilier, also red-
 dens linn us, but not a'u-i boding.  Tnnsceiiaiu vtneiher
 the change be produced by caioonic acid, or siilphuiM t
 ted hydrogen, when expcnnicul shows that  ihe  red.
 deniug cause is volatile, add a little lime  vvukt.  Tins,
 il'caibouic acid be present, will occasion h piecipil.itc,
 which will dissolve <vith effervescence, on  adding a
 liltle muriatic acid.  Sulphuretted hydiogeu may also
 be com-iiiied in the same waier. whicli will be a.-rcr-
 mined by the tests  hereafter io be ui.-cn'ieii.
   Paper tinged with litmus is  also  reddened by the
 presence of ciuImiiiIc acid, bul  ri-ieaius us  blue colour
 by drying.  The mineral and fixed acids redden u  per-
 manently.  That  these acids, however, may produce
 their effect, it is necessary thai they should be present
 in a sufficient proportion.
   Infusion oi  litmus leddened by  vniegm—Spirituous
 tincture  of Biaxil-wood—Tincture  of luimenc  and
 paper stained \\ ith each  of these three substances—
 Syrup of violets.  All  these  diri'ereul >ests have one
 and the same object.
   1.  Infusion of litiiius.reddened by vinegar, or litmus
 paper reddened by  vinegar, has its blue colour restored
 by alkalies and pure earths, and by ..arbuiiaied alkalies
 and earths.
   2.  Turmeric paper and tincture are ci:nngi-d lo  a
 reddish  brown  by alkalies, whether  pure or caiho-
 uuled, and by pure earths;  bul nol by  carbonated
 eailhs.
   3.  The red infusion of Brazil-wood, and paper stain-
 ed wall it, become blue  by alkalies and  earths,  aud
 even by  the latter, when dissolved by an < xcess of cai-
 bonic acid.  Iu the last-mentioned case, however, the
 change will either cease to  appear in be much  loss re-
 markable, when the water has been boiled.
   4. Syrup of violet*, when pure, is by line same causes
 turned green, as also paper stained with  ihe juices of
 violets, or radishes.
               B.  Tincture of Galls.
  Tincture of galls is the lesi generally employed for
 discovering iiou, with all the combinations of which
 it  produces a black linge,  more or less  intense, ac-
 coiding lo the q.ianlily of iron.   The ir.....however,
 in oider to be detected by  this test, must be iu the stair
of red oxide, or, if  oxidated in a less degu-e, its ell'ects
 will not be apparent, unless alter  standing s.....e tune
 in contact with air.   By applying this u-sf before  and
 after evaporauou or boiline, we may know whether
 ihe iron be held iu solution by carbonic acid, or u fixed
 acid ; for,
   1. If it produce its efTects before the apphcalisui of
 heat, and not afterward, carbonic acid is the solvent.
  2. If alter, us well as before, a mineral  acid  is the
solvent.
  3. If, by the boiling, a yellowish powder he precipi-
 tated, and yel galls continue to strike the water black
 afterward, the iron, as often liai pens, is dissolved both
 by carbonic acid and a fixed acid   A neat mode of ap-
 plying the gall list was used by Klaproth, in his analy-
sis of ihe Carlsbad waler.   A slice of the gall-nut was
suspended by a silken thread, in a large hoille ofthe re-
cent waler;  and so  small  was the quantity  of iron,
thai it couid only be discovered in water fresh from the
spring.
                 C. Sulphuric Acid.
  1. Sulphuric acid discovers,  by a slight effervescence,
the presence of carbonic acid, whether uiicombined ot
united uiJi alkalies, or earths.
  2. If lime be present, whether pure or uncoinbiiied
the addition of sulphuric acid, occasions, afler a  fe
days, a while precipitate. 
MIN                                                 MJN
  3. Baryies is precipitated instantly in the form of a
 White powder.
  4. Nitrous and muiiatic salts, on adding sulphuric
 icid and applying heat, are decomposed; and if a stop-
 per, moistened with pure ammonia, be held over the
 vessel, white clouds appear.  Eor distinguishing whe-
 ther nitric or muriatic acid be present,  rules will be
 given hereafter.
              Nitric and Nitrous Acid.
  These acids, if they occasion effervescence, give the
same indications as the  sulphuric.  The nitrous acid
has been lecommended as a test distinguishing between
hepatic  waters that contain sulphuret  of potassa, and
those that only contain sulphuretted hydrogen gas.   In
the former case a precipitate ensues on adding nitrous
acid, and a very foetid smell arises;  in the 'alter, a slight
cloudiness only appears, and the smell of tne water be-
comes less disagreeable.
           D.  Oxalic Acid and Oxalates.
  This acid is a most delicate test of lime, which it se-
parales  frorr all its combinations.
  1.  it' a water which  is precipitated by oxalic acid,
becomes milky on adding a watery solution of caibonic
acid gas, or by blowing  air through it by  means of a
quill, or glass tube, we may infer that pure lime (or
barytes, which has never  yet been found purein water)
is present.
  2.  If the oxalic acid occasion a precipitate before but
not after boiling, the lime U dissolved by an excess of
carbonic acid
  3.  If,  after  boiling, hy  a fixed  acid:  a considerable
excess of any of the mineral acids, however, prevents
the oxalic  acid  from  occasioning a precipitate, even
though lime be present; because some acids decompose
the oxalic, and others,  dissolving the  oxalate of lime,
prevent it from appearing.
  The oxalates of ammonia, or of potassa, (which may
easily be formed  by saturating their respective carbo-
nates with a solution of oxalic 'acid,)  are not liable to
the above objections, and are preferable, as reagents,
 to the uiicombined  acid.  Yet even these oxalates fail
to detect lime when supersaturated with  muriatic or
 nitric acids; and  if such  an excess be present, it must
 ne saturated before adding the test with pure ammonia.
Fluate of ammonia is the best test of lime.  It is made
by adding carbonate of ammonia to diluted fluoric acid.
     E. Pure Alkalies and Carbonated Alkalies.
   1. The pure fixed alkalies precipitate all earths and
metals,  whether dissolved by volatile or fixed menstrua,
 but only in certain states  of dilution:  for example,
sulphate of alumine may be  present in water, iu the
 proportion of 4 grains to  500, without being discovered
 by pure fixed alkalies.   As  the alkalies precipitate so
many substances, it is evident they cannot  afford any
precise information when employed as reagents.  From
the colour of the precipitate, as it approaches to pure
 white, or recedes from it, an experienced eye will judge
that the precipitated earth contains less or more of the
metallic admixture.
  2. Pure fixed alkalies decompose all  salts with basis
of ammonia, which becomes evident by its smell, and
also by  the white fumes it exhibits when a stopper is
 brought near it, moistened with muriatic acid.
  3. Carbonates of potassa and soda have similar ef-
 fects.
  4. Pure ammonia precipitates all earthy and metallic
salts. Besides this property, it also imparts a deep blue
colour to any liquid that  contains copper  iu a state of
solution.
  Carbonate of ammonia has the same properties, ex-
cept that it does not precipitate magnesia from its com-
binations.  Hence, to  ascertain  whether this earth be
present  in any solution, add the carbonate of ammonia
till no further precipitation ensues, filter the liquor, and
then add pure ammonia.   If any precipitation nowoc-
rurs, we may infer the presence of magnesia.
                 F. Lime-Water.
  1.  Lime-water is applied for  the purposes of a test,
chiefly for  der«oting carbonic acid.  Let  any liquor,
supposed to contain u.ts  ncid, be mixed with an equal
bulk of  lime-water.  If cnrhoi.ic :»cid be present, eitlier
free or  combined, a precipitate  will immediately ap-
pear, which, on  adding  a few drops of muriatic acid,
will immediately dissolve with effervescence.
  2.  Lime-water will immediately show the presence
of corrosive suhlimatc, by a brickdust-coloured sedi-
ment, ^if urscnic be present in any liquid,  lime-water,
when added, will occasion a precipitate, consisting of
lime and arsenic, which is very difficultly soluble in
water.  This precipitate, when mixed up with oil, and
laid on hot coals, yields the well-known garlic smell of
arsenic.
    G. Pure Barytes, and  its Solution in Water.
  1. A solution of pure barytes is even more effectual
than lime-water, in detecting the presence of carbonic
acid, and is much more portable and convenient; since
from the crystals of this "earth, the solution may at any
time be prepared.  In discovering fixed air, the solution
of barytes is used similarly to lime-water; and, if this
acid be present, gives, in like manner, a precipitate so-
luble with effervescence in murialic acid.
  Pure strontites has similar virtues as a lest.
                    H Metals.
  I. Of the metals, silver and mercury are tests of tin.
presence of sulphurets,  and of sulphuretted hydrogen
gas. If a little quicksilver be put into a bottle, contain-
ing water impregnated with either of these substances,
its surface soon acquires a black film, and, on shaking,
a blackish  powder separates from it.   Silver is imme-
diately tarnished from the same cause.
  2. The metals also may be  used as tests of  each
other, and on the principle of elective affinity.  Thus,
for  example, a polished iron plate, immersed in a solu-
tion of sulphate of copper, soon acquires a coat of this
metal, and the same in other similar examples.
                I. Sulphate of  Iron.
  This Is the only one of  the sulphates, except that
of silver, applicable to the purposes of  a test.  When
used in this view, it is generally employed to ascertain
the presence of oxygenous gas, of which a natural wa-
ter may contain  a small quantity.
  A waler suspected to contain this gas,  may be mixed
with a little recently dissolved  sulphate of iron,  and
kept corked up.  If an oxide of iron be  precipitated in
the course of a few days, tiie water  may be inferred to
contain oxygenous gas.
      Sulphate,  Nitrate, and Acetate of Silver.
  These  solutions are, in some measure, applicable to
tlie same purpose.
  1. They  are  peculiarly adapted to  the discovery of
muriatic acid and muriates.  For the silver, quitting
the nitric or other acid, combines with the muriatic,
and forms a flaky precipitate, which  at first is white,
but, on exposure to the sun's light, acquires n violet co-
lour.  This precipitate Dr. Black states to contain, in
1000 parts,  as much  muriatic acid as would form 425
pails and a half of crystallized muriate of soda, which
estimate scarcely differs at all from that of Klaproth.
A precipitation, however, may arise from other causes,
which it  may be proper to slate.
  2. The solutions of silver in acids are precipitated by
carbonated  alkalies and earths.  The agency of these
may be prevented by previously adding a few drops of
the same acid in which the silver is dissolved.
  3. The nitrate and acetate of silver are decomposed
hy  the sulphuric and sulphurous acids; but this may
be prevented by adding previously a few drops of nitrate
or acetate of baryies, and afler allowing  the precipitate
to subside, the  clear liquor may be decanted, and the
solution  of  silver added.  Should a precipitation now
take place, the presence of muriatic acid, or some one
of its combinations, may be suspected.  To  obviate
uncertainty,  whether a  precipitation be owing to sul-
phuric or muriatic acid, a solution of sulphate of silver
may be employed, which is affected only by the  Iattei
acid.
  4. The solutions of silver are precipitated by extract-
ive matters; but in this case also the precipitcoe is dis-
coloured, and is soluble in nitrous acid.
          K. Nitrate and  Acetate of I^ead.
  1. Acetale of lead, the  most eligible of these twt
tests,  is precipitated by sulphuric and muriatic acids,
but us, of both these, we have much better indicators,
it is not necessary to enlarge on ita application to this
purpose.
  S. The acetate is also  a  test  of sulphuretted hydw-
gen and sulphurets of alkalies, wliich occasion a black
precipitate;  and if a paper, on which characters are
traced with a solution of acetate of lead, be held over
a portion of waler containing a sulphuretted hydrogen,
they are soon rendered visible.
  3. The acetate of lend is employed  In the discovery
of uncombined boracic ncid, n very  rare ingredient of
waters.  To ascertain whether  this be present, some 
ML\
MIS
cautions arc necessary.  The uncombined alkalies and
earths (if any le suspected) must be saturated witn
acetic acid.   The sulphates must be  decomposed by-
acetate or nitrate of barytes, and the muriates by ace-
tate or nitrate of silver.  The filtered liquor, if botacic
acid be  contained iu it, will give a precipitate soluble
in nitric acid ol" the specific gravity of 1.3.
L.  Nitrate of Mercury, prepared with and without
                       heat.
  This solution, differently  prepared, is sometimes em-
ployed as a  test.   But, since other tests answer Ihe
same purposes more effectually, il is not absolutely ne-
cessary to have these tests.
    M. Muriate, Nitrate, and Acetate of Barytes.
  1. These solutions are all most delicate tests of sul-
phuric acid, and of its combinations, with which they
give a white  precipitate,  insoluble in  dilute  muriatic
acid.  They are decomposed, however, by carbonates
of alkalies ; but ihe precipitate  occasioned  by these is
soluble in dilute murialic and nitric acid with efferves-
cence, and  may even be  prevented by adding  pre-
viously a lew  drops of tbe acid contained in the bary-
tic salt.
  One hundred grains of dry sulphate of barytes (ac-
cording to Klnproth, p. 168,) contain about 45 one-filth
of sulphuric acid ol" ihe specific gravity 1850, according
to Clayrield, 33 of acid of sp. gr.  2240; according  io
Thenard, afier calcination about 25.  These estimates
differ very considerably. From Klaproili'sexperimcnts,
it ap|iears that 1000 -rains of sulphate of barytes indi-
cate 51)5; desiccated sulphate of soda, or 1415  of the
crystallized »alt.  The same chemist has shown that
100 grains of sulphate of baryies are produced  by tbe
precipitation of 71 grains of sulphate of lime.
  2. Phosphoric sails also  occasion a precipitate with
these tests, which  is soluble in muriatic acid without
effervescence.
         N.  Prusriates of  Potassa and Lime.
  Of these two ihe prussiate of potassa is ihe most eli-
gible.  When pure it does  not speedily assume a blue
colour on the addition of acid, nor dues it immediately
precipitate muriatic baryies. Piussiate nf potassa is a
 /ery sensible  lest of iron, with the solutions of which
•n acids it  produces a Prussian  blue  precipitate,  in
consequence  of a  double elective affinity.  To  render
its  effed more  certain, Iviwewer, il  may be proper to
add  previously, lo any water suspected to contain iron,
a little muriatic acid, with a view  to the saturation of
uncombined alkalies, or earths, which, if present, pre
vent the detection of any minute portions of iron.
  1. If a water, alter boiling a."d filtration,  dnes not
afford a b ue piecipitate on  the addition of prussiate of
potassa, the solvent of the  iron  may be inferred to be a
volatile one, and probably the carbonic acid.
  2. Should the precipitation ensue iu the boiled water,
tiie solvent is  a fixed acid, the  nature  of which musl
be ascertained by other tests.
          O.  Solutions of Soap in Alkohol.
  This solution may 1* used to ascertain the compara-
tive hardness of waters.   Willi distilled water it may
be mixed without producing any change; but, if added
to a hard water, it  produces a niilkiiies.-, more or less
considerable  a< ihewtuer  is less pure: and from Ihe
degree of inilkiuess. an experienced eye will judge of
its quality.  The acids, alkalies, and  all earthy  and
metallic salts,decompose «oap, and occasion that pro-
perty iu witer termed hardness.
                      Alkohol.
  Alkohol, when mixed with any watei in the propor-
tion of about  an equal bulk, precipitates all  thescits
wliich it is not capable of dissolving.
          P.  Hydrosiilphnret of Ammonia.
  This and otlier sulphui ets, as well ns waler saturated
with sulphuretted  hydrogen, may be eniployed  in de
tecting lead and arsenic, with the former of which they
give a black, and wilh the  iatiei a yellowish precipi
tate.  As lead and arsenic, however, are never  found
in natural waters, these tests are not required.
  MINERA'LIA.   See Mineral
  MINERALIZE.  Metallic substance.* nre said to be
mineralized  when  deprived of their usual properties
by combination wilh some other substance.
  MINEUA'LOGY. Mineralogia.  Thatpaitofnatu-
ral history whicli relates to minerals.
  Minim. See Minimum.
  MINIMUM.   A minim.  The sixtieth part of a fluid
drachm.  An  important change has bee»  idontod in
the last London  Pharmacopoeia, for the mensuration
of liquids, and the division of the wine pint, to ensure
accuracy in the measurement of quantities of liquids
below one Jrachin. The number of drops contained
in one drachm has been assumed to be sixty: and
taking water as a standard, this number, though by  no
means accurate, would  still be sufficient for ordinary
purposes; but when other liquids of less specific gravity
are used, a much  larger number  is  required to fill the
same measure, as of proof spirit, 140 drops are required
to equal the bulk of 60 of water, dropped from  the
same vessel.  If, therefore, in the composition of me-
dicines, measures suited to the siandaid of water were
used occasionally only, and it was generally assumed
that CO drops were equal to one fluid-drachm, and one
fluid-drachm was substituted for 60 drops prescribed,
twice the  dose intended would  be  given.   There are
further objections lo the use of drops ; that their bulk
is influenced by the quantity of liquid contained iu the
bottle from which they full, by the thickness of rhe lip,
and even by the inequalities on  the surface of tlie  lip
of the same bottle; that volatile liquids, to which this
mode is most commonly applied,  are thus exposed wilh
extensive surfaces, and their evaporation  promoted;
and on all these accounts (lie adoption of some deci-
sive, convenient, and uniform substitute became neces-
sary.  The subdivision of the wine pint has, therefore,
been extended to the sixtieth part of the fluid-drachm,
which is termed minim.  and glass measures  expres-
sive of such subdivision, have  been adopted  by  the
college.
  MINIUM.   Red oxide of lead.  See Lead.
  Minium GR.tcoRi.-M.  Native cinnabar
  MINT.   See .1/ottAa.
  Mint, pepper   See Mentha piperita.
  Mint, water.  See Mentha  aquatica.
  MISCARRIAGE.  See Abortion.
  Miserere mki. (Have compassion on me: so called
from its unhappy torments.)  The iliac passion.  See
Iliac passion.
  MISLAW.  See Musa paradisiaca.
  MISLETOE.   See Viscum
  Misochy'micus.  An enemy  to  the chemists and
their enthusiastic conceits.
  MISPICKLE.  Common arsenical pyrites.  A white
brilliant, granulated iron ore, composed of iron in com.
hination with arsenic.
  MISTURA.  A mixture.   A fluid composed of two
or  more ingredients.  It is mostly contracted  in pre-
scriptions thus, mi.il. e.g. —/. mist, which  means,  let
a mixture be made.
  Misrt'RA ammoniaci.  Lac ammoniaci.   Mixtureof
ammoiiiacuni.—Take of ainiiioniacuni,two drachms;
of water, half a pint: rub the ainmoniacum with the
water gradually added, till they are thoroughly mixed
  Mistura AMVQDAL.t.   l.ac   amygdala.  Almond
mixture,  or emulsion.—Take of almond  confection,
two ounces; distilled water, a pint:  gradually add the
water to ihe almond confection, rubbing them together
till properly mixed ; then sti ain.
  Mistura asafcetid.e.  Lac  asafatida.  Mixture
of  asafffitida.—Take of  asafcetida,  two  drachms;
water, half a pint; rub the asafostida with  the water,
gradually added, till they are thoroughly mixed.
  Mistura c-ami-hor.*.  Camphor mixture.—Take of
camphor, hall"  a drachm:  rectified spirit, len minims;
water, a pint.  Fiist rub the camphor  with the spirit,
then with the  water  gradually added, and  strain the
liquor.  A  very elegant preparation of camphor, for
delicate stomachs, and  those who cannot  bear it  in
substance, as an antispasmodic and nervine.  Theie is
a great loss of camphor iu making it as directed by the
pharmacopoeia.   Waler  can only take up a  certain
quantity.  For its virtues, see Lauras camphora.
  Mistura cornu usti.  Decoctum album.   Decoc
lion of harlshiuii. Take of hartshorn, bum! mid pee
pared, two ounces; acacia gum,  powdered, an  ounce;
water, three pints. Boil down lo two pints, constantly
Btirring, and strain. This is a much weaker absorbent
than the mistura creta;, but is much more agreeable to
most people   It forms an excellent drink in fevers at-
tended with diarrhoea, nnd acidiiies ofthe prima- viae.
  Mistura crktir.   Chalk mixture— 'I nke of pre
pared chalk,  half an  ounce;   refined  sugar, three
drachms; gum-arabic, powdered, half an ounce; water,
a jiint.  Mix.   A  very useful and pleasant form of ad
ministering chalk as an adstringent and antacid.  It is
                                          70 
MOF                                             MOL
 particularly calculated for children, in whom it allays
 the many deranged actions ot  the primae viae, which
 arc produced  by acidities.  Dose, one ounce to tliree,
 frequently.  S*e Creta and Carbonas calcis.
  Misri'RA titKi: composita.—-Take of myrrh, pow-
 dered, a drachm ; subcarbonate  of potassa, twenty-five
 grains;  rise water, seven  fluid ounces  and  a half,
 sirphateof iron, powdered, a scruple; spirit of nutmeg,
 half a fluid ounce ; rehued sugar, a drachm.  Rub to-
 gether tiie myrrh, the subcarbonate of  potassa and
 sugar; and. during the trituration, add gradually, first,
 the rose-water und spirit of nutmegs, aud  last, the sul-
 phate of iron.  Pour ihe  mixture immediately into 11
 proper glass bottle and stop it close.  This preparation
 is the celebr,v.ed mixture of Dr. Griffiths.  A chemical
 decomposition is effected  in  forming this mixture, a
 subciirboiinle of iron is  formed, and a  sulphate of
 potassa.
  Mistcra ouaiaci.  Take of guaiacum gum-resin, a
 drachm and a half; refined sugar, two drachms; muci-
 lage of  acacia  gum, two fluid  drachms;  cinnamon
 water, eight fluid ounces.   Rub  the guaiacum with the
 sugar, then with the mucilage,  and, when they are
 mixed, pour on the ciuuainoii-watci gradually,  rubbing
 them together.  For ils virtues,  see Guaiacum.
  iVustcra Musuiii.  Take of musk, acacia gum, pow-
dered, refined sugar, of euch a drachm : rose-water, six
 fluid ounces.  Rub the musk first with the sugar,  then
 with ihe gum, and add the rose-water by degrees.  An
excellent diaphoretic and  antispasmodic.   It is by far
the besl way of administering musk, when boluses  can-
 not he swallowed. Dose, one ounce to three, frequently.
  Mithridate mustard.  See Thlaspicampeslre.
  MITHRIDATIUM The electuary called Mithridate,
 from Miihridates, king of Pontes and Bi.liyuia, who,
experiencing the virtues of the simples separately, af-
terward combined  them;  but then the  composition
 consisted of but few ingredients, viz. twenty leaves of
 rue, two walnuts, two figs, and a little salt:  of this he
look a dose every morning, to guaid himself against the
effects of poison.
  MITRAL  (Mitralis;  from mitra, a mitre.)   Mitre-
 like : applied  by anatomists to parts which were  sup-
 posed to resemble a bishop's mitre.
  Mitral  valves.   Vnlvula mitralcs.   The valves
 ofthe left ventricle ofthe  heart.
  Mi'va.  An ancient term for the form of a medicine,
 not unlike a thick syrup, now called Marmalade.
  MIXTURE.  1. See Mistura,
  2. Mixture in chemistry should be distinguished from
solution; in ihe former, the aggregate  particles can
again be separated iiy mechanical means, nnd the  pro-
portion of  the different particles determined:  but, in
solution, no mechanical power whatsoever can sepa-
 rate them.
  Mocha stone.  A species of agale.
  Mo'chila.  (From  poxXos, a lever.)  A  reduction
of the bones from an  unnatural to a natural situation.
  Mo'chlica.   (From poxXtvu. to move.)  Violent
 purges.
  MODIOLUS. (Diminutive of Modus, a measure.)
The nucleus, as it were, ofthe cochlea of the ear is so
 termed.   It ascends from the ba--ds of the cochlea to the
 upex.
  Mufettc.  See Nitrogen.
  MOFFAT.   A village situated about fifty-six miles
 southwest of Edinburgh.  It affords a cold sulphureous
 water, of a very simple composition ; when first drawn,
 it appears rathermilky and bluish; the smell is exactly
 similar to that of Harrowgate; the smell is sulphureous
 and saline, without any  thing bitter.  It sparkles some-
 what on being poured from one gless to another.
  According to Dr. Garnett's analysis, a wine gallon
 of Molfat water contains  ihiity-six grains of muriate
 of soda, five cubic inches of carbonic acid gas, four of
 azotic gas, and ten of sulphuretted hydrogen, making
 altogether nineteen cubic inches  ol"gas.  Moffat water
 Is, therefore, very simple in its composition, and hence
 it produces effects somcwhre.t similar to those of Har-
 rowgate.   It is, perhaps, on this account nlso that it so
soon loses the hepatic gas,  on which depends the great-
est pan of its medicinal  power.  The  only sensible
effect of this  water is that of increasing the flow of
 urine ; when it purges, it appenrs rather to take place
 from the excessive dose than from its mineral ingre-
 dients.  This water appears to be useful chietly iu cu
 •aneous eruptions, and as an external application at au
      80
  Increased  temperature, scrofula in it3  early  stage
  appears to be elevated by it; it  is also used as an ex
  ternal  application to irritable ulcers, and  is recom-
  mended in dyspepsia, and  wheie there is inaction of
  the alimentary canal.
    Mogila'lia.  (From poyts, difficulty, and XaXtu, to
  speak.)  A difficulty of speech.
    MO'LA.  (Hebrew.)  1. The  knee-pan :  so named
  because it is shaped like a millstone.
    2. A mole, or shapeless mass of flesh in tlie uterus
  See Mole.
    MOLA'RIS. (From molaris, a grindstone;  because
  they grind ihe food.)  A double-tooth.  See  Teeth.
    Molares glandule. Molar glands.  Two saliva!
  glands situated on each side of the mouth, between the
  masseter and  buccinator muscles, the excretory ducts
 : of which open near tbe Inst dens  molaris.
    Molares drntes.  See  Teeth.
    MOLASSES.  See Saccharum.
    Molda'vica.  See Dracoccphalum.
    MOLE. Mola. By this term authors have intenaea
  to describe diffeieni productions of, or excretions from,
  the uterus.
    By some it has been used to signify every  kind of
  fleshy substance, particularly those which are properly
  called polypi;  by others, those only which are the con-
  sequence of  imperfect conception, or when the ovum
  is in a morbid or decayed state ; and by many, which
  is the most popular opinion, every coagulum of blood
  which continues-long enough iu the uterus to  assume
  somewhat of an organized form, to have  only the
  fibrous  part, a; it has been called, remaining, is de-
  nominated a mole.  There is surely much impropriety.
  says  Dr. Denham,  in including,  under one   general
  name, appearances  so contrary  and substances  so
  different.
    1   For an account of the first kind, see Polypus.
    2. Ofthe second kind, which has been defined as an
  ovum defo-trme,  as it  is the consequence of conception,
  it might more justly be  arranged under the class of
  monsters; for though it has the appearnnceof a shape-
  less mass nf flesh, if examined carefully with a knife,
  various parts of a child may be discovered, lying to-
  gether in apparent confusion, bul  iu actual regularity
  The pedicle also by which it is connected to the uterus,
  is not of a  fleshy texture, like that of the polypus, but
  has  a regular series of vessels like the umbilical cord,
  and tliere is likewise a placenta and membranes con-
  taining water.  The symptoms attending the formation,
  growth, and expulsion of  this apparently  confused
  mass from the uterus, correspond with those of a well-
  formed  child.
   3.  With respect to the third sort of mole, an incision
  into its substance will discover its true  nature; for,
  although the external surface appears at the first view
  to be organized flesh, the internal part  is composed
  merely of coagulated blood.  As substances of this kind,
  which mostly occur  after delivery, would always  be
  expelled by the action of the uterus, there seems to be
  no reason for a particular inquiry, if popular opinion
  had not annexed the idea of  miscnief to them, and at-
  tributed their formation or continuance iu the  uterus
  to the negligence or misconduct  of the practitioner.
  Hence the persuasion arose ofthe  necessity of extract-
  ing all the coagula of blood out of the ulerus, itnmedi
  ately after the expulsion ol  the placenta, or of giving
  medicines  lo force  them away: but abundant  ex-
  perience hath  proved,  that the retention  of such
 coagula is not, under any circumstances, productive
 of danger, and that they are most safely expelled by the
  action of the uterus, though at very different periods
  after their formation.
   Mo'li.k.  Indian mastich.
   MOLLIFICATIO.  A softening:  formerly applied
 to a palsy ofthe muscles in any particular part.
   MOLLITIES.  iFrom mollis, soft.)   A coftnoss-
 applied  to bone?, nails, and other parts.
   Mollitiks ossium.  See Malacostton
   Mollit es unguium.  A preternatural soilness of the
 nails: it often accompanies chlorosis.
   Molhoce'nsk lionum. See Croton tiglium.
   MOLYBDATB.   Molybdas.  A salt formed  oy the
  union ofthe molybdic acid with salifiable bases : thus
 molvbdtite of antimony, Sec.
   MOLYBDENUM.  (From poXvSios, lead.)  Molyb-
| ditis.  A metal which ovists mineralized by sulphur in
i tne ore, culled sulphunt of mvlybdena.  This  or», 
MUL
MON
 which is very scarce, is so similar in several ot its pro-
 perties to plumbago, that they were long considered as
 varieties of the same substance.   It is of a light lend-
 gray colour ;  its surface is smooth, and feels unctuous;
 its texture is lamellated;  il soils the fingers, and marks
 paper  bluish-black, or silver-gray.  It  may be  cut
 with a knife.   It is generally found in compact masses;
 seldom in particles, or crystallized.  It is met wilh in
 Sweden, Spain, Saxony, Siberia,and Iceland.  Scheele
 showed that a peculiar" metallic acid might be obtained
 from it;  aud later chemists have succeeded in reducing
 this acid to the metallic state.   We are indebted to
 Hatchett for a full  and accurate analysis of this ore.
   The native sulphuret of molybdena, is  the only ore
 hitherto known which contains this metal.
   Properties of molybdena.—Molybdena is eitlier inau
 agglutinated blackish friable mass, having little metal-
 lic brillancy, or in a black powder.  The mass slightly
 united, shows, by  a magnifying glass,  small, round,
 brilliant grains.   Its weight is  nbout 8.  It is one of the
 most infusible of the  metals.  It is capable of com-
 bining with a  number of metals by fusion.  It forms
 with sulphur  an  artificial sulphuret of molybdena
 analogous  to  its ore.  It unites  also to  phosphorus.
 The affinity of" molybdena for oxygen is  very feeble,
 according to Hatchett.  The  alkalies have no action
 on molybdena in the moist way, but it enters readily
 into fusion  with potassa and soda.  It is oxidisable by-
 boiling sulphuric acid, and acidifiable by the  nitric
 acid.  Muriatic acid docs  not act upon it.  It  is capa-
 ble of existing in not  less than four different degrees
 of oxygenation.
   Method of obtaining molybdena.—To obtain molyb-
 dena is a task of tlie utmost difficulty.  Few chemists |
 have succeeded in producing this metal, on account of
 its greal  infusibiliiy.  The method recommended in
 general is  the  following:—Molybdic  acid is io  be
 formed into a paste with oil, dried at the fire, and then
 exposed to a violent heat in a crucible lined with char-
 coal.  By this means the oxide becomes decomposed;
 a black agglutinated substance is  obtained, very brittle
 under the finger,  and having a metallic brilliancy.
 This is the  metal called molybdena.
   MOLYBDIC ACID.  (Acidum, molybdicum; from
 Molybdenum,  its base.) The native sulphuret of molyb-
 denum being  roasted for some time, and dissolved in
 water of ammonia, when nitric  acid is added to this
 solution, the molybdic acid precipitates iu fine white
 scales, which  become yellow on melting and subliming
 them.   It changes the vegetable  blues to red,  but less
 readily and powerfully than the molybdous acid.
   Molybdic acid has a specific gravity of 3.400.  In«n
 open vessel  it sublimes into brilliant yellow scales ; 9UU
 parts of boiling water dissolve one of it, affording a pale
 yellow solution, which reddens litmus, but has no taste.
 Sulphur, charcoal,  and several metals, decompose the
 molybdic  acid.  Molybdate of potassa is a colourless
 salt.   Molybdic acid gives, wilh nitrate of  lead, a
 white precipitate, soluble  in nitric acid;  with the ni-
 trates of mercury and silver, a  white flaky precipitate;
 with nitrate of  copper, a  greenish precipitate;  with
 solutions of the neutral sulphate of zinc, muriate of
 bismuth, muriate of antimony, nitrate of  nickel, mu-
 riates of gold and platinum, it produces white precipi-
 tates.  When melted with borax, it yields a bluish
 colour; and paper dipped  in its  solution becomes, in
 the sun, of a beautiful blue.
  The neutral alkaline molybdatcs precipitate  all me-
 tallic solutions.  Gold, muriate of mercury, zinc, and
 manganese, are precipitated in  the form of a white
 powder; iron  and tin, from their solutions in muriatic
 acid, of a brown colour ; cobalt, of a rose colour; cop-
 per, blue; and the  solutions of alum and quicklime,
 white.  If a dilute solution of recent muriate of tin be
 precipirated by a dilute solution  of molybdate of po-
 tassa, a beautiful blue powder  is obtained.
  The  concentrated sulphuric acid dissolves  a con-
siderable quantity of th?  molybdic acid, the solution
becoming of a  fine blue colour  as it cools, at the same
time that  it thickens; the colour disappears again on
the application of heat, but returns again by cooling.
A  strong heat expels the  sulphuric acid.  The nitric
acid has no effect on it; but the muriatic dissolves it in
considei able quantity, and  leaves a dark blue residuum
when distilled.   With a strong heat it expels a  portion
nf sulphuric acid from sulphate of potassa.  It also
disengages the acid from  nitre and common  salt  by
 distillation.  It has some action upon the filings of the
 metals in the moist way.
   Molybdi'tis.  See Molybdenum.
   Molv bdos.  (On uoAti tic (iaBos; from its gravity.,
 Lead.
   MOLYBDOUS ACID.   Acidum molybdosum.  The
 deutoxide of molybdenum is of a blue colour,  and
 possesses ncid properties.   Triturate 2 parts of molyb-
 dic acid, with one part of the metal, along wilh a little
 hot water, in a porcelain  mortar, till the  mixture as
 sunies a blue colour.  Digest in 10 parts  of  boiling
 water, filter and cvniHirate the liquid in a heat of about
 120°.  The blue oxide separates.  Ii reddens vegetable
 blues, and forms  sa'ts  wilh the bases.   Air or water,
 when left for some time to act on molybdenum, con-
 vert it inlo this acid.  It consists of about 100 metal tu
 34 oxygen.
   Moly'za.   (Diminutive of puXv, moly.)  Garlic;
 the  head of whicli,  like  moly,  is not divided  into
 cloves.
   Momiscus. (From pupos, a blemish.) That part of
 the teeth which is next the gums, and which is usually
 covered  wilh a foul tartaieous crust.
   MOMORDICA.  \Momordica;  from  mordeo, lo
 bite;  from iu sharp taste.)  The name of a genus of
 plants in the Linna-an system.  Class, Monacia,  Or
 der, Syngcnesia.
   Momordica elaterium.  The systematic name of
 Ihe squirting cucumber. Elaterium; Cucumis agrcs
 lis;  Cucumis usininiis ; Cucumis sylvestris ; Elate-
 rium  officinarum; Boubalios; Charantia;  Guarcrbn
 orba.  Wild, or  squirting  cucumber.  Momordica—
 pomis hispidis cirrhisnullis  of Linnaeus.   The dried
 sediment from the juice of this plant is the elaterium
 of the shops.  It  has  neither smell nor taste,  and is
 the most powerful cathartic in  the whole Materia
 Medica.   Ils efficacy in dropsies is said to be consider-
 able ;  it, however, requires greal caution iu the exhi-
 bition.   From the eighth to the half of a grain should
 be given at first, and repealed at proper intervals until
 it operates.  The cathartic power  of this substance
 is derived from a  small portion of a very active prin-
 ciple,  which Dr.  Paris, in  his  Pharmacologia,  has
 called Elatin.  From ten  giains  of elaterium  he ob-
 tained,
         Water......................   0.4
         Extractive....................   2.6
         Fecula.......................   2.8
        Gluten .......................   0.S
         Woody matter................   2.5
         Elatin.......................1, 2
         Bitter principle...............$

                                      10.

  MONA'RDA.   (So  called  in  honour of Nicholas
 Monardes,  a Spanish  physician  and botanist.)  The
 name of a genus  of plants in the  Linnaean system.
 Class, Diandria;  Older, Monogynia.
  Monarda  fistulosa.  Tlie systematic name of the
purple monarda.   The leaves of this plant have a fra-
grant  smell,  and  an aromatic  and  somewhat bitter
taste,  possessing nervine, stomachic, and deobstruent
 virtues.  An  infusion is recommended in the cure of
intermittent fevers.
  L" The Monarda is a very pungent aromatic, growing
 native in the United States, with various other species
some  of  which resemble it in efficacy.  In different
parts  of  the  country it  is  known by the  names  of
mountain-balm and horsemint.  It is a warm diapho-
 retic, anti-emetic,  and carminative;  used in flatulent
colics, rheumatism, &c.  The distilled oil, according
to Dr. Atlee, is one of the most powerful rubefacients."
 —Big. Mat. Med. A.]
  MONADE'LPHIA.  (From povos, alone,  and aieX
tpta,a brotherhood.) The name of a class of plants in
 the sexual system of Linnaeus,  consisting  of plants
 with hermaphrodite flowers, in which all the stamina
are united below into one  body or  cylinder, through
 which the pistil passes.
  MONA'NDRIA.  (From povos, alone, and avnp, a
 husband.)  The nanieof a class of plants in the sexual
system of  Linnaius, consisting of  plants with her-
maphrodite flowers, which have only one stamen.
  Mone'lli.  A species of Anagallis.
  MONEY-WORT.  See Lysimachia nummularia.
  MONILIFORMIS.  (Monilc,  an ornament foi auy
                                         81 
MOi>
MOiN
part of the body, especially a necklace or collar.)
Moniliform   applied to tbe pod of the Hedysarum
meniliferum from its necklace appearance.
  Monk's rhubarb.  See Rumex alpinus.
  MONKSHOOD.  See Aconitum napellus.
  MONOCOTYLEDON.  (Frompovos, one, and ko-
rvAqduv, a cotyledon.)  Having one cotyledon.
  MONOCOTYLEDONES.  A tribe of plants which
ire supposed to have only one cotyledon ; as the grass
and corn tribe,,  palms, and tlie orchis family.   See
Cotyledon.
  MONO CULUS  (From povos, one,  and oculus, an
eye.)   Monopia.   1. A very  uncommon  species of.
monstrosity, in which there is but one eye, and that
moslly above the root of the nose.
  2. Intcstinum monoculum is the name given to the
co-cum, or blind gut, hy Paracelsus, because il is per-
forated only at one end.
  [3. A genus of Crustacea, to which belongs the great
horse-foot of America,  or the Monoculus Polyphe-
mus.  AA
  MONCE'CIA.    (From  povos, alone, ond otxta,  a
house.)  The name of a class of plants in the sexual
system of Linnaeus, consisting of those which have
male and female organs iu separate flowers, but on the
same plant.
  MONOGY'NIA.  (From povos,  alone, and yvvrj,  a
woman, or  wife.)—The name of an order of plants in
the sexual system of Linnaeus.  It contains those plants
wliich, besides their agreement in the classic character,
have only one style.
  Monohe'mera.   (From povos, single, and nptoa,a
day.)   A disease of one day's continuance.
  MONOICUS   (From  povos,  one,   and oixta,  a
house.)  Linnaeus calls flowers monoid, monoeceous,
when the stamens and  pistils ac situated in diffeient
flowers, on  the same individual plant; because they
are confined to one house, as it were, or dwelling;  aud
if the barren nnd fertile  flowers grow from separate
roofs, flores dioici, or dioecious flowers.
  MoNt/MACHON.  The intestiiium caecum.
  Monope'oia.   (Fiom povos-, single, and zzrftvvpt, to
compress.)  A pain in only one side of the head.
  MONOPH YLLUS.   (From povos, one, and tpvXXov,
a leaf.)  One-leafed: having only one  leaf applied tu
the perianthium of flowers;  thus the flower-cup of
the Datura stramonium is monuphyllous*,  or formed
of one leaf.
  Mono'pia.  (From povos, single, and  utp, the eye.)
See Monoculus.
  MONO'RCHIS.   (From povos,  one,  and opxts,  a
testicle.)  An  epithet for a person that has but  one
testicle.
  MONRO, Alexander,  was born in London, of
Scotch parents, in 1697.  His father, who was an army
Burgeon, settled afterward at Edinburgh, and took great
interest in hie education.  At a proper age, he sent him
to attend Cheselden in London, where he  displayed
great  assiduity, and laid  the  foundation of his cele-
brated work on the bones; he then went to Paris, and
in 1718 to Leyden, where he  received  the particular
commendation of Boerhaave.  Returning to Edinburgh
the following  year, he was appointed professor  and
demonstrator of anatomy to the Company of Surgeons,
and soon after he began to give public lectures on that
subject, Dr. Alston "at the same time  taking up  the
Materia Medica and Botany.  This may be regarded as
the opening of lhat medical school, which has since ex-
tended its fame throughout Europe and even to America.
The two lectureships were placed upon the university
establishment iu 1720, and others shortly added to com-
plete the system of medical education ; but an oppor-
tunity of seeing practice being still wanting, Dr. Monro
pointed out in a pamphlet the advantages of such an
institution; the Royal Infirmary was tlierefoie estab-
"jsled, and  he commenced Clinical Lecturer on Sur-
gery ;  and Dr. Rutherford afterward extended the plan
to Medical cases.  None of the new professois contri-
buted so much to the celebrity of this school as Dr.
Monro, nol  only by the  diligent and skilful  execution
of the duties of his office, but also by various Ingenious
and useful  publications.   He  continued his lectures
during upwards of six months annually for nearly forty
years,  and  acquired such reputation, that  students
flocked to  him from the m<wt distant parts of the
kingdom.   His first and chief work was his " Os e.
ology," in  1726,  intended for his pupils;  but which
oecnme very  popular, passed thiougn numerate  edi
lions, and  was translated  into most European  lan-
guages: he nfturward added a concise description of
the nerves, and a v» ry accurate account of the lacteal
system and thoraci". duct*.  He was also the father and
active supporter of a society, to which the  publi.  A-as
indebted for  six volumes of  " Medical Essays  and
Observations:" he acted as  secretary, and  had the
chief labour in the publication of these, besides having
contributed many valuable papers, especially an elabo-
rate  " Essay  on the  Nutrition of the Foetus."   The
plan of  the society was afterward  extended, and three
volumes of " Essays  Physical and  Literary" were
published,  in which Dr. Monro  has  several  Useful
papers.   His last publication was an " Account of the
Success of Inoculation in  Scotland."  He left, how-
ever, several works in manuscript; of which a short
" Treatise on Comparative Anatomy," and his oration
" De Cuticula," have been since  given to the public.
In 1759, Dr. Monro resigned his anatomical chair to his
son,  but continued his Clinical lectures;  he exerted
himself also in promoting almost every object of public
utility.   He was chosen a fellow of the Royal Society
of London, and an honorary  member of  the  Royal
Academy of Surgery at Paris.  He died in 1767.
  MONS.  A mount, or hill.
  Mons venl'Bis.  The triangular eminence immedi-
ately over the os pubis of women, that is covered with
hair.
  MONSTER.  Lusu3 natura.  Dr. Denman divide*
monsters into, 1st, Monsters from  redundance or mul-
tiplicity of parts; 2d,  Monsters  from deficiency or
want of parts; 3d, Monsters from  confusion of" parts.
To these might perhaps be added, without impropi iety,
auoiher kind, in which tliere is neither redundance,
nor deficiency, nor confusion of parts, but an error of
place, as in transposition of the viscera.  But children
born with  diseases,  as the hydrocephalus, or their
effects, as in  some  cases of blindness, from previous
inflammation, cannot be properly  considered  as inon
sters, though they are often so denominated.
  Ofthe first order there may be two kinds; redun
dance or multiplicity of natural parts, as of two heads
and one bodv, of one head and two bodies, an increased
number of limbs, as  legs,  arms, fingers, and toes: or
excrescences or additions to parts of no certain form, as
those upon ihe head and other parts of the body. It
is not  surprising that  we should be ignorant  of the
manner  in which  monsters  or ii regular  births  are
generated or  produced ;  though it is probable that Ihe
laws by which these  are governed are as regular, both
as to cause and effect, as in common or natural  pro-
ductions.  Formerly,  and indeed till within these  few
years, it w&e a generally received  opinion, that moi>-
sters were not primordial or aboriginal, but that ihey
were caused subsequently, by the power of ihe imagi-
nation of the  mother, transferring the imperfection of
some external object, or the  mark of something foi
which  she longed,  and with which she was  not
indulged, to the child of which  she was  pregnant;
or by some accident which happened to her during hoi
pregnancy. Such opinions, it  is reasonable to think,
were permitted to pass current, in order  to  protect
pregnant women from all hazardous and disagreeable
occupations, to screen them from severe labour, and to
procure for them a sreater share of indulgence  and
tenderness than could be granted to them in the com-
mon occurrences of life.  The laws and customs of
every civilized nation have, in some degree, established
a persuasion  that there was something sacred in the
person of a pregnant woman:  and this may be rich1
in several  points of  view; but these only go a little
way towards justifying the opinion of monsters being
caused by the imagination of themother.  Theopinior
has  been disproved by common observation, and hy
philosophy, not perhaps by positive proofs, but by many
strong   negative facts:  as  the improbability of  an>
child being born perfect, had such a power exiaed;
the  freedom  of children from any blemish, their mo-
thers being in situations most exposed to objects likely
to produce them; the ignorance of the mother of  any
thing being wrong in the child, till, from information
of the fact, she begins to recollect every accident which
happened during her pregnancy, and assigns the worst
or the most plausible, as the cause; tlie organization and
colour of these adventitious substances; tlie frequent
occurrence of monsters in tlie brute creation, in which 
MON
MOR
the powet  of ihe  'niagination cannot be great;  and
the analogous appearances in the vegetable system,
where it does not exist in any degree.  Judging, how-
ever,  from appearances, accidents  may  perhaps bo
allowed  to hnve considerable influence in the  pro-
duction of moifcteies of some kinds, either  by actual
injury upon parts,  or by suppressing or deranging the
principle of growth, because, when an  arm, for in-
stance, is wanting, the rudiments of the deficient parts
mav generally be discovered.
  MoNTMARTRlTE.   A mineral  compound of sul-
phate audcaibouate of lime, that stands the weather,
which common gypsum does not.  It is found at Mont-
martie, near Paris.
  M OONSTON E.  A variety of adularia.
  I" MOORE, William, M. D.  This ornament of the
profession and of Christianity, was born at Newtown,
on Long-Island, state of New-Voi k, in 1754.  His father
Samuel, and  his grandfather  Benjamin, Moore, were
agriculturists.  He received the rudiments  of a clas-
sical education under the tuition of his elder brother,
afterwaid bishop Moore, and president for many years
of Columbia college.   He attended the  lectures on
aiediciue delivered"by Dis. Clossey and Samuel Bard.
  Iu 1 /18 he went lo London, and thence to Edinburgh.
.n 1T80  he was graduated doctor  of medicine, on
which occasion he  published his dissertation De Bile.
For more than forty years he confinued unremittingly
engaged in the arduous duties of an extensive practice,
particularly in midwifery, estimating his number of
cases al about three thousand.   He died in the seventy-
first year of his age, in April, 1824.
  The medical papers of Dr. Moore  may be found in
the American Medical and Philosophical Register, the
New-York Medical  Repository,  and tbe New-York
Medical  and  Physical Journal.  For many  years Dr.
Moore was president of the  Medical Society  of tlie
county of  New-York,  and an upright  and vigilant
trustee of  the College of Physicians and  Surgeons.
On his death the College recorded their testimony to his
pre-eminent worth."—Thach. Med.  Biog.  A.\
  MORBI'LLI.  (Diminutive of morbus, a disease.)
See Rubeola.
  MORBIS.  A disease.
  Morbus aruuatcs.   The jaundice.
  Morbis attomtus.   The epilepsy, and  apoplexy.
  Morbis coxarius.   See Arlhropuosis.
  Morbus oallicus.  The venereal disease.
  Morbus herculeus.  The epilepsy.
  Morbus indicus. The venereal  disease.
  Morbus infantilis.   The epilepsy.
  Morbus magnus. The epilepsy.
  Morbus nioer.   The black disease.  So Hippo-
crates named it, and thus described  it.  This disorder
is known by  vomiting  a concrete blood of a blackish
red colour, and mixed  with a  large quanty of  insipid
acid, or viscid phlegm.   This  evacuadon is generally
preceded by a pungent tensive pain, in both the hypo-
chondria ; and the appearance of the disease is attend-
ed wilh anxiety*a compressive pain in the praecordia,
and fainting, which last is more frequent and violent,
when the blood which is evacuated  is foetid and cor-
rupt.   The stomach  and the spleen  are the principal,
if not the proper seat of this disease.
  Morbus regius.  The jaundice.
  Morbus sacer. The epilepsy.
  MORDANT.  In dying, the  substance  combined
with the vegetable or animal fibre, in order to  fix the
dye-stuff.
  Morel.  See  Phallus esculenlus.
  More'tus.  (From morum, the mulberry.)  A de-
coction of mulberries.
  MORGAGNI, Giambatista, was born at Fori! in
1682.  He  commenced his medical studies at Bologna,
and displayed such ardour and talent, that Valsalva
availed himself of  his assistance in his researches into
the organ of hearing, and in drawing up his memoirs
on that subject.  He also performed the professorial
duties during the temporary absence of Valsalva, and
by his skill and obliging manners procured general es-
teem.  He afterward prosecuted  his studies at Venice
and Padua, and then settled in his  native place.  He
soon, however, perceived that this was too contracted a
Bphere for hi3 abilities; wherefore; he returned to Pa-
dua, where, a vacancy soon occ irring,  he was nomi-
nated, in 1711, to teach the theory of physic.  He had
already distinguished himself by the publication five
                                      N  n *
years before of the first p""tof his " Adversaria Ana
tomica," a work remarktt-.le for Its accuracy, as wel
as originality; of which, subsequently, five other pare
appeared.   He assisted Lancisi iu preparing for publi
cation  the valuable drawings of  Eustachius, which
came out in 1714.   The following year he was appoin'
ed lo the first anatomical professorship in Padua;  and
from that period ranked at the head of the anatomists'
of his time.  He was also well versed in general liters
ture, and other subjects  not  immediately connected
with his profession :  nnd honours were rapidly accu
mutated upon him from every quarter of Europe.  Ht
was distinguished  by  the particular esteem of three
successive Popes, and by the visits of all the learned
and great, who came into his neighbourhood; and his
native city placed a bust of him in their public  hall
during his life, with an honorary inscription.  Though
he had a large family, he accumulated a considerable
property by his industry and economy ;  and by means
of a good constitution and  regular habits, he attained
the advanced age of 90.  Besides  the  Adversaria he
published several other works, two quarto volumes of
anatomical epistles, an essay on the proper method of
acquiring medical science,  which  appeared on his ap-
pointment to the theoretical chair, Sec.  Bul that which
has  chiefly rendered  his name illustrious is entitled
" De Sedibus et Causis Morborum," printed at Venice
in 1760.  It contains a prodigious collection of dissec-
tions of morbid bodies, made by Valsalva and himself,
arranged according to the organs affected.  He follow-
ed the plan cf Bonetus;  but the accuracy of his details
renders the collection  far superior in value to any that
had preceded it.
  MO'RIA.   (From pupos, foolish.) The name of a
genus of diseases in Good's Nosology.  Class, Neuro-
tica;  Order, Phrenica.  Idiotism.  Fatuity.  It has
two species, Maria imbecillis, demens.
  Mo'ro.  (From  morum, a mulberry.)  A small ab-
scess resembling a mulberry.
  Moro'sis.  (From pupos, foolish.)  See Amentia.
  MOROXYLATE.  A compound of moroxylic  acid
with a salifiable basis.
  MOROXYLIC ACID. (Acidum moroxylicum; from
morus, the mulberry-tree, and {vXov, wood; because
it is found on the bark or wood of lhat tree.)  In the
botanic garden  at  Palermo, Air. Thompson found an
uncommon saline  substance on the trunk of a white
mulberry-tree.  Il  appeared as a coating on the surface
of the bark in little gi auulous drops of a yellowish and
blackish-brown colour, and had likewise penetrated ils
substance.  Klaproth, who analyzed it, found that its
taste was somewha,.  like  that of succinic acid ; on
burning coals, it swelled up a little, emitted a pungent
vapour scarcely  visible to  the eye, and  left a slight
earthy  residuum.   Six hundred  grains  of the bark
loaded with it were lixiviated with water, and afford-
ed 320 grains of a light salt, resembling in colour a light
wood, and composed  of short needles united in radii.
it was not deliquescent;  and though the crystals did
not form  till the solution was  greatly condensed by
evaporation, it is not  very soluble, 6ince 1000 parts of
water dissolve but 35 with heat, and 15 cold.
  This salt was  found  to be  a  compound of  lime
and a  peculiar vegetable acid,  with some  extractive
matter.
  To obtain the acid  separate,  Klaproth decomposed
the calcareous salt  by acetate of lead, and separated the
lead by sulphuric acid.  He  likewise decomposed it
directly by sulphuric acid.  The product was still more
like succinic acid in taste; w as not deliquescent; easily
dissolved both in water and alkohol: and did not pre
cipitate the metallic solutions, as it did in  combination
with lime.  Twenty grains being slightly heated in r.
small glass retort, a number of drops of  an acid liquor
first came over; next a concrete  salt arose, that ad-
hered flat against  the top and part of the neck of the
retort in the form of prismatic crystals, colourless and
transparent;  and  a coaly  residuum remained.  The
acid was then washed out, and crystallized by sponta-
neous  evaporation.—This sublimation  appears to be
the best mode of purifying the salt, but it adhered too
strongly to the lime to be separated from it directly by
heat without being decomposed.
  Not having a sufficient quantity to determine its spe-
cific characters, though he conceives it to be a peculiar
acid, coming nearest to ihe  succinic both  in taste and
other qualities, Klaproth has provisionally given it the 
MOR                                            MOT
 UtiiTie ot inoroxylic, and the calcareous salt containing
It, that of moroxylate of lime.
  MORPHE'A  ALBA.  (From poptpn, form.)   A spe-
cies of cutaneous leprosy.  See Lepra alphos.
  MORPHIA.  Morphine.  A new vegetable  alkali,
extiacted fiom opium, of which it constitutes the nar-
cotic principle.   See Papaver  somniferum.
  MORPHINE. See  Morphia.
  Morse'lli-b.  A lozenge.
  Morsuli-s.   An ancient name for that form of me-
dicine  which was  to  be chewed iu  the mouth, as a
lozenge ; the word signifying a little mouthful.
  Mo'ksus diaboli.   The fimbriae of the  Fallopian
tubes.
  Mo'ata.  See Pemphigus.
  Mortari olum.  (Dim. of morlarhm, a mortar.)
In chemistry, il is  a sort of mould for making cupels
with; alson little mortar. In anatomy, it is tbe sockets
of the teeth.
  MORTIFICATION.  (Mortificatio:  from  mors,
death,  aud fio, to  become.)   Gangrena;  Sphacelus.
The loss of vitality of a part  of the body.  Surgeons
divide mortification into two species, the one preceded
i>y inflammation, the  other without it.  In inflamma-
tions that  are to terminate in  mortification, there is a
diminution of power  joined to  an increased  action;
tins becomes a cause of mortification, by destroying
the balance of power and action, which ought to exist
in every part.   There  are, however, cases of nrortifi-
ca ion  mat do  not arise wholly from that as a cause:
of this kind are the carbuncle, and the slough, formed
in the small-pox pustule.   Healthy phlegmonous in-
flamiuation  seldom ends in mortification,  though it
does so when very  vehement and extensive.  Erysipe-
latous  inflammation   is observed most frequently to
terminate in gangrene; and whenever phlegmon is in
any degree conjoined  with au erysipelatous affection,
which it  not unfrequently is, it seems thereby to ac-
quire  the  same tendency, being more difficult to bring
to resolution, or suppuration, than the true  phlegmon,
and more  apt to run into a mortified slate.
  Causes  which impede the  circulation ofthe  part
affected, will occasion mortification, as is exemplified
in strangulated  hernia, tied polypi, or a limb being de-
prived of  circula.iou from a dislocated joint.
  Preventing the  entrance of  arterial  blood  into a
limb, is also another cause.  Paralysis, conjoined with
pressure, old age, and  ossification of the arteries, may
produce mortification ;  also cold, particularly if follow-
ed by the sudden application of warmth ; and likewise
excessive  heat applied to a part.
  The symptoms of mortification that take place after
Inflammation are various,  bul generally as follows:—
the pain  and sympathetic fever suddenly diminish,
th:- pari   affected  becomes soft,  and of a livid co-
louis. losing at the same time more or less of its sensi-
biliiv.
  When any part  of the body loses all motion, sensi-
bility, and natu.al  heat, and becomes of a brown livid
or black colour, it  is said to be affected wilh sphacelus.
When the part becomes a cold, black, fibrous, sense-
less substance,  it is termed a slough.   As long as any
sensibility, moion, and warmth continue, the slate of
the disorder is said to be gangrene.   When the  part
has  become quite cold, black,  fibrous,  incapable of
moving, and destitute of all feeling, circulation, and
life; this  is the second stage  of  mortification, termed
sphacelus.
   When gangrene takes place,  the patient  is usually
troubled  witli  a kind of hiccough:  the constitution
always sutlers an immediate dejection,  the  counte-
nance assumes a  wild cadaveious look, the puliie be-
comes small, rapid, and sometimes irregular; cold pcr-
spi'-atioii-i come on, and the  patient is often affected
with diarh-ea and deliiium.
   MOIiTO.N, Richard, was born in Suffolk, and after
taMng the degree of Bachelor of Arts at Oxford, offi-
 ciated lor some time as a chaplain : but the  intole-
rance  of  th- times,  and his own religious scruples,
compelled him to  chance for  the medical profession.
 He was accoidingly admitted to his doctor's degree in
 1670. haviig accompanied the  Prince of Orange to
Oxford, as physician to his person. He afterward set-
 tled iu  Loudon, became a Fellow of the College,  nnd
obtained  a  lage share of the cltv practice.  He died
Iu 1R9R   His works have had considerable reputation,
 and evince some  acuteness of observation, and acti-
vity of practice.  They abound,  however, wua  tfl»
errors of the humoral pathology,  which  then  pre
vailed;  and sanction a method of treatment, in acute
diseases, which  his more  able contemporary, S,den
ham, discountenanced, and wnich subsequent experi-
ence has generally discarded.  His first  publication
was an  attempt lo  arrange the vaneii s ol consump-
tion, but not very successfully.  His " Pyrelr logia"
cameout in two volumes, the first in 1691, ihe oihe. at
an interval  of three years ;  in this work, especial.v, the
stimulant treatment ot fevers is earned to an unusual
extent, and a more general use of ciuclwiia  reioin
mended.
  MO KIWI.  See .Varus  nigra.
  MO RUS.  (From uavpus. b ack ; so calked from tlie
colour oi its fruit when ripe.)  The name or  a genus
of plmits iu  the Linnaean system.  Class,  Monacia f
Order,  Tetrandria.   The mulberry-tree.
  Moriis mora. The  systems,ic name of the  mul-
berry-tree.   Morus—foliis cordatis scabris, of  Lin-
naeus.   Mulberries abound with a deep vioiet-coloined
juice, which, in  ils geneial qualifies, agrees wiiii lhat
of the fruits called acido-dulces, allaying ihir.-l, pa.tty
by refrigerating, and partly by exciting an excp-iiou of
mucus trom tho mouili and lauces  a  similar etlect is
also produced iu the stomach, where, byconecung
puirescency,  a  powerful cause of' lliiist  is u-iiioved.
The London College directs a syrup us mori, wnich is
an agreeable vehicle for various medicines.  Tlie  hark
of the root  of this tree is said, by Andiee, to be useful
in cases of  taenia.
  Mosaic gold.   See Aurum musivum.
  MosuuaTa nux.  See Myristtca mosc/iata.
  MOSCHUS.  (Mosch, Arabian.)  Musk.  See Mot
ehus moschiferus.
  Moschus moschiferus.  The systematic name of
the musk animal, a ruminating quadruped, res, milling
Ihe antelope.  An unctuous substance is contained in
excretory follicles about the navel of Ihe male animal,
the strong and permanent smell of whicli is peculiar to
it.  It is contained in a bag placed near the umbilical
region.   The best musk is brought from  Touquiu, in
('bina;  an inferior sort from  Agriaaud  Bengal,  an!
a still worse from Russia.  It is slightly unctuous, oi a
black colour, having a strong durable smell and a till
ter taste.   It yields part of its aciive matter io  water,
by Infusion;  by  distillation the waler is impregnated
with its flavour; alkohol dissolves it, its impiiiiiie:
excepted.  Chewed, and rubbed with a knilie on uapci
it looks  blight, yellowish, smooth, aud free fiom g, im
ness.  Laid on  a red-hot iron, il catches  flame am*
burns almost entirely away, leaving only an exceed-
ingly small quantity of light grayish ashes.   Ii a.ij
earthy substances have been mixed  wilh the musk
Ihe impurities will discover them.  The medicinal and
chemical properties of musk and castor are very siuii
lar: the virtues of tbe former are generally believed tc
be  more powerful, and hence musk  is preferred in
cases of imminent danger.  It is piescribed as a pow-
ful  antispasmodic, in doses of three grains or upwards,
even to  half a drachm, in  ihe greater number of >| is-
modic diseases,  es|iecially in hysteria ami singultus,
and also in diseases of debility   In typhus, ii  is, em-
ployed to remove subsultus teudinnui, and oilier .symp-
tom* of a spasmodic nature.  In cholera, it frequently
stops vomiting;  and,  combined with  ammonia,  it  is
given to arrest the progress of gangrene.  Il  is  best
given in the form of bolus.  To children, it is given in
the form of enema, and is  an efficacious  remedy in
the convulsions arising from dentition.  It is also given
in hydrophobia, and in some forms of mania.
  Mosqui'ta.   (From mosquita, a  gnat, Spanish.''
An itching eruption of the skin,  produced in  hot cli-
mates by the bite of gnats.
  Mosy'llum.   MomiXW.  The best cinnamon.
  Mother of thiime.  See  Thymus serpqllum.
  MOTHER-WATER.   When  sea water, or   any
other solution containing  various salts, is evaporated.
and the crystals taken out, th-rc always  remains a
fluid containing deliquescent ssls, and the Impurities,
if present.   This is called  the mother-water.
  MOTHERWORT.  See Lemurus cardiaca.
  MOTION.  See Muscular motion.
  Motion,  peristaltic.   See  Peristaltic motion.
  MOTO RES Of I LO It I" M.  (Ncrvi motores ocule
rum: so called because they supply the muscles which
move the eye.)  The thhd pairof nerves of the brain 
MUC
MUL
  Tlvy arise from tin- cruia cerebri, and aie distributed
  •ii tne nuisUe- ot  tl.e bulb ol  the eye.
    Moto kii   See Motor** ticulorum.
    MOULH.   See roulimella.
    Miuniuin cork.  See Asmstos.
    Mi untim  green.  Common  copper  green, a car-
  bon.t.e.
    Mountain leather.  See Asbestos.
    Mountain  parsley, black.  See Athamanta oreosc-
  linn m.
    Mountain soap.  S.-e Soap, mountain.
    M.miitnin icood.  See .tslustos.
    M.ll'SK-EAR.   See  Hier.icium pilosella.
    MOUTH,   us.   The cavi.y of the moiiili is well
  ■tnovvu   The parts winch constitute i. are the com
»mou integuments, the  lips, ihe musi I. s of (he up|iei
  ■lad under jaw, the pa.ate, two alveolar  arches, the
 gums, tiie tongue, ihe cheeks, and .-alival glands  The
 bo us „f the  urouth are the two supeiioi  iimxillary,
 two piuaiine, Ihe lower  jaw, and thiny-lwo  teeth.
 Tn, Ji.ierie.s of  ihe external purls of the  mouth are
 b.a.iches „f the infra-orbital,  inferior alveola:, and
 facial arteries  The veins empty themselves info the
 ex.jru.it j ijnlais.  The in-.ve? are braneue- i'mhii the
 fifih and .seventh pair.  Tne use of the mouth is for
 ni.isiicanou, s-peech, respi.aiion, deglutition,  suction,
 a.i.I laste.
   MO XA.  A Japanese word. S,-eAi C misittcJiincii.-is.
   M ix\ jaI'ami v.  > k Artemisia chimnsis.
   MIU'IO AOIU.   (Aidum uiuri.u.ii ;  from mucus,
 it  being obtained from :uiii.|  "This and has li.en
 generally known by the name of s-inholicttc, because
 ii wa- ii: s. obtained from sugar of milk ;  bul as all the
 Emus  appeal  to afford il, and the principal  acid  in
 sugar  of milk is me oxalic, chemists in  general  now
 distinguish it by the name  of mucic acid.
   Il was discovered  hy  Scheele.   Having  poured
 twelve ounces of diluted nitric acid on four ounces ot
 powdered sugar of milk in  a glass retort on a sand
 bath, die mixture became gradually hot, and at length
 efl'ei \ (seed violently, and con.inued tu do so for a con-
 siderable tune afler  the retort was taken from  the lire.
 It  is nece.-sary,  therefore, to use a la ge retort, and
 uot to hue the receiver  loo light.  The effervescence
 having nearly subsided, the retort was again placed on
 the sand  heat, and the nitric acid distilled off, till  the
 mass had acquiied a yellowish colour.  This exhibit
 ing no cystals, eight  ounces more of the same acid
 were added, and the distillation repealed, till the yel-
 low colour of the fliid disappeared.  As the fluid was
 inspissated  by cooling,  ii was  redissolved in  eight
 ounces of wafer, and filtered.   The filtered  liquor
 held oxalic acid in solution, and seven drachms and a
 half of white powder remained on the filler.  This
 powder was the acid under consideration.
  If one part of gum  be healed gently with  two of
 nitric acid, tiil a small quantity of nitrous gas and of
carbonic acid  is disengaged, the dissolved mass  will
deposite  on cooling  the  m icic  acid.   According to
Fourcroy and Vauquelin, different gums yield from 14
to e20 hundredths of this acid.
  This pulverulent acid is soluble in about sixty parts
of hoi water, and, hy cooling, a fourth part separates
in small shining scales, that grow white in the air.  Il
decomposes the muriate of baryies, and both the ni-
trate and muriate of lime   It acts very little on the
 metals, but forms with their oxides salts scarcely solu-
ble.  It precipitates the  nitrates of silver,  lead,  and
mercury.   With potassa it  forms a salt soluble in eight
parts of boiling water, and crystallizable by cooling.
Tnat of soda  requires but  five parts of water, and is
equally crystallizable.  Both these salts are still more
soluble when the acid is in excess.  That of ammonia
is deprived of its base by heat.  The salts of barytes,
lime, and magnesia,  are nearly insoluble."
  MUCILAGE.  Mucilago.   An aqueous solution of
gum.  See Gum.
  MUCILAGINOUS.  Gummy.
  Mucilaginous extracts.   Extracts  that  readily
dissolve in water, scarcely at all in spirits of wine, and
undergo spirituous fermentation.
  MUCILA'GO.   (Mucilage.)   See Gum.
  Mucilago acacia.   Mucilage of acacia.  Muci-
lago gummi arabici.—Take of acacia gum, powdered,
four ounces; boiling water, half a pint.  Rub the gum
with the  water, gradually added, until  it  incorporates
into a mucilage   A demulcent preparation, more fre-
  quently used io  combine medicines, than iu any othei
  form.
    .Mucilago  amyli.  Starch  mucilage.—Take of
  starch, ill ee dfaclims; u ater, a pint.   Hub the starch,
  giadually adding ihe xvater to it; then bull until it in-
  corporates into u mucilage.  This preparation is mostly
  exhibited wilh opium, in the  form of clyster in diar-
  rhoeas,md dysenteries, where the tenesmus arises lroin
  au abrasion of the mucus of the rectum.
    Mui'Ilaqu arabui gummi.  See Mucilago acacia.
    Mucilauo  skminis cydonu.  See  Decoctum  cy-
  do nia.
    MeciLAQo  traqacanth.e.   Mucilage of  traga
  canlli, joined  with sytupot  mulberries, tonus a  pit i*
  sum demulcent,  and may be exhibited :o children, w ho
  are fond of iu  This mucilage is omitted in  ihe hist
  Loudon  Pharmacopoeia, as possessing no superiority
  over the mucilage of acacia.
    Mucoca'kneiis.  In M. A. Seveiinus, it is au epithet
  for a tumour, and an abscess, which  is partly  fleshy
  and partly mucous.
    M t JCOl'S.  Ol the nature of mucus.
    M mil's acid.  See M.icic acid.
    Minors ni.ANos.  Gliml 11 la mucosa.  Mucipalous
  glands.   Glands  that secrete mucus, such as the glands
  of the Schueideiian membrane of the nose, the glands
  of ihe fauces., oesophagus, stomach, intestine-*, bladder,
  urethra, .fcc.
   Ml'i.'llO.NATI'S.   (From mucro, a  sharp point.)
  Sine p pointed   See Cnspulatus.
   Ml'CUS.   (From pv\a, the mucus of the nose.)  A
  name given lo the two following substances.
   1. Mucus, animal.   One of the piiuiaiy  fluids of an
  animal body,  pe  fitly distinct from  gelatin, and ve-
  getable mucus.  Taumu, u hich is a delicate lest  for
  gelatin, does not  affect mucus.  " This fluid is transpa-
  rent, glutinous, thready, and of a salt savour; it red-
  dens paper of  turnsole, contains a great deal of wau-r,
  muriate ol' potassa and soda, lactate of lime, of soil i,
  and  phosphate ol' Inne.  According to Fourcroy and
  Vauquelin, the i:i icus is the same in all the  mucous
  iiiembiaaes.   On ihe contrary, Berzelius thinks  it va-
  riable according  to the points from which it is ex-
  tracted.
   The mucus  forms a layer of greater or less thickness
 at the sui face  of tlie mucous membranes, and it is  re-
  newed with  more or less rapidity; the  water it con-
 tains evaporates under the name of mucous cxhulation;
 ii also protects these membranes against the action  of
 the air, of ihe aliment, the different glandular fluid:,
 &c.; it is, in fact, to  these membranes nearly  wh.it
 the epidermis  is  to the  skin.  Independently of this
 general use, it has others that vary  according to the
 parts of mucous membiuiies.  Thus, the mucus ofthe
 nose is favourable to the smell,  that of the mouth gives
 facility to the taste, that of the stomach and the  intes-
 tines assists  iu the digestion, thai of the genital and
 urinary ducts serves in the generation and the secre-
 tion of the urine, &c.
   A greal part of the mucus is absorbed again by t!:,e
 membranes which secrete it; anolher pan is carriej
 outwards, either  alone, ns in blowing the nose,  or
 spitting,  or mixed with the pulmonary  transpiratict,
 or else mixed  with the excreinental  matter  or ihe
 urine, &c.
   Animal  mucus  differs from that obtained from Ihe
 vegetable  kingdom,  in not being sumule in water,
 swimming on  its  surface, nor  capable of" mixing . :i
 with water, and being soluble in mineral acids, which
 vegetable mucus is not.
   2  Mums,  i<>-gct'ililc.  See Gum.
   MI'GWORT.   Se-- .Artemisia vulgaris.
   Mugwort,  China.  See Artemisia cltinensis.
   Mu lie.  Pustules contracted either by heat or cod.
   MULBERRY.   See Morus Nigra.
   MULLEIN.  See  Verbascum.
   Mu'lsum.  See Hydromeli.
   MULTI'FIDUS SPINiE.  (From multus, many, and
findo,  to  divide.)   Transverso-spinalis lumborum
 Musculus  sacer;  Semi spinalis internus, sive trans
 verso spinalis  dorsi;  Semi-spinalis, sive transversa
 spinalis colli, pars interna, of  Winslow.  Transfer
 talis  lumborum vulgo sacer;  Transoersalis dorsi,
 Transversalis  colli,of Douglas.  Lumbo dorsi spinat,
 of Dumas  The generality of anatomical writers  have
 unnecessarily multiplied the muscles of the spine, and
 hence their descriptions  of these  parts  are ---on fused,
                                          S3 
MUR                                            MUK
and difficult to be understood.  Under the name of
mvltifidtts  spina,  Albinus  has, therefore, very  pro-
perly included those portions of muscular flesh, inter-
mixed  with tendinous  fibres, which lie close to the
posterior part  of the spine, and which Douglas  and
Winslow  have described  as three  distinct muscles,
under the names of transversales, or transverso-spi-
nales, of the loins, back, and neck.  The multifidus
spina- arises tendinous and fleshy from the  upper con-
vex surface of the os sacrum, from the posterior adjoin-
ing part of the ilium, from  the oblique and transverse
processes of all the lumbar vertebrae, from the trans-
verse  processes of all the dorsal vertebiae, and  from
those of the cervical vertebra1, excepting the three first.
From all these origins the fibres of the muscles run in
•in oblique direction, and are inserted, by distinct  ten-
dons, inlo the spinous processes of all the vertebrae of
the loins and back, and likewise into those of the six
inferior vertebrae ofthe neck.  When this muscle acts
nngly, it extends the back obliquely, or moves it to one
side;  when both muscles act, they extend the vertebrae
backwards.
  ML'LTIFLORUS. Many-flowered.  Applied to the
flower-stalk of plants, which is so called when it bears
many flowers; as the Daphne laureola.  See Peduncu-

  Miltifo'rmk os.  See Ethmoid bone.
  Ml' LTIPES. (From multus, many, and pes, a foot.)
1.  The wood-louse.
  2 The polypus.
  3. Any animal having more than four feet.
  MI'MPS.  See Cynancheparotidea.
  Mi'ndicati'va.   (From mundo,  to cleanse.)  JUiin-
lificantia.  Medicines which purify and cleanse away
foulness.
  Mi'Sdifica'ntia. See Mundicativa.
  Mi-'ngos.  See Ophwrrhizamungos.
  MURA'LIS. (From mums, a  wall; so called be-
cause it groxvs upon walls.)  Pellitory. See Parietaria.
  Ml'RA'RIA.   (From murus, a  wall:  because it
grows  about walls.) A species of  maiden-hair: the
Asplenium murale.
  MURIACITE.   Gypsum.
  MURIAS.  A muriate, or salt, formed by the union
of the muriatic acid with salifiable bases ; as muriate
n/ ammonia, Sec.
  Mi'RIas ammonis.  See Sal ammoniac.
  Mori as antimonii.   Butter of antimony.  Formerly
used as a caustic.
  Murias barytas. See Barytes.
  Mi'RIas calcis.  See Calx.
  Murias  ferri.   Ferrum salitum;  Oleum martis
per deliqnium. This preparation of iron is styptic and
tome, and  may be given in chlorosis, intermittents,
rachitis, &c.
   Mi-rias hkrri ammoniacalis.  See Ferrum ammo-
niatum.
   Murias  hydrargyri.  There are two muriates of
mercury.   See Hydrargyri submurias, and Hydrar-
gyri oxymurias.
   Murias hydrargyri ammoniacalis.  See Hydrar-
gyrum pracipitatum album.
   Mi'Rias  hydrargyri oxyoenatus.  See Hydrar-
gv  jxymurias.
   Murias  potass*.   Alkali vegctabile salitum ; Sal
 liirestivus; Sal febrifugus Sylvii.   This snlt is ex-
hibited with    oaine intention as the muriate of sodea,
.inri xvas formerly in high estimation in the cure of in-
termittents, &c.
   Mi-rias potass.*: oxyginatus.  Chlorate of potassa
The oxygenated muriate of potassa has lately been ex-
'olled  in the  cure of the venereal disease. It is ex-
hibited in doses of from fifteen to forty grains in the
course of a day.   It increases the action of the heart
 ind  arteries, is supposed to oxygenate the blood, and
piove of great  service in  scorbutus,  asthenia, and
ceacheclic diseases.
   Mr has sod*.   See  Soda murias.
   Mi rias stibii.  See Murias antimonii.
   MURIATIC.    (Munaticus ;  from  muria,  brine.)
Belonging to sea salt.
   Mi'Riatic acid.  Acidum muriaticum.  The Hydro-
chloric of the French chemists.  Let six parts of pure
dnd well dried sea salt  be put Into a  glass retort, to the
beak of wliich is luted, in a horizontal direction, a long
 ;lass lube artificially  refrigerated,  and containing  a
 [tiantity of ignited muriate of lime.   Upon thu «ati
      8ti
pour at intervals five parts of concentrated oil of vitriol
through a syphon funnel, fixed air-tight, in thetubulure
of the retort.  The free end of the long tube being re-
curved, so as to dip into the mercury of a pneumatic
trough, a gas will issue, which, on coming in contact
with the air, will  form a visible cloud, or haze, pre-
senting, when viewed in a vivid light, prismatic colours.
This gas is murialic acid.
  When received in glass jars over dry mercury, it is
invisible, and possesses all the mechanical properties of
air.  Its odour is pungent and peculiar  Its laste acid
and corrosive. Its  specific gravity, according to Sir H.
Davy, is such, that 100 cubic inches weigh  39 grains,.
while by estimation, he says, they ought lo be 38.4 gr.
If an inflamed taper be immersed in il, it is instantly
extinguished.  It is destructive of animal life; but the
irritation produced by it on  the epiglottis scarcely per-
mits its descent into tbe lungs.  It is merely changed in
bulk by alterations of  temperature ;  it experiences no
change of state.
  When potassium, tin, or zinc, is heated in contact
with this  gas over mercury, one half of the volume
disappears, and the remainder is pure hydrogen.  On
examining the solid residue, it is found to be a metallic
chloride.  Hence muriatic acid gas consists of chlorine
and hydrogen, united in equal volumes.  This view of
its nature was originally given by Scheele, though ob-
scured by terms derived from the vague and visionary
hypothesis  of phiogision.  The French school  after-
ward introduced the belief that n.uriatic acid gas was
a compound of  an unknown radical and water; and
that chlorine consisted of ihis radical and oxygen.  Sir
H. Davy has proved, by decisive experiments, that in
the present state of our knowledge, chlorine must be re-
garded as a simple  substance; and muriatic  acid gas,
as a compound of it with hydrogen.
  Murialic acid, from its com position, has  been termed
by Lussac the hydrochloric acid; a name objected to by
Sir H. Davy.  Il was prepared by the older chemists in
a very rude mauner, and was called by them spirit of
salt.
   In the ancient method, common salt was previous!)
decrepitated, then ground with dried clay, and kneaded
or wrought wilh water lo a moderately stiff consistence,
afler which it was divided  into balls of the size of a
pigeon's egg; these balls, being previously well dried,
weie put into a retort, so as to fill the vessel two-thirds
full; distillation being then proceeded upon, the mu
rialic acid came over when the heat xvas raised to igni
tion.  In this process eight  or ten parts of clay to one
of salt are to> be used.  The retort must be  of stone-
ware well coaled, and the furnace must be of lhat kind
called reverberatory.
  It was formerly thought, that the salt was merely di-
vided in this operation by the clay, and on  this account
more readily gave out ils acid : but there can be little
doubt, lhat the effect is produced by the silicious earth,
which abounds in large proportions in all natural clays,
and detains the alkali ofthe salt by combining with it.
  Sir H.Davy first gave the just explanation of this de-
composition. Common salt is a compound of sodium
and chlorine.  The sodium  may be conceived to com-
bine with the oxygen of the  waler in the earth, and
with the eanh itself, lo form a vitreous compound;
and the chlorine to unite with  the  hydrogen of the
water, forming muriatic acid gas.  ' It is also  easy,'
adds he,' according to these new  ideas, to explain the
decomposition of salt by moistened lithaige, the theory
of  whicli has so much perplexed the most acute cue-
mists.   It may be conceived to be an instance nf com-
pound affinity ; the chlorine is attracted by the lead
and the sodium combines with  the oxygen of the li-
tharge, aud with water, to form hydrate of soda, which
gradually attracts carbonic  acid from the air.  When
common salt is  decomposed  by  oil of vitriol  it was
usual to explain the phenomenon by saying, that the
acid, by its superior affinity, aided by  heat, expelled the
gas, and united to the soda.  But as neither murialic
acid nor soda exists  in common salt, we must now
modify the  exp'anation, by saying that the water of
the oil of vitriol is first decomposed, its oxygen unites to
the  sodium lo form soda,  which is  seized on by the
sulphuric acid, while the chlorine combines with the
hydrogen ofthe water, and exhales in the form of mu-
riatic acid gas.'
   As 100 parts of  dry sea salt are capable of yielding
f>2 iiarts bv  weight of muriatic acid gas, these ought to 
MUtt
MUIl
»fford, by economical management, neatly -2-21 parts of
liquid  acid, specific gravity 1.14-2, as prescribed by the
Loudon  College, or '200 parts of acid sp. gr. 1 ItiO, as
directed   by the Edinburgh  and Dublin  Fhaimaco-
uoeias.
  The ancient method of extracting the gas from salt
is now laid aside
  The English manufacturers use iron stills for this dis-
tillation,  with earthen  heads: the philosophical che-
m'st, in  making  the acid of commerce, will doubtless
pi sfer glass.   Five  parts by weight of strong sulphuric
acid are lo be added to six of decrepitated sea salt, iu a
retort, the upper part of which is furnished with a tube
Dr neck, through which the acid is to be poured u|hjii
the salt.  The aperture of this lube must  be closed
with a ground stopper immediately after the pouring.
The sulphuric acid  immediately combines with the al-
kali, and expels the murialic acid in the form of a pe-
culiar  air, which is rapidly  absorbed  by water.  As
this combination  and disengagement take place w ith-
out the application of heat, and the aSrial fluid escapes
veiv rapidly, it is necessary to arrange and lule the ves-
sels together before the sulphuric acid is added, and nol
to make any fire in the furnace until the disengagement
begins  to slacken ; at which time il must be very gra-
dually  raised.   Before  the modern  improvements in
chemistry were made, a great part of the acid escaped
for  waul of water to combine with ; but by the use of
Wolfe's apparatus tlie acid air is made to pass through
waier,  in which it is nearly condensed, and forms mu-
riatic acid ol' double tlie weight of the w ater, though
the bulk  of Ihis fluid is  increased one-half only.  The
acid condensed iu the first receiver, wliich contains no
water, is  of a yellow colour, arising from the impuri-
ties of the salt.
  The  marine acid  in commerce has a straxx'colour:
but this is owing lo accidental  impurity ; for it does not
obtain in the acid  produced by the impregnation of
water with the afiriform acid.
  The muriatic acid is one of tliose longest known, and
some of its compounds are  among those salts  with
which  we are most familiar.
  The muriates,  when  in a state nf dryness, are actu-
ally chlorides, consisting of chlorine and the  metal;
yet they  may be conveniently treated of under the title
muriates.
  The muriate of barytes crystallizes in tables bevelled
at tbe edges, or in octahedral pyramids applied base to
base.  It is soluble in five parts of water al 60°, in still
less at a boiling heat, and also in alkohol.  It is not al-
tered in the air, and but partly decomposable by heat.
The sulphuric acid separates its base; and the alkaline
carbonates and  sulphates decompose it by double affi-
nity.  It  is best prepared by dissolving the carl>onate in
dilute  muriatic acid ; and if contaminated  with iron
or lead, w hich occasionally happens, these  may be se-
parated by the addition of a small quantity of liquid
ammonia, or by boiling and stirring the solution with  a
little barytes.  Goettling recommends  to  prepare  it
from the sulphate of barytes;  eight parts of which, in
fine powder,  are to  be mixed with two of muriate of
soda, and on? of charcoal powder.   This  is to be
pressed hard into a  Hessian  crucible, and exposed tor
in  hour  and a half to a red  heat in a wind furnace.
The cold ma- , being powdered, is to be boiled a mi-
nute or two ii, sixteen parts of water, and then filtered.
To this liquor muriatic acid is to be added by little and
little, tid sulphuretted hydrogen ceases to be evolved.
It is then to be filtered,  a little hot water to be poured
on the residuum, the liquor evaporated to a pellicle,
filtered again, and then  set to crystallize.  As the mu-
riate of soda is much more soluble than the muriate of
barytes, and  does not separate by cooling, the muriate
of barytes will crystallize into a perfectly xvhite salt,
and  leave the muriate  nf soda in the mother waler,
wliich  may be evaporated repeatedly till no  more mu-
riate of barytes is obtained.  This salt  was first em-
ployed iu medicine by Dr. Crawford, chiefly in scrofu-
lous complaints and cancer, beginning with doses of  a
few drops of the saturated solution twice a  day, and
increasing it gradually, as far as forty or fifty drops in
some instances.   In large doses it  excites nausea, and
has deleterious  effects.   Fourcroy savs it has been
found very  successful in scrofula in France.  Jt has
likewise heen recommended as a vermifuge;  and ;t has
been given with much apparent advantage even lo very
ro'ing  children  where  the usual symptoms of worms
occurred, though none were ascertained to be present
As a test of sulphuric acid it is of great use.
  The muriate  of  potassa, formerly known  by the
names of febrifuge salt of Sylvius, digestive salt, and
regenerated sea  salt, crystallizes in regular cubes, or in
rectangular patallelopipedons;   decrepitating  on the
fire, without losing much of  their ncid, and acquiring a
liltle moisture from  dump  air, and giving it out again In
dry.  Their laste is saline and bitter.  They are solu-
ble in tin ice their weight of cold waler, and in hut liltle
less of hoiung  water, so as to  require spontaneous
evaporation for  crystallizing.  Fourcroy recommends,
to cover the vessel with gauze, and suspend hairs in it,
lor the purpose of obtaining  regular crystals.
  It is sometimes prepaied in decomposing sea salt by
common pota.ssa lor  Ihe purpose of obiaining  soda;
and may bo formed  by the direct combination  of its
constituent parts.
  It is decomposable by the  sulphuric and nitric  acids.
Baryies  decomposes  it, though  not completely; and
belli silex  and  alumina decomposed it partially  in the
dry way.  It decomposes the earthy nitrates, so that it
might be used in saltpetre  manufactories to decompose
the nitrate of lime.          f
  Muriate of soda or common salt, is of consideiable
use iu the arts, as well as a necessary ingredient in our
food.   It crystallizes in cubes,  whicli  are sometimes
grouped togeltit r iu  various ways, and not unfiequeiilly
form hollow quadrangular pyramids.  Iu the fire it de-
crepitates,  melts, and is at  length volatilized.  When
pure, it is not deliquescent.  One part is soluble in 2^
of cold xvater, and in liltle less of hot, so that il cannot
be crystallized bul by exploration.
  Common satl  is found  iu  large  masses, or in  rocks
under  the  earth, in England and  el»<.where.  Iu the
solid form  it is  called sal gem, or rock salt.  If it be
pure and transparent, it inny be  immediately  used iu
the state in which ilis found; but if it contain  anv im-
pure earthy particles, it should be previously freed "from
them.  In some countries it is found in incredible quan-
tities, and  dug up  like  metals  from the bowels of the
earth.   In  this manner has this salt been dug out of the
celebrated  salt mines near Bochnia and Wieliczka, in
Poland, ever since the middle of the 13th century, con-
sequently above  these 500 years, in such amazing quan-
tities, thai  -oiiietimes there have been 20,000 tons  ready
for sale.   In these  mines, which  are said to reach to
the depth  of several  hundred  fathoms, 500 men are
constantly employed.   The  pure  and transparent salt
needs no other preparation than to be beaten, to  small
pieces or ground in  a mill. But that which is more im-
pure must be elutriated,  purified, and  boiled.  That
which is quite impure, and full of small stones, is sold
under the name  ot rock salt, and is applied to ordinary
uses.   It mav likewise be used for strengthening  weak
and poor brine-springs.
  The waters of the ocean every where abound with
common salt, though  in different proportions.  The
wafer  of the Baltic sea is said to contain  one  sixty
fourth  of its xveight of salt; that  of the sea between
England  and Flanders contains one thirty-second  part;
lliat on  the coast of  Spain one-sixteenth part: and
between  the tropics it is said, erroneously, to  contain
from an eleventh lo an eighth part.
  The water of  the sea contains, besides the common
salt, a considerable proportion of muriate of magnesia,
and some sulphate of lime, of soda, and potassa.  The
former is the chief  ingredient of the remaining liquid
which is left after the extraction of the  common salt,
and is called the mother water.   Sea water, if taken
up near  the surface, contains also the  putrid remains
of animal  substances, which render it  nauseous, and
in a long-continued  calm cause the sea to stink.
  The  whole art of  extracting salt from waters which
contain it, consists in evaporating the water in the
cheapest and most convenient manner.  In England, a
brine composed of sea-water, with the addition  of rock
salt, is evaporated iu large shallow iron boilers; and the
crystals ot  salt are  taken out in baskets.   In  Russia,
and probably in  other  northern countries,  the sea-wa
ter  is exposed to freeze;  and the ice, which is almost
entirely fresh, being taken out, the remaining brine is
much stronger, and is evaporated by boiling.  In the
southern parts of Europe,  the salt-makers lake advau
•age of spontaneous  evaporation.  A  flat  piece of
ground near the sea is chosen,  and banked round, to
prevent its  being  overflowed  at high water.  The space
                                          87 
MUR
MUR
 within the  banks is divided by low walls into several
 compartments, which successively  communicate with
 each other.  At  flood tide, the fiist of these is filled
 wiih sea-water, which, by remaining a certain  time,
 deposites its impurities,  and loses part of its aqueous
 fluid.  The residue is then suffered to run inlo the next
 compartment, and the former is again filled as before.
 From  the second compartment, after a due time, the
 waler is transferred into a third, which is  lined with
 clay, well rammed and levelled.  At this  period, the
 evaporation is  usually brought to that degree, that a
 crust of salt is formed  on the surface  of  the water,
 which the workmen break, and it immediately falls to
 tlie bottom.  They continue to  do this until the quan-
 tity  is sufficient to be taked out, and dried in heaps.
 This is called bay salt.
  Besides its use in seasoning our food, and  preserving
 meat both  for domestic consumption  and  during the
 longest voyages, and in furnishing us with the muriatic
 acid and soda, salt forms a glaze for  coarse pottery, by
 being  thrown into the oven xvhere it is baked; it im-
 proves the whiteness and clearness of glass; it gives
 greater hardness to soap; in melting metals it preserves
 their surface from calcination, by defending  them from
 the air, and is employed with advantage in some as-
 says; it is used as a mordant, and for improving certain
 colours, and enters more or less into many  other pro-
 cesses of the arts.
  The muriate of strontian has not long been  known
 Dr. Hope first distinguished it from muriate of  barytes.
 It crystallizes  in very slender hexagonal prisms; has
 a cool  pungent  taste, without the austerity of  the
 muriate of barytes, or the bitterness of the muriate of
 ■hue: is soluble in 0.75° of water at 60°, and to almost
 any amount in  boiling water;  is likewise  soluble  in
 ■Mkohol, and gives a blood-red colour to ils flame.
  It  has never been found in nature, but may be pre-
 pared in the same way as the muriate of barytes.
  The muriate of lime has been known by the names
of marine selenite, calcareous marine salt, muria, and
 fixed sal ammoniac.  It crystallizes in hexahedral
prisms terminated by acute  pyramids.   Its  taste is
 iictid,  bilter, and  very disagreeable. It is  soluble  in
 hall" its weight of cold water, and by heat in  its own
 water  of crystallization.   It is  one  of the most deli-
quescent sails known;  and, when deliquesced, has
 been called oil of lime. It exists in nature, but neither
 i try abundantly nor very pure.   It is  formed  in che-
 mical laboratories, in the decomposition of muriate of
 ammonia; and Homberg  found, that if it were urged
 by a violent heat till  it condensed, on  cooling into a
 vitreous mass, it emitted a phosphoric light upon being
struck  by any hard body, in wliich state it was called
 Homberg's phosphorus.
  Hitherto it lias been little used except  for frigorific
 mixtures; and  with snow it produces  a very  great
degree of cold.  Fourcroy, indeed, says he has found
 it of great utility in obstructions of the lymphatics, and
 in scrofulous affections.
  The muriate of ammonia has long been knoxyn by
 the  name of sal ammonia, or ammoniac. Il Is found
 nalive in the neighbourhood of volcanoes, where it is
sublimed sometimes nearly pure, and in different parts
of Asia and Africa.  A great deal is carried annually
 lo Russia and Siberia from Bucharitn Tartary ; and
 we formerly imported large quantities from Egypt, but
now manufacture it at home.  See Sal  Ammoniac.
  The salt is usually in the form of cakes,  with a
convex surface on one side, and concave on  the otlier,
 from being sublimed into large globular vessels; but by
solution  it  may be obtained in  regular quadrangular
crystals.   It is remarkable for possessing  a  Certain
degree of ductility, so that it is  not easily pulverable.
Its is soluble in 3J parts of water at 60°, and in  Utile
more than its own weight of boiling water.   Itstasyeis
cool, acrid, and  bitterish.  Its specific  gravity  is 1.42.
It attracts moisture from the air but very slightly.
  Muriate of ammonia has been more  employed in
medicine than it is at present.   It is sometimes useful
as an auxiliary to  the bark in intermittents ;  in gargles
it is  beneficial, and externally it is a good discutient.
In dying, it improves or heightens different colours.
In tinning and soldering, it is employed  to preserve the
surface of the metals from oxidation.  In assaying, it
discovers iron, and separates t from some of its com-
binations.
  'I he  muriate of  magnesia is extremely deliquescent,
      riS
  soluble in an equal weight of water, and  difficultly
  crystallizable.  It dissolves also in five parts of alkohol
  It is decomposable by heat, which expels its acid   Its
  taste is intensely bitter.
    With ammonia this muriate forms a triple salt, crys-
  tallizable in liltle polyhedrons, wliich separate quickly
  from the water, but are not very regularly formed.  lis
  taste partakes of liiat of both  the  preceding  salts.
  The best mode of preparing it is by mixing a solution of
  27 parts of muriate of ammonia with a solution of 73 of
  muriate of magnesia ;  but it may be formed by a semi-
  decomposition of either of these muriates by the base
  of the other.   It is decomposable by heat, and requires
  six or seven times its weight of water, to dissolve it.
   Of the muriate of glucine we  know but  little,   i.
  appears to crystallize in very small crystals ; to be de-
 composable by heat; and, dissolved in alkohol and  di
  luted with water, to form n pleasant saccharine liquor
   Muriate of alumina is scarcely cr;'stallizable, as oi
 evaporation it assumes the  state of a thick jelly.   I
 has an acid, styptic, acrid taste.   It is extremely solu-
 ble in water, and deliquescent.   Fire decomposes  it
 It  may be prepared by directly combining the muriatic
 acid  with alumina; but the acid  always  remains  in
 excess.
   The  muriate of zircon crystallines in small needles
 which are very soluble,  attract moisture, and lose theii
 transparency in the air.  It has an austere taste, with
 somewhat of acrimony.  It is decomposable by heat.
 The gallic acid precipitates from its solution,  if it  be
 free ironi iron, a white powder.  Carbonate of ammo-
 nia, if added  in excess, redissolves the precipitate it
 had before thrown doxvn.
   Muriate of yttria does not crystallize when evapo
 rated, but forms a jelly. It dries with difficulty,  and
 deliquesces.
   Fourcroy observes, that when silicious stones, pre-
 viously fused with potassa, are treated with muriatic
 acid, a limpid solution is formed, which may be reduced
 to  a transparent  jelly  by slow evaporation.  But a
 boiling heat decomposes the silicious muriate, and the
 earth is deposited.  The solution is always acid."
   This acid possesses active tonic poxxcrs.  In typhus,
 or nervous fevers,  although employed on the continent
 with success, it has not proved so beneficial in this
 country;  and when freely used it is apt to determine to
 the boxvels.   Externally, the muriatic acid has been
 applied in the form of a bath, to the feet, in gout.  In
 a late publication, there are accounts of its successful
 application as a lithontriptic.
  Muriatic acid, oxygenized. This supposed acid
 was lately described by  Thenard.  He saturated com
 mon muriatic acid of moderate strength with deutoxide
 of barium, reduced it into a soft paste by  trituration
 with  wnter.  He then precipitated the  barytes from
 the liquid, by adding the requisite quantity of sulphuric
 acid.   He next took his oxygenized muriatic acid, and
 treated it wilh deutoxide of barium  and sulphuric ncid,
 to oxygenate it anew.  In this way he charged it with
 oxygen  as often as 15 times.   He thus  obtained  a
 liquid acid  which contained 32 times  its volume of
 oxygen  at the temperature of 68°  Fahr. and at the
 oidinary atmospherical  pressure, and only 4.J times its
 volume of muralic acid, which  gix'es about 28 equiva-
 lent primes of oxygen to one of muriatic acid.
  This  oxygenized acid leaves no residuum  when
 evaporated.  It is  a very acid, colourless liquid, almost
 destitute of smell, and  powerfully reddens turnsole.
 When boiled for some time, its oxygen is expelled.
  VVe ought, how ever, to regard this apparent oxyge-
 nation of the acid merely as the conversion of a portion
 of its combined water into deutoxide of hydrogen.
  MURICATUS.   Sharp-pointed: applied to seeds,
 as  those of the Ranunculus  parviflorus  aud  Sida
 ciliaris.
  MURRAY, John Andrkxv, was born atStockholm,
 of a Scotch  family, in  1740.  At  10 he was sent to
 Upsal, and had the benefit of the instructions of Lin-
 naeus, for whom he ever after entertained  the highest
esteem.    In 1759  he took  a  journey through  the
southern provinces of Sweden, and thence to Copen-
 hagen ;  and in the following year he went to Gottingen,
 where his brother was professor of philosophy.  In
 1763 he took his degree or doctor in medicine, and by
 a special  license from  the Hanoverian government,
 gave lectures in botany: and  h the following spring
 he was appointed extraordinary professor of medicine 
MUS
MUS
In that university.  From this period his  reputation
rapidly extended; he  xvas  elected a member in the
course of a few years of most of the learned societies
in Europe.  In 1769 he succeeded to the actual profes-
sorship of medicine,  and was- made doctor of the
botanic garden.   He was still farther honoured  by
receiving He title of the Order of  Vasa from the King
of Sweden iu 1780: and two years afterward by being
raised to the rank of privy counsellor by his Britannic
Majesty.  In 1791 he  was  attacked with  a spurious
periptieumony, which shortly terminated his existence.
He xvas a man of sound judgment, great activity, and
extensLe information.  He  composed a greal number
of tracts on various subjects in botany, natural history,
medicine, pharmacy,  and  medical  literature.   His
principal work, which occupied a large  portion of his
timi and attention, xvas on the M item, "Medica, under
tlie title of "Apparatus Medicainmuui," in  six octavo
volumes: indeed, he was employed  in correcting ihe
last  for the press  the  day betoie  his  death.  In the
Transactions of the Royal Society of Gotfingen, there
are  many valuable papers by him, chiefly botanical;
and  his descriptions aie deemed  models of elegance
and accuracy.
  ML' S A   iThis word is corrupted, or rather refined,
from Maiiz, (he Egyptian appellation  of this valuable
plant; and is made classical  in the works of Linnieus,
by an allusion to Musa, a muse; or, with much gi eater
propriety, to Antomus Musa, the physician  of Augus-
tus, who, having written  on some botanical subjects,
may justly be commemorated  iu  the above  name.)
The name of a genus of plants.   Class, Polygamia;
Order, Monacia.  The plantain and badana-tree.
  Mtsa paradisiac a.  Musa; Palma humilis; Ficus
Indica;  Bala;  Platanus.   The  plantain tree.    Il
groxvs spontaneously in many parts of India, but lias
been  immemorial!)' cultivated by the Indians in every
part of  the continent of South America.   It is  an
herbaceous tree, groiving to the  height of fifteen or
twenty feet.   The fruit are nearly of the size and
shape of ordinary cucumbers, and xvhcti ripe, of a pale
yellow colour, of a mealy substance, a little clammy,
with a sxveetish  taste, and xvill dissolve in  the mouth
without  chewing.  The  whole  siUe of  fruit often
weighs forty or fifty pounds.  When ihey are brought
to table by xvay of dessert, they are eitlier  raw, fried,
or  roasted; but,  if intended for bread, they are cut
before they aie  ripe, and ate then either  roasted or
boiled.  The trees being tall and slender, the  Indians
cut them down to get at  the fruit; and in  doing this
they suffer no los-, for the  stems  aie only  one year's
growth, and would die if not cut; but the roots con-
tinue, and new stems soon spring up, which in a year
produce  ripe fruit also,  from the ripe plantains they
make a liquor called  mistaw.  When ihey make this,
they  roasl the fruit in their hu?ks, aud, after totally
beating them to a mash, they pour xvater upon Ihem,
and, as tbe liquor is wanted, it is drawn off.  But the
nature of this fruit is such, that they will not keep long
without  running into a  state  ot  puliefaction; and
therefore, in order to reap the advantage of them  at
all times, they make cakes of tiie  pulp, aud dry them
over a slow fire, and, as they stand in need of misiaxv,
they mash the cakes  iu water,  and  they  answer all
Ihe purposes of fresh  fruit.  These cakes are exceed-
ingly convenient to make this liquor in their journeys,
and they never fail to carry  them  for that purpose.
The leaves of the tree being large  and spacious, serve
the Indians for tablecloths and napkins.
   Musa sapientum.   The systematic name of the
banana-tree.—Banana,  Bananeira;  Ficoides; Ficus
indica;  Musa fructu cucumermo  breviori; Senoria;
Pacaira.  This and the plantain-tree are among the
most important productions ofthe earth.  The banana-
tree is cultivated, on a very extensive scale, in Jamaica;
without the fruit of which, Dr. Wright says, the island
would scarcely be habitable, as no species of provision
would supply their place.  Even  flour, or bread  itself,
would be less agreeable, and less able to support  the
laborious negro, so as to enable him to do his business,
or to  keep in health.   Plantains also fatten horses,
cattle, swine, dogs, foxvls, and other domestic animals.
The leaves, being smooth and soft, are employed  as
dr*«ings after blisters.  The xvater from the soft trunk
Is astringent, and employed by some to check diai.
rhceas.  Every other part of the tree is useful in dif-
ferent parts of rural economy.  The leaves are used as
napkins and  tablecloths, and are food for hog».  Tfli
second sort, musa  sapientum, or banana-tree, differs
from the paradisiaca, in having its stalks marked with
dark  purple stripes and  spots.   The fruit is shorter,
straighter, and rounder: the pulp is softer, and of a
more luscious taste.  It is iw-ver eaten green ;  but when
ripe, it is very agreeable, cither eaten raw or fried in
slices, as fritters, and is relished by all ranks  of people
in the West Indies.  Both the above plains were car-
ried  to  the West  Indies from  Ihe  Canary  Islands;
whither, it is believed, they had been brought  fiom
Guinea, where they grow naturally.
   Musaoi.  Sat ammoniac.         .
   Ml'St'I PI!LA.   (From mits, a mouse, andcapio, to
lake, being originally  applied to a mousetrap;  after-
ward lo a plant; so called from its viscidity, by which
flies an-1 aught as xvith birdlime.)  A speciesof lychnis.
   Ml'Sl'LE.  Musculus.  The parts lhat are usually
included under this name consist of distinct portions
of flesh, susceptible of contraction and relaxation ; ihe
motions of wliich, in a natural and healthy state, are
subject to the will,  and for this reason they a.o called
voluntary muscles.  Besides these, there areother parts
ofthe body thatoxve their poxver of contraction lo their
muscular fibres: thus the heart is a muscular texture,
forming xvhat is called a hollow muscle; and the urinary
bladder,  stomach,  intestines, Sec. are enabled to act
upon their contents, merely because  they  are provided
with  muscular fibres;  these are called  involuntary
muscles, because their motions are nol dependent on
the xvill   The muscles of  respiration being  iu some
measure influenced by  tne  xvill, are said to have a
mixed  motion.  The  names by which the voluntary
muscles are distinguished, are  founded on llieir size,
figure, situation, use, or the at rangement of their fibres,
or their origin and insertion ; but, besides these parti-
cular distinctions, there are certain  gi neral ones that
require to be noticed.   Thus, if tile fibres of a muscle
are placed  parallel to each other, in  a straight  ditec-
tion,  they  form xvhat anatomists term  a rectilinear
muscle; if the fibres cross and intersect each other
they constitute a compound muscle; when  the fibres
are disposed in the manner of rays, a radiated muscle;
when they are placed obliquely xvith respect to tht
tendon, like the plume of a pen, a penniform muscle.
Muscles that act in opposition to each other are called
antagonists;  thus every extensor has a flexor for his
antagonist, and vice versd.  Muscles that concur in the
same action are termed congeneres.  The muscle being
attached to the bones, the latter may be considered as
lei-ers, that  are  moved  in  different directions by the
contraction of those organs.   That end of the muscle
which adheres to the most fixed part is usually called
ihe origin; nnd lhat which adheres to the more move-
able part,  the insertion  of the muscle.  In almost
every muscle, txvo kinds of fibies are distinguished;
ihe one soft, of a red colour, sensible, and  irritable,
called fleshy fibres, see Muscular Fibre;  the other of
a firmer texture, of a xvhite glistening colour, insensible,
xvithout irritability or the power of contracting, and
named tendinous fibres.  They are occasionally inter-
mixed, but the fleshy fibres generally prevail in the
belly, or middle part of the muscle, and the tendinous
ones in the extremities.  If these tendinous fibres nre
formed into a round slender cord,  they form what is
called the tendon ofthe muscle; on Ihe other hand, if
they are spread into a broad flat surface, it is termed an
aponeurosis.
   Each  muscle is  surrounded by a very thin and deli-
cate covering of cellular membrane, which encloses it as
it were like a sheath, and, dipping down  into its sub
stance, surrounds  the most minute  fibres we are able
to trace, connecting them  to  each other, lubricating
them by means of the fat which its cells contain  in
more or less quantity in different subjects, and serving
as a support  to  the  blood-vessels, lymphatics, and
nerves which are so plentifully distributed through the
muscles.  This cellular membrane, which  in no re-
spect differs from xvhat is found investing and connect
ing the other parts of the  body, has  been sometimes
mistaken for a membrane, peculiar to  the  muscles;
and hence we often find writers giving it the name of
membrana propria musculosa.  The muscles owe Ihe
red  colour  which so  particularly distinguishes their
belly part, to an infinite number of arteries, which are
every where dispersed through the  whole of their re-
. ticular substance; for  their fibres, after  having been 
MUS
MUS
 macerated In water, are (like all other parts of the
 body divested of  their blood) lound  to  be of a white
 colour.  These arteries  usually enter the muscles by
 several considerable branches, and ramify so minutely
 through their substance, that we are unable, even with
 the best microscopes, to trace their ultimate branches.
 "luysch fancied that the muscular fibre was hollow.
 and  a production of a capillary artery; but this was
 merely conjectural.  The veins, for the  most part, ac-
 company the arteries, but are found  to  be  larger and
 more numerous.   The lymphatics,  likexvise, are nu-
 merous, as might be expected  from the  great propor-
 ionof reticular substance, which is every where found
 investing the muscular  fibres.  The nerves are dis-
 ributed in such abundance to every muscle, that the
 muscles of the thumb alone are supplied  with a greater
 proportion of nervous  influence than ihe largest vis-
 cera, as the liver for instance.  They enter the gene
 rality of muscles  by several trunks, the branches of
 which, like those of the blood-vessels, are so minutely
 dispersed through  the cellular substance,  that  their
 number and minuteness soon  elude  the eye, and the
 knife ofthe anatomist.  This has given  rise to a con-
jecture, as groundless as  all the other conjectures on
 this subject, that the muscular fibie is ultimately ner-
 vous.

  A  table ofthe Muscles.—The generality of anatomi-
 cal writers have arranged muscles according to  their
 several uses;  but this method is evidently defective, as
 the same musele  may very  often have  different and
opposite uses. The method here adopted is that more
 usually followed at present; tney are enumerated in
 the order in which they  are situated, beginning with
 those that are placed nearest the integuments, and pro-
 ceeding from these to the muscles that are more deeply
 seated.
  [The reader will observe, that all the muscles are in
 pairs, except those marked thus.*]

     Muscles of the Integuments of tlie cranium:
    1.  Occipito frontalis.*
    2.  Corrugator supercilii.
              Muscles of the eyelids :
    3.  Orbicularis palpebrarum.
    4.  Levator palpebra superioris.
              Muscles of the eyeball:
    5.  Rectus superior.
    6.  Rectus inferior.
    7.  Rectus internus
    8.  Rectus externus.
    9.  Obliquus superior.
   10.  Obliquus inferior.
           Muscles of the nose and mouth:      ■*
   11.  Levator palpebra  superioris alaque nasi.
   12.  Levator labii superioris proprius.
   13.  Levator anguli oris.
   14.  Zygomaticus major.
   15.  Zygomaticus minor.
   16. Buccinator.
   17. Depressor anguli oris.
   18.  Depressor labii inferioris.
   19. Orbicularis oris.*
   20.  Depressor labii superioris alaque nasi.
   21.  Constrictor nasi.
   32.  Levator menti vcl labii inferioris.
             Muscles of the external ear:
   23.  Superior auris.
   24.  Anterior auris.
   25.  Posterior auris.
   26.  Helicis major.
   27. Helicis minor.
   28.  Tragicus.
   29.  Antitragicus.
   30.  Transversui auris
            Muscles of tlie internal ear:
   31.  Laxator tympani.
   32.  Membrana tympani.
   33.  Tensor tympani.
   34.  Stapedius.
             Muscles of the loxvor jaw
   35.  Tempo alls.
   36.  Masseter.
   37.  Plerygoideus externus.
   38.  Pten/goidcus internus.
     Muscles about the anterior part ofthe neck :
   39.  Platysma myoides.
   40.  stcrpo-cleidomastoideus.
      90
   Muscles between the lower jaw and os hyoide*
   41. Digastricus.
   4-2. Mylo-hyoideus.
   43  Genio-hyoideus.
   44. Genio-glossus:
   45. Hyo-glossus.
   46. Lingualis.
 Muscles situated betweeii the.os hyoides and truna.
   47. Sterno-hyoideus.
   43. Crico-hyoideus.
   49. SUrno-thyroideus
   50. Thyro-hyoideus.
   51. Crico-thyroideus.
Muscles between the lower jaw and os hyoides laterally
   52.  Styio-glossus.
   53.  Stylo-hyoideus.
   54.  Stylo-pharyngeus
   55.  Circumfiexus.
   56.  Levator palati mollis.
        Muscles about the entry of the fauces.
   57.  Constrictor isthmi faucium.
   58.  Palatopharyngeus.
   59.  Azygos uvula.*
Muscles situated on the posterior part ofthe pharynx
   60.  Constrictor pharyngis superior.
   61.  Constrictor pharyngis mediui.
   62.  Constrictor pharyngis inferior.
         Muscles situated about the glottis -
   63.  Crico-arytanoideus posticus.
   64.  Crico-arytanoideus lateralis.
   65.  Thyro-arytanoideus.
   66.  Arytanoidcus obliquus.*
   67.  Arytanoidcus transversus.*
   68.  Thyro-epiglottideus.
   69. Arytano-epiglottideus.
Muscles situated about the anterior part ofthe abdomen
   70.  Obliquus descendens externus.
   71. Obliquus ascendens internus.
   72. Transversalis abdominis
   ot.  Rectus abdominis.
     i.  Pyramidalis.
     ' iscles about the male organs of generation ■
   'to.  Dartos.*
   76. Cremaster.
   77. Erector  penis.
   78. Accelerator urina.
   79. Transversus perinei.
                Muscles ofthe anus.
   80. Sphincter ani.*
   81. Levator ani.*
     Muscles of tiie female organs of generation:
   82.  Erector  clitoridis.
   83. Sphincter vagina.
         Muscles situated within the pelvis:
   84.  Obturator internus.
   85.  Coccygeus.
 Muscles situated within the cavity of the abdomen:
   86.  Diaphragma.*
   87.  Quadrat.us lumborum.
   88.  Psoas parvus.
   89.  Psoas magnus.
   90.  Iliocus internus.
 Muscles situated on the anterior part ofthe thorax:
   91.  Pectoralis major.
   92.  Subclavius.
   93.  Pectoralis minor.
   94.  Serratus major anlicus.
Muscles situated between  the  ribs, and within the
                      thorax:
   95.  Intercostales externi.
   96.  Intercostales interni.
   97.  Triangularis.
Muscles situated on the anterior port of the neck, cios
                 to the vertebrae):
   98.  Longus colli.
   99.  Rectus internus capitis major.
  100.  Rectus capitis internus minor.
  101.  Rectus capitis lateralis.
 Muscles situated on the posterior part ofthe trunk <
  102.  Trapezius.
  103.  Latissimus dorsi.
  104.  Serratus posticus inferior.
  105.  Rkomboideus.
  106.  Splenitis.
  107.  Serratus superior posticus
  108.  Spinalis  dorsi.
  109.  I,cvatorcs eostarum 
MUS
MUS
L10.  l>acro lumbalis.
HI.  Longissinus dorsi.
112.  Complexus.
113.  Trachclo mastoideus.
11 i.  Levator scapula.
115.  Seim-spinalis dorsi.
116.  Multifidus spina.
117.  Semi-spinalis colli.
118.  Transversalis colli.
119.  Rectus capitis posticus minor.
120  Obliquus capitis superior.
1-21  Obliqu«.•>- capitis inferior.
122  Scalenus.
123  Interspinales.
124.  Intertransversales.
       Muscles ofthe superior extremities:
125.  Supra-spmatus.
126.  Infra sptnatus.
1-27.  Teres minor.
Ie28.  Teres) major.
129.  Deltoides.
130.  Coracobrachial^.
131.  Subscapularis.
       Mu-i les situated on the os humeri:
132.  Bic  /'«-/«x»r cubiti.
133.  Braehialis internus.
134.  Biceps extensor cubiti.
135.  Anconeus.
        Muscles situated on the forearm:
136.  Supinator radii longus.
137.  .Extensor eorpi radialis Iwngiur.
138.  JEjfensor e/trpi radialis brevtor.
139.  Extensor digitorum communis.
140.  Extensor minimi digiti.
141.  Extensor carpi ulnaris.
14-2.  Flexor carpi ulnaris.
143.  Palmaris longus.
144.  Flexor carpi radialii.
14.».  Pronator radii teres.
146.  Supinator radii brevis.
147. Extensor ossis metacarpi pollicis manus.
148. Extensor primi internodii.
149. Extensor secundi internodii.
150. Indicator.
151. Flexor digitorum sublimis.
152. Flexor digitorum profundus.
 153. Flexor longus pollicis.
 154. Pronator radii quadratus.
       Muscles situated chiefly on the hand:
155. Lumbriciles.
156. Flexor brevis pollicis manus.
157. Opponens pollicis.
158. Abductor pollicis manus.
159. Adductor pollicis manus.
160. Abductor indicis manus.
161. Palmaris brevis.
162. Abductor minimi digiti manus.
163. Abductor minimi digiti.
164. Flexor parvus minimi digit*.
165. Interossei interni.
166. Interossei externi.
       Muscles of tlie inferior extremities-
 167. PecOnalis.
 168. Triceps adductor femoris.
 169. Obdurator externus.
 170. Gluteus maximus.
 171  Gluteus minimus.
 172  Gluteus medius.
 173. Pyriformis.
 174. Gemini.
 175. Quadratus femoris.
          Muscles situated on the thigh:
 176. Tensor vagina femoris.
 177. Sartorius.
 178. Rectus femoris.
 179. "Costus ezternu*.
 180. Vastus internus.
 181. Cruralis.
 182. Semi-tendinosus.
 183. Semi-mtmbranosus.
 184 Biceps flexor cruris.
 185 Pcpliteus.
           Muscles situated on the lea
 186. Gastrocnemius externus.
 187. Gastrocnemius internus.
 188. Plantaris.
 189  Tibialis milieus
  190.  Tibialis posticus.
  191.  Peroneus longus.
  l'J-2.  Peroiieus brevis.
  193.  Extensor longus digitorum peats.
  194.  Extensor proprius pollicis pedis.
  195.  Flexor longus digitorum pedis.
  J96.  Flexor longus pollicis pedis.
        Muscles chiefly situated on the fool.
  197.  Extensor brevis digitorum pedis
  198.  Flexor brevis digitorum pedis.
  199  Lumbricalcs pedis.
  300  Flexor brevis pollicis pedis.
  -Ml.  Abductor pollicis pedis.
  '.'02.  Adductor pollicis pedis.
  203.  Abductor minimi digiti pedis.
  204.  Ftexi.r brevis minimi digiti pedis.
  205.  'I'runsversales pedis.
  206.  Interossei pedis  externi.
  207.  Interossei pedis  interni.
  MUSlT I,All. (Muscularis; from musculus, a inus
cle.)  Iiclnii„iug In a muscle.
  Muscular  huhk.   The fibres that compose the
body of a muscle are disposed in fasciculi, or bundles,
wliich  are easily distinguishable by the naked eye; bu
these fasciculi are divisible into still smaller ones; aud
these again are probably  subdivisible  ad infinitum.
The most minute fibre we are able to trace seems lo be
somewhat plaited; these plaits disappearing when the
fibre is put upon the stretch, seem evidently to  be the
etlect of contraction, and have probably induced some
writers to assert, that the muscular fibre is twisted or
spiral.   Various have been the opinions concerning the
structure of these fibres, their form, size, position, and
the nature of the atouis  which compose  them.  A
fibre is essentially composed of fibrine and  tzma-
zome,  receives a greal deal of blood, aud, at last, one
nervous filament.   The  other suppositions are all of
them founded only ou conjecture,  and therefore ive
shall mention only the principal ones, and this xvith a
viexv rather to gratify the curiosity ofthe reader, than
to afford him information.  Borelli supposes them to be
so  many  hollow cylinders, filled with a spongy me-
dullary substance, whicli lie  compares to the pith of
elder, spongiosa ad instar sambuci.  These cylinders,
he  contends,  are intersected by circular fibres,  winch
form a chain of very minute bladders.  This hypo-
thesis  has since been  adopted by a great number of
writers, with certain variations.  Thus,  for  instance,
Bellini supposes the vesicles to  be  of a rhomboulal
shape: whereas Bemouilli contends that they are oval.
Cowper xvent so far as to persuade himself that lie had
filled ihese cells with  mercury;  a mistake, no doubt,
wliich arose  from its insinuating itself'uto some ofthe
lymphatics.  It  is  observable, however, thai  Leeu-
whenoeck says nothing of any such vesicles.  Here, as
well as in many other of her ivorks, Nature  seems to
have drawn a boundary to our inquiries, beyond which
no human penetiation  xvill probably ever extend.  By
chemical analysis muscle is found to consist chiefly of*
fibrine, xvith albumen, gelatine, extractive, phosphite
of  soda, phosphate of ammonia, phosphate and carbo-
nate of lime, and sulphate of potassa.
   Muscular motion.   Muscular motions are of three
kinds: namely,  voluntary,  involuntary, and  mixed.
The voluntary motions ot muscles are such as proceed
from an immediate exertion ofthe active powers of (he
will: thus the mind directs the arm to be raised or de-
pressed, the  knee  to be bent, the tongue lo move, &c.
The involuntary motions of muscles are those  which
are performed by organs,  seemingly of their oxvn ac-
cord, without any attention of the mind, or conscious-
ness of its active power:  as the contraction and dilata-
tion of the heart, arteries,  veins, absorbents, stomach
intestines, Sec  The mixed motions are tliose  which
 are in part  under the control of the xvill, bul  xvhich
ordinarily act xvithout our being conscious of their act-
 ing; and  is perceived in the muscles of respiration, tne
 intercostals, the abdominal muscles, and the diaphragm
   When a muscle acts, it becomes shorter and thicker;
 both ils o' igin  and insertion are drawn towards its
 middle.  The sphincter muscles are always in action:
 and so likewise are antagonist  muscles, even  when
 they seem  at rest. Wiien  two  antagonist muscles
 move with equal force, the part xvhich  they are de-
 signed to move remains at rest; but if one of the an-
 tagonist muscles remains at  rest, while the other acta
 the nart is moved towards the centr» of motion. 
MUS                                             MUS
  When a muscle i? divided, it contracts.  If a muscle
tie stretched to a certain extent, it contracts, and en-
leavours to acquire its former dimensions, as soon as
.he stretching cause is removed: this takes place in the
d .-ad body; in muscles cut oul of the body, and also in
parts  not muscular, and is called  by the immortal
Haller vis mortua,  and by some vis elastica.  It is
greater in living than in dedd bodies, and  is called the
tone ofthe  muscles.
  When a  muscle is wounded, or otherxvisc irritated,
it contracts independent of the will: this  power is
called irritability, and by Haller m's insita; il is a
property peculiar to, and inherent in,  the muscles.
The parts of our body which possess this property are
lalled irritable, as the heart, arteries, muscles, &c. to
distinguish them from those parts wliich have no mus-
cular  fibres.   With regard to the degree  of this pro-
perty, peculiar to various parts, the heart  is the most
tillable, then  the stomach and intestines; the dia-
phragm, the arteries, veins, absorbents, and at lengih
the various muscles follow ; but the degree of in itabi
lity depends upon the age, sex, temperament, mode of
living, climate, state of health, idiosyncrasy, and like-
wise upon the nature of the stimulus.
  When a muscle  is stimulated, either  through  the
medium of the will or any foreign body, it contracts,
and its contraction is  greater or less, in proportion as
the stimulus applied is greater or  less. The contrac-
tion of muscles is different according to the purpose to
be served by their contraction: thus, the heart con-
tracts xvith  a jerk;  the urinary  bladder, slowly and
uniformly;  puncture a muscle,  and ils fibres vibrate;
and the abdominal muscles act slowly iu expelling the
contenlsof the rectum.  Relaxation generally succeeds
the contraction of muscles, and alternates with it.
  " Muscular contraction, such as lakes  place  in the
ordinary state of life, supposes the free exercise of the
brain, of the nerves xvhich enter ihe  muscles, and of
the muscles  themselves   Every one  of these organs
ought to receive arterial blood, and the venous blood
ought not to remain too long in its tissue.  If one of
these  conditions is wanting, the muscular contraction
is weakened, injured, or rendered impossible.
  Phenomena  of Muscular  Contraction.—When a
muscle contracts,  its fibres shorten, become hard, xvith
more or less rapidity,  without any preparatory oscilla-
tion or  hesitation;  they acquire all at once such an
elasticity, that they are capable of  vibrating, or pro-
ducing sounds.  The colour of the muscle docs not
appear to change in the instantof contraction; but there
is a certain tendency to become displaced, xvhich the
aponeuroses oppose.
  There have  been discussions about the size of a
muscle, in its contracted and relaxed state : the ques-
tion does not seem  to be resolved, in which of these
states it is most  voluminous;  it is  happily of small
consequence.
  The xvhole of the sensible phenomena of muscular
contraction passes in the muscles-, hut, to a certainty,
no action can take place xvithout tlie immediate action
of the brain and the nerves.
  If the  brain  of a  man, or of an animal,  is com-
pressed, the faculty of contracting the muscles teases;
the nerves of a muscle being cut, it loses all poxver.
  What change happens iu the muscular tissue during
the state of contiaction?   This is totally unknown".
In this respect there is no difference betxveen muscular
contraction and the vital actions, of xvhich no explana-
tion can be given.  Tliere is no want of attempts to
explain the action of the muscles, as well  as  that of
the nerves and  the brain, in muscular  contraction;
but none of the proposed  hypotheses can be received.
  Instead of following such speculations, xvhich can
be easily invented or  refuted, and which  ought to be
banished from physiology, it is necessary to study in
muscular contraction, 1st, the  intensity  of the con-
traction; 2dly, its duration;  3dly, its rapidity; 4thly,
its extent.
  The Intensity of muscular contraction, that is, the
degree of" poxver  with which the fibres  draw them-
selves together, is regulated by the action ofthe brain;
it is generally regulated by the will accenting to cer-
tain limits, which are different in different individuals.
A particular organization of the muscles is favourable
to the intensity of their contraction :  this organization
is  a considerable volume  of fibres, strong, of a deep
'ed, and striated transversely.   With an equal power
      9?
of the will, these  xvill produce  much more  powerfu
effects than muscles whose fibres are fine, colourless,
and smooth.  However, should  a very powerful cere-
bral influence, or a great exertion of the will,  be joined
to such  fibres, the contraction will  acquire  gnat in-
tensity;  so lhat the cerebral  influence, and the dispo-
sition of the muscular tissue, are the txvo elements of
the intensity of  muscular contraction.
  A very great cerebral energy is  rarely found united
in the same individual, with that disposiiion of the
muscular fibres which is necessary lo produce intense
contractions;  these elements are almost always iu an
inverse ralio.   When  ihey are  united,  ihey pioduce
astonishing effects.  Perhaps this union existed in  the
athleta of antiquity; in our times it is observed in
certain mountebanks.
  The muscular power may be carried to a wonderful
degree by ihe  action of the t:-iin alone  we know the
strength  of an enraged pei*"n. of maniacs, and ot per
sons in convulsions.
  The will governs the duration .  the contraction ; it
cannot be carried  beyond a certa.u time, however it
may vary iu different individuals  A leeiinam weari-
ness takes place,  not very great  at  first, but which
goes on  increasing until the muscle  refuses  couuac-
tion.  The quick dovelopeinent of this painful leeling
depends  on the  intensify of the contraction  and  the
weakness of the individual.
  To prevent  this  inconvenience,  the  moiions-of  the
body are so calculated that the muscles act iti succes-
sion, the duration of each being but short: our not  be-
ing able lo rest long iu the same posiiion  is thus  ex-
plained, as an atlilude which causes the conn action of
a small  number of muscles cannot  be preserved  but
for  a very short  lime.
  The feeling  of fatigue occasioned by muscular con
traction soon goes off, and in a short time ihe muscles
recover the power of conii acting.
  The quickness of the contractions  are, to a certain
dearee, subject to cerebral influence: we have a proof
of this in  our ordinary motions: but beyond Una de-
gree, it depends evidently on  habit.  In respect of  the
rapidity of motion, there is an immense dull, em e  be-
txveen lhat of a man xvho touches a  piano 101 ihe first
time, and  that  xvhich  the same man produces after
several years'  practice.  There is, besides, a »ery great
difference in persons, with regard lo the quickness of
contractions, either in ordinary motions or  iu those
which depend on habit.
  As to the extent ol" the contractions, it is directed by
the will; but il  must necessarily depend on the length
of the fibres, long fibres havum a greater extent of con-
traction than those that are shoit.
  After xvhat  has  been  said, xve see  that the xvill has
generally a great influence on the contraction of mus-
cles: it is  not, however,  indispensable:  iu many cir-
cumstances motions take place, not only xvithout  tlie
participation of the will,  but even contrary to it;  xve
find very striking  examples of this  in  the effects of
habit, of the passions, and of diseases."
  Muscular powkr.  See Iiritabilily.
  MU'SCULUS.   (A  diminutive of mus, a  mouse;
from its resemblance to a flayed mouse.)  See Muscle.
  Mcsculis cutankus.  See Plutysma myotdes.
  Musculus  fasoi.e  latje.   See  Tensor  vagina
femoris.
  Mus<:ulus patienti.-e.  See  Levator scapula.  v
  Musculus btxPkdius.  See Stapedius.
  Musct'Lus supkrcilh.  See Corrugator supcrcilii.
  Musculus tube Nm'.e.  See Orcum/Jenis.
  MUSt'US.  (Muscus. i. m.; the moss of a tree.) A
moss.  A cryplogaiuous plant, xvhich has its fructifica-
tion contained in a capsule.
  Mosses are distinguished, according to the splitting
of the capsule, into,
  1. Musci frondosi, the capsule of xvhich is opercu-
lite, having a lid and the fronds very small.
  2. Musci hepalici, liverworts; the capsules  of which
split  into  valves, and the  "Herbage  Is frondose  and
stem less.
  The parts of the capsule of frondose mosses, which
are distinguished bv particular names, aie,
  1. The surcufus.'which bears the leaves.
  2. The seta, or  fi uitstalk, which goes from  the sur
cuius, and supports the theca.
  3. The theca,  or capsule; the  dry  fructification ad-
hering lo the apex of the frondoee slem. 
MUS
MYD
   4. The operculum, or lid, found in the fringe.
   5. The peristoma, peristomium, or fringe, which in
 most mosses borders the opening of the theca.
   6. The calyptra, the veil, placed on the capsule like
 an extinguisher on  a caudle; as iu Bryum caspi-
 titium.
   7. The perichatium, a slender or squamous mem-
 brane at ihe base of the f ruilslalk.
   f. Tne fimbria, or fringe, a dentate ring of the opei-
 culinn, hy the elastic force  of which the operculum is
 disp aced.
   11 The epiphragma, a  slender  membrane  xvhich
 shuts the fringe ; as in Polytricum.
   10. The sphrongidium,  or eolumnula;  the  last  co-
 lumn or filament which passes  the  middleof the cap-
 sule, and lo xvhich ihe seeds are attached.
   Mosses aie found in the hottest and coldest climates.
 They aie extremely tenacious of life, and, after being
 long dried, easily recover their health and vigour by
 moisture.  Their beautiful structure cannot  be  too
 much admired.  Their species are numerous, and diffi-
 cult todeteiinine.
   Ml".scl'S.  (From poox°i- lender; so called from
 its delicate and lender consistence.)   Mo-,s.
   Musics  aRBorkus.  See Lichen plicnlus.
   Musrt's  lamms.   See  Lichen caninus.
   Misti s  clavatu8.  See 1 .{• upodium.
   Misius  (Rami humam.  See Lichenjaxatilis.
   Mi set s  cumatilis.  See Lichen apthosus.
   Musi us  erkctis.  See Lycopodium selago.
   Musi is  islandicus.  Iceland moss.  See  Lichen
 tsl.indicus.
   Muscus  mar:timus.  See Corallina.
   Mi seus  pulmonarius  ni liu inus.   See  Lichen
 puli onanus.
   Mi s< is pyxidatus.  Cup-moss.   S, e Lichen pyxi-
 datus.
   Musi is  sqiamosus terrestris.   See Li/copo-
 di»m.
   MUSGRAVE, William, xvas born  iu  Somerset-
 shire, 1657.   He went  to Oxfonl xvith the intention of
 studying .he laxv; but he afterxvard adopted the medical
 profession, and became a Fellow uf the Royal Society,
 of xvhich body he xvas appointed secretary, iu 1684.  In
 this capacity he edited the  Philosophical Transactions
 for some time;  be  likewise communicated  several
 papers  on anatomical and  physiological subjects.   In
 1689 he took his docbtr's degree, and became a  Fellow
 of the College of Physicians.  Not  long after  this  he
 settled  ai Exeter, where he  practised his profession
 with considerable success lor nearly 30 years, and died
 in 1721.  Beyond the circle of his practice, he made
 him-clf known principally by his two treatises on gout,
 which are valuable  xvork-*  anu were several times  re-
 printed.  He xvas also a distinguished antiquary, and
 auihor of several learned tracts on the subjects of his
 researches in Ihis xvay.
  MUSHROOM.  See Agaricus campestris.
  Me six PATTR.t.   A name for moxa.
  MUSK.  See Moschus.
  Musk, artificial.  Let three fluid drachms and a
 half of nitric acid be gradually dropped on one fluid
 drachm of rectified oil of amber, and well mixed.  Let
 it stand twenty-four hours, then xx ash it well, fiist  in
 cold, and then in hot water.   One drachm of this
 resinous eubstance, dissolved in four ounces of rectified
 spirit, forms a good  tincture, of  which the  mean dose
 is txventy minims.  In preparing the above, great atten-
 tion should be given to the xvashing the resin, otherxvise
 it is offensive to the stomach.
  Musk-cranesbitl.   See Geranium moschatum
  Mask-melon.  See Cucumis melt.
  Musk-seed.  See Hibiscus abelmoschus.
  Musquitto.   A  xariety of our common gnat, the
 Culex pipens of Linnaeus, which, in the West Indies,
 produce small tumours on whatever  part they settle
 and bite, attended xvith so high a degree of itching and
 inflammation, that  the person cannot  refrain from
scratching; by a  frequent repetition of which  he not
uncommonly occasions them to ulcerate, particularly
if  be is of a robust and full habit.
  MUSSITE.   Diopside.
  MUSSENDA.  (The vernacular name of the ori-
ginal species, in the Island of Ceylon, which, though  of ,
barbarous origin, has obtained unusual suffrage.) The
nameof agenusof p* ints.   Class, Pentandria;  Older,
 Monogynia
   Mi'ssbn-da pondosa.   Ray attributes a cooling pio>
 perty to au infusion or decoction of this plant, which
 the Indians drink by tlie inline of beteson.
   MUST.  The juice of the grape, composed of water,
 sugar, jelly, gluten, and  bitartrite of poiassa.  By fer-
 mentation it forms xvJt.e.
   MUSTARD.  See Sinapis.
   Mustard, hedge.  So Erysimum alliaria.
   Mustard, utithridrate.  See Thlaspi.
   Mustard, treacle.  See Thlaspi.
   .Mustard, ijiU.i.e.  See Sinapis.
   Ml'TICl S  i From muttltts, xvithout horns)  Heard
i less, as applied tu the arista or awn of plants.   Clu-nd
I mulica, beardless husks.  See Gluma.
|   MU'TITAS.   (From  mutus, dumb.)   Dumbness
 A  genus  of disease in  the  class Locales, and order.
| Dyscinesiie ol' Cullen, xvhich he defines an inability oi
 articulation.  He distinguishes ihree species, xiz.
   1.  Miititas organiea, w hen the tongue is removed oi
 injured.
   2.  Mutitus atonica, arising from an  affection of the
 nerves of the organ.
   3.  Mutitus surdorum, depending upon being born
 deal', or becomim; so iu llieir infantile  years.
   MUYs, Wyer William, was bom at Steenxvyk, in
 1682.  His fattier being a physician, he was led to lol-
 loxv Ihe same profession, and  at  16  commenced his
 studies at Leyden, whence he went  lo  Utrecht, aud
 took his degree of doctor iu 1701.   lie settled al  first
 in  his native toxvn, and  afterward removed to A in
 heim, xvhere he practised xvith reputation.   In 1709,
 he was elected to the mathematical chair at Fianeker,
 xvhere he subsequently tilled also those  of medicine,
 chemistry and botany.   The House of Orange nller-
 xvaid retained  him as consulting  physician, with  a
 considerable salary, xvhich  he received to the end of'
 his life in 1744.  He had been five limes rector ol the
 university of Franekcr,  and xvas a member of the
 Royal Academy of  Sciences of Berlin.   His writings
 were pailly medical,  partly philosophical.   Of the
 former kind was a  dissertation,  highly commending
 the use of sal ammoniac in intermittents: also a xeiy
 elaborate  investigation  of the structure of muscles,
 comprehending an account of ail that  had been previ-
 ously discovered on the subject.
   Mu'za.  See Musa.
   MYACA'NTH A.  (From pvs, a mouse, and axavtia,
 a thorn: so called because its  prickly  leaves are used
 to cover  whatever is intended lo be  preserved from
 mice.)  See Kuscus.
   Mya'gro.   See Myagrum.
   Mya grum.  (From pvia, a fly, and ayptvu, to seize,
 because flies are caught by its viscidity.)  A species of
 wild mustard.
  My'cb.   (From pvu, to xvink, shut up, or obstruct.)
 1. A winking, closing, or obstruction.   An  obsolete
 term, formei ly applied lo the eyes, to ulcers, and to the
 viscera, especially the spleen, where  it  imports ob-
structions.
  2. In surgery, it is a fungus, such as arises in ulcers
and xvounds.
  3. Some writers speak of a yelloxv vitriol, wliich is
called Myce.
  Mychthi'smos.  (From iv^u, to mutter, or groan.»
In Hippocrates, it is a sort ol sighing,  or groaning
during respiration, while Ihe air  is forced out of the
lungs.
  Mycono'ides.   (From pvxn, a noise, ax«l  j.coj, a
likeness.)   Applied loan ulcer lull of mucus, and which
 upon pressure emits a wheezing sound.
  MY'CTER.  The nose.
  MYCTE'RES.  Uvxri/pts-  The nostrils.
  Myde'sis.   (From pviau, to abound xvith moisture.
It imports, in geneial, a corruption of any part from a
redundant moisture.  But Galen applies it particularly
to the eyelids.
  My'don.   (From pvSau, to grow puttid.)   Fungus
or putrid flesh in a fistulous ulcer.
  MYURI'ASIS.  (From pviau, to  abound in moist
ure: so named because it xvas  thought to originate in
redundant moisiure ) A disease of the iris.  Toogrpat
a dilatation of the pupil of the eye, with or wil  .nit a
defect of vision.  It is knoxvn by ihe pupil alxvays ap-
pearing of the same latitude or size in the light.   The.
species of mydriasis are,
  I.  Mydriasis amaurotica, which, for the most part,
but not alxvays, accompanies an amaurosis.
                                         93 
MYO
MYR
   2. Mydriasis hydrocephalic, w hich owes its origin
  to  a  hydrocephalus  internus, or dropsy of the ventri-
  cles ot the cerebrum.   It is not uncommon among
  children, and is the most certain diagnostic of the
  disease.
   3. Mydriasis verminosa, or a dilatation of the pupil
  from saburra and worms in  the stomach or small in
  testir.es.
   4. Mydriasis a synechia, or a dilatation cf the pupil,
  with a concretion of  the uvea with the capsula of the
  crystalline lens.
   5. Mydriasis paralytica, or a dilated pupil, from a
  paralysis of the orbicular fibres of the iris: it  is ob-
  served in paralytic disorders, and from the application
  of narcotics to the  eye.
  _ 6. Mydriasis spasmodica, from a spasm of tho recti-
  lineal fibres of the iris, as often  happens in  hysteric
  and spasmodic diseases.
   7. Mydriasis, from atony of the iris, the most fre-
 quent cause of xvhich is a large cataract  distending
 the  pupil  in  its passing when extracted. It vanishes
 in a few days after the operation, in general; how-
 ever, it may remain so from over and long-continued
 distention.
   Myla'cris.  (From pvXrf,  a grindstone:  so  called
 from its shape.*)  The patella, or knee-pan.
   My'lk-.  MuXr/.   1. The knee-pan.
   2. A. mole in the uterus.
   MY'LO.   (From pxiXrf, a grinder tooth.)  Names
 compounded xvith this xvoid belong to muscles, which
 are  attached near the  grinders; such as,
   Mylo-olossi.  Small muscles of the tongue.
   Mklo-hyoidkus.   Mylo-hyoidien, of Dumas.  This
 muscle, which was first  described by Fallopius, is so
 called from its origin near the dentes molares, and its
 insertion into the os hyoides.  It is a thin, flat muscle,
 situated betxveen the lower jaxv and theos hyoides,and
 is covered by the anterior portion of the digastricus.
 It arises fleshy, and  a little tendinous, from all the inner
 surface of the lower jaw, as  far back as the insertion
 of the pterygoideus  internus  or, in other words, from
 between the  last dens molaris and the  middle of the
 chin, where it joins its fellow, to form one belly, xvith
 an intermediate tendinous streak, or linea alba, which
 extends from  the chin to  the os hyoides, where both
 muscles are inserted into the lower edge of the  basis
 of that bone.  This has induced Riolanus,  Winslow,
 Albinus, and others, to consider it as a single penni-
 form muscle.  Its use is to pull the os hyoides upwards,
 forwards,  and to either side.
   Myi.o-pharyngeus.   See Constrictor pharyngis
 superior.
   My'lon.  See Staphyloma.
   MYOCE'PHALUM.  (From pvta, a fly,  and xtep-
 aXri, a head: from its resemblance to the head of a fly.j
 A tumour in the uvea of  the eye.
   M YOCOILl'TIS.   (From pvs, a muscle, and xotXta,
 a belly.)  Inflammation of the muscles of the belly.
   MYODESOPSIA.  (From pvta, a fly, ttSos, resem-
 blance, and odvif, vision.)   A disease of the eyes, in
 which the person sees black spots, an appearance of
 flies, cobwebs, or black wool, before his eyes.
   MYOLOGY.  (Myologia,  from pvs, a muscle, and
 Xoyos,  a discourse.)  The doctrine  of  the muscles.
 See  Muscle.
   MYO'PIA.  (From  jitmi, to wink, and u4>, the  eye.)
 Near-sighted, purblind.  The myopes are considered
 those persons who cannot see distinctly above  twenty
 Inches.  The  myopia  is likeivise adjudged to all tliose
 who cannot see at three, six, or nine inches.  The
 proximate cause is the ndunntion  of the rays of light
 in a  focus before the retina.  The species are,
   1.  Myopia, from too great a convexity of the cornea.
 The  cause of this convexity is either from  nativity,
or a  greater secretion of the aqueous humour:  hence,
 on one day there shall be a greater  myopia than on
 another   An  incipient hydrophthalmia is the origin
 nf this myopia.
  2.  Myopia, from too great a longitude of  the  bulb.
 This length of the bulb is  native,  or acquired from a
congestion of the humours In the eye; hence artificers
 occupied in minute  objects, as the engravers of seals,
and persons reading  much, frequently after puberty be-
come myopes.
  3.  Myopia, from too great a convexity of the anterior
superficies of  the crystalline lens.  This Is Iikexvise
from birth.  The Image xvill so much sooner be formed
      94
  as the cornea or lens is more  convex.   This perfectly
  accounts  for short-sightedness; but an  anterior too
  great convexity of tho cornea is the most common
  cause.
   4. Myopia, from too great  a density of the cornea,
  or humours of the eye.   Optics teach us, by so much
  sooner the rays of light  are forced into a focus  as the
  diaphanous body is denser.
   5. Myopia, from mydriasis, or too dilated a pupil
   6. Myopia infantilis.  Infants, from the great con-
  vexity of  the cornea, are often myopes;  but  by de-
  grees, as they advance in years, they perceive objects
  more remotely, by the cornea becoming less convex.
   MY'OPS.  (From  pvu, to wink, and u\f/, the eye.)
  One who  is near-sighted.
   MYOSIS. Muwcrij.  A disease of the eye which
  consists in a contraction or too small perforation of the
  pupil.  It  is knoxvn by viewing the diameter ofthe pu
  pil, wliich is smaller than usual, and remains so in an
 obscure  place, where, naturally, if not diseased, it di
 lates. It  occasions weak  sight, or  a  vision that re-
  mains only a certain number of hours in the day ; but,
 if wholly closed, total blindness.   The species of this
 disorder are,
   1.  Myosis spasmodica,  which  is obserx-ed  in the
 hysteric, hypochondriac, and in other spasmodic and
 nervous affections; it arises from  a spasm of  the or
 bicular fibres of the iris.
   2.  Myosis paralytica arises in paralytic disorders.
   3.  Myosis infiammutoria, which arises from an in-
 flammation of the iris or uvea, as in the internal oph
 tlialmia, hypopium, or wounded eye.
   4.  Myosis, from an  accustomed contraction of the
 pupil. This frequently  is experienced by  those who
 contemplate very minute  objects;  by persons who
 write; by  the xvorkers of fine needlework; and  by
 frequent attention to microscopical inquiries.
   5.  Myosis, from a defect of the aqueous  humour, as
 after extraction.
   6.  Myosis nativa, with which infants are bom.
   7.  Myosis naturalis, is a coarctation ofthe pupil by
 light, or from an  intense examination nf the minutest
 objects.  These  coarctations of the pupil  are tempo-
 rary, and spontaneously vanish.
   MYOSI'TIS.   (From pvs, a muscle.)  Inflammation
 of a  muscle.  It  is the term given by Sagar to acute
 rheumatism.
   MYOSO'TIS.   (Mvs,  a  muscle, and ovs, uros, an
 ear:  so called because ils leaves are hairy, and groxv
 longitudinally like the ear of a mouse.) See Hieracium
pilosella.
   M YOTOM Y.   (Myotomia;  from pvs, a muscle, and
 rtpvu, to cut.)  The dissection ofthe muscles.
   MYRICA.  (A name  borrowed from tlie ancient
 Greeks, whose pvpixn, hoxvever,  appears  to be the
 Tamarix gallica.) The name of argenus or family of
 plants.  Class, Diacia; Order, Telrandria.
   Myrica gale.  The systematic name of the Dutch
myrtle or sxveet willow.   Myrtus brabantica ; Myrtus
anglica; Myrtifolia  belgica;  Gate;  Gagel;  Rus
sylvestris;  Acaron;  Elaagnus ;  Elaagnus cordo:
 Chamalaagnus;  Dodonao. The leaves, flowers, and
seeds of this plant, have a strong, fragrant smell, and a
bitter taste.  They are said to be used  among the
common people for destroying moths and cutaneous in-
sects, and the infusion is  given internally as a stoma
chic and vermifuge.
   [Myrica  cerifera.  See Cera vegetabilis. A.]
   MYRICIN. The ingredient of wax which remains
after digestion in alkohol.  It is insoluble also in xvatcr
and aether;  but very soluble in fixed and volative oils.
   MYRIOPHY'LLON.  (From pvptos,  infinite,  and
divXXov, a leaf, named from the number of its leaves.
 Phe milfoil plant, a species of Achillaea.  See Achillea
millefolium.
   MYRI'STICA.  The name  of a genus of plants in
the Liniircnii system.   Class,  Diacia;  Order, Mona-
delphia.
   Myristica aromatica.  Swart's name of the nut
tneg-ttee.
  Myristica moschata.  The systematic name ofthe
tree xvhich  produces the nutmeg and mace.
  1. The nutmeg, Myristica nucleus; Nuxmoschata ;
Nucista ;   Nux  myristica; Chrysobalanus  Galeni ;
 Unguentaria; Assalu; Nux aromatica.   The seed,
or kernel, of the  Myristica—foliis lanceolatis, fructu
glabro, of Linnaeus.  It is a spice that is xvell known, 
                       MYR

anc. has been long used both for culinary and medical
purposes.   Distilled with  xvaler they yield a large
quantity of essential oil, resembling in flavour  tie
spice itself; after the distillation, an insipid sebaceous
matter is  found swimming on the water;  the decoc-
tion, inspissated, gives an extract of an unctuous, very
slightly bitterish taste, and wilh little or no astiingency.
Rectified spirit extracts the xvhole virtue of nutmegs,
by infusion, and elevates very liltle of it in distillation;
hence the spirituous extract possesses the flavour of the
spice in an eminent degree.  Nutmegs, xvhcn heated,
vitld to the press a considerable quantity  of limpid,
yellow oil.  Tliere are three  kinds  of unctuous sub-
stances, called  oil of mace,  though really expressed
Iioin the nutmeg.  The bent is brought from the East
Indies, in stone jars ; this is ol" a thick consistence, of
the colour of mace,  aud has an agreeable  fragrant
smell; the second sort, which is paler-coloured, and
much inferior in quality, come* from Holland, iu solid
masses, generally flat, and of a square figure ; the
third, which is tbe worst of all, and usually called
common oil of mace, is an artificial composition of
suet,  palm-oil,  and  the  like,  flavoured xvith a little
genuine oil of nutmeg. The medicinal qualities of nut-
meg a;e supposed to be aromatic, anodyne, stomachic,
and astringent; and  hence it  has beeu much us,.d  in
diarrhoeas and dysenteries.  To many people, the aro-
matic flavour of nutmeg is very agreeable; they, hoxv-
ever, should be cautioned not to use  it in large quan-
tities, as it is apt to affect the head, and even to mani-
fest an hypnotic poxver in such a degree as to prove ex-
tremely dangerous.   Bontius speaks  of this as a fre-
quent occurrence in India; and Dr. Cullen relates  a
remarkable instance of this soporific elfect of nutmeg,
which fell under  his oivn observation: and hence
concludes lhat, in apoplectic and paralytic  cases, this
spice may  be very improper.  The officinal prepara-
tions cf nutmeg are a spirit and an essentia^ oil, and
tbe nutmeg, in substance, roasted to render it more as-
tringent: both  the  spice itself and  the  essential oil
enter several com|iosiiioiis, as the confectio aromatica,
spiritus ammonia aromaticus, Sec.
  2.  Miice is the middle bark ofthe nutmeg.  A thick,
touah, reticulated,  unctuous  membrane, of a lively,
reddish-yetloxv colour, approaching to lhat of saffron,
which envelopes the shell ol" the nutmeg.  The mace,
when fresh, is of a blood-red  colour, and acquires its
yelloxv  hue in drying.   It is dried  in the  sun, upon
hurdles fixed above one  another, and then, it is said,
sprinkled with  sea-ivuter, to prexent its crumbling  in
caj,ryin'.'.  It has a pleasant, aromatic  smell, aud  a
xvarm, bitterish, moderately pungent laste.  It is  in
common use as a grateful spice, and appears tu be in
it* general qualities nearly similar to the nutmeg.  The
principal difference  consists in tbe  mace  being much
wa mer, more bitter, less unctuous, and sitting easier on
weak stomachs.  Mace possesses qualities  similar  to i
those of nutmeg, but  is less astringent, and its oil  is !
supposed to be more volatile and acrid.
  Myristica nux.  See Myristica moschata.
  Myrme'cia.  (From pvpprfi,  a  pismire.)   A small
pai.iful wart, of the size and shape of a pismire.  See
Myrmccium.
  Mvrmk'cium.  A moist soft wart about the size of a I
lupine, with  a broad base, deeply  rooted,  and very
painful.  Il grows on ihe palms ofthe hands and soles
of the fef t.
  Myro'copum. (From pvpov, an ointment, and xottos,
labour.)  An unguent to remove lassitude.
  MYROBALAN.   Sec Myrobalanus.
  M YROBA'LANUS.  (From pvpos, an unguent, and
iaXavos, a nut: so called because it xvas formerly used
iu ointments.)   A myrobalan  A dried  fruit of the
plum kind, brought from the East Indies.  All the my-
robalaus have  an  unpleasant, bitterish,'ve/y austere
laste, and strike an inky blackness xvitli a solution of
steel.  They are said to have a  gently purgative as
well as an  astringent and corroborating virtue.  In
this  country  they  have been long  expunged from
the pharmacopoeias.  Of this fruit  tliere are several
species.
  Myrobalanus bellirica.  Thcbelliric myrobalan
The fruit is of a yelloxvish-gray colour, and an irregular
roundish or oblong figure, about an inch in length, and
three quarters of an inch thick.
  Myrobalanus chbbui.a.  The chebule myrobalan.
T!ii3 loscmbles the  velloxv in  figure and ridges, but is
                       MYR

 largei, of a daikei colour, inclining lo brown or blscc
 ish, aud has a thicker pulp.
   Myrobalanus citrina.  Yellow myrobalan.  This
 fruit is somewhat longer than the belliric, with gene-
 rally five large longitudinal ridges, and as many smaller
 between them, somewhat pointed al both ends.
   Myrodalanus Emblica.   The emblic myrobalan is
 of a dark blackish-gray colour, roundish, about half an
 inch thick, xvitli six hexagouai faces, opening from one
 another.
   Myrobalanus indica.  The Indian or black myro-
 balan, of a deep black colour, oblong, octangular, dif-
 fering fiom all the others iu having  no stone, or only
 the rudiments of one, from xvhich circumstance they
 are supposed to have been gathered befoie maturity.
   My'ron.  (From pvpu, to How.)  An ointment, me-
 dicated oil, or unguent.
   Myropuy'llum.  Millefolium aquaticum.  Water
 fennel.   It is said to be vulnerary.
   MYROXYLON.  (From pvpov,  an ointment, and
 IrXov, xvood.)   The name of  a genus of plants iu the
 Liuiiuean system.   Class, Diandna;  Order, Mono-
 gynia.
   Myroxylon peruiferum.  The systematic name of
 the tree which gives out the  Peruvian balsam.  Bal-
 samum peruvianum; Putzochtll;  Indian, Mexican,
 and American  balsam ;  Curbarciba, is the name of the
! tree from wliich, according to Piso aud Ray, it is taken.
 It  is the Myroxylon peruifcrum, of Linnieus, xvhich
 groxvs in the xvarmest provinces of South America,
 and is remarkable for its elegant appeaiance.  Every
 part of the tree abounds with a  resinous juice; even
 the leaves being full of transparent resinous points, like
 those ofthe orange-tree.
   Balsam of Peru is of three kinds:  or rather,  it is one
 and the same balsam, having  three several names:  1.
 The balsam of incision; 2. The dry balsam;  3. The
 balsam of  lotion.  The virtues  of this  balsam,  as a
 cordial, pectoral, and restorative, stimulant,  and Ionic,
 are by some thought to be very great.  It is given with
 advantage from 5 to 10 or 15 drops  lor a dose, in dys-
 pepsia, atonic gout,  in  consumptions, asthmas,  ne-
 phritic complaints,  obstructions of the visceia, and
 suppressions of the menses.   It is best taken dropped
 upon  sugar.  The yelk of an egg, or mucilage of gum-
 arabic, will, indeed, dissolve  it;  it may, by  that way,
 be made into an emulsion ; and il is 'ess acrid iu thai
 form than xvhen taken singly.   It is often made au in-
 gredient in boluses and electuaries, and enters into two
 ofthe officinal compositions;  the tinctura balsami Pe-
 ruviani composita, and the trochisci glycyrrhizie.  Ex-
 ternally,  it is recommended us a useful application to
 relaxed ulcers, not disposed to heal.
   MYRRHA.  (A Hebrew word.  Also called stacte,
 and the xvorst  son ergasma.)  A botanical  specimen
 of the tree whicli affords this gum  resin has not yet
 been obtained; but from the  account of Bruce,  who
 says it very much resembles the Acacia vera  of Lin-
 naeus, there can be liltle doubt  in referring il to lhat
 genus, especially as it corresponds with the description
 ofthe tree given hy Dioscorides.  The tree that affords
 the myrrh, whicli is obtained by incision, grows on the
 eastern coastof Arabia Felix, and in ilia', pari of Abys-
 sinia xvhich is situated near the  Red Sea, and is called
 by Bruce,  Troglodyte.   Good mytrh is of a turbid
 black-red colour, solid and heavy, of a peculiar smell,
 and bitler taste.  Its medicinal effects are warm, cor-
 roborant, and antiseptic  ; it has been given a* an cm-
 meuagogue in doses from  5  to  20  grains.  tt  is also
 given in  cachexies, and  applied externally as an anti-
 septic and vulnerary.  In doses »f hall a drachm.  Dr.
 Cullen remarks that  il heated the stomach, produced
 sweat, and agreed with  the  balsams in affecting the
 urinary passages. It has lately come more into use as
 a tonic in hectical rases,  and is said to piove less heat-
 ing than  must  other  medicines of that class.   Myrrh
 dissolves almost totally  in boiling water, but  as the
 liquor cools, the resinous matter subsides.  Rectified
 spirit dissolves less of this concrete than water;  but ex
 tracts more perfectly that part in which its bitternese
 virtues, and flavour reside;  the resinous matter which
 water leaves undissolved is very bitter, but the gummy
 matter which spirit leaves undissolved is insipid, the
 spirituous solution containing  all the active part ofthe
 myrrh:  it is applied to ulcers,  and otlier external affec-
 tions of a putrid tendency ;  and a,so as a wash, when
 diluted, for the teeth and gums. There are several
                                          95 
NAN                                           NAP
preparations of this drug in Ihe London and Edinburgh
Phai macopceis.
  Myrrhi'ne.   (From pvppa, myrrh: so called be-
cause it  smells  like myrrh.)  The common  myrtle.
See Myrtus communis.
  My'rrhis.   (From pvppa, myrrh:  so named from
its myrrh-like smell.)  Sweet cicely   See  Scandix
odorata
  Myrsinel«'um.  (From pvpotvr;, the myrtle, and
tXawv, oil.)  Oil of  myrtle.
  Myrtaoa'ntha.   (From  uvpros,  a myrtle,  and
txxavOa, a thorn : so called  from its likeness to myrtle,
and  from its prickly leaves.)  Butcher's broom.  See
Ruse us.
  Myhti'danum.  'From jwprof, the myrtle.)   An ex-
crescence  growing on the  trunk  of the myrtle, and
used as an astringent.
  Mijrtiform caruncles.  See Caruneula myrtiformes.
  Myrlifarni glands.  See Caruneula myrtiformes.
  MYRTI'LLUS  See Vacciniuvi myrtillus.
  MYRTLE.  See Myrtus.
  Myrtle, Dutch. See Myrica gale.
  Myrto ciikilides.   (From  pyprov,  the   clitoris,
and xttXos,a lip.) The nymphs: of the female pudenda.
  My'rton.  The clitoris.
  My'rtum.   (From pvpros, a myrtle.)  A little pro-
minence  in  the  pudenda  of women, resembling  a
myrtle-berry.   It also means the clitoris.            '
  MYRTUS.   (From pvppa, myrrh, because  of its
smell, or  from Myrrha,  a virgin,  xvho xvas fabled to
have been turned into this tree.)   1. The name of a
genus of  plantc in the Linna-an  system.   Class, Ico-
sandria; O der, Mnnoisynia.
  2.  The pharinaeopceial name of the myrtle.  See
Myrtus communis.
  Myrtus brabantica.  See Myrica gale.
  Myrtus i-aryophyllata.  The systematic name
of th" nee which affords the clove bark. Cassia cary-
ophyllata.  The  ha-k of this tree, Myrtus—peduncu-
lis trifido-mtiltifioris, foliis ovatis, of Linnaeus,  is a
warm  aromatic, of the  smell of  clove  spice,  but
TV"    Iu prescriptions this letter is a contraction for
■'■" *  numrro, ill number.
  NACRITE.  See Tulcite.
  Na'cta  A-i abscess of the breast.
  N ADLESTEIN.  An ore of Titanium.
  Na'duckm   A uterine mole.
  N^E'VUS   (Nacus, i. in.)   A  natural mark, spot,
or blemish.
  N.«'vus  kiaternus.   Macula  matricis;  Stigma,
Metrocelis.  A mother's mark.  A mark on  the skin
of children, xvhich is  born with them, and  which  is
said to be produced by the longing of the mother for
particular thing3, or her aversion to them  ; hence these
marks resemblt mulberries, strawberries, grapes, pines,
bacon, Sec.
  Na i corona.   A name of the covvage.
  NAIL.   See Unguis.
  Na'kir. According to  Schenkius this means xvan-
dering pains of the limbs.
  NANCEIC  ACID.   Acidum  nanceicum.   Zumic
acid.  " An acid called by Braconnot, In honour of the
town of Nancy, where he lives.   He discovered it in
many acescent vegetable substances ; in sour rice; in
putrefied juice o:  beet-root; in sour decoction of car-
rots, pease, &c. He imagines that this acid is generated
at the same  time as vinegar  in  organic substances,
when they become sour.  Ii is without colour,  does
not crystallize, and has a very acid taste.
  He concentrates the soured juice of the beet-root till
It becomes almost solid, digests it xvitii  alkohol, and
evaporates the alkoholic solution to the consistence of
syrup.  He dilutes this with xvnter, and throws into it
carbonate of  zinc till  it be saturated.  He passes the
liquid through a filler, and evaporates till a pellicle ap-
pears.  The combination of the nexv  acid with oxide
of zinc  crystallizes.   After a  second crystallization,
he redissolvcs it in water, pours in an excess of xvater
      96
 weaker, and xvith a little admixture of ihe cinnamon
 flavour.  It  may  be  used with  the same views  na
 cloves, or cinnamon.
  Myrtus communis.  The systematic name of the
 common myrtle.
  Myrtus communis italica.  Oxymyrrhine ; Oxy
 myrsine.  The berries of ihis plant arc recommended
 in alvine nnd uterine fluxes, and other  disorders from
 relaxation and  debility.  They have a roughish, and
 not unpleasant taste, and appear to be moderately as-
 tringent and corroborant, partaking also of aromatic
 qualities.
  Myrtus pimenta.   The systematic name  of  the
 tree which  bears  Ihe Jamaica  pepper, or allspic*
 Pimento; Piper caryophyllatum; Cocculi Indt  aroma-
 tici;  Piper clnapa; Amomum pimenta; Caryophyllus
 aromaticus ; Caryophyllus americanus; Piper odora-
 tum jamaicense.  Myrtus—fioribus trichotoma-pani-
 culatis, foliis oblongolanceolutis,  of Linnaeus.  This
 spice, which was  hist brought over for dietetic uses,
 has been long employed in the shops as a succedaneuni
 to the more costly oriental aromatics: it is moderately
 warm, of an agreeable flavour, somewhat resembling
 that of a mixture of cloves, cinnamon, and  nutmegs.
 Both pharmacopoeias direct an aqueous and spirituous
 distillation to be made from these berries; and  the
 Edinburgh College orders the Oleum essent.iale piperi-
jamaicensis.
  MY'STAX.  The hair xvhich  forms the beard in
 man, on each side the upper lip.  See Capillus.
  Myu'rus.  An epithet  for a sort of sinking pulse,
 when the second  stroke is less than the first, the third
 than the second, &c.  Of  this tliere  are two  kinds:
 the first is when the pulse so sinks as not lo rise again;
 the other, when it returns again, and rises in some de
 gree.   Both are esteemed bad presages.
   Myxosarcoma.  (From pv\a, mucus,  and oapl,
 flesh.)   Mucocamcus.   A  tumour  xvhich  is partly
 fleshy and partly mucous.
  My'xter.  (From pv\,a, the mucus of the nose ">
 The nose or nostril.
of barytes, decomposes by sulphuric acid the barytic
salt formed, separates the deposite by a filter, and oft
tains, by evaporation, the nexv acid pure.
  It forms xvith alumina a salt resembling gum, and
with inatinesia one unalterable in the air, in Utile gra-
nular crystals,  soluble in  25  tarts  of water at 66°
Fahr.; with potassa and soda it formsunorystallizable
salts, deliquescent and soluble  in alkohol;  with lime
and strontites, soluble granular salta; with barytes, an
tincrystallizable nondeliquescent salt, having the aspect
of gum ; xvith xvhile oxide of manganese, a salt which
crystallizes in tetrahedral prisms, soluble in 12 parts of
water at 66°; with oxide of zinc, a sail crystallizing in
square prisms, terminated by summits obliquely trun-
cated, soluble in 50 parts of water at 66°; witlijron, a
salt crystallizing in slender four-sided needles, of spar-
ing solubility, and  not changing in the air; with red
oxide of iron, a white noncrystallizing salt;  with oxide
of tin, a salt crystallizing in wedge-form octahedrons;
with oxide of lead, an uncryslallizable salt, not deli-
quescent, and  resembling  a gum;  with black oxide
of mercury, a very soluble salt, xvhich crystallizes in
needles."
  NAPE'LLUS.   (A diminutive of napus: so called
because it  has a bulbous root like that of the napus.t
See Aconitum.
  Na'ph*  flores.  Oranse flowers are sometimes so
called.  See Citrus aurantium.
  NAPHTHA.  (Naptha,  a.  f.; va<p8a.)   A  native
combustible liquid ot a yellowish white colour, per-
fectly fluid  and shining.  It feels greasy, and exhales
an agreeable bituminous smell.  It occurs in consider
able springs on the shores of the Caspian Sea, in Sicily
and Italy.  Ii  is used instead of oil, and differs from
petroleum obtained by distilling coal only  by its greater
purity  and  lightness.  This  fluid has been  used as ar
external application  for removing old pa'is, nervous
N 
NAS
NA'l
 tisorders  such as cramps,  con.ractions of the limbs,
 paralytic affections, Stc.
   Naphtha vitrioli.  See JEther sulphuricus.
   Napifo'lia.  Borecole.  See Brassica.
   N'a'pium.  See Lapsana  communis.
   [" NAPTHALINE  This substance is one of the
 products of the decomposition of coal.  If the distil-
 lation be conducted at a very gentle heat, naptha, from
 .ts gi eater volatility, first passes over, and afterxvard
 napthaline rises in vapour, and condenses in the neck
 of the retort, as a while crystalline solid.
   "Pure napthaline is heavier than xvater, has a pun-
 gent aiomatic taste, and a peculiar odour not unlike
 that of the narcissus.   Ii  is  smooth and  unctuous to
 the touch, is perfectly while, and has a silxery lustre.
 It fuses  at  180° Fan.,  volatilizes slowly at common
 temperatures, and boils at 410° Fall.   It is not very
 rendily inflamed, but when set on fire it burns rapidly,
 and emits a large quantity of smoke.  It is  soluble in
 cold, and  dissolves very sparingly in  hot water.   Its
 proper solvents are alkohol and ether.
   " Sulphuric acid enters into direct combination xvith
 napthaline, and forms a  new and peculiar acid, which
 Mr. Faraday has described under the name of sulpho-
 nylptknlic acid.
   "  Napthaline, according to  Dr. Thompson, is a sesqui-
 crrburet of hydrogen, that is, a compound of 9, or an
 a om and a half, of carbon, and 1 atom  of hydrogen."
 — Webs. Man. Chem,  A.)
   NA'PUS.  See Brassica napus.
   Napus dulcis.  See Brassica rapa.
   Napus  sylvestris.   See  Brassica rapa.
   Narca'phthum.   A name of the cordial confection.
   NARCI'SSUS.  A genus of plants in the Linnaean
 system.  Class, Hexandria; Order, Monogimia.
   NARCOSIS.  (From vapxou, to stupily.)  Stupe-
 faction, stupor, numbness.
   NARCOTIC.  (Narcotictis ; from vapxou, to stu-
 pify.)  A medicine which  has the power of procuring
 sleep.  See Anodyne.
   NARCOTINE. The active principle  of narcotic
 vegetables.   See  Opium.
   NARD.  See Valeriana ecltica.
   Nard, Indian.  See Andropogon nardus.
   Nardo'stachys.   .(From vapcos, spikenard,  and
 S-axuf, sage.)  A speciesof wild sage resembling spike-
 nard in its leaves and smell.
   NARDUS.  (From nard, Syrian.)  Spikenard.
   Nardus celtica.  Valeriana eeltica.
   Nardus indica.  See Andropogon nardus.
   Nardus italica.   The lavendula spica of  Lin-
 nieus.
   Nardus Montana.  An old  name of asarabacca.
 See Asarum europeum.
   Nardus rustica.   An old name of the asarabacca.
 See Asarum evopeum.
   Narifuso'pia.  (From nares, thenostrils, and fundo
 to pour.)  Medicines dropped into the nostrils.
   NARIS  The nostril.  The  cavity of the nostrils
 is of a pyramidal figure, and is situated under  the
 anterior part of the cranium,  in the middle of the face.
 The two nostiils are composed of fourteen bones, viz.
 the frontal, tivo maxillary,  two  nasal, two lachrymal,
 two  inferior spongy,  the  sphenoid, tlie vomer,  the
 ethmoid, and two palatine bones, which form several
 eminences and cavities.  The eminences are  the sep-
 tum  nariuin, the cavernous substance of the  ethmoid
 bone, called  the  superior  concha;, and the Inferior
 Bponcy bones.  The cavities are three pair of pituitary
 sinuses, namely, the frontal, sphenoid, and maxillary ;
 the anterior  and  posterior foramina of the  nostrils;
 the ductus nasalis, the sphenopalatine foramina, and
 anterior palatine foramina. All these parts are covered
 xvith  periosteum, and a pituitary  membrane which
 secrelesthe mucus of the nostrils. The arteries of this
cavity are  branches  of  the internal maxillary. The
veins empty themselves into  the  internal  jugulais.
The nerves are branches of the olfactory, ophthalmic,
aud superior maxillary.  The use of the nostrils is lor
smelling, respiration, and speech.
  Naris  comprbssor.  See  Compressor naris.
  Na'rta.   (Napra, ex nardi odore, from its smell.)
A plant used in ointments.
  Narthic'cia.  (From  Narthecis, the island where
 t flourished^  Narthex.  A  kind of fennel.
  NASALIS.  (From nasus, the nose.)  Appertain-
ing to the nosxe.
                                        Oo
   Nasalis labii  suterioris.  See Orbicularis oru
   Nasa'rium.   (Fromnasus, the  nose.)  The mucus
 of the nose.
   Nasca'le.  (From nasus, the  nose.)  A wood oi
 cotton pessary for the nose.
   Nasca'piitiium.   Cordial confection.
   Nasi depressor.  See Depressor labii superioris
 alaque nasi.
   Nasi ossa.  The txvo small bones of the  nose  that
 are so termed from the bridge of the nose.  In figure
 they are qundrangular and oblong.
   NASTU'RTIUM.   (Quod nasum torqucat, because
 the seed, xvhen bruising, irritates the nose.)  The name
 of a genus of plants in  the  Linna-an system.   Clnai,
 Tetradynamia ; Older, Stltquosa.
   Nasturtium  aojuaiu i >i.  See Sisymbrium nastur
 Hum.
   Nasturtium  hortknse.  See Lepidium sativum.
   Nastik'iium  indicu.m.  See Tropaolum majus.
   N A  SI  S.  The nose.
   Na ta.   Natta.  A  species of  wen  with slender
 pendent  nick.   Linnaeus speaks of it as rooted  in a
 muscle.
   NATANS.  (From nato,  to swim.)   Floating on
 the surface of the xvater: applied to leaves, in opposi-
 tion to those which are naturally under,  and different,
 aud are called demersed, immersed, and submersed ;
 as in  Potamogeton nutans.
   NA'TES.  (From nato, to floxv;  because the excre-
 menls  are discharged from them.;  1. The buttocks,
 or Ihe fleshy parts upon  which xve sit.
  2. Two of the eminences, called turberculaquadrige-
 mina, of the brain, are so named  from their resem
 blance.
   Nates  cerebri.  See Tubercula quadrigemina.
   NATROLITE.  A subspecies of prismatic zeolite
 or mesotype.
  [" This substance has usually occurred in  small, re-
 niform, rounded, or irregular masses, composed of very
 minute fibres. The fibres are divergent, or even radi-
 ate from  a centre; and  are sometimes so very minute
 and close, that the fracture appears almost or quite com
 pact.   It has little or no lustre.  Sometimes also it  pre-
 sents  minute crystals, especially on the surface of its
 masses, whose forms appear  to lie  similar to those of
 the Zeolite.
   Before  the blow-pipe it easily melts into a white
 glass, which often  contains small  bubbles.  In nitric
 acid it is reduced, in the course of a few hours, with-
 out eflcrx-escence,  into a jelly somewhat thick.   It
 contains silex 48.0,  alumine 24.25, soda 16.5, water 9.0,
 oxide of  iron 1.75;=99.5 (according  to Klaproth).
 This result is very similar to that obtained by Smith
 son Tennant, from the Zeolite.—Cleav.  Min.  A.J
  NATRON.   (So  called  from Natron, a lake in
 Judaea, where it xvas produced.)   Natrum. 1. The
 name formerly given to  the  alkali, now called soda.
 Sec Soda.
  2.  A native  salt,  which  is found crystallized in
 Egypt, in the lake called Natron, and in  the other  hot
 countries, in sands surrounding lakes of salt water.
 It  is an impure  subcarbonate of soda, and there  are
 txvo kinds of it, the common and the radiated.
  3. The name of an impure  subcaibouaie of soda,
 obtained by burning various marine plants.  See Soda.
  Natron mi riatum.   See Sodui murias.
  Natron I'R/EParatu.m.  See Soda subcarbonas.
  Natron tartarisatum.  See Soda tartarizata.
  Natron vitriolatum.  Sec Soda sulphas.
  Na'tul*.  (Diminutive of nates, the  buttocks: so
 called from their resemblance.)  The txvo uppermost
 of four small eminences of the brain.  See Tubercula
 quadrigemina.
  NATURAL.   Appertaining to nature
  Natural actions. Those functions  ny wnich  the
body is preserved ;  as hunger, thirst. Sec   See Actions
  Natural history.  A description of tbe natural
 products of the earth, water, or  air; ex. gr. beasts,
 birds, fish, insects, worms, plants, metals, minerals, and
fossils;  together with such extraordinary  phenomena
as at any time appear in tbe material xvorld, aa meteors,
 monsters, Sec.
 Natural orders.  A division or arrangement of
plants, from their external habits or characters.  They
are
   1. Conifcra.              3. tAimpostta
   2. Amentacca            4. Aggregata 
NAT
NEC
   ft.  Conglomerate).        31.  Columniferat
   6.  Umbellata.           32.  Gruinales.
   7.  Hederacca.           33.  Caryophylla.
   8.  Sarmentacea.         34.  Colycanthema
   9.  Slellata.              35.  Ascirodea.
  10.  Cymosa.              36.  Coadunata.
  11.  Cucurbitacem.         37.  Dumosa.
  12.  Lurida.              38.  Trihilata.
  13.  Campanacea.         39.  Tricocca.
  14.  Coulorta.             40.  Oleracca.
  15.  Rotacea.              41.  Scabrida.
  16.  Sepiacia.              42.  Vapiccula.
  17.  Bicornes.             43.  Pipirita.
  18.  Aspcrifolia.           44.  Scetaminea.
  19.  Verticillata.          45.  Ltliacca.
  20.  Pexsonata.           46.  Ensata.
  21.  Rhoeadca.            47.  Tripetaloidca.
  22.  Putaminca.          48.  Orchidea.
  23.  Siliquosa.             49.  Culmaria.
  M4.  Papilionacea         50.  Gramina.
  25.  Tomentacca.          51.  Palma.
  26.  Multisiliqua.         52.  Filices.
  27.  Senticosa.             53.  Musci.
  2S.  Peeiaee*.             54.  Alga,
  29.  Hcsperida.           55.  Fungi.
  30.  Succulenta.
  Natural  philosophy.   Physics.    The  science
which considers  the properties of natural  bodies, and
their mutual actions on one another, being contrasted
with  moral philosophy or ethics, wliich treat of the
phenomena of mind and rulee? of morality.
  NATURA'LIA.   (From natura,  nature.)   The
parts of generation.
  NATURE.  Natura; from nascor, nctt.-s.)  A term
variously used.
  1.  It is most frequently employed to  express the sys-
tem of the xvorld, the assemblage of all created beings,
and in this cuse is synonymous xvith world, or universe.
  2. That power whicli is said to be diffused through-
out the creation, moving and acting in all  bodies, and
giving llieni  certain properties.  In  this  last sense,
when a personified being is meant, nature is nothing
pise but Cod, acting himself, and according to certain
laws  xvhich he  himself lias fixed.  According to the
supposition of some,  however,  the principle called
nature is a poxver delegated  hy the Creator; as it xvere,
a middle being betxveen God and  created things, which
has been sty led, Anim a mundi; but it docs not appear
that there is any  foundation for this hypothesis, or that
any thing is explained by referring the w hole series of
second causes to an intermediate principle, instead of
to one universal  agent.
  3.  In medical writings,  the  expression  nature is
usually taken for the aggregate of powers belonging to
any body, especially a living one , as when physicians
say that, in such a disease natu -e, V tt to herself, xvill
perform the cure.  L may be ).ro^riiere to observe,
xvith regard to this phrase of lea vine the cure to nature,
that there is a xvide difference between suspending for
a time all interference with the vital processes, and
neglecting a disease; although to those Who are igno-
rant of the principles of medicine, these appear to be
the same thing.
   It xvould be the perfection of this science to ascertain
upon what causes healthy and diseased actions depend,
and  to what extent either can be affected by human
agency: but at present the judicious physician never
aims  at a cure independently of the original poxvers of
the system, but rather seeks  to call them into action,
or, at most,  to  assist when the  inherent elasticity of
the vital functions is insufficient to recover them  from
the oppression of disease.   As, for  example, when
we alloxv a wound to  heal  by the  first intention, or
restore the digestive functions  by obliging a man  to
attend to the rules of diet and exercise, Sec. upon which
health depend--;  xve call  upon the restorative poxvers
of Nature, because art, that is to say, human ingenuity,
can  supply nothing equivalent.  Or,  again, when, In
the treatment of a diseased joint,  rest is  enjoined at
one  period on account of inflammation, and perhaps
motion is ordered at  another, to keep up the proper
usesof the part, we slrow the importance of alternately
interfering and  looking on,  as xve judge it proper to
check the tendency of vital actions, or to trust entirely
to them.  While to thope who  are  ignorant of these
principles, the practitioner, when really exercising his
greatest skill, U supposed to be idle.
       98
  NAUSEA.  (Nawffta; from vans, 8 ship: because
 it is a sensation similar to that which people experi-
 ence upon  sailing in  a ship.)  Nausiosis; Nautie,
 An  inclination to vomit  without effecting  ii; also a
 disgust of food  approaching to vomiting.  It is an at
 tendant on cardialgia, and a variety of other disorders,
 pregnancy,  &c. occasioning an aversion for food, an
 increase of saliva, disgusted ideas at the sight of vari
 ous objects, loss of appetite, debility, Sec.
  Nausio'sis.  See Nausea.
  Nau'tia.  See Nausea.
  NAU'TICUS.   (Naulicus, a sailor:  so  called from
 the use which sailors  make of it in climbing ropes i
 A muscle of the leg, exerted in climbing up.
  NAVEW.  See Brassica rapa,
  Navew, garden.  See Brassica rapa.
  Navcw, sweet.   See Brassica rapa.
  NAVICULARE OS.   Naviformis; Naviculars ;
 03 scaphoides;  Cymba.  A bone of tlie  carpus and
 tarsus is so called, from its supposed resemblance to a
 boat.
  Navicula'ris.   (From navicula, a little boat.)  See
 Naviculare os.
  Navifo'rmis.   See Naviculare os.
  NEAPOLITAN.  (From Neapolis, or Naples, be-
 cause it was  said  to  have been  first discovered at
 Naples, xvhen the French were in possession of it.)
 The venereal disease xvas once so called.
  NE'BULA.  (From  rt<btXr].)  1. A cloudy spot in
 the cornea of the eye.
  2.  The  cloud-like appearance in the urine, after it
 has been a little time at rest.
  NECK.   Collum.  The parts which form  the  neck
 are divid-d into external  and internal.  The external
 parts are  the common integuments, several muscles,
 eight pair of cervical nerves, the eighth pair of nerves
 of the cerebrum, and the great intercostal  nerve ; the
 txvo carotid arteries,  the txvo external jugular veins,
 and the txvo internal; the gland* of the neck, viz. the
 jugular, submaxillary, cervical, and thyioid.  The in-
 ternal parts are the fauces, pharynx, oesophagus, larynx,
 and trachea.  The bones  of  the  neck are the  seven
 cervical vertebrae.
  NECROSIS.   (From j txpu, to destroy.) This word,
 ihe strict  meaning of xvhich is only mortification, is,
 by the general consent  of surgeons, confined to an af
 fection of the bones.  The death of parts of hones xvas
 not distinguished  from caiics, hy the ancients.  How
 ever, necrosis  »nid caries  are essentially different; for
 iu the first, the affected part of the bone is  deprived of
 the vital principle; but this is not the case when it ia
simply carious.  Caries Is \-ery analogous to ulcera-
tion, xvhile necrosis is exactly similar to mortification
of the soft parts.
  Necrosis ustilaginea.  A painful convulsive con
 traction of the limbs.  See Raphania.
  NE'CTAR.   JStxrap.  A xvine made of  honey.
  NRCTA'RnTM.  The nectary.   An-accidcntal pan
of a floxver which does not come under the description
of any of its organs.   Il may be defined that part of
the  corolla which contains  or  xvhich secretes honey,
though it is not necessary to a nectary that  honey be
present.
  Scarce a floxver can he found that has not mote oi
less honey, though it is far from being  universally, or
even generally formed, by  an apparatus separate from
the  petals.
  In inonopetalous floxvers, as the Lamium album, the
dead nettle,  the tube of the  corolla contains, and pro-
 bably secretes, the honey xvithout  any evident nectary.
  Sometimes the part under consideration  is a produc-
 tion or elongation of Ihe corolla, asin the violet. some-
 limes indeed of the calyx,  as in the garden nasturtium,
 Troptr-olum, the coloured calyx of which partakes much
 of the nature of the petals.
  Sometimes it is distant from both, cit!:cr itscii.bling
 the petals;  as in Aquilegia; or  more different, as in
 Epimedium, Aconitum, Helfebonis, Delphinium. Such
 at least is the mode in xvhich  Llntitrus and his followers
 understand the four last numbered floxvers.
  The most indubitable of nil nectaries, as actually se-
 creting honey, arc those of a glandular kind.   In the
 natural order of cruciform plants, composing the class
 Tetradynamia, there are generally four green elands at
 the  base of the stunens,  as  in Dentaria,  and Sisyni.
 brium ; xvhile in Pelargonium, the nectary  is a tube
 running doxvn one side of the floxver-stalfc  The ele 
NEP
NEP
   gam Painassia has a most elaborate apparatus or ncc-
   Viry.—Smith.
     From the figure of the nectary it is said to be,
     1. Calcurate,  or spur-like; as in Aquilegia vulgaris,
   Delphinium ajax, and Antirrhinum linaria.
    2. Cucullate,  hooded;  as in Impaticns balsamina,
   Aconitum, and Asclepias vincetoxicum.
    3. Foveate, a  little depression in the claxv of the pe-
   tal , as in Fiifillaria imperialis.
    4. Campanulatc; as in Narcissus jonquilla and Pseu-
   joiiarcissus.
    5. Croicn-likc; as in  Passifiora caerulea.
    6. Pedicellate, resting on a partial floxver-stalk; as
   in Aconitum  napellus.
    7. A bilabiate tube; as in Hellcborus fcetldus,  nnd
   Nigella.
    8. Ponform, there being three pores  in the germen ;
  Ds iii the Hyacinths.
   9. Squamate, a little scale in thcclaxv; as in Ranunculus.
    10. Glandular, little nectiferous  glands between the
  stamens and pistils ; as in Sinapis alba.
    11. Stellate, a double  star covering the internal or-
  gans ; as in Srapelia.
    12. Pilous, fine hairy fascicles at  the base of the sta-
  mina - as in Parnassia palustris.
    13. Bearded;  as in Iris germanica.
    14. Forniciform,  arched ; small prolongations at the
  opening of the corolla, and covering the internal organs;
  as in Syuiphatum officinale, and Myosotis scorpioides.
   15. Bristle-like, fine horn-like filaments around the
  internal organs; as in Periploca graeca.
   16. Rotate; as in Cissampelos.
   17. Scrotiforme, behind the flower;  as in Satyrium.
   18. Horn-like, behind the flower; as in Orchis.
   19. Sandaliform,  slipper-like; as in  Cypripedium
  calceolus.
   20. Globose, inverting the germen ;  as in Mirabilis
  jalappa.
   21. Cyathiform, cup-like; as in Urticaurens.
   22. Conical; as in Utricularia foliosa.
   23. Acidiforme, pitcher-like, a membraneous tube,
  containing xvater, and behind tiie floxver; as iu Ascium
  and Ruyschia.
   24. Calycine, adhering to the calyx,  by a spur; as in
  Tropaeolum majus.
   Nedy'ia.    (Nedys;  from vrjfJuf, the belly.)  The
  intestines.
   NEEDLE ORE.   Acicular bismuth glance.
   Needle-shaped leaf.  See Acerosus.
   Needle zeolite.  See  Zeolite.
   NEGRO CACHEXY.   Cachexia africana.  A pro-
 pensity  for  eating earth, common to males as xvell as
 females, in the West Indies and Africa.
   Nel.g'ra.  (Fromvttapos, furthermost.)  The lower
 part of the belly
   NEMORO'SA.  (From nemus, a grove: so called
 because it groxvs in woods.) A species of xvind-flower,
 the Anemone nemerosa, of Linnaeus.
   NEP.  See Nepeta.
   Ne'pa theophrasti.   See Spartium scoparium.
   Nepe'nthos.  (From vij, neg.  and tstvdos, grief:  so
 called from their exhilarating qualities.)   1.  A prepara-
 tion of opium.
   2. A kind of bugloss.
   NEPETA.  (From nepte, German.)   The name of
 a genus of plants in the Linnaean system.  Class, Di-
 dynamia; Order, Gymnospermia.
   Nepeta cataria.  The systematic name ofthe cat-
 mint.   Herba  felis;  Mentha fclina;  Calamintha;
 Nepelella; Mentlia cataria.  The leaves of this plant,
 Ncpeta—fioribus spicatis ; verticillis; subpedicellatis;
 foliis petiolatis, cordatis, dentato-scrratis, of Linnaeus,
 have a moderately pungent aromatic taste, and a strong
 smell, like an admixture of spearmint and pennyroyal.
 The herb is recommended in uterine disorders, dyspep-
 sia, and flatulency
   Nepete'lla.  (Dim. of nepeta.) The lesser catmint.
   Ne'phela.  (Dim. of vtcioc, a cloud.)  A cloud-like
spot on the cornea of the eye.
  NEPHELOI'DES. (From vabtXn, a cloud, and uios,
 a likeness.)  Cloudy.   Applied to the urine.
  NEPHRALGIA.  (From vttkpos,  the  kidney, and
aXyoc, pain.)  Pain in the kidney.
  NEPHRELINE. Rhomboidal felspar.  This occurs
in drusy cavities along with ceylanite,  vesuvian, and
nieionite, at Monte Somma, near Naples, in drusy ca-
vities in granular limestone.
                                       Oo2
     NEPHRITE.  Of this mineral there art two specie^
   common nephrite, and axe-stone.  The former is of a
   leek-green colour, and occurs in granite and  gneiss, in
   Switzerland.  The most beautiful  come from  Persia
   and Egypt.  See Axe-stone.
     NEPHRITIC.   (Nephriticvs; from vtq>poc, the kid-
   ney.)  Of or belonging to the kidney.
    2. Medicine is so termed  that is employed  in the
   cure of diseases of the kidneys.
    Nephritic wood.  See Guilandina moringa.
    Nei-hritica aqua.  Spirituous  distillation of nut
   meg and haxv thorn flowers.
    Nephrithum lionum.  See Guilandina moringa.
    NEPHRITIS.   (Nephritis, idis. f.;  from  vtqipes, 8
   kidney.)  Inflammation of the kidney.  A  genus  of
   disease in the class Pyrexia and order Phlegmasia, of
   Cullen ; knoxvn  by pyrexia,  pain in the region  of the
   kidneys, and shooting  along the course of ihe ureter;
   drawing up of the testicles; numbness  ofthe thigh;
  vomiting;  urine high-coloured, and frequently dis-
  charged ;  costiveness, and  colic pains.  Nephritis ia
  symptomatic of calculus, gout, Sec.
    This inflammation  may  be distinguished  from the
  colic by the pain being seated very far back, and by the
  difficulty of passing urine, which constantly attends it;
  and it may be distinguished  from rheumatism, as tlie
  pain is but little influenced or increased by motion.
    Nephritis  is to be distinguished from  a calculus  in
  Ihe kidney or ureter, by the symptoms of fever accom-
  panying, or immediately following the attack of pain,
  and these continuing xvithout any remarkable  intermis-
  sion; whereas, in a calculus of the kidney or ureter,
  they do not  occur until  a considerable time after vio-
  lent pain has been felt.  In the latte' case, too, a numb-
  ness of the thigh, and a retraction of the testicle on the
  affected side, usually takes place.
    The causes xvhich give rise to nephritis are  external
  contusions, strains of the back, acrids conveyed to the
  kidneys in the course of the circulation, violent and
  severe exercise, either  in riding or xvalking, calculous
  concretions lodged in the kidneys or ureters, and expo-
  sure to cold.  In some habits there is an evident predis-
  position to Ihis complaint, particularly the gouty, and
  in these tliere  are often translations of the matter tc
  the kidneys, which very much imitate nephritis.
   An inflammation of the  kidney is attended with  a
  sharp pain on the affected side, extending along the course
  of the ureter; and there  is a frequent desire  to make
  xvater, ivilh much difficulty in making it.  The body is
  costive, the skin is dry and hot, the patient feels  great
  uneasiness xvhen he endeavours to walk, or sit  upright;
 he Ijes xvith most ease on the affected side, and is go
 ncrally troubled with nausea and frequent vomiting.
   When the  disease is protracted beyond the seventh
 or eighth day, and the patient feels an obtuse pain in
 Ihe part, has frequent returns  of dullness and shiver-
 ing?, there is  reason to apprehend that matter  is form-
 ing in the kidney, and that a suppuration will ensue.
   Dissections of nephritis show the usual effects of in-
 flammation on the kidney; and they likexvise often dis-
 cover the formation ol"abscesses, wliich have destroyed
 its whole substance.  In a  fexv instances, the kidney
 has been found in a scirrhous state.
   The disease is lo be treated by bleeding, general and
 local,  the warm bath,  or fomentations  to the loin*
 emollient clyster, mucilaginous  drinks, and tlie general
 antiphlogistic  plan.  The  boxvels should be effectually
 cleared at first by some sufficiently active formula; but
 the saline cathartics are  considered not  so proper, as
 they may add to the irritation of the kidney. Calomel
 with antimonial poxvder, followed by the infusion of
 senna, or the ol ricini, may be given in preference, and
 repeated occasionally.  It will be right also to enden
 vour to promote diaphoresis, by moderate doses of ar
 timonials especially.  Blisters are inadmissible in this
 disease;  but the linimentum ammonia", or o'hor rube-
 facient application, muy in some measure supply their
 place.   Opium  will often prove useful,  particularly
 where the symptoms appear  to originate from  calculi
 given in the form of clyster, or by the mouth; in xvhich
 latter mode of using it, however, it will be much better
 joined with other  remedies, which  may obviate ita
 heating effect,  and determine it rather to pass off by the
skin.   A decoction of the dried leaves of the  peach
tree is said to  have been serviceable in many ca«» of
thisdisease.   Iu  affecfions of a  more chronic  nature
where there is a  discharge of mucus or pud, by urina
                                          y'9 
NEK
NEK
 in addition to suitable tonic medicines, the uva ursi in
 modera.e doses, or some of the terebiuthinate remedies
 may be given with probability of relief.
   NE'PHROS.   (From vtu, to flow,  and tptpu,  to
 bear; as  conveying  the  urinary fluid.)   The kidney.
 Ste Kidney.
  NEPHROTOMY.  (Nephrotomia; from  vtq>pos, a
 kidney, and rtpvu, to cut.)  The operation of extract-
 ing a stone  from the kidney.   A proceeding  xvhich,
 pei haps, has  never been actually put in practice.  The
 cutting into the kidney, the deep situation of this vis-
 cus, and  ihe ivant of symptoms by which  tbe  lodg-
 ment of  a stone in it can be certainly discovered, will
 always be strong objections to the practice.
  NER1UM.  (From vqpos, humid: so called because
 it grows  iu innist places.)  The name of a  genus of
 plants  in the Limiuean system.   Class,  Pentandria;
 Order, Monogynia,
   Nerium   antidysentericum.   The  systematic
 name of the  free  xvhich affords the Codaga pala bark.
 Conessi cortex; Codaga pala; Cortex Bela-aye ; Cor-
 tex profluvii.  The bark of the Nerium;—foliis ova-
 tis, acuminatis, petiolatis, of Linnaeus.   It  grows on
 'he coast of Malabar.  It is of a dark black colour ex-
 ternally,  and  generally covered xvith a white moss, or
scurf.  It is  very little  known in the shops;  has an
austere, biiter taste ; and is recommended iu diarrhoeas,
dysenteries, &c. as an adslriugen-t.
  Nerium tinctorium.  This tree groxvs in Hindos-
tan, and, according lo Dr. Roxburg, affords indigo.
  Ne'roli oleum.  Essential oil of orange flowers.
See Citrus aurantium.
  Nerva'lli ossa.   (From nervus, a nerve.)  The
bones through wliich the nerves pass.
  NERVE.   (Nervus, i.  ni. from vcopov-)
  A.   In anatomy.   Formerly  it  meant a  sinew.
This accounts for the opposite meanings of  the word
.tervous,  xvhich sometimes means strong, sinewy, and
sometimes weak and  irritable. Nerves are long, while,
incduhary cords, that serve for sensation.  Tliey ori-
ginate from the brain and spinal  marrow; hence they
are distinguished  into cerebral and spinal nerves, and
distributed upon the organs of sense, the viscera, ves-
sels, muscles, and every part that is endowed  with
sensibility.   The cerebral  nerves are  the olfactory,
optic, matures oculorum,  pathetici, or Irochleatores,
trigemini, or  divisi, abducent,  auditory, or  acoustic,
par vaguin, and  lingual.  Heister has drawn  up the
use ol' these nerves in the txvo following verses:
  Olfuc.iens, ccrncns, oculosque movens, paticnsque,
  Gustans,  abduceils, audiensque,  vagansquc,  ln-
      quensque.
The spinal nerves are thirty pairs, and  are divided
into eight pair of cervical,  livelve pair of dorsal, five
pair of  lumbar, and  five of sacral  nerves.  In the
course ofthe nerves there are a number of knots:
these are called  ganglions; they are roiiunoiily of an
oblong shape, and of a grayish eolou., somewhat in
r.liningto red, xvhich is perhaps  owing io their being
extremely vascular.   Some xviiters have considered
those  little ganglions as so many little brains.   Lan-
Cisi fancied he had discovered muscular fibres  in them; ,
but they certainly are not of an  irritable-nature.  A
late Writer (Dr. Johnson) imagines they  are  intended
to deprive us of the power of the will  over certain
parts, as the heart, for instance; bul if this hypothesis
»ve:c well founded, they should be met xvith only in
nerves lending  to tuvolulitaiy muscles; whereas  it is
Certain that  the  Voluntary muscles  receive nerves
through ganglions.   Dr. Monroe, from observing the
accurate  intermixture of the minute nerves  which
compose them, considers them as new sources ol  ner-
 xous energy.  The nerves, like  the blood-vessels, in
their course thrmish Hie body, communicate with each
othei, and each of these communications  constitutes
 what is  called a  plexus,  from whence branches are
again detached to different parts of Ihe  boay.  The
 n- e of Hue nerves  is lo convey impressions to the brain
fiiin all parts of the system, and  the principles of 1110-
 t'on and sensibility from the brain to every part of the
system.    The  manner In xvhich  this  operation  is
effected is not yet determined.  The Inquiry  has been
n constant source uf  hypothesis  in all  ages, amHias
produced  some  ingenious ideas, and  many erroneous
positions, hm.without having hitherto afforded much
satisfaclorv  information.   Some physiologists  have
cnnside ed a trunk of nerves .is a solid cord, capable
      100
 of being divided inlo an infinite number of filaments
 by means of xvhich the impressions of feeling are cnn>
 veyed  to the common seiisoiiuin.  Others have sun-
 posed each fibril to be a canal, carrying a volatile flmu,
 xvhich they lerm the nervous fluid.  Those xvh., con
 tend for their being solid  bodies, are of opinion ihat
 feeling is  occasioned  by vibration; to that, for in-
 stance, according to this hypothesis,  by pricking the
 finger, a vibration would be occasioned in the nerve
 distributed  through its substance; and the effects of
 this vibration, when extended to the sensoriuni, would
 be an excital of pain;  but the inelasticity, the solt
 ness, the connexion, aud the situation of the nei i es,
 are so many proofs that  vibration  has no share in the
 cause of feeling.

              A Table of the Nerves.

                Cerebral Nerves.
   1. The first pair, called olfactory.
   2. The second pair, or optic nerves.
   3. The third pair, or oculorum motores.
   4. The fourth pair, or pathetici.
   5." The. fifth pair, or trigemini, which gives off,
   B.  The ophthalmic, or orbital nerve, which sends,
      1. A  branch to unite with one fiom  the sixth
       pair, and form the great intercostal nerve.
     2. The frontal nerve.
     3. The lachrymal.
     4. The nasal.
   b. The superior maxillary, which divides into,
     1. The spheno-palatine nerve.
     2. The posterior alveolar.
     3. The infra orbital.
   c The inferior maxillary nerve, from which arise,
     1. The internal linguul.
     2. The inferior maxillary, properly so called.
   6. The  sixth pair, or  abducenles,  which send off,
     1. A branch to unite with one fiom the tilth, and
        form tlie great intercostal.
   7. The  seventh  pair, or  auditory  nerves :  these
 arise by two separate beginnings, viz.
     The portio dura, a  nerve going to the face.
     The portio mollis, xvhich is distributed  on the
       ear.
     The portio dura, or facial nerve, gives off the
       chorda tympani, and linn proceeds to the face.
   8. The eighth pair, or par vagum, arise from Ihe
 medulla  oblongata, and  join with tlie accessory of
 Willis.   The par vaguin gives off,
     1. The right and left recurrent nerve.
     2. Several branches in  the chest, to form the ear
       diac plexus.
     3.  several branches to form the pulmonic plexus.
     ■t.  Several  branches  to  form  the oesophageal
       plexus.
     5.  il then forms in  the abdomen  the stomachic
       plexus.
     6.  The hepatic plexus.
     7. The splenic plexus.
     8 The renal  plexus, receiving several  branches
       from the great intercostal, which assists  in
       their formation.
     9. The ninth pair, or lingual nerves, which go
•roin the medulla oblongata lo Hi* tongue.
                 Spinal Nerves.
  Those nerves nre called  spinal, xvhich  pass  out
through the lateral oi interverlebial foramina of thn
spine.
  They are divided into cervical, dorsal, lumba-, and
sacral nerves.
                Cervical Nerves.
  The cervical nerves tire eight pans.
  The first are called  the occipital: tln-v arise from
the beginning of tlie spinal  mairoxv, pass "out betxvexa
the margin of  the oocinital foramen and atlas, form a
ganglion on  us transverse proa -s  and are distributed
about the occiput and neck.
  The second pair of cervical nerves send a branch to
the accessoiy nerve of Willis, and proceed lo the pa
rotid gland  and external our.
  The third cervical pair supply the integuments cf
the scapula, the  cuculh.ris, ,xnd 'triangularis muscles,
and send a  branch to torn, With olheis, the diaplnng
matic nerve.
  The fourth, fifth, sixth,  seventh, and eight'i  pair
all converge to lorm the brac'iiul plexus, from which
arise Ihe six following 
NKR
NER,
       Nuives or th« upper Extremities.
   1 The axillary nerve, wnich sonietimes arises from
 ihe radial nerve.  It runs backwards and  outwards
 around (lie neck of the humerus, and ramifies in the
 muscles of the scapula.
   2. The external  cutancal, which perforates the ca-
 raco-bracbialis muscle, to the bend of the arm, where
 it accompanies  the median vein as far as tlie thumb,
 and is lost in ils integuments.
   3. The internal cutanea1, xvhich  descends on the
 inside of  the arm, xvhere it bifurcates.  From tbe bend
 of the arm the  anterior branch accompanies the ba-
 silic vein, to be  iuseried  into the skin of the palm of
 the hand; tlie posterior branch runs down the internal
 part of the forearm, lo vanish iu the skin of the little
 linger.
   4. The  median nerx-e, wliich accompanies the bra-
 chial artery to the cubit, then passes  betxveen the bra-
 ehialis internus, pronator roluudus, and the perforatus
 and perforans, under tlie ligament of the xviist to the
 pnhu of the hand, xvhere il sends ofl branches in every
 direction to the muscles ofthe hand,  aud then supplies
 the digital nerves, which go to the extremities of the
 thumb, fore, and middle fingers.
   5. The  ulnar  nerve, wliich descends betw-een the
 brachial artery and basilic vein, between  the internal
 condyle of the humerus, and tlie  olecranon, and di-
 vides in the forearm into  an internal and  external
 branch.  The  former passes over  the ligament of the
 wrist and sesamoid bone, to the hand, where il divides
 into three branches, two of xvhich go to  the ring and
 little finger, and the tliird forms an arch towards (he
 thumb, in the palm of the hand, and  is losi iu the con-
 tiguous muscles.  Ttte latter  passes over the tendon
 of the extensor carpi ulnaris and back of the hand, tu
 supply also the two last lingers.
   U. The  radial  nerve xvhich  sometimes gives off the
 axillary nerve.   It passes backwards, about the os
 humeri, descends on the outside of the arm, between
 (he  braehialis  externus and internus muscles to the
 cubit:  ihen  proceeds betxveen the  supinator longus
 and brevis, to  tlie superior extremity of the radius,
 giving off xarious branches to adjacent muscles.  At
 this place it divides into txvo branches; one goes along
 the radius, between the supinator  longus and  radialis
 internus to the back ofllie hand, and terminates iu the
 nterosseous muscles, the thumb and first three fingers;
 the other passes between (he su|>iuator brevis and head
 of ihe radius, and is lost in the musclesof the fore-arm.
                 Dorsal Nerves.
   The  Dorsal  nerves  are twelve pairs  in  number.
 The first pair gives off a branch to  the brachial plexus.
 All the dorsal nerves are distributed to the muscles of
 the balk, intercostals, serrali, pectoral, abdominal mus-
 cles, and diaphragm.  The  fixe inferior pairs go to the
 cartilages of the ribs, and are called costal.
                 Lumbar  nerves.
  The five pairs of Lumbar nerves are bestowed about
 the loins and muscles, skin of the abdomen and loins,
 scrotum, ovaria, and diaphragm.   The second, third,
 and  fifth  pairs unite and form Ihe  obturator nerve,
 xvhich descends over the psoas muscle mm tiie pelvis,
 and passes through the foramen thyroideum lu tbe ob-
 turator muscle, triceps, pectineus, Ate.
   The third and fourth, with some  branches of the
 second pair, form the cruralnerve,  whicli  passes under
 Poupart's ligament with the femoral  artery,  sends off
 branches ta the adjacent parts, and descends  in the di-
 rection of the sartorius muscle lo the internal condyle
 of tbe femur, from whence it accompanies the saphena
 vein to tlie internal ankle, to be lost in the skin of the
 great toe.
   The fifth pair is joined to the first pair of the sacral
 nerves.  .
                 Sacral Nerves.
  There are five pairs of sacral nerves, all  of which
 arise  from the cauda equina, or termination of the
 medulla spinalis, so called from the nerves resembling
 the tail of  ahorse. The first four pairs give ofl'branches
 to the pelvic viscera, and are  afterward united to the
last lumbar, to form a large plexus, which gives off  *
  The ischiattc nerve, the  largest  in the body.  The
tschiatic nerve,  immediately at its  origin, sends off
branches to the bladder, rectum, aud parts of genera-
 tion • proceeds from the cavity of the pelvis through the
lach ia tie notch, between the tuberosity of the ischium
 uid i;real t.-ocl^anter, to the  liain. wliere il is called the
popliteal  nerve.   In  the ham  it divides into  two
biaiiches.
   1. The peroneal, wJiich descends on the fibula, and
distributes many branches to the muscles of the leg and
back of the foot.
   2. The  tibial,  xvhich  penetrates the  gastrocnenni
muscles lo the internal ankle, passes through a notch
iu the os calcis to the sole of the foot, where it divides
into ae internal and external plantar nerve,  which
supply the muscles and aponeurosis ofthe foot and thn
tCK's.
         Physiology of the Nervous system.
   The nervous system,ns the organ of sense  and mo
tion, is connected with so many funclionsof ihe animal
economy, that the study  of it must be of the uti«H
importance, and a fundamental part of the study ofthe
whole economy.  The nervous system consists nf the
medullary substance of the brain, ceiebellum, medulla
oblongata, and spinalis; ami of the same substance con-
tinued into the nerves by xvhich it is distributed to many
different parts of the body. The whole ol this n\ .-teui
scums to he properly distinguished into Ihese four parts.
   I. The meduliury substance contained in Hue cranium
and vertebral cavity; the whole of  which  seems to
consist of distinct fibres, but without the smaller fibres
being separated from each oilier by any evident enve-
loping membranes.
   2. Connected with one  part  or other of this substance
are, the nerves, iu which the same medullary substance
is continued; but  here  more evidently  divided  inlo
fibres, each of xvhich is separated  from  the others by
au enveloping membrane, derived from the pia mater
   3. Parts  of the extremities  of certain nerves, in
whicli the medullary substance  is dives led of the en-
veloping membranes from the pia mater, and so situ-
ated as to be exposed to  the action of certain external
bodies, and perhaps so framed as to bo affected by the
action of certain  bodies only; these .are named the
sentient extremities ofthe nerves.
   4. Certain e.vtremitiesof the nerves,so framed as to be
capable of a peculiar contractility; and, incoiiseuuence
of their situations aud attachments to be, by their con-
traction, capable of moving most of tlie solid and fluid
parts of the  body.  These are named Ihe moving ex-
tremities of the nerves.
   These several parts of  the nervous system are every
ix'here the same continuous medullary substance, which
is supposed io be the vital solid of animals, so constitute J
in living animals, and in living systems only, as to admit
of motions being readily propagated from  any  one
part to every other part of the nervous system, so long
as the continuity and  naturally living slate of the  me-
dullary substance remains. In the living man therein
an immaterial thinking substance,  or mind, constantly
present, aud  every phenomenon of thinking  is to be
considered us an affection or faculty of the mind alone.
But this immaterial and thinking part of man is so con-
nected with the mate ial and corporeal  part of him,
and particularly xvith the  nervous system, that moliom
excited iu this give occasion  tn thought, and thought,
hoxx-ever occasioned, gives occasion to nexv motions n
the nervous system.  This mutual  conium nication, or
influence, is assumed xvith confidence as a fact: but the
mode of it xve do not  understand,  nor pretend lo ex-
ptain ;  and therefore nre not bound lo  obviate the dif-
ficulties that attend any of line suppositions which haii*
been made concerning it.   The phenomena ofthe ne»-
vous system appear commonly in the following order:
The impulse  of external  bodies acts upon the "sentie.it
extremities of the nerves; and this gives occasion to
perception  or thought, xvhich, as  first aiising in  the
mind, is termed sensation.  This sensation, accoidir.g
to its various modifications, gives occasion to volition,
or the willing of  certain  ends to be obtained by the
motion of certain  parts ofllie body; and ihis volitio-i
gives occasion to the contraction of muscular fibres, hy
which the motion of the part required is produced.  As
the impulse of bodies on  the sentient  extremeie.i of a
nerve does not occasion any sensation, unless ihe nerve
between the sentient extremity and the brain be free;
and as, in like manner, violitiou does  not produce any
contraction of muscles, unless the  nerve between tfia
brain and muscle be also free; it is concluded from
both these facts lhat sensation and volition, so far as
they are connected with  corporeal  motions, are func
ttons of Ihe brain alone; and it is  presumed that sensa-
tion arises only in consequence of external impulse
                                         101 
                        NER

 producing motion  in the sentient extremities of the
 nerves, and of that motion being thence propagated
 along the nerves ofthe brain; and, in like manner, that
 the will operating in the brain only, by a motion begun
 tliere, and propagated along the nerves, produces ihe
 contraction  of muscles.  From xvhat is now said, xve
 perceive more distinctly the different functions of the
 several parts of the nervous system.  1. The sentient
 extremities seem to be particularly fitted to receive the
 impressions of external  bodies; and according to the
 difference of these impressions, and ofthe condition ol
 Ihe sentient extremity itself, to  propagate along the
 ■erves motions of a determined kind, which commu-
 Micated to the brain,  give occasion to sensation.  2.
 The brain seems to be  a part fitted for, and susceptible
 Of, those motions with which sensation, and the whole
 consequent operations of  thought, are connected: and
 thereby is lilted lo form a communication betxveen the
 motions excited in the sentient,  and those in conse-
 quence arising in the moving extremities of the nerves,
 which are often remote and distant  from each  other.
 3. The moving extremities are so framed as  to be ca-
 pable of contraction, and of having this contraction
 excited by motion propagated from the bruin, and com-
 municated to  the  contractile fibre.  4. The nerves,
 more strictly so called, are to be considered as a collec-
 tion of  medullary fibres, each enveloped in its  proper
 meinbraiic, and thereby so separated from every other,
 as hardly to admit of any communication of motion
 from any one to the others, and to admit only of motion
 along the continuous medullary substance of the same
 fibre, from its origin to the extremities, or contraryxvise.
 From this view of the parts of the nervous system, of
 their several functions and communication xvith each
 other, it appears that the beginning of  motion  in the
 animal economy is generally connected xvith sensation:
and that the ultimate effects of such motion are  chiefly
actions  depending  immediately  upon the contraction
of moving fibres, between which  and the sentient ex-
 tremities, the communication is by means of the bruin.
  B. In botany: the term nerve is applied to a  cluster
of vessels that runs like a rib or chord on certain leaves;
as that of tlie Laurus cinnamomum, and Arctium lappa.
  Ne'rvea  sponoiosa.  The cavernous part of tbe
 penis.
  NERVINE.   (Nervinus; from nervus,  a nerve.)
 Neurotic. That xvhich relieves disorders of the nerves.
 All the  antispasmodics, and the  various prepaiations
of bark and iron
  Nervo'rum  resolutio.   Apoplexy ana palsy have
been so considered.
  NERVOSUS. Nervous.  1.  Applied, in medicine,
lo fevers and affections of the nervous system
  2. In  anatomy:  to the structure of parts being com-
 posed of, or  resembling a nerve.
  3. In  botany: to leaves xvhich have nervelike cords.
   Nervosum os.   The occipital bone.
  NERVOUS.  See Ncrvosus.
  Nervous consumption.  See Atrophia.
  Nervous diseases.  See Neuroses.
  Nervous fever.  See Febris nervosa.
  Nervous headache.  See Cephalalgia.
   Nervous  fluio.   Nervous principle.  The vascu-
 larity  of the cortical part of the brain, and  of the
 nerves  themselves,  their  softness,  pulpiness,  aud
 natural humid appearance, give reason  to believe lhat
 between the medullary particles of which  they are
 principally composed, a line fluid is constantly secreted
 which  may be fitted to  receive  and transmit, even
 more readily than oihei lluidsdo, all impressions which
 are made  on it. It appears to exhale from the extre-
 mities  of the  nerves.  The  lassitude nnd debility of
 muscles from too great exerciso, and the  dulness of the
 sensorial organs from excessive  use, would -vein to
 prove this.  It has no smell nor taste; lor the cerebrine
 medulla is  insipid  and inodorous.   Nor has  it any
 colour, for the cerebrum and nerves are w hite.  It is of
 fo subtile a consistence, ns never to have been detecled.
 Its mobility is  stupendous, for in less than a moment,
 with the consent *>f the mind, it is conveyed Ironi the
 cerebrum to the muscles, like the electric mailer.  Whe-
 ther Ihe nervous fluid be carried from  the  organ of
 pense iu the sensorial nerves to the cerebrum, and Irnm
 thence in  the moiury nerves to thr muscles, cannot be
 positively iilfinued.   The  constituent  principles of
 this liquid arc perfectly  unknoxvn, as they cannoi be
 •onacred  visible  hy  art, or proved by experiment.
      102
                       NIC

 Upon making a ligature upon a nerve, the motion of
 the fluid  is interrupted, which proves that something
 corporeal flows through it.  It is therefore  a weak ar-
 gument to deny its existence because we cannot see it;
 for xvho has seen the mailer of heat, oxygen, azote, and
 other elementary bodies, the existence of which, nn
 physician  in  the present  day doubts 1  The e'.eclric
 matter, xvhose action on the nerves is very great, does
 not appear to constitute the nervous fluid ; for nerves
 exhibit no signs  of spontaneous electricity; nor can
 it be the magnetic matter, as the experiment of Gavian
 with  the magnet demonstrates: nor is it oxygen, nor
 hydrogen, nor  azote; for the first very much irritates
 the nerves, and the other txvo suspend  their action.
 The nervous fluid, therefore, is an clement sui generis,
 which exists aud is produced in the nerves only:  hence,
 like other elements, it  is only to be knoivn by its ef-
 fects.  The pulpous softness of some nerves, and their
 lax situation, does not allow them and the brain to act
 on  the body and soul only by oscillation.  Lastly, a
 tense chord, although tied, oscillates.  The use of tlie
 nervous fluid is, 1. It appears to be an intermediate sub
 stance between the body and  the  soul, by means of
 which the latter thinks,  perceives, and moves the inns
 cles subservient  to the  will.   Hence, the  body acts
 upon  the  soul, and the soul upon the body.  2.  It ap
 pears to differ from the  vital principle; for parts live
 and arc irritable which want nerves, as bones, tendons
 plants, and insects.
  Nervous principle.  See Nervous fluid,
  Ne'stis.  (Fromviy, neg. and todtu, to eat; so called
 because it is generally found empty.)  The jejunum.
  NETTLE.   See Urtica.
  Nettle, dead.  See Lamium album
  Nettle-rask.  See Urticaria.
  NEURALGIA.  (From vtvpov, a nerve, and aXyos,
 pain.)  1. A pain in a nerve.
  2. fhe name of a genus of diseases, in Good's No-
 sology. Class, Neurotica: Order,  Asthctica; nerve-
 ache.   It has  tliree species, Neuralgia faciei, pedis,
 mamma.
  Neurochondro'des.  {From vtvpov, asinew.^ovopos,
 a cartilage, and ttSos-. resemblance.)  A hard substance
 betxveen a sinew and a cartilage.
  NEUROLOGY.  (Neurologia; from vtvpov, a nerve,
 and Xoyos, a discourse.)   The doctrine ofthe nerves.
  Neurome'tores. (From  vtvpov, a nerve, and pn-
 rpa, a matrix.)  The psoas muscles are so cnl'«>d by
 Fallopius, as being the repository of many small nerves.
  NEC ROSES.   (The plural of neurosis; from vtv-
 pov, a nerve.)  Nervous diseases.   The second  class
 of Cullen's Nosology is so called; it  comprehends
 affections  of sense and motion disturbed-without
either idiopathic pyrexia, or topical diseases. '
  NEUROTICA. (From vtvpov, a nerve.)  The name
of a class of diseases in Good's Nosology.  Diseases of
the nervous s\ slem.  It  comprehends four orders, viz.
Phrcnica ;  ^-Esthetic*;   Cinclira; Systatica.
  Neurotica.   (From ttvoov,  a   nerve.)   Nervous
medicines.
  NEUROTOMY.  (Neurotomia;  from  vtvpov,  a
nerve, and  rtpvu,  to   cul."i  1. A  dissection of the
nerves.
  2. A puncture of a nerve.
  NEUTRAL.  A term applied  to saline compounds
of an  acid  and an alkali, xvhich are  so called, because
they do not possess the characters of acid or alkaline
salts;  such are Epsom  salts, nitre,  and all the com
pounds ofthe alkalies iviih the acids.
  NEUTRALIZATION.  When acid and alkaline
matter aie combined in such proportions, that the com-
pound does not change the colour of litmus or violets,
they are said to be neutralmd.
  Ne'xus.  (From  necto, to xvind.)  A complication
of substances in one part, as the membrane xvhich in-
volves the foetus.
  NICHOLS,  Frank, xvas horn in London, where his
father xvas a barrister, in 1699.   After passing through
the usual  academical exercises at  Oxford xvith greal
assiduity,  he chose  medicine for his profession ; and
pursued a  course of dissections with so much diligence
and perseverance, as to render himself highly skilfui in
this branch of his art.  Hence he xvas chosen reader of
anatomy in the university, xvhen- he used his utmost
endeavours to  introduce a zeal for this pursuit, and
 obtained a high reputation.  At the close of his coiuso
 he made a short trial of practice in Cornwall and sub 
NIC
NIG
sequerrt.y paid a visit to the principal schools of France
ami Inly.  On his return  he resumed his anatomical
and physiological lectures in Loudon, xvhich were frc-
qi.ttiled, not only by students  from the universities,
but also by many surgeons, apothecaries, and others.
In 1728 he was chosen a felloxv of the Royal Society,
to xvhich he communicated several  papers; and shortly
afler  he received his doctor's  degree at Oxford, aud
became a fellow of the College of Physicians. Iu 1734,
he was appointed lo read the Gulstouiau lectun s, and
chose ihe Heart aud Circulation, foe his subjects.  In
1743,  he married one of the daughters of the celebrated
Dr. Mead.  About five years after he xvas  appointed
lecturer on surgery to the college, and began his course
xvith a learned and elegant dissertation on the " Anima
Medica,"  xvhich was afterward published.   On the
death of Sir Hans  Sloaue in 1753, Dr. Nichols was ap-
pointed his successor as one  of  the King's physicians;
which olficc he held till the death of his Majesty, seven
years  alter.   To a second edition of the  Itemise, " De
Anima Medica," iu 1772, he  added  a dissertation, " lie
Motu  Cordis et Sanguinis in Ilomine uatoet non nato."
Weary al length with his profession, and xvishing to
superintend the  education of his son al  Oxford, he re-
moved lo that city:  and xvhen Ihe study of the law
it-called his son to London, the  Doctor took a house at
E|<som, where he passed  the remainder of  his lite in
literary retirement.  He died in 177ti.
  Nicked leaf.   See Emargtnatus.
  NICKEL.  A  metal di.-covi red by Cronstedt in 1751.
though the substance from whirh he extracted it xvas
known in the year 161)4.  Nickel  is found  in nature
generally iu the  metallic stale,  more rarely in that of
an oxide.  Its ores haxe a coppery-red colour, generally
cox ered more or less xvith a greenish-gray elHorescence.
The most abundant ore is  that termed sulpkurct of
nickel, or kupfernickel, xvhich is a compound  of nickel,
arsenic, sulphuret of iron, and sonietimes cobalt and
copper.  This ore occurs either massive, or dissemi-
nated, but never crystallized; it is of a copper colour,
sometimes yelloxvish, xvhile, or gray.   It exists  also
combined xvith  oxygen, and a  little  carbonic acid, in
what is called native oxide of nickel (nickel  ochre) ;  il
then has an earthy appearance, and is very' friable;  it
is found coating kupfernickel, and seems to originate
from tilt decomposition of this ore.  It is found con-
taminated  xvith iron in the mineral substance called
martial nickel; this native combination, when fresh
broken, has a lamellated texture; xvhen exposed to the
air, it soon turns black, and sometimes exhibits thin
rhomboidal plates placed  irregularly over each  other.
It is also found united to arsenic, cobalt, and alumine
in the ore, called arseniate of nickel.
■  Nickel is  a metal of great hardness, of a uniform
texture, and of a colour between silver and  tin ; very
difficult to be purified, and  magnetical. It even ac-
quires polarity by the touch.  It is malleable, both cold
and redhot;  and is scarcely more fusible Ihan manga-
nese,   lis oxides, when pure, are  reducible  by a  suf-
ficient heal without combustible matter;  and it is liltle
more  tarnished  by heating in  contact with  air, than
platina, cold, and silver.  Its  specific gravity, xvhen
cast, is s!27n ; when forged, 8.000
  Nickel is commonly obtained from ils  sulphuret, the
kupfernickel  of the Germans, iu whicli  il is generally
mixed also xvith arsenic,  iron, and  cobalt.  This is
first roasted, to drive off the  sulphur and arsenic, thou
mixed xvith txvo partsof black flux, put into a crucible,
covered with muriate  of  soda, and heated iu a  forge
furnace.  The metal thus obtained, xvhich is still very
impure,  must be dissolved  iu dilute nitric  acid, anil
then evaporated to dryness; and after this process has
been repeated three or four times,  the residuum must
be dissolved  iu  a solution of ammonia, perfectly free
from carbonic acid.  Being  again  evaporated to dry-
ness,  it is now to be well  mixed  xvith two or  tliree
parts  of black flux, and exposed to a violent heat in a
crucible for half an hour or  more.
  There are txvo oxides of nickel;  the dark ash-gray,
and the black.   If potassa be added to the solution of
the nitrate or sulphate, and the precipitate  dried, xve
obtain the proloxide.  The peroxide xvas formed by
Thenard, by passing chlorine  through  the  protoxide
diffused iu xvater.  A black insoluble peroxide remains
at ihe bottom.
  Little is known ofthe chloride, iodide sulphuret, or
phosphuret of this metal.
  The salts of nickel  possess the following-  general
characters.  They have usually a green colour, and
yield a white precipitate with ferroprussiateof potassa
Ammonia dissolves the oxide of nickel.  Sulphuretted
hydrogen and infusion of galls occasion no precipitate.
The hydrosiilphuiet of potassa throws down a black
precipitate.  Their composition has been very impcr
fectly ascertained.
  Nieo'i'iioRus.  (From i>txn, victory, nnd  qjtpu, to
hear: so called because victors were crowned with it)
A kind of ivv.
  NICOTI ANA.   (From Nicott, who first brought it
into Europe.)   Tobacco.
  1. The name of a genus nf plants in ihe  Linnaean
system.  Class, Pentandria; Order, Monogynia.
  2. The former pliarniacopaeial name of the tobacco
See Nicotiana tabacum.
  Nicotiana  americana.  American  or  Virginian
lobneco.  See Nicotiana tabacum.
  Nicotiana minor.   See Nicotiana  rustica.
  Nicotiana rusticx.  The systematic name of tho
English tobacco.  Nicotiana minor;  I'rinpeia; Hy
osc'i/amiis litteus.   This plant is much  weaker than the
Vu'sinian tobacco, the leaves are cbk-fly used to smoke
vermin, though they promise, from  their more  gentle
operation, to be a safer remedy in some cases than the
former.
  Nuotiana tabacum.  The systematic nnine of the
Virginian tobacco-plant. J'etnm, by the Indians;  Ta
bacuta ; Hyoscyiimus peruvianas ; Picrll. Nicotiana
—foliis lanceoluto-ovatis sessilibus  decurrcntilius flo-
rentibus acutis, of Linnaeus, is the  plant employed
medicinally   It is a very artix-e narcotic, and sternu-
tatory.  A decoction of the leaves is much esteemed  in
some diseases  of the skin, and  is by some said to be
a specific against the itch.  The  fumes and the decoc
tion are employed in  obstinate constipations of the
bowels, and very frequently with success; ii is neces-
sary,  however, to caution the  practitioner against an
effect mostly produced  by its exhibition,  namely, syn-
cope, xvith cold sxveals; and, in some instances, death.
Vauquelin has obtained a peculiar principle from this
plant, in xvhich its active properties reside.   See Ni-
colin.
  NICOTIN.   A peculiar principle obtained by Vau-
quelin, from tobacco.   His colourless, and has the pe-
culiar taste  and smell of the plant.   It dissolves both
in xvater and alkohol:  il is volatile and poisonous.
  (_" Evaporate the expressed  juice to oue-lburth ite
bulk; and,  xvhen cold, strain it through fine  linen-
evaporate nearly to dryness; digest the residue in al
kohol, filter and  evaporate  to dryness;  dissolve thn
again in alkohol,  and  again reduce il to a thy state
Dissolve the residue in  water, saturate the acid whic'i
it contains  xvith  xveak solution  of potassa,  inlroduu
the whole into a retort, and distil to dryness, redissolve
and again dissolve three  or four times  successively
The nicotin xvill thus pass into  the leceiver, dissolved
in water, from which  solution it may be obtained by
very gradual evaporation."— Wilis. Man. of Chem. A.]
  N1CTITATIO.  Twinkling,  or  winking nf the
eyes.
  NIDULANS.  (From nidulor, to place in a nest.)
Nidulate: applied to the seeds of some  fruits, which
are imbedded on their  surface; as those of the straw-
berry.
  NIGELLA.  (Quasi nigrclla; from m'^cr,  black:
so named from its black seed.)
  1. The name of a genus of plants in the Linnaean
system.  Class, Polyandria; Order, Pcntagynia.
  2. The  pliaimacopoeial name of  the plant  called
devil-iu-a-bush, or fennel-flower.
  Nigella  officinarum.  See Agroslemma-githago
  NiotLLA  sativa. The systematic name of the devil
in-a-bush.   Fennel-flower.  Melanthium;  Melasper-
mum.  Il xvas  formerly employed medicinally as an
expectorant and deobstruent, bul is  now fallen into
disuse.
  Niuella'strum.  (From  nigella, fennel floxver.'
See Agrostcmma githago-
  NIGER.  Black.  Applied to some parts and dis
eases  from their  colour;  as  Pigmcntum  nigrum
morbus niger.
  NIGHT.  Nox.  Many diseases and plants  hax:
this for llieir trivial name, because of some  peculit
circumstance  connected xvith  tlie  period; as  iiigjj
mare nightshade. Sec
                                         103 
NIT
NIT
  Night blindness.  See Nyctalopia.
  Nightmare.  See Oneirodynia gravans.
  NIGHTSHADE.   See  Solanum, Phytolacca, and
 itropa.
  Nightshade, American.  See Phytolacca decandria.
  Nightshade, deadly.  See Atropa belladonna.
  Nightshade, Palestine.  See Solanum sanctum.
  Night shade,woody.  See Solanum dulcamara.
  N1GRINE.  An ore of titanium.
  Niori'ties.  (From  niger,  black.)    A  caries  is
 sailed nigrities ossium, a blackness of the bone.
  Ni'hilum  album.  Nihil aibum.  A name formerly
 given to the flowers, or oxide of zinc.
  Ni'nzi radix.  See Sium ninsi.
  Ni'nzin.   See Sium ninsi.
  NIPPLE.  Papilla.  The small projecting  propor-
 tion in  the middle of the breasts of men and xvoinen.
 It is much larger  in the latter, and has several open-
 ings in it, the excretory ducts of the lacteal glands.
  NIPPLE-WORT.  See  Lapsana.
  NISUS FORMATIVUS.  (Nisus, us. m.)  A cre-
 ative or formative eflbrt.
  NITIDUS. Polished, smooth, shining: applied  in
 botany  to stems, &c.; as  in  the Chaerophyllum syl-
 vestre.  See  Caulis.
  Nitras ammonia:.   See Ammonia nitras.
  Nitras argenti.   See Argenti nitras.
  Nitras potass,*:.  See Nitric acid.
  Nitras potass* fusus.  Sal prunella;  Nitrum
 labulatum.  This salt, besides the nitric acid and po-
 tassa, contains a little sulphuric acid.  See Nitric acid.
  Nitras sodj:.  Alkali minerale nitratum; Nitrum
 cubicum.  Its virtues are similar to those of nitrate of
 potassa, for xvhich ii may be safely substituted.
  NITRATE.   (Nitras, atis, f.; from nitrum, nitre.)
 A sail formed by the union of the nitric acid, xvith
 salifiable bases;  as the nittate of potassa, soda, silver,
 &c.
  Nitrate of potassa.  See Nitric acid.
  Nitrate of silver.  See Argenti nitras.
  NITRE.  Nt"]pov.   Nitrum : Potassa nitras ; Salt-
petra; Alaurat; Algali; Atac ; Baurack ; Acusto;
 Halimlrnm.   The common name for saltpetre or the
 nitrate of potassa.  A  perfect neutral salt, formed by
 the union of  the nitric acid xvith  the vegetable alkali,
thence called  nitrate of potassa.  Its taste is cooling,
 and it does not alter the colour of the syrup of violets.
 Nitre exists in large quantities in the earth, and is con-
 tinually formed in inhabited places; it is found in great
quantities upon walls which  are sheltered from the
 rain.  It is of great use in the arts; it is the principal
 ingredient in gunpoxvder;  and, burned wilh different
proportions of tartar, forms  the substances called
fluxes.  It  is of  considerable importance in medicine,
 as a  febrifuge,  diuretic, and  antiphlogistic remedy,
 in doses of from five to twenty  grains.  Sec Nitric
 acid.
  NITRIC  ACID. Acidum  nitricum.   "Tfce  two
 principal constituent parts  of  our atmosphere, xvhen
 in certain proportions, are capable, under particular
 circumslances, of combining chemically into one of
 the most powerful acids, the nitric.   If these gases
 bo mixed in a proper proportion in a glass tube about
 a line in diameter, over  mercury, and a series of elec-
 tric shocks be passed through them for some hours,
 they will form nitric acid;  or,  if a solution of potassa
 be present with them, nitrate of potassa xvill be obtain-
ed.    The constitution of  this acid  may bo further
 proved,  analytically, by driving it through a red-hot
 porcelain tube, as thus it will be decomposed into oxy-
gen and nitrogen  gasos.   For all practical purposes,
however,  the nitric acid is obtained from nitrate of"
potassa, from which it is expelled by sulphuric acid.
  Three parts of pure nitrate of potassa,  coarsely
 powdei ed, are to be put into a glass retort, xvith two of
strong sulphuric acid.   This must becautiously added,
taking care to avoid the fumes lhat arise.  Join to tin-
retort a tubulated receiver of large capacity, wilh an
adupter interposed, and lute  the junctures xvith glazier's
putty.  In the tubulure fix a glass tube, terminating in
another  large receiver, in which is a small quantity of
xvater; and  if you xvish to collect the gaseous  pro-
ducts, let a bent  glass tube  from this receiver commu-
nicate xvith a pneumatic  trough.  Apply heat to the
receiver by means of  a sand bath.  The first product
lhat [.uses into  the receiver is generally red and fum-
ing;  but the  appearances gradually dimmish, till the
      lot
 acid comes over pale, and even colourless, if the mat*
 rials used were clean.   After this it again become*
 more and more red and fuming, till the end of the ope-
 ration ;  and the whole mingled together  will be of a
 yellow or orange colour.
   Empty the receiver, and again replace it.  Then in
 troduce  by a small funnel, very cautiously, one part of
 boiling water in a slender stream, and  continue  ihe
 distillation.  A small quantity of a weaker  acid  wil
 thus be obtained, which can be kept apart.  The first
 will have a specific gravity of about 1.500, if the heat
 have been properly  regulated, and if the  receiver  xvas
 refrigerated by cold   xvater or  ice.  Acid of that den-
 sity, amounting to   two-thirds of the weight of  the
 nitre, may thus be procured.   But commonly the hea'
 is pushed too high, xvhence more or less of flu- acid is
 decomposed, and its proportion of water uniting lo the
 remainder, reduces its strength.  It is not  profitable to
 use a smaller proportion  of sulphuric acid, when a
 concentrated nitric is required.  But  when only a di-
 lute acid, called in commerce aquafortis, is  requiied,
 then less sulphuric acid will suffice, provided a portion
 of water be added.  One hundred parts of good nitre,
 sixty of strong  sulphuric acid, and twenty of water,
 form economical proportions.
   In the large way,  and  for the purposes of the arts
 extremely thick cast iron or earthen retorts are employ
 ed, to xvhich an earthen head is adapted, and connect
 ed xvith a rang ■ of proper condensers. The strengtl
 of the acid too is varied, by putting more or less xvatex
 in the receivers.  The nitric acid thus made general)]
 contains  sulphuric acid, and also muriatic, from  thi
 impurity of the niirate employed.  If the former, a
 solution  of nitrate of barytes will occasion  a xvhile
 precipitate ; if the latter,  nitrate of silver xvill render
 it milky.  The sulphuric acid  may be  separated by a
 second distillation from very pure nitre, equal in weight
 to an eighth of that originally  employed;  or by preci-
 pitating xvith nitrate  of" barytes, decanting the  clear
 liquid, and  distilling it.  The muriatic acid may  be
 separated by proceeding in the same way  wilh nitrate
 of silver, or xvith litharge, decanting the  clear liquid,
 and redistilling it, leaving an eighth or tenth part in the
 retort.  The acid for the last process should be con-
 densed as much as possible, and the redistillation con-
 ducted very slowly;  and if it be stopped when half is
 come over, beautiful  crystals of muriate of lead will
 be  obtained  on cooling  the remainder, if litharge be
 used, as  Sieinacher informs us; xvho  also adds, that
 the vessel should be  made to  fit tight by grinding, as
 any lute is liable to contaminate the product.
  As this acid still  holds in solution more or less ni-
 trous gas, ii is  not in fact nitric acid, but a kind of
 nitrous.   It  is, therefore, necessary to put it into  a  re-
 tort, to xvhich a receix-er is added, the  two vessels not
 being luted, and lo apply a very gentle heat for several
 hours, changing the receiver as soon as it is filled wilh
 red vapours.  The nitrous gas xvill thus be expelled,
 and  the  nitric acid will remain in the retort as limpid
 and colourless as xvater.   It should be kept in a bottle
 and secluded from the light, otherwise  it xvill  lose part
 of its oxygen.
  What  remains in  the retort is  a bisulphate of  po-
 tassa, from wliich the  superfluous acid may be expelled
 by a pretty  strong heat, and the residuum, being dis
 solved and crystallized, will be  sulphate of potassa.
  As niiric acid in a fluid state is alxvays mixed xvith
 xvator, different attempts have been made  to ascertain
 its strength,  or the quantity of real acid contained
 in it.
 rThe nitric acid is  of considerable use in the arts
 It is employed for etching on copper; as a solvent of
 tin  to form xvith that  metal a mordant for  some of  the
 finest dyes; in metallurgy and assaying ; in various
 chemical  processes, on account of the facility  xvith
 xvhich it  parts xvith oxygen, and  dissolves metals-  in
 medicine as a tonic, and as a substitute for mercurial
 preparations  in  syphilis and affections of  the iivcr, aa
 also  in form of vapour to destroy contagion.  For tht
 purposes of the  arts  it is commonly used  in a diluted
state, and contaminated with the sulphuric and muri-
 atic acids, by the name ol" aquafortis.   This  is. gene
 rally prepared by mixing common  nitre wilh ai> e^ual
weight of sulphate of iron, and half lis iveigntof the
same sulphate calcined, and distil ing the mixture; or
 by mixing nitre xvith nvice its weight of dry powdere!
clay, and distilling in  a reverbcra' irv '".» nace  Two 
NIT                                              NIT
 kinds are found in the shops, one called double aqua-
 fortis, which is about half the strength of nitric icid ;
 tlie otlier simply aquafortis, wliich is half the strength
 of the double.
   A compound made by mixing txvo parts of Ihe nitric
 acid  xvith one  of muriatic, knoxvn formerly by  the
 name of aqua regia, and now by that of nitro-muriatic
 acid, has the property of dissolving gold and platina.
 On mixing the two acids, heat is given out, an effer-
 vescence takes  place, and the mixture acquires nn
 orange colour. This is likewise made by adding gradu-
 ally to an ounce of poxvdercd muriate of ammonia four
 punces of double aquafortis, and  keeping the mixture
 in a sand heat till  the salt is dissolved; taking care to
 avoid the fumes, as the vessel must be left open ; or by
 distilling  nitric  acid xvith an equal weight, or  rather
 more, of common salt.
  On this subject  we are indebted to Sir II. Davy for
 some excellent observations, published by him  in  the
 first volume of the Journal of Science. Ifsirong nitrous
 acid, saturated with nitrous gas, be mixed xvith a sa-
 turated solution of muriatic acid gas, no other effect is
 produced than might be ex pec led from the acthM of
 nitrous acid of the same strength on an equal quantity
 of water; and the mixed acid so formed has no power
 of action on gold or piatina.  Again, if murialic acid
 gas, and  nitrous gas,  in equal volumes, be  mixed to-
 gether over mercury,  and  half a volume  of  oxygen be
 added, the immediate condensation  will be no more
 than might be expected from the  formation  of nitrous
 acid gas.  And when this is decomposed, or absorbed
 by the mercury,  the muriatic acid gas is found unalter-
 ed, mixed with a certa.u porlicui ol nitrous gas.
  tt appears then thai nitrous acid, and murialic acid
 gas, have no chemical action on each other.  If colour-
 less  nitric arid and  muriatic acid  of commerce be
 mixed together, the mixture immediately  becomes yel-
 low, and sains the power of dissolving gold and plati-
 num.  If it be gently  heated, pure chlorine arises from
 it, and the colour becomes deeper.  If the heat be
 longer continued, chlorine still rises, but mixed wilh ni-
 trous acid gas.  When the process has been very  long
 continued till the  colour becomes very deep, no more
 chlorine  can be procured, and it loses  ils  poxver of
 acting upon platinum  and gold.  It is noxv nitrous and
 muriatic  acids.  It appears then from these observa-
 tions, which have  been very often repeated, that nitro-
 murialic acid owes its peculiar properties to a mutual
 decomposition  of the nitric and  muriatic acids; and
 that water, chlorine, and nitrous  acid gas, are the re-
 sults. Though nitrous gas and chlorine have no action
 on  each  other  when perfectly dry, yet if  xvater be
 present, there is an immediate decomposition, and ni-
 trous acid nod muriatic acid are funned.   118 parts of
 strong liquid nitric acid being decomposed in Ihis case,
 yield 67 of chlorine.   Aqua regia does not oxidise gold
 and platina.  It merely causes their combination xvilh
 chlorine.
  A bath made of nitro-muriatic acid, diluted so much
 as to taste no sourer than vinegar, or of such  a strength
 as to prick the skin a  little, after being exposed to it for
 txventy minutes  or half an hour,  has been introduced
 by Dr. Scottof Bombay as a remedy in chronic syphilis,
 a variety of ulcers and diseases  of the skin, chronic
 hepatitis, bilious dispositions, general debility, and  lan-
 guor   He considers every trial as quite  inconclusive
 xvhere a ptyalism,  some affection ofthe gums, or some
 very evident constitutional effect, has not arisen from
 it.  The  internal use ofthe same acid has been recom-
 mended to be conjoined with that of the partial or  ge-
 neral bath.
  With the different  bases the nitric acid  forms  m-
 trates.
  The nitrate of barytes, when perfectly pure, is in re-
 gular octahedral crystals, though  it is sometimes ob-
 tained in small shining scales.
  The nitrate of potassa is Ihe salt well known by the
 name of nitre or saltpetre.   It is found ready formed in
 the East Indies, in Spain, in the  kingdom of Naples,
 and elsewhere, in considerable quantities; but nitrate
of lime is still more abundant.   Far the greater part of
the nitrate made use  of is produced by a combination
of circumstances xvhich tend to compose and condense
nitric acid.  This  acid appears to be produced in all
situations where animal matters  are completely de-
composed xvith access of air, and  of proper substances
 with which  it can readily combine.   Giounds  fre-
quently trodden by cattle, and impregnated with their
excrements,or the walls of inhabited places, where pu-
trid animal vapours abound, such as slaughter-houses,
drains, or the like, afford nitre by long exposure to the
air. Artificial  nitre beds are made by an ultetition to
the circumstances in which  this salt is  produced  by
nature.   Dry ditches are dug, and covered wilh sheds
open at the side, to keep off ihe rain.  These ait tilled
xvith animal substances, such as dung, or other excre
incuts, xvith the remains of vegetables, and old morta.,
or other  loose calcareous earth; this substance being
found to be the best  and most convenient receptacle
for the  acid to combine with.   Occasional watering,
and turning up from lime to lime, are necessary to ac-
celerate Ihe  process, and increase the surfaces io which
the air may apply ; but too much moisture is hurtful
When a certain portion of nitrate is formed, the pro
cess appears to go  on  more quickly ; bul a  certain
quantity stops  it altogether;  and after this cessation,
the  materials xvill go onto furnish more, if xvhat  is
formed be extracted by lixivialiun.   After a succession
of many months, more  or less,  accordion to the ma-
nagement of the operation, in whicli ihe action of a re-
gular curicnt of fresh air is ofthe greatest importance,
nitre is found in the mass. If the beds contained much
vegetable matter, a considerable portion of the nitrous
salt will be common saltpetre;  but if otherwise, the
acid v. ill, for the most part, be combined  xvilh ihe cal-
careous earlh.  It consists of  0.73 acid -f- 6 potassa.
  Tu extract  the  saltpetre from the mass of earthy
matter, a number of large casks are prepared, xvith a
cock at tlie  bottom of each,  and a quantity of straw
within, lo prevent its being stopped up.  Into these the
matter is put, together xvilh wood-ashes, eitlier strewed
at top, or added during  the filling.  Boiling water  is
then poured on, and suffered to stand for some time ;
afler which  it is drawn off, and another water added
in the same manner, as  long as any saline matter can
be  thus  extracted.  The xveak brine  is heated, and
passed through other tubs, until it  becomes of consi-
derable strength.  It is then carried to the boiler, and
contains nitre and otlier salts; the chief of whicli is
common culinary salt, and sometimes muriate of mag-
nesia.  It is the property of nitre to be  much more so-
luble in hot than-cold xvater;  but common salt is very
nearly as soluble in cold  as in hot water.  Whenever,
therefore, the evaporation is carried by boiling to a
certain point, much of the common sail, xvill fall io the
bottom, for want of xvater to hold it in solution, though
the nitre xvill remain suspended by virtue of the heat.
The common salt thus separated is taken out with a
perforated ladle, and a small quantity of Ihe  fluid  is
cooled, from time  to time, that  its concentration may
be known by the nitre which crystallizes in it.  When
the fluid  is sufficiently evaporated, it is taken out and
cooled, and  a great part of the nitre separates in crys-
tals ; xvhile the remaining common salt continues dis-
solved, because equally soluble in cold and  in hot
xvater.  Subsequent  evaporation of ihe  residue will
separate more nitre in the same manner.  By the sug-
gestion of Lavoisier, a much simpler plan was adopted;
reducing the crude nitre to poxvder, and washing  i<
twice with water.
  This nitre, which Is called  nitre of the first boiling,
contains  some common salt, from xvhich it may be pu-
rified by solution  in a  small quantity of xvater, and
subsequent evaporation;  for the crystals thus obtained
are much less contaminated  with common salt than
before;  because the  proportion of water is so much
larger, with  respect to the small quantity contained by
the nitre, that very little of it will crystallize.  For nice
purposes, the solution  and crystallization of nitre are
repeated  four times.  The crystals of nitre are usually
ofthe form of six-sided flattened prisms, xvith dihedral
summits.  Its taste is penetrating;  but the cold pro-
duced by placing the salt to dissolve in the mouth, is
such as  to  predominate over the real taste  at first,
Seven parts  of xvater dissolve  txvo of nitre, at the tem-
fierature  of sixty degrees; but boiling xvater dissolves
ts oxvn   xveight.  100 parts of  alkohol, at a heat of
176°, dissolve only 2.9.
  On being exposed to a gentle  heat, nitre fuses; and
in this state, being poured into  moulds, so us (o form
little round cakes, or balls, it it called sal prunella,  or
crystal mineral.  This at least  is the ivay in  which
this salt  is noxv usuaiiy prepated, conformably to the
directiuns of Boerhaave, though in most dispensatories
                                         105 
MT
NIT
a twenty-fourth part of sulphur was directed to be de-
flagrated on the nitre before it was poured out.  This
salt should not be left on the fire afler it  has entered
into fusion, otherwise it xvill be converted into a ni-
trate of potafsa.  If ihe beat be increased to redness,
the acid itself is decomposed, and aconsiderable quan-
tity of tolerably pure oxygen gas is evolved, succeeded
by nitrogen.
  This salt poxverfully  promotes the combustion of in-
flammable substances.  Two or three parts mixed xvith
one of charcoal, and set on fire, burn rapidly; azote
and carbonic acid gas are given  out, and a small  por-
tion of the latter is retained by the alkalinp residuum,
whicli xvas  formerly called clyssus of nitre.    Three
parts of nitre, txvo of subcarbonate of potassa, and one
of sulphur, mixed together in a warm mortar, form the
fulminating powder; a small quantity of which, laid
on a fire shovel, and held over the fire till it begins to
melt,  explodes with  a  loud sharp noise.   Mixed xvith
sulphur and  charcoal, it forms gunpowder.
  Three parts of nitre, one of sulphur, and one of fine
B.iw-dust, well mixed, constitute what is called the
powder of fusion.  If a bit of base copper be folded up
and covered with this  powder  iu a walnut-shell, and
the poxvder be set on fire wilh  a lighted paper, it will
detonate rapidly, and fuse the metal into a globule of
sulphuret xvithout burning the shell.
  Silex, alumina, and barytes, decompose this salt in a
high temperature, by uniting xvith ils base. The alu-
mina  will ell'ect this even  after it has been made.into
pottery.
  The uses of nitre are various.  Beside those already
indicated, it enters into the composition of fluxes, and
is extensively employed in metallurgy; it serves to pro-
mote the combustion of sulphur in fabricating its acid ;
it is used in the art of dying; it is added lo common
salt for preserving  meat, to xvhich  it gives a red hue ;
it is au ingredient in  some frigorific mixtures; and it is
prescribed in medicine, as cooling, febrifuge, and di-
uretic ;  and some have recommended it  mixed with
vinegar as a very poiverful remedy  for the sea scurvy.
  Nitrate of soda, formerly called  cubic or quadran-
gular nitre, approaches in its properties to the nitrate
of potassa;  but differs from it in  being somexvhat more
soluble  ;u cold water, though less id hot,  xvhich takes
up little  more than  its oxvn xveight; iu being inclined
to attract moisture fiom the atmosphere ;  and  in crys-
tallizing in rhoi-ibs, or  rhomboidal  prisms.  It may be
prepared by separating soda with the nitric acid; by
precipitating nitric solutions of the metals, or of the
earths,  except barytes, by soda;  by lixiviating and
crystallizing the residuum of common salt distilled xvith
three-fourths its xveight of nitric acid ; or by saturating
the mother waters  of  nitre with soda instead of po-
tassa.
  Nitrate of strontian may be obtained  in the same
mariner as that of barytes, with which it agrees in the
shape of its crystals, and most of its properties.
   Nitrate of time, the calcareous nitre of older xvriters,
abounds  in  the mortar of old  buildings, particularly
those that have been much exposed to animal effluvia,
or  processes in xvhich azote  is set free.  Hence it
abounds in  nitre beds, as was observed when treating
of the nitrate of potassa.  Il may also be prepared arti-
ficially by pouring  dilute nitric acid on carbonate of
lime.
   The nitrate of ammonia possesses the property of ex-
 ploding, and being totally decomposed, at  the tempera-
 ture of 600°; whence  it acquired  the name of nitrum
fiammans.   The readiest mode of preparing  it is by
adding carbonate of ammonia  to dilute nitric acid till
saturation takes place.  If this solution be evaporated
in a  heat between 70° and  100°, and the evaporation
 not carried too far, it crystallizes in hoxuhedral prisms,
 terminating in very acute pyramids.  If the heat rise to
 21-2°, it will afford, on cooling, long fibrous silky crys-
 tals:  il  the evaporation be carried so far as for the salt
 to concrete immediately on a glass rod  by cooling, il
 will form a compact mass.  According to Sir II. Davy,
 these differ but little  from each other,  except in the
 water they contain.
   When dried as much as possible without decompo-
 silion, it consists of 0.75 acid-*- 2.125 ammonia-*-1.125
 water.
   The chief use of this  salt is for  affording nitrous
 oxide on being decomposed by heat.
   Nitrate  of magnesia, magnesian nitre, crystallizes
        100
in four-sided  rhomboidal prisms, xv ith oblique or trun-
cated summits,and sonietimes in bundles of small nee-
dles.  Its taste is bitter, and very  similar to that of
nitrate of lime, but less pungent.  It is fusible, and de
composable by heat, giving out first a little oxygen gas,
then nitrous oxide, and lastly nitric acid.  It deliquesces
slowly.   It is soluble in an equal weight of cold water,
and in but little more hot, so  that it is scarcely crystal
lizable  but by spontaneous evaporation.
  The two preceding species are capable of combining
into  a  triple  salt,  an ammoniaco-magnesian nitrate,
either by uniting the two in solution, or by a partial de-
composition of either by means of the base of the otlier.
This is slightly inflammable xvhen suddenly heated;
and by a loxver heat is decomposed,  giving out oxygen,
azote, more xvater than it contained, nitrous oxide, and
nitric acid.  The residuum is pure magnesia.
  From the activity ofthe nitric acid as a solvent ofearths
in analyzation, the nitrate of glucine is better known
than any other of the salts of this new earth.   Its form
is either pulverulent,  or a tenacious  or ductile mass.
Its taste is at  first saccharine, and afterward astringent.
It grows- soft  by exposure to heat, soon melts, its acid
is decomposed into oxygen  and azote, and its  base
alone is  left  behind.  It is very soluble and very deli-
quescent.
  Nitrate, or rather supernitrate of alumina, crystal
lizes, though  with difficulty, in thin, soft, pliable flakes.
It is  of an austere and acid laste, and  reddens blue ve-
getable  colours.  It  may be formed  by dissolving in
diluted  nitric acid, with the assistance of heat,  fresh
precipitated alumina, well washed but not dried.  It is
deliquescent,  and soluble in a  very small portion of
xvater.  Alkohol dissolves its own weight.  It is easily
decomposed by heat.
  Nitrate cf zircone crystallizes in  small,  capillary,
silky needles.  Its  taste  is astringent.   It is  easily de-
composed by fire, very soluble in xvater, and  deliques-
cent.  It may be prepared by dissolving zircone in strong
nitric acid; but, like the preceding species, the acid is
   '■ays in excess.
   :,trate of yttria may be prepared in a similar  man
m    Its taste is sweetish and astringent.  It is scarcely
te .obtained in crystals;  and if it be evaporated by
too strong a heat, the salt becomes soft like honey, and
on cooling, concretes into a stony mass."  Ure's Chem.
Diet.
   NITRIC  ACID OXYGENIZED.  The apparent
oxygenation  of nitric acid by Thenard, ought to be re-
garded  merely as the  conversion  of a por.ion of its
combined water into deutoxide of hydrogen.
   Nitric oxide. See Nitrogen, deutoxide of.
   Nitric oxide of Mercury.  See Hydrargyri nitrico
oxidum.
   Nitrico-oxidum  hydrargyri.   See  Hydrargyri
nitrico-oxydum.'
   NITROGEN.  (From vtrpov, nitre, and ytwotii,  to
generate: so  called because it is the generator of nitre.)
Azot;  Azote.  " An important elementary or undecom-
posed  principle.  As it  constitutes four-fifths of the
volume  of atmospheric air,  the readiest mode of pro
curing azote  is  to abstract its dxygenous associate, by
the  combustion of phosphorus or  hydrogen.  It may
also be obtained from animal matters, subjected in a
glass retort to the action of nitric acid', diluted xvith re'
or 10 times its weight of xvater.
   Azote possesses all tlie physical properties of air.  It
extinguishes flame and animal life.  It is absorbable by
 about  100 volumes of  water.  Its  spec,  gravity  is
0.97-22.  100  cubic inches  xveigh 29.65 grains.  It has
 neither taste nor smell.  It unites xvith oxygen in four
 proportions,  forming four important compounds. These
 are,
   I. Protoxide of azote, called also nitrous oxide, pro-
 toxide of nitrogen, and gaseous oxide of azote.
   This  combination  of nitrogen and oxygen xvas for-
 merly called the dephlogisticatcd nitrous  g\is, but noiv
 gaseous oxide of nitrogen or nitrous oxide. It xvas first
 discovered by Priestley. Its nature and properties have
 since been investigated (though not very accurately) by
 a society of  Dutch chemists.
   Sir  Humphrey Davy  has examined with uncommon
 accuracy the formation and properties of all the sub
 stances concerned in  its production.   He has detected
 the sources of error in the experiments of  Pi iestley, and
  the Dutch chemists, and to him we are indebted for a
  thorough knoxvledge of this gas.  We shall, therefore 
NIT
NIT
exhibit the philosophy of this gaseous fluid, as xve find
it in his researches concerning the nitrous oxide.
  Properties.   It exists in tlie form of a  permanent
gas.  A caudle burns x\ ith a brilliant flame and clack-
ing -.loise  in it; before its extinction tlie xvhile inner
flume becomes surrounded with a blue one.  Pliosphorus
Introduced into it, in a state of actual inflammation,
bums with increased splendour, as in oxygen gas.  Sul-
phur introduced into it xvhen burning wilh a feeble blue
flame is instantly extinguished; but when in a state of
vivid inflammation, il buns with a rose-coloured flame.
Ignited charcoal burns in it more brilliantly than in at-
mospheric  air.   Iron xvire, with a small piece of wood
affixed to it, xvhen inflamed, and introduced into a ves-
sel  filled with this gas, burns vehemently, and  throxvs
out  bright  scintillating sparks.  No combustible body,
however, burns in it, unk-s it be prexiously brought lo
a state of x ixid inflammation.   Hence sulphur may be
melted,  and even sublimed in  it, phosphorus may bo
liquefied ill it without undergoing combustion. Nitrous
oxide is preity rapidly absorbed by xxater that has been
boiled; a quantity of gas equal to rather more than half
the bulk of tbe xxater may lie thus made to disappear,
the xvater acquires a sxveetish taste, but  its other  pro-
perties do not differ  perceptibly from common xx ater.
The xx-hole of the cas may be expelled again by heat.
It does not  change blue vegetable colours.  It has u dis-
tinctly sweet taste, and a faint but agreeable odour. It
undergoes no diminution xvhen mingled with oxygen or
nitrous gas.  Most of the liquid  inflammable  bodies,
such as aether, alkohol, volatile and fal oils, absorb it
rapidly  and in great quantity.  Acids exert but  little
action on it. The affinity of the neutro-saliue solutions
for  gaseous oxide of nitrogen is x-ery feeble.  Green
muriate and green sulphate, of iron, whether holding
nitrous  gas in  solution,  or  not, do  not act upon it.
None of tbe gas, s, xvhen mingled with it, suffer any
perceptible change at common temperatures; the  mu-
riatic and sulphurous acid gases excepted, xvhich un-
dergo a slight expansion.   Alkalies freed from caibonic
acid, exposed  in the dry or solid form, have no action
upon it; they  may. however, be made lo combine xvith
it in the nascent state, and then constitute saline com-
pounds of  a peculiar nature.  These combinations de-
flagrate when heated xvith  charcoal, and are  decom-
posed by acids;  the gaseous oxide of nitrogen being dis-
engaged.   It undergoes no change whatever from the
simple effect of light.  The action of the electric spark,
for a long while continued, converts it into a gas,  ana-
logous to atmospheric air and nitrous acid;  the same is
the case when it is  made to pass through an ignited
earthen tube.   It explodes xvith hydrogen in a variety
of  proportions, at very high temperatures; for instance,
when electric sparks are made to pass through the mix-
ture.  Sulphuretted, heavy, and light carburetted hy-
drogen gases, and gaseous oxide of carbon, likew Uc
burn xvith it when a strong red heat is applied.   100
parts by weight of nitrous oxide, contain 36.7 of oxy-
gen and 63.3 of nitrogen; 100  cubic inches xveigh 50
grains at 55°  temperature and  30 inches atmospheric
pressure.   Animals,  when wholly confined  in gaseous
oxide of nitrogen, give no signsof uneasiness for some
moments, but they soon become restless and then die.
When gaseous oxide of nitrogen  is mingled xvith at-
mospheric air, and then  received into the lungs, it ge-
nerates highly pleasurable sensations; the effects it pro-
duces on the animal system are eminently distinguished
from every other chemical agent.   It excites every fibre
to action, and rouses the faculties of the mind, inducing
a state of  great exhilaration, an irresistible propensity
to laughter, a  rapid  flow  of vivid ideas, and unusual
vicour  and fitne-»fr muscular exertions, in some re-
speots resembling those  attendant on the  pleasantest
period of intoxication, without any subsequent languor,
depression of the nervous energy, or disagreeable feel-
ings ; but  more generally folloxved  by vigour, and  a
pleasurable disposition to exertion, which gradually
subsides.
  Sir H. Davy first  shoxved, that  by breathing a few
quarts o1" it, contained in a silk bag, for two or three
minutes, effects analogous to those occasioned by drink-
ing fermented liquors were produced. Individuals, who
differ in temperament, are, however, as we might ex-
pect, differently affected.
  Sir H- Davy describes the effect it had upon him as
follows:—'Ilavimr  previously  closed my nostrils, and
exhausted my lungs, I breathed four quarts of nitrous
 oxide from and into a silk bag.  The first feelings wen
 similar to tliose produced  in the last experiment (gid-
 diness i  ; but in less ihan half a minute, the respirulion
 being continued, they diminished gradually, knd were
 succeeded by u sensation  analogous to gentle pressure
 on all  the  muscles, attended by a highly pleasurable
 thrilling, particularly in the chest and the extremities.
 Tlie objects around me became dazzling, and my hear-
 ing  mote acute.    Towards  the last  inspiration the
 thrilling increased, the sense cf muscular  poxver be-
 came greater, and at  last an irresistible propensity to
 action  was indulged  in.  I recollect but indistinctly
 what followed: I knew that my motions were various
 and violent.
   'These effects vciy soon ceased after respiration.  In
 ten minutes I had recovered my natural stale of mind.
 The thrilling in the extremities continued "longer than
 the otlier sensations.
   1 The gas has been breathed by a very great nsmoer
 of persons, and  almost every one has  observed the
 same things.  On  some fexv, indeed, it  has no effect
 whatever, and on others the effects are alxvays painful.
   ' Mr. J. W. Tobin, (after the first imperfect trials,)
 when  the air xvas pure, experienced sometimes sub-
 lime emotions with tranquil gestures, sometimes vio-
 lent muscular action, with sensations indescribably ex
 quisite; no  subsequent debility—no exhaustion—his
 trials have been very numerous.   Of late he has only
 felt  sedate pleasure.  In Sir H. Davy the effect is not
 diminished.
   ' Mr. James Thomson.  Involuntary laughter, thrill-
 ing in his toes aud fingers, exquisite sensations of plea-
 sure  A pain  in the back and knees, occasioned  by
 fatigue the day before,  recurred a fexv minutes after-
 ward.   A similar observation, we think, xve have
 made  on others; and we  impute it lo the undoubted
 power of the gas to increase the sensibility of nervous
 power, beyond any other agent, and probably in a pecu
 liar manner.
1   'Mr. Thomas Pople.   At  first unpleasant feelings
 of tension; afterxvard agreeable luxunous  languor,
 wilh suspension of mus-ctnar poxver;  lastly, poxvers
 increased both of body  and mind.
   ' Mr. Stephen Ilammick, surgeon of the Royal Hos-
 pital, Plymouth.   In  a  small  dose, yawning and lan-
 guor,   it should be observed  that the first sensation
 has often been disagreeable, as giddiness: and a fexv
 persons, previously apprehensive, have left off inhaling
 as soon as they felt this.  Txvo larger  doses produced
 a gloxx-, unrestrainable tendency to muscular action,
 high spirits, and more vivid ideas.  A bag of common
 air was fiist given to Mr. Hammick, and he observed
 that it produced no effect.  The same precaution against
 the  delusions of imagination was of course frequently
 taken
    Mr. Robert Soufhey could  not distinguish  betxveen
 the  first effects and an apprehension of which he xvas
 unable to divest himself.  His first definite sensations
 weie, a fulness and dizziness in the head, such as lo
 induce a fear of falling.   This xvas succeeded  by a
 laugh whicli was involuntary, but highly pleasurable,
 accompanied with a  peculiar thrilling in the extremi-
 ties; a sensation perfectly  new and delightful.  For
 many hours after this experiment, lie imagined lhat  his
 taste and smell were more acute, and is certain lhat
 lie felt unusually strong and cheerful.  In a second ex-
 periment, he felt pleasure still superior, and has once
 poetically remarked, lhat he  supposes ihe almospheie
 of the highest of all possible heavens to be composed
 of this gas.
   '  Robert Kinglake, M.D.    Additional fieedom and
 poxver of respiration, succeeded by an almost delirious
 but highly pleasurable sensation in the bend, wliich
 became universal xvith increased  tone of the muscles
 At last, an intoxicating placidity absorbed for five mi-
 nutes all voluntary power, and left a checi fulness and
 alacrity for several hours.  A second stronger dose pro-
 duced  a perfect trance for about a minute; then a glow
 pervaded the system.   The  permanent effects weie
 an  invigorated feeling of vital power, and improved
 spirits.  By both trials, particularly by the former
 old rheumatic feelings teemed to be  revived for the
 moment.
   'Mr. Wedgewond breathed atmospheric  air first
 without knowing it was so.   He declared it to have no
 effect, which confirmed  him  in  hts  disbelief of tins
 poxver of the gas.  After breathing this some tune
                                          107 
NTT
NIT
 Jmwever, he threw the bag from him, kept breathing
 on laboriously with an open mouth, holding his nose
 with his left hand, without power to take it axvay,
 though aware of the  ludicrousness of his situation:
 all his muscles seemed to be thrown into vibrating
 motions; he had  a violent inclination to  make antic
 gestures,  seemed  lighter  than the atmosphere,  and
 as if  about to mount.  Before the  experiment, he
 wa3 a good deal fatigued after a  long ride, of which
 he permanently lost all sense.  In a second experiment,
 nearly the same effect, but xvith less  pleasure.   In a
 thiid, much greater pleasure.
   Such are the properties that characterize the nitrous
 oxide.
   The Dutch chemists and some French and German
 philosophers assert  that it cannot be respired; that
 binning  phosphorus, sulphur, and charcoal, are ex-
 tinguished in it, &c.   Il is probable they did not ex-
 amine it in  a state of purity, for it is  otherwise diffi-
 cult to account for these aud many other erroneous
 opinions.
   Method of obtaining the protoxide of nitrogen.—
 Gaseous oxide of nitrogen is produced,  xvhen sub-
 stances,  having a strong  affinity with oxygen,  are
 brought into contact with nitric  acid, or with nitrous
 gas. It may therefore be obtained by various processes,
 in which  nitrous gas or" nitric acid is decomposed by
 substances capable of attracting the greater part of
 their oxygen.  The most commodious and expeditious,
 as well as the cheapest mode of obtaining  it, is by de-
 composing nitrate of ammonia at a certain temperature,
 in the following maimer:—
   1. Introduce into a glass retort some pure nitrate of
 ammonia, and apply the heat of an  Argand's lamp;
the salt xvill soon  liquefy, and, when it begins to? boil,
gas xvill be evolved.   Increase the heat gradually till
the body and neck of the retort  become filled with  a
semi-transparent milky white  vapour.   In this state
'he temperature of the fused nitrate  is betxveen 340°
and 480°.  After the decomposition has proceeded foi
a few minutes, so lhat the gas evolved quickly enlarges
the flame of a taper held near ihe orifice of the retort,
it may be collected over water, care being taken during
the xvhole process, never to suffer the temperature of
the fused nitrate to rise  above 500° Fahr. xvhich may
easily be judged of, from the density of the vapours in
the retort, and from ihe quiet ebullition of the fused
nitrate; for, if the heat be increased beyond this point,
the vapours in the retort acquire a  reddish and more
transparent appearance; and the fused  nitrate begins
to rise, and occupy txvice the bulk it did before.  The
nitrous oxide afler ils generation, is allowed to stand
over water, for at least six  hours, and is  then fit for
respiration or other experiments.
  Explanation.—Nitrate of ammonia consists of nitric
acid and ammonia; nitric acid is composed of nitrous
gas and oxygen: and ammonia  consists of hydrogen
and nitrogen:   At a temperature of about 480° the
attractions of  hydrogen  for nitrogen in ammonia,  and
that of nitrous gas for oxygen in nitric acid, are dimi-
nished: xvhile, on the contrary, the attractions of the
hydrogen of ammonia for the oxygen of the nitric acid,
and that of the nitrogen ofthe ammonia for the nitrous
gas of the nitric acid, are increased; hence, all  the
former affinities are  broken, and new ones produced,
namely, the hydrogen of the ammonia attracts  the
oxygen ofthe nitric acid,  the result of which is water;
the nitrogen of the ammonia combines with the  libe-
rated nitrous gas, and forms nitrous oxide.  The xvater
and nitrous oxide  ptoduced, probably exist in  binary
combination in the aeriform state, at the temp-eraiure
of the decomposition.
  Such Is the  philosophy of the production of protox-
ide of nitrogen,  by decomposing nitiate of ammonia
at that temperature, given by Davy.
  To illustrate this complicated  play of affinity more
fully, the following sketch may not be deemed super-
fluous.
A Diagram exhibiting tlu production of Gaseous Oxide of Nitrog
                                  Ammonia, at 480° Fahr.
i decomposing Nitrate of
											>	
		e ft) CD >> o				Nitric Acid.				3 c n C9		
												
												
s												
												
					NITRATE OP AMMONIA.							
												
												
		Hydrogen.								o ■a a		
												
						Ammonia.						
												•
												
  Sir Humphrey Davy has likewise pointed out, that,
xvhen the heat employed for decomposing nitrate of
ammonia is raised above the before-staled temperature,
another play of affinities takes place, the attractions of
nitrogen and  hydrogen  for each other nnd of oxygen
for nitrous gas are Btlll more diminished, xvhile that of
nitrogen for nitrous gas is totally  destroyed, and that
nf hydrogen for oxygen increased to a greater extent.
A new attraction likewise takes place, namely, that of
nitrous gas for nitric acid to form nitrous acid vapour,
      108
and  a nexv arrangement of principles  is lapidlv pro
duced: the nitrogen of file ammonia havi..g no affinity
for any of the single principles at this temperature,
enters into no binary compound; the oxygen ofthe
nitric acid forms water  xvith the hydrogen,  and the
nitrous gas combines xvith the nitric acid to form ni-
trous acid vapour.
  All these substances most probably exist in combinj
tion, nt the temperature of their production : and at  a
loxver temperature assume the form  of nitrtvs ncid 
VIT
Nl'i
  nitrous gas, nitrogen, and  water; and hence xve see
  the  necessity of not heating the nitrate of ammonia
  above the before-staled temperature.
    On account of the rapid absorption of gaseous oxide
  of nitrogen  by water, it is  economical to preserve the
  fluid which has been used to confine this gai\ nnd to
  make use of it for collecting otlier quantities of it.  In
  order to hasten  its production, the nitrate of ammonia
  may be previously freed from its water of crystalliza-
  tion by gently fusing it in a glass of Wedgxvood's bason
  for a fexv minutes, aud then keeping it for use in a xvell-
  stoppcd bottle.
    '.'. i-x'itrous oxide may likewise be obtained by expos-
  ing common nitrous gas to alkaline sulphites, particu-
  nrly to sulphite of potassa containing its full quantity
  of water  of crystallization.  The  nitrous oxide pro-
  ■Juced  from  nitrous gas by sulphite of  potassa has all
  l'ie properties of that generated  from tlie decomposi-
  tion of  nitrate of ammonia.
   The conversion of nitrous gas into nitrous oxide, by
  these bodies, depends on the abstraction of a portion of
  its oxygen by the greater affinity of the sulphite pre-
  sented to it.   The nitrogen  and remaining oxygen as-
 sume a  more condensed state of existence, and consti-
 tute nitrous  oxide.
   3.  Nitrous oxide may also  be obtained by niinuling
 together nitrous gas aud sulphuretted hydrogen  gas.
 The  volumeof gases iu this case is diminished, sulphur
 deposited, ammonia,  xvater,   and  nitrous oxide are
  formed.
   The   change of principles which take place in this
 experiment,  depends upon  the combination of the hy-
 drogen of the sulphuretted hydrogen gas, xvith different
 portions of the oxygen and  nitrogen of the nitrous gas,
 to form  xvater and ammonia, xvhile It depositee sulphur.
 The  remaining  oxygen aud nitrogen being left in due
 proportion constitute nitrous oxide.
   Remark —This singular  exertion  of attraction by a
 simple  body appears highly improbable  a priori; but
 t':e formation of ammonia,  and ihe tiou-oxynenation of
 the sulphur,  elucidate the tact.  In performing this ex-
 periment, care should he taken that the gases should be
 rendered as dry as possible; for Ihe  presence of water
 considerably retards tlie decomposition.
   4.  Nitrous oxide may also be produced by preventing
 alkaline sulphurets to nitrous gas.  Davy observed that
 a solution of sulphuiet of strontian, or barytes, an-
 swers this purpose best.
   This  decomposition of nitrous gas is not solely pro-
 duced by the abstraction of oxygen from Ihe  nitrous
 gas, to form sulphuric acid.  It depends equally on the
 decomposition ofthe sulphuretted hydrogen dissolved
 in the solution or  libeu.-nl from  it.  In this process,
 sulphur  is deposited and sulphuric  actd formed.
   5. Nitrous oxide is obtained in  many circumstances
 similar io those iu which nitrous gas is produced.  Dr.
 Priestley found that nitrous oxide xvas evolved, .toge-
 ther xvith nitrous gas,  during  the solution of iron, tin,
 and zinc in nitric ncid.
   it is difficult lo  ascertain the exact rationale of these
 processes,  for very complicated agencies of affinities
 take place.   Either the  nascent hydrogen arising from
 the decomposition  of the water by the  metallic sub-
 stance may combine with portions nf the oxygen and
 nitrogen of the nitrous gas;  and lints by forming water
 and ammonia, convert it into nitrous oxide, or the me-
 tallic substance may atiracl at the same time oxygen
 from  ihe water and nitrous  gas, while the nascent hy-
 drogen of the xvater seizes upon a portion of the nitro-
 gen of ihe nitrous gas, to form  ammonia.  The analogy
 between this process and the decomposition of nitrous
 gas by sulphuretted hydrogen,  renders the first opinion
 most  probable.
   Such arc ihe principal methods  of obtaining nitrous
 oxide.  There are no  reasons, Davy thinks, for sup-
 nosing that nitrous oxide is formed in any of the pro-
 cesses of nature,  and the nice equilibrium of affinity
 by xvhich  it is constituted  forbids us lo hope for the
 power of composing it from  its simple principles.  We
 must be content to produce it artificially.
  II.  Deutoxide of azote, termed likewise nitrous gas,
or nitric  oxide.
  The name nf  nitrous gss is given  to  an aeriform
fluid, consisting of a certain quantity of nitrogen and
oxygen, combined xvith caloric. It is an elastic, colour-
less fluid, having no sensible  taste;  it is neither acid
nor alkaline;  it is exceedingly hurtful to animals, pro-
  ducing instant suffocation whenever  they  attempt tfl
  breathe It.  The greater number of combustible bodies
  refuse to burn in it.  it is nevertheless capable of sup-
  porting ihe combustion of some of these bodies.  Phoa
  phorus bums in nitrous gns xvhen introduced into it  in
  a state  of inflammation: pyrophorus lakes fire in il
  spontaneously.
    It is not decomposable by water, though 100 cubic
  Inches of this fluid, xvhen freed from ail, absorb about
  five cubic inches of ihe gas.   This  solution  is void  of
  laste; it does not redden blue vegetable colouis ;  the
  gas is" expelled again xvhen tlie water is made lo boil or
  suffered  to freeze.   Nitrous gas has no action on nitro
  gen gas even when assisted by heat.  Il is decomposed
  by several metals al high temperatures.
    Its specific gravity, xvhen perfectly pure, is to tlrat ol
  atmospheric airtu about 1 04 to 1.
    Ardeni spirits, saccharine matters, hydro-carbonates,
  sulphurous acid, and phosphorus, have no action on il
  at the couiinon temperature.   It is not sensibly changed
  by the action of light.  Host dilates it.  It rapidly com-
  bines  xvith oxygen gas at common temperatuies, and
  converts it inlo nitrous acid.  Atmospheric  an pro-
  duces  the same effect, but  with lese  intensity.  It is ab-
  sorbable xvith green sulphate, muriate and  nitrate  of
  iron,  and decomposable by alkaline,  terrene, and me-
  tallic sulphurets, and oilier bodies, lhat have a strong
  affinity tor oxygen; but it is not capable of combining
  xvilh them chemically, so us lo form saline compounds
  From  the greatest number of bodies which absoib  it,
  it may be again expelled by the application of heat.
   It communicates lo flume  a greenish  colour before
  extinguishing it; xvhen mixed with hydrogen gas this
  acquires ihe property of burning with a gie'en flame. It
  is absorbable by  nitric acid and renders it  fuming.
   When ex|K)sed to the action of caloric iu  au  ignited
  porcelain tube, it  experiences no alteration, but xvhen
  electric sparks are  made to pass through it, it is decom-
  posed  and converted into nitrous acid,  and nitrogen
  gas.  Phosphorus does not shine in  it.  Il is composed
  of about eight parts of oxygen, and seven of nitrogen.
   Methods of obtaning deutoxide  of nitrogen.—1. Put
  into a small proof, or retort, some copper wire or pieces
  of the same metal, and pour on  it nitric acid of com-
  merce diluted with water, an effervescence takes place,
  and nitrous gas  xvill  be produced.  After having suf-
  fered ihe first portions to escape on account of the at-
  mospheric air contained in the retort, collect Hie gas  in
  the water-apparatus as usual.  In order to obtain the
  gas in a pure state, it must then be shook for some lime
  in contact  with  water. The water in  this instance
 suffers no alteration ;  on  the  contrary, the acid  under-
 goes a  partial decomposition;  the  metal robs some of
 the nitric acid of  the  greatest part of its oxygen, and
 becomes oxidised;  the acid having lost so much of in
 oxygen, becomes thereby so altered, thai  at the usual
 temperature it can  exist no longer iu the liquid state,
 but instantly expands aud assumes the Ibrm of ens;
 ceasing at the same time to act as  au acid, and exhibit
 ing diffeieut properties: but the acid remaining unde-
 couiposcd combines xvith the oxideof copper, and forms
 nitrate of copper.
   Instead of presenting copper to nitric acid, iron, zinc,
 mercury, or silver,  may be made use of.  The metals
 bestsuitcd lor the production of nitrous gas are silver,
 mercury,  and copper.
   2. Deutoxide of nitrogen may likewise be obtained
 by synthesis. This method of obtaining  it we owe to
 Dr. Milucr of Cambridge.
   Into ihe middle of an earlhcrn tube  about  20 inches
 long and three-fourths of an inch  xvide, open at both
 ends, put as much coarsely-powdered manganese  as is
 sufficient  nearly to fill it.  Let ihis tube traverse a fur-
 nace having two openings opposite to each other.  To
 one end  of the  tube lute a  retort  containing  water
 strongly impregnated with  ammonia, and  to the other
 adapt  a bent glass tube which passes into the pneu-
 matic trough.  Lei a fire be kindled in the  furnace, and
 when  the  manganese may be  supposed to be red hot,
 apply a gentle heat to the retort, and drive over  it the
 vapour of the ammonia; the consequence will be thai
'nitrous gas  xvill be delivered at the farther end of ihe
 lube, while  the ammonia  enters  the other end; and
 this effect does not take place without the presence of
 the alkali.
   F.xplanati-m,—Ammonia consists of hydrogen and
 nitrogen;  its hydrogen combiues with  the oxyger
                                         10'J 
NIT                                               NIT
vi Inch is given out by the ignited manganese, ind forms
water; its  nitrogen unites at the  tame time to an-
other  portion of the oxygen, and  constitutes the ni-
trous gas.
  There is a cause of deception in this experiment,
against  xvhich the operator ought to be on his guard,
lest he .mould conclude no  nitrous gas is formed, xvhen,
iu reality, there is a considerable quantity.  The am-
monia,  nolxvilhstanding  every  precaution, will fre-
quently  pass over undecomposed.  If the receiver in
the pneumatic trough is filled with waler, great part of
this xvill indeed be presently absorbed; but still  some
portion of il will mix  xvith the nitrous gas  formed in
the process.  Upon admitting the atmospheric air, the
nitrous  gas xvill  become decomposed, and the red ni-
trous  mines instantly unite xvilh the alkali. The re-
ceiver is presently filled with white clouds of nitrate
of ammonia; and in this  manner a wrong conciusion
may easily be drawn from the want of the orange co-
ll ur of the nitrous fumes.   A considerable quantity of
nitrous g«s may  have been formed, and yet no orange
colour appear, owing to this circumstance;  and there-
fore it is  easy to understand hoxv  a smali quantity of
nitrous gas may be most  effectually disguised by the
same  cause.
  Dr.  Miluer also obtained nitious gas, by passing am-
moniacal  gas over sulphate  of iron  deprived of lies
xvaier of crystallization.
  111. Nitrous acid.  See Nitric acid.
  IV. Nitric acid.  See Nitrous acid.
  Azote combines with chlorine and iodine, to  form
txvo very formidable compounds:—
  1. The chloride of azote xvas discovered  about the
beginning of 1812, by Dulong; but its nature was first
investigated and  ascertained by Sir II. Davy.
  Put into au evaporating porcelain basin  a solution
of one part of nitrate or muriate of ammonia  in 10
of water, heated to about 100°, and invert into ita
xvide-mouthed  bottle, filled xvith  chlorine.  As the
liquid ascends,  by tlie condensation of the gas,  oily-
looking drops are seen floating on its surface, which
collect together, and fall  to the bottom in large globules.
This  is  chloride  of azote.   By putting a thin stratum
of common salt into the bottom of the basin, we pre-
vent  the decomposition of the chloride of azote, by
the ammoniacal  salt.   It should  be  formed only iu
very small quantities.  The chloride of azote, thus ob-
tained,  is an oily-looking liquid, of a yellow colour,
and a very pungent intolerable odour, similar to that
of chlorocarbonous acid.  Its sp. gr. is 1.653.  When
tepid  water is poured into a  glass containing it,  it ex-
pands into a volume of elastic fluid, of an orange co-
lour,  wliich diminishes  as it  passes  through the
water.
  ' I attempted,' says Sir H. Davy, ' to collect the pro-
ducts of the explosion of the nexv substance, by apply-
ing the heat of a spirit-lamp to a globule of it, confined
in a curved glass tube over water; a Utile gas was at
first extricated; but long before the water had attained
the temperature of ebullition, a violent flash of light
was perceived, with a sharp report; the tube and  glass
were broken into smali fragments, and  I  received a
severe  wound in  the transparent  cornea of the eye,
which  has  produced a considerable inflammation of
Ihe e-e, and obliges me to make this communication
by an amanuensis.   This experiment  proves   what
extreme caution is necessary in operating on this sub-
stance, for the quantity 1 used was scarcely as large as
a grain of mustard-sccd.'—It evaporates pretty rapidly
in  the  air; and in vacuo it expands into a vapour,
 xvhich  still possesses the  poxver of exploding by  heat.
 When  it is cooled artificial^ in water, or the ummo-
 niacal  solution, to 40°  F.,  the surrounding  fluid
 tongvals;  but  when  alone, it may be  surrounded
 with  a mixture of  ice and muriate of lime, xvithout
 freezing.
   It  gradually dleapiienrs in \x-nter, producing azote;
 xvhile the water becomes  acid, acquiring the taste and
 smell of a weak solution of nitro-iimrlatic acid.
   Willi muriatic and nitric acids, it yields azote; and,
 with dilute sulphuric acid, a mixture of azote and oxy-
 gen.   In strong solutions of ammonia it  detonates;
 with xveak outs, it affords nzote.
   When  it xvas exposed  to pure mercury, out ol the
 contact of wafer, a white powder  (culomel) nnd  azote
 were the results.  ' The action of mercury on the com-
 pound.* sax* Sir II 'appeared to offer a more correct
       110 '
and less dangerous mode of attempting its analysis,
but on introducing txvo grains under a glass tube tilled
with mercury,  and  inverted, a violent detonation oc-
curred, by which I xvas slightly wounded in the head
and bands, and should have been severely wounded,
had not my eyes and face been defended by a plate of
glass, attached  to a  proper cap; a precaution very ne-
cessary in all investigations of this body.'   In using
smaller quantities, and recently distilled mercury, he
obtained the  results of the experiments  without any
violence of action.
  A 6mall globule of it, throxvn into  a rhss of olr e
oil, produced a most violent explosion; and  the glass,
though  strong,  xvas broken into fragment*.   Similai
effects were produced  by its action on oil of turpentine
and naphtha.   When it was throxvn into ether or alko-
hol, there xvas a very slight action.  When a particle
of it was touched under xvater by a particle of phos-
phorus, a brilliant light xvas perceived under the xvater,
and  permanent gas xvas disengaged, having the cha
racters of azote.
  When quantities larger than a grain of  mustard
seed ixere used for the contact wilh phosphorus, tlie
explosion xvas alxvays  so violent as to break the  vessel
in xvhich the experiment was made.  On tinfoil and
zinc it exerted  no action; nor on sulphur and  resin.
But it detonated  most violently when  thrown  into a
solution of phosphorus in ether or alkohol.
  The mechanical force nf this compound in detona-
tion, seems superior to that of any otlier known, not
even  excepting the ammoniacal  fulminating silver.
The velocity of  its  action appears to  be  likexvise
greater.
  2. Iodide of azote.   Azote docs not combine directly
xvith- iodine.    We obtain  the combination  only by
means of ammonia.  It was  discovered  byCounois,
and carefully examined by Colin.  When ammoniacal
gas is passed over iodine,  a viscid  shining liquid is im-
mediately formed, of  a brownish-black colour, xvhich,.
in proportion as it is saturated xvilh ammonia, loses its
lustre and viscosity.   No gas is disengaged during the
formation of this liquid, which may  be called  iodide
of ammonia,   It  is not fulminating.  When dissolved
in xvater, a part of tlie ammonia is decomposed;  its
hydrogen  forms hydriodic  acid;  and its  azote com-
bines xvith a portion of the iodine, and  forms the ful-
minating pow der.  We may obtain the iodide of azole
directly, by putting pulverulent iodine  into common
water of ammonia.   This  indeed is the best xvay of
preparing it; for  the  xvater is not decomposed, ami
seems lo concur in the production of this iodide, only
hy determining the formation of hydriodate of am-
monia.
  The iodide of azote is pulverulent, and of  a brown-
ish-black colour.  It detonates from the smallest shock,
and  from heat, with  n feeble violet x-apour.  When
properly prepared, it  often detonates spontaneously.
Hence,  after the black poxvder  is formed, and  the
liquid ammonia decanted off, we  must leave the cap-
sule containing it in perfect repose.
  When this iodide is put into potassa xvater, azote is
disengaged, and the same  products are obtained  as
xvhen  iodine is dissolved in that alkaline  lixivium.
The hydriodate of ammonia, which has the property
of dissolving  a  gieat deal of iodine, giadually decom-
poses the fulminating powder, xvhile  azote is  set at
liberty. Water itself has this properly, though in a
much  loxvcr  degree.   As the elements of  iodide  of
azote are so feebly united, it ought to be prepared xvith
great precautions, and should not  be  preserved.   In
the act of transferring a little of it from a platina cap-
sule to a  piece of paper, the whole exploded  iu  my
hands, though  the  fliclion of  the particles on each
other xvas inappreciably small.
  The strongest arguments for the compound  nature
of nzote are derived from its slight tendency to com-
bination, and from its being found abundantly in the
organs of animals xvhich feed on substances that do
not contain it.
  It- u^es in the economy of'the globe are little under-
stood.  This is likexvise favourable to the  idea that
the real chemical nature Is ns yet unknown, and leads
to.the hope of its being decomposable.
  It xvould appear that the atmospheric azote and oxy-
gen spontaneously combine in other proportions, undei
certain circumstances, in natural operations.  Thus
xve find, that mild calcareous or alkaline matter favour* 
NIT
NOS
the formation of nitric acid, in certain regions of tlie
eartn; and that they are essential to its production in
our artificial arrangements, and forming nitre from de-
composing animal and vegetable substances."
  Nitrogen, protoxidk or.   See Nitrogen.
  Nitrooen, deutoxide ot.  See Nitrogen.
  NITROLEUCIO ACID.  (Acidum nttro-leucicum :
so called from its being obtained by the action of nitric
acid on leucine.)  leucine is capable of uniting to ni-
tric acid, and forming a compound, xvhich Braconnot
has called the  nitro-leucic acid.  When xve dissolve
leucine in nitric acid, and evaporate the solution to a
ceiiain point, it passes into acrystalline mass, xvithout
any disengagement of nitrous vapour, or of  any gase-
ous matter;  if xve press this  mass  between blotting
paper, and redissolve it in xvater, xve shall obtain from
this by concentration, fine, divergent, and  nearly co-
lourless needles.   These constitute the nexv acid.   It
m.iles to lite bases, forming salts which fuse on red-
hot coals.  The nitro-leucates of lime and  magnesia
are unalterable in the air.
  NITRO MURIATIC  ACID.  Aqua regia.  When
nitric and muriatic acids are mixed, they become yel-
low, and acquire the poxver of readily dissolving gold,
xvhich neither of the acids possessed separately. This
mixtute evolves chlorine, a  partial decomposition of
both acids having taken place;  and water,  chlorine,
and nitrous acid gas are thus produced, thai is, the hy-
drogen of the muriatic acid abstracts oxygen from the
nitric  to form xx-ater.  The result musl be chlorine and
nitrous ncid.—Brande.
  NITRO SACCHARIC ACID.   Acidum nitro-sac-
charicum.   Nitro-saccharine acid.   When  xve heat
Ihe sugar of gelatine xvith  nitric  acid, they dissolve
without  any apparent disengagement of gas,  and  if
we evaporate this solution to a proper degree, it forms,
on cooling, a crystalline  mass.   On pressing this mass
between  the folds of blotting-paper, and rectystallizing
them, xve obtain beautiful prisms, colourless, transpa-
rent,  and slightly striated.  These crystals  are very
different  from those which serx-e to  produce ihem; and
constitute, according to Braconnot, a true acid, xvhich
results from the combination of the nitric acid itself,
with the sweet matter of xvhich the first crystals are
formed.   Thenard conceives  it is the nitrous  acid
which is present.
  Nitro-saccharic acid has a taste similar to that of the
tartaric ; only it is a little sxveetish.  Exposed to the
fire in a  capsule, it froths much, and is decomposed
xvith  the diffusion of a  pungent smell.  Throxvn on
burning coals,  it acts like saltpetre.  It produces no
change iu saline solutions.  Finally, il combines xvith
the bases, and gives birth to salts which possess pecu-
liar properties.   For example, the salt which it forms
xvith lime is nol deliquescent, and is very little soluble
in strong  alkohol.  That which  it  produces with
the oxide of lead  detonates to a certain degree by
Ihe ac: ion of heal.—Ann. deChimie et  de  Phys. xiii
113.
  NITRO SULPHURIC ACID.   A compound, con-
sisting of one part nitre  dissolved in about ten of sul-
phuric acid.
  NITROUS.  Ndrosus. Of or belonging to nitre.
  i-iirnous  acid.   Acidum  nitrosum.   Fuming  ni-
trous acid. If appears to form  a distinct genus of salts,
that  may be  termed nitrites.   But  these cannot be
made by a direct union of their component parts, being
obtainable only by exposing a nitrate to a high tempe-
rature, which ex|iels a  portion of iu oxygen in the
stale of gas, and leaves the remainder in the slate of a
nitrate, if the heat be not urged so far, or continued so
Ions, as to effect a  complete decomposition of ihe salt.
In this way the nitrates of potassa and soda may  be
obtained, rind perhaps tliose of barytes. strontian, lime,
and magnesia.  The nitrites are particularly charac-
toriz"d, W bei'itj dp<-omp"sable by  all 'he acids except
the carbonic, even by the nitric acid itself, all of xvhich
expel them from nitrous acid. We are little acquainted
xvith any one except that of  potassa, xvhich attracts
moisture from the air, changes blue vegetable colours
to green,  is soiiewhat  acrid  io the taste, and when
now-dered emits a smell of nitric oxide.
  The acid itself is best obtained by exposing nitrate
of lead to heat in a glass retort.  Pure nitrous acid
conies over  in the form of an orange-coloured  liquid
It is so volatile as to boil  at  the temperature of *2°,
lis specific gravity is 1.450. When mixed with  xvalei
it is decomposed, and nitrous gas is diseneaged, occa-
sioning otleive.stein e.  it  is composed of one volume.
of oxygen united with two of nitrous  gas.'  It  there-
fore consists ultimately, by xveight, of 1.75  nitrogen -f-
4 oxygen ;  by  measure,  of 2 oxygen  -f- 1  nitrogen.
The variously coloured acids of nitre are not nitrous
acids, but nitric acid impregnated xvith nitrous gas, the
deutoxide of nitrogen or azote.
  Nitrous oxide.  Sec  Nitrogen.
  NITRUM.   This name xvas anciently given to na
Iron, bul iu modern times to nitre.  See Nitre.
  Nu-Rt'M FURincATUM.  See Nitre.
  Nitri ni vi'I'uiolatum.  Sulphuric acid and  soda.
See Suila sulph is.
  NO lill.IS.    (Quasi nosciliilis;  from  nosr.o,  to
know.)  .Noble.  Some partsof animals, and of plants,
are so named by xvay of eminence ; as  a valve of the
heart, and the more perfect metals, as gold and silver
  N OCT AMBULATION'. Noctamhulatio; from nox,
night, and ambulo, to walk.)  Noctisurgium.  Walk-
ing  in the night, xvhen asleep.  See Oneirodynia activa.
  NoiTisu'rgicm.  See Ni tambulation.
  Nocturnal emission.  See Gonorrhaa dormientium.
  Nodding cnicus. See Cnicus ccrnuus.
  NODE.  Nodus.   A hard  circumscribed tumour,
proceeding from a bone, and caused by a swelling of
the  periosteum ; they appear on every  part of the body,
but  are more common on such as are  thinly covered
with muscles, as the os frontis, forepart of the  tibia,
radius, and ulnn. As  they increase  in size, they be-
come more painful from the distention they occasion
in the periosteum.  When they continue long, the bone
becomes completely carious.
  NODOSUS.  Knotty: nodose.  Applied to the form
ofthe seed-vessel of the Cucurbita metopepo.
  NODUS.  (From anad, to tie, Hebrew.)   A node or
swelling upon a bone.   See Node.
  No'li  me tanoere.  A species of herpes affecting
the  skin and canillagcs of ihe nose, very difficult to
cure, because it is exasperated  by  most applications.
The disease generally commences xvith  small, superfi-
cial spreading ulcerations of the alaeof the nose, which
become moie  or  less  concealed beneath  fufuraceoas
scabs.  The whole nose is  frequently destroyed  by the
progressive ravages of this peculiar  disorder, which
sonietimes cannot be stopped or retarded by any  treat-
ment, external or internal.
  NO MA.  (From vepu, to  eat.)   An  ulcer that
sometimes attacks the cheek  or vulva of young girls.
It appears in  the form of red and  somewhat livid
spots,  is not attended wilh pyrexia, pain, or tumour,
and in a few days becomes gangrenous.
  NON NATURAL.   Res non-naturales.   Under
this  term, ancient physicians comprehend  air,  meat
and  d.ink, sleep  and  watching, motion nnd rest,  tlie
retentions and  excretions, and  the affections of  the
mind; or, in other words, those pi iucipal matters xvhich
do not enter itito the composition  of  the body, but at
the  same time are necessary to ils existence.
  NO'NUS.  (Quasi  novenus; from  novem,  nine.)
The ninth.  Sometimes applied to the coracoid muscle
of the shoulder.
  No'pal.  Nopalnoehelith.  The plant that feeds the
cochineal insect.
  Norla'ndic.« baccx.   See Rubus arcticus.
  NOSE. Nasus.  See Narcs.
  Nose, bleeding nf.  See  Epistaxis.
  NOSOCO'MIUM.    (From  voaos, a disease, and
xoptu, to take care of.) Nosodochium. An hospital
or infirmary for the sick.
  Nosodo'chiiim.  See Nosocomium.
  NOSOLOGY.  (Nosologia ; from  voaos, a disease.
and Xoyoc,a discourse.)  The  doctrine of the names of
diseases.  Modern physicians understand by nosology
the arrangement ot diseases in classes, orders, genera,
species, See.   The folloxving are the approved arrange-
ments of the several nosologists.  That of Dr. Cullen
is generally adopted in  this country and next lo it the
arrangement of Sauvages. 
NOSOLOGY.
Hipioplical View of the Classes, Orders, and Genera, according to the Clllenian System.
	CLASS I.-	-PYREXIA.	
Order I.	8. Ophthalmia	21. Rheuinatismus	32. Urticaria
FEBRES.	9. Phrenitis	22. Odontalgia	33. Pemphigus
$1. Intermitientes. 1. Tertiana	10. Cynanche	23. Podagra	34. Aphtha.
	11. Pneumonia	21. Aitliropuosis.	Order IV.
2. Ouartana	12. Carditis	Order III.	HAMORRHAGLB
3. CAuotidiana.	13. Peritonitis	EXANTHEMATA.	35. Epistaxis
$2. Continua.	14. Gastritis	25. Variola	36. Hajnwptysis
4. Synocha	15. Enteritis	26. Varicella	37. Ha-morrhols
5. Typhus	16. Hepatitis	27. Rubeola	38. Menorrhagia
G. Synochus.	17. Splenitis	28. Scarlatina	Order V.
ORDER II.	18. Nephritis	29. Pestis	PROFLUVIA
PHLEGMASIA.	19. Cystitis	30. Erysipelas	39. Catarrhus
7. Phlogosis	20. Hysteritis	31. Miliaria	40. Dysenteria
	CLASS II.-	-NEUROSES.	
Order r.	46. Chlorosis.	53. Asthma	62. Hydrophobia.
COM ATA.	Order III.	54 Dyspnoea	Order IV
il. Appoplexia	SPASMI.	55. Pertussis	VESANIA
fi. Paralysis.	47. Tetanus	56. Pvi-osh	63. Amentia
Order II.	48. Convulsio	57. Colica	64. Melancholia
ADYNAMIA.	49. Chorea	5r3. Cholera	65. Mania
<3. Syncope	50. Raphania	59. Diarrhoea	06, Oneirodynia.
U. Dyspepsia	51. Epilepsia	60. Diabetes	
l5. Hypochondriasis	52. Palpitatio	61. Hysteria	
	CLASS III—	-CACHEXIA.	
Order I.	$2. Flatuosa.	77. Asciies	83. Syphilis
MARCORES.	70. Pneumatosis	78. Hydrometra	84. Scorbutus
ifl. Tabes	71. Tympanites	79. Hydrocele.	85. Elephantiasis
i48. Atrophia.	72. Physomelia.	$ 4. Solida.	86. Lepra
	$ 3. Aquosa.	80. Physconia	87. Frambneesia
OtUlF.R II.	73. Anasarca	81. Rachitis.	88. Trichoma
INTUMESCENTIA.	74. Hydrocephalus	Order III.	89. Icterus
§ 1. Adiposa.	75. Hydrorachitis	IMPETIGINES.	
50. Polysarcia	76. Hydrothorax	82. Scrofula	
	CLASS rv	—LOCALES.	
Order I.	-J 2. Appetitus deficicntes	120. Gonorrhoea.	136. Gamrlion
DYSASTHESIA.	105. Anorexia	Order V.	137. Hvda'tis
SO. Caligo	106. Adipsia	EPISCHESES.	138. Hvdarthrus
41. Amaurosis	107. Anaphrodisia.	121. Obstipatio	. 139. Exostosis.
02. Dysopia	Order lit.	122. Ischuria	Order VII.
W. Pseudoblepsis	DYSCINESIA	123. Dysuria	ECTOPIA.
.94. Dysecoea	108. Aphonia	124. Dyspermatismus	140. Hernia
*5. Paracusis	109. Mutitas	125. Ameuorrhipa.	141. Prolapsus
■W. Anosmia	110. Paraphonia	Order VI.	142. Luxatio.
)7. Agheustia	111. Psellismus	Tl MORES.	Order Vni
•18. Ana-sthcsia.	112. Strabismus	126. Aneurisma	DYALYSES
Order II.	113 Dysphagia	127. Varix	143. Vulnus
	L4. Contractura.	128. Ecchvinoma	144. Ulctts
•J 1. Appetitus erronii.	Order IV.	129. Scirrhus	145. Herpes
19. Bulimia	APOCENOSES.	130. Cancer	146. Tinea
1*0. Polydipsia	115. Profusio	131. Bubo	147. Psora
ki\. Pica	116 Ephidrosis	132. Sarcoma	148. Fracfura
02. Satyriasis	117. E,,';ihora	133. Verruca	149. Caries
03. Nymphomania	118. Ptyalismus	134. Clavus	
(04. Nostalgia.	119. Enuresis	135. Lupia	
	Synoptical View of Jle System o/SactaoEs.		
	CLASS I.—VITI A		
Order 1.	18. Furunculus	37. Lupia	53. Hysteroloxia
MACULA.	IP. Anthrax	38. Hydarthrus	59. Parochidium
•jenvs 1. Leucoma	20. Cancer	39. Apostema	60. Exartlnema
1. Vitiligo	21. Paronychia	40. Exomphalus	61. Diastasis
A. Ephelis	22. Phimosis.	41. Oscheocele	62. Laxarthrus.
1. Gutta rosea	ORDER IV.	Order VI.	Order Vll
r>. Nu-vus	EXCRESCENTIA.	ECTOPIA.	PLAGA.
B. Ecchvinoma.	23. Sa'-coma	42. Exophthahnia	63. Vulnus
Order II.	24. Condyloma	43. Blepharoplosis	64. Punctura
EFFLORESCENTIA	25. Verruca	44. Ilypostaphyle	65. Excoriatio
7. Herpes	26. Pterygium	45. Paraglossa	66. Contusio
8. Epinyctis	27. Hordeolum	46. Proptoina	67. Fractura
.-». Psydracia	28. Bronchocele	47. Exan'a	68. Fissura
O. Hydroa.	29. Exostosis	48. Exocyslc	69. Ruplura
Order TH.	30. Gibbositas	49. Hysleroplosis	70. Amputatura
HYMATA.	31. Lordosis.	50. Riiteroceie	71. Ulcus
11. Erythema	Order V.	51. Epiplocele	72. Exulceratio
IB. ("Edema	CVSTIDES.	52. Gasteroccle	73. Sinus
13. Emphysema	3'2. Aneurisma	53. Hepatocele	74. Fistula
14 Scirrhus	33. Varix	54. Splenocele	75. Rhaaas
15. Phlegmone	34. Hydatis	55. Hvsterocele	70. Eschara
lb*. Ilubo	35. Marisca	56. Cyslocele	77. Caries
17. 1','irotis il2	36. Staphyloma	57. Enccphalorele	78. Arthrocace
 
NOSOLOGX.
        Order I.
      CONTINUA.
79.  Ephemera
90.  Svnocha
81.  Synochus
        Order I.
  EXANTHEMATICA
91. Pestis
92. "•» iriola
93. Pemphigus
94. Rubeola
95. Miliaris
S6. Purpura
       Order I.
 TONICI PARTIALES.
116. Strabismus
117. Trismus
118. Obstipitas
119. Contractura
120. Cram pus
121. Priapismus.
        Order I.
    SPASMODICA.
138. Ephialtes
139. Sternutatio
140. Oscedo
       Order I.
   DYSASTHESIA.
152. Cataracta
153. Caligo
154 Amblyopia
lo5. Amaurosis
156 Anosnria
157. Agheustia
158. Dysecoea
159. Paracusis
160. Cophosis
        Order I.
         VAGI.
183. Arthritis
184. Ostocopus
185. Rheumatismus
186. Catarrhus
187. Anxietas
188. Lassitudo
189. Slupor
190. Pruritus
191. Algor
192. Ardor.
        Order I.
 HALLUCINATIONS.
216 Vertigo
217. Suflusio
218. Diplopia
219. Syrigmos
220. Hypochondriasis
221. Somuambulisuius.
        Order I.
   SANGUIFLUXUS.
239. Haemorrhagia
240. Haemoptysis
241. Stomacace
242. Haeinatemesis
243. Haematuria
244. Menorrhagia
245. Abortus.
        Order II.
    ALVIFL'UXUS.
346. Hepatirrhoea


        Order I.
        MACIES.
275 Tabes
82. Tvphus
83. Hectica.
       Order II.
    REMITTENTES
84. Amphimerina
CLASS II.—FEBRES
         85. Tritaeophya
         e6. Tetartophya.
               Order III.
          INTER MITTENTES
        87. Quotidiana
88. Tertiana
89. Ouartana
90. Eiratica.
CLASS HI.—PHLEGMASIA.
 97. Erysipelas
 98. Scarlatina
 99. Essera
100 Aphtha.
       Order II.
   MEMBRANACEA,
101 Phrenitis
102. Paraphrencsis
103. Pleuritis
104. Gastritis
105. Enteritis
106. Epiploitis
107. Metritis.
       Order III.
 PARENCHYMATOSA.
108. Cystitis
109. Cephalitis
110. Cynanche
111. Carditis
112? Peripneumonia
113. Hepatitis
114. Splenitis
115. Nephritis.
               CLASS IV.—SPASMI.
       Order  II.        126.  Patidiculatio
 TONICI GENERALES.  127.  Apomyllosis
122. Tetanus            128.  Convulsio
123. Catochus.           129  Tremor
       Order HI.        130.  Palpitatio
 CLONICI PARTIALES. 131.  Claudicatio.
124. Nystagmus
125. Carphologia

         CLASS V.—ANHELATIONES.
141. Singultus            144.  Dyspnoea
142. Tussis.              145.  Asthma
       Order  n.        146.  Orthopnea
    OPPRESS1VA.     147.  Angina
143. Stertor              148.  Pleurodyne
           CLASS VI.
 161. Anaesthesia.
        Order II.
    ANEPITHYMIA.
 162. Anorexia
 163. Adipsia
 164. Anaphrodisia.
       Order IU.
     DYSCINESIA.
 165. Mutitas
 166. Aphonia
 167. Psellismus

            CLASS VII
        Order n.
        CAPITIS
 193. Cephalalgia
 194. Cephalaea
 195. Hemicrania
 196. Ophthalmia
 197. Otalgia
 198. Odontalgia.
       Order III.
      PECTORIS.
199. Dysphagia
200 Pyrosis
-DEBILITATES.
  168. Paraphouia
  169. Paralysis
  170. Hemiplegia
  171. Paraplexia.
         Order IV.
      LEIPOPSYCHIA.
  172. Asthenia
  173. Leipolhymia
  174. Syncope
  175. Asphyxia.


 —DOLORES.
  201. Cardiogmus.
         Order IV.
    ABDOMINALES  IN-
          TERNI.
  202. Cardialgia
  203. Gastrodynia
  204. Colica
  205. Hepatnlgia
  20b. Splenalgia
  207. Nephralgia
  208. Dystocia
  209. Hysteralgia.
CLASS VIII.—VESANIA.
       Order II.
    MOROS1TATES.
222. Pica
223. Bulimia
224. Polydipsia
225. Aniipathia
226. Nostalgia
227. Panophobia
223. Satyriasis

             CLASS
247. Haemorrhois
248. Dysenteria
249. Melaena
250. Nausea
251. Vomitus
252. Ileus
253. Cholera
254. Diarrhoea
255. CiBliaca
256. Lienteria
257. Tenesmus
   229.  Nymphomania
   230.  Turantismus
   231.  Hydrophobia.
          Order III.
          DELIRIA.
   232.  Paraphrosyne
   233.  Amentia
   234.  Melancholia
   235.  Mania

IX.—FLUXUS.
          Order III.
        SERI FLUXUS.
   258. Ephidrosis
   259. Epiphora
   260. Corvza
   261. Pfyalismus
   262. Anacatharsia
   263. Diabetes
   264. Enuresis
   265. Dysuria
   266. Pyuria
       Order IV.
CLONICI GENERALES
132. Rigor
133. Eclampsia
134. Epilepsia
135. Hysteria
136. Scelotyrbe
137. Beriberia.
149. Rheuma
150 Hydrothorax
151. Empyema.
       Order V
       COMATA
176. Catalepsis
177. Ecstasis
178. Typhomania
179. Lethargus
180. Cataphora
181. Carus
182. Apoplexia.
        Order V.
EXTERNI ET ARTUUM
210. Masiodyiiia
211. Rachialgia
212. Lumbago
213. Iscluas
214. Proctalgia
215. Pudcndagra
236. Daemonomanla.
       Order IV.
VESANIA ANOMALA
237. Amnesia
238. Agrupnia.
267. Lcucorrnuea
21)8. Gonorrhoea
269. Dyspermatismus
270. Galacliirhcea
271. Olorrhma.
       Order IV.
    AERIFLUXUS
272. Flatulentia
273. Adopsophia
274. Dysodia
             CLASS X.—CACHEXIA.
276. Phthisis                    Order II.        280. Pneumatosis
277. Atrophia              INTUMESCENTIA.  281. Anasarca
278. Aridura.            279. Polysarcia           282. Phlegmatia
                 F»                                           113 
NOSOLOGY
28j>. fnysconia
284. Graviditas.

       Order IU.
  HYDROPES PARTIA-
          LES.
285 Hydrocephalus
286 Physocephalua
287. Hydrorachitis
288. Ascites
289. Hydrometra
290. Piiysometra
       Order I.
    CONTAGIOSL
1.  Morta
2.  Pestis
        Order I.
    CONTINENTEa
11.  Diaria
12. Synocha
13. Synochus
14. Lenta.
        Order I.
    MEM BRAN AC EI.
25.  Phrenitis
26.  Paraphrenesis
27.  Pleuritis
28.  Gastritis
        Order I.
     INTRINSECL
40. Cephalalgia
41. Hoinicrania
42. Gravedo
43. Ophthalmia
44. Otalgia
45. Odontalgia
        Order I.
       IDEALES.
65. Delirium
66. Parapluosyne
67. Amentia
68. Mania
69. Dtemonia
70. Vesania
       Order I.
     DEFECTIVI.
90. Lassitudo
91. Languor
92. Asthenia
93. Lipothymia
91. Syncope
95 Asphyxia.
        Order I.
       SPASTICI.
121. Spasmus
122. Prinpismus
123. Borborygmos
124. Trismus
125. Sardiasis
126. Hysteria


        Order I.
   SUFFOCATORII.
146. Raucedo
J 47. Voriferatio
148. Risus
149. Fietus
150. Suspirium
151 Oseitatio
      114
291. Tympanites
292. Metcorismus
293. Ischuria.
        Order IV.
        TUBERA.
294. Rachitis
295. Scrofula
296. Carcinoma
297. Leoutiasis
298. Malis
299. Framboesia.
     Synoptical View pj
        CLASS 1—Ea
 3. Variola
 4. Rubeola
 5. Petechia
 6. Syphilis.

            CLASS U.
       Order II.
  INTERMITTENTES.
15. Quotidiana
16. Tertiana
17. Uuartaua
          Order V.
       IMPETIGINES
  300. Syphilis
  301. Scoebutus
  302. Elephantiasis
  303. Lepra
  304. Scabies
  305. Tinea.
          Order VI.
        ICTER1TLA
  306. Aurigo
  307. Melasicterus

 the System of Linn«us.
KANTIIEMATICI.
          Order II.
        SPORADIC!
   7.  Miliaria
   8.  Uredo

  -CRITICI.
  18.  Duplicana
   19. Errana.
         Order III.
      EX ACERR ANTES.
  BO. Amplnmr» .A
          CLASS IH.~PHLOGlSTiCI.
29. Enteritis             33. Cynanche
30. Proctitis             34. Peripneumonia
31. Cystitis.             35. Hepatitis
        Order 11.       30. Splenitis
  PARENCHYMATICL  37. Nephritis
32. Spliacelismus         38. Hystentis.

            CLASS IV.—DOLOROSI.
46. Angina              54. Pneuuionica
47. Soda                55.  Hysteralgia
48. Cardialgia           56.  Neplnilica
49. Gastrica             57.  Dysuria
50. Colica                58. Pudeudagra
51.  Hepatica             59. Proclica.
52.  Splenica
53.  Pleurilica
            CLASS V.-
71. Melancholia
        Order II.
     IMAGINARIL
72. Syringmos
73. Phautasma
74. Vertigo
75. Panophobia
76. Hypochondriasis

           CLASS VI.
        Order II.
       SOPOROSE
 96.  Somnolentia
 97.  Typhomania
 98.  Lethargus
 99.  Caiaphora
100.  Carus
101.  Apoplexia
102.  Parajilegia
.03.  Hemiplegia,
-MENTAI.ES.
 77.  Suiiiiiaiubulisinus.
         Order III.
       PATHETECI.
 78.  Citta
 79.  Bulimia
 80.  Polydipsia
 81.  Satyriasis
 82.  Erotomania

-OUIETALES.
 104. Paralysis
 105. Stupor
         Odrer in.
       PRIVAT1VI.
 106. Morosis
 107. Oblixio
 103. Amblyopia
 109. Cataracta
 110. Amaurosis
 111. Scotomia
CLASS VU.—MOTORII.
127. Tetanus
128. Calochus
129. Catalepsis
130. Agrypnia.
       Order II.
     AG1TATORH
131. Tremor
132. Palpitatio
133. Orgasiuus
134. Snbsultus
135. Cnrpologia
136. Stridor
137. Ilip|>os
138. Psellismus
139. Chorea
140. Beriberi.
152. Pandiculatio
153. Singultus
154. Siernutalio
155. Tussis
156. Stertor
157. Anhelntio
158. Sutfocatio
159. Empyema
CLASS VIII.—SUPPRESSORIL
160. Dyspnoea
161. Asthma
162. Orthopnoea
163. Ephialles.
        Order IT.
   CONSTRICTOR U,
164. Anglutilio
 165. Flatulentia
306. Phaenrgmas
309. Chlorosis.
       Order VU.
  CACHEXIA ANOBIA
          LA.
310. Phthiriasis
311. Trichoma
312. Alopecia
313. Elcosis
314. Gangraena
315. Necrosis
 9. Aphtha.
       Order nL
      SOL1TARII
10. Erysipelas
21. Tr'taeus
22. Tetartop.Vi
23. Hemilriuea
24. Hectica.
       Order HI.
     MUSCULO*
39. Phlegmone.
       Order 11
     EXTR1NSB
60. Arthritis
61. Ostocopus
62. Rhcumaiismuk
63. Volatica
64. Pruritus.
83.  Nostalgia
84.  Taraiitismuk
85.  Rabies
86.  Hydrophobic
87.  Cacnsitia
88.  Antipatliia
89.  Aiuietas.
112. Cophosis
113. Anosmia
114 Ageustia
115. Aphonia
116. Anorexia
117. Adipsia
118. Anaesthesia
119. Atecnia
120. Atonia.
       Order III.
     AGITATORU
141. Rigor
142. Convulsio
143. Epilepsia
114. Hieranosos
145. Rnphania
166. Obstipatio
167. Ischuria
168. Dysmenorrtlow
169. Dyslochia
170. Aglnctatio
171. Sterilitas. 
NOSOLOGY.
        Order I.
        CAPITIS.
174  Otorrhoea
173.  Epiphora
174.  Haemorrhagia
175.  Coryza
176.  Sioiuacace
177.  Piyalismus.
        Order II.
      THORACIS.
178.  Screatus
179  Expectoratio


        Order I.
     KMAC1ANTES.
209.  Phthisis
BIO.  Tabes
211.  Atrophia
212. Marasmus
*13. Rachitis.
        Order 1.
     HUMORALIA.
127.  Aridura
"!ii.  Digiti um
BM.  Emphysema
MO.  Oedema
431.  Sugdlatio
E32.  letlainmatio
233.  Abscessus
234.  Gangrena
235.  Sphacelus.
        Order n.
      DIALYTICA.
236.  Fractura
237.  Luxatura
238.  Ruptura
239.  Coutusura
240.  Profusio
241.  Vulnus
242.  Amputatura
243.  Laceratura
244.  Puncture
245.  Morsura
246.  Combusiura.
247.  Excoriatura
248.  Intertrigo
219.  Rhagas.
        Order HI.
  EXULCERATIONES.
850.  Ulcus
        Order I.
  INTERMITTENTES.
 1.  Quotidiana
 2.  Tertiana
 3.  Quartana
 4.  Quintana
 5.  Sextana
 6.  Septana
 7.  Ociana
 8.  Nonana
 9.  Decimana
10.  Vaga
11.  Menstrua
12.  Tertiana duplex
13  Quartana duplex
14.  Quartana triplex.
        Order II.
      CONTINUA.
      $ 1. Simplices.
15  Quotidiana
16.  Synochus
17.  Amatoria
18  Phrenitis


        Order I.
  HAMORRHAGLE
81.  Haemorrhagia
82.  Epistaxis
83.  Haemoptoe
          CLASS IX.-
180. Haemoptysis
181. Vomica.
       Order UI.
    ABDOMINIS.
182. Ructus
183. Nausea
184. Vomica
185. Hieiiiatemesis
186. Iliaca
187. Cholera
188. Diarrhtea
189. Lienteria
-EVACUATORU.
  190. Coehaaa
  191. Cholirica
  192. Dysenteria
  193. Haemorrhois
  194. Tenesmus
  195. Crepitus.
         Order IV.
      GEN1TAL1UM.
  196. Enuresis
  197. Stranguria
  198. Diabetes
  199. Haematurla
        Order II.
       TUMIDOSI.
214. Polysarcia
215. Leucophlegmatia
216. Anasarca
217. Hydrocephalus
21;-'. Ascites

               CLASS
251. Cacoethcs
252. Noma
253. Carcinoma
254. Ozena
255. Fistula
256. Caries
257. Arthrocace
25->. Cocyta
259. Paronychia
260. Pernio
261. Pressura
262. Arctura.
       Order  IV.
       SCABIES.
263. Lepra
264. Tinea
265. Achor
e366. Psora
267. Lippitudo
268. Serpigo
269. Herpes
270. Varus
271. Racchia
272. Bubo
273. Anthrax
274. Phlyclaena
275. Pustula
276. Papula
277. Hordeolum
278. Verruca
CLASS X.—DEFORMES.
  219. Hyposarca
  220. Tympanites
  221. Graviditas.
         Order III.
       DECOLORES.
  222. Cachexia
  223. Chlorosis

XI.-VITIA.
  279. Clavus
  280. Myrmecium
  281. Eschara.
         Order V.
  TUMOR ES PROTUBE-
         RANTES.
  282. Aneurisma
  283. Varix
  284. Scirrhus
  285. Struma
  286. Atheroma
  287. Anchylosis
  288. Ganglion
  989. Nana
  290. Spinola
  291. Exostosis.
         Order VI.
     PROCIDENTIA.
  292. Hernia
  293. Prolapsus
  294. Condyloma
  295. Sarcoma
  296. Pterygium
  297. Ectropium
  29a Phimosis
  299. Clitorismus.
        Order VU.
    DEFORM ATIONES.
  300. Contractura
  301. Gibber
Synoptical View of the System of VooEl.
               CLASS
19. Epiala
20. Causos
21. Elodes
23. Lethargus
23. Typhomania
24. Leipyria
25. Phricodes
26. Lyngodes
27. Assodes
28. Choleric a
29. Syncopalis
30. Hydrophobia
31. Oscitans
32. Ictericodes
33. Pestilentialis
34. Siriasis.
     § 2. Composita.
    IT 1. Exanlhematiae.
35. Variolosa
36. Morbillosa
37.  Miliaria
38. Petechialis
39.  Scarlatina
I— FEBRES.
  40. Urtica
  41. Bullosa
  42. Varied^
  43. Pemph.godes
  44. Aphthosa.
     II 2. Infiammatoria.
  45. Phrenismus
  46. Chemosis
  47. Ophthalmites
  48. Otites
  49. Angina
  50. Pleuritis
  51. Peripneumonia
  52. Mediastina
  53. Pericarditis
  54. Carditis
  55. Paraphrenias
  56. Gastritis
  57. Enteritis
  58. Hepatitis
  59. Splenitis
  60. Mesenteritis
  61. Omentitis
200. GIus
201. Gonorrhow
202. Leucorrhtea
203. Menorrhagia
204. Parturitio
205. Abortus
206. Mola.
       Order V
 CORPORIS EXTERN'
207. Galactia
208. Sudor.
224. Scorbutus
325. Icterus
336. Plethora.
302.  Lordosis
303.  Distortio
304.  Tortura
305.  Strabismus
306.  Lagophthalmti
307.  Nyctalopia
308.  Presbytia
309.  Myopia
310.  Labarium
311.  Lagostoma
312.  Apella
313.  Atreta
314.  Plica
315.  Hirsuties
316.  Alopecia
317.  Trichiasis.
      Order  VIL
       MACULA
318.  Cicatrix
319.  Naevus
320.  Morphaea
321.  Vibex
322.  Sudamen
323.  Melasma
324.  Hcpatizon
325.  Lentigo
326.  Ephelis
            CLASS II.—PROFLUVIA.
84  Haemoptysis          89.  Hcmatemesis
85.  Stonuonce           90.  Hepatirrhcea
86.  Odontirrhoea         91.  Catarrhexis
87.  Otorrhaea            92.  Haematuria
88,  Ophthalmorrhagia    93.  Cystirrhagia
62. Peritonitis
63. Mycolitis
64. Pancreatica
65. Nephritis
66. Cystitis
67. Hysteritis
68. Erysipelacea
69. Podagrica
70. Panarilia
71. Cyssotis.
    IT 3. Symptomatic
72. Apnplectica
73. Catarrhalis
74. Rheumatica
75. Haemorrhoidah
76. Lactea
77. Vulnerarla
78. Suppuratoria
79. Lenta
80. Hectica
04.  Stymatosis
95.  Haematopedesi*
96.  Menorrhagia
97.  Abortio. 
N0S0L0G9.
        Order II.
     APOCENOSES
 ST-.  Cata.rhus
 S'_>  Epiphora
In).  Coryza
1 ot.  Otopuosia
1GS!.  Otoplatos
103  Ptyalismua


126  Gravedo
1- .  Flatulentia
134. Anxietas
1">5. Blestrisinus
l'!i'- Pruritus
137  Catapsyxis
1; "'- Rheumatismus
1'"'. Arthritis
l-1.'.  Cephalalgia
1,1  Cephaiaea
I'2. Clavus
143.  Hemicrania
144.  Caixebaria
115.  Odontalgia


ISO.  Tetanus
lc\.  Opisthotonus
1*2.  Episthotonus
183.  Catochus
184.  Tremor
1S5.  Frigus
ld6.  Horror
187.  Rigor
IBS.  Epilepsia
 K9.  Eclampsia
P0.  Hieranosos


222.  Lassiludo
223.  Asthenia
224.  Torpor
22.',.  Adynamia
S~o.  Paralysis
S-7.  Paraplegia
2--1  Hemiplegia
*fc;J.  Apoplexia
830.  Catalepsis
231.  Carus
£12.  Coma
833.  Somnolentia
234.  Hypophasis
235.  Poisis
S.')6.  Amblyopia
837. Mydriasis


285.  Antipathia
28>i Agrypnia
Sd7.  Piiauiasina
S88.  ('align
2ee)9. il.tinalopia


304. Cachexia
305. Chlorosis
306  Icterus
307. Melauchlorua
3u-\ Atrophia
9rx Tabes
310. Phthisis
3-2>.  Athym|s>
330.  Delirium
331.  Mani?
        Order  I.
 1NFLAMMATIONES
341. Ophihalinia
342. Blepharotis
3D Erysipelas
344 Hieropyr
34'i. Paronyrhia
W6. Onvchia
      lie
104. Vomica
105. Dianhxa
103. Puorrhoea
107. Dysenteria
108. Lieiiteria
109. Coeliaca
110. Choljra
111- PituitaTia
112.  Leucorrhoii
113.  Eueuresis
114.  Diuresis
115.  Diabetes
116.  Puoiuria
117.  Chylaria
118.  Gonorrhoea
119.  Leucorrhoea
            CLASS UL—EPISCHESES.
123. Obstipatio           130. Amenorrhoea
12D. Ischuria             131. Dyslochia
              CLASS
146.  Haemoflia
147.  Odaxismus
148  Otalgia
149.  Acataposis
150  Cionis
151.  Himnntesis
152.  Cardiogmus
153.  Masiodyiiia
154.  Soda
155.  Periadynia
156. Pneumatosis
157 Cardialgia
IV.—DOLORES.
   158.  Encausis
   159.  Nausea
   160.  Colica
   161.  Eilema
   162.  Ileus
   163.  Stranguria
   164.  Dysuria
   165.  Lithiasis
   166.  Tenesmus
   167.  Clurresia
   168..  Cedma
   169. Hysteralgia
191. Convulsio'
192. Raphania
193. Chorea
194. Crampus
195. Scelotyrbe
196. Angone
197. Glossocele
198. Glossocoma
199.  Hippos
200. Illosis
201. Cinclesis
CLASS
 238.
 239.
240.
 241
 242.
 243.
244.
245.
2-16.
247.
248.
249.
250.
251.
252.
253.
        CLASS VI
Amaurosis
Cataracta
Synizezis
Glaucoma
Achlys
Nyctalopia
Hemeralopia
Hemalopia
Dysicoia
Surditas
Anosmia
Apogeusis
Asaphia
Clangor
Raucilas
Aphonia
V—SPASMI.
  202. Calaclasis
  203. Cillosis
  204. Steniutalio
  305. Tussis
  206. Clamor
  207. Trismus
  203. Capi strum
  209. Sardiasis
  210. Gelasmus
  211. Incubus
  212. Singultus

 —ADYNAMIA.
  254  Leptopnoma
  255 Oxyphonia
  256. Rhenophonia
  257. Muiiins
  258. Traulolis
  259.  I'sellotis
  260. Ichnnpliouia
  261.  Battarismus
  262. Suspirium
  263. Oscitatio
  264. Paudiculatio
  265. Apuaea
  266. Macropncea
  267. Dyspnoea
  268. Asthma
  2G'.l. Orlliopnoea
         CLASS  VII.—HYPARESTHESES.
230.  Marmaryge          295. Polydipsia
291.  Dysopia             296. Bulimus
292.  Susiirrus             'J'.*7. Addephagia
293.  Vertigo              1518. Cynorexra
234.  Apogeusia           299. Allotriophagia

            CLASS VIII.—CACHEXIA.
311.  Hydrothorax         318. Scorbutus
312  Rachitis             319. Syphilis
313.  Anasarca            320. Lepra
314.  Ascites              321. Elephantiasis
315.  Hydrocystis          322. Elephnntia
316.  Tympanites          323. Plica
317.  Hysierophyse         324. Phthiriasis

             CLASS IX.—PARANOIA.
332.  Melancholia          335. Enthusiasmus
333.  Ecstasis             336. Stupiditas
334.  Ecplexis             337. Amentia
347. Encausis
348. Phimosis
349. Paraphimosis
350. Pernio.
        Order II.
      11U MORES.
351. Phlegmone
352. Furunculus
CLASS X.—VITIA.
353.  Anthrax
354  Abscissus
355.  Onyx
356.  Hippopyon
357.  Phygcthlon
358.  Empyema
359.  Phyma
360.  Ecthymata
120. Exoneirosts
121. HydropedeBis
122. Galactia
123. Hypercatharsi
124. Ecphyse
125. Dysodia.
132. Deuteria
133. Agalaxis.


170. Dystnenorrhaea
171. Dys ocma
172. Atooia
173. Priapismus
174. Psoriasis
175. Podagra
176. Osjttocopne
177. Psup.Vs
178. Vota'ic:=
179. Epipiii-jgitjina.
213. Palpitatio
214. Voniitus
215. Ructiu
216. Ruminatio
217. Oesophag'-mus
213  Hy|)oclioiidriasi»
219  Hysteria
220. Phlogosis
221. Digitium.
 270. Pnigma
 271. Renchus
 272. Rhochmos
 273. Lipolhym*
 274. Syncope
 275. Asphyxia
 •27t>. Apepsia
 277. Dyspepsia
 '278. Diapthora
 279. Anorexia
 2,-s'j. Analrope
 2e*l. Adipsia
 28-2. Acyisis
 2><3. Agenesia
234. Anodynia
300.  Malacia
301.  Pica
302.  Botnbus
303.  Celsa.
325.  Physconia
326.  Paracyisis
3-27.  Gansiraena
328.  Sphacelus.
338.  Oblivio
339.  Soiunium
340.  Hypnobatasii


361.  Urticaria
362.  Parulis
363.  Eptilis
36-1.  Anchylops
365.  Paraglossa
366.  Chilon
367.  Scrofula
368.  Bubou 
NOSOLOG1.
"569. "Bronchocele
370. Parotis
371. Gongrona
372. Sparganpsis
373. Coiluna
374. Scinhus
375. Cancer
376. Sarcoma
377. Polypus
378. Condyloma
379 Ganglion
360. Ranula
381. Terminthus
382. Oedema
383. Encephalocele
384. Hydrocephalura
385. Hydropthatmia
386. Spina bifida
387. Hydromphalus
388. Hydrocele
3iel). Hydrops scejoti
390. Steatites
391. Pneumatosis
392 Emphysema
3J3. Hysteroptosis
394. Cystoptosis
395. Archoptoma
396. Bubonocele
397. Oscheocele
398. Omphalocele
399. MeroceJe
400. Euterocele ovularis
401. Ischiatocele
402. Elytrocele
403. Hypogastrocele
404. Cyslocele
405. Cyrtoma
4U6. Hydrenterocele
407. Varix
511.  Phuxoa
51-2.  Gibber
513.  Caput obslipum
514.  Strabismus
515.  Myopiasis
516.  Lagopluhalmus
517.  Trichiasis
518.  Ectropium
519.  Entropium
520.  Rhaeas
521.  Rhyssomata
52-2.  Lagocheilos
523.  Malachosteon
        Order I.
       MACULA.
 1. Leucoma
 2. Vitiligo
 3. Ephelis
 4. Naevus
 5. Ecchymoma.
       Order II.
  EFFLORESCENTIA.
 6. Pusiula
 7. Papida
 8. Phlyclhaena
 9. Bacchia
10. Varus
11. Herpes
12. Epiuyctis
13. Hemeropatlios
14. Psydracia
15. Hydroa.
       < IRDER I'll.
       PHYMATA.
16. Erythema
17. Oedema
406. Aneurism
409. Cirsocele
410. Gastrocele
411. Hepalocele
412. Splenocele
413. Hysterocele
414. Hygrocirsocele
415. Sarcocele
416. Physocele
417. Exostosis
418. Hyperostosis
419. Pu'darthrocacc
410. Encystis
4-21. Staphyloma
4-2-2. Staphylosis
4AJ. Fungus
4-24. Tofus
425. Fleinen.
       Order III.
   EXTUBERANTIA
426. Verruca
427. Porrus
42ee!. Clavus
429. Callus
430. Encanthis
431. Pladarotis
43-2. Piuuula
433. Pterygium
434. Hordeolum
435. Graudo
436. Varus
437. Gutta rosacea
433. Ephelis
439. Esoche
440. Exoohe.
       Order  IV.
PUSTULA Sc PAPULA
441. Epinyctis
442. Phlyctueua
443. Herpes
444. Scabies
445. Aquula
446. Hydroa
447. Variola
448. Varicella
449. Purpura
450. Eucoumn.
        Order V.
        MACULA
451. Ecchymoiua
45-2. Petechia!
4X1. Morbilli
454. Scarlatcc
455. Lentigo
456. Urticaria
457. Stigma
458. Vibex
45!). Vitiligo
460. Leuce
461. Cyasma
402. Lichen
4(13. SeJina
464. Nebula.
        Order VI.
    DISSOLUTIONES.
465  Vulnus
466. Ruptura
467. Rhagas
468. Fractura
463. Fissura
470. Plicatio
471. TlUasis
472. Luxatio
473. Subluxatio
474  Diachalnsis
.475. Attritis
476. Porrigo
477. Aposyrma
          CLASS XI.-
524. Hirsuties
525. Canities
5-J6. Distrix
j'27. Xirasia
5-28. Phalacrotis
529. Alopecia
530. Madarosis
531. Ptilosis
5.'-r2. Rodatio
533. Phalangosis
534. Coloboma
535. Cercosis
536. Cholosis
-DEFORMITATES.
  537. Gryposis
  538. Na-vus
  539. Montrositas
  540. Polysarcia
  541. Ichuotis
  542. Rhicuosis
  543. Varus
  544. Valgus
  545. Leiopodes
  546. Apella
  547. Hypespadiaeos
  548. Urorhoeas
  549. Atreia
A Synoptical Vino of the System of Saoar.
          CLASS I—VITI A.
Em phy soma
Scirrhus
[nflaiumalio
Bubo
Parotis
Furuuculus
Anthrax
Cancer
Paronychia
Phimosis.
    Order  IV.
EXCRESCENTIA.
 Sarcoma
Condyloma
Verruca
Pterygium
Hordeolum
Trachelophyma
Exostosis.
    Order  V.
   CYSTIDES.
Aneurysma
Varix
37. Marisca .
38.  Hydatis
39. Siapbylonra
40. Lupia
41. Hydarthrus
42. Apostema
43. Exomphalus
44. Oscheophyma.
        Order VI.
        ECTOPIA.
45. Exophthalmia
46. lilepharoptosis
 47. Hypostaphyle
48. Paraglossa
49. Proptoma
50. Ex an La
51. Exocystis
52. Hisleroptosis
53. Colpoptosis
54. Gastrocele
55. Omphalocele
56. Hepatocele
57. Merocele
478. Anapleueta
479. Spasma
480. Contusio
481. Diabrosis
482. Agomphiasia
483. Eschara
484. Piptonychia
485. Cacoethes
486. Therionia
487. Carcinoma
488. Phagedaena
489. Noma
490. Sycosis
491. Fistula
492. Sinus
493. Caries
494. Achorea
495. Crusta lactea
496. Favus
497. Tinea
498. Algernon
499. Agilops
500. Ozaena
501. Aphthae
502. Intertrigo
503. Rhacosis.
       Order  VII.
    CONCRETION ES
504. Ancylobli pharon
505. Zynizesis
506. Dacrymonia
507. Ancyloglossum
508. Ancylosis
509. Cicatrix
510. Dactyliua
550. Saniodes
551. Cripsorchis
552. Hermaptirodites
553. Dionysiscus
554. Artetiscus
555. Nefrendis
556. Spanopogon
557. Hyperartetisci
558. Galiancon
559. Galbulus
560. Mola.
58.  Bubonocele
59.  Opodeocele
60.  Ischiocele
61.  Colpocele
62.  Perinaeocele
63.  Perilonteorixis
64.  Encephalocele
65.  Hysteroloxia
66.  Paiorchiditim
67.  Exarthrenia
68.  Diastasis
69.  Loxarthrus
70.  Gibbosilas
71.  Lordosis.
       Order VII.
    DEFORMITATE9
72.  Lagostoma
73.  Apella
74.  Polymerisma
75.  Epidosis
76.  Anchylomerisma
77.  Hirsuties.
        Order I.
     SOLUTIONES.
     recentes, cruenba.
78.  Vulnus
79.  Punctura
80.  Sclopetoplaga
             CLASS II.-PLAGA.
 81. Morsus                       Order n.       87. Sutura
 82. Excoriatio                 SOLUTIONES.     88. Paracentesis
83. Contusio              recentes,  cruenta,  artifi-        Order 111.
84. Ruptura.                       dales.               SOLUTIONES.
                         85.  Operatio                     incruenta.
                         86.  Amputatlo           89. Ulcus 
NOSOLOGY.
90. Exulceratio
91. Fistula
92 Sinus
        Order I.
        MACIES.
IOC. Tabes
101. Phthisis
102. Atrophia
103. Haeinataporia
104. Aridura.
        Order II.
  INTUMESCENTIA.
105. Plethora
106. Polysarcia
107. Pneumatosis
10?. Anasarca
109. Phlegm atia
110. Physconia
        Order I.
         VAGI.
142. Arthritis
1-13. Ostocopus
144. Rheumatiamus
145. Catarrhus
146. Anxietus
147. Lassitudo
143. Stupor
140. Pruritus
150. Algor
        Order I.
 _ SANGUIFLUXUS.
174. Haemorrhagia
175. Haemoptysis
176. Stomacace
177. Haeinatemesis
173. Hrematuria
171). Metrorrhagia
180. Abortus.
        Order  II.
    ALVIFLUXUS.
      sanguinotenti.
181. Hepatirrhoea
        Order I.
   EGERENDORUM.
210. Adiapncustia
211. Sterilitas
2i2. Ischuria
213. Dysuria


        Order I.
 TONICI PARTIALES.
222. Strabismus
223. 'liismus
224. Obsti pitas
2-2.'>. Contractura
&~e. Crampus
"*M7. Friapismu*.
        Order I.
     SPASMODICA.
945.  Ephialtes
216  Steruutalio
347.  Oscodo
        Order I.
   DYSASTHESIA
91*. Amblyopia
S59. Cahgo
StiO. Cataracta
S61. Amaurosis
BU'i Anosmia
2t>3. Aghcustia
264. Dyscciun
235. Paracusia
936. Cophosis
      113
93.  Eschara
94.  Caries
95.  Artbrocace.
           CLASS III.-
 111. Graviditas.
       Order HI.
  HYDROPES/xirriates,
 112. Hydrocephalus
 113. Physocephalus
 114. Hydrorachitis
 115. Ascites
 116. Hydrometra
 117. Physometra
 118. Tympanites
 119. Meteorismua.
       Order IV.
       TUBER A.
 120. Rachitis
 121. Scrofula

            CLASS IV.
151. Ardor.
        Order IK
       CAPITIS.
 152. Cephalalgia
 153. Cephalaea
 154. Hemicrania
 155. Ophthalmia
 156. Otalgia
 157. Odontalgia.
              CLASS
182. Haemorrhois
183. Dysenteria
184. Melaena.
       Order III.
     ALVIFLUXUS.
   non sanguinolenli.
185. Nausea
186. Vomitus
187. Ileus
188. Cholera
189. Diarrhoea
190. Coeliaca
191. Lienteria
         Order IV.
       SOLUTIONES.
         antmala.
  96. Rhagas

-CACHEXIA.
  122. Carcinoma
  123. Leontiasis
  124. Malis
  125. Framboesia.
         Order V.
      IMPETIGINES
  126. Syphilis
  127. Scorbutus
  128. Elephantiasis
  129. Lepra
  130. Scabies
  131. Tinea.
         Order VI.
        ICTERITIE.
  132. Aurigo

—DOLORES.
        Order III.
        PECTORIS.
  158. Pyrosis
  159. Cardiogmus.
         Order IV.
       ABDOMINIS.
  160. Cardialgia
  161. Gaslrodynia
  102. Colica
  163 Hepatalgia
  164. Splenalgia

V.—FLUXUS.
  192- Tenesmus
  193. Proctorrhea.
         Order IV.
      SERIFLUXUS
  194. Ephidrosis
  195. Epiphora
  196. Coryza
  197. Ptyalismus
  198. Anacatharsis
  199. Diabetes
  200. Enuresis
  201. Pyuria
  202. Leucorrhoea
         CLASS  VI.—SUPPRESSIONES.
214. Aglactatio                  Order  II.
215. Dyslochia.              1NGERENDORUM
                        216. Dysphagia
                        217. Angina.
             CLASS Vn.—SPASMI.
       Order II.        232. Subsultus
 TONICI GENERALES. 233. Pandiculatio
228. Tetanus             234. Apomistosis
229. Catochus            235. Convulsio
       Order III.       236. Tremor
  CHRONICI PARTIA-  237. Palpitatio
          LES.          233. Claudicatio.
230. Nystagmus
331. Carphologia

        CLASS VUI.—ANIIELATIONES.
248. Singultus
249. Tussis.
       Order U.
    SUPPRESSIVA
250. Stcrtor

          CLASS IX.-
267. Anaesthesia.
       Order II
   ANEPYTHYMIA.
908. Anorexia
269. Adipsia
270. Anaphrodisia.
       Order III.
    DYSCINES1A.
971. Mutita.se
272. Aphonia
273. Pscllisttius
 251. Dyspntea
 25-2 Asthma
 253. Orthoptics*!
 254. Pleurodyue
 255. Rheunia

-DEBILITATES.
 '274. Cacophouia
 275. Paralysis
 276. Hemiplegia
 277. Paraplexia.
         Order IV.
     LE1POPSYCUIA.
 978. Asthenia
 279. Lipothymia
 230. Syncope
 231. Asphyxia.
97.  Ammtstw
98.  Fractura
99.  Fissura.
133. Melasictertis
134. Phoenigmus
135. Chlorosis.
       Order VII.
      ANOMALA
136.  Phlhiriasis
137.  Trichoma
138.  Alopecia
139.  Elcosis
140.  Gr.iugraena
141.  Necrosis.
165. Nephralgia
166. Hysteralgia.
        Order. V.
    EXTERNARUM
167. Mastodvnia
168. Rachialgia
169. Lumbago
170. Ischias
171. Proctalgia
172. Pudendagra
173. Digitiuni.
203. Lochiorrhcea
20-1. Gonorrhoea
205. Galactirrhoea
206. Otorrhoea.
        Order V.
     AERIFLUXU8
207. Flatulentia
208. Adopsophia
209. Dy«odia
       Order  til
     1MI VENTRIS.
218. Dysmenorrhea
219  Dystocia
220.  Dyshaemorrhois
221.  Obstipatio.


       Order  IV.
 CHRONICI GENERA
          LES.
239.  Phricasnius
240.  Eclampsia
241.  Epilepsia
242. Hysteria
243.  Scelotyrbe
244.  Beriberia.
256. Hydrothorax
257. Empyema.
        Order V
       COMATA
282. Catalepsis
SKI. Ectasis
284. Typhomania
2?6. Lethargus
286. Cataphora
!2-!7. Carus
283. Apoplexia 
NOSOLOGY.
        Order I.
     CONTAGIOSA.
189. Peslis
290. Variola
        Order I.
     MUSCULOSA.
299. Phlegmone
300. Cynanche
301. Myositis
302 Carditis.
        Order 1
      CONTINUA
316.  Judicatoria
317.  Humoraria
318.  Frigeraria


        Order I.
 HALLUCINATIONES.
328.  Vertigo
329.  Suffusio
330.  Di|iiopia
331. Syrigmoe
332. Hypochondriasis
333. Somnambulistnus.
         CLASS X.--EXANTHEMATA.
291. Pemphigus                 Order II.       297. Essera
2J12. Purpura              NON-CONTAGIOSA.  298. Aphtha.
293. Rubeola            295. Miliares
294. Scarlatina.         296. Erysipelas

          CLASS XI.—PHLEGMASIA
       Order II.       307. Enteritis
    MEMBRANACA.
303. Phrenitis
304 Diaphragmitis
305 Pleuritis
306. Gastritis
                       311. Peripneumonia
308. Epiploitis           312. Hepulttis
309. Cystitis.            313. Splenitis
       Order III.      314. Nephritis
 PARENCHYMATOSA. 315. Metritis.
310. Cephalitis!
             CLASS XII.—FEBRES.
319. Typhus             322. Tritaophya
320. Hectica.
        Order  II.
    REMITTENTES
321. Amphiiuerina
323. Telartophya.
       Order III.
  INTERMITTENTES.
324. Quotidiana
       Order  II.
    MOROSITATES.
334. Pica
335. Bulimia
336. Polydi|isia
337. Ami pat hia
338. Nostalgia
339. Panophobia
CLASS XIII.—VESANIA.
340. Satyriasis
341. Nymphomania
342. Tarantisinus
343. Hydrophobia
344. Rabies.
       Order III.
       DELIRIA.
345. Paraphro=-yne
325. Tertiana
3%. Quartana
327. Erralica.
346. Amentia
347. Melancholia
348. DueuioiKimania
349. Mania.
       Order IV.
      ANOMALA
350. Amnesia
351. Agrypnia
Synoptical View of the System of Dr.  Maceride.
       Order I.
       FEVERS.
 1. Continued
 2. Intermittent
 3. Remittent
 4. Eruptive
 5. Hectic.
       Order II.
  INFLAMMATIONS.
 6. External
 7. Internal.
       Order HI.
       FLUXES.
 8. Alvine
 9. Haemorrhage
10. Humoral discharge.
       Order IV.
 PAINFUL DISEASES.
11. Gout
UNIVERSAL DISEASES.
       29. Eclampsia
       30. Uieranosos.
              Order VI.
         WEAKNESSES AND
            PRIVATIONS.
       31. Coma
       32. Palsy
       33. Fainting.
             Order VTT.
        ASTHMATIC DISOR-
               DERS.
       34. Dyspnoea
      CLASS I
12. Rheumatism
13. Ostocopus
14. Headache
15. Toothache
16. Earache
17. Pleurodyne
18. Pain in tbe stomach
19. Colic
20. Lithiasis
21. Ischuria
22. Proctalgia.
        Order V.
SPASMODIC DISEASES.35. Orthopncea
23. Tetanus             36. Asthma
24. Catochus             37. Hydrothorax
25. Locked jaw          38. Empyema.
26. Hydrophobia              Order VIII.
27. Convulsion            MENTAL  DISEASES
23. Epilepsy             39. Mania

        CLASS II.—LOCAL DISEASES.
        Order IV.        95. Hiccup
OF THE  SECRETIONS 96. Cough
  AND EXCRETIONS.   97. Vomiting
74. Epiphora
75. Coryza
76. Ptyalism
 77. Anacatharsis
78. Otorrhoea
40. Melancholia.
       Order  IX.
 CACHEXIES,or Humoral
         Diseases.
 41. Corpulency
 42. Dropsy
 43. Jaundice -
 44. Emphysema
45. Tympany
46. Physconia
47. Atrophia
48. Osleosarcosls
49. Sarcostosis
50  Mortification
51. Scurvy
5'2. Scrofula
53. Cancer
54. Lues Venerea.
 93. Palpitation of the
      heart
 99. Chorea
100. Trismus
101. Nystagmus
79. Diarrhoea            102  Cramp
80. Incontinence of urine. 103. Scelotyrbe
        Order I.
 OB* THE  INTERNAL
        SENSES.
 55 Loss of memory
 56. Hypochondriasis
 57. Loss of judgment
        Order II.
 OF THE  EXTERNAL
        SENSES.
 58. Blindness
 59. Depraved sight
 60. Deafness
 61. Depraved hearing
 62. Loss of smell
 63. Depraved smell
 64. Loss of taste
 65. Depraved taste
 G6. Loss of feeling.
       Order UI.
 OF THE  APPETITES
 67. Anorexia
 68. Cynorexia
 69. Pica
 70. Polydipsia
 71. Satyriasis
 72. Nymphomania
 73. Anaphrodisia.

                               CLASS ITI.—SEXUAL DISEASES.
        Order I.               Order II.       143. Gonorrhoea virulenta  147. Crystalline
GENERAL, proper to Men. LOCAL, proper to Men. 144. Priapism            148. Hernia humoralis
139. Febris tcsticularis    141. Dyspermatismus     145. Phimosis            149- Hydrocele
140 Tabes dorsalis.       142- Gonorrhoea simolez  146 Paraphimosis        150. Sarcocelft
                                                                                      119
81. Pyuria
82. Dysuria
83. Constipation
84. Tenesmus
85. Dysodia
86. Flatulence
87. Adopsophia.
       Order  V.
 IMPEDING DIFFER-
   ENT ACTIONS.
88. Aphonia
89. Mutitas
90. Paraphonia
91. Dysphasia
92. Wry neck
93. Angone
94. Sneezing
104. Contraction
105. Paralysis
106. Anchylosis
107. Gibbositas
108. Lordosis
109. Hydarthrus.
       Order VI.
 OF THE  EXTERNAL
        HABIT.
110. Tumour
111. Excrescence
112. Aneurism
113. Varix
114. Papula;
115. Phlyctaense
116. Pustulae
117. Scabies, or Psora
118. Impetigo
119. Leprosy
120. Elephantiasis
121. Framboesia
122. Herpes
123. Maculae
124 Alopecia
1-25. Trichoma
126. Scald head
127. Phlhiiiasis.
      Order VII.
    DISLOCATIONS.
128. Hernia
129. Prola:>sus
130. Luxation.
      Order VIII.
 SOLUTIONS OF CON
       TENUITY
131. Wound
132. Ulcer
133. Fissure
134. Fistula
135. Burn, or scald
136. Excoriation
137. Fracture
138. Caries. 
NOSOLOGY.
151. Cirsocelc.
Order III.   GENERAL
    proper to Women.
152. Anietiorrhoea
153. Chlorosis
154. Leuconhcea
  Order I.  GENERAL.
169. Colica meoonial is
170. Colica laoteutiiiin
171. Diarrhoea infantum
155.  Menorrhagia
156.  Hysteralgia
157.  Graviditas
158.  Abortus              162. Hydrops ovarii
159.  Dystochia            163. Scinhus ovarii
160.  Febris puerperalis     164. Hydromeua

      CLASS IV.—INFANTILE DISEASES.
172.  Aphtha;                 Order II.  LOCAL
173.  Eclampsia           176. Imperforation
174.  Atrophia             177. Anchyloglossum
175.  Rachitis.             178. Aurigo

       Synoptical view of Dr. Good's System.
161. Mastodynia.          165. Physometra
       Order IV.       166. Prolapsus uteri
LOCAL, proper to Women. 167.----------vagina)
168. Polypus uteri
179. Purpura
180. Crusta  lactea.
CLASS I.  C03LIACA.   Diseases of the Digestive
                    Function.
Order 1. Enteric*.  Affecting the alimentary canal.
Genus 1. Odontia.  Misdentition.
Species 1. O. dentitionis.  Teething.
       2. O. dolorosa.  Toothache.
       3. O. stuporis.  Tooth-edge.
       4. O. deformls.  Deformity of the teeth.
       5. O. edeniula.  Toothlessness.
       6. O. incriistans.  Tartar of the teeth.
       7. O. excrescens.  Excrescent gums.
Genus 2. Ptyalismus.  Ptyalism.
Species 1. P. aculus.  Salivation.
       2. P. chronicus.  Chronic ptyalism.
       3. P. iners.  Drivelling.
Genus 3. Dysphagia.  Dysphagy.
Species 1. D. constricta.  Constrictive dysphagy.
       2. D. atonica.  Atonic dysphagy.
       3. D. globosa.  Nervous quinsy.
       4. D. uvulosa.  Uvula dysphagy.
       5. D. Iiuguos.i.  Lingual dysphagy.
Genus 4. Dipsosis.  Morbid thirst.
Species 1. D. avens.  Immoderate thirst.
       2. D. expers, Thirstlessness.
Genus 5. Limosis.  Morbid appetite.
Species 1. L. avens.  Voracity.
       2. L. expers.  Long fasting.
       3. I., pica.  Depraved appetite.
       4. L. cardiaigica.   Heartburn.  Waterbrash.
       5. L. flatus.  Flatulency.
       6. L. emesis.  Sickness.  Vomiting.
       7. L. dyspepsia.  Indigestion.
- leuiis 6. Colic.x.  Colic.
Species 1. C. ileus.  Iliac passion.
       2. C. rhachialgica.  Painter's colic.
       3. C. cibaria.  Surfeit.
       4 C. flatuleutu.  Wind-colic.
       5. C. constipata.  Constipated colic.
       6. C. constricta.  Constrictive colic.
Genus 7. Copostatris.  Costiveness.
Species 1. C. constipata.  Constipation.
       2. C. obstipata.  Obstipation.
Genus 8. Diarrhoja.  Looseness.
Species 1. D. fusa.  Feculent looseness.
       2. D. biliosa.  Bilious looseness.
       3. D. mucosa.  Mucous looseness.
       4. I). chylosa.  Chylous looseness.
       5. D. lienieria.  Lientery.
       6.  1). serosn. Serous looseness.
       7. D. tabttlosa.  Tabular looseness.
       8.  D.gypsata.  Gypseous looseness.
Genus 9.  Cholera.  Cholera.
Species 1. C. biliosa.  Bilious cholera.
       2.  C. flatulenta.  Flaiulent cholera.
       3 ('.spasmodica.  Spasmodic cholera.
Genus 10. Enterolithus.  Intestinal concretions.
Species 1. E. bezoardus.  Bezoar.
       2. E. cnlculus.  Intestinal calculus.
       3! E. scybalum.  Scybalum.
Gcnusii. Helminthia  Worms.
Species 1.  II. alvl.  Alvine xvorms.
       2.  II. podicis.  Anal xvorms.
       3.  errnlica.  Erratic worms.
<7cnusl2. Proctica.  Proctica.
Snccics 1. P. simplex.  Simple proctica.
       2. P. spasmodica.  Spasmodic stricture of tho
            rectum.
       3.  P. callosa.  Callous stricture of the rectum.
       4. P. tenesmus.  Tenesmus.
       5. P. marica.  Piles.
       6 P exauia.  Prolapse of the fundament.
Order 2. Splanchnic*.   Affecting  the  collatitiotts
            viscera.
      1-20
Genus 1. Icterus. Yelloxv jaundice.
Species 1.  I. cholaeus.  Biliary jaundice.
       2. chololithicus.   Gallstone jaundice.
       3.  I. spasmodicus.  Spasmodic jaundice
       4.  I. hepaticus.   Hepatic jaundice.
       5.  I. infinitum.  Jaundice of Infants.
Gcnit3 2. Mel-lna.  Melena.
Species 1. M. choloea.  Black or green jaundice
       2.  M. cruenta.  Black vomit.
Genus 3. Chololithus.  Gall-stone.
Species 1. C. quiescens.  Quiescent gall-stone
       2. C. means. Passing of gall-stones
Genus 4. Parauisma.  Visceral turgesceuce.
Species 1. P. hepalicum.   Turgescence of the livet
       2. P. splenicum.   Turgescence of the spleen.
       3. P. pancreaticum.  Turgescence of the pan
            c reas.
       4. P. mesentericum.  Turgescence of the  me
            sentery.
       5. P. intestinale.  Turgescence of the intestines.
       6.  P. omentale.   Turgescence of the omentum.
       7.  P. complicatum.  Turgescence compounded
            of various organs.
CLASS II  PNEUMATICA.   Diseases of the Respi-
                 ratory Function.
Order 1. Phonica.  Affecting the vocal avenues
Genus 1.  Coryza.  Running at the nose.
Species 1. C. entonica.   Entonic coryza.
       2. C. atonica.  Atonic coryza.
Genus ii. PoLYPtre.  Polypus.
Species 1. P. elasticus.   Compressible polypus
       2. P. coriaceus.  Cartilaginous polypus
Genus 3. Rhonchus.   Rattling in the throat
Species 1. R. stertor.  Snoring.
       2. R. cerchims.  Wheezing.
Genus 4. Aphonia. Dumbness.
Species 1. A. elinguinm. Elingual dumbness
       2. A. aionica.  Atonic dumbness.
       3. A. suidnrum.   Deaf dumbness.
Genus 5.  Dysi-homa.   Dissonant voice.
Species 1. D. susurrans.   Whispering voice.
       2.  D. puberum.   Voice of puberty.
       3.  D. lumiodulata.   Immelodious voice.
Genus 6.  Pskllismus.  Dissonant speech.
Species 1.  P. bambalia.   Stammering.
       2.  P. blaesitas.  Misenunciation.
Order 2.  Pneumonica.    Affecting  the lungs, their
            membranes, or motive poxver.
Genus 1. Bex.  Cough.
Species 1   B. humida.  Common or humid cough.
       2 B. sicca.  Dry cough.
       3. B. convulsiva.  Hooping-cough.
Genus 2. Laryngismus.  Laryngic suffocation.
Species 1.  L. stridulus.   Stridulus construction of the
            larynx.
Genus 3. Dyspncf.a. Anhclation.
Species 1.  D. chronica.   Short-breath.
       2.  D. exacerbans.  Exacerbating anhelntion.
Genus 4. Asthma.  Asthma.
Species 1. A. siccum.  Dry or nervous asthma.
       2.  A. humidum.   Humid or common asthma.
Genus 5. Ephialtes.  Incubus.
Species].  E. xigilantium.  Day-mare.
       2.  E. nocturnus.   Night-mare.
Genus 6. Sternaloia.  Suffocative  breast-pang.
Species 1.  S. ambulantium.  Acute breast-pang.
       2.  S. chronica.   Chronic breast-pang
Genus 7.  Pleuralqia.   Pain in the  side.
Species 1.  P. acuta. Stitch.
       2. P. chionica.   Chronic pain in the side.
CLASS III.   HAMATICA.  Diseases cf the San
                guinous  Function.
Order 1.  Pyretica.  Fevers 
NOSOLOGY.
 Genus 1.  Ephemera.  Diary fever.
 Species 1.  E. innis.  Mild dia'ry fever.
        2.  E. acuta.   Acute diary fex-cr.
        3.  E. sudatoria.  Sweating fever.
 Genus 2.  Anetcs.   Intermitting fever.  Ague.
 Species 1.  A. quotidianus   Quotidian ague.
        2.  A. tertiauus.  Tertian ague.
        3.  A. quartanus.  Quartan ague.
        4.  A. erraticus.  Irregular ague.
        5.  A. complicalus.  Complicated ague.
 Genus 3  Epanetus.  Remittent fever.
 Species 1.  E. mitis.  Mild remittent.
        2.  E. malignus.  Malignant remittent
        3.  E. hectica.  Hectic fever.
 Genus 4. Enecia.  Continued fever.
 Species 1. £. cauma.  Inflammatory fever.
        2.  E typhus.  Typhous fever.
        3.  E. synochus.  Synochal fever.
 Order 2.  Phi ocistica.  Inflammations.
 Genus 1.  Apostema.  Aposteme.
 Species 1.  A. commune.  Common aposteme,
        2.  Apsoaticum.  Psoas abscess.
       3. A. hepaticum.   Abscess of ihe liver.
       4. A. empyema.   Lodgment of matter in the
            chest.
       5. A vomica.  Vomica.
 Genus 2. Phlegmone.  Phlegmon
 Soecies 1. P. communis.  Common phlegmon.
       2. P. parulis.  Gum-boil.
       3. P. auris.  Imposthume ofthe ear.
       4. P. parotidea.  Parotid phlegmon.
       5. P. mammae.   Abscess ofllie breast.
       6. P. bubo.  Bubo.
       7. P. phimotira.   Phimotic phlegmon.
 Genus 3. Phyma.  Tubercle.
 Species 1. P. hordeolum.   Sty.
       2. P. furunculus.  Boil.
       3. P. sycosis.  Ficous phyma.
       4. P. anthrax.  Carbuncle.
 Genus 4.  Ionthi s.   Whelk.
 Species 1. I. varus.  Stone pock.
       2. I. corymbyfer.  Carbunculated face. Rosy
            drop.
 Genus 5. Phlysis.  Phlysis.
 Species 1. P. paronychia.  Whitlow.
 Genus 6. Erythema.  Inflammatory  blush.
 Species 1. E. redematusum.   (Edematous inflamma-
            tion.
       2. E. erysipelatosum.  Esysipelatous  inflam-
            mation.
       3. E. gangrenosum.   Gangrenous inflamma-
            tion.
       4. E. vesiculare.  Vesicular inflammation.
       5. E. pernio.   Chilblain.
       6. E. enterfrigo.  Fret.
 Genus 7. Fmpresma.  Visceral inflammation.
 Species 1. E. cephalites.   Inflammation of the brain.
       2. E. otitis.  Inflammation of the ear.
       3. E. parotitis.  Mumps
       4  E. parithmitis.  Quincy.
       5. E. laryngitis.  Inflammation of the  larynx
       6. E. bronchitis.  Croup.
       7. E. pneumonitis.  Peripneumcny.
       8. E. pleuritis.  Pleurisy
       9. E. carditis.  Inflammation of the heart.
       10. E. peritonitis.   Inflammation of the perito-
                neum.
       11. E. gastritis.  Inflammation of the stomach.
       12. E. enteritis.  Inflammation of the boxvels.
       13. E. hepatitis. Inflammation of the  liver.
       14. E. splenitis.  Inflammation of the spleen.
       15. E. nephritis.  Inflammation of the kidney.
       16. E. cystitis.  Inflammation of the bladder.
       17. E. hysteritis.  Inflammation of the womb.
       18. E. orchitis  Inflammation of the testicles.
 Genus 8. Ophthalmia.  Ophthalmy.
 Species 1. O. taraxis.  Lachrymose ophthalmy.
       2. O. iridis.  Inflammation ofthe iris.
       3. O. purulenta.  Purulent ophthalmy.
       4. O. glutinosa.  Glutinous ophthalmy.
       5. O. chronica.  Lippitude. Blear-eye.
 Genus 9. Catarrhus.  Catarrh.
Species 1. C. communis.  Cold in the head or chest.
       2. C. epidemicus.  Influenza.
 GenuslO. Dysenteria.  dysentery.
Species 1. D. simplex.  Simple Dysentery.
       2. D. pyretica.  Dysenteric fever.
I Genus il. Bccnemia.   Tumid leg.
 Species 1. B. sparganosis.  Puerperal tumid log.
        2. B. tropica.  Tumid leg of hot climates.
 Genusi2. Arthrosia.  Articular inflammation.
 Species 1. A. acuta.  Acute rheumatism.
        2. A. chronica.  Chronic inflammation
        3. A. podagra.  Gout.
        4. A. hydarthrus.  While-swelling.
 Order 3. Exanthematica.   Eruptive fevers.  Ej
            anthems.
  Genus 1. Exanthesis.  Rash exanlhem.
 Species 1. E. rosalia.  Scarlet fever
        2. rubeola.  Measles.
        3. E. urticaria.  Nettle-rash.
  Genus 2. Emphlysis.   Achorous exanlhem.
 Species 1. E. miliaria.   Miliary fever.
        2. E. aphtha.  Thrush.
        3. E. vaccina.   Coiv-pox.
        4. E. varicella.  Water-pox.
        5. E. pemphigus)   Vesicular fever.
        6. E. erysipelas.  St. Anthony's fire.
  Genus 3. Empyesis.  Pustulous exanlhem.
 Species 1. E. variola.  Smallpox.
  Genus 4. Anthracia.  Carbuncular exenthem.
 Species 1. A. pestis. Plague.
        2. A. rubula.  Yaxvs.
 Order 4. Dysthetica.  Cachexies.
  Genus 1. Plethora.  Plethora.
 Species 1.  P. entenica.  Sanguineous plethora.
        2. P. atonica.  Serous plethora.
  Genus 2. Hamorrhagia.  Hemorrhage.
 Species 1. H. entonica.  Entouic haemorrhage.
        2. II. atonica.  Atonic haemorrhage.
  Genus 3. Marasmus.   Emaciation.
 Species 1. M. atrophia.  Atrophy.
        2. M. climactericus.  Decay of nature.
        3. M. Tabes.  Decline.
        4. M. phthisis.  Consumption
  Genus 4. Struma. Scrofula.
 Species 1. S. vulgaris.  King's evil.
  Genus 5. Carcinus   Cancer.
 Species 1. C. vulgaris.   Common cancer.
  Genus 6. Lues.  Venereal disease.
 Species 1. L. syphilis.   Pox.
        2. L. syphilodcs.  Bastard pox.
  Genus 7. Elephantiasis.  Elephant-skin.
 Species 1. E. arabica.  Arabian elephantiasis.  Black
            leprosy.
       2. E. italica. Italian elephantiasis.
       3. E. asturiensis.  Asturiaq elephantiasis.
  Genus 8. Catacausis. Catacausis.
 Species 1. C. ebriosa.   Enebriate catacausis.
 Genus 9.  Porphyra.  Scurvy.
 Species 1. P. simplex.  Petechial scurvy.
       2. P. hemorrhagica.  Land-scurvy
       3. P. nautica.  Sea-scurvy.
 Genus 10. Exangia. Exangia.
 Species 1. E. aneurisma.  Aneurism.
       2. E. varix.  Varix.
       3. E. cyania.  Blue-skin.
 Genus 11. Ganor.kna.   Gangrene.
 Species 1. G. sphacelus.  Mortification.
       2. G. ustilagincn.  Mildew-mortification.
       3. G. necrosis.  Dry-gangrene.
       4. G. caries. Caries.
 Genus 12. Ulcus.   Ulcer.
 Species 1. U. incarnans.  Simple healing ulcer.
       2. U. vitiorum.  Depraved ulcer.
       3. U. sinuosum. Sinuous ulcer.
       4. U. tuberculosum.   Warty.   Excrescent
            ulcer.
       5. U. cariosum.  Carious ulcer.
    CLASS IV. NEUROTICA.  Diseases of the
                Nervous Function.
 Order 1. Phrenica.  Affecting the intellect
 Genus 1. Ecpiironia.  Insanity.  Crazinesg.
 Species 1. E. melancholia.   Melancholy
       2. E. mania. Madness.
 Genus 2. Empathema.  Ungovernable passion.
 Species 1. E. entouicuin.  Em passioned excitement
       2. E. atonicum.  Empassioned depression.
       3. E. inane.  Hair-brained passion.
 Genus 3  Alusia.  Illusion.   Hallucination.
 Species 1. A. elalio.  Sentimentalisni.   Mental et
            travagance.
       2. A. hypochondriasis. Hypochondrism. Low
            spiritedness.
                                        121 
OLOO  .
Genus 4. Aphlixia.  Revery.
Species 1. A. socora.  Absence of mind.
       2. A. intenda.  Abstraction of mind.
       3. A. oliosa.  Brown study.
Genus 5. P.xroniria.  Sleep-disturbance.
Species 1. P. ambulans.  Sleep-walking.
       2. P. loquens. Sleep-talking.
       3. P. salax.   Night pollution.
Genus 6. Moria.  Fatuity.
Species 1. M. imbecillis.   Imbecility.
       2. M. demens.  Irrationality.
Order 2. Asthktica.  Affecting ihe sensation.
Genus 1. Paropsis.  Morbid-sight.
Species 1. P. lucifuga. Night-sight.
       2. P. noctifuga.  Day-sight.
       3. P. longiiiq.ua.  Long-sight.
       4. P. propinqun.  Short-sight.
       5. P. lateralis.  Skcxv-sight.
       6. P. illusoria.  False-sight.
       7. P. caligo.  Opaque cornea.
       8. P. glaueosis.   Humeral opacity.
       9. P. cataracta.  Cataract.
       10. P. synizesis.   Closed pupil.
       11. P. amaurosis.  Drop serene.
       12 P. staphyloma.  Protuberant eye.
       13. P. stabismus.  Squinting.
Gem.s 2. Paracusis.  Morbid hearing.
Species 1. P. acris.  Acute hearing.
       2. P. obtusa.  Hardness of hearing.
       3. P perversa.   Perverse hearing.
       4. P. duplicata.  Double hearing.
       5. P. illusoria.  Imaginary sounds.
       6. P. surditas.  Deafness.
Genus 3. Pa*os>;is. Morbid smell.
Species 1. P. acris.  Acute smell.
       2. P obtusa.  Obtuse smell.
       3.  P. expers.  Want of smell.
Genus 4. Paraokusis.   Moibid laste.
Species 1. P. acute.  Acute taste.
       2.  P. obtusa.  Obtuse taste.
       3.  P. expers.  Want of laste.
Genus 5.  PaRapsis.  Morbid touch.
Species 1. P. acris.  Acute sense of touch or general
            feeling.
       2. P. expers.  Insensibility of touch or general
            feeling.
       3. P. illusoria.   Illusory  sense of touch  or
            general feeling.
Genus 6. Neuralgia.  Nerve-ache.
Species 1. N. faciei.  Nerve-ache ofthe face.
       2. N. pedis.  Nerve-ache ofthe foot.
       3. N. mamma;.  Nerve-ache of the breast.
Order 3. Cinetica. Affecting the muscles.
Genus 1. Entasia.  Constrictive spasm.
Species 1. E priapismus.  Priapism
       2. E. loxia.  Wry neck.
        3. E. articularis. Muscular stiff-joint.
       4. E. systremma.  Cramp.
       5. E. trismus.  Hooked-jaw.
       6. E tetanus.  Tetanus.
       7. E. lyssa.  Rabies.  Canine madness,
       8. E. acrnstimus.  Suppressed pulse.
 Genus 2. Clonicus. Clonic spasm.
Species 1. C. singultus.   Hiccough.
        2. C. sternulatio.  Sneezing.
       3. Palpitatio. Pal|>itation.
        4. C. necliiatio.  Wtinkling ofthe eyelids.
        5. C. subsultus.   Twitching of the tendons.
        6. C. pandiculatio.  Stretching.
 Genus 3. Synclonus.  Synclonic spasm
 Species 1. S. tremor. Trembling.
        2. S. choren. St. Vitus's dance.
        3. S. ballismus.  Shaking palsy.
        4. S. raphania.   Raphania.
        5 S. beriberia.   Barbiers.
 order 4. Systatica.  Affecting several, or all the
            sensorial powers, simultaneously.
 Genus 1. Aorypnia.  Sleeplessness.
 Species 1. A. excitata.  Irritative xvakefulness.
        2. A. perte«a.   Chronic xvakefulness.
 Grnus 2. Dysphoria.  Restlessness.
 Species 1.  D. simplex.  Fidgets.
        2. D. anxietns.  Anxiety.
 Genus 3. Antipathia.  Antipathy
 Species 1. A. sensilis.   Sensile antipathy.
        2.  A. insensilis. Insensile antipathy.
 Oenus 4. Cepiial.sa.  Headache
       122
Species 1.  C. gravans.  Stupid headacne.
       2.  C. intensa.  Chronic headache.
       3.  C. heniicrania.  Megrim.
       4.  C. pulsatilis.  Throbbing headache
       5.  C. nauaeosa.  Sick headache.
Genus 5.  Dinus.  Dizziness.
Species 1.  D. vertigo.   Vertigo.
Genus 6.  Syncope.   Syncope.
Species 1.  S. simplex.   Swooning.
       2.  S. recurrens. Fainting lit.
Genus 7.  Syspasia.   Comatose spasm.
Species 1.  S. convulsio.  Convulsion.
       2.  S. hysteria.  Hysterics.
       3.  S. epilepsia. Epilepsy.
Genus 8.  Carus.  Torpor.
Species 1.  C. asphyxia.   Asphyxy.  Suspended ani-
            mation.
       2.  C. ecstasis.   Ecstacy.
       3.  C. catalepsia.  Catalepsy.
       4.  C. lelhargu.s.  Lethargy.
       5.  C. apoplexia.  Apoplexy.
       6.  C. paralysis. Palsy.
CLASS V.  GENETICA.—Diseases of the Sexual
                     Function.
Order 1.  Cenotica.  Affecting the fluids.
Genus 1.  Paramenia. Mismenstruation.
Species 1.  P. obstruMionis. Obstructed menstruation.
       2.  P. difficilis.  Laborious menstruation.
       3.  P. superflua.  Excessive menstruation.
       4.  P. erroris.   Vicarious menstruation.
       5.  P. cessations.   Irregular cessation  of the
            menses.
Genus 2.  LkcorrhjEA.  Whites.
Species 1.  L. communis.  Common whites.
       2.  L. nabotbi.  Labour show.
       3.  L. senescentium.  Whites of advaned life
Genus 3.  Blenorrhoee.  Gonorrhoea.
Species 1.  B. simplex. Simple urethral running.
       2.  B. luodes.  Clap.
       3.  B. chronica.  Gleet.
Genus 4.  Spermorrhsa.   Seminal flux.
Species I.  S. entonica. Entonic seminal flux.
       2. S. atonica.   Atonic seminal flux.
Genus 5.  Galactia.   Mlslactation.
Species 1. G. praematura.  Premature milkflow.
       2. G. delectiva.  Deficient milkflow.
       3. G. depravata.  Depraved milkflow.
       4. G. erratica. Erratic milkflow.
       5.  G. virorum. Milkflow in males.
Order 2.  Orgastica.  Affecting the orgasm.
Genus 1.  Chlorosis. Green-sickness.
Species 1.  C. entonica.  Entonic green-sickness.
       2. C. atonica.  Atonic green-sickness.
Genus 2.  Procotia.  Genital precocity.
Species 1. P. maseulina.  Male ptecocity
       2.  P. feminina.  Female precocity
Genus 3.  Lagnesis.  Lust.
Species 1. L. salacitas.  Salacity.
       2. L. furor.  Lascivious madness.
Genus 4.  Agenesia.  Male sterility.
Species 1. A. impotens.  Male iinpotency.
       2. A. dyspermia.  Seminal misemission.
       3. A. incongrua.  Copulative incongruity.
Genus 5.  Amphoria. Female sterility. Barrenness.
Species 1. A. impotens.   Barrenness of impotency.
       2. A.  paramenica.   Barrenness of mismet]
            struation.
       3. A.impercita.  Barrenness of irrespondence.
       4. A. incongrua.   Barrenness of incongruity.
 Genus 6. Adoptosis.  Genital prolapse.
Species 1. A. uteri.   Falling down ofthe womb.
       2. A. vaginae. Prolapse ofthe  vagina.
       3. A. vesica*. Prolapse of the bladder
       4. A. complicata.   Complicated genita. pro-
            lapse.
       5. A. polyposa.  Genital excrescence.
Order 3. Carpotica.  Affecting  the impregnation.
 Genus 1. Paracyesis.  Morbid pregnancy.
Species 1. P. irritativa.  Constitutional derangement
            of pregnancy.
       2. P. uteri iia.  Local derangement of  preg
            nancy.
        3. P. abortus. Abortion.
 Genus 2. Parodynia.  Morbid labour.
 Species 1. P. atonica. Atonic labour.
       2. P. iniplastica.  Unplinnt labour.
       3. P. sympathetica.   Complicated labour 
NOSOuOGY.
Species4. P. perversa.  Pieternatura presentation.
       5 P. amorphics.  Impracticable labour.
       6. P  pluralis.  Multiplicate labour
       7 P. secundaria.  Sequential labour,
Genus 3. Eccyesis.  Extra-uterine faetation.
Species 1. E. ovaria.  Ovarian exfietation.
       2. E. tubalis.  Tubal exfoetation.
       3. E. abdoininalis.   Abdominal exfoetation.
Genus 4. Pseudocyesis.  Spurious pregnancy.
Species 1. P. molaris.  Mole.
       2. P. inanis.  False conception.
CLASS  VI.  ECCRITICA.—Diseases of the Excer-
                 nent Functions.
Order 1. Mesotica.  Affecting the parenchyma.
Genus 1. Poi.ysarcuia.  Corpulency
Species 1. P. adiposa.  Obesity.
Genus 2- Emphyma.  Tumour
Species 1  E. sarcoma.  Sarcomatous tumour.
       2. E. encystis.  Encysted tumour.
       3. E. exostosis.  Bony tumour.
Genus 3. Parostia.  Mis-ossification.
Species 1. P. tragi Is.  Fragility ofthe bones.
       2. P. flexilis.  Flexility of the bones.
Genus 4. Cyrtosis.  Contortion of the bones.
Species 1. C. rhachia.  Rickets.
       2. C. cretinisraus.   Cretinismus.
Genus 5. Ostiiexia.  Osthexy.
Species 1. O. infarciens.  Parenchymatous orlhexy.
       2. O. implexa. Vascular osthexy.
Order 2. Catotica.  Affecting internal surfaces
Genus 1. Hydrops.  Dropsy.
Species 1. H. cellularis.   Cellular dropsy.
       2. H. capitis.  Dropsy of the head.
       3. H. spine.  Dropsy of the spine.
       4. H. thoracis.  Dropsy of the chest.
       5. H. abdominis.   Dropsy of the belly.
       6. H. ovarii.  Dropsy of the ovaries.
       7. H. tubalis.  Dropsy of the Fallopian tubes
       8 H. uteri.   Dropsy ofthe womb.
       y. H. scroti.  Dropsy of the scrotum.
Genus 2. Emphysema.   In Aalion, wind dropsy.
Species 1. E. cellulare.  Cellular inflation.
       2. E. abdominis  Tympany.
Genus 3. Paruria.  Mismicturition.
Species 1. P. inops.  Destitution of urine.
       2. P. retention"*.  Stoppage of urine.
       3. P. stillatitia.  Strangury.
       4. P. mellita.  Saccharine urine.  Diabetes.
       5. P. inconlinens.   Incontinence of urine.
       6. P. incocta.  Unstimulated urine.
       7. P. erratica.  Erratic urine.
Genus 4. Lithia.  Urinary calculus.
Species 1. L. renalis.  Renal alculus.
       2. L. vesicalis.  Stone in tlie bladder.
Order 3. Acrotica.  Affecting the external surface.
Genus 1. Ephidrosis.  Morbid sweat.
Species 1. E. profusa.  Profuse siveat.
       2. E. cruenta.  Bloody sweat.
       3. E. partialis.  Partial siveat.
       4. E. discolor.  Coloured sweat.
       5. E. olens.  Scented sweat
       6. E- arenosa.  Sandy siveat.
Genus 2. Exanthesis.  Cutaneous-blush.
Species 1. E. roseola.  Rose-rash.
Genus 3. Exormia.  Papulous skin.
Species 1. E. strophulus.  Gum-rash.
       2. E. lichen.  Lichenous-rash.
       3. E. prurigo.  Pruriginous-rash.
       4. E. milium.  Millet-rash.
Genus 4. Lepidosis.  Scale-skin.
Species 1. L. pityriasis.   Dandrift.
       2. L. kepriasls.  Leprosy.
       3. L. psoriasis.  Dry-scall.
       4. L. icthyiasis.  Fish-skin.
Genus 5. Ecphlysis. Blains.
Species 1. E. poinpholyx   Water-blebs.
       2. E. herpes.  Tetter.
       3. E. rhypea.   Sordid biain.
       4. E. eczema.  Heal eruption.
Genus 6. E.-pyesis.  Humid scall.
Species 1. E. impetigo.  Running scall
       2. E. porrigo.  Scabby seal!.
       3. E. ecthyma.  Papulous scall.
       4. E. scabies.  Itch.
Genus 7. Malis. Cutaneous verminatioc
Species 1. M.pediculi.  Lousiness.
       2. M. pulicis  Flea-bites.
 Species 3. M. acari.  Tick-bite.
        4. M. filarial.  Guinea-worm.
        5. M. o-stii.  Gadfly-bite.
        6. M. gordii.   Hair-xvonn.
 Genus 8.  Eophyma.  Cutaneous excrescence
 Species 1. E. caruneula.  Caruncle.
        2. E. verruca.   Wart.
        3. E. clavus.  Corn.
        4.  E. callus. Callus.
 Genus 9. Trichosis.   Morbid hair.
 Species 1. T. setosa.  Bristly hair.
        2.  T. plica.  Platted hair.
        3. T. hirsuties.  Extraneous hair.
        4. T. distrix.   Forky hair.
        5. T. poliosis.  (> i ay hairs.
        6. T. arlhrix.  Baldness.
        7. T. area.  Arcated hair.
        8. T. decolor.  Miscoloured hair.
 Genus 10.  Epichrosis.  Macular skin.
 Species 1. E. leucasmus.  Veal-skin.
       2. E. spilns. Mole.
       3. B. lenticula.  Freckles.
       4. E. ephelis.  Sun-burn.
        5. E. aurigo.  Orange-skin
       6. E. paecilia.  Pyeballed-skin.
       7. E. alphosis.   Albino-skin.
  NOSTA'LGIA.  (From vo?tu, to return, and aAyoj,
 pain.)  A vehement desire for revisiting one's country
 A genus of disease in the class Locales, and order Dy-
 sorexia, of Cullen, knoxvn by impatience when absen,
 from one's native home, and a vehement desire to re-
 turn, attended with gloom and melancholy, loss of ap-
 petite,  and want of sleep.
  NOSTRUM.   This word means our own,  and ia
 very significantly applied to all quack  medicines, the
 composition of wliich is kept a secret from the  public,
 and knoxvn only to the  inventor.
  Notched leaf.   See Erosus.
  NO THUS.   (Nofloc, spurious.1 Spurious.  1. Those
 ribs which are  not attached to the sternum are called
 costa notha, the spurious ribs.
  2.  Diseases are so called which only resemble others
 wliich they really are not: as peripneumonia notha, Sec.
  Notije'us.  (From vutov, the back.)  An epithet of
 tlie spinal marrow.
  Notio'des.   (From von j, moisture.)  Applied to a
 fever, attended with  a vitiation of the fluids, or a col-
 liquative wasting.
  NOVACULITE.  See Whetslate.
  NUBECULA.  (Dim. of nubes, a cloud.)   A  little
 cloud.   1. A cloud in the urine.
  2.  A xvhite speck in the eye.
  NUCAMENTUM.  See Amentum.
  Nuces galle.  Common galls.
  Nuces pu.igantes.  See Ricinus.
  Nucesta.  See Myristica moschata.
  NU'CHA.  Nucha capitis. The hind part or nape
 of the  neck.  The part is so called where the spinal
 marrow begins.
  Nuci'sta.  The nutmeg.
  NUCK, Anthony, a  distinguished Dutch physician
 and anatomist, flourished at the Hague, and  subse-
quently at  Leyden, in the latter part of the 17th  cen-
tury.   He filled the office of professor of nnatomy and
surgery in the latter university, and xvas also president
of the college of surgeons.  He pursued his dissections
with great ardour, cultivating both human  and com-
 parative anatomy at every opportunity.  He  contri-
 buted some improvements  also to the practice of sur-
gery.   He died about the year 1692.
  NUCLEUS.  (Enuce, from the nut.)  1. A kernel
 or fruit enclosed in a hard shell.
  2. When the centre of a tumour or morbid concretion,
 as a stoneof the bladder, has an obvious difference from
 the surrounding parts, that is called the nucleus: thus n
 cherry-stone and otlier things have been found in calculi
 of the  bladder, forming the nucleus of tiiat concretion.
  Nu'cul.e sapona'rie.  See Sapindus saponaria.
  NUDUS.  Naked. Applied to flowers, leaves, stems.
 receptacles, seeds, &x. of plants.  A flower  is said tc
 bo naked when the  calyx  is wanting, as in  the tulip,
 and xvhite lily; and a leaf when it is destitute of aJD
 kinds of clothing or hairiness, as in  the eenus orchis;
 the stem is .iak«-d that  bears no leaves, scales, or any
 other vesture, as Cuscuta europea: the receptacle of
 the Leontodon  taraxacum and Lactuca, the seeds of
 the gymnospermal plants, &c 
NUT
NUX
   NUMMULA'RIA.   (From  nummus, money,  so
 called because its le.ives are round, and of the size of
 the old silver twopence.) See Lysimachia nummularia.
   NUT.  See Nux.
   Nut. Barbadoes.  See Jatropha curcas.
   Nut, cocoa.  See Cocos nucifera.
   Nut, Pistachio.  See Pistacia vera.
   Nut, purging.  See Jatropha curcas.
   NUTMEG.  See Myristica moschata.
   NUTRITION.  Nutritio.  Nutrition  may be con-
 sidered the completion of the aesimilating functions.
 The food  changed  by a series of decompositions ani-
 malized and rendered similar  to the being which it is
 designed to nourish, applies itself to those organs, the
 loss of which it  is to supply; and this identification of
 nutritive matter to our organs constitutes nutrition.
   The living body is continually losing its constituent
 parts.
   " From the state of the embryo to the most advanced
 old age, the weight and volume of the body are almost
 continually changing; the different organs and tissues
 present infinite variations in their consistence, colour,
 elasticity, and sometimes their chemical  composition.
 The volume of the organs  augments when they are
 often in action; on  the contrary, their size diminishes
 when they remain long at  rest.  By the  influence of
 one or other of these causes, their chemical and  phy-
 sical properties present remarkable variations.  Many
 diseases often produce in a very short time, remarkable
 changes in the exterior conformation, and in the struc-
 ture of a great number of organs.
  If madder is mixed with  the food of an animal, in
 fifteen or  twenty days  the bones present a red  tint,
 which disappears when the  use of it is left off.
  There exists, then, in  the organs, an insensible mo-
 tion of the particles which  produce all these modifica-
tions.  Il is this that is called nutrition, or nutritive
 action.
  This phenomenon, which the observing spirit of the
 ancienis had not permitted  to escape, was to them the
 object of many ingenious suppositions that arc still ad-
 mitted.  Foi example, it is  said that, by means of the
 nutritive action, the whole body is renewed, so that, at
a certain period,  it does not  possess a single particle of
the matter that  composed  il formerly.   Limits  have
even been assigned  to this  total  renewal: some  have
 fixed the period of three years;  others think it not com-
 plete till seven: but there is nothing lo give probability
 to these  conjectures; on the  contrary, certain well-
 Droved facts seem to render them of no avail.
  It is well known  that soldiers, sailors, and several
 savage people colour their skins with substances which
 they introduce inlo the tissue of this membrane itself:
 the figures thus traced preserve,  their form and colour
during their lives, should no particular circumstances
 occur.   How can this phenomenon agree with the rc-
 nexval of the skin according  to these authors 1  The re-
 cent use of nitrate of silver internally, in the  cure  of
 epilepsy, furnishes a new proof of this kind.  After
 some months' use of this substance,  some sick persons
 have had their skin coloured of a grayish blue, proba-
 bly by a deposition of the salt in the tissue of this mem-
 brane, where it is immediately tn contact with the air.
 Several individuals have been in this state for some
years withoutlhe tint becoming weaker; whileinothers
 it has diminished by degrees, and disappeared in txvo or
 three years.
  In resting on the suppositions which xve have spoken.
 It is admitted, in the nietaphorical language now  nsed
 in physiology, that the  atoms of the organs can  only
serve for a certain period in their composition; that in
 time they wear, and become at last  improper to enfer
 into their composition; and that they are then absorbed
 and replaced by nexv atoms  proceeding from the food.
  It is added, lhat the animal matters of which our ex-
cretions are composed are  the detritus of the organs,
 and that they are principally composed of atoms  that
 can no longer serve In their  composition, Sec. Sec
  Instead of discussing these hypotheses, xve shall men-
 tion a few facts from wliich wc have some idea of the
 nutritive movement.
  A. In respect to the rapidity with which the organs
 change their physical and chemical pioperties by sick-
 ness or nge, it appears  that nutrition Is more or less
 rapid according to the tissues.  The glr.nds, the mus-
 cles, the skin, &c, change their  volume,  colour,  con-
 sistence, xvith great quickness  the tendons, the fibrous
      l'-4
[ membranes, the bones, the cartilages, appear to have a
 much  6lower nutrition, for their  physical properties
 change bul slowly by the effect of age and disease.
   B. If we consider the quantity of food consumed
 proportionably to the weight of the body, the nutritive
 movement seems more rapid in infancy and youth, than
 in the adult and in old age; it is accelerated by the re
 peated action of  the organs, and  reiardetl by repose.
 Indeed, children and young people consume more food
 than adults and old people:  these last can preserve all
 their faculties by the use of a very small quantity of
 food.  All the exercises of the  body, hard  labour, re-
 quire necessarily a greater quantity, or  more nutritive
 food; on the contrary, perfect repose permits of longer
 abstinence.
   C. The blood appears to contain most of the princi
 pies  necessary  to  the  nutrition of the  organs;  the
 fibrine, the  albumen, tiie fat, the salts, Sec, that enter
 into  the composition of the tissues, are found in the
 blood.  They appear to  be deposited in their  parenchy-
 ma at the instant when the  blood traverses them; the
manner in which this deposite takes place is entirely
unknown.   There is an evident  relation between the
activity of the nutrition of an organ and  the quantity
of blood it receives.  The tissues that have a rapid nu-
trition have larger arteries:  when the action of an or-
gan has determined an acceleration of its nutrition, the
arteries increase in size.
  Many proximate principles that enter  into the com-
position of the organs are not found in  tlie  blood: as
osmazome, the  cerebral matter, gelatine, &c.  They
are, therefore, formed from other principles in the pa-
renchyma of the organs,  in some chemical  but un-
known manner
  I).  Since chemical  analysis has made known the na
lure of the  different tissues of the animal economy,
they have been ail found lo contain a considerable por-
tion  of azote.  Our food being also partly composed of
this simple body, the azote of our organs likexvise pro-
bably comes from them; but several eminent authors
think that it is derived from  respiration; others believe
lhat il is formed by the  influence of life solely.  Both
parties insist particularly upon the example of the her-
bivorous  animals,  xvhich  ure supported exclusively
upon non-azotized matter; upon the hisiory of certain
people that live entirely upon rice and maize;  upon
thai  of negroes who can lix-ea long time without eaiing
any  thing bul sugar; lastly,  upon xvhat is related of
caravans, xvhich, in  traversing the  deserts, hax-e for a
long time had only gum in place of every sort of food.
Were it inr'eed proved by these facts, thai men can live
a long time xvithout azolized food, it xvould  be neces-
sary to acknoxvledge thai azote has an origin different
from the food; but the facts cited by no means prove
this.   In fact, almost all  the vegetables upon xvhich man
and  the animals feed contain more or less azote:  for
example, the impure sugar that tlie negroes eat presents
a considerable portion of  it; and  xvith  regard to the
people, as they say, who feed upon rice or maize, it ia
well knoxvn that they eat milk or cheese:  now casein
is the most azotizedof all the nutritive proximate prin
ciples.
  E. A considerable numbpr of tissues in the economy
appear  to  hnxe no  nutrition, properly  so called: as
the epipermis, the nails, the hair,  the teeth, the co-
louring  matter  of the skin, and,  perhaps, the carti
lages.
  These different parts are really secreied, by particu-
lar organs, as the teeth and the hair; or by parts xvhich
have other functions at the same lime, as the nails and
epidermis.   The most of the parts formed in this mode
xvear by the friction of exterior  bodies, and are con-
stantly rcnexx ed   if they are entirely carried away,
Ihey are capable of icproduction.   A  very singular
fact  is, that they continue to grow several days after
death.—Magendie's Physiology.
  Nutri'tum unguentum. A composition of litharge.
vineear, and oil.
  NUX.   (Nux, cis. f.)   A nut, or fruit, xvhich has a
hard shell.
  Botanists  consider this as distinct from the drupa,
and define it a pericarp, the  seed being contained in a
hard bony shell.
  From the number of seeds it contains,  it is called,
  1.  Monosperm, having one; asin Corylus avellana
  2.  Disperm, xvith two; as in Hatesia.
  From its loculameiits: 
NYJrt
NYS
  • .  tytilfociiKir, bilocular, trilocular, witn one,
Or three; as in Corylus, Lygeum,aud Elais.
   ""oin its figure:
  .  Alate, winged; as in Pinus thuja.
  2.  Angulale; as in Cyprcssus.
  3.  Ovate; as in Corylus and Carpinus.
  4.  (Quadrangular; as iu Halesia.
   .  Tetragoue; as in Peladiiim and Mesua.
  6.  llemforiii; as in Anacardium.
  1.  Spinous, as ill Trapa nutans.
  Nux aquatica.   See Trapa nutans.
  Nux aromatica.  Theiiutni-eg.
  Nux barh.vdensis.  See Jatropha curcas.
  Nov basilica.   The walnut.
  Nt x ben.   Si-e Guilandina moringa.
  Nux cathartica.  The garden spurge.
  Nux  cathartica  Americana.    See  Jatropha
curcas.
  Nix indic-a. The cocoa-nut.
  Nux juglans.  See Juglans.
  Nix medica.  The maldivian nut.
  Nix metella.  The nux vomica.
  Nux moschata.  Si e Myrystica moschata.
  Nux myristica.  See Myristica moschata.
  Nix persica.  The walnut
  Nix pistacia.  See Pistacia vera.
  Nux Pi'Rgans.  See Jatropha curcas.
  Nux serapionis.  St. Ignatius's bean.
  Nux Vomica  See Strychnos.
  NYCTALO PIA.   (From vv\, the night, and ut^;
an eye.)  Imbecillitas oculorum, ol" Celsus.  A defect
in vision, by which tlie patient sees liltle or nothing in
the day, but  in the evening and night  sees tolerably
well.  The proximate cause is various:
  1.  From a  periodical amaurosis, or  gutta  serena,
when ihe blind paroxysm begins in Ihe morning and
terminates in the evening.
  2.  From too great a sensibility of the retina, which
cannot bear the meridian light.  See Photophobia.
  3.  From an opaque spot in the middle  of tbe crystal-
line  lens  When the light of the sun in the meridian
contracts the pupil, there is blindness: about evening,
or in more obscure places, the pupil dilates, hence the
rays of light pass through tlie limbus of the  crystal-
line  lens.
  4  From  a disuse of light; thus persons xvho are
educated in obscure prisons see nothing immediately
in open meridian light; but by degrees  their eyes are
accustomed lo distinguish objects iu daylight.
  5.  From  an immoveable mydriasis;  for in  this in-
stance the pupil  admits too great a quantity of light,
xvhich the immobile pupil cannot moderate;  hence the
patient, iu a strong light, sees little or nothing.
  6.  From too treat a contraction of ihe pupil.  This
admits not a sufficiency of  lucid  rays, in  bright light,
bul tow.vds night the pupil dilates more, and  the pa-
tient sees better.
  7.  Nyctalopia cndemica.   A whole people have been
nyctalopes, as the /Ethiopians, Africans, Americans,
and  Vsiatics.  A ereat floxv of tears are excreted all
the dav from their eyes; at night they see objects.
 '8.  From a commotionof theeye;  from which a man
in ihrf night saxv all objects distinctly.
  Nycto'basis.   (From vv";, the night, and Qatvu, to
io )   Walking in the sleep.
  NY'MPHA.   (From  vvpqia, a  xvater nymph:  so
called because It stands in the water-course.)  Ala
interna! minores clttoridis;  Colliculum;  Collicula;
Myrtocheilides;  Labia  minora.   The membranous
fold, situated within the labia  majora, on each side of
 he entrance ot the vngina uteri.
  NYMPH/E  A.  (From wpdia, a water-nymph; be-
cause it grows  in  watery places) The name of a
■enus of plants in the Linnaean system.   Class, Poly-
indria ; Order, Monogynia.  The xvater-lily.
  Nymph je A   alba.   Leueonymphaa.   Nenuphar.
Micro-leuconymphaa.  The systematic  name of the
white water-lily.  This beautiful  plant xvas formerly
i-o, : employed medicinally  ns u demulcent,  and slightly
    anodyne remedy.   It is now laid aside.
      Nymph.ka olandipera.   See  Nymphaa nelumbo-
      Nymph.va lotus.  The Egyptian lotus.   An aqua
    tic plant, a native of both Indies.  The 1001 is conical,
    firm, about the size of a middling peai, covered with
    a blackish hark, and set  round xvith  fibres.  Il has a
    sweetish taste, and, xvhen  boiled or roasted, becomes
    as yellow within as the yelk of au egg.   The plant
    gruxvs  in abundance on the banks of the Nile, and  Is
    there  much  sought afler  by the poor, xvho, in a short
    time, collect enough to supply their families with food
    for several days.
      NYMPH.tA lutea.  Nymphaa  major lutea, of Cas-
    par Baiihiii.   The systematic  name of the  yellow
    water-lily.  This beautiful plant was employed for-
    merly wilh the same intention as the white xvater-lily
    and, like it, is now fallen into disuse.  Lindestolpe in-
    forms  us, that, in some parts of Sxveden, the roots,
    xvhich  arc the strongest part, xvere, in limes of scarcity
    used as food, and did not prove unwholesome.
      Nymph ea  nelumbo.   Faba agyptiaca;  Cyamus
    agyptiacus; Nymphaa indica; Nymphaaglandifera.
    The pontic, or Egyptian bean.  This plant  grows on
    marshy grounds  in Egypt, and some ofthe neighbour-
    ing countries.  The fruit is eaten either raw or boiled,
    and is a tonic and astiingent.
      NYMPHOl'DES.  (From vvptfiata, the water-lily, and
    ttlos, likeness.)  Resembling the water-lily ; as Meny-
    anthes  nymphoides.
      NYMPHOMANIA.   (From vvpq>a,  uyuipha,  and
    pavta,  madness.)   Furor utcrinus.  Called  by the
    Arabians, Acrai;  Brachuna: Arascon;  Arsatum;
    lEstromania.  A getxus of disease in the class Locales,
    and order Fysorexia, of Cullen, characterized by ex-
    cessive and violent desire for coition in women.  The
    effects, as described by Juvenal, in his sixth satire, are
    most humiliating to human nature.  Il acknowledges
    the same causes as satyriasis; but as females, more
    especially in xvaim climates, have a more irritable
    fibre, they are apt  to suffer more  severely than the
    males.
      It is a species of madness, or a high degree of hys-
    terics.   Its immediate cause is a preternatural irritabi-
    lity of  the uterus  and pudenda of women, or  an un-
    usual acrimony of ihe fluids in those parts.  Its  pre-
    sence   is knoxvn  by the wanton behaviour  of the pa-
    tient;  she speaks and acts with unrestrained obscenity,
    and, as the disorder  increases, she scolds, cries, and
    laughs, by turns.  While reason  is  retained, she  is
    silent, and seems melancholy, but her eyes discover an
    unusual  xvantonness.   The  symptoms  are better or
    ivorse, until the  greatest degree of the disorder ap-
    proaches, and then, by every xvord and action, her con-
    dition is too manifest.
      NYMPHOTOMIA.  (From vvpqta, the nympha, and
    tcuvu,  to cut.)  The operation ol" removing the nympha
    when too lartte.
      NYSTAGMUS.  (From w^au, to sleep.) A twink-
    ling of the eyes,  such as happens when a  person  Is
    very sleepy.  Authors also define nystagmus to be an
    involuntary agitation of the oculary bulb.  It is knoxvn
    by the  instability or involuntary and constant motions
    of the  globe of the eye, from one canthus io another,
    or in some other directions.  Sometimes il  is accom-
    panied  with a  hippus, or  au alternate and  repeated
    dilatation and  constriction of the pupil.  The  species
    are, 1.  Nystagmus,  from  fear. This  agitation  is ob-
    served  under the  operation for the cataract; and it  is
    checked  by persuasion, and waiting a short space of
    time.   2. Nystagmus, from sand or small gravel fall
    ing in  the eye.  Z. Nystagmus, from a catarrh, xvhich
    is accompanied xvith much inflammation.  4. Nystag
   | mus, from saburra in the primae viae, as is observed in
   | infants  afflicted  with worms, and is known by the
    signs  of saburra.   5.  Nystagmus  symptomaiicua,
    xvhich  happens in hysteric, epileptic, and sometimes in
   | pregnant persons, and is a common symptom accom-
   , panving St. Vitus's dance.
   1                                         iot 
OBL
O
OBL
 (TbAK   See Qacreu*.
 *-*  Oak, Jerusalem.  See Chenopodium botrys.
   Oak, sea.  See Fucus vesiculosus.
   Oak, willow-leaved.  See Quercus phellos.
  \ Oaks, American.  See Quercus.  A.l
  OAT.   See Avena.
  Obel/e'a.  (From oSeXas, a dart,or a spit.)  Obelaa
sagittalis, an epithet  for the sagittal  suture of the
skull.
  Obeliscothe'ca.  (From oSeXwxos, an obelisk, and
9ijxa, a bag: so called from the shape of its seed-bags.)
The dwarf sunflower.  Cystus helianthemum.
  OBESITY. See Polysarcia.
  Ob lesion.  (From  ob, against, and lado, to hurt.)
An injury done to any part.
  OltLiaUUS.  Oblique.   1. In anatomy.  A term
applied lo parts from their direction.
  2.  In botany, il means the same as radix obliquus,
but sonietimes it means twisted.   Folium obliquum,
for example, is a leaf, one part of whicli is vertical, the
other horizontal; as in Fritillaria obliqua.
  Obliquus  ascendens abdominis.   See  Obliquus
internus abdominis.
  Obliquus  ascendens internus.   See obliquus in-
ternus abdominis.
  Obliquus  auris.  See Laxator tympani.
  Obliquus  capitis  inferior.  Sec  Obliquus infe-
rior capitis.
  Obliquus capitis superior   See Obliquus supe-
rior capitis.
  Obliquus  descendens abdominis.  See Obliquus
externus abdominis.
  Obliquus  descendens externus.  See Obliquus
eztcrnis abdominis.
  Obliquus  externus.  See  Obliquus externus ab-
dominis-
  Obliquus externus  abdominis.   A muscle of the
abdomen: so named liy Morgagni, Albinus, and Wins-
low.  It is the Obliquus descendens of Vesalius and
Douglas, and the Obliquus major of Haller, and some
others.  By Dumas it is named Ilio-pubicosto-abdomi-
nal.   It is a broad, thin muscle, fleshy posteriorly, and
tendinous  in the middle and loxver part, and is situated
immediately under the integumentB,coveringallthe other
muscles of the lower bully. It arises from the lower edges
ofthe eight, and sometimes, though rarely, ofthe nine in-
ferior ribs, not far from their cartilages, by as many dis-
tinct fleshy portions, xvhich indigitate with correspond-
ing parts of the serratus major amicus, and the latissi-
mus dorsi.   From these several origins, tlie flbresof the
muscle descend obliquely forwards, and soon degene-
rate into a broad'and thin aponeurosis, which terminates
in the linea alba.  About an  inch and a half above the
pubes, the fibres of this aponeurosis separate from each
other, so ns to form an aperture, which extends obliquely
inwards and forwards, more than an  inch in length,
and  is xvider above than below, being nearly of an oval
figure. This is xvhat is sometimes, though erroneously,
called the ring of the  abdominal  muscles, annulus ab-
dominis,  for it belongs only to the  external oblique,
there being no such opening eitlier in the obliquus in-
terims, or in the transvorsalis, as some writers, and  par-
ticularly Douglas and Cheselden,  would give, us to un-
derstand.  This opening, or ring, serves lor the passage
;if the spermatic vessels in men, and of the round liga-
ment of the uterus in women, and is of a larger size in
the former than in the latter.  The two tendinous por-
tions, xvhich, by their separation, form this aperture,
are culled the columns of the ring.  The anterior, su-
perior, and inner column, which  is the broadest  and
thickest of tho two, passes over the symphysis pubis,
and  is fixed to the opposite os pubis; so that the ante-
rior  column of the  right obliquus externus intersects
that of the left, and is, as it were, interwoven xvith It.
by which means their insertion  is strengthened, and
their attachment made firmer.  The posterior, inferior,
and exterior column, approaches  the anterior one as it
descends, nnd is fixed behind and  beloxv it to the os pu-
bis of the same  side.  The  fibres of that part of the
      120
obliquus externus, which arises from the two  inferlot
ribs, descend almost perpendicularly, and are inserted,
tendinous nnd fleshy, into the outer edge of the  ante-
rior half of the spine of the ilium. From the anterior su-
perior spinous process of that bone, the external oblique
is stretched tendinous to the os pubis, forming  xvli#l is
called Poupart's and sometimes Fallopius's ligament,
Fallopius having  first  described it.  Winslow,  and
many others, name it  the  inguinal  ligament.  But,
after all, it iias no claim lo this name, it being nothing
more than the tendon of the muscle, which is turned or
folded inwards at its interior edge.  It passes over the
blood-vessels of the lower extremity, and is thickest
near  the pelvis; and in women, from the greater size
of the pelvis, it is longer and looser than ir; men.  Hence
we find thnt xvomen are most liable lo crural hernia;;
whereas men, from the greater size  of the ring of the
external oblique, are most subject lo  the  inguinal.
From this ligament, and from  that part  of the  tendon
whicli forms the ring, xve observe a detachment of ten-
dinous fibres, which are lost in the fascia lata of the
thigh.  This may, in some measure, account for the
pain xvhich, incases of strangulated herniae, is felt xvhen
the patient stands upright, and which is  constantly re-
lieved upon bending the thigh upwards.  This muscle
serves to draw down the ribs in expiration; to bend the
trunk forwards xvhen both muscles  act,  or to bend it
obliquely in one side, and, perhaps, to turn it slightly
upon its axis, when either acts singly; it also raises the
pelvis obliquely xvhen the ribs are  fixed: it supports
and compretsses the abdominal viscera,  assists in the
evacuation of the urine  and faeces, and is likexvise use-
ful in parturition.
  Obliquus inferior.  See Obliquus inferior capitis,
and Obliquus inferior oculi.
  Obliquus  inferior  capitis. This muscle of the
head, tlie obliquus inferior sire major, of Winsloxv,
and the Spini aroido-tracheli-altoidien, of Dumas, is
larger than the obliquus superior capitis.  It is  very
obliquely situated betxveen the two first vetebra of the
neck.   It arises tendinous  and fleshy from the  middle
and outer side ofthe spinous process of the second ver-
tebra of the neck, and is inserted tendinous and fleshy
into the lower and posterior part of the transverse pro-
cess of tlie first vertebra.  Its use Is to  turn the first
vertebra upon the second, as upon a pivct, and to draxv
the face towards the shoulder.
  Obliquus inferior oculi.   Obliquus minor oculi,
of Winslow, and Maxillo, scleroticicn, of Dumas.  An
oblique muscle of the eye, that draws the globe of the
eye forwards, inwards, and downwards.  It  arises by
a narrow beginning from the outer edge of the  orbitar
process ofthe superior maxillary bone, near its junction
xvith  the lachrymal bone, and running  obliquely out-
xvards, is inserted into the sclerotic membrane of the eye.
  Obliquus inferior sive major.  See Obliquus in-
ferior capitis.
  Obliquus internus.  See Obliquus internus abdo-
minis.
  Obliquus internus abdominis.  Musculus acclivts.
A muscle of the abdomen.   The Obliquus ascendens,
of Vesalius, Douglas, and Cowper; the Obliquus minor,
of Haller;  the Obliquus internus,  of Winslow; the
Obliquus ascendens internus, of limes;  and  the Tilia-
lumbo-costi  abdominal, of Dumas.   It is situated im-
mediately under tlie externnl oblique, nnd is broad and
thin like that muscle, but somewhat lessconsidernbloln
its extent.  It arises from tlie spinous processes of the
three inferior lumbar vertebrae, and from tlie posterior
and middle part of the os sacrum, by a thin tendinous
expansion, xvhich is common to it nnd to the serratus
posticus inferior; by short tendinous fibres,  from the
xvhole spine of the Ilium, between  its posterior tube-
rosity and its anterior  and  superior spinous process;
and from two-thirds of the posterior surface of what is
called Fallopius's ligament, at the middle of xvhich xvo
find the round ligament of the  uterus In women, and
the spermatic vessels in men, passing under the thir
edge of this muscle; aud in the latter, it likewise sends 
OBL
OBT
 off some fibres,  which  descend upon the spermatic
 chord, as far as the  tunica vaginalis of the testis, and
 constitute what is called the cremusler muscle, which
 surrounds, suspends, and compresses the testicle. From
 tliese origins, the fibres of the internal  oblique run in
 didierent  directions;  tliose  of  the  posterior  portion
 ascend obliquely forwards, the middle ones become less
 and less oblique, and at  length run iu a horizontal di-
 rection,  and those  of  the  anterior portion  extend
 obliquely doxvnxvards.  The first of these are inserted,
 by very short tendinous fibres, into the cartilages ofthe
 liflh,  fourth, and  third of tlie false ribs; the fibres of
 the second, or middle portion,  form a broad  tendon,
 xvhicni, alter being inserted  inlo  the loxver edge of tlie
 cartilage of tlie second false  rib, extends towards ihe
 linea  alba, and separates into two layers? the anterior
 layer, which is the thickest of the two, joins the tendon
 of the obliquub externus, and runs over tlie txvo upper
 thirds of the rectus muscle, to be inserted into the linea
alba;  the posterior layer runs under tlie rectus, adheres
to tlie anterior surface  of the  tendon  of the trans-
 versalis, and is  inserted  into  the cartilages of the first
of the false, and the last of the  true ribs, and likewise
 into the linea alba.  By this structure we may perceive
lhat the  greater part of the rectus is enclosed, as it
 ivere, in a sheath.  The fibres of ihe anterior portion
of the internal oblique, or tliose xvhich arise from tlie
spine of the ilium and the ligamentum Fallopii, like-
wise form a broad tendon, which, instead of separating
inlo txvo layers, like that of the otlier part of  the mus-
cle, runs over the loxver part of the rectus, and adhering
to tbe under surface of the tendon of the external
oblique, is inserted  into the forepart of  the  pubes.
 This muscle serves to assist tbe obliquus externus; bul
it seems to be more evidently calculated than that mus-
cle is to draxv ihe  ribs downwards and backwards.  It
 likewise serves to separate the false ribs from the true
 ribs and from each otlier.
  Obiiqils major abdominis.  See Obliquus exter-
 nus abdominis.
  Obliquus major  capitis.  See  Obliquus inferior
 capitis.
  Obliquus major  oculi.   See  Obliquus superior
 oculi.
  Obliquus minor abdominis.  See Obliquus inter-
 nus abdominis.
  Obliquus minor  capitis. See Obliquus superior
 capitis.
  Obliquus minor ocdli.  See  Obliquus inferior
 oculi.
  Obliquus superior  capitis.  Riolanus, who was
 the first that gave particular names to the oblique
 muscles of the head, called this muscle obliquus minor,
 to distinguish it from the  inferior, which, on account of
 its being much larger, he named obliquus major.  Spi-
gelius afterwarddisfinguished the two, from their situa-
tion xvith respect to each other, into superior and infe-
rior ;  and in this he is followed by Cowper and Douglas.
 Winsloxv retains both names.  Dumas calls it Truckelo-
alloido-occipilal. Thai used by Albinus is here adopted.
This liltle muscle, which is nearly of the same shape as
the recti capitis, is situated  laterally between the occi-
 put and the first vertebra of the neck, and is covered
 by the complexus  and the upper part of the splenius.
 It arises, hy a short thick tendon, from ihe upper and
 posterior part of the transverse process of the first ver-
 tebra of the neck, and, ascending obliquely inwards and
 backxvards, becomes broader, and  is  inserted, by a
 broad flat tendon, and some few fleshy fibres, into  the
 os occipitis, behind the back  part of the mastoid pro-
 cess, u nder the insertion of the complexus and splenius,
 and a little above that ofthe rectus major.   The use of
 this muscle is to draw the head backwards, and per-
 haps to assist in its rotatory motion.
  Obliquus superior  oculi.   Troehlearis; Lon-
 gissimus oculi.  Obliquus major, of Winslow: and
 Optica-trochlei-scleroticicn, of  Dumas.  An oblique
 muscle of the eye, that  rolls the globe of the eye, and
turns  the pupil downwards and outwards.  It arises
like the straight muscles of the eye from the edge ofthe
foramen opticum  al  the  bottom of the orbit, between
 the rectus superior and rectus  internus;  from thence
runs straight along the papyraceous portion of the eth-
moid  bone to the upper  part of  the orbit, where a car-
tilaginous trochlea is fixed *o the inside of the internal
 angular process of the  os  frontis, through which  its
tendon passes, and runs a little  doxvnwards and out-
wards, enclosed in a  loose membranaceous sheatn, to
be inserted into the sclerotic membrane.
  Obliquus superior sivk minor. See Obliquus sue
perior capitis.
  Obliquus  superior  sive  trochlearu.   See Ob-
liquus superior oculi.
  OBLONGl'S.  In  botany applied 10 leaves, petals,
seeds, Sec. which ure  three or four times  longer than
broad.  This  term  is used  xvith  great latitude,  and
serves chiefly in a specific character to contrnst a leaf,
xvhich has a variable, or  not very decided form, wilh
others that arc precisely round, ovate, linear, &c.
  The petals of the genus  Citrus and Hedera, and
tliose of the Narcissus mosi hatus, are oblong, and the
seeds of the Boerhaavia diffusa.
  OBOVATl'S.  Obovate.   Used in  botany to desig-
nate leaves, Sec. which are ovale xvith a broader end
uppermost:  ns those of  the primrose and daisy.  Lin
mens at first used the xvords obscrsi ovatum.
  OBSIDIAN.  A mineral,  of xvhich there arc  two
kinds, the translucent and transparent.
  1. The  translucent obsidian.   This is  of a velvet
black colour, and occurs iu  beds in porphyry nnd va-
rious secondary trap rocks in Iceland and Tokay.
  2. The  transparent is of  a duck-blue  colour, im-
bedded in pearl-stone  porphyry iu Siberia and Mexico.
  Obsldiamm.  (So called  from its resemblance to a
kind of stone, which one Obsidius discovered in  Ethi
opia, of a very black  colour, though sometimes pellu-
cid, and of a muddy xvater.)  1.  A species of gloss.
See Obsidian.
  2. Pliny says that obsidianum was  a sort of colour
wilh which vessels were glazed.  Hence the name is
applied, by Libavius,  to glass of antimony.
  OBSTETRIC.   (Obstctricus:  from obstetrix,  a
nursej  Belonging lo midxvifery.
  OBSTIPATIO.  (From obstipo, to stop up.)  Cos-
tiveness.  A genus of disease in the class Locales, and
order £pt>eAese.sof Cullen,comprehending three species.
  1. Obstipatio debilium, in xveak and commonly dys-
peptic persons.
  2. Obstipatio rigidorum, in persons of  rigid fibres,
and a melancholic temperament.
  3. Obstipatio obstructarum. from obstructions.   See
Colica,
  Obstrub'noa.  (From obstruo, to shut up.)  What-
ever closes the orifices of the ducts or vessels.
  Obstupefacie'ntia.   (From obstupefacio, to stu-
pefy.) Narcotics.
  Obtunde'ntia.   (From obtundo, to make blunt.)
Substances xvhich sheath or  blunt irritation, and are
much the some as demulcents.   They consist chiefly
of bland, oily, or mucilaginous matters, xvhich form a
covering on inflamed and irritable surfaces, particularly
tliose of the stomach, lungs, and anus.
  OBTURATOR.  A  stopper up, or that which co-
vers any thing.
  Obturator externus. Eztra-pelmo-pubi-troehan-
teriem, of  Dumas.  This is a small flat muscle, situa-
ted  obliquely at the  upper  and anterior  part of the
thigh, between the pectinalis and the forepart of the
foramen thyroideum, and covered by the abductor bre-
vis femoris.  It arises tendinous and fleshy from all the
inner half of the circumference  of the foramen thy-
roideum, and likewise from part of the obturator liga-
ment.  Its radiated fibres collect and  form a strong
roundish tendon, whicli  runs outxvards, and, after ad-
hering to the capsular  ligament of the joint, is inserted
into a cavity at the inner and back part of Ihe root of
the great  trochanter.  The  chief uses of this muscle
are to turn the thigh  obliquely outwards,  to assist in
bending the thigh, and in drawing it inwards.  It  like-
wise prevents tlie capsular ligament from being pinched
in the motions of the joint.
  Obturator internus.  Marsupialis, seu obtura-
tor internus,  of Douglas.  Mnrsupialis seu  bnrsalis,
of Cowper;  and Intrapelvip-trochantericn, of Dumas.
A considerable muscle, a great part of xvhich is  situ-
ated within the pelvis.  It arises, by very short tendi-
nous fibres, from somewhat more lhan the upper half
of the internal  circumference  of the foramen thyroi-
deum of the os innominatum.  Il is composed of seve-
ral distinct fasciculi,  which  terminate in  a  roundish
tendon that passes out or* the pelvis, through the niche
that is between the spine and the tuberosity of the is-
chium, and, after running between the two  portions of
the gemini, which)enclose it as in a sheath, is inserted
                                         127 
occ                                            ocu
Into the cavity at the root of the great trochanter, after
adhering to the adjacent  part of the capsular ligament
ofthe joint. This muscle rolls theos femoris obliquely
outwards,  by pulling  il  towards  the ise.hiatic niche,
upon  the cartilaginous surface of xvhich its  tendonj
which is surrounded by a membraneous sheath, moves
as upon a pulley.
  Obturator nbrve.   A nerve of the thigh, that is
Inst upon  the muscles situated on Ihe inside of the
thiL'h.
  OBTUSUS.  Blunt. Applied to a leaf xvhich termi-
nates  in a  segment of a circle; as that  of the Linum
catliarticum.   This formed leaf has a small point obtu-
sum cum acumine, in  the Statyce  limonium.  The pe-
tals of the Tropaolum majus are obtuse.
  OCCIPITAL.  Occipitalis.  Belonging to the occi-
put or back part of the head.
  Occipital  bone.   Os occipitis;  Os memoria; Os
nervosum;  Os basilare.  This bone,  which forms the
posterior and  inferior  part of  the skull, is of an irregu-
lar figure,  convex on the outside and concave inter-
imlly.  Its  external surface,  which is very irregular,
serves for the  attachment of several muscles.  It af-
fords several  inequalities, wliich  sometimes form txvo
semicircular hollows  separated  by a scabrous ridge.
The inferior portion of the bone is stretched forwards
in form of a wedge, and hence is  called the cuneiform
process, or basilary process.  At the  base of this pro-
cess, situaled  obliquely  on each side of the foramen
magnum, are  two flat,  oblong protuberances, named
condyles.  They are covered xvith cartilage, and serve
for the articulation of the head with the first vertebra
of the neck.  In the  inferior portion of this bone, at
the basis of the cranium, and immediately behind the
cuneiform  process, we  observe a considerable  hole,
through wiiich the medulla oblongata passes  into the
spine.  The  nervi accessorii,  the vertebral  arteries,
and  sometimes  the  vertebral veins  likexvise,  pass
through iL  Man being  designed for an erect posture,
this foramen magnum is found nearly in the middle of
the basis of the human cranium, and at a pretty equal
distance  from the posterior  part of the occiput, and
the anterioi part of the  lower jaw;  xvhercas iu quad-
rupeds it is nearer the back  part  of the occiput.  Be-
sides  Ihis hole, there  arc four other smaller foramina,
viz. txvo before, and  txvo behind the condyles.  The
former serve for the transmission of the ninth pair of
nerves, and the two latter  for the veins xvhich pass
from  the external parts of the head to the lateral sinu-
ses.   On looking over the internal surface of the os oc-
cipitis, we perceive the appearance of a cross, formed
by a very prominent  ridge, xvhich rises upwards from
near the foramen magnum, and by two transverse sinu-
osities, one on each side of the ridge.  This cross occa-
sions the formation of four fossae, txvo above and txvo
below the sinuosities.   In the latter  are  placed the
lobes of the cerebellum,  and  in the former the  posterior
lobes of the brain.  The two sinuosities serve to re-
ceive  the  lateral sinuses.  In the upper part of this
bone is seen a continuation of the sinuosity of the lon-
gitudinal sinus; and  at the basis of the cranium we ob-
serve the inner surface of the cuneiform process made
concave,  for the reception of the medulla oblongata.
The occipital bone is thicker and stronger than any of
the otlier bones of the head,  except the petrous part of
the ossa  tetnporum; but it is of unequal thickness.
At its lateral aud inferior parts, where it is thinnest, It
is covered  by a great number of muscles.  The reason
for so much thickness and strength in this bone, seems
to be, that it covers the  cerebellum, in  which the least
wound is  of the utmost consequence; and that it is,
by its situation, more  liable to be fractured by falls
than any other bone of the  cranium.   For if xve fall
 forwards,  ihp hands are naturally put out to prevent
 the forehead's touching the ground;  and if on one side,
 the shoulders in a great measure protect the sides of
 the head ; but if a person fall backwards, the hind part
 of the head consequently strikes against the earth, and
 lhat too xvilh considerable violence.  Nature therefore
 has wiselv constructed this bone  so as to be capable of
 the greatest  strength at its upper part, wheie it is the
 most exposed to  injury.  The os occipitis is joined, by
 means of" the cuneiform process,  to the  sphenoid bone,
 with which it often ossifies,  and makes  but one bone in
 those who are advanced in life.  It is connected lo the
 parietal bones by ihe  lambdoidal suture, and  lo the
 temporal bones by the oddilauicutiinj of the  temporal
       12tj
suture.  The head Is likewise united  to the trunk hy
means of this bone.  The txvo condyles of the occipi
tal bone are received into the superior oblique processes
of the atlas, or first vertebra of the neck, and it is by
means of this  articulation that a certain degree of mo-
tion ofthe head backwards and forwards is performed.
But it allows only very little' motion to eitlier side; and
still less of a circular motion, which the head obtains
principally by  the circumvolution  of the atlas on the
second vertebra,  as is described more particularly  in
the account of the vertebrae.  In the foetus, the os oc
cipitis is divided by an unossified cartilaginous  sub-
stance, into four parts.  One of these,  xvhich is the
longest, constitutes all that portion of the bone whtch ia
above the foramen  magnum; two others, which are
much smaller'compose the inside ofthe foramen mag-
num, and include the condyloid  processes ;  and the
fourth is the  cuneiform process.   This last is some-
times not completely united with the rest, so as to form
one bone, before the sixth or seventh year.
  OCCIPITALIS.  See Occipito-frontalis and Occi-
p'ltal.
  OCCIPITO. Names compounded of this xvord be-
long to the occiput.
  Occipito-frontalis.  Digastricus  cranii;  Epi
cranius, of Albinus.  Frontalis et occipitalis, of Wins-
loxv and Cowper; and Occipitofrontal, of Dumas.  A
single, broad, digastric muscle, that covers the cranium,
pulls the  skin  of the head backxvards, raises the eye-
brows upwards, and at the same time, draws  up and
wrinkles the skin of the forehead.  Il arises from ihe
posterior part of the occiput, goes over the upper  part
of the os paiietale and os frontis, and is lost in the
eyebrows.
  OCCIPUT. The  hinder part  of the head.   See
Caput.
  OCCLUSUS. Shutup.  Applied to the florets ofthe
fig, wliich are shut up in the fleshy receptacle that forms
the fruit.
  OCCULT.   Occullus.  Hidden.  A term that has
been much used by xvriters that had not clear ideas of
what they undertook to explain; and whicli served
therefore only for a cover lo their ignorance: hence,
occult cause, occult quality, occult disease.
  Oche'ma.   (From o\tu, to carry.)   A vehicle,  or
thin fluid.
  Ocheteu'ma.  (From oxtros, a duct.)  The nostril.
  O'chetus.   (From o%tu, to  convey.)   A canal or
duct.  The uri.iary or abdominal passages.
  O'cheus.   (From o%tu, to carry.)  The bag of the
scrotum.
  O'CHRA.  (From uxpos, pale:  so named because it
is often of a pale colour.)
   1.  Ochre.   An argillaceous earth impregnated with
iron of a red  or yellow colour.  The Armenian bole,
and other earths, are often adulterated xx4th ochre.
  2.  The forepart of the tibia.
   OCHROITS.  See  Cerite.
  Ochrus.   (From uxpos, pale:  so called from  the
pale muddy colour in its flowers.)  A leguminous plant
or  kind of pulse.
  Ochtho'des.  (From ovftoc, importing the tumid
lips of ulcers, callous, tumid.)   An epithet for ulcers,
whose lips are callous and tumid, and consequently
difficult to heal.                                 '
  Ocima'strum.   (Diminutive  of ocimum, basil.)
Wild xvhite campion, or basil.
  OCREA.  A term  used by Rottball, to the mem
brane lhat enfolds the flower-stalks  in  Cyperus, and
xvhich Sir J. Smith thinks is a species of bractea.
   Octa'na.   (From oclo, eight.)  An erratic intermit-
ting fever, xvhich returns every  eighth dav.
   OCTANDRIA.  (From  oxtu,  eight/and 01170, a
husband.)   The name  of  a class of  plants in tl.e
sexual system of Linnaeus, consisting of those which
 have hermaphrodite  floxvers,  furnished  xvith eight
Btaminn.
   Octa'vus humeri.  The Teres minor
   Octa'vus humeri placentinI.  The Teres minor.
   Ocula'res  communes.  A name for the nerves
 called Motorrs oculorum.         ■*
   OCULA'RIA.   (From oculus, the eye: so called
 from its uses in disorders of the eye.)   See Euphrasia
   OCULUS. The eye.  See Eye.
   Oculus bovinus.   See Hydrophthalmia.
   Oculus bovis.   See  Chrysanthemum  leucanthc
 mum. 
•
ODO
CEDE
  Oculus  bubvlus.  See Hydrophthalmia
  Oculus  christi.   Austrian flea-bane:  a species
of Inula, sometimes  used as au adstringent by conti-
nental physicians.
  Oculus  elephantinus.  A name given to Hy-
drophthaltnut.
  Oculus  genu.  The knee-pan.
  Oculus  i.achrymans.  The Epiphora.
  Oculus  mundi.  A species of Opal, generally of a
yellowish colour.  By lying in  xvater it becomes of an
amber colour, and also transparent.
  Oculi adductor.   See Rectus internus oculi.
  Oculi attollens. Sine Rectus superior oculi.
  Oci li cancrorum.  See Cancer.
  Oculi depressor. See Rectus inferior oculi.
  Oculi elevator.   See Rectus superior oculi.
  Oculi j kv.xtor.  See  Rectus superior oculi.
  Oculi obliquus inferior.   See Obliquus inferior
oculi.
  Oculi obliquus major.  See  Obliquus  superior
oculi.
  Oculi obliquus minor.  See  Obliquus inferior
oculi.
  O'CYMUM.  (From wieve, sxvift: so called from  its
quick growth.)   Ocymum.  The name of a genus of
plants iu the Linnaean system.  Class, Didynamia;
Order, Gymnospermia.
  Oivmum  basilicum.  The systematic  name of the
common or citron basil.  Basilicum.   Ocimum—foliis
ovatis glabris; calycibus ciliatis, of Linna-us. This
plant is supposed to possess nervine qualities, but is
seldom employed but  as  a condiment to season high
dishes, lo xvhich it imparts a grateful odour and lasie.
  Ocymum  caryopHyllatum.  Ocimum minimum of
Caspar Bauhin.   Small or bush basil. This plant is
mildly balsamic.  Infusions are drank as tea, in catar-
rhous and uterine disorders, and the dried leaves are
made into cephalic, and sternutatory powders. They
are,  when fresh, very juicy, of a xveak aromatic and
very mucilaginous taste, and of a strong and  agreeable
smell improved by drying.
  Odaxi'smos.  (From orotic, a tooth.)  A biting sen-
sation, pain, or itching iu  the gums.
  ODONTAGO'GOS.  (From oSovs, a tooth, and ayu,
to draw.)  Tbe name of an instrument to draxv teeth,
one of xvhich, made of lead, Forrestus relates to have
been hung  up in tlie temple of Apollo, denoting, that
such an operation ought not io be made, but xvhen the
tooth xvas loose enough lo draxv xvith so slight a force
as could be applied xvilh that.
  ODONTA GRA.  (From oSovs, a tooth, and aypa,
a seizure.)   1. The toothache.
  2.  The gout in the teeth.
  3.  A tooth-drawer.
  ODONTALGIA.  (From oo'ouc, atooth, and aXyoc,
pain.)   Odontia; Odaxismus.  The toothache. This
well-known disease makes its attack by a most violent
pain in the teeth, most frequently in the molares, more
rarely in the incisorii, reaching sometimes  up lo the
eyes, and sometimes backxvards into the cavity of the
ear.   At the same time, there is a manifest determina-
tion  to the head, and  a remarkable tension and infla-
tion of  the vessels takes  place, not only in  the parts
next to that where the pain is seated, but over the
whole head.
  The  toothache  is  sometimes merely  a rheumatic
affection, arising from cold, but more  frequently from
a carious tooth.   It is also a symptom of pregnancy,
and  takes  place in some nervous disorders.  It may
attack persons at any period of life, though it is most
frequent in the young and plethoric.  From the variety
of causes xvhich may produce this  affection, it has
been named by authors odontalgia cariosa, scorbutica,
catarrhalis, arthritica, gravidarum hysterica, stomach-
ica,  and rheumatica.
  O'DONTALGIC.   (Odontalgics; from orWraA-
yia, the toothache.)   Medicines which relieve the
toothache.
  Many empirical remedies have been proposed for the
cure of the toothache, but have not in any degree an-
Bwered the purpose.   When  the affection  is purely
rheumatic, blistering behind the ear xvill almost always
remove it ■  but xvhen it proceeds from a carious tooth,
the pain is  much more obstinate.  In this case it has
been recommended to touch tlie pained part with a hot
Iron, or with oil of vitriol, in order to destroy the aching I
nerve; to hold spirits in the mouth;  to put a drop of J
                                       aq
oil of cloves into the hollow of the tooth, or a pill made
of camphor, opium, and oleum caryophylll.  Others
recommend gum mastich, dissolved in oleum terebin
thiniE, npplied to the tooth upon a little cotton.  The
great Boerhaavc  is said to have applied  camphor,
opium, oleum caryophylli, and alkohol, upon cotton.
The caustic oil xvhich may be  collected from xvriting
paper, rolled  up tight, and set  fire to at the end, will
sometimes destroy the exposed nerxous substance of a
hollow tooth.   The application of radix pyrethri, by
its poxver of stimulating the  salivary glands, either in
substance or in tincture, has also been attended xvilh
good effects.  But one of the most useful applications
of this kind, is  strong nitrous acid, diluted xvith three
or four times its xveight of spirit of wine, and  intro-
duced into the hollow of the tooth, either by  means of
a hair pencil or a little cotton.  When the constitution
has had some share in the disease, the Peruvian baik
has been  rccommended, and perhaps with  much jus-
tice, on account of its tonic and antiseptic powers.
When the pain is not fixed  to one tooth, leeches ap-
plied lo the gum are of great service.   But very often
all the foregoing remedies will fail, and the only infal-
lible cure is to draw the tooth.
  ODONTIA.  The name of a genus of diseases in
Good's Nosology.  Class Caliaca; Order,  Enterica
Pain, or derangement of the teeth or their involucres.
It  has  seven species, viz. Odontia dentition!s; dolo-
rosa; stupores ; deformis; cdentula;  incrustans ; cs-
crescens.
  ODONTIASIS.  (From oSovrtau, to put  forth the
teeth.)   Dentition, or cutting teeth.   See Deitition
and 'Teeth.
  Odo'ntica.   (From of5oec, a  tooth.)   Remedies for
pains in the teeth.
  ODONT1RRHCE'A-  (From  o<5ouc, a tooth, and ptu
to floxv.)   Bleeding from the socket of the jaxv, aftei
draxvina a tooth.
  OD07NTIS.  (From ot3ouc, a  tooth: so  called he
cause its decoction xvas  supposed useful in  relieving
the toothache.)  A species of lychnis.
  ODONTITIS.   Inflammation of  a tooth.#  See
Odontalgia.
  ODONTOGLY'PHUM  (From oo*o«c, a tooth, and
yXvq)u, to scrape.)  An instrument for scaling and
scraping the teeth.
  ODONTOID.  (Odontoides; from orjouj, a tootti
and ttlos, form; because it  is  shaped like  a tooth.)
Tooth-like.  See Dentatus.
  ODONTOLl'THOS.   (From  oSovs,  a tooth, and
Xtdos, a scone.)  The  tartar, or stony crust  upon the
teeth.
  ODONTOPHY'IA.  (From oSovs, a tooth, and qniu,
to groxv.)  Dentition, or cutting teeth.
  Odontotri'mma. (From oSovs, a tooth, und rpiSu,
to wear away.)  A dentifrice, or medicine, to  clean
the teeth.
  ODORIFEROUS.  (From the smell xvhich the se
cretion from them has.)  Some glands are so called.
  Odoriferous glands.  Glandula odorifera. These
glands  are situated around the corona glandis of the
male, and under the skin of ihe  labia majora  and nym-
pha of" females.   They secrete a sebaceous matter,
which emits a peculiar odour.
  ODOUR.   Smell.  This, which is the emanation of
an odoriferous body, is generally ascribed to  a portion
of the body  itself, converted into vapour:  but  from
some experiments  lately instituted it would seem pro-
bable, that in many cases the odour is owing not to
the substance itself", but to a gas or vapour resulting
from its combination xvith an appropriate vehicle, ca-
pable of diffusion in space.
  CE'a.    (Oiij: from  otu, to bear; so named  from
its  fruitfulness.)  The  service tree, Crataegus leruii
nalis.
  CECONOMY.  (0?.conomia: from  oixo%,  a house,
and vopos, a law.)  OJ'conomia animalis.   The con-
duct of nature in preserving bodies and folloxving her
usual order;  hence animal  ceconomy and  vegetable
oeconoiny, &c.
  CEDE'MA.   (From  oiStu, to swell.)  A synonymo
of anasarca.  See Anasarca.
  CEDEMATO'DES.    (From  otleu, to swell, and
silos, resemblance.) Like to an CEdema.
  CEdemosa'rca.   (From  otSnpa, a  swelling, and
aap\, flesh.)   A tumour mentioned by Severinus, of a
middle nature, betxveen an adema and sarcoma.
                                        12" 
CENO
OFF
  CENA'N I titi.   (From .otvos, wmc, and  avttos, a
 Bower: so called because 'its flowers snuell  like the
 rine.i
  1. The  botanical name of a genus of the  umbelli-
 ferous  plants.  Class, Pentandria ; Order, Digynia.
  2. The  pharniacopoeial name of the hemlock drop-
 wort.  See LEnanthe crocata.
  CEnanthe crocata.   The hemlock  dropwort.
 lEnanthe—charophylli foliis of Linnaeus.  An active
 poison  that has too often proved fatal, by being eaten
 in mistake  instead of xvater-parsnip.   The  juice,
nevertheless, cautiously exhibited, promises to be an
efficacious remedy in inveterate scorbutic eruptions.
The root of this plant  is not unpleasant to the taste,
and  esteemed to be most deleterious of all the vege-
tables whicli Ihis country produces.  Mr. Howel, Sur-
geon at Haverfordwest, relates, that " eleven French
prisoners had the liberty of xvalking in and<about the
town of Pembroke.  Three of them being in the fields
a little before noon, dug up a  large quantity of this
plant, whicli they took to be xvild celery, to eat with
their bread and butter for dinner.  After xvashing it,
Ihey all three ate, or rather  tasted of the roots.  As
they xvere entering the toxvn,  xvithout any previous no-
tice of sickness at  the stomach,  or  disorder in the
head, one of them xvas seized with convulsions.   The
other txvo ran home, and sent a surgeon to him.   The
surgeon endeavoured first to  bleed, and  then to vomit
him ; but those endeavours xvere fruitless, and he died
presently.  Ignorant of the cause  of  their comrade's
death, and of their oxvn danger, they gave of these
roots to the other eight prisoneis, who ate of them  xvith
their dinner.  A fexv minutes afterward the  remain-
ing  txvo who gathered the plants xvere seized in the
same manner as the first, of which one died ; the other
xvas bled, and a vomit, xvith great difficulty, forced
doxx-n, on account of his jaws being, as il were, locked
together.   This operated, and he recovered, but was
some time affected xvith dizziness in his head, though
not sick, or the least disordered in the stomach.   Tiie
other eight being bled and vomited immediately, were
booh well."  At Clonmell, in Ireland, eight boys mis-
taking  this plant for xvater-parsnip,  ate  plentifully of
its roots.   About four or five hours after the eldest boy
became suddenly convulsed, and died: and before the
next morning four of the  other boys died in a similar
manner.  Of the other three, one  was maniacal se-
veral hours, another lost his  hair  and nails,  but the
third escaped unhurt.   Stalpaart Vander  VViel men-
tions two  cases of tne fatal effects of this root; these,
however, were attended xvith great heat in the Miroat
and  stomach,  sickness, vertigo, and  purging;  they
both died in the course of txvo or three hours after eat-
ing the root.  Allen, in his Synopsis  Medicinae, also
relates, that  foul children suffered  greatly by eating
this poison.  In these  cases  great  agony xvas experi-
enced  before thi  convulsion supervened: vomitings
likexvise came on. xvhich xvere encouraged by  large-
 draughts of oil and warm xvater, to which their reco-
 very is ascribed.  The late Sir William Watson, xvho
 refers to the instances here  cited, also says, that a
 Dutchman was poisoned by the leaves of the plant
 boiled in pottage.   It appears, from various  authori-
 ties, that most brute animals are not less affected by
 this poison than man:  and Lightfoot informs  us, that
 a spoonful of the juice of this plant given to a dog,
 rendered him sick and stupid: but a goat was observ-
 ed to eat  the plant xvith  impunity.  The great viru-
 lenceof this plant has not, however, prevented it from
 being taken  medicinally.  In a letter from Dr. Poulte-
 ney to  Sir William Watson,  xve are told lhat  a severe
 And  inveterate cutaneous disorder xvas cured by the
 uice of the mot, though not xvithout exciting the most
 Alarming symptoms.  Taken in the dose of a spoonful,
 in two hours afterward, the head was affected in a
 very extraordinary manner, followed xvith violent sick-
 ness and vomiting, cold sxveats, and  rigors;  but  this
 did not deter the putient from continuing the medicine,
 in somewhat lessdoses, till it effected a cure.
  CEna'rea. (Otvaptn: from oivapa, the cuttings of
 vines.)   The  ashes prepared  of  the  twigs, Sec. of
 vines.
  CEnelje'um.  (From 011/os, wine, and tXatov, oil.)
 A mixture of oil and wine.
  CENO'GALA.  (From otvos, xvine,and yaXa, milk.)
 A sort of potion made of xvine and milk. According
 to some, it is wine as warm as new milk
       i:«)
  fTTso oarum-  irrorn oivoc,wine, and yapov, garum
 A mixture of wine and garum.
  CENO'MELI.  (From oivoj, wine,  and ptXt, honey )
 Mead, or xvine, made of honey, or sxveetened with
 honey.
  CEno'pli.  (From oivoc, wine.)   The great  iiibeb
 tree.  The juice of the fruit is like that of the grape.
  CENOSTA'GMA.  (From otvos, wine, and s-ai,i<>, tu
 distil.)  Spirit of wine.
  CEno'thera.  (From otvos, wine:  so called because
 its dried roots  smell like xvine.)  A species of lysima-
 chia.
  CENOTHIONTC  ACID.    (lEnolhionicus;  irom
 oivoc, wine.)  An acid produced durinr: the distillation
 of sulphuric aether,  and found in the residue according
 to Sertuerner.
  (ENUS.  (From  otvos, wine.)   Wine.
  (Enus anthinos.  Flowery-.vine.   Galen says it ia
 OXnos anthosmias, or  xvine impregnated with flowers,
 in xvhich sense it is an epithet for the Cyceon.
  CEnus anthosmias.  (From arOoc, a  flower, and
 oapn. a smell.)  Sweet-scented xvine.
  CEnus apezesmenus.  A   xvine heated to a great
 degree, and prescribed xvith other things, as garlic, salt,
 milk, and vinegar.
  CEnus apod.«dus.  Wine  in which the dais,  ot
 taeda, hath been boiled.
  CEnus deuterus.  Wines of the  second  pressing.
  CEnus diacheomenus.   Wine  diffused in larger
 vessels, cooled and strained from the lees, to render it
 thinner and xveaker; xvines thus draxvn off are called
 saccus, and saccata, from tlie bag through which they
 are strained.
  CEsus galactodes.   Wine with  milk, or  wmc
 made as warm as nexv milk.
  CEnus malacus.   CEnus  malthacus.   Soft  wine.
 Sometimes it means weak and thin, opposed to strong
 wine; or mild in opposition lo austere.
  CEnus melichroos.  Wine in which is honey.
  CEnus ojnodes.  Strong wine.
  CEnus straphidios leucos.   White wine  made
 from raisins.              *»
  CEnus tethalasmenos.   Wine mixutf with sea-
 water.
  CESOPHACEUS.   (From atirotbayos   the gullet)
 The muscle forming the sphincter oesophagi.
  CEsoph.xci'smus.   (From  otooqiayos,  the gullet.)
 Difficult swallowing, from spasm.
  CESO'PHAGUS.  ((Esophagus, i. m.; ironi nu, to
 carry, and  q,ayu, to eat: because  it  carries  the food
 into the stomach.)  The  membranous and muscular
 tube that descends  in the  neck, from the pharynx  to
 the stomach.  It is composed of tliree tunics, or mem-
 branes,  viz. a common, muscular, atid mucous.  Ita
 arteries are branches of the  oesophageal, which arises
 from the aorta.  The  veins empty themselves into the
 vena azygos.  Its nerves are from tht. eighth pair and
 great intercostal; and it is every xvhere under the in-
 ternal or mucous membrane supplied with glands that
 separate the mucus  of the (esophagus, in order that tbe
 masticated bole may  readily pass down into tlie sto-
 mach.
  CESTROMA'NIA.  (From otrpos, the pudenda of a
 xvoman, and patropat, to rage.)  A furor uterinus. See
 Nymphomania,
  tE'STRUM.   (From astrus, a gad-bee : because by
 i:s bite, or sting, it agitates cattle.)  OEstrum venereum.
 The orgasm, or pleasant sensation, experienced during
 coition.
  CEstrum venereum.  1.  The clitoris is so called,
 as being the seat of  the sensation.
  2.  The sensation  is  also so called.
  GE'sype.  (From oic, a sheep, and i*/roc, sordes.)
 (Esypos; Ojlsypum;  IF.sypus.  It frequently is met
 with in the ancient Pharmacy, for a certain oily sub-
 stance, boiled out ot particular parts ol ihe fleeces of
 wool, as what grows on the flank, neck, and parts most
 used to sxveat.
  O'ffa alba.  (From phath, a  fragment, Hebrew ">
 Van  Helmont thus  calls the white coagulation whicft
 arises from a mixture of a rectified spirit of xvine, and
 of urine; hut the spirit of urine must be distilled from
 well-fermented urine; and that must be xvell dephleg-
 mated, else it will not answer.
   OFFICINAL  (Officinalis; Irom afficina, a  shop./
 Any medicine, directed by the colleges of physicians
. to be kcut iu the shops, Is so termed. 
OLD
OLE
   ytrcsci'Tio.  The same as Amaurosis.
   OIL.  (Oleum; from olea, the olive:  this name be-
 at? at first confined to the oil expressed from the olive.)
 Oil is defined, by modern chemists, to be a proper juice
 of a I'm or unctuous nature, either solid or fluid, indis-
 soluble in xvater, combustible with flame, and volatile
 in different degrees.  Oils are  never formed  but  by
 organic bodies;  and all  the  substances in the mineral
 kingdom, xvhich  present oily characters, have origi-
 nated  from Ihe  action  of vegetable or animal life.
 They  are  distinguished into«fat,  and essential oils;
 under the former head are camp rehended oil of olives,
 almonds,  rape, ben, linseed, iiemp, cocoa, &c.  Essen-
 tial oils differ from fat oils by the foiloxving characters:
 their smell is  strong and aromatic; their volatility is
 such that they rise xvith the heat "of boiling xvater, and
 their taste is very acrid ; they are likewise much more
 combustible than tat  oils; they are obtained by pres-
 sure, distillation, &c.  from strong-smelling  plants,  as
 that of peppermint, aniseed, caraway, ^,.  The use
 of fat oils  in the arts, anrl in medicine, is very consi-
 derable ; they are medicinally prescribed as relaxing,
 softening, and laxative remedies; they enter into many
 medical compounds, such as balsams,  unguents, plas-
 ters, &c.  and they are often used  as food on account
 of the mucilage they  contain.   See  Olea.  Essential
 oils are employed as cordial, stimulant, and antispas-
 modic remedies.
  [•' Oil, animal.  The proximate principles of the ani-
mal creation consist, like those of vegetables, of a few
 elementary substances, which, by combination in va-
 rious proportions, give rise to their numerous varieties.
 Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, are the prin-
 cipal ultimate elements  of animal  matter;  and phos-
 phorus and sulphur are also often contained  in  it.
 The presence of nitrogen constitutes  the most striking
 peculiarity of animal, compared xvith vegetable bodies;
 but as  some vegetables contain  nitrogen, so there are
 certain animal principles, into the composition of which
 it does not enter.
  The presence of nitrogen stamps a peculiarity upon
 the products obtained  by the destructive distillation  of
 animal matter, and xvhich are characterized by the pre-
 sence of ammonia, formed by the  union of hydrogen
 with the nitrogen.  It is sometimes so abundantly ge-
 nerated as to be the leading product; thus, xvhen horns,
 hoofs,  or bones, are distilled per se, a quantity of solid
 carbonate  of ammonia, and of the same  substance
 combined with empyreumatic oil, nnd dissolved in wa-
 ter, are obtained; hence the pharmaceutical prepara-
 tions called spirit and  salt of hartshorn, and Dipel's
 animal oil.  Occasionally the acetic, benzoic, and some
 other acids, are formed by the operation of heat on ani-
 mal bodies, and these  are  found  uniled lo the ammo-
nia; cyanogen and hydrocyanic acid  frequently oc-
cur."— Webs. Man. Chem.—A.]
  Oil,  atherial.  See  Oleum athereum.
  Oil,  almond.  See Amygdalus.
  OU of allspice.  See Oleum pimenta.
   Oil of amber.   See  Oleum succim.
   Oil of caraway.  See Oleum carui.
   Oil, castor.  See Ricinus communis.
   Oil of chamomile.  See Oleum anthemidis.
   Oil of juniper.  See Oleum juniperi.
   Oil of lavender.  See  Oleum lavendula.
   Oil of linseed.  See Oleum lini.
   Oil of mace.  See Oleum mads.
   Oil,  olive.  See Olea europaa.
  Oil of origanum. See Oleum origani.
   Oil, palm.  See Cocos butyraeea.
   Oil of pennyroyal.  See Oleum pulegit.
   Oil of peppermint.  See Oleum mentha piperita.
   Oil, rock.  See Petroleum.
   Oil of spearmint.  See Oleum menlhat viridis.
   Oil, sulphurated.  See Oleum sulphuratum.
   OH of turpentine.  See Oleum terebinthina rectifi-
 catum.
  Oil of vitriol.  See Sulphuric acid.
  OINTMENT.  See Unguentum.
  OISANITE.  Pyramidal ore of titanium.
  OLDENLANDIA.   (In honour of H. B. OlcVenland,
 a Dane, who made a visit to the Cape of Good  Hope,
 about the year 1695, for the purpose of collecting plants,
 where he  soon after died.  Linnaeus described many
 plants  from his Herbarium.)  The name of a genus
 of plants.   Class Pentandria; Order, Digynia,
  Oldenlandia umbellata.  The roots of this plant
                                       Qq2
which groxvs wild on the coast of Coromandel, and is
also cultivated there, are used by dyers, and calico
printers, for the  same  purpose as madder with  us,
giving the beautiful red so much admired in the Madia*
cottons.
  OLEA.   The name of a genus of plants in the Lin-
naean system.  Class, Monandria ; Order, Monogynia.
  Olea europje.  The systematic name of the plant
from which the olive oil is obtained.   Oliva; Olea
sativa.   Olea—foliis lanceolatis integerrimis  racemis
axillaribus coarctatis, of Linnaeus.  1'he olive-tree in
all  ages  has been greatly celebrated, and held in pe-
culiar estimation, as the bounteous gift" of heaven ; it
xvas formerly exhibited in the religious ceremonies of
the Jews, and is still continued as emblematic of pence
and plenty.  The varieties of this tree are numerous,
distinguished not only by the form of the leaves, but
also by the shape, size, and colour  ol* the fruit; as the
large Spanish  olive, the small oblong Provence olive,
Sec Sec.  These, when pickled, are well known to us
by  the names of Spanish and French olives, xvhich
are extremely grateful to many stomachs, aud said tu
excite appetite and  promote digestion ; they are pie-
pared from the green unripe fruit, whicli is repeatedly
steeped in water, to which some quicklime or alkaline
salt is added, in order to shorten Ihe operation ; after
this, they are  washed and preserved  in  a pickle of
common salt and xvater, to which an aromatic is some-
times added.  The principal consumption, however, of
this fruit is in the preparalioniof the common salad oil,
or  oleum oliva of the pharmacopoeias, which is ob
tained by grinding and pressing them xvhen thoroughly
ripe:  the finer and purer oil issues first by gentle pres-
sure, and tlie inferior sorts on heating what is left, and
pressing il more strongly.  The best olive oil is of a
bright pale amber colour, bland to the taste, and with
out any smell: it becomes rancid  by age, and  sooner
if kept in a xvarm situation.  With regard to its utility,
oil, in some shape, forms a considerable part of our
food,  both animal and vegetable, and affords much
nourishment.  With some, however, oily substances do
not unite with the contents of the stomach,  and are
frequently  brought  up by eructation ; this  happens
more especially to those  xvhose stomachs abound with
acid.—Oil, considered as a medicine,  is supposed to
correct acrimony, and to lubricate and relax the fibres;
and, therefore,  has  been recommended internally  to
obviate the effects of" various stimuli,  which produce
irritation,  and  consequent  inflammation:  on  this
ground  it has  been  generally  prescribed in  coughs,
catarrhal affections, and  erosions.  The oil of olives
is successfully used in Sxvitzerland against the tania
osculis superficialibus, and it is in very high estimation
in this and other countries  against nephritic  pains,
spasms,  colic,  constipation of  the bowels, &c.  Ex-
ternally  it has been found a useful  application  to bites
and stings  of various poisonous animals, as the mad
dog, several serpents, &c. also to burns, tumours, and
other affections, both by itself, or mixed in  liniments
or poultices.  Oil rubbed over the body is said  to be of
great service in dropsies,  particularly  ascites.  Olive
oil  enters several officinal compositions, and when
united with water, by the intervention of  alkali, is
usually given in coughs and hoarsenesses.
  Olea  men.  (From tfleum, oil.)   A  thin liniment
composed of oils.
  Olea'hder.  (From olea, the  olive-tree, which it
resembles.)  The rose-bay.
  Olea'ster.  (Diminutive of olea, the olive-tree.)
The wild olive.
  OLECRANON.    (From uXtvn,  the ulna,  nnd
xpavov, the head.  The elboxv, or process of the ulna,
upon xvhich a person  leans.  See Ulna,
  OLEFIANT GAS. See Carburetted hydrogen gas.
  OLEIC ACID.  "When potassa and hog's lard are
saponified, the margarate of the alkali separates in the
form  of a pearly looking solid,  while the fluid  fat
remains  in solution, combined  with the  potassa.
When the alkali is separated by tartaric acid,  the oily
principle of fat is obtained, which Chevreuil  purifies
by saponifying it  again and  again, recovering it twa
or  three limes; by which means the whole of ihe
margarine is separated.  As this oil has the propertj
of saturating bases and forming neutral compounds, he
has called it oleic acid."
  O'lene.   (aXtvv)  The cubit, or ulna
  OLEOSACCHARUM.  (From oleum, oil, and »a«
                                        13t 
OLE
OLA
 Chorum, sugar.    An eseentiai oil ground up xvith
  ugar.
   OLERACEUS.  (From olco, to groxv.) Holcraceus.
 Partaking of the nature of pot-herbs.
   Olerace*.  (From olus, a  pot-herb.)  The name
 of an  order of plants in Linnaeus's  Fragments of a
 Natural Method, consisting of such ns have incomplete
 inelegant flowers, heaped together in the calyces ; as
 beta, chenopodium, spinacia. &c.
   OLEUM.   See Oil.
   Oleum auietinum. The rcsinousjuice xvhich exudes
 spontaneously from the silver and  red firs.   Il is sup-
 posed lo be superior to thai  obtained by wounding the
 tree.
   Oleum  xthereum.  ^Ethereal oil.   Oleum vini.
 After the distillation of sulphuric aether, carry on the
 distillation  xvith a less degree of heat until a black froth
 begins to  rise; then immediately remove the retort
 from the fire.   Add sufficient xvater to the liquor in the
 retort,  that the oily part  may float upon the surface.
 Separate this, and add to it as much limo-xvateT as may
 be necessary to neutralize the adherent acid, and shake
 them together.  Lastly, collect the aethereal oil which
 separates.  This  oil is  used as an ingredient in the
 compound  spirit of aether.  It is of a yellow  colour,
 less volatile than aether,  soluble in alkohol, and inso
 luhle in waler.
   Oleum amygdal.b.  See Amygdalus communis.
   Oleum amygdalarum.  See Amygdalus communis.
   Oleum animale.   Oleum animate Dippelii.  An
 empyreumatic oil obtained  by  distillation from bones
 and animal substances. It is sometimes exhibited as an
 antispasmodic and diaphoretic,  in the dose of from ten
 to forty drops.
   Oleum animale dippelii.  See Oleum animale.
   Oleum anisi.   Formerly Oleum essentinle  anisi;
 Oleum e seminibus anisi.  Oil of anise.  The essential
 oil of aniseed possesses all the virtues attributed to the
 anisum, and is often given as a stimulant and carmi-
 native,  in Ihe dose of from five to eight drops mixed
 with an appropriate vehicle. See Pimpinella anisum.
   Oleum anthkmidis.  Oil of chamomile, formerly
 called  oleum e fioribus  chamaemeli.   See Anthemis
 nobilis.
   Oleum camphorxtum. See Linimentum camphora.
   Oleum carpathicum   A fine essential oil, distilled
 from the fresh cones of the tree whicli affords the com-
 mon turpentine.  See Pinus sylvestris.
   Oleum carui.  Formerly called Oleum essentiate
 carui; Oleum  essentiate e seminibus  carui  The oil
 of caraways is an admirable carminative, diluted wilh
 rectified spirit into an essence, and ihen mixed  xvith
 any proper  fluid.  See Carum.
   Oleum caryophylli aromatici.  A stimulant and
 aromatic preparation of  the clove. See Eugenia cary-
 ophyllata.                                         i
   Oleum cedrinum.  Essentia ae cedro.  The oil of |
 the peel of citrons,  obtained, xvithout distillation, in l
 Italy.
   Oleum cinnamomi.  A xvarm, stimulant, and  deli-
 cious stomachic.  Given  in the dose  of from one to
 three drops, rubbed down xvith some yelk of egg, in a
 little wine,  it allays violent  emotions  of the stomach
 from morbid irritability,and is particularly serviceable
 in debility of the prima; viae,  after cholera.
  Oleum cornu cervi.  This is applied externally as
 a stimulant to paralytic affections of the limbs.
  Oleum qabianum.  See Petroleum rubrum.
  Oleum juniperi.  Formerly called Oleum essentiate
 juniperi bacca; Oleum  essentiate e baccis juniperi.
 Oil of juniper.  Oil of juniper-berries possesses  stimu-
lant, carminative, and stomachic virtues, in the dose
ol from txvu to four drops, and in a larger dose  proves
highly diuretic. It is often administered in the cure of
dropsical complaints, when the indication is to provoke
the urinary discharge. See Juniperus communis.
  Oleum lavendul*.   Formerly called Oleumessen-
li ile lavendula; Oleum essentiate e fioribus lavendula.
Oil of  lavender.   Though mostly used as a perfume,
this essential oil may he exhibited internally,  in tho
tlose of from one to five drops, as a stimulant in  ner-
vous headaches, hysteria, and debility ot the stomach.
liee l,avenda spica.
  Oleum lauri.  Oleum laurinum. An anodyne and
antispasmodic application, generally rubbed or. sprains
 and bruises unattended xvith inflammation
  O-leum limoniS   The essential ml of lemons  | os-
       132
 sesses stimulant and stomachic  powers, but Is rrrlner
 pally  used externally,  mixed xvith  ointments,  as a
 perfume.
   Oleum lini.  Linseed oil is emollient and demulcent,
 in the dose of from half an ounce to au ounce.  It ia-
 frequently given in the form of clyster in colics and
 obstipation.  Cold-draxvn  linseed-oil, xvith lime-water
 and extract of lead, forms, in many instances, tlie best
 application for burns and scalds.  See Linum usiiatis
 sunum.
   Oleum  lucii pistis. See Esox Indus.
   Oleum  m.xcib.   Oleinnjmyristica expressum.   Off
 of mace.  A fragrant sebaceous substance, 'expres ed
 in the East Indies from the  nutmeg.  There are txvo
 kinds.  The best is brought in slone jars, i* someivhat
 soft, of a  yellow colour,  and  resembles in smell the
 nutmeg.  The other is  brought  from Holland, in flat
 square cakes.   The weak  smell and faint colour war-
 rants our supposing il lo be the former kind sophisti-
 cated.  Their use is chiefly external, in form nt plaster,
 unguent, or liniment. See Myristica moschata.
   Oleum malabathri.  An oil similar in flavour to
 that of cloves, brought from the East Indies, where it
 is said to be drawn  from the leaves of the cassia-tice.
   Oleum mentii.icpiperit.c.  Formerly called Oleum
 essentiate mentha pipentidis.   Oil of peppermint.  Oil
 of peppermint possesses all the active principle of the
 plant.   It is mostly used to  make the  simple  xvater
 Mixed xvith rectified spirit  it forms an essenee, xvhich
 is put into  a variety of compounds, as sugar diops and
 troches,  which are exhibited as  stimulants, caimina-
 tives, and stomachics.  See Mentha piperita.
   Oleum menth.j. viridis.   Formerly  called  (jleum
 essentiate  meniha sativa.  Oil of spearmint.   This
 essential oil is mostly  in  use  for making the  simple
 xvater, but may be exhibited in  the dose  of from  tvxo to
 five drops as a carminative, stomachic, and Siimulant
 See Mentha viridis.
   Oleum myristicje.   The essential oil of nutmeg is
 an excellent stimulant and aiomalic, and  may be ex-
 hibited in  every case where  such remedies  liie  indi-
 cated, xvith advantage.  See Myristica moschata.
   Oleum myristicf exi-ressum.  This is common'y
 called oil of mace.  See Oleum maris.
   Oleum neroli.  Essentia m-roli.  The essential oil
 of the  tloxvers of the Seville orange-tree. It is brought
 to us from  Italy and France.
   Oleum oliv .*:.   See Olea europea.
   Oleum orioani.   Formerly  called Oleum essentiate
 origani.   Oil of origanum.  A very acrid  and  stimu-
 lating essentia! oil.  It is employed for  alleviating the
 pain arising from caries of the teeth, and for making
 the simple xvaterof marjoram. See Origanum vulgare.
   Olei m palm.*:.  See Cocos butyracea.
   Oleum fetr.e.  See Petroleum.
   Oleum pi.ment*.  Oil of allspice.  A stimulant and
 aromatic oil. See Myrtus pimenta.
  Oleum pulegu.  Formerly called Oleum essentiate
pulegii.  Oil of penny-royal.   A stimulant and anti-
spasmodic oil, xvhich may be exhibited in  hysterical and
nervous affections.   See Meniha pulegium.
  Oleum ricini.  See Ricinus communis.
  Oleum rosmarini.  Formerly called Oleum  essm
tiale rosis marini.  Oil of rosemary.  The essential oil
of rosemary is an  excellent stimulant, and may be
given wilh  great advantage in nervous, and spasmodic
affections ofthe stomach.   See Rosmarinus officinalis.
  Oleum sabin*.   A stimulatingemnienaL'oL'ue:  it ia
best administered with myrrh, in the form of  bolus.
See Junipcris communis.
  Oleum sassafras.  An agreeable stimulating  car
urinative and sudorific.
  Oleum sinapeos. This is an  emollient oil, the acrid
principle of the mustard remaining in the seed.  See
Sinapis alba.
  Oleum succini.  Oleum succini rcctifieatum.  Put
amber in an alembic, and with the heat of a sand-bath,
gradually increased, distil over an acid  liquor, an oil,
and a salt  contaminated xvith  oil.  Then redistil the
oil a second and a third time.  Oil ef amber is mostly
used externally, as a stimulating  application to para-
lytic limbs, or those  affected with cramp  and rheuma-
tism.   Hooping-cough, and other convulsive diseases,
are said lo  be relieved also by rubbing the spine xvith
this oil.  See Succmum.
  Olei.m sulpiiiratom.   Formerly called Balsamum
sulphuris simplex.  Sulphurated oil.  Tak«of xvushed 
OME
OM£
 *o,plinr, \wo ounces; olive oil, n pint.  Having heated
 tlie oil in a very large  iron pot, and the sulphur gra-
 d jally, stir the mixture after each addition, until they
 have united.  This, xvhich was formerly called simple
 balsam of sulphur, is an acrid stimulating preparation,
 and much praised by some  in the cure of coughs and
 other phthisical complaints.
   Oleum syri.e.  A fragrant essential  oil, obtained by
 distillat". jii from the balm of Gilead plant.  See Draco-
 cephulum moldavica.
   Oleum templinum.   Oleum  tcmplinum verum.  A
 terebinihinate oil obtained from the fresh cones of the
 Pinus abies of Linnaeus.
   Oleum terebintiiin.e rectiftcatum.  Take of
 oil of turpentine, a pint; water, four pints.  Distilover
 ihe oil.   Stimulant, diuretic, and sudorific virtues are
 attributed lo this preparation, in the dose of from ten
 drops to twenty, which are gixx-n in  rheumatic pains of
 the chronic kind, especially  sciatica.  Its chief use in-
 ternally, hoxvex-er, is as an  anthelmintic and  styptic.
 Uterine,  pulmonic, gastric,  intestinal,  and otlier ha--
 morrhaees, when passive, are more effectually relieved
 by its  exhibition than by any other  medicine  Exter-
 nally it is applied, mixed xvith ointments and other ap-
 plications, to bruises, sprains, rheumatic pains, indolent
 ulcers, burns, and scalds.
   Olkcm terr v.   See Petroleum.
  Oleum xim.   Stimulant aud anodyne, in the dose of
 from one to four drops.
   Oleum vitrioli.  See Sulphuric acid.
  OLFACTORl'   (Olfaetorius ;  fiom elf act us, the
 wense of smelling.)   IJelonging to the organ or sense of
 smelling
  Olfactory nerve.  The first pair of nerves are so
 termed, because they are ihe organs of smelling.  They
 arise from the corpora striata,  perforate the ethmoid
 bone, and are distributed x-ery numerously on the pitui-
 tary membrane of the nose.
  OLIBANUM.  (From lebona, Chaldean.)  See Ju-
 niperus li/cia,
   OLIGOTROPHIA. (From oXtyos, small, and rpttpu,
 to nourish.)  Deficient nourishment.
   OLISTHE MA.  (From oXtoOatvu, to fall out.)  A
 luxation
   OLIVA.  See Olea europca.
   OLIVA RIS.  (From oin>a, the olix'C.)  Olivifirmis.
 Resembling the olive: applied  to two eminences on the
 lower  part of the medulla oblongata,  called corpora
 alvaria.
  OLIVE.  See Olea europea.
   Olive, spurge.  See Daphne mezereum.
   Olive-tree. See  Olea europca.
   OLIVE'NITE.  Ah ore of copper.
   OLI VILE.  The name given by Pelletier  to the
 substance which remains after genlly evaporating the
 alkoholic  solution of the gum which exudes from the
 olive-tree.  It is a white, brilliant, starchy powder.
  OLI'VINE.   A subspecies of prismatic chrysolite.
 Its  colour is olive-green.  It occurs in basalt, green-
 stone, porphyry, and lax-n, and generally accompanied
 with augite.  It is found in Scotland, Ireland, Franie,
 Bohemia, Sec
  Olla'ris laf-is.   Pot-stone.
  Olophlt'ctib.   (From  oXos, whole, and QXvktis, a
 pustule.)   A small  hot eruption covering the  whole
 body.
  Olusa'trum.  (Id est olus atrum, the black herb,
 from its black leaves.)  See Smyrnium olusalrum.
  OMA.  This Greek final  usually imports external
 protuberance; as in  sarcoma, staphyloma, carcino-
 ma, Sec
  OMA'GRA.  (From upos, the shoulder, and aypa, a
 seizure.)  The gout in Ihe shoulder.
   OMENTITIS.   (Omentitis; from  omentum,  the
 caul.)  Inflammation ofthe omentum, a species of pe-
ritonitis.
  O.ME'NTUM.  (From omen, a guess : so called be-
cause the soothsayers prophesied from an inspection of
this part.)  Epiploon.  The  caul.  An  adipose mem-
branous viscus of the abdomen, that is attached to the
stomach, and lies on the anterior surface of the intes-
tines.  It is thin and easily torn, being formed of a du-
plicatureof the peritoneum, with more or less of fat in-
 terposed.  It is distinguished into the great omentum
and the little omentum.
  I. The omentum  majus, which is also termed omen-
tum gastrocolicum, arises from the whole ofthe great
 curvature of tlie stomach, and even asfarasthesplr-eti.
 from xvhence it descends loosely behind the abdominal
 parietes, and over the intestines to the navel, and some-
 times into the pelvis.   Having descended thus- far, its
 inferior margin turns inxvards and ascends again, and
 is fastened  to ihe colon and Ihe spleen, xvhere its ves-
 sels enter.
   2. The omentum minus, or omentum lirpatico-gastri
 cum, arises posteriorly  from the  transveise fissure of
 the liver.   It is composed of a duplicnture of peritn
 iieum, passes over the duodenum  nnd small lobe of ihe
 liver: it also passes by the lobulus  spiuelii and pan-
 creas, proceeds into the colon and small ciiivatuieof
 the stomach, and is implanted ligamentous into tho
 oesophagus.  Il is in this omentum that Winslow dis
 covered a natural opening, which  goes by his name. It
 air be blown in tit this foramen of Winston, xvhich is
 a'ways found behind the lobulus  spigelii, between ihe
 right side of the liver and hepatic vessels, the duode
 num, the cavity ofthe omentum, and all its sacs, may
 be distended.
   The omentum is alxvays double, and  betxveen  its ta-
 mella-, closely connected by very  tender cellular sub-
 stance, the vessels are distributed and the fat collected.
 Where the top of the right kidney, and the Ii dm lus. spi-
 gelii ofthe liver, with ihe subjacent large ves-els, loiin
 an angle xvith the duodenum, there the  external  mem-
 brane of the colon, which comes from the  peritoneum
 joining xvith the  membrane of the duodenum, w Inch
 also rises immediately from the peritoneum lying upon
 Ihe kidney, enters the back into the transverse fissure
 of the liver for a considerable space, is continuous with
 its external coat, contains the gall-bladder, supports the
 hepatic vessels, and is very yellow and  slippery.   Be-
 hind this membranous  production, betxveen the right
 lobe ofthe liver, hepatic  vessels, vena  poriarum, biliary
 ducts, aorta, and adjacent duodenum, there is the  na-
 tural opening just mentioned, by xvhich air may be
 Mown extensively into all ihe cavity  of the omentum.
 From thence, in a course  continuous with this mem
 brane from the pyloris and thesmallercurvature ofibe
 stomach, the external membrane of the  liver joins in
 such a manner with  thai ofthe stomach, that the thin
 membrane of the liver is continued out of the fossa of
 the venal duct, across the  little lobe  into the stomach
 stretched before the lobe and before the pancreas. This
 little omentum, or omentum hepatico-gastneum, when
 inflated,  resembles a cone, and, gradually becoming
 harder and emaciated, it changes into a true ligament,
 by xvhich the oesophagus is connected to the diaphragm.
 But the larger omentum, the omentum gastrocolicum, ia
 of a much  greater extent.   It begins al the first acces
 sion of the right gastro-epiploic artery to the stomach,
 being continued there  from the  upper  plate of  the
 transverse mesocolon, and then from  the whole  great
 curx-e of tlie stomach, as  far as the  spleen, and also
 from the right convex end of ihe stomach towards the
 spleen, until it also terminates in  a ligament that lies
 the upper and back part of the spleen to the stomach.
 This is the anterior lamina.  Being continued down
 wards, so..letimes to  the navel, sometimes  to the pel
 lis, it hangs before the intestines, and behind the mus
 clesof the abdomen, until its lower edge, being reflect-
 ed upon itself, ascends, leaving an intermediate vacuity
 between it and the anterior lamina, and is continued to
 a very greal extent, into the external membrane of the
 transverse colon, and, lastly, into the sinus ofthe spleen,
 by which the large blood-vessels are  received, and It
 ends finally on the oesophagus, under the diaphragm
 Behind the stomach, and before the pancreas, its cavity
 is continuous xvilh that of tlie smaller omentum.   To
 this  the omcntum-colicum  is connected,  which arises
 farther to the right than the first origin of the omentum
 gastrocolicum from the  mesocolon, with the cavity of
 which  il is  continuous,  but produced solely from the
colon and its external  membrane, which departs double
 from the  intestine. It is prolonged, and terminates I y
 a conical extremity, sometimes of longer, sometimes of
shorter extent, above the intestinum ca-cuin; for all the
 blood which returns from the omentum and mesocolon
goes into the vena portarum, and by ttiat into the liver
itself.  The omentum gastrocolicum is furnished with
blood from each of the gastro-epiploic arteries, by many
descending  articulated branches, of  which tlie  most
lateral are the longest, and the lowest anastomose by
 minute twigs with  those  of the  colon.  Il also has
 branches from the splenic, duodenal, and adipose arts*
                                        133 
0M11
ONO
 lies.  The omentum colicum has its arteries from the
 colon, as also the smaller  appendices, and also from
 the duodenal and  right epiploic.  The arteries of the
 i-mall omentum come from the hepatics, and from the
 right and  left corollaries.   The omentum being fat
 nnd indolent, has very small nerves.  They arise from
 the nerves of the eighth pair, both in the greater and
 Jess  curvatures of  the stomach.   The arteries of the
 mesentery aie in general the same xvith those whicli go
 to the intestine, and of xvhich (he smaller branches re-
 main in the glands and fat of the mesentery.  Various
 mall accessory arteries go to both mesocolons, from
 the intercostals, spermatids, lumbars, and caspular to
 the transverse portion from  the  splenic artery,  and
 •ciucrealo-duodenalis, and to the  left mesocolon, from
 (he branches of the aorta going io the lumbar glands.
 The  veins of the omentum in general accompany the
 arteries,  and unite into similar trunks; those of the
 left part of the gastrocolic omentum into the splenic,
 and also those of the Lnpatico gastric, xvhich  likewise
 sends its blood to  the trunk  of  the vena  poi turum:
 those from the larger and light part of the gastro-colic
 omentum,  from  the omentum colicum, and from  the
 sppeiidices epiploicae  into the mesenteric trunk.   All
 the veins of the  mesentery  meet  together, and end in
 the vena portariim, being collected first into two large
 branches,  of xvhich the one, the mesenteric, receives
the gastroepiploic  vein, the colicae mediae, the  ilioco-
lica, and all tliose of the small intestines, as far us the
 duodenum: the other, which going transversely,  iii-
 serls itself into the former, above the origin ofthe duo-
 denum, carries back the blood of the left gastric veins,
and those of the rectum, except the lowermost, which
belongs partly to those ofllie bladder and partly to the
hypogastric branches of the pelvis.  The vein which is
tailed  haemorrhoidalis interna is sometimes inserted
rather  into the splenic than into  the mesenteric vein.
Has the omentum  also lymphatic vessels 1 Certainly
 t'.ere are conglobate glands, both in the little omentum
 nnd in the gastrocolicum; and ancient anatomists have
 observed pellucid vessels in  the omentum ;  and a mo-
 dern has described them for lacteals of the stomach.
  Omentum colicum.  See Omentum.
  Omentum gastro-colici m.  See Omentum.
  Omentum hepatico-qasthicum.  See Omentum.
  OMO.   (From upos, the  shoulder.)   Names com-
 I'ounded with this word belong to muscles xvhich are
 i.uached to the scapula.
  OMOCO'TYLE.   (From upos, the shoulder,  and
 noruXri, a cavity.)  The cavity in the extremity ofthe
i:eck of the scapula, in whicli the head of the humerus
 i- articulated.
  OMO HYOIDEUS. A muscle  situated between the
os hyoides and shoulder, that pulls the os hyoides ob-
liquely downwards.  Coraco hyoideus of Albinus and
 ilouglas.   Scapulo hyodien of Dumas. It arises broad,
 thin, and fleshy, from the superioroosta ofthe scapula,
 near the semilunar  notch, and from  the ligament that
 runs across it; thence ascending obliquely, it becomes
 t'eiidinnus below  the  slernocteido-mastoideus,  and,
 rroxving fleshy again, is inserted into the base of the os
livoides.
 "OMOPLA'TA.  (From upos,  the  shoulder, and
 n.Xuruc, broad.)  The bladebone.   See Scapula.
  Omoplato-hyoidius.  The same as Omo-hyoideus.
  Omo'tocos. (From upos, crude, and rtxru, lo bring
 forth.)  A miscarriage.
  O.mo'tribes.   (From  upos, crude, and  rpifiu,  to
 l.ruise.)  Oil expressed from unripe olives.
  Ompha'cinum. (From outbaxtov, the juice of unripe
 grapes.;  Oil expressed from unripe olives.
  Ompha'cion.   (From  opqtaxos,  an unripe grape.)
 Omphacium.  The juice of unripe  grapes;  and  by
t-oiue  applied to that  of xvild apples, or crabs, com-
 monly called Verjuice.
  OMPH ACITE'.  A variety of inutile of a  pale lcek-
 •reen  colour.  It  occurs in  primitive   locks,  xvith
 rctouH garnet, in  Carinthia.
  CurtiAciTis.  (From optfuixos, an unripe grape.)
 A smail kind  of gall-nut, xvhich resembles  an unripe
(""M'e.
  Ompiiaco'meli.  (From outbaxos, an unripe grape,
 ter* ocXt,  honey.")  An oxymel made of the juice of
 unripe, grapes and honey.
  OMriiALocA'nrus.   (From opqmXos, the navel, and
 xaovos, fruit: so called because ils fruit resembles a
 navel.i  dealers.  The Galium  uperine of Linnaeus.
      13-1
   OMPHALOCE LE.  (From opebanos,' he navel, and
 xnXrj, a tumour.)  An umbilical  hernia.   See Her-
 uia.
   Omphalo'des.   (From opQaXos, a navel,  and tiioi,
 resemblance: so named because the calyx is excavated
 iu the middle like the  human navel.)   A plant re-
 sembling the navel, xvhich the  leaf ol the  cotyledon
 und hydrocotyle does.
   Omphaloma'ntia.   (From opqiaXos, the navel, and
 pvvrtau, to prophesy.)  The foolish vaticination of
 midwives, who pretend  to foretell Ihe number of the
 future offspring from the number of knots in  the navel.
   OMPHALOS.  (From optpuXtoxu, to roll up.)  The
 navel.  See Umbilicus.
   OMPHALOTO'MIA.  (From opcbaXos, the navel,
 and rtpvu, lo cut.) The division or separation of the
 navel-string
   Ona'gra.   (From ovaypoc,  the xvild ass.)   1. An
 American  plant: so called because it is said to tame
 wild beasts.
   2. A name for the rheumatism in theelboxv.
   ONEIRODYNIA.   (From ovetpov, a dream, and
 olvvtj, anxiety.) Disturbed imagination during sleep.
 A genus of disease  in the class Neuroses ; and order
 Vesania, of Cullen, containing txvo species.
   1. Oneirodynia activa, walking in Ihe sleep.
   2. Oneirodynia gravans, the incubus, or nightmare.
 The nervous or indisposed persons are oppressed during
 sleep xvith a heavy pressing sensation on the  chest, by
 which respiration  is impeded, or  the  circulation of
 blood intercepted, to such a degree, as lo threaten suf-
 focation.  Frightful ideas are recollected on waking,
 which occupied the dreaming mind.   Frequent at-
 tempts are made to cry out, but often without effect,
 and the horrors and agitations felt  by the patient, are
 inexpressibly  frightful.  The sensations  generally
 originate in a  large quantity of wind, or indigestible
 matter in the stomach of supper-eaters, xvhich, press-
 ing the stomach against the diaphragm, impede respi-
 ration, or render it short and convulsed. Inflated in-
 testines may likexvise produce similar effects, or mental
 perturbations.
   There is another s|«ecies of nightmare mentioned by
 authors, xvhich has a more dangerous tendency; and
 this arises from an impeded circulation of blood in the
 lungs, xvhen lying down, or two great relaxation ofthe
 heart and its impelling poxvers. Epilepsy, apoplexy, ot
 sudden death, are sometimes among the consequences
 of this species of disturbed sleep.  Diseased  states of
 the large vessels, aneurisms, water in  the  pleura, pe-
 ricardium,or lungs, empyema, Sec are among the most
 dangerous causes.
   ONEIRO'GMOS.  (From ovttpurfu,  to  dream.)
 Venereal dreams.
  ONEIRO'GONOS. (Fromovcipoc, a dream, andymt),
 the seed.)  So the Greeks call an occasional  emission
 ofthe semen in  sleep, when it only happens rarely
  ONION.  See Allium c^pa.
   Unirn sea.  See Scilla.
  ONISCUS.  (Irom ovos, an ass: so called because
 like the ass it requires much beating before it is useful.)
 1. The stockfish.
  2. The slow-worm.
  3. Thenaineofagenusof insects ofthe order Aptera
  Oniscus asellus.  The systematic  name of the
 xvoodlouse.  Millepedes; Millepeda.  These insects,
 though they obtain a place in the  pharmacopoeias, aie
 very seldom used medicinally  in this country; they
 appear to act as stimulants and  slight  diuretics, and
 for this purpose they ought to be administeted in a
 much greater  dose  than  is usually prescribed.   Tlie
 expressed juice of forty or fifty living millepedes, given
 in a mild drink, has been said  to cure very obstinate
jaundices.
  ONI'TIS.   (From ovos, an ass, because  asses covet
 it.)  The Origanum vulgare, or xx ild marjoram.
  ONOBRY'CHIS. (From ovos, an ass,  and /Jpv^u.to
 bray : so called, according to  Blanchard, because the
smell or taste makes  asses bray.)   See Hedysarum
onobryrhis.
  ONO NIS. (From ovos, an ass: because it interrupts
 asses when  at  plough.)  1. The nunie of  a  genus ol
plants in the Linnaean system.  Class,  Diadeiphia,
Order, Decandria.
  2. The pharniacopoeial name of the rest-harrow  Sa
 Ononis spinosa.
  Ononis arvensis.  See Ononis spinosa. 
OPH
OPH
  Ononis spinosa.  The systematic name of tlie rest-
harrow.  Resta bonis; Arrcsta bovis; Rrmora aratri.
The roots of this plant have a faint unpleasant smell,
ajid a sxveelish, bitterish, somewhat nauseous  taste.
Their active matter is confined to the cortical part,
whicli has been  sometimes given in irowiler, or otlier
forms, as au aperient and diuretic.
  ONOPO'RDIUM.   (Ovotrop&ov;  from ovos, an ass,
and rttpSu, to break wind :  so named  from  its  being
much coveted by asses, and from  the noise it makes
upon pressure.)  1. The name of a genus of plants in
the Linnaean system.  Class, Syngenesia; Order, Po-
Ifganua aqualis.
  2. The pharmacopceial name  of tlie cotton-thistle.
See Onopordmm acanthium.
  Onopordii m acanthium.   The systematic nanieof
 he cotton-thistle.   Carduus tomentosus.  The  plant
distinguished by this name is thus described by Lin-
naeus, Onnpordmm—calycibus squamosis squamis pa-
tent ib us;  foliis  ovato-oblongis,  smuatis.   Its ex-
pressed juice has  been recommended  as a cure  for
cancer, either applied  by moistening  lint xvith  it,  or
mixing some simple farinaceous substance, so  as  to
form a i-oullice, which should be  in contact xvith the
disease, and renewed txvice a day.
  ONO SMA. (From 00707, a sxveet smell or savour.)
The name of a  genus of plants.  Class, Pentandria ;
Order, Monogynia.
  Onosma  ecuioides.  The  systematic name of the
plant,  the  root of xvhich is called Anchusa lutea  iu
some pharmacopoeias. It is supposed to possess einiue-
nagogue  virtues.
  ON V'CHIA.   (From ovji!;, the  nail.)  A whitlow at
the side of  ihe fingernail.
  ONVX.   Ovv$.   In surgery.   Unguis. An abscess,
or collection  of pus  betxveen the lamella; of the cor-
nea ;  so called from its resemblance to the stone called
onyx.  The diagnostic signs are, a xvhite spot or speck,
prominent, soft, and fluctuating.  The species are:
  1. Onyx supcrficialis, ai ising from inflammation, not
dangerous, for it vanishes xvhen the inflammation is re-
solved by the use of astringent collyria.
  2. Onyx profundus, or a  deep abscess, which is
deeper seated betxveen the  lamella; of  the  cornea,
sometimes breaking internally, and forming an  hypo-
pium: xvhen it opens externally, it leaves a fistula upon
the cornea; xvheuever tbe pus is exsiccated, there re-
mains a  leucoma.
  In mineralogy, Caleedony, in which there is an alter-
nation of white, black, anil dark broxvn layers.
  Ooki'des.  (From uov, an  egg,  and tiSos, a likeness.)
An epithet  for the aqueous humour of the eye.
  OPACITY.  Opacilas.   The  faculty of obstructing
tlie passage of light.
  OPAL.  Of tlii- silicious stone tliere are seven kinds,
according to Professor Jameson.
  1. Precious opal.  Of a milk-xx'hite colour, inclining
to blue.  It occurs in small veins in clay-porphyry, in
Hungary.
  2. Common opal, of a milk-while colour, found iu
Cornwall.
  3. Fire  opal; the colour of a hyacinth-red,  found
only in Mexico.
  4. Mother of pearl opal, or cacholong, a variety of
caleedony.
  5. Semi  opal,  of a xvhite, broxvn, or gray colour,
found in Greenland, Iceland, and Scotland.
  6. Jasper opal,or ferruginous opal. Thisisof ascar-
let, or gray colour, and comes from Tokay, in Hungary.
  7.  Wood opal, of various colours, and found iu allu-
vial land at Zatravia, in Hungary.
  OPERCULUM.  (Operculum, i. n.;  a cover or lid.)
The lid or  cover of the fringe, called  peristomuin,  of
mosses.  It is either convex, accuminate,fiat, or per-
manent,  never leaving the fringe  : as iu Pliascum.
  OPHI'ASIS.  (From otbts, a serpent; so called from
the  serpentine direction 111 xvhich  the  disease travels
round the head.)   A speciesof  baldness whicli com-
mences at the occiput,  and  winds to  each ear, and
sometimes to the forehead.
  OPHIOGLOSSOI'DES.  (From ocbuyXoaaov,  ophio-
glossum, and «<5oc, a likeness.)  A fungus resembling
the Ophioglossuin, or adder's tongue.
  OPHIOGLO SSUM.   (From  otpis,  a serpent, and
yXuoaa, a tongue; so called fiom the resemblance of
its  fruit.)  The  name of a  genus of plants.  Class,
Cryptogamia; Order, Filtccs.  Adder's tongue.
  OPIIIORRHl'ZA   (From otjits, a serpsnt, and pi Jo
n root; because the plant, says Hermann, is regarded
in Ceylon, ns a grand specific lor the bite of the naja or
riband snake.)   The name of a genus of  plants.
Class, Pentiindria ; Order, Monogynia.
  Opuiorriiiza munuos. The systematic nameof the
plant, the root of xvhich is called Radix scrpentum in
the pharmacopoeias.  Mitngos radix.  This hitler tool
is much esteemed in Java, Sumatra, &.C. as preventing
the effects which usually follow the b'tc of the nuju, a
venomous sei|ieut, vx ilh xvhich view it is eaten by lliem
It is also said to be exhibited medicinally iu the cure of'
intestinal xvorms.
  OPHIOSL'O RODON.    (From ocbts, a serpent, nnd
axopqUov, garlic ;  so named because 11 is spoiled like a
serpent.)   Broad-leaved srarlie.
  OPHIOSTATHVU'.M.  . .From 01/uc, a serpent, and
S~aq>vXri, A berry , so called because serpents feed  upon
its berries.!  White bryony.  See Bryonia alba.
  OPIIIO XYL.U.M.   (Fromotjiis, and {vXov;  because
its rootspieads iu a zitizag manner like the twisting of
a serpent.)  The name of a genus of plants.  Class,
Pentandria; Order, Monogynia. Set peiitine-wiiod plant.
  Opiuuxvlum serpentinum.  The  systematic name
of the tree, the wood of xvhich is termed lignum scr-
pentum.  The natuie of this  root dues not appeal  to
be yet ascertained.  It isveiy  bitter.   In the  cure of
the bite of venomous serpents and malignant diseases.
it is said to be efficacious.
  ["Ophites, or Green Porphyry.   This  is  a green
stone, which to the naked eye apiicars  homogeneous,
and  varies  iu colour from blackish green to pistachio
green. It contains greenish xvhite crystals ol" feldspar,
wliich, on the polished surface, often  appeai in paral-
lelograms, and are sometimes cruciform.  Its texture is
very  compact, and its  fracture often  splintery,   in
many cases its fine green colour is undoubtedly pro-
duced by epidote.  This  belongs to the green porphyry
of the ancients."—Cleav  Min.  A.]
  O'PHRYS.  Oippvs-  1. The lowest part of the foi e-
head, xvhere the eyebroxvs groxv.
  2.  An herb, so called because its juice xvas  used to
make the hair of the eyebrows black.
  OPHTHALMIA.  (From otbOaXpos. the eye.  Oph-
thalmitis.   An  inflammation  of  the  membranes
of the eye, or of  the whole bulb of the eye.   The
symptoms xvhich characterize this disease are a pre-
ternatural redness  of the tunica conjunctiva, owing
to a turgescence  of its  bloodvessels;  pain  and
heat over the xvhole surface of the eye, ol'.en attended
xvith a sensation of some extraneous body betxveen the
eye and eyelid, and a  plentiful effusion of tears.   All
these symptoms are commonly increased by motion of
the eye, or its coverings, and  likewise by exposure to
light.  We judge of tlie depth of the  inflammation by
the degree of pain  produced by light throxvn upon ihe
eye.   When the pain produced by light is considerable,
we have much reason to imagine that the parts at tho
bottom of the eye,  and especially the retina, are chiefly
affected; and, vice versa, when the pain is not much
increased by this  exposure,  we conclude xvith great
probability that the inflammation is confined  perhaps
entirely to the external covering of the eye.  In super-
ficial affections of  this kind too, the  symptoms are in
general local; but, whenever the inflammation is deep-
sealed, it is attended with severe shooting pains through
the head, and fever to a greater or less degree com-
monly takes place.  During the whole course of" the
disease there is for the most part a  very plentiful fioxv
of tears,  which frequently become so  hot and acrid as
to excoriate the neighbouring parts; but it often hap-
pens after the disease has been of some duration, that
together  with the tears a considetable quantity of a
yelloxv purulent like  matter is discharged, and whe«
the inflammation has either spread to the eyelids, or
has been seated there from the  beginning, as  socu aa
the tarsi become affected, a discharge takes place of a
viscid glutinous kind of matter, xvhich greatly adds to
the patient's distress, as it tends to increase the inflam-
mation, by cementing the eyelids so firmly together a*
to render it extremely difficult to separate them.
  Ophthalmia is divided into external, when the in
flammation is  superficial, and internal,  when  the
inflammation is deep-seated, and the  globe of the eye
is much affected.
  In severe ophthalmia txvo distinct stages are com
uionly observable  the first  is  attended xvith  a great
                                        135 
OPH                                           ORB
deal of heat and pain in the eye and considerable fe-
brile disorder;  the second is comparatively a chronic
affection \\ ithout pain  and  fever.   The eye is merely
weakened, moister than in the healthy state, and more
or less red.
  Ophthalmia may be induced by a variety of exciting
causes, such as operate m producing inflammation in
otlier situations.  A severe cold in which the eyes are
affected  al the same time xvith the pituitary cavities,
fauces, and trachea:  change of weather; sudden transi-
tion  from heat to cold;  the prevalence of cold winds;
residence  in damp or sandy countries, in the hot sea-
son ; exposure  of the eyes to the vivid rays ofthe sun;
ire causes usually enumerated ; and considering these
 t does not seem extraordinary lhat ophthalmia should
M'ten make its  appearance as an epidemic,  and afflict
persons of every age and sex.   Besides these  exciting
causes, writers also  generally mention the suppression
of some habitual discharge, as of the menses,  bleed-
ings  from the  nose,  from haemorrhoids, Sec  Besides
xvhich, inflammation ofthe eyes may be occasioned by
the venereal and scrofulous virus.
  OPHTHA'LMIC.   Ophthalmicus. Belonging to ihe
eye.
  Ophthalmic ganglion.   Ganglion ophthalmicum.
Lenticular ganglion. This  ganglion is  formed in the
orbit, by the union of a branch of the third or fourth
pair with the first branch of the fifth pair of nerves.
  Ophthalmic nerve.  Nervus  ophthalmicus.  Or-
bital nerve.  The first  branch of the ganglion or ex-
pansion  of the fifth  pair of nerves.  It  is ftom  this
nerve that a branch is given oil", to form, xvith a branch
of the sixth, the great intercostal nerve.
  Ophthalmici  externi.   See Motores oculorum.
  OPHTHALMODYNIA.  (From ocbdaXpos, an eye,
and odvvn, pain.)  A vehement pain in the eye, xvith-
out, or with very liltle redness. The sensation of pain
is  various, as itching, burning, or  as if  gravel were
betxveen  the globe  of  the  eye and lids.  The s{ie-
cies are:
  1  Ophthalmodynia rheumatica,  xvhich is a pain in
the muscular expansions of the globe of the eye, xvith-
out redness in  the albuginea.  The rheumatic inflam-
mation is serous, and rarely  produces redness.
  2.  Ophthalmodynia periodica, is a periodical pain in
the eye, xvithout redness.
  3.  Ophthalmodynia spasmodica, is a pressing pain in
the bulb of" the  eye, arising from  spasmodic contrac-
tions of the muscles of the eye, in nervous, hysteric,
and  hypochondriac  persons.  Il is observed to  termi-
iniuate by a floxv of  tears.
  4.  Ophthalmodynia from  an internal inflammation
of the eye. In this disorder, there is a pain and sensa-
tion as if  the globe xvas pressed out of the orbit.
  5.  Ophthalmodynia kydrophthalmica.  After a great
pain in the inferior part of the os frontis, the sight is
obscured, the  pupil  is dilated, and the bulb  of the eye
appears latger, pressing on  the lid.  This species is
likewise perceived  from -an incipient hydropthalmia
ofthe vitreous humour.
  0. Ophthalmodynia arcnosa, is an itching and sensa
tion of pain in the eye, as if sand or gravel were lodged
between the globe and  lid.
   7. Ophthalmodynia symptomatica, which is a symp-
tom of some other  eye-disease, and is to be cured by
removing the exciting cause.
  8. Ophthalmodynia cancrosa, which arises from can-
cerous acrimony deposited in the eye,  and is rarely
curable.                               •
   OPHTHALMOPO'NIA.  (From oebBaXpos, the eye,
and  irovtu, to labour.) An  intense pain  in the eye,
xvhence the light is intolerable.
   OPHTIIALMOPTO'SIS.  (From otbdaXpos, an eye,
and ir'Jucus, a fall.)   A  fulling down ot the globe of the
eye on the cheek, canthus, or upwards, the globe itself
being scarce altered In  magnitude.  The cause is a re-
laxation of the  muscles, and  ligamentous expansions
of the globe of the eye.   The species are:
   1. Ophthalmoptosis violcnta, xvhich is generated by
 a violent contusion  or strong stroke, as happens some-
 times in boxing. The eye falls out of the socket on
 the  cheek or  canthus  of the  eye, and from the elon-
 gation and extension of the optic nerve occasions im-
 mediate blindness.                   .  .
   2. Ophthalmoptosis,from a tumour xvithin the orbit.
 An  exostosis,  toph, abscess,  encysted  tumours, as
 atheroma, hygroma, or scirrhus,  forming xvithin the
 orbit, or  induration of the orbital adeps, may  throxv
      130"
the bulb of the eye out of the socket upwards, down-
wards, or towards either canthus.
  3. Ophthalmoptosis  paralytica,  or the  paralytic
ophthalmoptosis, xvhich arises from a palsy of the recti
muscles,  whence a stronger  poxver  in  the oblique
muscles of the bulb.
  4. Ophthalmoptosis stapkylomalica, when the  sta-
phyloma  depresses the inferior eyelid, and extends on
the cheek.
  OPIATE.  (Opiatum; from the effects being  like
that of opium.)   A medicine that procures sleep, &c.
See Anodyne.
  OPION.  Omov.  Opium.
  Opi'smus.  (From oirmv, opium.)  An opiate con
fection.
  Opisthenar. (From omaQtv, backwards, and Stoop,
the palm.)  The back part of the hand.
  OPISTHOCRA'NIUM.  (From oirtaOtv, backward,
and xpavtov, the head.)  The occiput, or hinder part
ofthe head.
  Opisthocypho'sis.   (From oirtaOtv, backward, and
xvqjuois,  a L'ibbosily.)   A curved spine.
  OPISTHOTONOS.  (From oirtaOtv, backxxard, and
rttvu, to  draw.)  A fixed spasm of several muscles, so
as to keep the body in a fixed position, and bent back
ivards.  Cullen considers it as a variety of tetanus.
See Tetanus.
  O'PIUM.  (Probably from oiroc, juice; or from  opi,
Arabian.)  The inspissated juice of the  poppy.   See
Papaver  somniferum.
  OPOBA'LSAML'M.  (From oiroj, juice,and 6aXoa-
pov, balsam.)  See Amyris gileadensis.
  OPOCA'LPASON. (From oiroc, juice,nnd xaXiracov
a tree of that name.)  Opocarpason.  A kind of bdel-
lium xvhich resembles myrrh, but is poisonous.
  OPODELDOC.  A term of no meaninc, frequently
mentioned by Paracelsus. Formerly it signified a plas-
ter for all  external injuries, but now is confined to a
camphorated soap liniment.
  Opodeoce'le.   A  rupture  through  the  foramen
ischii, or into the labia pudendi.
  OPO'PANAX.  (Opopanax, acis.  f.;  from  oiroj,
juice, and vava\, the panacea.)   See Pastinaca  opo-
panax.
  Opo'pia.  (From oirropat, to see.)  The bones of the
eyes.
  Opo'rice.  (From oiruoa, autumnal fruits.) A con-
serve made of ripe fruits.
  OPPILA TIO.   (From oppilo, to shut up.)  Oppi-
lation is  a close kind of obstruction; for, according  to
Rhodius, it signifies, not only to shut out, but also tu fill.
  Oppilati'xa.  (From oppilo, to shut up.)  Medicines
or substances which shut up the pores of the skin.
  OPPO'NF.NS.  Opposing.  A name given to some
muscles from their office.
  Oi-ponens pollicis. See  Flexor ossis metacarpi
pollicis.
  OPPOSITIFOLIUS.  Applied  to  a  floxver-stalk,
xvhen opposite  to a leaf; the Geranium niolle,  and
Sium angiisiifolium, afford examples of the Peduncu-
lus oppositifolius.
  OPPOSITUS. Opposite to each other; as the leaves
of Saxifrnga oppositifolia, and Ballote nigra.
  OPPRESSION.  Oppressio. The catalepsy, or any
pressure upon the brain.  See Compression.
  Opsi'gonos.  (From od/i,  late, and ytvopat, to be
born.)  A dens sapientia;, or late cut tooth.
  OPTIC.  (Opticus; from oirfopat, to see.)  Relating
to the eye.
  Optic  nerve.  Nervus opticus.  The second  pair
of nerves of the brain.  They arise from the thalami
nervorum opticorum, perforate tlie bulb of the eye, and
in it form the retina.
  OPU'NTIA.  (Ab Opitnte, from the city Opus, near
which  it  flourished.)  See Cactus.
  ORACHE.  See  Atriplex  hortensis,  and  Cheno-
podium.
  ORANGE.  See Citrus aurantium.
  Orange,  Seville.  See Citrus aurantium.
  Orange, shaddock.  See Shaddock.
  Orbh-ula're os.   Os pisiforme.  The name of a
bone of  ihe carpus.  Also  a very small round bone,
not larger than a pin-head, that belongs to the internal
ear.
  ORBICULA'RIS.  (From orbiculus, a little ring:
so called from its shape.)  This name is given to some
muscles which surround the part like a ring.
  Orbicularis oris.  Sphincter labiorum, of Douglas: 
                       ORC
                         v
 tcmi-orbiculaps, of  Winslow ;  constrictor oris  of
 Cowper; and labial,  of  Dumas.  A  muscle of the
 mouth, formed in a great measure by those of the lips;
 the  fibres of the superior descending, tliose of the in-
 ferior ascending and decussating each other about the
 corner ofthe mouth, they run alongthelipto join those
 ofthe opposite side, so that the fleshy fibres appear to
 surround the mouth like a sphincter. Its use is to shut
 the  mouth, by contiacling and drawing both lips  to-
 gether,  ami to counteract all the muscles that assist in
 opening it.
   Orbicularis palpebrarum.   A msscle  common
 to both  the eyelids.   Orbicularis palpebrarum ciliaris,
 of authors;  and maxillo  palpebral, of  Dumas.   It
 arises by a number of fleshy fibres fiom  the outer edge
 ofthe orbitar process of the superior maxillary bone,
 and  from a tendon near the inner angle of ihe eye ;
 these fibres run a little downxvards and outwards, over
 the upper part of the cheek, below  the orbit, covering
 the  under eyelid,  and surround  the external  angle,
 being closely connected only to the skin and fat; they
 then run over the superciliary ridge of tlie os frontis,
 towards  the inner canthus, xvhere  they mix xvith the
 fibres of the occipitofrontalisand corrugator supercilii:
 then covering the upper eyelid,  Ihey descend to the
 inner angle opposite to their inferior origin, and firmly
 adhere to the internal angular process of the os frontis,
 and  to the short round tendon xvhich serves to fix the
 palpebrae and muscular fibres arising from  it  It is in-
 serted into the nasal process of the superior maxillary
 bone, by a short round tendon, covering the anterior
 and  upper part of the lachrymal sac,  which tendon can
 be easily felt at the inner canthus ofthe eye.   The use
 of this muscle is lo shut tlie eye, by drawing both lids
 together, the fibres contracting from the outer  angle
 loxvards the inner, press the eyeball, squeeze the lach-
 rymal gland, and convey the iears toixards the puncta
 lachrymalia.
   Orbicularis palpebrari m ciliaris. See Orbicu-
 lj.-is palpebrarum.
   ORBICULATUS.   Orbiculate.  Applied to a leaf
 that  is  circular or orbicular, the length and breadth
 being equal, and the circumference an even circular
 line. Precise exam pies of this are scarcely to be found.
 Some species of pepper approach it, and the leaf of
 the Hedysarum styracifolium is perfectly orbicular, ex-
 cept a notch ?.t the base.
   ORBIT.  Orbitum.   The txvo cavities under  the
 forehead, iu xvhich  the eyes, are situated,  are termed
 orbits.   The angles of the orbits are called canlhi.
 Each orbit is composed of seven bones, viz. the frontal,
 maxillary, jugal,  lachrymal,  ethmoid,  palatine, aud
 sphenoid.  The use nf this bony socket is to maintain
 and defend the organ of sight, and its adjacent parts.
  O'rchea.  Galen says it is the scrotum.
  ORCHIDEiE.   (From  orchis, a  plant  so called.)
 The  name of an order in Linnaeus's Fragments of a
 Natural Method, consisting of those xvhich  have fleshy
 roots and orchideal corolls.
  ORCHIDEUS.  Orchideal: resembling the orchis.
  ORCHIS.  (Opxis, a testicle; from optyopat, to de-
 sire.)  1.  A testicle.
  2.  The name of a genus of plants in the Linnaean
 system.  Class, Gynandria; Order, Diundna.
  Orchis bifolia.  The systematic name  of the but-
 terfly orchis,  the root of which  is  used indifferently
 with that ofthe male orchis.  See Orchis mascula.
  Orchis  mascula.   The systematic  name of the
 male orchis.   Dog's stones.  Male orchis.  Salyrion.
 Orchis—bulbis indivisis, nectarii  labio  qundrilobo
 crenulato, cornu obtuso petalis dorsalibus  reflexus of
 Linnaeus. The root has a place in the Materia Medica
 of the Edinburgh pharmacopoeia, on account of the
 glutinous slimy juice which it contains.  The root  of
 the orchis bifolia is also collected.  Salyrion root has
 a sweetish taste, a faint  and sowexvhat  unpleasant
 Bmell.  Its mucilaginous or  gelatinous quality has
 recommended it as a demulcent.  Salep, xvhich  is im-
 ported here from the East, is a preparation of an analo-
 gous root wliich is considered as  an article of diet, is
 accounted extremely nutritious, as containing a great
 quantity of farinaceous matter in a  small bulk.   The
 supposed aphrodisiac qualities of this root,  whicli have
 been noticed ever since  the days of Dioscorides, seems,
says  Dr. Woodville, to be founded on the fanciful doc-
trine of signatures: thus, orchis, i.e. opxti, testiculus
kabet radices, instar testiculontm.
                      ORC

  Orchis  morio.    The  systematic  name of  the
 orchis,  from the root of xvhich  the  salep is made.
 Salep is a farinaceous powder imported from Turkey
 It may  be obtained  from several otlier species ofthe
 same genus of plants.  It is an insipid substance, of
 which  a small quantity, by proper management, con-
 verts a  large portion of xxater into a jelly, the nutritive
 poxvers of  xvhich have been greatly overrated.  Salep
 forms a considerable part of the diet of the inhabitants
 of Turkey, Persia,  and Syria.  The  method of pre-
 paring  salep Is as  follows:- The nexv  root is to be
 \x allied in  xvater,  and the  fine brown skin xvhich
 covers il is to be separated by means of a small brush,
 or  by dippiui; the root in  warm xvater, and rubbing it
 xvith a coarse linen  cloth.  The roots thus cleaned
 are lo be spread on  a  tin plate, and placed in au oven,
 heated  to the usual  degree, xvhere they are to remain
 six or  ten minutes.  In this time they will have lost
 their milky whiteness, and acquired a transparency
 like horn,  without ?ny diminution  of bulk.  Being
 arrived at  this state,  they are to be removed iu order
 to dry and harden in the air, whicli will require several
 days to effect; or they may be dried in  a fexv hours,
 by using a xcry gentle heat.  Salep, thus  prepared,
 contains a  great quantity of vegetable  aliment; as a
 ivholesome nourishment ii is much superior to rice;
 and has the singular property of concealing the taste of
 salt water.   Hence, to prevent the dreadful calamity of
 famine  at sea, it has been proposed that the powder of
 it should constitute part  of the provisions of every
 ship's coninany.  Wilh regard to its medicinal proper-
 ties, it  may be observed, lhat its restorative, mm ila-
 ginous,  and demulcent qualities, render it of consider-
 able use in various diseases, xvhen employed as aliment,
 particularly in sea-scurvy, diarrhoea, dysentery, symp-
 tomatic fever, arising from ihe absorption of pus and
 Ihe stone or gravel.
  ORCHI'TIS.   (From opxif, a testicle.)  Hernia hu
 moralis.  Sxvelled testicle.   A very common symptom
 attending a gonorrhoea is a swelling of  the testicle,
 which is only sympathetic, and not venereal, because
 the same symptoms follow every kind of irritation  on
 the urethra, xvhether produced by strictures, injections,
 or bougies.  Such symptoms aie not similar to the ac-
-tions arising from the application of venereal matter,
 for suppuration seldom occurs, and, when it does, the
 matter  is not venereal. The swelling and inflamma-
 tion appear suddenly, and as suddenly disappear, or go
 from one testicle to  the other.   The epididymis  re-
 mains sxvelled, hoxvever, even for a considerable time
 afterward.
  The first appearance of swelling is  generally a soft
 pulpy fulness of the body of the testicle, which is ten-
 der to the touch;  this increases to a hard sxvelling ac-
 companied xvith considerable pain.  The epididymis,
 towards the loxver end of the testicle,  is generally the
 hardest part.  The  hardness and swelling, however,
 often pervade the  xvhole of the epididymis.  The sper-
 matic cord, and especially the vas deferens, are often
 thickened,  and 6ore  to the  touch.   The spermatic
 veins sometimes become varicose.  A pain in the loins,
 and  sense of weakness there, auJ in the pelvis, are
 other casual symptoms.  Colicky pains;  uneasiness in
 the stomach and bowels;  flatulency; sickness, and
 even vomiting; are not unfrequcnt.  The whole testi-
 cle is swelled, and not merely the epididymis, as has
 been asserted.
  The inflammation of the part most probably arises
 from its sympathizing  xvith the urethra.  The swelling
 of the testicle coming on, cither removes the pain m
 making  wafer, and suspends the discharge, which does
 not return till  such sxvelling begins to subside, or else
 the irritation in the urethra, first ceasing, produces a
 swelling of the testicle, xvhich continues till the pain
 and  discharge  return;  thus  rendering  it  doubtful
 which is the cause and xvhich the effect. Occasionally,
 however, the  discharge  has  become  more violent,
 though the testicle has sxvelled; and such swelling has
 even  been  known  to occur  after the discharge has
 ceased;  yet the latter has returned xvith violence, and
 remained as long as  the hernia humoralis.
  Hernia humoralis, with stoppage of the discharge, is
 apt to be attended  with strangury.  A  very singular
 thing is, that the inflammation more frequently comes
 on when the irritation in the urethra is going off, than
 xvhen at its heizht.                                 j
  The enlargement of the testicle, from cancer and
                      «»                  137 
ORI
ORM
icrofula, are generally slow in their progress:  lhat of |
a hernia humoralis very quick.
  O'rchos.  (From opxoj, a plantation or orchard: so
called from the regularity with which the hairs are in-
serted )  The extremities ofthe eyelids, xvhere Ihe eye-
lashes grow.
  ORCHOTOMY.   (Orchotrmia; from opxts, a tes-
ticle, and rtpvu, to cut.)  Castration.  The operation
of extracting a testicle.
  ORDER.  A term  applif tl by naturalists and nomo-
logists to designate a division that embraces a number
of genera xvhich have some circumstances common to
them all.  See Genus, Plants, sexual system  of, and
Nosology.
  Orders, natural, of plants.  See Natural.
  ORE.  The mineral substance from xvhich metals
are extracted.
  OREOSELI'NUM.   (From opoc, a mountain, and
treXnov, parsley: so named because it groxvs xvild upon
mountains.)  Mountain parsley.   See Athamanta.
  Oru'stion.  (From opoc, a mountain.) In Diosco-
rides it is the Helenium, or a kind of  elecampane,
growing upon mountains.
  OREXIA.  (From opsyopat, to desire.)   Orexis.  A
desire or appetite.
  OREXIS.  Sec Orcxia.
  ORGAN.   Ooyavov.   Organum.  A  part  of  the
body capable of the  performance  of some perfect act
or operation. They are  distinguished by physiologists
by their functions, as organs of sense,  organs  of mo-
tion, organs of sensation, digestive organs, &c.
  ORGANIC.   Of or belonging lo an  organ.   In the
present  day this  term is  in general use to distinguish a
disease of structure  from a functional disease ; thus,
xvhen the liver is converted into a hard tubei culated or
otlier  structure,  it is called an organic  disease;  but
xvhen it merely furnishes a had bile, the disease is said
to be functional.
  [" Organic relics.   These fossil relics are of txxo
kinds, Petrifactions and  Conservatives.
   Petrifactions, or  Substitutions,  are  tliose relics,
which  are  entirely  made up of mineral substances,
which have gradually run  into the places occupied by
organized bodies as tliose bodies decayed, and assumed
their forms.
  Conservatives, or Preservatives, are those relics, or
parts thereof, which still consist of the  very same sub-
stances, xvhich originally composed the living organized
being.
  An  organic relic may partake  of both kinds. The
shell of an oyster, being chiefly carbonate of lime, mny
still remain,  which xvould  be a conservative.   While
the enclosed animal  matter will  be entirely decayed,
and mineral matter occupy its place and imitate  its
form, xvhich would be a petrifaction.
  Organic relics are  named by annexing tbe termina-
tion lithos (a stone) to the scientific name of the living
organized being.  As   ichthyolithos is  composed of
txOvs (a fish) and XtOos (a stone).  That is, a fish be-
coming stone.  In English, lithos is changed to lite, as
ichthyohte. Sometimes the letter I is left out, as lacerta
(lizard*) xvould  make   lacertit,  (a petrified  lizard).
This abridged method has noxv come into geneial use."
—Eat. Geol. A.]
  ORGASM.  See Orgasmus.
  ORG ASMUS.  (From optyaw, " appeto impatienter;
proprie de anemantibus  dicitur, qua; turgent libidine."
Scapula.)  Salacity.
  ORGASTICA.  The  name of an order of the class
Gcncttca, in Good's Nosolosy.  Diseases affecting the
orgasm.  Its genera  are, chlorosis, praotia, lagnesis,
agenesia, aphorca, adoptosis.
  ORIBASIUS, an eminent physician of the 4th cen-
tury, xvas born  at Pergamus, or, according to others, at
Rardes, where he resided for some time.  He  is men-
tioned ns one of the most learned and accomplished
men of his age, and the  most skilful in his profession;
und  he not only obtained great public  tepufation, but
also flic friendship  of the Emperor Julian, who ap-
pointed liini quuestor of Constantinople.   But afler the
death of lhat prince he  suffered a severe reverse; he
was stripped of his property, and sent into banishment
among the Barbarians.  He sustained his misfortunes,
however, with  great fortitude; and the dignity of his
character,  with his  professional  skill  and  kindness,
gained him the  veneration of these rude people, among
whom he xvas adored ns a lutelaiy god.  At length he
       136
| xvas recalled to the imperial court, and  regained tlis
 public favour.   He xvas chiefly a compiler; but some
 valuable practical remarks first occur in his writings.
 He made, at the request of Julian, extensive "Collec
 tions" from Galen, and  other preceding authors,  in
 about seventy books, of which only seventeen noxv
 remain ;  and afterward made a " Synopsis of this vast
 xvork for the use of his son, in nine books: there art
 also extant four  books, in medicines and diseases, en-
 titled " Euporistorum Libri." He praises highly local
 evacuations of  blood, especially  by  scarifications,
 xvhich had been little noticed before: and  he affirms,
 that he xvas himself cured of the plague by it, having
 lost in this xvay two pounds of blood from the thighs
 on the second day of the disease.  He first described a
 singular species of insanity, under the name of lycan-
 thropia, in which the patient wanders about by night
 among the tombs, as if changed into a wolf: though
 such a disease is noticed in the New Testament.
   ORICHALCUM.   The brass of the ancients.
   Ori'cia.  (From Oricus, a city  of  Epirus,  near
 xvhich it groxvs.)  A species of fir or turpentine-tree,
 from Oricus.
   Orientalia folia.  The leaves of senna weie so
 called.
   ORl'G ANUM.  (From  opos, a mountain, and yavou,
 to rejoice: so called because it grows upon the side of
 mountains.)
   1. The name of a genus of plants in the Linnaean
 system.   Class, Didynamia; Older, Gymnospermia.
   2. The pharniacopoeial name of the wild marjoram
 See Origanum vulgare.
   Origanum  creticum.   See Origanum dictamnus
   Origanum  dictamnus.   The systematic name of
 the dittany of Crete.  Dictamnus creticus;  Origa-
 num creticum; Onitis.  The leaves of this plant, Ori-
 ganum—foliis inferioribus tomentosis, spicis nutanti-
 bus of Linnaeus, are noxv  rarely used; ihey have been
 recommended as emmenagogue and alexipliarmic.
    Origanum marjorana.  The systematic name of
 sxveet marjoram.  Marjorana. This plant, Origanum
 —foliis ovatis obtusis, spicis subrotundis compadis
 pubescenlibus  of Linnaeus, has been  long cultivated in
 our gardens, and is in frequent use for culinary pur-
 poses.  The leaves and tops have a pleasant smell, and
 a moderately  warm, aromatic, bitterish taste.  They
 yield their virtues  to aqueous and spirituous  liquors,
 by infusion, and to water in distillation, affording a
 considerable quantity of essential oil.  The medicinal
 qualities of the  plant are similar to those of the xvild
 plant (see Origanum vulgare); but being much more
 fragrant, it is  thought to  be more cephalic,  and better
 adapted  to those complaints knoxvn by the name  of
 nervous;  and may  therefore be employed xvith the
 same intentions  as  lavender. It xvas directed in the
 pulvis stcrnutatorius, by both pharmacopoeias, xvith a
 view to the agreeable odour xvhich it communicates to
 the asaiabacca, rather than to its erihine poxver, xvhich
 is very inconsiderable;  but it is noxv wholly omitted in
 the Pharm. Lond.  In its recent state, it is said to have
 been successfully applied  to scirrhous tumours of the
 breast.
   Origanum   syriacum.   The Syrian  herb mastich.
 See Teucrium  marum.
   Origanum  vulgare.  The systematic name of the
 wild marjoram.  Marjorana;  Mancurana;  Origa-
 num heraclcoticum;  Onitis; Zazarhendi herba.  Ori-
 ganum—spicis subrotundis paniculatis conglomcratis,
 bractis calyce longioribus ovatis  of Linna'us.  This
 plant groxvs wild in many parts of Britain.   It has an
 agreeable aromatic smell, Approaching to lhat of mar-
 joram, and a  pungent taste, much resembling thyme,
 to xvhich it is likewise thought to be  more allied in its
 medicinal qualities, and  therefore deemed to be em
 menagogue, tonic, stomachic, &c.  The dried leave's,
 used instead of tea, are suid to be exceedingly grateful.
 They ure employed in  medicated baths and fomenta-
 tions.
   Oris constrictor.  See  Orbicularis oris.
    Orleana terra.   (Orleana, to named from the
 place where it groxvs.)  See Bixa orleana.
   ORMSKIRK.  The name of a place in which Hi].
 lived, who invented a medicine for the cure of hydro-
 phobia, and died without  making known Its composi-
 tion.  The analysis of Drs. Black and  Hepburn  de
 monstrates it  to be  half an  ounce of poxvder  of
 chalk; tliree drachms el"  Armenian bole; ten grains 
ORY                                 '        OSB
of alum ,  one drachm of powder of elecampane root; !
six drops of oil of anise.  This dose is to be taken
e\ cry morning for six limes in a glass of water, w ith a
small proportion of fresh milk.
   OUN1THOGALUM.   (From  oowc. a  bird, and
yaXa, milk: so  called from the colour of its flowers,
Which are like the milk found in egtes.)   The name of a
genus of plants in the Linnaean system.  Class, Hex-
andria; Order, Monogynia.
   Ormthogalum maritimum, a kind of xvild onion.
See Scilla.
   ORNITHOGLOSSUM.  (From  opvis, a  bird, and
yXuaoa, a tongue: so called from  its  shape.)  Bird's
tongue.  The seeds of the a*h-trcc arc sometimes  so
called.
   ORNITHOLOGY.  (Ornithologia; from opvic, a
bird, and Xoyos, a discourse.)  That part of natural
history  xvhich treats of birds.
   ORNITHOPO'DIUM.  (From  op»-i{, a  bird, and
irons, a  foot: so called from the likeness of its pods to
a bird's claw.)  Bird's foot; scorpion xvort.   The Or-
nitkropus perpusillus, and Scorpioides, of Linnaeus,
ate so called.
   O'RNUS.  (From orn, Heb.)  The ash-tree xvhich
affords manna.
   OROBA Nt HE.   (From opo6oi-  tlie wild pea, and
ay\u, to suffocate: so called because it twines round
tlie oiobus and destroys ii.)   The name of a genus of
plants in the Linncan system.  Cities, GynanUria and
Didynamia;  Order, Angtospermia.
   Orobry'chis.  (From 00060s, the xvood-pea,  and
fipv\u, to eal )  Tlie same as orobance.
   O ROBUS.  (From tptirju, to eat.)   1. The name
of a genus of plants iu  the Linnaean system.  Class,
Diadelphia;  Order, Dccandria.
   2. The  pharniacopoeial name of the ervum.  See
Ervum.
   Orobus tubcrosus.   The heath-pea.   The root
of this plant is  said lo be nutritious.   The Scotch isl-
anders hold them in great esteem, and chew them like
tobacco.
   Oroseli'num.  See Athamanta.
   ORPIMENT.  Orpimentum.  A sulphuret of arse-
nic.  Natix-e orpiment is found  in yellow, brilliant,
nnd, as it were, talky masses, often mixed xvith realgar,
and sometimes of a greenish colour. See Arsenic.
   ORPINE.  See Sedum telcphium.
   Orrhopy'gium.   (From opos, the  extremity, and
irvyn, the buttocks.)  The  extremity  ol"  the  spine,
which is terminated by the os coccygis.
   O'rrhos.  vFrom ptu, to flow.)   1.   Serum, whey.
   2. The raphe of the scrotum.
   3. The extremity of the sacrum.
   ORRIS.  See Iris.
   Orris, Florentine.   See Iris florentina.
   Orseille.  See Lichen  roeella.
   ORTHITE. A mineral; so named because it alxvays
occurs  in  straight  layers, generally in  felspar.  It re-
sembles gadolimte.  It is found in  the mine of Fimbo
in Sweden.
  ORTHOCQ'LON.  (From opfloc, straight, and xuXov,
a limb.°)  It is a species of stiff joint, when  it cannot
be bended, but remains straight.
   ORTHOPNfE'A.   (From opfloc, erect, and rrvon,
breathing.; . A very quick and laborious  breathing,
during which the  person is obliged to  be in an erect
posture.
   Orva'le.   (Orvale, French.)  A species of clary or
horminum.
   Orvieta'num. a medicine that resists poisons; from
a mountebank of Orxieta, in Italy, who first made him-
self famous by taking  such  things upon  the stage,
after doses of pretended  poisons; though some  say its
inventor was one Orxietanus, and that it  is named
after him.
  ORYZA.  (From orez, Arabian.)  1. The name of
a genus of plants in theLinmean system.  Class, Tri-
andria.  Older, Digynia. The rice plant.
  2. The pharniacopoeial name for rice.  See  Oryza
sativa.
  Oryza sativa.  The  systematic name of the plant
which affords the rice, which is the principal food ofthe
Inhabitants in all  parts of the East, where it is boiled,
and eaten either alone or with their meat.  Large quan-
tities of it are annually sent into Europe, and it meets
with a eeneral esteem for family purposes.  The people
of Java have a method of making puddings of rice, j
I which seems to be unknoxvn here; but it is i.<.  ..ihVtilt
 to put in practice if it should merit alien! ion.  ') i«*y
 take a conical earthen pot, which is open at file huge
 end, and perforated all over.  This they fill about half
 full with rice, and putting it into a large earthen pel of
 the same shape, filled xvith boiling water, the  tire in
 tlie lirst  pot soon swells, and stops the perforations, r-o
 as to keep out the water.   By this method  the rice is
 brought  to  a firm consistence,  and forms a pudding,
 xvhich is generally eaten with butter, oil, si gin, vine-
 gar, and spices.  The Indians eat stewed rice wnli eeod
 success  against  the bloody ilux; and in most inflam-
 matory disorders they cure themselves xvuh only a de
 coction of it.  The spirituous liquor cal.'ed arrack is
 made from this grain.   Rice groxvs  naturally in mnisl
 places, and xvill not  come to  perfection, v. lion culti
 vated, unless the ground be sometimes overflowed or
 plentifully watered.   The grain is of a gray colour
 xi'hen first reaped; but the growers have a method of
 xvhiiening it before it is sent to market.  The  manner
 of performing this, and beating it out in Egypt, is thus
 described by Hasselquist:  They have hollow iron  cy-
 lindrical pestles, about an inch diameter, lifted by"a
 wheel xvorked with oxen.  A person sits b< tween  the
 pestles, and, as they rise, pushes forward the rice, xvhile
 another  winnows  and supplies fresh parcels.    Thus
 they continue working until it is  entirely  free fiom
 chaff.   Having  in this manner Cleaned it, they add
 one-thirtieth part of salt, and rub them both together,
 by xvhich the  grain  acquires a whiteness;  then it is
 passed through a sieve, to separate the salt again from
 it.  In the island of Ceylon they have  a much more
 expeditious  method of getting  out the rice;  for, in the
 field where  it is reaped, they dig a  round hoie, with a
 level bottom, about a foot deep, and eight yardsdiame-
 ter, and  fill it xvith  bundles of corn.   Having laid it
 properly, the women drive about half  a dozen oxen
 Continually round the pit; and thus they will tread out
 tony or  fifty bushels a day.  This is  a very  ancient
 method  of treading out corn, and is still piaclised in
 Africa upon other sorts of grain.
   OS.   1. (Os, ossis. n.)  A bone.   See Bone.
   2. (Os, oris, n.)  The mouth.
   Os externum. The entrance into the vagina Is so
 named in opposition to the mouth of tlie womb, which
 is called the os internum.
   Os internum.  The orifice or mouth of the uterus.
   Os leonis.  The Antirrhinum linaria.
   Os spongiosum.   The spongy bones  are  two in
 number, and are called ossa spongiosa infeiiora. The
 ethmoid bone has txvo turbinated portions, xvhich aie
 sometimes called the superior spongy  bonts.   These
 bones, which, from their shape, are sometimes called
 ossa lurbinata,  have, by  some anatomists, beeu de-
 scribed  as belonging to the ethmoid  bone;  and  by
 others, as portions of the ossa palati.   In young sub-
jects, however, they are evidently distinct bones. They
 consist of a spongy lamella in each  nostril.  The con-
 vex surface of this lamina is turned towards the sep-
 tum narium, and its  concave part towards the maxil-
 lary bone, covering the opening of the lachrymal duel
 inlo the  nose..  From their  upper edge arise txvo pro-
 cesses : the  posterior  of these, xvhich is the broadest,
 hangs as it  were upon the edge of the antrum high-
 morianum;  the anterior one joins the os unguis, and
 forms a part of the lachrymal duct.  These bones are
 complete in the foetus.  They are lined  with the pitui-
 tary membrane; and, besides their connexion xvith the
 ethmoid bone, are joined to the ossa muxillaria supe
 riora. ossa palati, and ossa unguis.  Besides these ossa
 spongiosa inferiora  there are  sometimes two  others,
 situated  lower down, one  in each nostril.  These am
 very properly  considered as a production of the sides
 of the maxillary sinus turned  doxvnwards.  In many
 subjects, likewise, we find other smaller  bones standing
 out into the nostrils, which, from  their shape, might
 also deserve the name of turbinata, but they  are un
 certain in their size, situation, and number.
   Os tinc*.  See Tinea os.
   [OSBORN,  John C. M.D. the eldest son of Dr. John
 Osborn,  was born at Middletoxvn,  Connecticut, Sep-
 tember, 1766.  He received  his classical education at
 Middletoxvn, under  the Rev.  Enoch Huntington, an
 eminent scholar;  and  his  medical education exclu-
 sively under his father.  He was not distinguished by
 any academic honour till he  became eminent in his
 profession in North  Carolina,  to which state he re
                                         130 
OSS                                           OST
 moved in 1T87.  Here he was well knoxvn as a success-
 ful practitioner, and xvas repeatedly placed at the head
 of tlie Medical Society of the district.  He came to the
 city of New-York in 1807, and xvas shortly after intro-
 duced to  a large scene of practice.  He was  created
 Professor of the Institutes of Medicine, in the Medi-
 cal faculty of Columbia College, and upon the union
 of that Faculty xvith  the College of Physicians and
 Surgeons, he  was appointed Professor of Obstetrics
 and the Diseases of  Women  and Children.   He died
 of a pulmonary disorder in  the island of St.  Croix,
 upon the day of his landing, March 5th, 1U19.
   With his  professional  erudition, Dr. Osborn  united
 great literary acquirements, and his knoxvledgeof books
 xvas varied and extensive. These acquisitions he often
 displayed  in his course of public instruction.  His view
 of the Materia Medica as a science  xvas equalled by
 few,  and  his  knowledge of the actual medical quali-
 ties  of the native  productions of our soil, xvas a sub-
 ject which he  delighted to investigate, and in his prac-
 tice, and by his instructions, he earnestly enjoined an
 acquaintance xvith these important remedial agents.
   Dr. Osborn  xvas a man of much more science  and
 eminence  in  his profession than either his father or
 grandfather, and possessed a very fine taste for poetry,
 belles lettres,  and painting.  While he was  quite a
young man, Mr. Barlow submitted  lo  him and  his
friend, the late Richard Alsop, Esq. the manuscript of
 the Vision of Columbus, for their correction and revi-
sion, previous to its publication.  His taste in painting
 was highly cultivated, and he might  have attained to
great eminence as. an artist."—Thach. Med. Biog.  A.]
   OSCE'DO.  A yaxvning.
   Oscheoce'le.   (From oox£OVi  lne  scrotum, and
 K17A17, a tumour.)  1.  Any tumour of the scrotum.
  2. A scrotal  hernia.
  O'SCHEON.  Oaxtov-  The scrotum.  Galen gives
 the name  to the os uteri.
  OSCHEO'PHYMA.   (From  oaxtov, the scrotum,
 and qivpa, a tumour.) A swelling of the scrotum.
   OSCILLATION.  Vibration. "See Irritability.
   O'SCITANS.   (From oscito, to gape.)   Yawning.
 Gaping.
   OSCITA'TIO.  (From oscito, to gape.)   Yaxvning.
 Gaping.
   OSCULATO'RIUS.  (From osculo, to kiss: so call-
 ed because the action of kissing is performed by it.)
 The sphincter  muscle of the lips.
  O'SCULUM.  (Diminutiveof os, a mouth)   A lit-
 tle mouth.
   OSMAZOME.  If cold water, which  has been di-
 gested for  a few hours on slices of raxv muscular fibre,
 with occasional  pressure, be evaporated, filtered, and
 then treated with pure alkohol, a peculiar animal prin-
 ciple will  be dissolved, to the exclusion of the salts.
 By dissipating  the alkohol with a gentle heat, the  cs-
 mazouie is obtained.  It has a biownish-yelloxv colour,
 and the taste and smell of soup.  Its aqueous solution
 affords precipitates, with  infusion of nut-galls, nitrate
of" mercury, and nitrate and acetate of lead.
  OSMIUM.   A new metal lately discovered by Ten-
 nant among platina, and so called by him from the pun-
 gent and peculiar smell of its oxide.
   OSMUND.  See Osmunda regalis.
   OSMUNDA.   (From Osmund, xvho  first used  it.)
 The name of a genus of plants.  Class, Cryptogamia;
 Order, Filiccs.
   Osmunda regalis.  Filix florida.  The systematic
 name of the osmund-royal.  Its  root possesses astrin-
gent nnd cininenagogue virtues.
   OSPHYS.  Ootpvs-  The loins.
   Ossa si-onokosa.  See Os spongiosum.
  OSSl'CULUM.  A little bone.
   Ossiiula auditus.  The small bones of the inter-
 nal ear are  four in  number,  viz. the malleus, incus,
stapes, and osorbiculare; and are situated in the cavity
of the tympanum.    See  Malleus, Incus, Stapes, and
 Crbicularc os.
  OSSIFICATION.   (Ossificate; from os, a bone,
and  facio, to make.)  See Osteogeny.
  OSS1 FRAGA.  (From os, a bone, and frango, to
break.)  A petrified root, called the hone-binder,  from
Its supposed virtues in uniting fractured bones.
  OSSIFRAI'US.  See Osteocolla.
  "S.SI'VORUS.  (From os, a hone, and voro, to de-
vour.)  Applied to a species of tumour or ulcer which
destroys the bone.
       140
    Osta gra.   (From oareov, a bone, and aypa, a lay
 ing hold of.)   A forceps to lake out bones with.
    Ostei'tes.   (Fromos-eov, a bone.;  The bone-binder
 See  Osteocolla.
    OSTEOCO'LLA. (From o$-tov,a bone, and xoXXau
 to glue.)   Ossifraga;  Holosteus;  Osteites; Amos
 teus ; Osteolithos;  Stelochites.  Glue-bone, stone, 01
 bone-binder.   A particular carbonate of lime found in
 some parts of  Germany, particularly in the Maich6 ot
 Brandenburg,  and in other countries.   It is  iwt with
 in loose sandy grounds, spreading from  near the stir
 face to a considerable depth, into a number of ramifi
 cations like the roots of a tree.  It  is of a whitish co
 lour, soft  while under the earth,  friable  when dry
 rough on the surface, for the most part  either hollow
 within, or filled xvith a solid xvood, or with a poivdery
 white matter.   It  was formerly  celebrated lior pro-
 moting the coalition of fractured bones, and the forma-
 tion of callus,  xvhich virtues are not attributed to it in
 the present day.
   OSTEO'COPUS.  (From o$-tov,  a bone, and xoiros.
 uneasiness.)   A very violent fixed pain iu any part of
 the bone.
   Osteoge'nica.   (From o<;tov, a bone, and ytvvau,
 to beget.)  Medicines which  promote the generation of
 a callus.
   OSTEOGENY.   (Osteogenia; from  oftov, a bone,
 and ytvtta, generation.) The growth of bones.  Bones
 are either  formed betxveen membranes,  or in the sub-
 stance of cartilage ; and the bony deposition is effected
 by a determined action of arteries.  The secretion of
 bone takes place in cartilage in the long bones, asXhose
 ofthe arm, leg, &o.; and betxveen two layers of mem-
 brane, as in the bones of the skull, where true cartilage
 is never seen   Often the bony matter is formed iu dis-
 tinct  bags,  and  there it groxvs inlo form, as in the teeth ;
 for each tooth is formed in  its little bag, which, by in
 jeciion, can be filled and covered xvfth vessels.  An
 artery ofthe body can assume this action, and deposite
 bone, which is  formed aiso where it should not be, in
 the tendons and in ihe joints, in the great arteries and
 in the valves, in the flesh of the heart itself, or ex-en in
 the soft and pulpy substance of the brain.
   Most of  the bones iu  the foetus are merely cartilage
 before the  time of birth.   This cartilage  is never
 hardened into bone, but from  the first it is an organized
 mass. It has its x'essels, whicli are at  first transparent,
.but xvhich soon dilate; and xvhenever ihe red colour of
 the blood  begins to  appear in them,  ossification very
 quickly succeeds, the arteries being so far enlarged as
 to carry the coarser parts ofthe blood.  The fiist mark
 of ossification is an artery which is seen running into
 the centre of the jelly xvhich is formed. Other arteries
 soon appear, and a net-ivork of vessels is formed, and
 then a centre of ossification begins, stretching its rays
 according to the length of the bone, and then the carti-
 lage begins to groxv opaque, yellow, brittle : it xvill no
 longer bend, and a bony centre may easily be discover-
 ed.  Other points of ossification are successively form-
 ed, preceded by the appearance of arteries.  The ossi-
 fication follows the vessels, and buries and hides tliose
 vessels by  xvhich it  is formed.  The vessels  advance
 towards the end of the bone, the xvhole body of the
 bone becomes opaque, and there is left a  small vascu-
 lar circle only at either end.  The heads are separated
 from the body of the bone by a thin cartilage, and the
 vessels of the centre, extending still towards the extre-
 mities of the bone, perforate the cartilage, pass into the
 head of tlie bone, and then  its ossification also begins,
 and a small nucleus of ossification is  formed in ils
centre.  Thus the heads and  the body aie at  first dis-
 tinct bones, formed  apart, joined by a cartilage, and
not united till the age of fifteen or txx enty years. Then
the deposition of bone begins; and while the bone is
laid by the arteries, the cartilage is conveyed axvay by
the absorbing vessels; and while they convex axvay the
superfluous cartilage, they model the  bone into Its duo
form, shape out  ils cavities,  caucelli and holes, remove
the thinner parts of the remaining cartilage, and harden
It into due consistence.   The earth xvhich constitutes
the hardness of  bone,  and all its useful  properties, ii
inorganized, and lies in the interstices of bone, where
it is made  up of gelatinous matter to give it  consist-
ence and strength, furnished  with absorbents to keep
it in health, and carry off its xvasfed  parts: and per-
vaded by blood vessels to supply il xvith  nexv ir.auer.
During all  the  process of ossification, tlie absorbent* 
OVA
OVO
 pro [Kit tion iheir action to the stimulus xvhich is applied
 to them: they cany away the serous fluid, xvhen jelly
 is to lake its place;" they remove the jelly as the bone
 is laid;  they continue removing the bony particles also,
 xvhich (as  iu  a  cuclej the arteries continually renew.
 This lenovation and change of parts goes on ex-en in
 the  haidest bones, so that  alter a bone is perfectly
 formed, its older particles are continually being remov-
 ed, and nexv ones are deposited in  their place.  The
 bony particles  are so deposited in the flat bones of Ihe
 skull as to present a radiated structure, and the vacan-
 cies betxveen the fibres xvhich occasion this appearance,
 are found by injection to be chietly passages'for blood-
 vessels.  As the foetus  increases iu size, the osseous
 fibres increase in  number, till a lamina is produced;
 and as the bone  continues lo groxv, more lamina; are
 added, till the more  solid part  of a bone is formed.
 The ossification  wliich begins in cartilage is consider-
 ably later than that which has its origin betxveen mem-
 branes.   The generality of bones are incomplete until
 the  age of puberty, or  betxveen  the  fifteenth and
 Ixventieth years,  and*in some few instances not until a
 later  period.  The small bones ol" the ear, hoxvevcr,
 are completely lormed at birth.
  OSTEOGRAPHY.   (Osteographia; from orcov, a
bone, and ypaqiu, to describe.)  The description of the
bones. See Bone.
  Osteoli'thos.  (From  os-tov, a bone, and XtOos, a
stone )  See Osteocolla.
  OSTEOLOGY.  (Osteologia ; from 05-fov, a bone,
and Xoyos, a discourse.) The  doctrine of the  bones.
See Bone.
  OSTEOPCEDION.  (From 05-fov, a bone, and tuats,
aatdos, an  infant.;  Lithopadion.  A term  given  to
the mass of an extrauterine  foetus, which had become
osseous, or of an almost stony consistence.
  OSTHEX1A.  (From os-uieijc, osseous or bony, and
 t*;ic, habit.,  The name  iu Good's Nosology of a genus
 of diseases. Class, Eccritica ; Order, Mesotica.  Os
 thexy or ossific diathesis. It  has ixvo species, Osthexia
 infarciens ; implexa.
  Ostia  rius.   From ostium, a door.)   The pylorus
 has been so called.
  Osti'ola.  (Diminutive of ostium, a  door.)  The
 valves or gates of  the heart.
  OSTIUM.  A door or opening.  Applied to  small
 foramina or openings.
  O'strea.  (From  os-paxov,  a shell.)   The oyster.
 The shell of this fish is occasionally  used medicinally ;
 its  virtues are similar to  those of the carbonate of
 lime. See ( reta.
  OSTRU'THIUM.   See Imperatoria.
  OSY'HIS.   (Oo-upic  of  Dioscorides,  which he de-
scribes as  a smali shrub with numerous, dark, tough
branches; and Professor Martyn  conjectures its deri-
vation from o£os, a branch.   Some take the antirrhi-
num linaria for the true  Osyris.)  The  name of  a
genus of  plants in  the Linnaean system.   Class, Dia-
cia , Order, Triandria.
  Osyris  alba.   Cassia poetica lobelli; Cassia lati-
norum ; Cassia lignea monspeliensium; Cassia mons-
pcliensium.  Poet's cassia or gardrobe;  Poet's rose-
mary.  The whole shrub  is  astringent.   It grows  iu
the southern parts of Europe.
  OTALGIA.  (From  ovs, the ear, and aXyos, pain,)
 The earache.
  01 xnchy'tes.  (From utos, the genitive of ovs, an
ear, and tyxtvu, to pour in.)  A syringe for the ears.
  Otiio'nna.  (From 0601/17  lint: so called from the
softness of its leaves.)  A species of celandine.
  O'tica.  (From  ouj,  the ear.)  Medicines against
diseases of the ear.
  Oti'tks   (From 1115, the  ear.)  An epithet of the
little finger,  because it  is  commonly made use of  in
scratching  the ear.
  OTI'TIS   (From otc, the ear.)   Inflammation  of
the internal ear.   It is known by pyrexia, and an ex-
cruciating and throbbing pain in the internal ear, lhat
ie sometimes attended xvith delirium.
  Otopla'tcs.   (From ovs, the ear.)   A slinking
nicer behind the ear.
  OTOPYO'SIS.  (From ovs, the ear, and irvov, pus.)
 A purulent discharge from the ear.
  OTORRHEA.   (From ovs,  the ear, and ptu,  to
floxv.) A discharge from the ear.
  Ova'le poramen.  See Feramcn ivale.
  OVALIS   Oval.   Some parts of animals and ve-
 getables receive this name fioin being of this shape
 as foramen ox ale, centrum ox-ale, folium  ivale, recep
 taculum ovale.
   OVARIAN.  Ovarial.  Belonging to tl e ovarium.
   OVA RUM.   (Diminutive of  ovum, an eizi.) The
 ovaria are txvo flai oval bodies,  about i.-"" inch in
 length, and rather more than half in breadth mid thick
 ness, suspended in the broad ligaments, abi ji the dis-
| tance of one inch from the litems behind, aud  a littlo
 below the  Fallopian tubes.   Tu the ovaria, acirtrding
 to the idea  of their structure entertained by different
 anatomists, various uses have been assigned,  01 the
 purpose they  answer has been differently explained.
 Some have supposed that their texture xvas glandular,
 and that they seciefed a fluid equivalent to, and similar
 to lbs male semen; but others, xvho  have examined
 them xvilh  more care, assert, that  they are ovuria in
I the literal acceptation ofthe term, and  include a num-
 ber of vesicles, or  ova,  to the amount of twenty-two
 of" different sizes, joined to the  internal surface  of the
 ovaria by cellular  threads or pedicles;  and that they
 contain a   fluid xvhich has  the  appearance of thin
 lymph.  These vesicles are,  in fact, to be seen 111 tne
 healthy ovaria of every young xvoman.  They differ
 very much in their number in different ovaria, but are
 x-ery seldom so numerous as has just been staled.  All
 have agreed lhat the ovaria prepare whatever the fe-
 male supplies towards the formation of the foetus; and
 this is proved by the operation of spaying, which con-
 sists in the extirpation of the ovaria, alter which the
 animal not  only loses the power of conceiving, buide
 sire is for ever extinguished. The  outer  coat  of the
 ovaria, together wilh that of the uterus,  is given by
 the peritoneum ; and whenever an ovum is passed into
 Ihe Fallopian  tube, a  fissure is observed  at the part
 through which it is supposed to have been transferred.
 These fissures healing, leave small  longitudinal cica-
 trices on the surface, xvhich  are said to enable us to
 determine,  xvhenever  Ihe  ovarium  is examined, the
 number of  times a woman  has conceived.  The cor-
 pora lutea are oblong  glandular bodies of a yellowish
 colour, found in the ovaria  of all animals xvhen preg
 nam, and, according to some, when they are salacious;.
 They  are said to be  calyces, from which the impreg-
 nated ovum has dropped ; and their number is alxvays
 in proportion to the  number of conceptions found in
 the uterus.  They are largest and most conspicuous in
 the early state of pregnancy, and remain for some time
 after delivery, when they gradually fade and xvither
 till they disappear. The corpora lutea are very vascu-
 lar, except at  their centre, xvhich  is whitish;  and in
 the middle of  the white partis a small cavity, from
 which the impregnated ovum is thought to have imme-
 diately proceeded.  The ovaria are the  seat of a parti-
 cular kind of dropsy, which  most commonly happens
 to women at  the  time  of the  final cessation  of the
 menses, though not unfrequently at a more early  period
 of life.  It  is  of the  encysted  kind,  the  fluid  being
 sometimes limpid and thin, and at others discoloured
 and gelatinous.  In some cases it  has been found con-
 tained in one  cyst, often in several; and in others the
 whole tumefaction has been composed of hydatids not
 larger than grapes.  The ovaria are also subject, espe-
 cially a short lime after  delivery, to inflammation, ter-
 minating in suppuration, and  to  scirrhous and can-
 cerous diseases, with considerable  enlargement.  In the
 former state, they generally adhere to some adjoining
 part, as the  uterus, rectum,  bladder, or external inte-
 guments, and the matter is discharged from the vag na
 by stool, by urine,  or by an external abscess of the in
 teguments of the abdomen.
   OVATUS.  Ovate.   Leaves, petals,  seeds, Sec. are
 so called when of  the shape of an egg cut lengthwise,
 the base being rounded, and broader than the extremity,
 a very common form of leaves; as in Vinca  major
 and Urtica pilulifera, and the petals of the Allium fla
 vum, and Narcissus psuedo-naicissus: the receptacle
 of the Oinphalea, and seeds of the Quercus.
   OVIDUCT.  (Oviductus; from ovum,  an egg, and
 ductus, a canal.)   The  duct or canal  through  which
 the ovum, or egtr, passes.  In the human  species, the
 Fallopian tube is so called, xvhich runs  from the ovary
 to the bottom of the womb.
   OVIPAROUS.  (From ovum, an egg, and pario, to
 bring  forth.)  Animals  xvhich exclude  their young In
 the egs, which are afterxvard hatched.
   Ovo'rum test/e. Egg-shells. A testaceous absorbent
                                         14i 
ovu
ovu
  OVULUM.  A littleegg.  See Ovum.
  OVUM.  1.  An egg.   See Egg.
  2. The xesicles in the ovarium of females are called
the ova, or ovula.  When fecundation  takes place in
one or more of these, they pass,  after a short time,
along the Fallopian tube into the uterus.
  " Developement of  the ovum  in the  uterus.—The
ovum, in the first moments of its abode in the  uterus,
is free  and  unattached; its  volume  is nearly that
which it had in quitting the ovarium ; but,  in  the
course of the second month, its dimensions increase, it
becomes covered with filaments of  about a  line in
length, xx hich ramify in the  manner  of blood-vessels,
and are implanted into Ihcdccidua.  In the third month,
they are seen only on one side of the  ovum, the others
have nearly  disappeared;  but tliose which  remain
have acquired a greater extent, thickness, and consist-
ence, and  are more deeply implauti d into the  decidu-
ous membrane ;  taken together they form the placenta.
The ovum, in the rest of its  surface, presents  only a
soft tlocculcnt layer called decidua reflexa.  The ovum
continues  to increase until the end  of pregnancy, in
which its volume is nearly equal to that of the  uterus;
but its structure suffers important changes which we
xvill examine.
  At first its txvo membranes have yielded to  its en-
largement, while becoming thicker or more resisting:
the exterior is called chorion; the oilier amnion.  The
liquid contained by the latter augments  in proportion
to the volume of the ovum.   In  the second month of
pregnancy, there exists also a certain qunntity of liquid
between the  chorion  and amnion, but it disappears
during the third  month.
  lip to the end of tlie third xveek, the ovum presents
nothing indicative of the presence of the germ; the
contained liquid is transparent, and  partly coagulable
as  before.  At  this period there is seen, on the  side
xvhere the ovum adheres to the uterus,  something
slightly opaque,  gelatinous, all the parts of xvhich ap-
pear  homogeneous;  in a short lime, certain  points
become opaque, txvo distinct vesicles are formed, nearly
equal in volume, and  united by a pedicle, oncof xvhich
adheres to the amnion by a small filament.  Almost at
the same time a red spo't is seen in  the midst  of  this
last, from xvhich yellowish filaments  are seen  to take
their rise: this is the  heart, and  the  principal  sangui-
ferous vessels.  At the beginning of the second  month,
the head is very visible, the eyes form two black points,
very large in proportion  to the volume  of tlie head;
small openings indicate the place of the  ears and  nos-
trils ; the mouth, at first very large, is contracted after-
ward by the developement of the lips, which happens
about the sixtieth day,  with that of the ears, nose,
extremities, Sec
  The developement of all the principal organs happens
successively  until about the middle  of tlie fourth
month; then the state of the embryo ceases, and that
of  the fatus begins, xvhich is continued till the termi-
nation of pregnancy.  All the parts increase with more
or loss rapidity during this time, and draw toxvards the
form xvhich they must present after birth.  Before the
sixth month, the lungs are very small, the heart large, but
its four cavities are confounded, or at least difficult to
distinguish; the liver  is large, and occupies a great part
of the abdomen ; the  gall-bladder is not full of bile, but
of a colourless fluid not bitter; the small intestine, in
its loxver part, contains a yellowish  matter, in small
quantity,  called meconium;  the testicles are  placed
upon the sides  of the superior lumbar  vertebra-; ihe
ovaria occupy the same position.  At the end of the
seventh  month, the lungs  assume a  reddish  tint
xvhich they  had not before;  tlie  cavities of the heart
become distinct; the  liver preserves its large dimen-
sions, but removes n little from the umbilicus;  the bile
shows ilself in the gall-bladder; the meconium  is more
abundant,  and descends lower in the great intestine ;
 Ihe ovaria tend to tlie pelvis, the testicles are directed
to the inguinal rings.  At this period the foetus is ca-
pable of life, that is,  it could live and breathe if ex-
pelled from  the uterus.  Every thing becomes more
perfect In the eighth  and ninth months.  We  cannot
 hero follow the  interesting details of this  increase of
 the organs; they belong to nnatomy:  we shall consider
 the physiological phenomena that relate to them.
   Functions of the ovum, and of the fatus.—-The ovum
 begins to grow as soon us it arrives in the cavity of the
 uterus: its surface is covered xvith asperities that are
       If,!
quickly transformed into sanguiferous vessels:  tliere is
then life in the  ovum.   But we have no idea of this
mode of existence; probably the surface of the ovum
absorbs the fluids xvith xvhich it is in contact, and these,
after having undergone a particular elaboration by the
membranes, are aftenvard poured into the cavity ofthe
amnion.
  What was the germ before its appearance 1  Did it
exist, or xvas it formed at ttiat instant 1   Docs the little
almost opaque mass that composes it contain the rudi-
ments of all the organs ofthe fietus and the adult,  or
are these created the instant they begin to show them-
selves 1  What can  be the nature of a nutrition so
complicated, so important, performed without vessels,
nerves, or apparent circulation 1  How does the  heart
move  before tho appearance of the nervous system 1
Whence comes the yellow  blood  that it  contains at
first 1 Sec Sec  No reply can be given to any of tliese
questions in the present state of science.
  We knoiv very little of what happens in the embryo,
whose organs are only yet rudely  delineated; never-
theless, there is a kind of circulation recognised.  The
heart sends blood into the large vessels, and into the ru
dimentary  placenta;  probably  blood returns  to the
heart by veins, Sec.—But when the new being has
reached the foetal state, as most of the orgaus are very
apparent,  then  it is possible to recognise some of tlie
functions peculiar to that state.
  The circulation  is the best knoxvn of the functions
of the  foetus: it is more complicated than that of tlie
adult, and is performed in a manner quite different.
  In the first place, it cannot be divided into venous and
arterial;  for the foetal blood has sensibly every xvhere
tbe same  appearance, that is, a brownish red tint: in
other respects it is much the same ns the blood of tbe
adult;  it coagulates, separates into clot, and serum, &c
I do not know xvhy some learned  chemists  have be-
lieved that it does not contain fibrin.
  The placenta is the  most singular and one of tht
most important organs of the circulation of the foetus-
it succeeds  to those filaments  which cover the ovum
during tlie  first months of pregnancy.  Very small al
first, it soon acquires a considerable size.   It adheres.
by its exterior surface, to the uterus, presents irregulai
furrows, which indicate its division into several lobes
or cotyledons, the number and form of xvhich are not
determined.  Its foetal  surface  is covered by the cho-
rion and amnion, except at its centre, into which the
umbilical cord is inserted.  Ils parenchyma is formed
of sanguiferous vessels, divided and subdivided.  They
belong to the divisions of the umbilical arteries, and to
the radicles of the vein of the same name.  The ves-
sels nf one lobe do not communicate with those of the
adjoining lobes; but those of the same cotyledon anas-
tomose frequently, for nothing is more easy than to
make injections pass from one to another.
  The umbilical cord extends from near tire centre of
the placenta to  the umbilicus of the child; its length is
often  near two feet;  it is formed by the two umbilical
arteries and the vein, connected by a very close cellular
tissue,  and is covered by the txvo membranes of the
ovum.
  In the first months of pregnancy, a  vesicle, which
receives small vessels, being a prolongation of the me-
senteric artery and the meseraic vein, is found in the
body ofthe cord, between the chorion and the amnion,
near the umbilicus.   This vesicle is not analagous to
the allantoid; it represents the membranes of the velk
of birds and reptiles, and the umbilical vesicle of" the
mammalia.  It contains a yellowish fluid which seems
to be absorbed by the veins of its parietcs.
  The umbilical vein, arising from  the placenta, and
then arriving at the umbilicus, enters the abdomen, and
reaches ihe inferior  surface of the liver; tliere it di-
vides into txvo large branches, one of which is distri-
buted to the liver, along xvith theiena porta, while the
other soon terminates in tne vena cava under the name
of ductus vinos us.  This vein has two valves, one at
the place of its bifurcation, mid the otlier at ihe junc-
tion with the vena cava.
  The heart and the large vessels of the foetus capable
of life, ure very different from what they become after
birth ;  the valve of the vena cava is large; the parti-
tion of the auricles presents a large opening provided
with a semilunar valve, called foramen  ovale.  The
pulmonary artery, after having sent two small branches
to  the lungs, terminates almost immediately in the 
ovu
OXA
 aorta, in the concave aspect ot the arch , il is called in
 this place ductus arteriosus.
   The last  character proper  to the circulating organs
 of the foetus, is the existence of the umbilical arteries,
 which arise from  the internal iliacs, are directed over
 the sides of the bladder, attach themselves to tlie tira-
 chus, pass out of tlie abdomen by the umbilicus, and go
 to the placenta, where they are distributed as has been
 mentioned above.
   According to this disposition  of the circulating ap-
 paratus of  the  foetus, it is evident that the motion of
 the blood ought to  be different  in it from that in the
 adult. If we suppose that the blood sets out from the
 placenta, h evidently passes through the umbilical vein
 as far as the liver • tliere, one part of the blood  passes
 inlo the liver, and  the otlier into the vena cava: these
 txvo directions carry it to the heart by the inferior vena
 cava; being arrived at this organ, It penetrates into the
 right auricle, and into the led bv the foramen ovale, at
 the instant in which the auricles are  dilated.  At this
 instant, the blood of the inferior vena cava is inevita-
 bly mixed xvith that of the superior.  How,  indeed,
 could txvo liquids of* the same nature, or nearly so, re-
 main  isolated in a cavity in which they arrive  at the
 same  time, and which contracts to expel them.   I am
 not ignorant that Sebatier, In his excellent Treatise on
 the Circulation of the Fatus, has maintained the con-
 trary, but his arguments do not change my opinion in
 this respect.   However it  may be, the contraction of*
 the  auricle  succeeds  their dilatation; the  blood is
 throxvn into  the txvo ventricles the instant ihey dilate;
 these, in their turn, contract, and drive out the blood,
 the left into the aorta, and the right into the pulmonary
 artery; but as this  artery terminates in the aorta, it is
 clear that all the blood of the two ventricles passes into
 the aorta, except a  very small portion that goes to the
 ungs.   t'ndei  the influence of these two agents of
 jnpulsii.n, the blood is made to  floxv through all the
 divisions of  the aorta, and returns to the heart by the
 venae  cava;.  Lastly, il is carried to the placenta  by the
 umbilical arteries, and returns to the foetus by  the vein
 of the chord.
   It is easy to conceix-e the use of the foramen ovale,
 and the ductus  arteriosus: the left* auricle, receiving
 liltle or no blood from the lungs, could not furnish any
 to tlie left ventricle if ii did not  receive it from the
 opening in the partition of the  auricles.  On ihe other
 hand, the luntrs  have no functions to fulfil, if all the
 blood of the pulmonary artery were distributed in them,
 the impulsix-e force of the right ventricle xvould have
 been vainly consumed: xvhile, by means ofthe ductus
 arteriosus, the force of both ventricles is employed to
 mox-e  the blood of the aorta; without the joint action
 of both ventricles,  probably the blood could not  have
 reached the placenta, and returned again to the  heart.
   The motions of the heart are very rapid in the fietus;
 they generally exceed 1 JO in a minute: the circulation
 possesses necessarily a proportionate rapidity.
   A deli  ate question  noxv presents itself for examina-
 tion.   What are the relations of tlie circulation of the
 mother with  that of the foeetus 1  In order to arrive at
 some precise notion on this point, the mode of junction
 ofthe  uterus and placenta must first be examined.
   Anatomists differ in this respect.  It was long be-
 lieved that the uterine arteries anastomosed directly
 xvith the radicles of the umbilical  vein, and that the
 last divisions ofthe arteries of the placenta opened into
 the veins of the uterus; but the acknowledged impos-
 sibility of  making  matters injected into  the  uterine
 veins pass into the umbilical veins, and reciprocally to
 cause  liquid  matters  injected  into the umbilical arte-
 ries to reach the veins of the uterus, caused this idea
 lo be renounced. It is at  present generally admitted,
 that the vessels of the placenta and those of the uterus
 do not anastomose.
   Notwithstanding  the high authority'of Boerhaax-e, it
 cannot be admitted that the foetus continually sivallows
 Ihe xvaters ofthe amnion, and digests it for its nourish-
 ment.  Its stomach, indeed, contains a viscid matter in
considerable quantity: but it has no lescmblance to the
liquor  amnii; it is very acid and gelatinous; towards
tbe pylorus, it is somewhat gray, and opaque;  it ap-
pears to  be converted into chyme in  the stomach, in
order to pass into the small intestine, where, after hav-
ing been acted upon by the bile, and perhaps by the
pancreatic juice,  it  furnishes a peculiar chyle.   The
remainder descends afte M-ard i-»lo the lar e intestine,
  where it forms the meconium, which Is evidently ths
  result ol" digestion during gestation.  Whence does the
  digested matter come 7   It is probably secreted by the
  stomach itself, or descends from the oesophagus; there
  is nothing, howex-er, to  prevent Ihe foetus from sxval-
  lowing in certain cases, a fexv mouthfuls of the liquor
  amnii; and this seems to be proved by certain hairs,
  like those of the skin, being found iu the meconium
  It is important lo remark, lhat Ihe meconium is a sub-
  stance containing very little azote.   Nothing is yel
  knoxvn regarding the use of this digestion of the foetus;
  It is probably not essential to its growth, since infant!
  have been born xvithout a stomach, or any thing similar.
  Sonne persons say they have seen chyle Iu the thoracic
  duct of the former.
    Exhalations seein tn lake place in the fietus ;  for al*
  its surfaces nre lubricated nearly In the same maimer
  as  nf "ter ward: fat is in abundance; the humours of
  the eye exist: cutaneous transpiration  very probably
  takes place also, and mixes continually xvith the liquor
  amnii.  With regard to this last liquor, it is difficult to
 say xvhence it derives its origin ; no sanguiferous ves-
 sels appear to be directed to the amnion, and it is never-
 theless probable that this membrane is its secreting organ.
   The cutaneous and  mucous follicles are developed,
 and seem to possess an energetic action, especially fiom
 the seventh month; the skin is then covered by a pretty
 thick  layer of fatly matter, secreted by the follicles:
 several authors have improperly considered  it us a de-
 posite nf tlie liquor amnii.  The mucus is also abundant
 in the last  two mouths of gestation.
   All the glands employed indigestion have a consider
 able volume,  and seem to possess some activity; the
 action of the others is little knoxvn.  It is not known,
 for example, whether  the kidneys form  urine, or
 whether this fluid is injected by the urethra into the
 cavity of the amnion.  The testicles and mammae seem
 to form a fluid that resembles neither milk nor semen,
 and xvhich is found in the vcsicula eeminales and lac-
 tiferous canals.
   What can  be said about the nutrition of the foetus 7
 Physiological works contain only vague conjectures on
 this point; it appears certaiu that the placenta  draws
 from the mother  the materials necessary for the deve
 lopeineietof the organs, but xvhat these materials  are,or
 hoxv they are directed, w e do not know."—Magendie's
 Physiology.
   Ovum piiilosopiiicum.  Orum  chymicum.  A glass
 body, round like an egg.
   Ovum  ruffum.  An obsolete alchemistic term used
 in the transmutation of metals.
   Ox-eye-daisy.   See Chrysanthemum leucanlhemum
   Ox's tongue.   See Picris echiodes.
   OXALATE.   Oxalas.   A salt formed by the com-
 bination of the oxalic acid wilh a salifiable basis; thus,
 oxalate of ammonia.
   OXALIC ACID.  Acidum oxalicum.  " This acid,
 which abounds in wood sorrel, and which,  combined
 with a small portion  of  potassa, as it  exists in that
 plant, has been sold under the name of salt of lemons,
 to be  used as a substitute  for the juice of that fruit,
 particularly for discharging ink-spots and iron moulds,
 was long supposed to be analagous to that of tartar.
 In the year 17*76, however, Bergman discovered that a
 powerful acid might be extracted from sugar by means
 of the nitric; and a few years afterward Scheele found
 this to be identical with the acid existing naturally in
 Borrel.  Hence the acid began to be distinguished hy
 the name of saccharine, but has since been known in
 the new nomenclature by that of oxalic.
   It may be obtained, readily and economically, from
 sugar in  the  folloxving xvay: to six ounces of  nitric
 acid in a stopjieried retort,  to xvhich  a la.ge receiver is
 luted, add, by degrees, one ounce of lump sugar coarsely
 powdered.   A gentle heat may be applied during the
 solution,  and  nitric oxide xvill  be evolved  in  abun-
 dance.   When the xvhole of the sugar  is dissolved,
 distil off a part of the acid, till xvhat re-nains in the
 retort has a  syrupy consistence, and this will  form
 regular crystals, amounting to 58 parts  from 100 of
sugar.  These crystals  must be dissolved in water, re-
crystallized, and dried on blotting paper.
  Oxalic  ncid crystallizes Iu quadrilateral prisms, the
sides of whicli are alternately broad and narrow, and
summits dihedral; or, if crystallized rapidly, in small
irregular needles.    They  are  efflorescent in  dry air,
Iu' attract a liltle humidity if it be damp- »re soluble
                                   143 
OXA
OXY
  IB one part of hot and txvo of cold water; and are  de-
  composable hy a red heat, leaving a small quantity of
  eoaly  residuum.  100 parts  of alkohol take  up near
  56 at  a boiling heal,  but not  above 40 cold.  Their
  acidity is sogieat, that xvhen dissolved in 3(J00 times their
  weight of water, the solution reddens litmus paper, and
  is perceptibly acid to the taste.
    The oxalic acid is  a  good test for detecting lime,
  which it separates from all the other acids, unless they
  are present in excess.  It has likexvise  a greater affinity
  for lime than  for any other of the bases, and forms
  with it a pulverulent,  insoluble salt, not decomposable
  except by fire, and turning syrup of violets green.
    Oxalic acid acts Us a violent poison when swallowed
  in Ihe quantify of 2 or 3 drachms; and several fatal
  accidents have lately occurred in London,  in  conse-
  quence of its being improperly sold instead of Epsom
  salts.  Its vulgar name of salts, under which the acid
  ia bought for the purpose of whitening boot-tops, occa-
  sion these  lamentable mistakes.  But the powerfully
  acid taste of the latter substance, joined to its prismatic
  or needte-foimed crystallization,  are sufficient  to dis-
  tinguish it from every  thing else.  The immediate re-
  jection from  the stomach  of this acid by an emetic,
  aided by copious draughts of xvarm water containing
  bicarbonate of potassa, or soda, chalk, or carbonate of
  magnesia, are the proper remedies.
   With barytes it forms an insoluble salt; but this salt
  xvill dissolve in water acidulated xvith  oxalic acid, and
  afford angular  crystals.  If, hoxvexer, xve attempt to
  dissolve these crystals  in boiling xvater, the excess of
  acid will unite  xvith  the xvater, and leave the oxalate,
  which will be precipitated.
   The oxalate  of strontian  too is a  nearly insoluble
  compound.
   Oxalate of magnesia too is insoluble, unless the acid
  be in excess.
   The oxalate of potassa exists in txvo states,  that of aN
  neutral salt,  and that of  an acidule.  The  latter is
  generally obtained from the juice  of the leaves of the
 oxalis acetosella, wood-sorrel, or  rumexacetosa, com-
  mon sorrel.  The expressed juice, being diluted with
  water, should be set by for a fexv days, till the feculent
  parts have subsided, and the  supernatant fluid  is  be-
  come clear; or it may be  clarified, when expressed,
  with the ivhites of eggs.   It  is then to be strained off,
  evaporated  to a pellicle, and set iu a cool place to crys-
  tallize.  The first product of crystals being taken out,
  the liquor may be further evaporated, and crystallized;
  and the same process repealed till no more can be ob-
  tained.  In this xvay Schlereth informs us about nine
 drachms of crystals may be obtained from two pounds
  of ju.ce, which  are generally afforded by ten pounds of
  ivood-sorrel.  Savary, however, says, that ten parts of
  wood-sorrel in-full vegetation yield five parts of juice,
  xvhich  give little more than a two-hundredth of tole-
  rably pure salt.   He boiled down thejuice, hoxvever, in
  the first instance,  xvithout  clarifying  it;  and xvas
  obliged repeatedly to dissolve and rectystallize the salt
  to obtain il xvhite.
   This salt is  in small,  xvhite, needley, or  lamellar
 crystals, not alterable in the air.  It unites with barytes,
  magnesia, soda, ammonia, and  most  of the  metallic
 oxides, into triple salts.  Yet its solution precipitates
  the nitric solutions of mercury and silver in the state of
  insoluble oxalates of these metals, the nitric acid  in
  this case combining with  the potassa.  It attacks iron,
  lead, tin,  zinc, and antimony.
   This -alt, besides its use in taking out ink-spots, and
  as a lest of lime, forms xvith sugar and water a pleasant,
 cooling beveiage ; and, according to  Berthollet, it pos-
. sesses consuleiahle poxvers as an antiseptic.
   The  neutrai oxalate of potassa is  very soluble, and
 assumes  a  eelatiuous  form,  bul  may be brought  to
  crystallize in hexahedral prisms with dihedral summits,
  by adding more potassa lo the liquor than is suflicient
  to saturate the acid.
    Oxalate  of soda  likexvise exists  in txvo  different
 states, those of  an acidulous and a neutral salt, xvhich
 in their properties are analogous to those of potassa.
   The acidulous oxalate of ammonia is crystallizable,
  not very soluble, and capable, like the  preceding aci-
 dule.s, of combining  with olher bases, so as  to form
  triple salts.  But if the acid be saturated  xvith ammonia,
  we obtain  a neutral oxalate, xvhich on evaporation
  yields very  fine  crystals in letrnhedrul prisms xvith di-
  hedial  mimm'.is, nne of Ihe tilancs of which  cuts off
 three sides ofthe prism.  This salt is decomposable ny
 fire, which raises from it carbonate of ammonia, and
 leaves  only  some slight traces Of a coaly residuum.
 I>iine, barytes,  and stiontian unite with ils acid, and
 the nmmonia flies off in the form of gas
   The  oxalic acid  readily dissolves alumina, and the
 solution gives, on evaporation, a yelloivish transparent
 mass, sxveet and a little astringent to the taste, deli-
 quescent,  and reddening tincture of litmus, but not
 syrup of violets.  This salt sxvells up in the fire, loses
 its acid, and leaves the alumina a little coloured."
   OX'ALIS.  (From otys, sharp: so called from the
 sharpness  of its juice.)  The name of a genus of plants
 in the  LmiiiEan system.   Class,  Decandria; Order
 Pcntagynia. Wood-sorrel.
   Oxalis  acetosella.  The systematic name of the
 ivood-sorrel. Litjula; Alleluja.   Oxalis—foliis ter-
 natis, seapo unifloro, flore  albo, capsults penlagonis
 eiasticis,radicesquamoso-articulata,o'. Linnaeus.  This
 plant grows wild in the  xvoods, and flowers in April
 and May.  The leaves areshaped like a heart, standing
 three together on one stalk.  The acetosella is totally
 inodorous, but has a grateful acid  taste, on xvhich ac-
 count it is  used in salads.   Its taste is more agreeable
 than the common sorrel, and approaches  nearly to that
 of the juice of lemons, or the acid of tartar, xvith xvhich
 it corresponds in a great measure in its medical effects,
 being esteemed refrigerant, antiscorbutic, and diuretic.
 It is  recommended  by Bergius, in inflammatory, bi-
 lious, and putrid fevers.  The principal use, however,
 of the acetosella, is to allay inordinate heat, and to
 quench thirst; for this purpose, a  pleasant xvhey may
 be formed  by boiling the  plant in  milk,  xvhich under
 certain  circumstances may be preferable to the  con-
 serve directed by the London College, thoimli an ex-
 tremely grateful  and useful  medicine.   Many have
 employed  the root of Lujula, probably on  account of
 its beautiful  red colour rather than for its superior effi-
 cacy. A salt is prepared from this  plant, known by the
 name of essential saltof lemons, xvhich is an acidulous
 oxalate of  potassa, and commonly  used for taking ink-
 stains out of linen.   What is sold under the name of
 essential salt of lemons in this country, is said by some
 to consist  of cream of tartar, xvilh the addition of a
 small quantity of sulphuric acid.  The leaves of wood-
 sorrel when  employed externally in the  form of poul-
 tices, are powerful suppurants,  particularly in indolent
 scrofulous  humours.
   Oxa'lme.   (From  o\as, sharp, and aXs, salt.)  A
 mixture of vinegar and salt.
   Oxid.  See Oxide.
   OXIDATION.  The process of converting metals
 and other  substances into oxides, by combining with
 them a certain portion of oxygen,   it differs from aci-
 dification in the  addition of oxygen not being sufficient
 to form an  acid xvith the substance oxided.
  OXIDE.   (Oxydum, i, n.; formed of oxygen, xvith
 the terminal ide.  See Ide.)  Oxyd.  Oxid.  Oxyde.  A
 substance combined with oxygen xvithout being in the
 state of an acid.  Many substances are susceptible of
 several stages of oxidizement, on xvhich  account che-
 mists have employed  various  forms to express  the
 characteristic distinctions of the several oxides.   The
 specific name is often derived from soineexlernal cha-
 racter, chiefly the colour;  thus xve have the black and
 red oxides of iron, and of mercury : the xvhite oxide of
 zinc:  but inmost instances the denominations proposed
 by Dr. Thompson are adopted.  When there are se-
 veral  oxides  of  the same substance, he proposes the
 terms protoxyde, deutoxyde,  tritoxyde, sicnifving  the
 first, second,  and third stage of oxidizemeiit. Orif txvo
 oxides only are knoxvn, he proposes the appellation of
protoxyde for that at the minimum, and of peroxyde
for that at the maximum of oxidation. The compounds
 of oxides nnd water in xvhich the water exists in a con-
densed state,  are termed hydrates, or hydroxures.
  Oxide of carbon, gaseous.   See Carbon, gaseous ox-
ide of.
  Oxide, nitric.   See Nitrogen.
  Oxide, vitreus. See Nitrogen.
  OXYCA'NTHA.   (From o";uc, sharp, and axavOa, a
thorn: so called  from  the acidity  of its  fruit.)  The
 barberry.
  Oxyr-ANTHA oaleni.  See Berberis.
  OXYCE'DRUS.  (From o(,v, acutely, and  xdpos, a
cedar: so  called from  the  sharp  termination of its
leaves.)   1. A kind of cedar 
0X1
OXY
  S. Spanish juniper, a species of juniperus
  OXYCO 'COOS.  (From oijuc, acid, and kokkcs  a
l.erry: so nutned from  its acidity.)   See Vaccmium
oxycoccos.
  OXY'CRATUM.  (From o\vs, acid, and xtpavvvpii
to mix.)  Oxycrates.  Vinegar mixed with such a por-
tion of' xvater as is required, and rendered still milder
by the addition of a little honey.
  Oxycrockcm emplastrum.   (From oi;vc,acid, and
xpcxos, crocus,  saffron.)   A plaster in xvhich  there is
much saffron, but no vinegar necessary, unless in dis-
solving some gums.
  Oxyd.  See  Oxide.
  Oxyde.  See  Oxide.
  Oxyds'rcica. (From  oi-uc, acute, nnd itpxu, to see.)
Medicines xvhich sharpen the sight.
  OXYDULE.  Synonymous with protoxide.
  O XYDUM.   (So called from oxygen, which enters
into its composition.)  See Oxide.
  Oxydum antimonii.   See Antimonii oxydum.
  Oxydum arsenici album.  See Arsenic.
  Oxydum cupri viiude acetatu-i.  See  Verdigris.
  Oxydum fekri luteum.  Sec Ferri subcarbonas.
  Oxydum ferri morum.  Black oxide of iron.  The
scales which fall from iron, xvhen  heated, consist of
iron combined  xvith oxygen.  These have been em-
ployed medicinally, producing the  general effects of
chalybeates,  but not very poxverfully.
  Oxydum ferri rubrum.  Red oxide of iron.  In this
the metal is more highly  oxidized than iu the black. It
may be formed  by long continued exposure to heat and
air.  Its properties in medicine are similar to otlier
preparations of iron.  Il  is frequently given internally.
  Oxydum hydrargyri  cinereum.  See Hydrargyri
oxydum cinereum.
  Oxydum  hydrargyri riorum.   See Hydrargyri
oxydum cinereum.
  Oxydum hydrargyri rubrum.  See Hydrargyri
oxydum rubrum.
  Oxydum plumbi album.  Sec Plumbi subcarbonas.
  Oxydum plu.mbi rubrum.  See Lead.
  Oxydum plumbi semivitreum   See Lythargyrus.
  Oxydum stibii album.  See Antimonii oxydum.
  Oxydum stibii semivitreum.  A vitreous oxide of
intimony.  It  xvn.s formerly called  Varum antimonii
and consists of an oxide  of antimony xvith  a little sul-
ohur; it is employed lo  make antimonial wine.
  Oxydum stibii sulphuratum.  This is an oxide of
tntimony xvith sulphur, and was formerly called  He-
 far antimonii ;  Crocus meiallorum;  Crocus antimonii.
 I was  formerly exhibited  in the cure of fevers and
atonic diseases ofthe lungs.  Its principal  use noxv is
in preparing other medicines.
  Oxydum zinci. See Zincioxydum.
  Oxydum zinci sublimatum.  See Zi'nei oxydum.
  OXYGARUM. (Fromo*;uc, acid, and yapov, garum.)
(V composition of garum  and vinegar.
  OXYGEN.    (Ozygenium;  from olvs, acid, and
ytwau, to generate; because it is the generator of aci-
dity.) This substance, aluiough existing sometimes in
a solid and sometimes in an aeriform  state, is never
distinctly perceptible to the human senses,  but in com-
bination.
  We knoxv it  only in its combination, by its  effects.
Nature  never  presents  it solitary:  chemists  do  not
know how to insulate it. It is a principle  wliich was
lung unknown.  It is absorbable by combustible bodies,
and converts them into oxides or acids.  It is an indis-
pensable condition of combustion, uniting itself alxvays
to bodies which burn, augmenting their weight, and
changing their properties.  It may be disengaged in the
state of oxygen gas, from  burned bodies, by a joint accu-
mulation of caloric and light. It is highly necessary for
the respiration of animals.  It exists universally dis-
persed through nature, and is a constituent part of at-
mospheric air, of xvatei, of acids, and  of all bodies of
the animal and vegetable kingdoms.
  One of the most remarkable combinations into which
it is capable of entering, is that xvhich it  forms with
light and caloric.  The nature of that mysterious union
has not been ascertained, but  it is certain that, in that
rtate, it constitutes the  gaseous fluid called oxygen
-•as.
  Properties of oxygen gas.—Oxygen gas is an elastic
invisible fluid, like common air, capable of indefinite
expansion and compression.  It has neither taste nor
odour, nor does it show any traces of an acid.   Its spe-
                                        Rr
cifir gravity as determined by Kirwan, Is0.0013.'', thai
of xvater being 1.0000; it is, therefore, 740 times lightcl
than the same bulk ol" xvater.  Its xveight is to atmos-
pheric air as 1103 to 1000.  One hundred and sixteen
cubic inches of oxygen gas weigh 30.38 grains.  It is nul
absorbed by water, but entirely absorbable by combus-
tible bodies, xvhich, at the same  time, disengage its ca-
loric and light, producing in consequence a strong heat
and flame.   It rekindles almost extinct combustible
bodies.   It is indispensable to respiration, and is tint
cause of animal heat. It hastens germination;  It com
bines xvith every combustible body, with all the metals
and with the greater number of vegetable and anima.
substances.   It is considered us the cause of acidity
and from this last property is derived the name  oxygen
a word denoting the origin of acidity.
  The act of its combining xvith bodies is called ort
discment, or oxygenation; and the bodies xvith xvhich
it is combined are called oxides, or acids.
  Oxygen gas is tlie chief basis of the  pneumatic doc-
trine of chemistry.
  M.thodsof obtaining oxygen gas.—We are  at pre-
sent acquainted xvith a great number of bodies from
xvhich xxx- may, by art, produce oxygen gas.  It is most
amply obtained  from the oxides of  manganese, lead,
or mercury;  from nitrate of potassa;  from the gr< en
leaves of vegetables, tuid from oxychlorate of  potassa
or soda.  Besides these, there are a great many other
substances from wliich oxygen gas may be  procured.
  1. In order to procure oxygen  gas In  a state of great
purity, pure oxychlorate  of potassa or soda must be
made use of.   Willi this view, put some of the salt
into a small earthen or glass retort, the neck of xvhich
is placed under the shell of the pneumatic trough, Allied
xvith water; and heat the retort by means of  a lamp.
The salt xvill begin to melt, and oxygen gas xvill be ob-
tained in abundance, and of great purity, which may
be collected and preserved over xvater.
  Explanation.—Oxychlorate of potassa consists of
oxygen, chlorine, and potassa.  At an elevated tem-
perature, a decomposition takes place, the  oxygen
unites to the caloric, and forms oxygen gas.  The "oxy-
chlorate becomes theiefoie converted into simple chlo-
rate of potassa.
  2. Oxygen  gas may likewise  be obtained from iho
green leaves of vegetables.
  For this  purpose fill  a bell-glass xvith xvater, intro-
duce fresh-gathered  green leaves under it, and  place
the  bell, or receiver, inverted in a vessel  containing
the same fluid; expose the apparatus to the rays of the
sun, and very pure oxygen gas will be liberated.
  The emission of oxygen gas is  proportioned to the
vigour of the plant  ami the vivacity of the light; the
quantity differs iu different plants, and under different
conditions.
  Explanation.—It  is an established fact, that plants
decompose carbonic acid, and probably xvater, xvhich
serve for their nourishment; they absorb the hydro-
gen and carbon of these fluids, disengaging  a  part of
the oxygen  in a state of  purity.  Light, however, fa-
vours this decomposition greatly ; in proportion as the
oxygon  becomes disengaged,  the  hydrogen becomes
fixed in the vegetable, and combines partly with ihe
carbon and partly xvith the oxygen, to form the  oil, <tc.
of the vegetable.
  3. Nitrate of potassa is another substance frequently
made u*e of for obtaining oxygen gas, in the folloxvin'g
manner:
  Take  any quantity of this salt,  introduce it into a
coated earthen  or glass  retort, and fit to it  a tube,
which must be plunged  into the pneumatic trough, un-
der the receiver filled xvith water.  When the appara
tus has  been properly adjusted, heat  the retort  gia
dually, till it becomes  red-hot;  the oxygen gas  wil,
then be disengaged rapidly.
  Explanation.—Nitrate  of potassa consists of nitric
acid and potassa.   Nitric acid consists again of oxy
gen  and nitrogen.   On exposing the salt  lo ignition, a
partial decomposition of  the acid  takes place; tht
greatest part of the oxygen of the nitric acid unites to
caloric,  and appears under the form  of" oxygen  gas
The other part remains attached to the potassa in ths
state of nitrous acid.  The  residue in the retort is.
therefore, nitrate of potassa, if the  process has hoes
carried only to a certain extent.  .
  Remark.—If too much heat be applied, particularlj
towards the end of the process,  a total decomposition
                                         145 
OXY
OZY
ot the nitric acid takes place: the oxygen gas, in that
case, will  therefore  be mingied xvith nitrogen gas.
The weight of the txvo gases, xvhen collected, xvill be
found to correspond  very exactly with the xveight of
the acid whicli  had been decomposed.   The  residue
then left in the retort is potasca.
  4. Black oxide of manganese,  however, is generally
made use of for obtaining oxygen  gas, on account of
ils cheapness.  This naiive oxide is reduced to a coarse
powder;  n  stone, or  rather an iron retort, is then
charged xvilh it and heated.  As  soon as the retort be-
comes ignited, oxygen gas is obtained plentifully-
  Explanation.—Black  oxide of  manganese  is  the
metal called manganese fully saturated with oxygen,
together xvith many  earthy impurities;  on applying
heat, part of the  solid oxygen  quits the  metal and
unites to caloric, in order to form oxygen gas; the  re-
mainder of the oxygen  remains united to the metal
xvith a forcible  affinity:  the  metal, therefore, ap-
proaches to  the metallic state, or is found in the state
of a gray oxide of manganese.
  One pound of the best manganese yields upwards of
1400 cubic inches of oxygen gas, nearly pure.  If sul-
phuric acid be previously added  to the manganese, the
gas is produced by a less heat,  and in a  larger quan-
tity ; a glass retort may then be  used, and the heat of
a lamp is suflicient.
  5. Red oxide of mercury yields oxygen gas in a man-
ner similar to that of manganese.
  Explanation.—This oxide consists likewise of solid
oxygen and mercury, the combination of xvhich takes
place on exposing mercury to a heat of" about 610°
Fahr.  At this degree it attracts oxygen, and becomes
converted into an oxide; but if the temperature be in-
creased, the attraction of oxygen is changed.  The
oxygen then attracts  caloric stronger than it did  the
mercury;  it therefore abandons  it, and forms oxyeen
gas.  The mercury then reappears in its metallic state.
  6. Red oxide  of lead yields oxygen gas on the same
principle.
   Oxygenated muriatic acid.  See Chlorine.
  OXYGENATION.   Oxygenatio.   This  word  is
often  used instead of oxidation, and frequently con-
founded with it: but it differs in being of more general
import, as every union with oxygen, whatever the pro-
duct may be, is an oxygenation;  but oxidation takes
place only xvhen an oxide is formed.
   Oxygenized  murialic acid. See Muriatic acid oxy-
genized.
   Oxygenized   nitric  acid.   See Nitric  acid oxy-
genized.
   Oxyoly'cum.  (From o*t;ij$, acid, and yXvxvs, sxveet.)
Honey mixed xvith vinegar.
   OXYIODE.  A term applied  by Sir H. Davy to  the
triple compounds of oxygen,  iodine,  and the  metallic
bases.   Lussac calls  them iodates.
   OXYLA'PATHUM. (From otys, acid, and Xaira-
8ov, the dock:  so  named from  its acidity.)   See Ru-
mex acutus.
   O'XYMEL.   (Oxymel, His. n.; from oj-uc, acid, and
ptXt, honey.)   Apomeli.  Adipson.  Honey and vine-
gar boiled  to  a syrup. Mel acctatum.   Noxv called
 Oxymel simplex. Take of clarified honey, txvo pounds;
 acetic acid a pint.  Boil them  down to a  proper con-
 sistence, in a  glass vessel, over  a slow fire.  This pre-
 paration of honey and vinegar  possesses aperient and
 expectorating virtues; and is given, with these inten-
 tions,  in  the cure of humoral  asthma, and other  dis-
 eases of the chest, in doses of one or txvo drachms.  It
 is also employed in  the form of gargle, when diluted
 with water.
   Oxymel jeruoibis.  See Linimentum aruginis.
   Oxymel colchici.   Oxymel of meadoxv saffron  is
 an acrid medicine, but is nevertheless employed, for ils
 diuretic virtues, in dropsies.
   Oxymel scili.k.   Take  of clarified  honey, three
 pounds;  vinegar of squills, txvo pints.  Boil them  in a
 glass vessel, with a  sfoxv fite, to the  proper thickness.
 Aperient, expectorant and detergent virtues, are attri-
       14K
buted to the honey of squills.  It is ghen .n doses of
txvo or three drachms, along with some a?->matic wa-
ter, as that of cinpamon, to prevent the great nausea
which it xvould otherwise be apt toexci:e.  In large
doses it proves eineiic.
  Oxymu'rias  hydrargyri.  See Hydrargyri wsjf-
murias.
  OXYMURIATIC ACID.   See Chlorine.
  Oxymvrrhi'ne.   (From  ol-us,  acute,  and pvcptvn,
the myrtle: so called from its resemblance to myrtle,
and ils pointed leaves.)   Oxymyrsine.  See Myrtus
communis.
  Oxymyrsine.  See  Oxymyrrhine.
  OXYODIC ACID.  See Iodic  acid.
  Oxyni'trum.  (From o^uc, acid,  and vt-pov, nitre.,
A composition chiefly of vinegar  and nitre.
  OXYOPIA.   (From o\vs, acute, and <■>"*/, the eye.)
The faculty of seeing more acutely than usual.  Thus
there have been instances known  of persons who could
see the stars in the daytime.  The proximate cause is
a preternatural sensibility of the  retina.  It has been
known  to precede the gutta serena; and it has been
asserted that  prisoners, who have been long detained
in darkness, have learned to read and write  in dark-
ened places.
  OXYPHLEGMA'SIA.  (From o£bs, acute, and cbXt-
yu, to burn.)  An acute inflammation.
  Oxyphie'nicon.   (From ojuc, acid, and q>oivi\, the
tamarind; a native of Phoenicia.)  See Tamarindus.
  OXYPHONIA.   (From o\,vs, sharp, and <j>uvn, the
voice.)  An acuteness of voice.   See Paraphoma.
  OXYPRUSSIC ACID.  See Chlorocyanic acid.
  OXYRE'GMA.   (From  o\vs,  acid, and tptvyu, to
break xvind.)   An acid eructation.
  Oxyrrho dinon.   (From o\vs,  acid, and poStvov,
oil of roses.)   A composition of the  oil of roses and
vinegar.
  OXYSACCHA'RUM.   (From o\vs, acid, and sax-
\aocrv, sugar.)  A composition of vinegar and sugar.
  Oxysal diaphoreticum.  A preparation of Angelo
Sala.  It is a fixed salt, loaded with more acid than ia
necessary to saturate it.
  Oxy'toca.   (From o\vs, quick, and tixtw, to bring
forth.)  Medicines xvhich promote delivery.
  OXYTRIPHY'LLUM.   (From o^vc, acid, and rpi-
tfvXXov, trefoil; so named from  ils acidify.)  See
Oxalis acetosella.
  OYSTER.  See Oslrea.
   Oyster-shell.  See Ostrea.
  OZ^l'NA.  (From osi7, a stench.) An ulcer situated
in the nose, discharging a  foetid  purulent matter, and
sometimes accompanied  with  caries of  the  bones.
Some authors have signified  by  the term, an ill-condi-
tioned ulcer in the antrum.  The first meaning is the
original one.  The disease is described as coming mi
wilh a trifling tumefaction and  redness about the ala
nasi, accompanied  xvith a discharge of mucus, xvith
xvhich  the nostril  becomes obstructed.   Tlie  matter
gradually assumes the appearance  of pus, is  most co
pious in the morning, and is sometimes attended with
sneezing, and a little bleeding.   The ulceration occa-
sionally extends round the ali nasis to the cheek, but
seldom far from the nose, the  ala of which also  il
rarely destroys.  The ozaena  is often connected  xvith
scrofulous and  venereal complaints.   In the  latter
cases, portions of the ossa spongiosa often come nxxay.
After the complete cure of all venereal complaints, an
exfoliating dend piece  of bone  will often  keep  up
symptoms similar to those of the oza-na, until it is de-
tached. Mr.  Pearson remarks,  that the  ozaena  fre-
quently occurs as a symptom of  the cachexia syphiloi-
dea.   It may perforate the septum  nasi, destiny the
ossa spongiosa, and even the ossa  nasi.  Such mis-
chief is noxv more frequently theeffect of the cachexia
 syphiloidea, than of lues  venerea.  The ozaena  must
 not  be confounded xvith abscesses in the upjier jaxv-
 bone.
   O'zymum.  (From oZ.u,  to smell: so called from Ita
 fragrance.)   See Ocymum. 
p
                       P/EO

 ¥*   A contraction of pugitlus, a pupil, or eighth part
        of a  handful, and sometimes a contraction of
 pars or partes, a pari or parts.
   P.  ^E.  A contraction of partes aqualis.
   P.  P.  A  contraction  of pulvis palntm, Jesuit's
 powder:  the Cinchona lancif. Iia.
   PAAW, Pktkr, xvas  born  at  Amsterdam, in 1564.
 After studying four years at Leyden, he xvent to Paris,
 and  oilier celebrated schools, for improvement; and
 look  his  degree at  Rostock.  Thence he repaired to
 Padua, and attended the dissections of Fabricius ab
 Aquapeudenle ;  and, possessing  a  good  memory, as
 \x ell as great assiduity, he evinced such respectable ac-
 quirements, that ha was appointed  to a medical pro-
 fessorship on his return to Leyden in 1589.  His whole
 ambition  xvas centred in supporting the dignify and
 utility of  this office; and he obtained general esteem.
 Anatomy and botany xvere his favourite pursuits; and
 Leyden owes to him the establishment of its botanic
 garden.  He  died in 1617.  Besides some  commen-
 taries on parts of Hippocrates  and other  ancient au-
 thors, he left a treatise on the Plague, and several other
 xvorks, chiefly anatomical.
  PA'BULUM.   (From pasco, to feed.)   Food, ali-
 ment,           i
  Pabulum vit*.   The food of life.  Such are the
 different kinds of aliment.  The animal heat and spi-
 rits are also so called.
  PACCHIONI, Anthonio, was born  at  Reggio, in
 1664.   After  studying there for some time he xvent to
 complete himself at  Rome under the celebrated Mal-
 pighi  ; who subsequently introduced him into practice
 at Tivoli, where he resided six years xvith considerable
 reputation.  He then returned to Rome, and assisted
 Lancisi in his explanation of the plates of Eustachius.
 He devoted also great attention to dissection, particu-
 larly  of tlie membranes of the brain. In his first work,
 he  assigned  to the  dura mater a contractile poxver,
 whereby it acted upon the brain ; this notion obtained
 temporary celebrity,  but it xvas confuted  by Bagiivi,
 and other anatomists.   He afterward  announced the
 discovery of glands near the longitudinal sinus,  from
 whicli he alleged lymphatics pass to the pia mater; this
 involved  him in'farther controversies.   He xvas a
 member of several  learned academies, and died in
 17%.   Among his posthumous xvorks is one on tbe
 mischief of cpispasiics in many diseases.
  Pacchionian glands.  See Glandula Pacchionian.
  Pachy'ntica.   (From zza%vvu, to incrassate.)  Me-
dicines wliich incrassate or thicken the fluids.
  Pa'chys.  "flaxes,  thick. The name of a disorder
described  by Hippocrates, but not known by us.
  PA'DUS.   A name borroived from Theophrastus,
 who gives no other account of his iralos, than that it
 greatly  delights  in  a shady situation,  like  the yexv.
 The term  is noxv applied to the bird-cherry.   See  Pru-
 nus padus.
  [" Pagodite (or Bildstein of Werner).   Nothing is
known of the natural situation or associations of this
mineral.  It is brought from China, and always under
some  artificial form;  and hence it is sometimes called
Figure or Sculpture stone, or Bildstein.  These figures
are supposed often to represent the idols or  pagodas of
the Chinese.  The Bildstein is  susceptible of a polish."
—Cleav. Min. A.]
  Pjedancho'ne.  (From sraic, a child, and ayxu, to
strangulate.)   A species  of quinsy common among
children.
  P.r£D ARTHRO'C ACE.  (From zztats, a boy, apdpov,
a joint, and  xaxov, an evil.)  The joint evil.  A scro-
fulous affection producing an  ulceration of the  bones
wiiich come ajoint.
  PyENEA.  SeePenaa.
  PiEO'NIA.  (From Paon,  who first applied  it to
medicinal  purposes.)   Peony.
  1. The name of a  genus of  plants in the  Linnaean
system. Class, Polyandria; Order, Digynia.
  2. The pharmacopceial name of the common paeony.
See Paonia officinalis.
  Paonia officinalis.   The systematic name of the
common pteony; male and female paeony. This plant,
                        PAL

 Paonia .--foliis oblongis, of Linnaeus, has long been
 considered as  a  powerful  medicine; and, till lately,
 had n place in the catalogue of the Materia Medioa; io
 xvhich the two common varieties of ihis plant nre indi»
 eriminately directed for use: and, on the authority of
 G. Bauhin, improperly  distinguished into male  anil
 female paeony.
   The roots  and  seeds of paeony have, xvhen fresh, a
 faint, unpleasant smell, somexvliat of the narcotic kind,
 and a mucilaginous subacrid taste, xvith a slight degree
 of bitterness and astringency.   In drying, they  lose
 their smell and  part ot 'heir  taste.   Extracts made
 from them by water  are almost insipid, as well as in
 odorous ;  but e.xti acts made by rectified spirits are  ma-
 nifestly bitterish,  and considerably adstringent.  The
 flowers have rattier more smell  than  any of the other
 parts ot" the plant, and a rough sweetish taste, wliich
 they impart,  together with  their colour, both to xvater
 and spirit.
  The roots, flowers, and seeds of paeony have been
 esteemed  iu  Ihe character  of an anodyne and corro-
 borant, but more especially  the  roots; ivhich, since
 the days of Galen, have been very commonly employed
 as a lemedy for  the epilepsy.   For this  purpose, it
 was usual to cut the root inlo thin slices, xvhich were
 to be attached to a suing,  and suspended about tlie
 neck as an amulet; if this failed of success, the patient
 was to have recourse to the internal  use of this root,
 xvhich Willis directs to be given  in the form of a pow-
 der,  and  in the quantity of u  drachm, txvo or three
 times a day, by wliich, as xve are informed, both infants
 and adults were cured of this disease.  Other authors
 recommended the expressed juice to be given in xvine,
 and  sweetened with sugar, as the mosl effectual way
 of administering this plant.   Many xvriters, however,
 especially in modern times,  from repeated trials of the
 paeony in epileptic cases, have found it of no use xvhat-
 ever; though Professor Home, who  gave the radix
 paeoniae to two  epileptics at the Edinburgh infirmary,
 declares lhat one received a temporary advantage from
 its use. Of the good effects of this plant, in other dis-
 orders, xve find  no instances recorded.
  PAIGIL.  See  Primula veris.
  PAIN.  A"\y->7.  Ocuvr/.   Dolor.   Any  unpleasant
 sensation, or irritation.
  Painter's colic.  See Colica pictonum.
  PAKFONG.  The xvhite copper of the Chinese, said
 to be an alloy of copper, nikcl. and zinc.
  PALATE.  See Palatum. '
  Palati  circumplexus.   See  Circumfiexuspalati.
  Palati  levator.   See Levator palati.
  Palati  os. The palate bone.  The palate is formed
 by txvo bones  of very irregular figure   They  art
 placed  between the  06sa maxillaria superiora and  the
os sphenoides  at the back part of  the roof of  the
mouth, and extend  from thence to the bottom of  the
orbit.  Each of these bones may be divided into four
parts, viz. the inferior, or square portion, the pterygoid
process, the nasal lamella, and  orbitar process.  The
 first of these, or the square  part of the bone, helps to
 form the palate  of the mouth.  The upper part of its
internal edge rises into a spine, wliich makes part of
 the septum narium.   The pterygoid  process, which is
 smaller above than below, is so  named from its beinj:
 united xvith Ihe  pterygoid process of the sphenoid bone,
 xvith which it helps to form the pterygoid fossae.  It ia
 separated  from  the square part of the bone, and from
 the nasal lamella,  by an oblique fossa, xvhich, applied
 to such another in the os maxillare, forms a passage fat
 a  branch  of  the fifth pair  of nerves.  The nasal la
mclia is  nothing  more  than a  very  thin bony plate,
 xvhich  arises  from the upper side of the external edge
of the square part of the bone.   Its  inner surface is
concave, and furnished xvith a ridge,  xvhich supports
the back part of the os spongiosum  inferius.  Inter-
nally it is convex, and firmly united to the maxillary
bone.  The orbitar process is more irregular than any
otlier part of the bone.  It has a smooth surface, when
it helps to form the orbit; and,, when  viewed in  ita
place, we  see it contiguous to  that  part of the orbit
which is formed by the os maxillare, and appearing at
                                        147 
FAL
FAL
 n small triangle at the inner extremity of the orbitar
 process of this last-mentioned bone.  This fourth part
 of the os palati likewise helps to form the zygomatic
 fossa on each side, and  there its surface is concave.
 Betxveen this orbitar process and the sphenoid bone, a
 hole is formed,  through which  an artery, vein, and
 nerve are transmitted  to the nostrils.  The ossa palati
 are complete in the foetus. They are joined to the ossa
 muxillaria superiora, os sphenoides, os ethmoides, ossa
 Epougiosainferiora, and vomer.
  PaLati tensor.  See  Circumfietus.
  I'ALATO.  Names compounded of this word be-
long to muscles which are attached to the palate.
  Palato-pharyNgeus.  (So called from its origin In
 the palate  and insertion in the pharynx.)  A muscle
situated at the side of  the entry ofthe fauces.   Thyro-
s, ■ipliih-i"* '-•!' Douglas.   Thyro-pharyiigo-staphiliirj-1,
nf IV nislow ; aim puiatoyhtuipigien, of  Dumas.   It
arises by a  broad  beginning from the middle of the
velum pendulum palati at the root of the  uvula poste-
riorly, and  from the tendinous expansion  of the cir-
cumflexes palati.  The fibres are collected within the
posterior arch behind the tonsils, and run backwards to
the top and lateral part of the pharynx,  xvhere  the
 fibres are scattered and mixed with tliose of the stylo-
pliaryngeus.  ft is inserted  into the edge of the upper
and back part of the thyroid cartilage.  Its  use is to
draw the uvula and  velum pendulum  palati down-
wards and backxvards, and  at  the same time to pull
the thyroid cartilage and pharynx upwards, and shorten
it, with the constrictor superior pharyngis and tongue.
i'assists in shutting the passage into the nostrils; aud
iu swallowing, it thrusts the food from the fauces into
 the pharynx.
  Palato-salpingeus.   (From palatum,  the palate,
 and oaXmyl, a trumpet; so  called from its origin iu the
 palate, and its trumpet-like shape )  See Circumftexus.
  Palatostaphilinus.  See Azygos uvula.
  PALATUM.  (Palatum, i. n.;  from palo, to hedge
 In; because it is staked  in, as it were, by ihe tech.)
 1. The palate or roof of the  mouth.
  2.  Aii eminence of  the iiileiior lip  of the corolla of
 personate flowers xvhich  closes them ; as in Antirrhi-
 num.  See  Corolla.
  Palatum  molle.   The  soft palate.  This lies b
 hind the bony palate;  and from the  middle of it the
 uvula hangs doxvn.
  PALEA.  (Palac,a.f; chaff.) Chaff, or short, linear,
 obtuse dry scales.
  Palea de mecha.  A  name gix'en by some to the
 J'tvcus odurntus.
  PALEACEUS   (From  palea. chaff)  Chaffy,  or
 covered xvith chaff.  Applied by botanists lo the recep-
 tacles of plants ; as those of the Xeitintliemum.  Zm
 ni a, Anthemis, Sec  See  Receptaculum.
  Palimpi'ssa.  (From -rtaXtv, repetition,  and mcea,
 pilch.)  Dioscorides says, ilia; dry pitch is thus named,
 becau-e it is prepaied  of pitch twice h .iled.
  Palindro mia.   (IlnXic, again, andrfpo/ioc, a course )
 This term is used by Hippocrates for any regurgitation
 of humours to the more noble parts: and sometimes
 for the return of a distemper.
  Paliu'rus-   (From 7T<\Xu>,  lo  move,  nnd ovpov,
 mine; 90 called from its diuretic qualities.)  The Rham-
 nus paliurus.
  PALLADIUM.  A  nexv  metal,  first  found by Dr.
 Wollaston, associated  wilh platina, among the grains
 fif wliich he supposes its ores Io exist, or  an alloy of il
 xvith i idiuui and  osmium; scarcely distinguishable
 firun the crude platina, though it is harder and heavier.
  PALLAS. Peter Simon, was bum nt Berlin, where
 lus father was professor of Sureeiy,  in 1741.  He ap-
 plied early  and assiduously to his studies-,  particularly
 to di-secflon, insomuch lhat he was enabled, at the age
 of  17, to lead  a  p.blic course on anatomy.   He then
 xvent to Hallo, and iu 17.">!> tn Gottineen, xvhere n severe
 Illness for some time interrupted his pursuits; but  he
 altenva'd made  numerous experiments on  poisons,
 and dissections of animals;  and composed a vciy ing...
 niims treatise mi those xvhich are found within others,
 pirhcuhi ly the worms occurring in the  human b,-(|y.
 hi the  following year, he look  his decree at  Leiden,
 then travelled through Holland and Finland, directing
 his attention almost entire v to natuinl history.   In
 l7-;i, his father  recalled him lo Iteilin;  but  allowed
 hi 'i ooh after to settle at the Hague, where  he could '
 '«:.- :   prosecute  his  favourite studies;  tl">  fuit  of I
xvliich shortly appeared  in  a valuable Ircitise on 2»
phytes, and some other  publications:  and he xvas ad-
mitted into the Royal  Society  of Loudon,  and the
Academy Naturae Curiosorimi, to xvl ich he had sent
interesting papers.  About this |>eii<<i he meditated a
voyage to the Cape of  Good  Hope, and other Dutch
settlements;  but his father again recalled hrm  in 17G6\
However, in the lollowing year, he xvas induced  by
Catharine II. to become professor of natural history at
St. Petersburgh.  Thence,  iu  17i>e?, he  set out, with
some other philosophers, on a  scientific  tour, as far aa
Siberia, xvhich  occcupied six years.  Of this he after-
ward published a  most interesting account  in five
quarto volumes comprehending every thing memorable
iu the several provinces which he had  vU'ie.i.  This
xvas followed by a particular history of the  Mongol
trrbe3, who had, at different periods, overrun the gi eater
part of Asia, and whom he clearly proved to be a dis-
tinct race from the Tartars.  In IT/7 he read before ihe
academy a dissertation on the formation of mountains,
and  the changes which  this globe has undergone, par-
ticularly  in Ihe Russian empire.   He nlso  published,
from time to time, numerous xvorks relative to zoology,
botany, agriculture, and geography.  About the year
1784, he received signal proofs of the empress's favour ;
who  not  only considerably increased  his salary, and
conferred  upon  him  the order of St. Vladimir, but
learning that be ivished to dis|iose of his collection of
natural history, gave him a greater price than  he had
valued it at, and allowed him the use of it during his
life.   In 1794, he travelled to the Crimea, of xvhich he
published an account on his return : and his  health
now beginning  to decline, the empress presented him
an estate in that province, xvith a liberal sum  for his
establishment.  Unfortunately, however, the situation
was particularly unhealthy, and proved very injurious
to his family.  At length  he determined to visit his
brother, and his native ci:v, xvhere he diedshortly after,
in Igll
  PALLIATIVE.  (Palliativus; from  pallia, to dis-
semble.)    A medicine  given  only xvilh an imenl to
pallia'e or relieve pains  in aTatal disease.
  Palm oil.  See Cocos  butyracea.
  Palm a  i hristi.  See Ricinus.
  P \L'MA.  (From zsaXXw, to move.)
  1.  The  palm  of the hai.d.
  2.  A ; aim-tree.  ?>e  Pulma.
  PALM.E.  (.From  plma, the hand: so  called be-
cause the  leaves are extended fiom the «op like  the fin-
sei upon the hand.)   Palms.  One of the natiir.v fami-
lies of plants xvhich  have  trunks similar lo tiees, but
come under (he term stipes, the tops being fronde-ci nt,
that is. seudiugorricaves. Palms are the most lot" y, and
in some instances, the most long-fixed ofplants, a i dhtne
thereiorp  justly arquiied ihe name of trees.  Yet Sir
James Smith "observes, paradoxical as  il may .-.em,
th y a e  raiher perennial  heibaceous plaits,  having
nothing in common xxith th  growth oftroes  in go eral.
Palms are formed of successive circular crow  s of
leaves, xvhich spiug  directly from the rool   These
leaves and their footstalks are fuiftishcd xvilh  handles
of large sap-v>ssels,  and  returniiis vessels, like the
leaves of trees, xvhen one ci cle of them has  performed
its office,  another Is  formed within  it, which, being
confined below, iiecessaiily rises a liltle above the for-
mer.  Thus, successive ci cle-i grow  one  above the
other: by which the vertical inocasc of flue  plant is
almost xvithout end.  Each circle of leave-  is inde-
pendent of its  predecessoi, mid has its oxvn cluster of
ve-sels; so that there can be no aggregation of wnody
circles.
  P \LM  \RIS.  (Palmaris; from pulma,  the  hand.)
Belonging to the hand.
  Pamaris  diievis.   Pulinnrit brevis vel  rnro quad-
rot 1, ol" Doughis : and Palmare riitnve. of Dumas.  A
small, thin, cutaneous (lexer muscle of  the hand situ-
ated be xveen Ihe wrist and the liltle finrer.  Fallopiiis
tells us that it was dl*coveied by ("animus.  Winslow
names it  palmaris cutontus.  It  arises from  a 'tnall
part ol' the infernal  annular ligament, and  inner edge
of the aponeurosis  palmaris, and is inserted by small
bundles of fleshy fibres  info Ihe os pisifornie, and into
Ihe skin and fat that one or  the abductor minimi digiti.
This muscle seems to assist in c mtracling the palm of
the hand.
  Palmaris iitanki  s.  Pee Paimari Ir ms
  Palmaris  loniiid.    A flexor  vmscle m the mm 
FAN
PAN
fltaafced on flic foie-arm, immediately under the integu-
ments.   Ulnaris gracilis, of  Winsloxv; and Epitro-
chio carpi palmaire,  of  Dumas.   It arises tendinous
from the inner condyle of the  os humeri, bui soon he-
comes fleshy, and  after continuing so  about three
inches,  terminates in a  long  slender tendon, xvhich,
near the  xvrisi, separates into txvo  portions,  one of
xvhich is inserted into the internal annular ligament,
and the  other loses itself in a tendinous  uiembraiie,
that is nearly of a triangular shape, and extends over
the palm of the hand, from the carpal ligaments to tlie
roots of the fingers, aud iscslled aponeurosis palmaris.
Some ofthe fibres of this  expansion adhere strongly to
the  metacarpal bones, and separate the muscles and
tendons of each finger.   Several anatomical writers
have considered this aponeurosis as a production of the
I'ndoii of this muscle, but seemingly without reason,
because we  noxv and then find the  latter wholly in-
setted into the carpal  ligament, in xvhich case it is per-
fectly distinct  from  the aponeurosis in question ; and,
in some subjects, the palmaris  longus  is wanting, but
the aponeurosis  is alxvays to be found.  K hod ins, in-
deed, say s that die latter is now and then deficient: bul
there is good  reason to  think  that he was  mistaken.
This muscle bends the hand, and may assist iu its pro-
nation: it likexvise serves to stretch the aponeurosis
palmaris.
  PALMATUS.   Palmate.  Applied to leaves, cut,as
it xvere,  inlo several  oblong, nearly  equal  segments,
about half-way,  or rather more, towards  the base,
leaving an entire space like tbe palm of the hand; as
in Passifiota carulta.
  PALMOS.  (From zzaXXu, to beat.)  A palpitation
of the heart.
  Pa lmula.  (Diminutive  of  palma,  the  hand: so
called from its  shape.)   1. A date.
  2. The broad and flat end of  a rib.
  PA'LPEBl'.A.  (A  palpitando, from their frequent
motion.)   The eyelid, distinguished into upper and
under: at each end they unite and form the cauthi.
  Palpebra  superioris, levator.  See Levator palpe-
bra superioris.
  Palpebrarum aperiens  rectus.  See Levator palpe-
bra superioris.
  PALPITA TIO.   1.  A  palpitation  or convulsive
motion of a part.
  2. Palpitation  of tho heart.  A genus of diseases in
the class Neuroses, and order Spasmi, of Cullen.
  PALSY.  See Paralysis.
  Pali da'pium.    (From Palus  a lake, and  apium,
smallage: so named because  it groxxs in and  about
rivulets.)  A species of smallage.
  Pa'lus  sanctus.  A name of guaiacum.
  Pamphi licm.   (From  zzas, all, and q)tXos, grateful:
so called from  its extensive usefulness.)  A plaster de-
scribed by Galen.
  PAMPINIFORM.   (Pampiniformis ;  from pampi-
nus, a tendril,  and forma, a  likeness.)  Resembling a
tendril;  applied to the spermatic chord and the tho-
racic duct.
  PANA'CEA. (From zzav, the neuter of ~ns, all,and
axcopat, to cure.)   An epithet given by the ancients to
Ihose remedies xvhich they  conceived xvould cure
every disease.  Unfortunately for men of the present
day there  are no such remedies.
  Panacea ducis holsati.e. The sulphatcof potassa.
  Panacea duplicata.   Sulphate of potassa.
  Panacea vegktabilis.  Saffron.
  PANADA.  (Diminutive of pane, bread, Ital.)  Pa-
nata ; Panatclla.  Bread boiled in water to the con-
sistence of pap.   Dry biscuits soaked are the best for
this purpose.
  Panale'thes.   (From  rzav,  all, and aXrjQns,  true.)
A name of a cephalic plaster, from its universal efficacy.
  PA'NARIS.   (Corrupted from paronychia.)  See
Paronychia.
  Panari'tia.   (Corrupted from paronychia.)  See
Paronychia.
  PANAX.   (A name borrowed from the old Greek
botanists,  xvhose zrava\, or itavaxns, was so denomi-
nated from irav, all, and axos, medicine, because of its
abundant  virtues.  The name  being unoccupied, Lin-
naeus adopted it for tbe Chinese ginseng, thai famous
lestorativeand panacea, the reputed virtues of which
yield in no respect to the ancient panax.)  1. The name
nf a genus of plants in the Linnaean system.    Class,
Polygaruia; Order, Diacia.
  9.  A name of the .Hercules' all-heal.  See Laserpi.
titim chironium.
  Panax quinquefolium.  The systematic name of
the plant which affords the ginseng root.  Ginseng!
Panax—foliis  ternis quinalis of Linna-us.  The  root
is imported into this country scarcely the thickness of
the little finger, about tliree or four inches long, fre
quently forked, transversely wrinkled, of a horny tex
lure, and both  internally nnd extcrnully of a yellowish
white colour   To the laste ii discovers a mucilaginous
sxveetness, approaching  to that of liquorice, accompa-
nied u ilh some degree  of bitterness, and a slight aro-
matic  warmth.   The Chinese  ascribe extinoidinury
virtues to the root of  ginseng,  and have im confidence
iu  any  medicine  unless in  combination with it.   In
Europe, hoxxevcr, it is very seldom employed.
  P.xm hre'stos.  ri'roin -xav, all, and XPWS,  use-
ful.  so named from its general usefulness.)  Pan-
chreston.  1. An  epithet of a  collyrium described by
Galen.
  2.  It has the same signification as Panacea.
  Panciiymago'oa.  i.lr'r(>iii rz.iv, all,  XW0*'  succus,
humour, and ayu, duco,  to lend  or draw.)  This term
is ascribed to such medicines as are supposed to purge
all humours equally alike; but this is  a conceit noxv
not minded.
  Panuie'nus.   (From irac, all, and xoivos, common.)
Epidemic.  Applied to popular diseases, which attack
all descriptions of persons.
  Pancratium.  (From nas, all.  and xpartu, to con-
quer: so culled fiom  its virtues in overcoming all ob-
structions.)  See Scilla.
  P.VNCREAS.   (From rac, all, and xptat, flesh : sc
called from Us  fleshy consistence.) A glandular viscus
of the abdomen, of a long figure, compared to a dog's
tongue, situated in the epigastric region under  the sto-
mach.   It is composed of innumerable small glands,
the excretory ducts of whicli unite and form one duct,
called the pancreatic duct, which  perforates the duo-
denum  xvith the ductus communis choledochus,  aied
conveys a fluid, in its nature similar to saliva, into the
intestines.  The pancreatic artery is a branch of the
splenic.  The  veins evacuate themselves into tlie sple-
nic vein.  Its nerves  aie from  the par vaguin and great
intercostal.  The  use of the pancreas is io secrete the
pancreatic juice, wliich  is to be mi.xtd with ihe chyle
in the duodenum.   The quantity of the fluid secreted
is uncertain; but  it  must be veiy considerable, if wc
compare it xvith the weight of the saliva, the pancreas
being thiee times larger, and seated in a warmer place.
It is expelled by the force of the circulating blood, and
the pressure of tbe incumbent  viscera in the full abdo-
men.  Its great utility appears from its constancy, be-
ing found in almost all animals; nor is this refuted by
the few experiments  in xvhich  a part of ii was cut out
from a robust  animal, xvithout occasioning death;  be-
cause the whole pancreas cannot be removed without
the duodenum: for even a  part of the lungs  may be
cut out without producing death, but they are not,
therefore, use less.  It seems principally Hi dilute  the
viscid cystic bile, to mitigate its acrimony, and to mix
it wilh the food.   Hence, it is  poured  into a place re-
mote from the  duct from the liver, as often as there is
no gall-bladder.   Like the rest of the  intestinal hu-
mours it dilutes and resolves the mass of aliments, and
performs every other  office of  the saliva.
  PANCREATIC.   (Pancreaticus;  from pancreas,
the name of a viscus.)  Of or belonging  to the pan-
creas.
  Pancreatic duct  See Ductus pu.icreaticus.
  Pancreatic juice.  See Pancreas.
  Pancre'ne.   (From -nas, all, and kpnvn, a fountain.;
A name of the pancieas from  its great secretion.
  Pa.ndali'tii.m.   A xvhitloxv.
  PANDEMIC.   (Pandemicus;  from  -av,  all,  and
Siipos, the people.)   A disease is so termed which at-
tacks all or a great many persons in the same place and
at the same time.   A pandemic disease is one xvhich ia
very general.
  PANDICULATIO.   (From pandiculo, lo gape and
stretch.;  Pandiculation, or  a resiles* stretching or
gaping, such as accompanies the cold fit of an ague.
  PANDURIFORMIS.  Fiddle-shaped; applied  to n
leaf, which is oblong, broad nt  the two extremities, and
contracted in the middle, as in the fiddle dock, Rumen
pulcher.
  PANICULA   A panicle.  A species of compouett
                                         149 
PAP
PAP
 inflorescence which bears the floxvers in a sort of loose,
 subdivided, bunch or cluster, without any order, ap-
 pearing like a branched spike.   The flowers of the
 JEsculus hippo-castanum, Rhus cotinus,  Gypsophylla
pmiiculata, and Syringa vulgaris, are good examples
of a panicle; but this species of inflorescence occurs
 most in grasses, as in Poa aquatica.
  1. When the stalks are distant, lax, or spreading,
it is called Panicula patula; as in Campanulapatula.
  2. Panicula coartata, is a dense or crowded one, ob-
bi. rved in Campanula rapunculus.
  3. P. dichotoma, forked; as in Linum fiavum.
  4. P. brachiata, crossing each other iu  pairs, as in
 Salvia paniculata.
  5. P. divaricata, a more spreading one than the pa
tulous; as in the Pnenanthes muralis.
  PA'NICUM.   (A paniculis, from ils many panicles;
the spike consisting of innumerable thick seeds, dis-
} used in many panicles.)  The name of a genus of
plants in the Linnaean system.   Class,  Triandria;
Order, Digynia.
  Panicum italicum.  The systematic name of the
plant which affords the Indian millet-seed, which is
much esteemed  in Italy, being a  constant ingredient
 iu soups, and made  into a variety of forms  for the
table.
  Panicum miliaceum.  The systematic name of the
 plant which affords the millet-seed.  They are esteem-
 ed as a nutritious article of diet, and are often made
 into puddings in this country.
  PA'NIS.  Bread.   See Bread.
  Panis cuculi. See Oxalis acetosella.        ,
  Panis forcinus.  A species of cyclamen.
  PANNI'CULUS.   (From  pannus, cloth.)   1. A
 piece of fine cloth.
  2. The cellular and carnous membranes are so called
from their resemblance to a  piece of fine cloth.
  Panno'nica.   (From pannus, a rag: so called be-
cause  its stalk  is divided into*  many uneven points,
like the end of a piece of rag.)  Hawk-weed, or Hy-
poeharis.
  PA'NNUS.   (From ircvu, to labour.)
  1. A piece of cloth.
  2. A tent for a wound.
  3. A speck in the eye, resembling a bit of rag.
  4. An irregular mark upon the skin.
  Pano'ctia.  A bubo in the groin.
  PANOPHO'BIA.  (From irav, all, and (60(305, fear.)
 Pantophobia.  That kind of melancholy wliich is prin-
 cipally characterized by groundless fears.
  PANSY.  See Viola tricolor.
  Pantaqo'ga.  (From iras, all, and ayu, to drive out.)
 Medicines xvhich expel all morbid humours.
  Panto'lmius.   (From iras, all, and roXpau, to dare:
bo named from its general uses.)  A medicine described
 by yEgineta.
  Pantophobia.  See  Panophohia.
  PA'NUS.  (From irei-co, to work.)   1.  A xveavcr's
poll.
  2. A soft tumour, like a weaver's roll.
  PAPA'VER.   (Papaver,  oris. 11.; from pappa, pap:
so cabled because nurses used to mix this plant in chil-
dren's food to relieve the colic and make them sleep.)
1. The name of a genus of plants in the Linnueau sys-
tem.   Class, Polyandria; Order,  Monogynia.   The
poppy.
  2. The pharmacopteial name of the white poppy.
Fee Papaver somniferum.
  Papaver erraticum.  See Papaver rhaas.
  Papaver nigrum.  The black poppy. This is mere-
ly a variety of the white poppy, producing black seeds.
See Papaver somniferum.
  Papaver rhceas.  The systematic  and pharmaco-
pteial name of the red  corn poppy.  Papaver errati-
r.vin.  Papaver—capsulisglabrisglobosis, caule-piloso
vmltifloro;—foliis pennatifidis  incisis of Linnaeus.
The heads of this species, like these of the soninife-
1'iin, contain a milky juice of a narcotic quality; from
xvhich an  extract is prepared, that has been success-
fully employed as a sedative.  The floxvers have some-
what of the smell of opium, and a mucilaginous taste,
accompanied with a slight  degree of  bitterness.  A
syrup of these flowers is directed In the London Phar-
macopo-ia, wliich has been  thought useful as an ano-
dyne and pectoral, and is prescribed  in  coughs and
ca'arrhnl affections.  See Syrupus rhaados.
  Papaver somniferum-   The systematic name of
      l."i()
the white poppy, from which opium is obtained.  Lin
naeus describes the plant:—Papaver—calycibus, cap
sulisque glabris, foliis arnplexuaulibus incisis.  This
drug  is also called opium thebaicum, from being an-
ciently prepared chiefly at Thebes:  Opion and manus
Dei, from its extensive medical virtues, Sec. The Ara-
bians called it affion and afium.   It is the concreted
milky juice of the capsule or head of tlie poppy.  It ii
brought from  Turkey,  Egypt,  the East  Indies, and
other parts of Asia, where poppies are cultivated foi
this usxe in fields, as corn among us.  The manner in
which it  is collected  has been described  long ago by
Kaempler, and others; but the most circumstantial de-
tail of Ihe culture of the poppy, and the  method  of
procuring  the opium, is  thai given by Kerr,  as prac-
tised  in the province of Bahar.  He says, "The field
being well prepared by the plough and harrow-, and
reduced to an exact level superficies, it is then divided
into quadrangular areas  of seven  feet long, and five
feet in breadth, leaving two feet of interval, wliich is
raised five or six inches, and excavated into an aque-
duct for conveying xvater to every area, for which pur-
pose they have a  well in every cultivated  field.  The
seeds are sown in  October or November.   The'plants
are alloxved to grow six or eight inches distant  from
each  other, and are plentifully supplied with  water;
when the young  plants are six or eight inches high,
they are watered  more sparingly.  But the cultivator
spreads all over  the  areas  a  nutriment compost of
ashes, human excrements, cow dung, and a large por-
tion of nitrous earths, scraped from the highxvays and
old mud walls. When the plants are nigh flowering,
they  are  watered  profusely, to increase the juice.
When the capsules are half grown, no more xvater is
given, and they begin to collect the  opium.  At sunset
they make txvo longitudinal donble incisions upon  each
half-ripe capsule, passing from  below upwards, and
taking care not to penetrate the internal cavity of the
capsule.   The incisions are repealed every  evening
until each capsule has  received six or eight wounds;
then are they alloxved to ripen their seeds.  The ripe
capsules a fib id little or no juice.  If the wound was
made in the heat of the  day, a cicatrix would be too
soon  formed.  The night dexvs, by their moisture, fa-
vour the exsti'lation of the juice.  Early in the morn-
ing, old xvomen, boys,  and girls, collect the juice by
scraping it off the wounds xvith a small iron scoop, nnd
deposite the whole in an earthen pot, xvhere it is work-
ed by tlie  hand in the  open sunshine, until it becomes
of" a considerable spissitude.  It is then formed  into
cakes of a globular shape, and  about four pounds  in
xveight, and laid into  little earthen basins to be fur-
ther exsiccated.  These cakes  are  covered over  xvith
the poppy or tobacco leaves, and dried until they are
fit for sale. Opium is frequently adulterated wilh  cow
dune, the extract of the poppy plant procured  by  boil-
ing, and vat ions other substances whicli they keep in
secrecy."   This process,  hoivever, is now but rarely
practised,  the consumption of this drug being too great
to be supplied by lhat method of collection.
  The best sort of the  officinal opium is the expressed
juice  of the heads, or of ihe heads  and the upper part
of the stalks inspissated by a gentle heat.  This  xvas
formerly called meconium, in distinction from  the iruc
opium, xvhich issues spontaneously.
  The inferior sorts (for there are'considerable differ
ences  in the quality of this drug,;  are said to be pre-
pared by boiling the plant in water, and evaporating
the stiuined decoction; but  as  no  kind of our opium
will totally dissolve in  water, the juice is most proba-
bly extracted by expression.  Nexvnian xvas informed
by some Turks at  Genoa  and Leghorn, that  in some
places the heads, stalks, and leaves are comniiited  to
the press  together, nnd that this juice inspissated af-
fords a very good opium.
  On this head Dr. Lexvis remarks,  that the point has
not yet  been  fully  determined.   It is commonly sup-
posed, that whatever  preparations the  Turks  may
make from the poppy  for their own use,  the opium
brought to us is really the milky juice collcclod from
incisions made in the heads, as deseriln-d by Ka-mpfer.
It is certain that an ex 11 act made by boiling the heads,
or the heads and stalks in water, is much weaker than
opium;  but it  appears also,  that the puie milky tears
are considerably stronger.
  The principles separable from opium are, a resin,
gum, besides a minute  portion of saline matter,  anil 
PAP
PAP
  water and  earth, xvhich are intimately combined to
  gether,  insomuch that all  the  tliree dissolve  almost
  equally in water and in spirit.
    Four ounces of opium, treated with alkohol, yielded
  three ounces and four scruples of resinous extract; five
  drachms and a scruple of insoluble impurities remain-
  ing.  Oh taking four ounces more, and applying water
  at  first, Newman obtained  two ounces five drachms
  and one scruple of gummy extract; the insoluble part
  amounting  here to seven drachms nnd a scruple.  In
  distillation, alkohol brought  over little or nothing; but
  the distilled xvater xvas considerably impregnated with
  the peculiar ill smell of opium.
   From  thia analysis may be estimated  the effects of
  different solvents upon  it.   Alkohol  and  proof spirit
  dissolving  its resin,  afford  tinctures  possessing all its
  virtues.  Water dissolves its gummy part,  xvhich is
  much less active ;  but a part of the resin is at the same
  time taken up by tlie medium of the gum.  Wines also
  afford solutions possessing the virtues  of opium.  Vine-
  gar dissolves its  active matter, but greatly impairs its
  power.
   A nexv vegetable alkali, to  xvhich the name of mor-
 phia is given, has also been extracted from  opium.  It
 is in this alkali that  the narcotic  principle resides.  It
 was first obtained pure by Sertiirner, in the year 1817.
 Two somexvhat different processes for  procuring it
 have been given  by Robiquet and Choulant.  Accord-
 ing  to the former, a concentrated infusion of opium is
 to be boiled  xvith a small quantity of common magne-
 sia for a quarter of an hour.  A considerable quantity
 of a grayish deposite falls.  This is to  be washed on a
 filter xvilh  cold xxater; and,  when dry,  aoied on by
 weak alkohol for some time, at a temperature beneath
 ebullition. Iu this way, very little morphia, but a great
 quantity of colouring matter, is separated.  The mat-
 ter is then to be drained en a tiller, xvashed with a liltle
 cold alkohol, and afierxvard boiled xvith a large quan-
 tity of highly reciii^d alkohol.  This liquid being fil-
 tered whi'e hot, on cooling, it depositcs the morphia in
 crystals, and very little coloured.  The solution  in al-
 kohol, and crystallization being  repeated two or three
 times, colourless morphia is obtained.
   The theory of this process is the following: Opium
 contains a meconiate of morphia.  The magnesia com-
 bines xvith the meconic acid,  and the  morphia is dis-
 placed.
   Choulant  directs us to concentrate a dilute watery
 infusion of  opium, and  leave it at rest till it sponta-
 neously let fall its sulphate of lime in minuie crystals.
 Evaporate to dryness; dissolve in a little water, and
 throxv down any  remaining  lime and sulphuric acid,
 by the cautious addition,  first of oxalate of ammonia,
 and then of muriate of barytes.   Dilute  the  liquid
 with a large body of waler, and add caustic ammonia
 to it as long  as any precipitate falls.  Dissolve this in
 vinegar,  and throw it doxvn again xvith ammonia.   Di-
 gest on the precipitate about twice its weight of sul-
 phuric aether, and throw the xvhole upon a filter.  The
 dry powder is to be digested three times in caustic am-
 monia,  and  as often  in cold alkohol.  The remaining
 poxvder being dissolved in txvelve ounces of boiling al-
 kohol, and the filtered hot solution being set aside for
 18 hours, deposites colourless transparent crystals, con-
 sisting of double pyramids.  By concentrating the su-
 pernatant alkoholic solution, more crystals may be ob-
 tained.
  Dr. Thomson directs us to pour caustic ammonia Into
 a strong infusion of opium, and lo  separate the brown-
 ish-white precipitate by  the  filter; lo evaporate the
 infusion  to about oh  sixth of its volume, and  mix the
 concentrated liquid with more ammonia.   A new de-
 posite of impure  morphia is obtained.   Let the xvhole
 of the deposites be collected on the filter,  and xvashed
 with cold xvater.   When well drained,  pour a  little
 alkohol on it, and let  the alkoholic liquid pass through
 the filter.  It will carry offa good deal of the colouring
 matter,  and very little of the  morphia.  ' Dissolve the
 impure morphia thus obtained, in acetic acid, and mix
 the solution which has a very deep broxvn colour,  with
a sufficient quantity  of ivory-black.  This mixture is
to be frequently agitated for 24 hours, and then thrown
on the filter.  The liquid passes through quite colour-
less.   If ammonia be  noxv dropped into it, pure  mor-
phia falls in  the state of a white powder.  If we dis-
solve this precipitate  in  alkohol, and  evaporate that
liquid sioxvly we  obtain the morphia in pretty regular
  crysta .  It  Is perfectly xvhite, has a pearly lustre, Is
  destitute of smell,  but hits an intensely bitter taste;
  and  the shape of the  crystals in all my triu's was a
  four-sided rectangular  prism.'—Annals of Phil., Jane,
  18-JO.   On the  above  process, it should be observed,
  that  the acetic solution  must contain a good deal of
  phosphate of lime, derived from the ivory-black; nnd
  that therefore those xvho have used lhat precipitate for
 | morphia in  medicine,  have been disappointed. The
  subsequent solutioii in  alkohol, however, and crystalli-
  zation, render it pure.
    t'houlanl says,  ii  crystallizes  In  double four sided
  pyramids,  whose bases are  squares  or  rectangles;
  sometimes iti  prisms with trapezoidal bases.
    It dissolves in r>2 times  ils xveight of boiling water;
  and i he solution on cooling deposites regular, colourless,
  transparent crystals.  It  is soluble In 36 times ils xveight
  of boiling alkohol, and iu  IJ times' its weight of cold
  alkohol, of 0.9S.   It dissolves in eight limes its weight
  of sulphuric aether.  All these solutions change the in-
  fusion of brnzil-xvood to  violet,  and the tincture of
  rhubarb lo broxvn.  The saturated alkoholic and a-the-
  reous solutions, when rubbed on the skin, leave a red
  mark
   Sulphate of morphia  crystallizes in  prisms, which
 dissolve in twice their weight of distilled xvater.
   Nitrate  of morphia yields needle-form  crystals  in
 stars, xvhich are soluble in 1.J times their  weight of dis-
 tilled waler.
   Muriate of morphia is in feather-shaped crystals and
 needles.  It is soluble in 1(H times its xveight of distil-
 led xvater.
   The  acetate crystallizes in needles, the  tartrate in
 prisms, and the carbonate in short prisms.
   Morphia acts xvith great energy on the animal eco-
 nomy.   A grain and a half taken at three  different
 times,  produced such violent symptoms  upon  tluee
 young  men  of 17  years of age, that Serifirncr was
 alarmed  lest the consequences  should  have proved
 fatal.
   Morphia, according to its discoverer, melts in a gen-
 tle heat; and in that state has very much the appear-
 ance of melted  sulphur.  On cooling, it again  crys-
 tallizes.  It burns  easily;  and, xvhen heated in close
 vessels, leaves a solid  resinous black matter, having a
 peculiar smell.                      ,
   The use of this celebrated  medicines, though not un-
 known to Hippocrates, can be clearly traced to Diago-
 ras, xvho xvas nearly  his cotemporary; and its impor-
 tance has ever since been gradually advanced by suc-
 ceeding physicians  of  different nations.   Its extensive
 practical utility,  however, has not been long well un-
 derstood ; and in this country perhaps  may be dated
 from the time of Sydenham.  Opium is the chief nar-
 cotic now employed ;  it acts directly upon the  nervous
 poxx-er, diminishing the sensibility, irritability, and mo-
 bility of the system; and, according to  Cullen, in  a
 certain  manner suspending the motion of the  nervous
 fluid to and from the brain, and thereby inducing sleep,
 one of its principal effects   From this sedative power
 of opium, by xvhich it allays pain, inordinate action,
 and restlessness, it naturally follows that it may be em-
 ployed with advantage in a great variety of diseases.
 Indeed, there is scarcely  any disorder  in which, under
 somecircumsianc.es, ils use is not found proper; and
 though in many cases it  fails of producing sleep, yet,
 if taken in a full dose,  it occasions a pleasant tranquil-
 lity of mind, and a dioxvsiness whicli approaches to
 sleep, and xvhich alxvays refreshes the patient.  Besides
 the sedative  power of opium, it is knoxvn to act more
 or less as a stimulant, exciting the motion  of the blood.
 By a certain  conjoined  effort of this  sedative and
 stimulant effect, opium has been thought to produce in-
 toxication, a quality for which it is much used in east-
 ern countries.
  The principal indications xvhich  opium  is capable
 of fulfilling are, supporting the actions of the system,
 allaying pain and irritation, relieving spasmodic action,
inducing sleep, and checking morbidly increased secie-
 tions.  It is differently administered, as it it, designed
to fulfil one or other of these indications.
  Where opium is  given as a stimulus,  it ought to be
administered in small doses, frequently repealed, and
slowly increased, as by  this mode tne excitement it
 produces is best kept up.  But xvhere the design is to
mitigate  pain  or irritation, or the  symptoms arising
from these, it ought to be given in a full dose, and at 
PAP                                               PAP
 distant intervals., by  xvhich the state of diminished
 poxver and sensi'iilily is most completely induced.
   One otlier general rule, xvith respect to the adminis-
 tration of opium, is, that it ought not to be given in any
 pure inflammatory affection, at least until evacuations
 have  been used, or  unless means are employed to
 determine  it to  the  surface, and  produce a diapho-
 resis.
   Iu continued fevers, not of tho  pure inflammatory
 kind, opium is administered  sometimes as a general
 stimulus, and at other times to allay  irritation.  The
 gieat practical rule in such cases is, that it ought to be
 given in such quantities only, that  the pulse becomes
 bloxver and fuller from its operation.   Its exhibition is
 improper  where local inflammation, especially of the
 brain, or of its membranes, exists.
   An intermittent fever, au opiate  renders the parox-
 ysms  milder, and facilitates  the  cure.  Dr. Cullen
 lecoinmeiids  the union of opium xvith bark, which
 enables the stomach to bear the latter  in larger doses,
 and adds considerably to its efficacy.
   In the profluvia and cholera, opium is employed to
 lessen  the  discharge, and is  frequently the  principal
 remedy iu effecting the cure.  In passive haemorrhagy,
 it  is useful by its stimulant power.  In retrocedent
 gout it is used as a powerful stimulant.
  In convulsive and spasmodic diseases it is advanta-
 geously administered, with the view of  relieving symp-
 toms, or even of  effecting a cute; and  in several of
 them it requires to be given to a very great extent.
   In lues venerea it promotes  the action of mercury,
 and relieves the irritation arising cither from that re-
 medy, or the disease.
  In the year 1779, opium was introduced into prac-
 tice as  a specific against the lues venerea.  It, was em-
 ployed  iu several of  the military hospitals,  where it
 acquired the reputation of a most efficacious remedy ;
 and Dr. Michaelis,  physician of the  Hessian  forces,
 published an account of a  great number of successful
 experiments made with it, in Ihe  first volume of the
 Medical Communications, in the year 1784.  Opium
 was afterward given as an anti-venereal remedy in
some foreign hospitals.  Many trials were also made
of its virtues in several of the London hospitals, and
in  the Royal Infirmary at Edinburgh.  Very favourable
 reports of its efficacy in removing venereal complaints
 xvere published by different practitioners; but, at the
same time, so many deductions were to be made, and
 so many exceptions were to be admitted, that  it re-
 quired  little sagacity to discover, thatmostof the advo-
cates for this medicine reposed but a slender and fluc-
 tuating confidence in its anti-venereal poxvers.  Mr.
 Pearson made  several experiments on the virtues of
 opium in lues  venerea, nt the Lock Hospital, iu the
 years 1784 and 1785; and published  a  narrative of its
 effects, in  the second volume of the Medical Commu-
 nications.  "The result of my experiments," says he,
 " was very unfavourable to the credit of this nexv re-
 medy ;  and I believe  that no surgeon in this country
 relies on opium as a specific against the venereal virus.
 I have been long accustomed to administer opium with
 great freedom  during the mercurial course; and the
 experience of nearly twenty years has  taught me, that,
 when il is combined with inercuiy, the proper efficacy
 of ihe latter is not ia  any measure  increased; that it
 would not be safe to rely upon a smaller quantity of
 the mineral specific,  nor to contract  the mercurial
 course  xvithin a shorter limit than where no opium has
 been employed.  This representation  xvill not, I pre-
 sume, admit of controversy;  yet xve frequently hear
 people  expressing themselves upon this head, as if opi-
 um manifested some peculiar qualities in  venereal
 complaints, of a distinct nature from  its xve!!-known
 narcotic properties, and thus afforded an important aid
 to  mercury in the removal of lues venerea."  Perhaps
 It may not  bo  useful  to disentangle this subject from
 Ihe perplexity in which such indefinite  language neces-
 sarily involves it.   Opium, xvhen given in conjunction
 with mercury, by diminishiiig the  sensibility  of  the
 stomach and bowels,  prevents many  of those incon-
 veniences xvhich this  mineral  is apt to excite in the
 prinitc viae; mid thus its  admission into the general
 system is facilitated.   Mercury xvill likrxvise often pro-
 duce a morbid irritability, accompanied with  restless-
 ness and iiisouinolescenoe; nnd it sometimes renders
 venereal sores painful, and disposed to spread.  These
 accidental  evils,  not  necessarily  connected  with the
      152
 venereal c sease,  may be commonly  alleviated, ana
 often entirely removed, by a judicious administration
 of  opium;  and  the  patient xvill consequently  be
 enabled  to  persist in using  the mineral specific.  It,
 hoxvever, must be perfectly obvious,  that opium, in
 conferring this sort of relief, communicates  no addi
 tional virtues to mercury; and  that, in reality, it  as-
 sists the  constitution  of" the  patient, not the operation
 of the medicine with xvhich it is combined.  The salu
 lary  effects  of mercury as an antidote may be dimi
 nished or lost by the supervention of vomiting, dysen
 tery, &c.  Opium  will often  correct these morbid  ap
 pearances, and so  will spices, wine, and appropriate
 diet, &c.; yet it would be a strange use of xvords to
 urge, wherever these  articles of food xvere beneficial
 to a venereal patient,  that they concurred in augment-
 ing the medicinal  virtues of mercury.  It may be sup-
 posed that the majority of medical men would under-
 stand by  the terms,  " to assist a medicine in curing
 a contagious disease," that the  drug conjoined xvith
 the specific  actually  increased its medicinal efficacy;
 xvhereas, in the instances  before us, it is the human
 body only which has been aided to resist tlie operation
 of certain noxious  powers, xvhich would render a per-
 severance in the  antidote  prejudicial  or impossible.
 The soothing qualities of this admirable medicine can
 scarcely  be  estimated too  highly.   Yet xve must be
 ware of ascribing effects to them wi.-ich have no ex-
 istence; since a confidence  in the anti-venereal virtue
 of opium xvould  be a source of greater mischief than
 ils most  valuable  properties xvould be able  to com
 pensate.
  Opium is employed with laxatives in colic, and often
 prevents  ileus and inflammation,   by  relieving  the
 spasm.
  It is given also to promote healthy suppuration, and
 is  a principal remedy in arresting tlie progress of gan-
 grene.
  The sudorific property of opium is justly considered
 of considerable power, more especially in combination
 with ipecacuan or  antimony. The compound powdei
 of ipecacuan, consisting of one part of ipecacuan, one
 part of opium, and eight of sulphate of potassa, is a
 very poxverful sudorific, given in a dose from 15 to 25
 grains.  Tlie combination of opium xvith antimony is
 generally made by  adding 30 to 40 drops of anlimnuial
 xvine to 25 or 30 drops of tincture of opium, and form-
 ing them into a draught.
  Opium, taken inlo the stomach in immoderate doses,
 proves a narcotic  poison,  producing vertigo,  tremors,
 convulsions, delirium, stupor, stertor, and, finally, fatal
 apoplexy.
  Where opium has been taken so as to produce these
dangerous consequences, the contents of the stomach
 are first to be evacuated by a powerful emetic, as a so-
 lution of the sulphate of  zinc.   Large draughts  of
 vinegar, or any of the native vegetable acids, are then
 to  bo swalloxxed.   Moderate doses of brandy, or a
strong infusion of coffee, have also been found useful.
  Respecting flic external application of opium, authors
seem not sufficiently agreed.  Some  allege, that xvhen
applied to the skin  il  allays  pain and spasm, procures
sleep, and produces all the salutary or dangerous  ef-
 fects wliich result from its internal use: while others
say, that thus applied it has little or no effect  whatever.
 It has also been asserted, that when mixed xvith caustic
 it diminishes the pain  xvhich would otherxvise ensue;
 and if this be true, it is probably by decreasing tlie
sensibility of the part.  Injected  by the rectum, it has
 all the effect of opium taken inlo the stomach ;  but to
 answer this purpose,  double tlie quantity is to he em-
 ployed.   Applied to the naked nerves of animals, it
 produces immediate torpor and loss of poxver in all the
 muscles xvith xvhich the nerves communicate.
  The requisite  dose  of opium varies in different per
 sons and  iu different  states of the same person.  A
 quarter of a grain xvill iu one adult produce effecfi
 xvhich ten times the  quantity xvill nol do in another
 and a dose that might prove fatal  in  cholera or colic,
 would not be perceptible in many cases of tetanus, or
 mania.   The loxvest fatal dose to those unaccustomed
 to take it, seems to be about four  grains;  but a dan
 gerous dose is so apt  to produce vomiting, that it has
 seldom time  to occasion death.  When g  veil in too
 small a dose, it often produces disturbed  sleep, and
 other disagreeable  consequences ; and in some cases it
 seems impossible  to be made to agree in any dose ur 
PAR
PAR
form.  Often, on the other hand, from a small dose
sound sleep and alleviation of pain will be produced ;
xvhile  a larger one  occasions vertigo and  delirium.
Some prefer the repetition of small doses ;  others the
giving a full dose at once; its operation is supposed to
last  about eight hours; tills,  hoxvcver, must  depend
upon circumstances.  The usual dose is  one  grain.
The officinal preparations of this drug are numerous.
The following aie among the principal: Opium puri-
ficatum, pilula saponis cum opio, pulvis cornu ustt cum
opto, tinctura opii, tinctura camphora composita, and
confectio opti ■ it is also an ingredient in  the pulvis
ipecacuanha compositus, electuarium japonicum pulvis
creta compositus cum opio, Sec.   The capsules of the
poppy are also directed for medicinal use in the form
of fomentation ;  and in  the syrupttspapaveris, a use-
ful anodyne, which often succeeds in procuring sleep
where opium  fads;  ii is, however, more  especially
adapted to children.  The  seeds of this  species of
poppy contain  a bland oil, and in  many  places are
eaten as food; as a medicine, they have been usually
given in the form of emulsion  in catarrlis, strangu-
ries,  Sec.
  Pap'axv.   The fruit  of a species of carica.  See
Carica pupnya.
  PAP1LIONACEUS.   Papilionaceous.    A term
applied to the corolla of plants xvhen they are irregular
and spreading, and thus resemble somexx-'hat the butter-
fly.  Tlie various petals xvhich c impose such a flower
are distinguished by  appropriate names: vexillum, the
standard, the large one at the back; ala, the two side
petals; and carina, the heel,  consisting of txvo petals
united or separate, embracing the internal organs.
  PAPILLA.    (From pappus,  down.   See  Ulla.)
1. The nipple of the breast.  See Nipple.
  2.  The fine terminations of nerves, Sec. as the ner-
vous papillae of the tongue, skin, Sec.
  Papill.v mkoullares.  Small eminences  on  tlie
medulla oblongata.
  Papilla'ris herba.   Sec Lapsana.
  PAPILLOSUM.  Papillose.  Applied to  stalks con-
nected with soft tubercles; as the ice plant, Mtscmbry-
anthemum crystallinum.
  PAPPOSUS.   Pappose:  furnished xvith a pappus
or seed down;   as  tiie seeds of the Leontodon  ta-
raxacum.
  PAPPUS.  1.  The hair on the middle of the chin.
See  Capillus.
  2.  The seed-down.  This is restrained by Gaertner to
the chaffy, feathery, or bristly croxvn of many seeds
that have no pericarpium, and which originates in  a
partial ensyx croxvning the summits  of each of these
seeds, and remaining after the floxver is fallen; as in
tlie seeds of dandelion, goats-beard.
  The same term is used by the generality of botanists
for the feathery croxvn of seeds furnished xvith a cap-
Bule, as xvell as for a similar appendage to the base or
sides nf any seeds, neither of xvhich can originate from
a calyx.  For the former of these, Gaertner adopts  the
term  coma; for the  latter, pubes;  which  last also
serves for any downiness or wool about the  testa of  a
seed ;  as in the cotton plant, aud Blandfordia no-
bilis.
  The varieties of the pappus are,
  1.  P. fessilis, on the apex of tlie seed, xvithout any
footstalk; as in  Asclepias syriaca, Nerium oleander,
and  Epilobium.
  2.  P. stipitatus, elevated on a  footstalk; as in Le-
ontodon taraxacum.
  3.  P. plumosus, when  the radii of the footstalked
pappus are hairy laterally; as in Tragopogon pra-
tense.
  The lana pappiformis of authors is not  a pappus,
but  hairs which only surround the seed; as  in Eryo-
phorum.
  PATULA.  (Papula, a. f.;  diminutive of pappa,  a
dug  or nipple.   See  Ulla.)  A very small and  acumi-
nated elevation of the cuticle, with an inflamed base,
not  containing a fluid, nor lending to suppuration.
The duration of papulae  is uncertain, but they termi-
nate for the most part in scurf.
  PARABYSMA.  (Parabysma, atis. n.; from rzapa-
Svu, congestion,  infarction, ooacervation.)  Dr. Good
has applied this term to a genus of diseases, (compre-
hended bv Cullen and others under that of physcoma,)
Class, Caliaca;  Order, Splanchnica.  Visceral tur-
gescence.   It has seven species.  Parabysma hepa'.i-
  (.11,  splcnic.iim; pancreuticum;  mesentericuM;  in
  teslinale; omen tale; eoiuplicatum
    PAR.  (Par, oris, u ; a pair.)   A pair.
    Par cucullare.  So Casseiius  calls the Crico ary-
  tanoid muscle.
    Par vagum.  The eighth  parr  of nerves.   They
  arise from  the corpora olivaria nf the  medulla  ob-
  longata, and proceed into  Ihe neck, thorax, and abdo-
  men.   In the neck the  par  vagum gives off txvo
  branches the lingual and  superior laryngeal; and, in
  the thorax, four branches,  the recurrent laryngeal, tho
  cardiac, the pulmonary, nnd the oesophageal  plexuses.
  At length Ihe trunks of the ncrvi vagi, adjacent to the
  mediastinum,  run into the stomach, and ihere form
  the stomachic plexus, xvhich branches to the abdoiu:'-
  nal plexuses.
    PARACELSUS,  a  native  of  Switzerland, bnrn
  about the year \V-X.t.  His father is said to have been a
  practitioner in medicine, and inspired him with a taste
  for chemistry.  He very early commenced a sort of
  rambling  life,  assuming the pompous names of Phil-
  lipus, Aureolus,  Theophrastus, Paracelsus,  Bonihas-
  tus de Hohcnheim; and after  visiting the schools of
  France, Italy,  and Germany, he  sought for  lnforma
  tion  during  several  years  among quacks of every de-
  scription, pretending that he hud  found the principles
  of the  medical art altogether erroneous.  He  appears
  to have possessed the talent of" imposing upon  man-
  kind in an eminent degree; for even the learned Eras-
  mus is said to have consulted him.  It  cannot be a
  matter of surprise, lhat, by ihe bold use of active me-
  dicines, especially mercury, antimony, and opium, he
 should have effected some remarkable  cures:  these
  cases xvere  displayed xvith the  usual exaggeration,
  xvhile tliose, in which he failed, or did mischief, passed
  unnoticed.  His reputation, hoxvever, became so great,
  that the magistrates of Basle engaged him, at a large
  salary, to fill the chair of medicine  in their university
  Accordingly, in 15-J7,  he  began delivering  lectures,
  sonietimes in  barbarous Latin, oftener  in German;
  but, though  he gained at first some enthusiastic adhe-
  rents, the ridiculous vanity which he displayed, de-
  spising every  other  authority  in   medicine, whether
  ancient or modern, soon created such disgust, that he
  xvas left  without an audience. A quarrel with the
  magistrates, on account of a  decision against his de-
  mand of fee3, xvhich xvas deemed exorbitant, decided
  him in the folloxving year to leave the place.  He sub-
  sequently resided  in  Alsace, and other parts of Ger
  many, leading  a life of extreme intemperance, in the
  lowest company;  yet occasional instances of extraor-
  dinary success in  his practice still preserved him some
  reputation, notwithstanding numerous failures. But
  the most  striking  proof of the folly of his pretensions
  xvas  given in his oxvn  person; for, after announcing
  that  he xvas in possession  of an elixir xvhich xvould
  prolong human life to an indefinite peiiod, he died  at
 Saltzburg, in 1511,  of a fever.  It  must be acknow-
 ledged, hoxvever, lhat Paracelsus xvas of material ser-
  vice to medicine, by showing that many active medi
 cines might  be safely employed; and particularly as
 having been one of  the first lo exhibit mercury in the
 cure of syphilis, xvhich had been in  vain attempted by
 the Galenical  remedies Ihen in  use.  He published
 little during his life, but a great number of  posthumous
  treatises appeared under his name, which are too re-
  plete xvith absurdities to deserve enumeration.
   PARACENTESIS.  (From znapaxtvrtu, to  pierce
  through.)  The operation  of tapping to evacuate the
  xvater in ascites, dropsy of the ovarium, &x.
   Paracma'sticos.  (From vapaxuaX,u,  to decline.)
  Paracmc.  The declension of any distemper; also ac-
  cording to Galen, that  part of life where a person is
  said lo grow old, and xvhich he reckons from  35 to 49,
  when he is said to be old.
   PARA'COE.  (From napa, diminutive, and axonu,
  to hear.)   Dulness of hearing.
   Paracolle'tica.   (From irapaxoXXaopat, to glue
  together.)  Agglutinants, or substances whicli unite
  parts preternaturally separated.
   Para'cope.   (From irapaxoirru, to be delirious )  In
  Hippocrates, it is a slight delirium.
   Paracrusis.  (From  napaxpevu, to deprecatee.)   A
  slight disarrangement of the faculties, where the pa-
  tient is inattentive to what is said to him.
   PARACUSIS.   (From  Trapa, xvrong, and axovw, Co
I  hear.)  Depraved hcarine.  Deafness.  A  eenus  ol
                                         153 
PAR.                                            PAR
disease  in the class Locales, and order Dysasthesia,
of Cullen.  It is occasioned by any thing that  proves
injurious to the ear, as loud noises from the firing of
cannon, violent colds, particularly affecting the head,
inflammation or ulceration of the  membrane, hard
wax, or other substances interrupting sounds, too great
a dryness, or  too much moisture in the parts; or by
atony,  debility, or paralysis of the auditory nerves.
In some instances it  ensues in  consequence of pre-
ceding diseases, such as fever,  syphilis,  &c. and in
others it depends upon an original defect iu the struc-
ture or formation of the ear.  In the last instaene, the
person is  usually not  only  deaf,  but likewise  dumb.
There arc two species.
  1. Paracusis imperfecta;  Surditas.  When existing
(Sounds are not heard as usual.
  2 Paracusis imaginaria, called also Sussurus;  Sy-
rigmus; Syringmos;  Tinnitus aurium.  When ima-
ginary sounds are heard, not from without, but excited
within ihe ear.
  PARACYESIS.   (From  vapa, male;  and xvr)<rts,
graviditas.)  The  name of a genus of" diseases iu
Good's Nosology;  Class, Gcnctica; Order, Carpolica.
Morbid  pregnancy.  It has three species, viz.  Para-
cyesis irritativa, utcrina, abortus.
  Paracyna'nche.   (From irapa, xvuv, a  dog, and
aXx.u, to strangle.)  A species of quinsy.   See  Cy-
nanchc.
  PARADI'SUS.  (Hebrew.)   A  pungent  seed  re-
sembling the cardamom, named from  its virtues.  See
Amomum.
  Paradisi grana.  See Amomum.
  PARAGEUSIS.  (From -rapa,  male, ytvu, gustum
prabeo.)   The name of a genus  of diseases in Good's
Nosology: Class, Neurotica; Order, JEsthetica. Mor-
bid taste.  It comprehends three species, viz. Parageu-
sis acuta, obtusa, expers.
  Paraglo'ssa.   (From   rapa, and  yXuaoa,  the
tongue.)   A prolapsus of the tongue, a swelled tongue.
  Parago'ge.   (From irapayu, to  adduce.)   This
term signifies thai  fitness of the  bones to one another,
which is discernible  in their articulation; and bones
which are thereby easier of reduction, when dislocated,
are by Hippocrates called irapayuyortpa.
  Parala'mpsis. (From irapaXapiru, to shine a little.)
Some xvriters use this xvord to express a cicatrix in the
transparent part of the cornea of the eye.
  Paralla'gma.   (From rapaXXarru, to change.  Pa-
rallaxis.  The transmutation of a  solid part from its
proper place, as where one  part of  a broken bone lies
over another.
  Paralla'xis.  See  Parallagma.
  Paralle'la.  (From jrapaAAr/Aoc, parallel.)  A  sort
of scurf or leprosy, affecting  only  the  palms of tlie
hands, and running down them in parallel lines.
   PARALO'GIA.  (From -xapaXeyu, to talk absurdly.)
A delirium in xvhich the patient talks wildly.
  Paralo'phia. (From Trapa, near, and  Xodna,  the
first vertebra of the back.*)   The  lower and lateral part
of the neck near the vertebrae, according to some anato-
mical writers, as Keil, &c.
  PARA'LYSIS.  (From TrapaAuw, to loose, or xveak-
en.)  Catalysis;  Atlonitus  morbus;  'Tremor.  The
palsy.    A genus  of  disease  in the Class Neuroses,
and Order Comata, of Cullen, knoxvn by a loss or di-
minution of the power of voluntary motion, affecting
certain partsof the body, often acompanied with drow-
siness.  In some instances, the disease is confined  to a
particular part;  but it more usually happens that one
entire side of the body from the head doxvnxvards is
nfti-cted.  The species are:
   1. Paralysis partialis, partial, or palsy of some par-
ticular muscle.
   2. Paralysis hcmiplegica, palsy of one side longitu-
dinally.
   H. Paralysis paraplegica, palsy of one half of the
 bodvl taken transversely, as both legs and thighs.
   4." Paralysis venenata, from the sedative effects of
poisons.  Paralysis is also symptomatic of several dis-
eases, ue xvorms, scrofula, syphilis, Sec.
   It may aiise  In consequence  of an attack of apo-
plexy.  It may  likexvise be occasioned by anything
 that prevents the  flow of the nervous power from the
 brain into the organs of motion; hence tumours, over-
distenlion, nnd effusion, often give rise to it.  It  may
also be occasioned by translations of morbid matter to
the head, by the suppression of usual evacuations, and
       154
by tne pressure made on the nerves by  uxations, frae
tures, wounds, or other external  injuries.  The long
continued application  of sedatives will likexvise pro-
duce palsy, as we find those, xvhose  occupations sub-
ject them to the constant handling of white lead, and
those who are much exposed to the poisonous fumes of
metals or minerals, are very apt to be attacked xvith it
Whatever tends to relax and enervate the system, may
likexvise prove an occasional cause of this disease.
  Palsy usually comes on  with a sudden and imme-
diate  loss of the  motion and sensibility of the parts;
but, in a few instances, it is preceded by a numbness,
coldness, and paleness, and sometimes by slight convul-
sive txvitches.  When the head  is  much affected, the
eye and mouth are draxvn on one side, the memory and
judgment are much impaired, and the speech is indis-
tinct and incoherent.   If the disease  affects the extre-
mities, and has been of long duration, it not only pro-
duces a  ioss of motion and sensibility, but likexvise  a
considerable flaccidity and xvasting axvay in the  mus-
cles of the parts affected.
  When palsy attacks any vital part, such as the brain,
heart, or lungs, it soon terminates fatally.  When  it
arises as a consequence of apoplexy, it generally proves
very difficult to cure.  Paralytic affections of the lower
extremities ensuing from any injury done to the spinal
marroxv, by bloxvs and other accidents,  usually prove
incurable.   Palsy, although  a  dangerous disease in
every instance, particularly at an  advanced period of
life,  is  sometimes removed by the  occurrence of a
diarrhoea or fever.
  The morbid nppearances to be  observed on dissec-
tions in  palsy  are pretty similar to those xvhich are to
be met  with in apoplexy;  hence collections of blood,
and  of  serous fluids, arc often found effused on the
brain, but more frequently the latter; and in some in-
stances ihe substance of this organ seems to have suf-
fered an alteration.  In palsy, as xvell as in apoplexy
the collection of extravasated fluid is generally on the
opposite side of the brain to lhat which is affected.
  The general indications are, to remove, as far as pos-
sible, any  compressing cause, and to rouse gradually
the torpid portion of  the nervous system. It will some-
times be  proper, where the attack is sudden, the dis-
ease originating in the  head, with great determination
of blood to that part, particularly in  a plethoric habit,
to open the temporal  artery, or jugular vein, or apply
cupping glasses to the neck, and exhibit active purges,
xvith the  other means pointed out under  apoplexy.
But  xvhere the patient is advanced in life, of a debili-
tated constitution, and not too full of blood, the object
should  rather be to procure regular and Wealthy dis-
charges from the boxvels, obviate irritation in the brain
by blisters in the  neighbourhood, and procure a steady
determination to the skin by gently stimulant  diapho-
retics, as ammonia, guaiacum, &x. in moderate doses
regularly persevered  in. Emetics have been sometimes
very useful under these circumstances,  but would be
dangerous  where congestion in  the  brain  existed.
Certain narcotic substances hax-e been found occasion-
ally  successful, as aconite, arnica, toxicodendron, nux
vomica, and opium;  but the tendency of the lalter  to
produce fulness of the  vessels of the  liead must greatly
limit its use.   Various local  means  of  increasing the
circulation, and  nervous energy in the  affected  parts,
arc resorted to in this  complaint,  often with  decided
benefit.  In all cases it is proper to  keep up suflicient
warmth in the limb,  or the disease may be rendered in-
curable.  But in addition to this,  in  tedious cases, fo-
mentations, the vapour bath, friction, electricity, and a
variety of stimulant,  rubefacient, or even vesicatory,
embrocations, liniments, and plasters, may assist mate-
rially in the  recovery of the patient.   In the use  ol
some of these it  should be a rule to  begin  near the
boundary of the disease, and carry them onward, as the
amendment proceeds, not only as they  will be more likely
to answer a good purpose, but also because there would
be some risk in stimulating too powerfully au extreme
part.  A suitable diet,  according to the habit of tlie pa-
tient, warm clothing, the prudent use of the bath, and
other means calculated to strengthen the system, must
1 not be neglected.
   Paralysis herba.  (From minaXvu, to weaken:  eo         \
called from its use in  paralytic disorders.)   The coxv
slip and primrose arc sometimes so termed.  See Pri
 mula veris, and Primula vulgaris.
   PARAMENIA.  (From irapa,  wrong, and prpv,  thn 
PAR
PAR
menses.)  The name of a genus of diseases in Good's
Nosology.   Class, Genetica;  Order, Cenotica.   Mis
menstruation.  It has five species, viz. Puramenia ob-
structions, difflcilis, superfiuus, erroris, eessationis.
  Parame'ria.  (From  rapa,  near,  and pnpos,  the
.high.)  The inward parts of the thigh.
  Para mksus.   (From rapa,  near, and  ptoos, the
middle.)  The  ring-finger, or that xvhich is  between
(he middle and the little fingers.
  PARA MORPHINE.  (From n-apa, xx-rong, and popebrj,,
.°*oim.)  The name of a class of diseases ol" the nutri-
v>e poxvers in  Dr. Young's Nosology.  Diseases of
S.ructure.
  PARANEURISMI. (From rapa,xvrong, and vcvpov,
a nerve.   The name given by Dr. Young to a class of
diseases.  Nervous diseases.
  [•• Paranthine of Hauy, or Scapolite of Jameson.
This rare mineral,sometimes  massive, usually appears
in long prismatic crystals, having four or eight sides.
The latter form,, which may be called  a four-sided
prism, truncated on its  lateral edges, is sometimes ter-
minated  by four-sided summits, whose  faces are in-
clined to the alternate lateral planes, on  which they
stand, at angles of 120°.   The primitive form is a four-
sided  prism, which is very easily divisible, parallel to
the  diagonals of its  bases, which are squares.  The
crystals, usually long, sometimes cylindrical or acicu-
lar, are often in groupes,  composed of parallel, dix-erg-
ing, or intermingled prisms.
  The longitudinal fracture is foliated;  indeed, some
crystals might be mistaken for little plates of mica, ar-
ranged in the direction of its axis.  The cross  fracture
is often uneven.
  The Scapolite presents a considerable  diversity of
colour, lustre, and hardness, which appears to arise in
part from  a partial decomposition, perhaps the loss of
the  xx-ater of crystallization."—Cleav. Min. A.]
  PaRanoi'a.  (From rapa, diminutive, and  votu, to
nnderstaiid.)  Paranoia.  Alienation of mind; defect
of judgment.
  Parape'chtcm.   (From rapa, near, and iri/xuc, the
cubit) That part of the arm from the elbow to the wrist.
  PARAPHLMO SIS.  (From tzapa, about, and dttpou,
to bridle.)  A disorder wherein the prepuce, being re-
tracted towards the root ofthe penis, caimot be returned
again over the glans, but makes a sort of ligature be-
hind the corona.  It is easily knoxvn; the glans is un-
covered, the skin tumefied on the corona, and  above  it
forms a circular collar or suicture,  xvhich, from the
skin being  unequally extended, becomes indented, and
makes several rings round the part.  This disease may
proceed from two causes; as first from the imprudence
of young people, and sometimes also of groxvn  persons,
who having the end of their prepuce too straight, can-
not uncover their glans  without pain, and xvhen they
have done it, neglect returning it so soon as they ought;
and thus the contracted part of  the prepuce  forms  a
constriction behind the glans.  Soon after, the glans
and penis swell, and the prepuce, being  consequently-
very much distended, is affected in the same manner;
an inflammation seizes upon both, and swellings quickly
appear upon the stricture formed by the prepuce, so
that the whole may be  liable tn a  gangrene,  if not
speedily relieved.  The second thing that may produce
a paraphimosis,  is a veneroaftvirus.   In adults, whose
glans is uncovered,  there  frequently arise  venereal
chancres in the prepuce after impure coition, xvhich
before they digest, are generally attended with inflam-
mation, more or less considerable.  This inflammation
is alone suflicient to render the prepuce too straight for
the size of the penis, in consequence of which a swell-
ing or inosculation may ensue like that  before men-
tion ed ; and this is xvhat  is termed a paraphimosis.
  PARAPHO'NIA.  (Fiom aapa, xvrong, and ttuvn,
sound.)  Alteration of the voice. A genus of disease
in the Class Locales, and Order Dyscinesia,oi Cullen,
comprehending six species, viz.
  1. Paraphonia puberum.  About the age of puberty
the change of voice from an acute and soft to a grave
and harsh tone.
  2. Paraphonia rauea.  The voice hoarse and rough
from dryness of flaccid tumour of the fauces.
  3. Paraphonia resonans. Rough voice from obstruc-
tion of the nares, xvith  hissing sound in the nose.
  4. Paraphonia palatina.  From the uvula wanting,
or divided, and  commonly attended with hare-lip, the
voice rough, obscure, and disagreeable.
  5.  Paraphonia clangens. An acute, shrill,and ixcnk
toned voice.
  6.  Paraphonia comatosa.  A sound emitted at inspi
ration from relaxation of the velum palati, and of the
glottis.
  Para'phora.   (From  zapac)tpu, to transfer.)   A
slight kind of delirium, or light-headeduess in a fever
Some use this xx-ord for a delirium in general.
  P.xraphrene'sis.  A delirium ; also a paraphrenias.
  PARAPHRENI'TIS. (From rapa, mate, not rightly
and phrenitis, inflammation of the brain . so called be-
cause its symptoms resemble those of the phrenitis,  or
inflammation of the brain, wliich it Is not.)  Paraphrt-
ntsis; Diaphragmatilis.  All inflammation ofthe dia-
phragm.  A genus uf di-case in the Class Pyrexia, and
Order  Phlegmasia, of Cullen,  known  by delirium,
with difficulty of breathing,  and pain in the  region of
the diaphragm, and xvhich requires the same treatment
as inflammation of the  lungs.
  P ARAPHRO'SYNE.  i,Fiom irapadipovtu, to be es-
tranged in mind )  The sAme as Mania.
  Paraphymo sis.  See Paraphimosis.
  PARAPLEGIA.   (From r.apairXriaou,  to strike
inhnrinonioiisly )   Palsy of one half of the body taken
transversely.  A species of paralysis.  See Paralysis.
  PaRapople'xia.  (From rapa, diminutive, and airo-
izXnlia, an apoplexy.)   A slight apoplexy.
  PARAI'SIS.  (From rapa, and awropat,  perpcram
tango.)   The name  of a genus of diseases in Good's
Nosology, Class Neurotica; Order JEstheticu.  Mor-
bid touch. -It embraces three species, Parapsis acris,
expers, illusoria.
  Pararthre'ma.  (From rtapa, and apOpov, a joint.)
A slight  luxation.  A tumour from protrusion, as  in
hernia.
  PaRarthre'mata.   (The plural of pararthrema.)
See Pararthrema.
  Parart'thmos.  ,Fi im nana, and pvOpos, number.)
A pulse not suitable to the age of the person
  Parascbpa'stra.   (From irapa, and oxtza\u,  Us
cover.)   A  cap or bandage to go round the whole
head.
  Para'scbidk.  (From rapa, and extlu, to cleave,"-
A fragment or fissure in a broken bone.
  Parasit.u.  The name of  an order of plants in Lin
na-us's Fragments of a Natural Method.
  PARASITIC.  (Parasiticus; from  irapaatros  a
parasite  or hanger on.)  An animal is so termed that
receives  its nourishment  in  the  bodies of others;  as
worms, polypes, hydatids, &c.
  A plant is so  called xvhich sends its roots into other
plants, from  which  it draws its nourishment; as the
Epideiidrum vanilla.  See Arrhizus.
  PARASITICUS.  Parasitical.
  PARAS1TUS.  (Iliipao-iroj, a parasite.)  A parasite:
applied  to animals  and vegetables wliich draxv their
nourishment from others of the same kingdom, living
xvithin the  interior of animals, or having their roots
fixed in the barks of vegetables.
  Para'sphacis.   (From  jr.-ipa, near, and oq)ayri, the
throat.)   The part of the neck contiguous to  the cla-
vicles.
  Para'stata.   (From napis^ipt, to stand near.)   It
signifies any thing situated near another.
  Para'stata.    (From irapitrrnpi, to  stand  near.)
The   Epididymis of Hippocrates.  Herophilus  and
Galen called these the Varieosa, Parastata, to distin-
guish them from the  Glandula Parastata, now called
Prostata. Rufus Ephesius called (he tubae Fallopianae
by the name of Parastata Varieosa.
  Parastre'mma.  (From  txapaarptebu, to distort,  or
pervert.) A perversion, or convulsive distortion ofthe
mouth, or any part of the face.
  Parasyna'ni iik.  See  Paracynanche.
  PARA THENAR.  (From napa, near, and $tvap,
the sole of the foot.)  A muscle situated near the sole
of the foot.
  Paratiienar minor.  See  Flexor brevis  minimi
digiti pedis.
  PARANTHINE.  See Scapolite.
  Parda'lhm.    (From  irapdos, the panther.)  An
ointment smelling like the panther.
  PARE', Ambrose, a French surgeon,  was  born  al
Lavel, in 150!).   He  commenced the study of the sur-
gical  profession early  in  life, and practised it ,v ;ih
great zeal both  in hospitals and in the nrmv.  His re-
putation at length rose very high, and he was appoLr.t,
                                         155 
PAR
FAR
  ed surgeon in ordinary  to Henry II. in 1552 ;  which
  office he held also under the throe  succeeding kings.
  Charles IX. derived material assistance from his pro-
  fessional skill, and gave a signal proof of his gratitude ;
  for Pare, being a Huguenot, would have been included
  in tlie horrible massacre of St. Bartholomew's, had not
  the king sent for him on the preceding night, and or-
  dered him not to leave the royal chamber.  After hav-
  ing been long esteemed as the first surgeon of his time,
  and beloved for his private virtues, he died in the year
  151)0.   He was the author of some works, which were
  univeisally read, and translated  into most of the lan-
  guages of Europe, containing a  body of surgical sci-
  ence.   He xvas a man of original mind, and a real im-
  prover of his art, especially in the treatment of gun-
  shot  xvounds ;  adopting a lenient method,  instead of
  the  irritating  and cauterizing applications previously
  in use.  He was also a bold and successful operator;
  and displayed on many occasions all the resources of
  au  enlightened  surgeon.   He appears,  however,  to
  have borrowed freely from the Italian writers and prac-
  titioners, especially in  anatomy.  There is also an
  affectation  of reference to the works of the ancients in
  his writings, for he  xvas by no means well versed in
  these, and indeed obliged to request another to translate
  into  French  some of the books of Galen, which he
  wished to consult.
   PAREC'CRISES. (From rupa, wrong, and txxpivu,
  to secern or secrete.)  The name of a class of diseases
  in Dr. Young's Nosology.—Diseases of secretion.
   PAREGORIC.  (Paregoricus ; from tzapayoptu, to
  mitigate, to assuage.)  That which allays pain.
   Paregoric elixir. See Tinctura camphora composita.
   Parei'a. Ilaptia.  That  part of the face which is
  between the eyes and chin.
   Parei'ra brava. See Cissampelos.
   Parenc e'phalis.  (Fromnapa, near, and tyxtcbaXos,
  the brain.)   See Ccrebi Hum.
   PARE'NCHYMA.   (From  itaptyvvu, to  strain
  through; because the ancients believed the blood xvas
  strained through it.) 1. The spongy and  cellular sub-
  stance or tissue, that connects parts together. It is ap-
  plied to the connecting medium of the substance of
  ihe viscera.
   2. The green juicy layer of barks which lies immedi-
  ately under the epidermis of trees.
   PA'RESIS.  (From irapinpt, to relax.)  An imper-
  fect palsy.
   PARGAS1TE.  Common actynolite.
   PARHAEMA'SLE.   (Fromirapa, xvrong, and atpa,
  blood.)  The  name of a class of diseases in Dr.
  Young's Nosology.  Sanguine diseases.
    Parie'ra  brava.  (A  Spanish xvord.)   See Cis-
  sampelos.
   PARIETALE OS.   (Parietalis;  from  paries, a
  wall, because they defend the brain like walls.)  Ossa
  verttcis.  Ossa sincipitis.  Ossa vcrticalia vet  brcg-
  matis.  The parietal bones are two arched and some-
  what quadrangular bones, situated one on each side of
  the  superior  part  of the cranium.   Each of  these
  bones forms an irregular  square.  They are thicker
  above than below; but  are somexvhat thinner, and at
  the same lime  more equal and smooth than the other
  boms of the cranium.   The only foramen xve observe
  in them, is a small one toxvards the upper and posterior
  part of each.   It has been named the parietal foramen,
  and serves for the  transmission of a  small vein  to the
■^longitudinal sinus.  In  many subjects this foramen is
  wanting.   On the inner surface of these bones are ihe
  marks of the vessels of the dura mater,  and of the
  convoluted surface of the  brain.  On the inside of
  their upper edge we may likewise observe a consider-
  able furrow, which corresponds xvith the longitudinal
  sinus ofthe  dura mater; and  loxver doxvn, towards
  their posterior and  inferior angle, is a smaller one for
  part of the lateral sinuses.  These bones are joined to
  each other by the sagittal suture; tn the os sphenoides,
  and ossa temporum, by the squamous suture; to the os
  occipitis by  the lambdoidal  suture;  and  to the os
  frontis by the coronal suture.  Their connexion xvith
  this latter  bone  is xvell worthy our attention.  We
  shall find,  that in tho middle of the suture, xvhere the
  os frontis from its size and flatness is the most in dan-
  ger of being injured, it rests upon the arch  formed by
  the parietal bones ; whereas, at the sides, the parietal
  tones are  found  resting upon the os frontis, because
  •his same  arch is there in tho greatest  danger from
 pressure.  In new-born infants, the ossa parietalia are
 separated from the middle of the divided os frontis by
 a portion of the cranium, then unossified.   When the
 finger is applied to this part, the motion of the biain,
 and the pulsation of the arteries  of the dura mater,
 may be easily distinguished.  In general, tbe xvhole of
 this part is completely  ossified before we are seven
 years of age.
   PARIETA'RIA.  (From paries, a wall; because
 it grows upon old  xvalls, among rubbish.)  1. The
 name of a  genus  of plants in  the Linnaean system
 Class, Polygamia; Order, Monacia.
   2. The pharniacopoeial name of the wall pellitory.
 See Parictaria officinalis.
   Parietaria officinalis.  The systematic name of
 ,.he wall pellitory.   Parietaria; foliislanceolato-ova-
 tis, pedunculis dichotomis, calycibus diphyllis, of Lin-
 na-us.   This plant has no smell, and its taste is simply
 herbaceous.  In the practice of the present day, it is
 wholly laid aside, although it  xvas formerly in  high
 estimation as a diuretic.
   PA'RIS.   (So called  in reference to the youth of
 that name, who  adjudged the golden apple to Venus,
 this herb bearing  but one seed.)  1. The name of a
 genus of plants in the Linnaean system.  Class,  Octan-
 dria; Order, Tetragynia.
   2. The pharmacopceial nanieof the herb Paris.  See
 Paris quadrifolia.
   Paris quadrifolia.  The  systematic name of the
 herb Paris, or true  love.   The colour and smell  of this
 plant indicate its  possessing  narcotic powers.    The
 leaves and berries  are said to be efficacious in the  cure
 of hooping-cough, and to act  like opium.  Great cau-
 tion is  requisite in their exhibition,  as convulsions and
 death are caused by an overdose.   The root possesses
 emetic qualities.
   Pari'stumia.   (From zzapa, and  toOptov, the part of
 the throat xvhere the tonsils are.   A part of the throat
 near the tonsils, or disorders of the  tonsils.
   Paristhmio'tomus.   (From  zzaptaOpta, the. tonsils,
 and rtpvu, to cut.)  An instrument with which the
 tonsils xvere formerly scarified.
   Paristhmitis.  Inflammation of parts  about the
 fauces.
   Parodo'ntis.  (From zzapa, near, and oSovs, a tooth.)
 A painful tubercle upon  the gums.
   PARODYN1A.  (From izapa, male, and uitv, or
 uStc. ivos, dolor parturicntis.)  The name  of a genus
 of disease in Good's Nosology.  Class.  Genetica; Or-
 der, Carpolica.  Morbid labour.  It embraces  seven
 species, viz. Parodynia  atonica ; implastica ; sympa-
 thetica; perversa; amorphica;pleuralis; secundaria.
   PARONIRIA.   (From irapa,  and ovttpov, a dream,
 i. e. depraved, disturbed, or morbid dreaming.)   The
 nameof a genus of diseases in Good's Nosology.  Class,
 Neurotica; Order, Phrcmca.  Sleep, disturbance.  Il
 lias three species, viz. Paroniria nmbulans; loquens,
 and salax.
   PARONYCHIA.  (From zzapa, about,  and 01/ui;,
 the nail.)   Panaris; Panaritium.  A whitloxv, or
 whitloe. Any collection of pus formed in  the fingers
 is tenured by authors, panaris, or whitloe, and is a if ab-
 scess of the same nature with those arising in other
 parts of the body.  These abscesses are situated more
 or less  deep, xvhich has Induced the  xvriters upon the
 subject  to divide them  into stvcral species: accord-
 ingly they have ranged them under four heads, agree-
 ably to the places where they nre  formed.   The first
 kind of panaris is  formed under the cuticle, on one
 side of the  nail,  and sometimes all round  it.    The
 second is sealed in the fat lying under the skin, betxveen
 that and the sheath xvhich involves  the flexor tendons.
 The third is described by authors to be  formed  within
 the sheath; and they still add a fourth species, arising
 between the periosteum and the bone.
  Paro'pi.e.   (From zzapa, near,  and  tody, the eye)
 The external angles of the eyes.
   PAROPSIS.  (From rapa, male, and oiiic,  visits
 sight.)   The  name of a  genus of diseases 'in Good'
 Nosology.  Class, Neurotica; Order, Phremca.  Mot
 bid sight.  It has thirteen species;  xiz. Paropsis  luci
fuga; noctifuga ;  longingua ; prupmgua ; lateralis;
 illusoria; caligo; gtaucosis; catarracti; synizesis;
 amaurosis ; staphyloma ;  nnd strabismus.
   Paropte'sis.  (From irapa, and o-xjau, to roast.)
 A  provocation of sxveat, by makings patient approach
 the fire, or by placing him in a bagnio 
FAR
L'AH
  Parora'sis.   (From sup«, diminutive, and opau, to
 Itee.)   An imbecility of sight.
  PA R> )RCH1 DIUM.  (Fiom rapa, and opxif, a tes-
 ticle.)  A  tumour iu the groin, occasioned  by ihe tes-
 ticle, w Inch is passing into the scrotum. '
  PAROSMIS.   (From rapu, male, bad;  and o^ui,
 o'fiicio, io smell.)  The name of a genus of diseases in
 Good's Nosology.   Class. Neurotica; Order, CF.sthe-
 tica ; Morbid smell.   It has lliiee species ; viz. Paros-
 ni.s arris, ol'tusu, and expers.
  PAROSTIA.   (From  »apa, nnd  oartov, a bone.)
 The name  ol a genus of diseases  in  Good's Nosology.
 Class, Eccrttica ; Order,  Mtsotica.   Misossilicaiion.
 Its  species are two, viz. Parostia frao-ilis, and flex us.
  PAROTID GLAND.   (Parotideus;  from  irapa,
 about, and ovs, the ear.)   Glandulaparotidea;  Paro-
 us.  A huge conglomerate and salival gland, situated
 under the  ear, between the mamillary process of the
 temple bone and  the angle of the lower jaw.  The ex-
 cretory duct of this  gland opens iu the mouth, and is
 cailed, Irom its discoverer, the  Mrnonr'a* duct.
  Parotide a.   t,From izapurts, the parotid gland.)
 The trivial name of  a species ot quinsy, in xvhich the
 parotid gland, neck, and throat, aie considerably affect-
 ed.   See Lynanche parotidea.
  PAROTIS.  (Irom cupa, near, and ovs, the ear.)
 S<v Parotid eland.
  PAROTITIS.  Inflammation ofthe parotid gland.
See C itn,inclie parotidea.
  PAROXYSM.  (Paroxysmus;  from z3apo\vvu,  to
aggrava.e.)   1. An  obvious increase of ihe symp-
tom.- of a disease  whicli lasts a certain time and then
 declines.
  -J.  A periodical  attack or fit of a disease.
  Parsley,  black  mountain.  See Athamanta oreose-
linum.
  PARSLEY.  See Apium petroselinum.
  Parnliy,  Mae'donian.  See Bubon macedonicum.
  PARSNIP.  See Pastinaca saliva.
  Parsnip, icater. Sec t-iuut modtflorum.
  Pxrthenia strum.  1Duuiiiiitiie  of parthenium,
 tansy  )  A  species of parthenium.
  Pa rthenis.   The same as parthenium.
  PARTHENIUM.   (From rsapQtvos,  a virgin:  so
called because of its uses in diseases of young women.)
See Matricaria parthntium.
  Parthenium mas.  See Tanacetum.
  Partitus.  A botanical  term:  partite,  cut, as it
were, almost to the base, and according to the number
of  incisions;  bipartite when txvo,  tripartite xvhen
three, quadripartite xvhen four, quinquepartite xvhen
 five. Sec
  (Partridge berry.  See Gaultheria.  A.]
  PARTURITION.   Partur.tio; from parw.  The
expulsion of the foetus from the uterus.
  A iter seven mouths of pregnancy, the foetus has all
 the  coiidiiionsj for breathing, and exercising its diges-
tion;  it may then be sepaiated from its mother, and
change its mode of existence ; childbirth rarely, how-
ever, happens at this  period :  most frequently the foetus
remains two months  longer in the uterus, and it does
not  pass out of this organ till after the revolution of
 nine months.
  Examples are related of children  being born after
 ten  full months of gestation, but ihese cases are very
 doubtful, for il is very difficult lo knoxv exactly the
 period of conception.   The legislation, in France, hoxv-
ever,  has fixed the principle, that childbirth  may take
 place the 2U9t|i day of pregnancy.
  Nothing  is more curious  than the mechanism by
 wnich the foetus is expelled;  every thing happens with
 wonderful precision;  all seems to have been foreseen,
 aid calculated lo  favour its passage through the pelvis,
and the genital parts.
  The physical causes that determine the exit of the
 foetus aie the contraction ofthe uterus, and that ofthe
 abdominal  muscles;  by their force the  liquor amnii
flows out, the head of the foetus is engaged in the pel-
vis, it goes through it, and sooei passes out by the valve,
the  folds of which disappear: these different  phenome-
na  take  place in succession, and continue  a certain
time: they  aie accompanied wilh pains more or less
severe, with swelling and softening of the  soft parts
of tlie pelvis, and external genital parts, and with an
abundant mucous secretion in the cavity ofthe vagina.
All  these circumstances, each in its own way, favour
 the  passage of the fostus.
   To faclliiaie the study of this complicated action, tl
 must be divided into seveial periods.
   The first period of childbirth.—Il is constituted by
 the precursory signs   Two or three days before r.hud
 birth, a flow  of uncus takes place from the vagina,
 the external genital parts swell, and become sorter; it
 is the same with the ligaments thai unite the bnnes of
 the pelvis ;  the cervix uteri flattens, Its opening is en-
 larged, ils edges  become  thinner; slight pains, known
 under the  name of fiying pains, are felt in the  loins
 and abdomen.
   Second period.—Pains of  a  peculiar kind  come on.
 they begin in the lumbar region, and seem to be prop.i
 gated towards the  cervix uteri, or the  rectum   they
 are renewed only afler  considerable intervals,  as  a
 quarter, or half an hour.  Each of them is aci.o  npa-
 nied with  an  evident contraction  of  the body ot the
 uterus, xvith tension of its neck, and dilatation of the
 opening; the finger directed into the vagina discovers
 lhat the envelopes of the funis arc pushed oulxvard,
 and that there is a considerable tumour xvhich  is called
 the waters : the pains very soon become stronger, and
 the contractions of  the  uterus more powerful ; the
 membranes break, and a part of the  liquid escapes;
 tlie uterus contracts on itself, and is applied to  tlie sur-
 face of the foetus.
   Third period.—The pains  and  contractions of the
 uterus increase  considerably; they are instinctively
 accompanied by the contraction of the abdominal mus-
 cles.  The woman who is aware  of their etlect is in-
 clined  to favour  them, in  making all ihe muscular
 efforts of which she is capable . her pulse then becomes
 stronger and more frequent; her face is animated, her
 eyes shine,  her xvhole body is Iu  extreme  agitation,
 perspiration flows in  abundance.  The head  is  then
 engaged in  the pelvis; the occiput, placed at first ahov*
 the lefi acetabulum,  is directed  inward and doxvp
 xvard, and  conies below and  behind the arch of the
 pubis.
   Fourth period.—After some instants of repose, thi
 pains and expulsive contractions  resume all 'heir ac
 livity; the  head presents  itself at the vulva, makes a*
 effort ti» pass, and succeeds xvhen there  happens to  be a
 contra  on  sufficiently strong to  produce this eff-ct
 The head being once disengaged, the remaining parti
 of the body easily folloxv on account of their  sma .et
 volume.  The section  of the umbilical  cord  is  then
 made, and a ligature is put round it at  a short distance
 from the umbilicus.
  Fifth period.—If the accoucheur has nol proceeded
 immediately to the extraction of the placenta afler the
 birth of the child, slight pains are felt  in a short lime
 the uterus  contracts freely, but xvilh force enough tc
 throxv off the placenta, and  the  membranes of the
 ovum: Ihis expulsion  bears  Ihe  name of delivery
 Duiing the txvelve  or  fifteen days that follow child
 birth,  the uterus  contracts by degrees  upon  itself, thf
 woman suffers abundant perspirations, her mammae
 are extended hy the milk that they secrete;  a  flow ot
 matter, which takes  place fiom  the vagina, called
lochia, first sanguiferous,  then  whitish, indicates  thai
the organs of the woman resume, by degrees, the dispo-
sition  that they had before conception."—Magendie.
  PARU'LIS.   (From aapa,  near,  and ovXov, the
gum.)  An inflammation, boil, or abscess in the gums.
  PARURIA.  (From irapu, pcrperam, and ovpiu, to
 make water )  The name of a genus of diseases in
 Good's NosoIol'v.  Class, Eccriticu; Order, Catotica.
 Misiiiictuntion.  It embraces seven species, viz. Paru-
ria inops ; retentionis; slillalitia; mclliln; inconti-
 mns ; incocta, and erratica
  Pary'gron. (From zzapa,  and vypos humid.) A
 liquid or moist preparation  for allaying a topic.if iu
 finmmation.
  Pasi'philus.  (From tzas, all, and  0iAoc, grateful,
 from  its  general  usefulness.)   A  name gixen  to a
plaster.
  Pa'sma.   (From  rzaoau, 11 sprinkle  over.)   See
 Catapasma.
 •PA'SSA.  (From pando, to  spread.)
  1. A crape or raisin.
  2. In Paracelsus it is a xvhitloe.
  Passa minor.   See Uva passu minor.
  Passava'nticus.   (From tzas, all, and avatvu, tn
dry up.)  An epithet eiven by Schroder to a powder,
 which dries up, and evacuates morbid  humours.
  PASSIFLO'RA.   (Alteied  by Linnieus,  from/o. 
PAS                                              PAT
 assmms of preceding botanists: a term applied to the
 eautiful genus in question, because the  instruments
of Christ's passion were thought to be represented in
the parts of the fructification.)  The name of a genus
of plants in the.Linnaean system.  Class, Gyandria;
Order, Pentandria.
  Passiflora   LAURiroLiA.   Bay-leaved  passion-
flower.  A native of Surinam.  Tbe fruit of this tree
groxvs to the  size of a small lemon, which  it  greatly
resembles.  It has a delicious smell and flavour, and is
excellent for quenching thirst, abating heat of the sto-
mach, increasing the appetite, recruiting the spirits, and
allaying the heat in fevers.
  Passiflora maliformis.   Apple-shaped granadilla.
The fruit of this species of  passion-flower l« esteemed
a delicacy in the West indies, where it is served up at
table in desserts.  They are not unwholesome.
  PASSION.  (Passio, onis- f.; from potior, to suffer.)
By passion, is generally understood an instinctive feel-
ing become extreme and exclusive.  A man of strong
passion neither hears, sees, nor exists, but through the
feeling xvhich agitates him; and as the  violence of
 his feeling is such  that it is extremely painful, it has
Deen called passion or suffering.  The passions have
the same end as instinct; like them, they incline ani-
mals to act accoiding to the general laws of animated
nature.
  We see  in man passions  xvhich he has in common
with the animals, and which consist of annual wants,
become excessive;  but lie has others which are dis-
played only in the  social state. These are social wants
gioxvn to excess.
  The animal passions have a twofold design, the pre-
servation of the individual,  and of the specie*.
  To the  preservation of the individual belong fear,
anger, sorrow, hatred, excessive hunger, Sec  To the
preservation of the species, excessive venereal desires,
jealousy;  the fury which is felt when tlie young ones
are in danger, &c.
  Nature has made this sort of passions very poxverful,
and xvhich are equally so in a state of civilization.
  The passions which belong to the social state are
anly the social wants  carried to an excess.  Ambition
is the inordinate love of power;  avarice, th 'ove of
riches, become  excessive;  hatred and revenge, that
natural and impetuous desire lo injure xvhoever hurts
as; the passion of gaming, and almost all  the vices,
xvhich are also passions, are violent inclinations lo in-
crease the feeling  of existence; violent love is an ele-
vation of  the venereal desires, &c.
  Some of the  passions are allayed, or extinguished
by gratification; others  become more irritated by it.
The first  sort are  therefore often the cause of happi-
ness,  as is seen in philanthropy and love;  xvhile the
latter sort necessarily.causes misery.  Misers, ambi-
tious and  envious people, nre examples of the last.
  If our necessities devciope the intellect,  the passions
arc the principle  or  the cause of every thing great
xvhich man performs, whether good  or  bad.  Great
poets, heroes, great criminals, and conquerors, are men
of strong passions."
  Passion, caliac.  Sec Diarrhaa cwliaca.
   Passion, hysteric.  See Hysteria.
   Passion, iliac.  See Iliac Passion.
  PASSU'LA.   A small raisin.
  Passul/e majores.   See  Uva passa major.
  Passula'tum.   (From passula,  a fig, or  raisin.)
This is a term given  by Dispensatory writers to some
medicines where  raisins are the chief ingredient; as
the electunrium |  assulaluin, &c.
  PA SSUM.   (Frompossa, a grape,or raisin.)   Rai-
sin xvine.
  PA'STA.  A round cake or lozenge.
  Pasta reoia.  (From tzaoctu, to sprinkle.)   A lo-
Eenge, or small cake, sprinkled  over with some dry
poxvdered substance.
  PASTl'LLUM.  (Diminutlxe of pasta, a lozenge.)
Pasttllus.  A troch or pastil.  A little lump of paste,
or ball, made to take like a lozenge.
  PASTINA'CA.  (A pastu ; from its usefulness as a
food.) 1. The  name  of a genus of plants in the Lin-
nteau system.  Class, Pentandria; Order, Digynia.
Parsnip.
  2 The  pharmacopoeeial name ofthe parsnip.  See
 Pastinaca sativa.
   Pastinaca opopanax. The systematic name ofthe
 plant which yields opopanax. The plant from whence
       158
Ihis gum resin is procured is known by the names ot
opoponacum ; panax heracleum; panax costinum ; pa-
nax pastinacea ; kyna.  Hercules' all  heal; nnd opo-
panax-xvort.  Pastinaca—foliis pinnatis, foliolis bast
anlica excisis, of Linnaeus.  Opopanax is the gummi
resinous juice, obtained by means of incisions made at
the bottom of the stalk  of the  plant, from which it
gradually exudes, nnd by undergoing spontaneous con
cretion, assumes the appearance under whicli xve hate
it  imported from Turkey and the  East Indies,  vz,
sometimes in little drops or tears, more  commonly in
irregular lumps, of a  reddish yelloxv colour on the out
side, xvith specks of white; internally of a paler colour,
and  frequently  variegated xvith large white  pieces.
Opopanax has a strong, disagreeable smell, md a bitter.
acrid, somewhat nauseous taste.   It is or.'y employed
in the present practice ns an antispasmodic, in combi-
nation with other medicines, although it  was formerly
in high  estimation as an attenuant, deobstruent, and
aperient.  Its antispasmodic virtues are less poxverful
than galbanum,  and  more so than ammoniacum.  It
has no place in the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia, but is
directed by the London College.
  Pastinaca sativa..  The systematic  name of the
parsnip.  The cultivated or garden parsnip is the Pas-
tinaca :—foliolis simpliciter  pinnatis,  of  Linna'us.
Elaphoboscum, of  the ancients.  Its roots are sxveet
and nutritious, and in high esteem as an article of food.
They possess  an aromatic flavour, more especially
those of tlie wild plant, and are exhibited in calculous
complaints for their diuretic and sheathing qualities.
  PATE'LLA.  (Diminutive of jiaftna, a dish: so
named from its shape.)   Rotula.  The knee-pan.  A
small flat bone, xvhich, in  some measure, resembles the
common figure of the heart, with ils point downxvards,
and is placed at  the forepart of the  joint of the knee
It is thicker in its middle  part than at its edge.   Ante-
riorly it is a little convex, and rough for the insertion
of muscles and ligaments: posteriorly it is smooth, co-
vered xvith cartilage, and divided by a middle  longi-
tudinal  ridge,  inlo two slightly coucave surface?, of
xvhich the  external  one is the  largest  and deepest.
They are both exactly adapted to the  pulley of the os
femoris. The edges of this posterior surface are rough
and prominent where the capsular ligament is attached,
and  below is a  roughness at the  point  of ihe bone,
where the upper extremity of a strong tendinous liga-
ment is fixed, which  joins this bone to the tuberosity
at the upper end ofthe tibia.  This ligament is of con
siderable thickness, about an inch in breadth, and up-
xvards of txvo  inches in length.  The patella is com-
posed internally  of a cellular substance, covered by a
thin bony plate; but its cells are so extremely minute,
that the  strength of the bone is, upon  the whole, very
considerable.  In new-bom children it is entirely car-
tilaginous.  The  use of Ibis bone seems to be, to defend
the articulation of  the joint of the knee from external
injury.   It likewise tends to increase the power of the
muscles xvhich act in the extension of the leg,  by re
moving their direction farther from the centre of mo-
tion, in  the  manner of a pulley.  When xve consider
the manner in xvhich it is connected with the tibia, xve
find that it  may  very properly be considered as an ap-
pendix to the latter, xvhich it folloxvs in all its motions,
so as to be to the  tibia xvhat the olecranon is to the ulna;
xvith  this difference, however, that tlie patella is move-
able, xvhereas the olecranon is a fixed  process.   With-
out this mobility, the rotatory motion of the leg xvould
have be«n prevented.
   PATENS.  Spreading.  Applied lo leaves, metals,
&c.;  as the stem ofthe Atriplexporlulacoides.
   PATHE'TICI.  (Palheticus;  from is ados, an  af-
fection ; because they direct  the eves to express the
passions of Ihe mind.) Nervi pathetici; Trochleat-rres
The fourth pair of nerves.  They arise from tlie crura
of the cerebellum  laterally, and  are distributed in the
musculus obliquus superior, seu trochlearis.
   PATHOGNOMONIC.   (Pathognomonics;  from
stuO-c, a disease, and yivuaxu, to knoxv.)  A lerm given
to those symptoms which are peculiar  to a disease.
They are also termed  proper or characteristic  symp-
toms.
   PATHOLOGY.   (Patkologia;  from  zzaOos, a dis-
ease, and Xoyos, a discourse.) Thedoclrine of diseases.
It comprehends nosology,  atiology, symptomatology.
semeiotics, and therapeia.
   PATIE'NTIA.  (From  patior,  to  bear, or suffrM 
PEC
PEC
The name of the herb moiiK s rhubarb, from its gentle
pinging qualities.  See Rumex paticntia,
  PATlENt'E.   See Rumex paticntia.  '
  Pa'tor sarium.   (From potto, to be opened.) The
sinus, cavity, or chasm of the nose.
   Pa'trum cortex    (So called from the Jesuits,
 ermed fathers in ihe church of Rome, xvho first spiead
Xs use iu Europe.)   See Cinchona.
  Patu'rsa.  The venereal disease.
  Paul's betony.  See Veronica.
  Paulina confkctio.  (From  zzavu, to rest)  A
warm opiate, similar to the Confectio opii; so called
by Aiistarchus, xvhich is the same xvith Ihe  Confectio
archigents.
  PAT LITE.   See Hypersthene.
  Paui.is.  See .Eginctu.
  Pava na.  See Croton tiglium.
  Y\ vor.   From pareo, lo fear : so called from the
dread tliere is of approaching or touching a person af-
fected with it.)   The  itch.
  PEA.  The pi sum sativum of Linnaeus.  A species
of pulse of great variety, and much in use as a nourish-
ing article of diet
  PEAS TONE.  A variety of limestone.
  PEACH.  See Amygdalus persica.
  PEAGLE. See Primula veris.
  PEAR.  See Pyrus communis.   Of pears there are
many varieties, affording a wholesome nourishment.
  PEARL.  See Margarita.
  PEARL-ASH   An impure potassa obtained hy lixi-
viation from the ashes of plants.  See Potassa.
  Pearl barley.  See Hordeum.
  PEARL SINTER.  Fiorite.  A  variety of  silicious
sinter, of a xvhite and gray colour, and found on  volca-
nic tuff on the Viceuiine.
  PEAR LSTON E. A sub-species of indivisible quartz
of Jameson and Mobs. It is generally nf a gray colour,
and occurs in great beds in clay porphyry, near Tokay
in Hungary, and in Ireland.
  PECHBLENDE.   An ore of uranium.
  Peche'dion.   Xlnxtitov.  The perineum.
  Pechu'rim cortex.   A highly aromatic bark, the
produce of a species of Laurus.   It is extremely fra-
grant, like unto that of cinnamon, xvhich ii greatly re-
sembles in its properties.  In Lisbon il is much esteem-
ed in the cuie of dysen fries, and for allaying obstinate
vomitings.
  Pechu'rim faba.   See Faba pechurim.
  Peciii*'ri3   See Faba przhurim.
  Peciiva bra.   (From cr/xuj. the cubit, and aypa, a
seizure.)  The smut in the elbow.
  Pe'ciiys.  Tlnxvs-  The cubit, or elbow.
  Peciivty'rbe.  An epithet for the scurvy.
  PECQUET, John, xvas a native of Dieppe, and gra-
duated  at Mon-pelier.  He pursued the  study of ana-
tomy with z teat ardour and ingenuity, xvhich he evinced
by the discoveiy of the thoracic duct, and the recepta-
culum chyli, xvhile yet a student, in 1647.   He then
settled to  practise in his native town; but  soon after
repaired to Paris, with  a view ol demonstrating com-
pletely the importaiu vessels which he had discovered ;
and he  succeeded in  tracing Ihe prosress of the chyle
inlo the Ic A subclavian vein.  He published an account
ofthisdiscovery, with a Dissertation on the Circulation
of the Blood, and Motion of the Chyle, In 1651 ;  and
his fame, in consequence,speedily extended throughout
Europe, though  sump denied the truth, others the ori-
ginality, of it   Resides his anatomical skill, he was a
man of con-iderable acquirements, andbecainea Mem-
ber of the Royal Academy of Sciences.  He is said,
hoxvever, to have shorti-iitd his life hy an unfortunate
attachment  lo spirituous liquors, and died in 1674.
   Pecquet's duct.  See Thoracic duel.
   PECTEN.   The  pubes, or share-bone.
  [" Pcetic acid.  M.  H. Braconnot has given the name
»f peclic nnd  to  a  principle found by linn in several
plants ivhich have the property of being coagulated by
alkohoi, metallic solutions, the acids, Sec   It appears
to be the  same substance discovered by Prof. Torrey,
of New-York, in the Titckalioe, sderotium giganteum,
a fungus common in  the sandy barrens of tlie southern
states, and to xvhich he gave the name of Sclerutin.  It
is readily  soluble in a solution of caustic potassa, and
this solution is gelatinized by almost  every known
body."—Webs. Man. Chem.  A.]
  PECTINA'LIS.   (So named from  ils arising nt the
pecten, or pubes.)  Peclinaus,  of authors,  and Pubio
femoral, of Dumas.   A small flat ir.jsclc, situated ot>
liquely between the pules ami the little trochanter, at
the upper  and anterior part of the thigh.  It arises
broad and fleshy from all  the anterior edge of the os
pectiuis, or pubis,as it is more comnionly called, asfar
as ils spine, ai»d descending obliquely backxvards  nnd
outwards, is inserted by a short ami broad tendon,  into
the upper and anterior part of the linea  aspera of the
os femoris, a little below the lesser trochanter.  This
muscle servi s to bend the thigh, by dinwing it upxvanli
nnd inwards,  and likewise assists in rolling  il out-
xvards.
  PECTINATUS.  (From pecten, a comb.) Pectinate.
1  A term applied to a penuatifid leaf, the segments of
xvhich arc remarkably  narrow and parallel,  like the
teeth of  a comb;  as the loxver leaves of the Hottonin
palustris, and Meriophyllum nrticillatum.
  2. The fasciculated muscular nln>-s of the rigi"  eij
riclc ofthe heart are called  musculi pectinati.
  PicTiN.tus. See Pectinalis.
  PECTORAL.  (Pectoralis; trom pectus, the breast.,
Of or belonging to, or that xvhich relieves disorders of
the chest.
  PECTORALIS.  Musculus pectoralis.   See Pecto-
ralis major.
  Pectoralis ma'jor.  A  broad,  thick,  fleshy,  and
radiated muscle, situated immediately under the inle
guinents, and covering almost the whole anterior  part
ofthe breast. Pectoralis, of authors; and strrno-costo-
clavio-humeral, ol" Dumas.   Winsloxv calls it pectora-
lis major, to distinguish it  from the serratus amicus,
xvhich he has  named pectoralis minor.   It arises from
the cartilaginous extremities of the fifth and sixth ribs-,
from the last of xvhich its tendinous fibres descend ovei
the upper part of the obliquus externus and rectus ab
dominis, helping to form a part of the sheath in whicl
the latter is included.   Il likewise springs  from almost
the xvhole  length of the sternum by short tendinous
fibres, xvhich evidently  decussate those  on the othei
side; and tendinous and fleshy from more than a third
of the anterior part of the clavicle.   Prom these origins
the fibres run in a folding manner towards tlie axilla,
and aie  inserted by a broad  tendon into the os humeri,
above the insertion of the deltoid muscle, and at the
outer side of the groove whicli lodges the tendon of the
long head of the biceps.  Some cf its fibres likewise
extend into that groove ; and, from Ihe  loxver  part of
this tendon, which is spread near txvo inches along the
os humeri, xve find it sending off  other fibres, wiiich
help to form the fascia that covers the muscles of the
arm.  It often happens that  that part of the pectoralis
which arises front the clavicle, is separated from the
inferior portion, so as to appear like a distinct muscle.
This  has  induced Winsloxv to divide  il into parts,
one of which he calls the clavicular, and the olher Ihe
thoracic portion.   Sonietimes these two portions are
inserted  by separate tendons, xvhich cross  one another
at the upper and inner part of iheos humeri, the tendon
of the thoracic portion being inserted at the outer edge
nf the bicipital groove, immediately behind the olher.
This muscle, and the  latissimus dorsi, form the cavity
of the axilla, or armpit. The use ol" the  pectoralis ia
to move the arm  forwards, or to raise it obliquely lo-
xvards the sternum.  It likewise occasionally assists in
moving the trunk upon the  arm, thus, when xve exert
any efforts xvith the hand, as in raising ourselves from
off au arm-chair, or in sealing a lelter, the contraction
of this  muscle is particularly observable. To ihese
u.-es Haller adds that of assisting  in respiration, by
raising  the sternum and ribs.  He teils us he well le-
uiembers, lhat when this muscle was affected by rheu-
matism, bis breathing  xvas iucoi.....oded; and thai,
when troubled xvilh  difficulty of respiration,  he  had
often found himself  greatly relieved hy  raising  and
draxvitiE back his shoulders, keepina his  arms at. the
same time firmly fixed.  Winslow, hoxvever, has de.
■tied this use, and Albinus has omitted it, probably be.
cause it does not take place in a natural slate.
   Pectoralis minor.  Serratus anticus of Albinus.
A fleshy and pretty considerable muscle, situated at the
anterior and  lateral  part of the  thorax, immediately
under the pectoralis major.  Douglas and  Cowper tall
this muscle  Serratus minor anticus; ani  Winsloxv
gives it the name of Pectoralis minor-  and Dunni*
calls  it  Costo corncoidien.   It arises from the upper
edges of the third, fourth,  and fifth ribs,  near xvhere
they join with their curtilages by an equal number of
                                         l;i<) 
                        PED

 tendinous and fleshy digltatlons, xvhich have been com
 pared to the teeth of a  saw, xvhence this  and some
 otlier muscles, from their having a similar origin, or
 insertion, have gotten the nanieof serrati. From these
 origins it becomes  thicker and narrower as it ascends,
 and is inserted by  a flat tendon into the upper part of
 the coracoid process of the scapula.  The principal use
 of  this muscle is  to  draxv the scapula forwards and
 downwards; and when  that is fixed, it  may likewise
 Berve to elevate ihe ribs.
  Pectoris os. See Sternum.
  PE'CTUS.  (Pectus,  oris,  n.)   The  breast.   See
 Thorax.
  Pe< tu'sculum.   (Diminutive of pectus, tho breast:
 so named from its shape.)  The metatarsus.
  PEDATUS.  (From pes, a  foot.)  Pedate.  A term
 applied to a particular kind of leaf, which  is ternate
 with  iu lateral  leaflets compounded iu their forepart;
 as in  Hellcborus niger and fatidus, and Arum dra-
 cunculus.
  PEDE'THMUS.   (From irnbau, to leap.)  The mo-
 tion of the arteries from the impulse of the blood.  The
 pulse.  '
  Pedia'smus.  (From irtitov, a field.)  Anepithetof
 a species of xvild myrrh.
  PEDICELLATUS.   (From  pedicellus,  a  partial
 flower-sialk.)  Having a small stalk: applied to a nec-
 tary which rests on a stalk: as in Aconitum napellus.
  PEDICELLUS.   A partial flower-stalk.  Sec Pe-
 dunculits.
  PEDICULA'RIA   (From  pediculus, a  louse; so
called from its use in destroying lice.) See Delphinium
siaphisagria.
  PEDICULA'TIO. Morbus pedicularis. <J>Qcipiacis.
That disease ofthe body in which lice are continually
bred on the skin.
  PEDICULUS.  (Diminitutive of pes, a foot: so
named from  its many small feet.)
  1. A louse. The name of a  genus of insects, ofthe
order  Aptcra.  Two species are found on the human
body,  the Pediculus humanus, the common louse  ; and
the P. pubis, or crab-louse.
  2. A pedicle or footstalk of a flower, or leaf.  See
Peduncutus.
  Pedkus.  See Extensor brevis digitorum pedis.
  PEDILU'VIUM.  (From pes the foot, and lavo, to
wash.)  A bath for the feet.
  Pe'dion.  (Froinwouc, the foot.)  The sole of the foot.
  Pe'dora.  (From pes, a foot.)   The sordes of the
eyes, ejus, and feet.
  PEDUNCULUS. A peduncle, or a floxver-stalk, or
that which springs from the stem, and bears the  flowers
and fruit, and not the leaves.
  PedUellus is  a  partial  flower-stalk, Ihe ultimate
subdivision of a general one, as in the cowslip.
  The pedunculus is,
  1. Caulinus, cauline, xvhen it groxvs immediately out
of the main stem, especially of a tree; as in Averrhoa
bilimbi
  2. Rameus, groxving out of the  main branch;  as in
 Eugenia mulaccensis.
  3. Axillaris,  groxving  either from the bosom of a
ic^.f, that is,  betxveen it and the stem, as in  Anchusa
sempervirens; or betxveen a branch and  a stem, as in
 Ruppia maritima.
  4.  Oppoiitifolius, opposite to a leaf; as in Geranium
vyrcnaenm.
  5. Internodis, proceeding from the intermediate part
of a branch between txvo  leaves; as in Ehrctia inter-
 nodis.
  6.  Gcmmaceus, groxving  DUt of a leaf bud;  as in
 Bcrberis vulgaris.
  7.  Tcrminalis, when it terminates i eStenior branch;
as in Centaurea scabiosa.
  8. Lateralis, xvhen situated on the side of  a stem or
branch; ns in Erica vagans.
  9- Solitarius, either  single on a plant;  as  In Rubus
chmuj.i.:.'-us; or only one in the same place,  as in An-
tirrhinum spurium.
  10.  Pcdunculi aggregate, clustered   flower-stalks,
 when several grow'together; as in Verbascum nigrum.
  11.  Spursi, dispersed irregularly over  the plant or
brain lies ; as in Ranunculus scleratus
  Pi  Uniflon, bifiori, triflori, &-c. bearing one, txvo,
 Ihree, n more flowers.
  13.  Multifiori, many-flowered; as Daphne laureola.
  When there is no flower-slnlk, the floxvers are said to
      Ifif)
                   .    PEL

 be scssiles; as in Centaurea calc  rapa, and the dot!
 ders.
   Peganel*'um.  (From u-nyavov, ruc_and tAaiav
 oil.)   Oil of rue.
   Pegane'rum.   (From irrjyavov,  rue.)   A plaster
 composed of rue.   •
   PE'GANUM.   (From tsrjyvvu,  to  compress:  so
 called, because, by its dryness, it condenses the seed.)
 Rue.  See Ruta.
   PEG E.   (Unyv,a fountain.)  The internal angles of
 the eyes are called pega.
   Pelada.  A species of baldness, a shedding of the
 hair from a venereal cause.
   PELA'GRA.  Elephantiasis italica.   This disease
 does not appear to have been noticed by any of our no-
 mologists, except Dr. Good.  Indeed, few accounts of it
 have  hitherto been published, although the peculiar
 symptoms with whicli it is attended, and the fatal con-
 sequences xvhich generally ensue  from  it,  render  it
 equally curious and important.  Iu certain districts, as
 Milan and Padua, in Italy, xvhere  it is peculiarly pre-
 valent, it is  computed to attack five inhabitants out of
 every hundred.  The following account of this singular
 disease is extracted from Dr. Jansen's treatise on the
 subject, who had seen the disease at Milan:
   About the month of March or April, xvhen the season
 invites the  farmers to  cultivate their fields, it often
 happens that a shining red spot suddenly arises on the
 back of the  hand, resembling  the common erysipelas,
 but without  much  itching or pain, or indeed any olher
 particular inconvenience.  Both men and women, girls
 and boys, are equally subject to it.  Sometimes this
 spot affects both hands, without appearing on any otlier
 part of the body.   Not  uncommonly it  arises also on
 the shins, sometimes on the neck, and noxv and then,
 though very  rarely, on the face.   It is sometimes also
 seen on  the breasts of women,  xvhere  they are  not
 covered by the clothes, but such  parts of the body as
 are not exposed to the  air, are very seldom affected;
 nor has it ever been observed to attack the palm of the
 hand, or the sole of the foot.  This red  spot elevates
 the skin a little, producing numerous small tubercles of
 different colours; the skin becomes dry and ciacks, and
 the epidermis sometimes assumes a  fibrous appearance
 At length it  falls off in xvhite furfuraceous scales; but
 the shining redness underneath still continues, and, in
 some instances, remains through  the folloxving xvinfer.
 In the  mean time,  excepting this mere local  ari'ection,
 the health is not the least impaired, the patient performs
 all his rural labours as before, enjoys a good appetite
 eats heartily, and digests well.  The boxvels are gene-
 rally relaxed at the very commencement ofllie disease,
 and continue so throughout ils whole couise.  All the
 other excretions are as  usual;  aud, in females,  tbe
 menses return at their accustomed periods, and in their
 proper quantity.   But what is most surprising is, that
 in the month of September, xvhen the heat ofthe sum-
 mer is  over, in some cases sooner,  in others  later, the
disorder generally altogether disappears, and Ihe skin
 resumes its natural healthy appearance.  This change
 has been knoxvn to take place ns eai ly as the latter end
of May or June, xvhen the disease has only been in its
earliest stage.  The patients, hoxvcver, are not noxv lo
 be considered as xvell;  the disease hides  itself, but is
not eradicated : for no sooner does the follow ing spring
return, but it quickly reappears, and  generally isaccom-
panied wilh severer symptoms.  The spot grows larger,
the skin becomes more unequal and hard, xvith deeper
ciacks.  The patient now begins  to feel uneasiness in
the head, bt-comes fearful, dull, less capable of labour
and much wearied  xvith his usual exertions.  He is ex-
ceedingly affecfed xvith the changes  of the atmosphere,
and impatient both of cold and heat.  Nevertheless he
generally gets through his ordinary labour, xvith  less
x-igour and cheerfulness indeed than formerly, but still
without being obliged lo take lo his  bed; and  ns he has
no fever, his appetite continues  good, and the chvlo-
 poietic viscera perform their proper functions.  When
the pelagrahas even arrived at this  stage, the returning
xvinfer, nevertheless, commonly restores the patient to
apparent health;  but the more  severe the symptoms
have been, and the deeper root the  disease has taken,
the more certainly dots the return of spring produce it
with additional violence.  Sonietimes the disease  in
the skin  disappears, but the other  symptoms remain
notwithstanding.   The poxvers both of the mind  Rnd
body noxv become daily more enfeebled; peevishness, 
PEL
PEL
 watchings, vertigo, and, at length, complete inclan
 clroly, supervene.  Nor is tliere a more distressing kiini
 of melancholy any xvhere to be seen, than takes placi
 in this disease.  " On entering the hospital at Legna
 no," says Dr. Jansen,  " I xvas astonished at the mourn-
 ful spectable 1 beheld, especially in the xvomen's xvard.
 Tliere they all sat, indolent, languid, with downcast
 looks, their eyes  expressing distress, xveeping without
 cause, and  scarcely returning an answer when spoken
 to; so that a person xvould suppose himself to be among
 fools and mad people:  and, indeed, xvith very  good
 reason; tor gradually this melancholy increases, and at
 length ends in  real mania.
   " Many, as I had an opportunity of observing in this
 hospital,  xvere covered xvith a peculiar  and character-
 istic  sweat, hnxuiig a very  offensive  smell, xvhich  I
 knoxv not how l"tter to  express than by comparing it
 to the smell of mouldy bread.   A person accustomed
 to see the disease xvould at  once recognise ii by this
 single symptom.   Many complained of a burning pain
 at night  in the soles of the feet, which often deprived
 them of sleep.  Some  with double vision: others xvilh
 fatuity; others xvith visceral obstructions; others with
 additional symptoms.  Nevertheless, fever still keeps
 off, the appetite is unimpaired, and the secretions are
 regularly  carried on.  But the disease goes on increas-
 ing, the nerves are more debilitated, the legs and thighs
 lose the poxver of motion, stupor or delirium comes on,
 and the melancholy terminates in continued mania.
 In the hospital at Legnano,I saw bnthiiieii and women
 in this maniacal state.   Some lay quiet; others xvere
 raving, and obliged to be tied down to the bed, to  pre-
 vent "them  from doing  mischief  lo themselves  and
 others.  In almost all these the pulse xvas small, slow,
 and without any character of fever.  Oae woman ap-
 peared to have a slight degree of furor uterinus; for,
 at the sight of men she became merry, smiled, offered
 kisses, and  by her gestures desired them to come to-
 xvards her.  Some xvere occupied in constant prayers;
 some pleased themselves with laughter, and others
 with other things.  But it xvas remarkable, that all who
 were in this stage of the  disease, had a strong propen-
 sity to drown themselves.  They now begin to grow
 emaciated,  and the delirium is often followed by a
 species ol" tabes.   A colliquative diarrhoea comes on,
 xvhich no remedy can  stop, as also has been observed
 in nostalgia.  Sonietimes, in the pelagra, the diarrhoea
 couHs oil before  the delirium,  and the delirium  and
 stupor mutually  interchange xvith each other.    The
 apiietite  often  suddenly  filled, so that tlie sick  xvill
 sometimes go for near a xveek xvithout tasting food.
 Not uncommonly it returns as suddenly, so that they
 eagerly devoured whatever xvas olfercd them, and this
 even at times vx hen they are horridly convulsed.  The
 convulsions xvith which  they are attacked,  are most
 shocking to see, andareof almost every kind, catalepsy
 excepted,  which has been described by xvriters.   I saw
 one girl in bed, who  was violently distorted by opistho-
 tonos every time she  attempted to  rise.   Some  nre
 seized with etnprosthotonos;  and others xvith  other
 spei ies of tetanus.   At length, syncope and death close
 the tragedy, often xvithout any  symptom of fex-er oc-
 curring through the whole course of tliedisease."   The
 first stage ofthe  pelagra, In xvhich ihe local affection
 only takes place, Dr.  Jansen observes, continues in
 some instances for  a  great length of time;  perso.is
 being occasionally met with in whom it has lasted six
 or eight, or  exlen fifteen yeafe, disappearing regularly
 every winter, and returning again in the spring.  This
 occasions some of the inhabitants to pay little attention
 to it; although, in other  cases, it reaches its greatest
 height after the second or third attack.  It appears that
 this disease  is not infectious, and that the causes pro-
 ducing it aie yet unascertained.  It has been supposed,
 by some, to  arise from  the heat ofthe sun's  rays;  aim
 hence it is now and  then called  mat de sole; but  this
 does not produce any similar disease in otlier parts of
 the xvorld, xvhere it is in an equal or even much greater
 de»ree than at Milan; no disease in any respect re-
 sembling it,  having  hitherto beeu noticed in such re-
 gions, except the lepra asturiensisdescribed by Thiery,
 and after him by Sauvages.  In this, a treiL-eur of the
 head and trunk of the body takes place, which does not
 happen in  the pelagra.  This, hoxvcver, is the principal
difference  in the two diseases.
  Pela'rum.   (From tzrjXos,  mud: so called from its
muddy consistence.!  A collyrium
   Peleca'nus. (From zzeXexau, lo perforate.)  1.  Tha
  ird called the pelican.
   2. An instrunient to draw teeth: so named from its
 curvature at the end resembling ihe beak of a pelican.
   Pel-eci'niim.  (From  zzcXexos, a hatchet: so called
 because its seeds are shaped like a two-edged hatchet.)
 The halcliet-vetch.
   PELIOM.   A blue-coloured mineral, very similar to
 iolite, found in l'.odenninis, in llohcuiia.
   Pelio'mx.   ', from zzcXos, black.)  An  extravasation
 of blood ot a li\ id colour.
   PELLICl'LA.   A  pellicle or slender skill.  In ine
 dicitie, it is applied to such an appearance of the sui
 face of urine, and lo very delicate membraneous pro
 diictions.  In botany,  to  the delicate skin  xvhich covers
 some seeds:  as the almond, &.c.
   PELL1TOR V.   See Parietaria.
   Pellitory, bastard.   See Achillea ptarmica.
   Pellitory of Spain.  See Anthemis pyrethrum.
   Pe'lma.   (From  zztXu, lo move forwards.)   The
 sole of the foot, or a sock adapted to the sole ofthe fool.
   PELTA.  (Pelta, a shield or buckler.)  A variety of
 the calyculus, called the shield, which is the fruit, of
 an oblong, flat, and obtuse form, observed in the lichen
 tribe.
   Pelta'lis cartilaoo.  (From pelta, a buckler: so
 called from its shape.) The scutilorm cartilage ofthe
 lai x nx.
   I'ELTATUS.   (From pelta,  a shield.)   Peltate:
 applied to leaves xvhich have the stalk  inserted into
 their middle, like the arm  of a man holding a shield ;
 as in Tropaolum majus,  and  Hydrocolule vulgaris.
   PELVIC.   (Pelvicus ; from pelvis, the lower part of
 the trunk ofthe body.)  Poi mining io Ihe pelvis.
   Pelvic ligaments. The articulation  of the os sa
 crum with the last lumbar  vertebra, and xvith the ossa
 innominata, is strengthened by means of a strong trans-
 verse ligament, which passes from the extremity and
 loxver edge ofthe last lumbar vertebra, to the posterior
 and internal  surface of the spine of the ilium.  Other
 ligaments are extended posteriorly from tlie os sacrum
 to the ossa ilia on each side, and, from the direction o'
 their fibres, may be called  the lateral  ligaments.  Be-
 sides these, there are many shorter ligamentous fibres,
 xvhich are seen stretched from the whole circumference
 of the articulating  surfaces of ihese txvo  bones.   But
 the most remarkable ligaments of the pelvis are the txvo
 sacro-ischiatic ligaments, which  are  placed  towards
 the  posterior and inferior part of the pelvis.  One of
 these may be called the greater, and the other the lesser
 sacro-ischiatic ligament.  The first of these is attached
 to the posterior edge ofthe os  sacrum, to the tuberosity
 of the  ilium, and to the  first  of the three divisions of
 the os coccygis  Its other extremity is inserted into the
 inner surface ofthe tuberosity of" the ischium.   Al its
 upper part it is of considerable breadth, afler xvhich il
 becomes narrower, but expands again before its inser-
 tion into the ischium, and extending along the tubero-
 sity of that bone to the lower  branch of the os pubis
 where it terminates in a point, forms a kind of falx,
 one end of which  is loose, while the other is fixed lo
 the bone.  The lesser sac-ischiatic ligament is some
 xvhat thicker than the former, and is placed obliquely
 before it.  It extends from the transverse  processes of
 the os sacrum, and the tuberosity of the  spine of the
 ilium, on each side, to the spine of ihe  ischium. These
 txvo ligaments not only serve  to strengthen the arlicu
 lation of the ossa innominata wilh the os sacrum, t:-t
 to support  the xveight of  the viscera contained in tht
 pelvis, the back and lower  part of xvhich is closed by
 these ligaments. The  posterior and external surface
 of the greater ligament likexvise serves for the attach
 ment of some portions ofthe gluteus maximus and ge-
 mini muscles.  The symphysis pubis  is strengthened
 internally by a transverse ligament, some  of the fibres
 of xvhich are extended lo  the obturator ligament.
  PE'LVIS.   (From  tzeXvs,  a basin ; because  it is
shaped like a basin used in former times.)  The cavity
 Mow the belly.  It contains the rectum aud urinary
 bladder,  the internal organs of generation, and has its
muscles and bones.
  Pelvis, bones of.  The pelvis consists,  in  the child,
of many pieces, but in the  adult,  it is  formed of four
bones, ofthe os sacrum behind, llieossamiiominataon
cither side, and  the os coccygis below. See Sacrum,
Innominatum  os, and Coccygis os.  It is wide and ex-
panded at ils uppf-r part, and contracted a*, its inferior 
PEM
PEN
a|>crtufc-  The uppe.  |«t^  the pelvis, properly so
calhd, is bounded by an oval ring, xvhich parts the ca-
vity of t.ie pelvis from the cavity of theabdoinen. This
circle  is denominated the brim of the pelvis;  it is
formed by a continued and prominent l.ne along the
upper part of the sacrum, the middle ofthe ilium, and
the upper part, or crest, of the os pubis. The circle of
the brim supports the impregnated xvomb; keeps it up
against the pressure of labour-pains;  and sonietimes
this line has been " as sharp as a paper-folder, and  has
cut across the segment ofthe womb;" and so by sepa-
rating  the xvomb from the vagina,  has rendered deli-
xj-ry impossible; and the child escaping into the abdo-
men the woman has died.   The  lower  part of  the
pelvis is denominated the outlet. It is composed by the
arch ofthe ossa pubis, and by Ihe sciatic ligaments; it
is xvide and dilateable,  to permit the delivery of the
child;  but being sonietimes  too  xvide, il permits  the
child's head to  press so suddenly, and xvith such vio-
lence upon ihe soft parts, that the perineum is torn.
  The murks of the female skeleton have been sought
for in  the skull,  as in the  continuation  of  sagittal
suture; but the truest marks are those xvhich relate to
thai great function by which chiefly the sexes ate dis-
tinguished ;  for while  the male pelvis is large  and
strong, xvith  a small cavity, narrow openings,  and
bones of greater strength, the female pelvis  is very
shallow and wide,  with  a large  cavity and  slender
bones,  and every peculiarity which may conduce to the
easy passage of the child.
  The office ofthe pelvis is to give a steady bearing to
Ihe trunk, and to connect it xvitii the loxver extremities,
hy a suie and firm joining, to form the centre of all the
great motions ofthe body, to contain the internal organs
of generation,  the  urinary bladder, the rectum,  and
occasionally part of ihe small intestines, and  to give
support to the giavid uterus.
  Pelvis aurium.   The cochlea ofthe ear.
  Pelvis cekeijri.  The inlundibuluni.
  I'EMPHIGO'DES. (From atptpi\, a blast of wind.1
A fever distinguished by flatulencies and. inflations, in
which a sort of aerial vapour was said to pass through
the skin.
  PE'MPHIGUS.  (From zstptbt\,  a bubble, or vesi-
cle.)  Febris bullosa;  Exanthemata serosa ; Morla;
Pemphigushclvetieus, Pemphigus major; Pemphigus
n'inor.  The  vesicular fever.  A  lexer attended hy
s-uccessive eruptions of vesicles about the  size  of
almonds, which are filled with a yellowish serum, and
in three or four days subside.   The fever may be either
synoch or typhus.  It is a genus of disease in the class
Pyrexia, and order Exanthemata, ol* Cullen.  The
latest xvriters on this disease contend, that it is some-
times acute  and sometimes a chronic affection; that
the former is constantly attended with fever, the latter
is constantly  without; that  in neither case is it  an
acrimonious or contagious matter thrown out by  the
constitution, but pure serum, secreted by the cutaneous
exhalent  arteries.  So rare was the disease when Dr.
Cullen wrote, lhat he never saxv it but once, in u case
whicli  was shown  to him by Dr. Home.   Dr. David
Stuart, Ihen physician to the hospital of Aberdeen, pub-
lished an account of it in the Edinburgh Medical Com-
mentaries.  The patient xx ns  a private soldier of the
73d regiment, aged  18, Ibrmerly a pedlor, and naturally
of a healthy constitution.  About twenty days before,
lie had been seized with the meazles,  xvhen  in  the
coiinliy;  and in marching to  town on the second day
of their eruption, lie xvas exposed to cold ; upon xvhich
they suddenly disappeared.  On his arrival  nt Aber-
deen, he xvas quartered in a damp under-ground apart-
ment.  He  then complained  of sickness at stomach,
great oppression about tlie pin cordia, headache, lassi-
tude, and weariness on the least exertion, x\ ith stiffness
and ricidityof his knees and other joints. He had been
purged, but xvith little benefit.  About ten days before,
he observed  on the inside of  his thighs, n number of
very small, distinct red spots, a little elevated above
(he surface of the skin,  and much resembling the first
nppenrnnce ofthe small-pox.  This eruption gradually
spread  itself over his xvhole body, and the pustules con-
tinued  every day to increase iu size.
  Upon being received into the hospital, he complained
of heaaache, sickness at stomach, oppression about the
praecordia, thirst, sore throat, xvilh  difficulty of swal-
lowing ; his tongue xvas foul, his skin felt hot and fevet-
bh, pulse from 110 to 120 rather depressed, belly costive
      162
 eyes dull and languid,  but  without delirium.  Tlie
 xvhole surface of the skin xvas interspersed with vesi-
 cles, or phlycta-nae, of Ihe size of an ordinary walnut;
 many of them were larger, especially on the arms and
 breast.  In  the interstices, betxveen the vesicles, the
 appeaiance of the skin xvas natural, nor xvas there any
 redness round their base; the distance from one to
 another was from half an inch to a  handbieath, ol
 more.   In some places two or three xvere joined to-
 gether, like the pustules in the confluent snia!l-pox.  A
 fexv vesticles had burst of themselves, and formed  a
 whitish scab or crust. These were mostly on the neck
 and face; others shoxved a  tolerable  laudable pus.
 Hcxvever, by  far  the greatest number xvere perfectly
 entire, turgid, and of a bluish colour.  Upon  opening
 them, it was evident that the cutiche elevated  above-
 the cutis, and distended  xvitii a thin, yellowish, semi-
 pellucid serum, formed this appearance.  Nor xvas the
 surface of the  cutis  ulcerated, or livid; but of a red
 florid colour, as when the cuticle is separated  by  a
 blister,  or superficial burning.   No other person la-
 boured  under  a similar disease, either in ihe part of
 the country  fiom xvhich he came, or where he resided,
 in Aberdeen.
  Since the publication  of  this case  of pemphigus,
 by Dr. Stuart, observations on this disease have been
 published  by Dr. Dickson, of. Dublin, by Mr. Gaiiskcll
 and  Mr. Upton, in  the Mem. of the Medical Society of
 London. Some subsequent observations on pemphigus
 were published iu the London  Med. Journal, by Mr.
 Thomas Christie.  From a case which Mr. Christie
 describes, he is disposed to agree xvilh Dr. Dickson, in
 thinking, that sometimes, at  least, pemphigus is not
 contagious.  He remarks, hoxvcver, lhat Ihe pemphigus
 described by some foreign xvriters was extremely in-
 fectious; circumstances xvhich, he thinks, may lead to
 a division of ihe  disease into two species, the  pem-
 pighus simplex, and  complicatus, both of wliich, but
 especially the last, seem to vary much  xvitii respect to
 mildness and malignity.
  Pemphigus  major.  A title under which pemphieus
 is spoken of by Sauvages, who defines il an eruption
 of phlyctnentE, about tlie size of a hazel-nut, filled xvith
 a thin yellow serum.  See Pemphigus.
  Pemphigus  minor.  In this species the vesicles are
 no laraer than garden peas.
  Ps'mphis   A species of Lythrum.
  PEMPHIX   A  x esicle, or bubble.  See Pemphigus.
  Pempt.*'us.  'From zztpirros,  the fifth.)  An ague,
 the paroxysm of xvhich returns every fifth day.
  PENiE'A.  (A name given bv Linnaeus in memory
 of the learned Peter Pena, a native of Fi ance, nnd an
 excellent scientific botanist.)   1. A genus of plants in
 the Class Tctrandria ; Ot der Monogynia.
  2.  The name of a species of polygala.
  Pen.ka mucronata.  The  systematic name of the
 plant which is said to afford  the sarcocolla.  This is
 brought from Persia and Arabia  in small grains of a
 pale yelloxv  colour, having also sometimes mixed  with
 them a  fexv of a  deep  red colour.  Its  taste is hitter
 but followed xvith  some degree of sweetness.  It has
 heen chiefly used  for external purposes, and, as its
 name imports, has  been thought lo agglutinate xvounds
 and ulcers;  but ihis opinion noxv no longer exists
  PF.NDULUS   Pendulous.  Hanging.  Applied to
 roots, lettxes, floxvers, seeds, &c as  the root of the
 Spiraafill pen dnla, and  Pn-onia officinalis, xvhich con-
 sits of knobs connec ed by filaments;  atd the seeds of
 Ihe Magnolia grandiflora, whicli are  suspended bv
 their filaments.
  Penetra'ntia.  (Fiom penetro, to pierce through ,
 Medicines which pass through the pores and stimulate
  PENICILLIFORMIS.  (From penicillus, a pencil-
brush, and forma, likeness.) Penicilliform   1 Applied
to the stigma «f milium paspalium.
  2.  The extremities  of the arteries which secrete the
bile,  are so called.
  PENICl LLUS.   (Dim. of peniculum,  a  brush.i
 Penicillum.  1. A tent,or pledget.
  2  The secreting extremities of the vena porta? are
called pcmcilli.  See  Liver.
  Peni'dium. A kind of clarified sugar w'tl. n nixture
of starch, made up  into small tolls.  '1 he confectioners
call it barley-sugar.
  PE'NIS.   (A pendendo, from  its handing  down."
Membrum virile. The cylindrical pari that hangs doxvri
under the mons veneris, before the si rotum of males 
EP
PER
 l Is  dtxided bj  anatomists Into the root, body, and
 [lead, called the glans penis.  It is composed of com-
 mon integuments, two corpora cavernosa, and one cor-
 pus spongiosum, wliich surrounds a canal, the urethra,
 that proceeds from the bladder lo the apex ofthe penis,
 where il opens by the meatus urinarius. See Urethra.
 The fold of the  skin that covers the glans penis is
 termed the prepuce.  Tbe arteriesof the penis are from
 the hypogastric and ischiatic.  The vein of the penis,
 vena magna ipsius penis, empties itself into the hypo-
 gastric vein. The absorbents of this organ  are very
 numerous, and run under the common  integuments to
 the inguinal glands:  absorbents also are found in great
 plenty in  the urethra.  The glands of the penis are,
 Cowper's glands, the prostate, muciparous, and odori-
 ferous glands.  The  nerx es of the penis are  branches
 of the sacral and ischiatic.
  Penis cerebri.  The  pineal gland.
  Pknis erecior.  See Erector penis.
  Penis muliebris.  See Clitoris.
  PENNYROYAL.  See Mentha pnlegium.
  Pennyroyal, hart's.  See .Mentha cervina.
  PENTADA CTYLON.  (From  zzurt, five,  and
 'hktvXos, a linger: so called because il has five leaxvs
upon  each stalk,  like the fingers  upon  the hand.)   1.
The herb cmquetoil.
  2 A name for the ricinus, the leaf of which resem-
bles a hand.
  PENTAGONUS.  (From xcvrt, five, and yuvia, an
angle.)  Five-sided: applied  to leaves synonymously
with quinqueangular, as in Geranium pellatum.
  Pentamy'rum.   (From tztvrt, five, and pvpov, oint-
ment.)  An ointment composed of fixe ingredients.
  PENTANDRIA.  (From ntvrt, five, and aviyp, a
husband.)  The name of a class of plants in the sexual
system of Linnaeus, embracing those which have her-
maphrodite flowers and five stamens.
  PENTANEU'RON.  (From tzcvrt, five, and vtvpov,
a string:  so called because it has  five-ribbed leaves.)
 Pentapleurum.  Ribwort.  See Plantago lanceolate
  Pentapha'rmacon.  (From zztvrc, five, and q>appa-
 xov, rcmedium, remedy.)  Any medicine consisting of
 fix-e ingredients.
  PENTAPHYLLOI'DES.    (From   tzevratbvXXov,
cinquefoil, and  ttSos, likeness:  so called from  its  ic-
 tseuiblance tociuquefoil.)  See Fragaria sterilis.
  PENTAPHY'LLUM   (From zztvre, five, and <bvX-
 Xov, a leaf: so named because it has fixe leaves on each
stalk.) See Potentilla reptans.
  PF.NTAPHYLLUS.  (From  zztvrt,  five, and 0vX-
Xiv, a leaf.)  Pentaphyllous, or five-leaved: applied to
leaves, calyces, &c. as the flower-cup of the Ranuncu-
lus bulbosus.
  Pentapleu'rum.  See Penlaneuron.
  Penta'tomum.   (From tzevrt,  five, and rtpvu,  to
cut: so called because its leaves are divided  into five
segments.)   Cinquefoil.  The Potentilla reptans.
  Pento'robus.  (From  tzarc, five, and opoSos, the
wood-pea: so called because it has five seeds resem-
bling the  wood-pea.)  The herb peoDy.  See Paonia
officinalis.
  PEONY.  See Paonia.
  Pepa'nsis. (From zzeratvu, to concoct.)   Pepas-
 mus.  The maturation 01  concoction of humours.
  Pepa'smus.  The same as pepansis.
  Pepa'stica.  (From  zstiratvu, to concoct.)   Diges-
 tive medicines.
  PEPERINE.   A fatty resinous matter, obtained  by
 Pelleticr from black pepper, by digesting it in alkohol,
 and evaporating the solution.
  Pe'pita nux.  St. Ignatius's bean.
  Pe'plion.  (From zztirXos, the herb devil's-milk.)
 Peplos; Peplus.  The Euphorbia peplus.
  PEPO.   (From zstirro,  to ripen.
  I Iu botanical definitions, a  fleshy succulent peri-
 carpium, oi =ced-vesscl, the seeds of which are inserted
 into the sides of the fruit.
  From its figure, the pepo is called,
  1. Globosus; as in Cucumis colocynthus.
  2. Oblongus ; as Cucumis sativ is.
  3. Lagenaformis; as Cucurbil  i lagenaria.
  4. Curvatus ; as Cucumis flexuosus.
  5. Nodosut;  as Cucumis melopepo.
  6. Fusiformis; as Cucumis chale.
  7. Echinatus; as Cucumis anguria.
  8. Verrucosus;  as Cucurbita verrucosa.
  9 Scabcr; as Cucumis sativus.
   II. Sen Cujurbita.
   PEPPER.   See Piper nigrum.
   Pepper, black.  See Piper nigrum.
   Pepper, Guinea.  Sec Capsicum annuum.
   Pepper, Jamaica,  See Myrtus pimenta.
   Pepper, long.   See Piper longum.
   Pepper, poorman's.  See Polygonum hydropipct-
   Pepper, wall.   See Sedum acre.
   Pepper, water   See Polygonum hydropiper.
   PEPPERMINT  See Mentha piperita.
   PEPPERWf HIT.  Sec Lepidium iberus.
   PEPTIC.  (Pepti, us ; from rstirru, to ripen.)  Thai
 which promotes digestion, or is digestive.
   PERACUTE.   Veiy sharp.   Diseases are  thus
 called xvhen very severe, or aggravated  beyond mea
 sure; as subacute is applied to such as aie not  very
 acute, or so severe as they generally are.
   PERCHLORIC  ACID.    Acidum.  perchloricum.
 Oxychloric acid.  If about 3 parts of sulphuric acid be
 poured on one of chlorate of potassa iu  a retort, and
 after the first violent action is over, heat be gradually
 applied, to separate the deutoxide of chlorine, a saline
 mass xvill remain, consisting of bisulphate of  potasta
 and perchlorate of potassa.  By one or iwo crystalliza-
 tions, the latter salt may be separated from tlie former
 It is a neutral salt, xvitii a taste somewhat similar to
 the common muriate of potassa.  It is very sparingly
 soluble iu cold xvater, since at CO0, only  1 55th is dis-
 solved ; but in boiling xvater it is more soluble.  Its
 crystals are elongated octahedrons.  It detonates feebly
 when triturated  with sulphur in a mortar.  At the
 heat of 412°, it is  resolved into oxygen and muriate oi
 potassa, in the proportion of 46 of the former to 54 of
 tlie lalter.   Sulphuric  acid, at 280°, disengages the
 perchloric acid.  For these facts science is indebted to
 Count Von Stadion.  It seems to consist of 7 primes
 of oxygen, combined xvith one of chlorine, or 7.0 4-4.5.
 These curious discoveries have been lately verified by
 Sir H. Davy.   The other peichlorates are not knoxvn.
  Mr. Wheeler describes an ingenious method xx hich
 he employed to procure chloric acid from tlie chlorate
 of potassa.  He  mixed a xvarm solution of this salt
 xvith one of fluosilicic acid.   He kept the mixture mo-
 derately hot for a fexv minutes, and to ensure the per-
 fect decomposition of the salt, added a slight excess of
 the acid.  Aqueous solution of ammonia will show,
 by the separation  of silica, xvheiher any  of the fluosi-
 licic acid be left after the decomposition of the chlo-
 rate.  Thus we can effect its complete decomposition
 The mixture  becomes turbid,  and fluosilicate of po
 tassa is precipitated abundantly in the form of a gela-
 tinous mass.   The supernatant liquid xvill then con-
 tain  nothing  but  chloric acid, contaminated with  a
 small quantity of fluosilicic.  This  may be removed
 by the cautious addition of a small quantity of solution
 of chlorate.  Or, after filtration, the whole ncid may
 be neutralized by carbonate of barytes, and the chlo-
 rate  of that earth, being obtained in crystals, is  em-
 ployed to procure the acid, as directed by Gay Lussac.
  PERCIVAL, Thomas, was born at Warrington. In
 1740.  He studied for three years with great assiduity,
 at Edinburgh : then came to London, and was chosen
 a Felloxv of the Royal Society; after which he visited
 different places on the Continent, and took his degree
 at Leyden. In 1767, he settled al Manchester, and con
 tinued there till the period of his death, in 1804, in the
 unremitting exercise of his medical duties.  Dr. Pcrci-
 val possessed,  in an eminent degree, those moral and
 intellectual endoxvments,  which are calculated to
 form a distinguished physician.   He has been xvell cha-
 racterized as an author xvithout vanity, a philosopher
 without pride, a  scholar without  pedantry, and  a
 Christian without guile.  His earlier inquiries  xvere
 directed to medical, chemical, and philosophical sub-
jects, which he pursued with great  judgment,  com-
 bining tbe cautious but a«sidnons use of experiment
 with scientific observation, and much literary research
 His papers were published  collectively, under the title
 of " Essays, Medica! and Experimental," in three vo-
 lumes ; which have passed through many editions, and
 obtained him considerable reputation.  His subsequent
 publications were of a moral  nature, and originally
 conceived for the improvement of his children.  But his
 last work, entitled " Medical Ethics," which appeared
 in 1803, is adapted  for the use of the profession, anf
 will form a lasting monument of his integrity and vvis>
 dom. He contr'buted also numerous papers on vari
                                        163 
PEK                                              PER
Otis subjects to the Memoirs of the Literary and Philo-
sophical Society of Manchester, xvhich  he had been
muinly instrumental in establishing, and xvhich did not
c< ase'io manifest a grateful sense of his merits, by the
continued appointment of him to the presidency.
  PERCOLATION.   (Percolalio, strained through ;
from per, through, and colo, to strain.)  It is generally
applied  to animal secielion, from  the office of  Ihe
glands being thought to resemble that of a strainer in
ti.'iusmitiing the liquors that pass through them.
  Perde'tcm.  In Paracelsus it  is the root of skirret,
or Siutusisarum.
  Purdicium.  (From iztpii\, a partridge: so called
because partridges xvere said to feed upon it.)  The
Parietaria officinalis, or pellitory of  the wall.
  PERENNIAL.  See Perennis.
  PERENNIS.  Perennial; lasting for years:  applied
lo plants iu opposition to those wliich live only one or
two years; thus the elm, oak, fir, &c. are perennial.
  Perennial worm-grass.  See Spigclia.
  Perete'rion.  (From zzepau, lo dig through.) The
perforating part of the trepan.
  PERFOLIATA.  (From per, and folium: so called
because the leaves surround  the stem, like those of
a cabbage.)  See Bupleurum perfoliatum.
  PERFOLIATUS.   (From per, through, and folium,
a leaf.)  Perfoliate:  applied to leaves when the stem
runs through  them, as in  Bupleurum rolundifolium,
and Chlora perfoliata.
  PERFORANS.  See Flexor profundus forans.
  Perforans, seu flexor profundus.   See Flexor
longus digitorum pedis profundus perforans.
  i'KRKORANS, 3KU FLEXOR TERTII  INTERNODII DIGI-
tokum pedis.   See  Flexor longus digitorum  pedis
profundus perforans.
  Perforans, vulho frofundus.  See  Flexor pro-
fundus perforans.
  PERFORATA.  (From perforo, to pierce through :
; .1  called  because,  its leaves  are full  of holes.)   See
Hypericum.
  PERFORATUS.   See  Flexor  brevis digitorum
pedis, and Flexor sublimis perforatus.
  Perforatus, seu  flexor secundi internodii di-
citorum  pedis.  See Flexor brevis digitorum pedis
perforatus sublimis.
  Pekia'mma.  (From rstpiairro, to  hang round.)  An
amulet, or charm, which xvas hung  round the neck to
p-cxen; Infection.
  PKRIA'NTHIUM.  (From   irtpi,  and  avfjoc, a
flower.)   The calyx  properly  and commonly so called,
xri:en  it  is contiguous to  and  makes a part  of  the
fi >wer, as the  five green  leaves xvhich  eneotnpass a
rose, including their urn-shaped base, the tubular pail
torn nehciidiiig the scales  in the pinks, or the globular
M.ily cup  in Centaurea.  The tulip is a naked floxver,
having no calyx at all.  The perianth is of infinite va-
riety of' forms.
  From its number of leaves, it is,
  I. Monophyllous, formed of one only ; as in D.'itura
stramonium.
  2. Diphyllotts; as in Papaver rha-as.
  3. Triphylloiis; as in Canna indicn.
  4. Tetrnphyltous; as Lunaria aimua.
  5. Pimtiiphylliws ; as Ranunculus.
  From the division  of its edge,
  1. Undivided; without  any irregularity; as in the
 female of the Onerous robur.'
  2. Partite, or divided almost to the base; hence  bi-
paititi: or bilubeate,  in Salvia i fticinalis: tripartite, in
Slrti'.iotes aloides; quadripartite, in CEiiothein biennis:
 quinqiicpartite, in Nerium oleander; duodecempart.te,
 In  Seinpervivimi teetotum.
  ".'. Cloven, cut as il xvere to the middle only ; hence,
 bifid, in AdoxtunosoliateH'ma; trifid,\n Asarum catia-
 d'lise; quinquefid, in CEsculus hippoonslanum.
  A.  Dentate, in Marrubium vulgare; quinqucdentate,
 \>\  Cucumis and Cucurbita, the female floxvers.
  5. .Ni eriite, ill Centaurea cyanus.
    from Its figure,
    I.  Tu'iiil.i.-um : as in Datura stramonium.
  2.  Patens, with spreading leaflets; as in Boragooffi-
 li nulls.
   3.  Reflex um, its  lacininted portions  tinned baok-
 xvaid ; as in lEiinihc a biennis.
   4.  Inflatum, pouched and  holloxv ; as in Cucubnlus
 behen, and Physalis alkekcngi in fruit
    From its coloi r
        Iti4
   Coloratum, when of  any other than  green  St a
Gomphrena globosa.
   From the disposition of the t" mien,
   1. Superum, xvhen the perianth and enrols aie above
Hetice the remains are visible on tlie fruit,  as iu roses
pears, &.c.
   2. Inferum, xvhen below- the gennen;   as  in  th<
poppy and xvater-lily.
   From the number on each flower,
   1. Simplex, when one; as in Nicotiana tabacum
   2. Duplex, double;  as  in Malva, Althaea, Hihij
cus, &c.
   3  Calyculatum, or acutum, having a lesser one, o-
scales down lo the base; as in Dfanihus caryophyllus
   Nullum, when wanting; as in tulips.
   From its situation with respect lo the frin (ific.iiion
   1. Perianthum fioris, xvlien belonging to [he male.
   2. P. fructus, wii'.-n xvith ihe pistils.
   3. P. fructificationis,  containing both stamit.a  and
pestils in the floxver.
   From its dura lion,
   1. Caducum, tailing off early; as in Papaver
   2. Deeiduus, very late; as in Tilia Euiopotea.
   3. Peristens ;  as in Hyosciamus.
   4  Maresrens, withered,  bat yel conspicuous on the
I mil; as iu Pvrus, Mespilus, &c.
   FERIBLE'PSIS.  (From tztptSXtnu, to stare about.)
That kind of xvild look xvhich is observed in delirious
persons.
   PERI'HOLE.   (From zStpiSaXXu, to surround )  A
word used frequently by  Hippocrates in dittieieiit.-ciises.
Sonietimes it signifies the dress of a person  ; al others
a translation of the moibific humours fiom the centre
to the surface ol' the body.
   PF.RIBROSIS.   An  ulceration  or erosion, at the
coiners or uniting  parts of the eyelids.  This  ilisor
der most frequently affects  the internal commissure nf
the eyelids.  The  species are, 1. Peribrosis, from the
acrimony of the teais, as may  be observed in ihe epi
phora.
   2 Peribrosis, from an a gylops, xvhich sometimes ex
tends to the commissure of the  eyelids.
   PERICARDITIS.  (From supucapotov, the peiioar
diuinv   Inflammation of the pericaidlum.  See Car
ditis.
   PERICARDIUM  (From tztpi, about, and xaovta,
the  heart.)  The membranous bag that surrounds the
heart.  Ils use is to secrete ai.d contain the xapoiir of
il:e pericardium, xvhich lubricates the heart, and  thus
pieseives it  fiom concreting with  the pericardium.
   PERICA'RPIA.  (From ratpi, about, and corpus,
Ihe wrist.)  Mi dicines that are applied to the xvrist.
   PERICARP1ALIS.   Belonging lo  the pericarpium
of plai.ts: thus  the spines of tl.e Datura stramonium
on tie fruit, are called pericarpial.
   PEHICARPIUM.   The  seed-vessel or covering of
the  seed of plants,  which  is mostly membranous, lea-
thery, woody, pulpy, or succulent.  The membranous
are,
   1. C-.-psula.              5  Lomevtitm.
   2. till qua.               C.  Folliculus.
   3  Siliculn.               7.  Samara.
   4. I.rguvirn.
   The woody seedvetse's  are
   K Strobulus.             fj.  Nux.
   The fleshy ones,
   10. Puiiiuvi.              12.  Drupa.
   11 Pepo.
   The succulent,
   13. Bacca.
   The  seed-vessel is e.xtrrnn Iv various   in  different
 plants, and is formed ofthe germen enlarged.   Ii is not
 an essential part of n plant, the seeds being frequently
 naked, and  guarded only by ihe calyx, as is the case
 wi:h the  plants ofthe order Gymnospei-mia, also in the
 great class of compound floxveVs, Syvgcncsin
   The use of the seed vessel is to protect the sei ds till
 ripe, and then,  in some  way or other, to promote  fheii
 dispensioii, either scattering litem by Its elastic power
 or serving for the food nf animals, in the dung of whicli
| the seeds vegetate, or promoting the same  end by va
I riotts other means.  The  same otgnn xvhich remains
 closed so long as it is juicy or moist, splilsor flies asun-
 der xvhen dry,  thus scattering the  seeds  in xveather
. most favourable for their success. By nn extiaordinary
 piox ision of nature, hoxvever,  in some annual s]>cciea
I of Mesemhijunlhenmm,  natives of  sandy deserts in 
t'L.ii
PER
Ali»ea,  the scud-vesscl open-; only in rainy weather;
otherwise the seeds might, in that country, lie  long ex-
posed  before they  met with  suflicient  moisture to
vegetate.
  PERICHiE'TIUM.  (From «pi, about, and Xai7i», n
hair or bristle.)   A scaly sheath, investing ihe fertile
flower, and consequently the base of the fruit-stalk, of
some mosses.  In the genus Hypuum it is of great con-
sequence, not ouly by ius presence, constituting a part
of the generic character, but by its differences iu shape,
proportion, and structure, serving fiequenlly to discri-
minate species.   Linna-us appears by his manuscripts,
Sir James Smith informs us, to  have intended adding
this to the different  kinds of calyx, though it is not one
of the seven enumerated in his printed xvorks.
  PERICHONDRIUM.    (From nrpi,  about,  and
Xivjpoi,  a cartilage.)  Tlie membrane  that coveis a
cartilage.
  PERICHRI'SIS.   (From  zzept, about, and  xpiw, to
anoint.)   A liniment.
  Perichri'sta.  (From ncpt,  around, and  \ptu>, to
anoint.)  Any medicines xvitii xvhich the eyelids are
anointed, in an ophthalmia.
  Perk la sis.   (From  zzept, about,  and xXau,  to
break.)   It is a form used by Galen for such a fracture
nf the bone as quite divides it, aud forces it through
the flesh into sight  Or a fracture with a great xvound,
xvhercin the bone is laid bare.
  PERICLY  MENUM.   (From izcpixXv<,u,  to  toll
round: so called  because it twists itself round xvhat-
ever is near it.)  The honeysuckle or woodbine.   Sec
Lonicera.
  PERICNE'MIA.   (From zztpi, about,  and xvnpii,
the tibix)  The parts about the tibia.
  PERICRA'NIL'M.  (From iripj, about, and  itpariov,
Hie cranium.)  The membrane that is closely connected
to the bones of the head or cranium.
  Peride'smica.  (From tztpi,  about, and Stcpos, a
ligature.)  1. Parts about a ligament.
  2. A suppression  of urine, from stricture in ihe ure-
thra.
  PERIDIUM.  Tlie name given by  Person to  the
<ound membranous  dry case of the seeds of aime of
the augtosperm mushrooms.
  PERIDOT.  See Chrysolite.
  Peri'dromos.  (From zzipt, about,  and Ipopos, a
tourte.)  Tlie extreme circumference of tlie  hairs of
the head.
  Perie'pgia.  Iltpifpyia.  Any needless caution or
trouble in an operation, as  tztput,y<.s is one  who de-
spatches it with unnecessary circumstances: boll; tbe
terms are met xvith  in Hippocrates,  and others of the
Gre/ek xvriters.
  Pkrieste'cos.  (From tztpus-qpt, to surround, or to
guard.)   An  epithet for diseases, signs, or symptoms,
importing their being salutary, and that ihey prognosti-
cate the recovery of the patient.
  Peri'graphe.  (From  tztptypaQu, lo circumscribe.)
1. Au inaccurate  description, or delineation.
  2  In  Vesalius, perigraphe  signifies certain  while
lines and impressions, observable iu  the musculus rec-
tus of the abdomen.
  Pe'rin.  (From tznpa, a  bag.) A testicle.   Some
explain it the Perinaum ; others  say it is the Anus.
  PERINiEOCE'LE.  (From zztpivaiov, the perinaeum,
and 107X17, a rupture.)  A  rupture in the perinaeum.
  PERINjE'UM.  (From sstptvtu, to flow round, be-
cause that part is generally moist.) The space between
ihe anus and organs of generation.
  Perin.eus  transversus.  See  Transversus  pe-
rinai.
  PERINYCTIS.  (Pennyctis, idis, f.; from tztpt  and
wl, the night.   Little swellings like nipples;  or, as
others relate, pustules,  or pimples, which break out in
lire nieiit.
  PERIOSTEUM.  (From zzept, about, and  os-tov, a
bone.)  The membrane which invests the external sur-
face of all the bones, except the  croxvns of the teeth.
It is of a fibrous  texture, and well supplied xvith arte-
ries, x-eins, nerves, and absorbents. It is called pericra-
nium, on the  cranium; periorbita, 011 the orbits; peri-
chondrium, when it covers cartilage; and peridesmium,
when it covers ligament.  Its use appears lo be lo dis-
tribute the vessels on the external surfaces of bones.
  PieaiPHlMO'sis.  See Phimosis.
  Peripi.evmo'nia.  See Pneumonia.
  PERIPNEUMONIA.  (From cent, and zzvtvpuv,
the lung)   Peripneumony, or inflammation of tha
lungs.  See Pneumonia.
  Peripskumonia notha.   Bastard or spurious pe-
ripneumony.   Practitioners, it xvould appear, do not all
affix this name to the same disease; some affirming it
to be a rheumatic affection of the respiratory muscles,
xvhile others  consider it as a mild  peripneumony.  It
is characterized by difficulty of breathing, great oppres-
sion at the chest, xvitii obscure pains, coughs, and oc-
casionally an expectoration. Spurious peripneumony
is sometimes so  slight as to resemble  only a violet:!
catarrh; and,  after the employment of a few proper
remedies, goes off by a free ami copious expectoration ,
hut sometimes the symptoms run high, and an eliu-1011
of serum into tlie bronchia takes place, which dcsiioy-i
the patient.
  PER1PYE MA.  (From irtpt, about, and zzvov, pus )
A collect,nil of matter about any part, as round a tooth,
iu the gums.
  Pekirkiie'xis.  (From irtpt, about, and pi;yvvjvt, to
break.)  A breaking off, or a separation  round about,
either of corrupted bones, or of dead llesh.
  Perirrihe a.   (From ntptpptu,  to lloxv about.)  A
reflux of humours  iu a dropsical  case to any of the
larger emuiicloii.es for its excretion.
  Perislvphi  smus.  (From tztpt, about, and xotvos,
gibbous.)  Au incision made across the  forehead, or
from one temple lo another, over the upper part of the
os !■ onlis.   It xvas formerly made to cover a considera-
ble inflammation or defluxion fiom tile eyes.
  PERISTALTIC'.  (Pertstalticus, from zztpts-tXXu,
to contract.)   The vermicular motion of the intestines,
by  wliich they contract and propel llieir contents,  u
called peristaltic.  A similar motion lakes place in ihe
Fallopian tubes, afler conception, by means of xvhich
the ovum  is  translated  from the ovarium into the
uterus.
  Peristaphyli'nus. (From izcpt, about, and %-atbvXri,
the uvula.)  A muscle  xvhich is  connected xvitii the
uvula
  Periste'rium.   (From  tctpis-tpof,  a  pigeon:   -.i
called because pigeons covet it.)   See  Verbena offici
natts.
  Peristoma.   See Peristomium.
  PERISTOMIUM.  (From irtpt, around, and $opa,
the mouth or opening  of the capsule.)   Peristoma
The fringe-like  iiien.bianous margin wliich, in many
mosses, borders the orifice of the theca or cajisule.   Il
is eitlier simple or double, and consists  either of sepa
rate teeth, or  of a plated or jagged membrane.  Tlie
external fringe is mostly of the former kind; th? inner,
when present, of the lalter.  Tlie number of teeth, re-
markably constant in each genus and  species, is eitlier
four, eight,  sixteen,  tliirty-tivo, or  sixty-four.   On
these Hedwig and his followers have placed great de
peudence.
  Peristro'ma.  (From tztpisvpevvvu, to strew about.)
Properly signifies any covering.
  PERIS Y STOLE.  (From tzepts-tXXu, to compress.)
The pause or lime  between a contraction and dilata-
tion of tlie heart.
  Perite'rion.   (From tztpt, and rqptu,  to preserve.)
The perforating part of the trepan.
  Periton-4:ore'xis.   (From irtprfovatov, tlie pcrito
naeuni, and prpjou, to break.)  A bursting of the peri
lonaum.
  PERITONAEUM.   (From  tztptruvu,  to  extend
round)  A slrong simple membrane, by which all  the
viscera of the abdomen are surrounded.  It has an ex-
ceedingly smooth, exhaling, and  moist internal sur-
face.  Outwardly, it is every where surrounded by cel-
lular substance, which, towards the kidneys, is' very
loose and very fat;  but is x cry  short at the loxver k-n
don of the transverse muscles.  It begins from me dia-
phragm, which it completely lines, and  atthe last fleshy
fibres of the  ribs, and  the  external lumbar tibies, it
completes the septum, in conjunction with the pleura,
ivith xvhich it  is continuous through the various inter
vals of the diaphragm.  Posteriorly, it descends bef< ^c
the kidneys;   anteriorly, behind  the abdominal mus,
cles.  It dips into the pelvis  from the bones of th
pubes, passes over the bladder, and descends behind
and being again carried backwards  al Ihe entrance a,
the ureters, iu two lunar folds, it rejoins upon the hit, s-
linum rectum  thai part of itself which  invi-sts inc
loins, and in this situation lies before the rectum. The
cellular texture, xvhich covers the peritonaeum on tho 
FER
PER
 outside, is continued into sheaths in very many places ;
 of which, one receives the  testicle on each side, nn-
 other the iliac vessels ofthe pelvis, viz. the obturatoria,
 tliose of the penis and bladder, and the aorta, and, as-
 cending to the breast, accompanies the oesophagus and
 vertebra; by means of which, there is a communica-
 tion betxveen the xvhole body and the peritonaeum, well
 knoxvn in dropsical  people.   It has various  prolonga-
 tions for covering the viscera. The shorter productions
 of this membrane are called  ligaments; and are formed
 by a continuous reduplication of the petitomeum, re-
 ceding from  its inner  surface, enclosing  cellular sub-
 stance, and extending to some viscus, where its plates
 separate,  and, having diverged, embrace the viscus;
 but the intermediate cellular substance alxvays accom-
 ptnies this membranaceous coat, and joins it with the
 true substance of the viscus.   Of this short kind of pro-
 duction, three belong to the liver, one or txvo to the
 spleen, and others to the kidneys, and to the sides ofthe
 Uterus and vagina.  By these means, the tender sub-
 stance ofthe viscera is defended from injury by any
 motion or concussion,  and  their xvhole  mass is pre-
 vented from being misplaced by their own weight, and
 from  injuring themselves, being  securely connected
 with the firm sides of the peritonaeum.
  PERITONITIS. (Fromojpirovai.theperitonaeum.)
 An inflammation of the peritonaeum.  A genus of dis-
 ease in the Class Pyrexia, and Order Phlegmasia, of
 Cullen, known by the presence of pyrexia,  xvith pain in
 the abdomen, that is increased xvhen in an erect posi-
tion, but xvithout other proper signs of inflammation of
the abdominal viscera.  When the inflammation at-
tacks the peritonaeum ofthe  viscera, it takes the name
of the viscus; thus, peritonitis,hepatitis,peritonitis in-
tcstinalis, peritonitis omentalis, or epiploilis, or omen-
titis, peritonitis mesenterii, Sec.
  All these Dr. Cullen considers under the  general head
of peritonitis, as there are no certain signs by which
 hey can be distinguished from  each other, and the
method of cure must be the same in all.   He however
distinguishes three species.
  1.  Peritonitis propria; when the peritonaeum, strict-
 y so called, is inflamed.
  2.  Peritonitis  omentalis.   Omentitis.  Epiploitis,
 when the omentum is affected.
  3.  Peritonitis mesenteriea, when  the mesentery is
inflamed.
  Perizo'ma.   (From ircptguvvvpt,  to gird  round.)
This term  strictly signifies a girdle; but by Hildanus,
and some other chirurgical xvriters, it is applied lo those
instruments for supporting ruptures,  xvhich xve com-
monly call trusses.  Some also express by it the dia-
phragm.
  PE'RLA.   (Ital. and Span, perl, Welch, perlen,
Germ.)  See Margarita.
  Perlate  acid.   A name given  by Bergman to the
 acidulous phosphate of soda, Haupt having called the
 phosphate of soda Sal mirabile perlatum.
   PE'RNIO.   A kibe  or  chilblain.   A species of
 erythema,  of Cullen.   Chilblains ate painful inflam-
 matory swellings, of a deep purple or leaden colour, to
 which the fingers, toes, heels, and other extreme parts
 of the body are subject, on being exposed to  a severe
 degree of cold.   The pain is not constant, but rather
 pungent and  shooting al particular times, and an in-
 supportable  itching attends.   In some instances the
 skin remains entire, but in  others it breaks and dis-
 charges a thin fluid.   When the degree  of cold has
 t- een very great, or the application Jong continued, the
 parts affected are apt to mortify anu slough off, leaving
 n foul  ill-conditioned ulcer behind.   Children and old
 people arc more apt to be  troubled xvith chilblains
 •Man those of a middle age;  and such as are of a scro-
 fulous habit are remarked to  suffer severely from them.
   PE'RONE.  (From rttpu, to fasten: so called be-
 cause  it fastens together the tibia  and the  muscles.)
 The fibula.
  PERONE'US.  (Pcroneus, irtpovatos ; from per one,
 the fibula.)  Belonging to the fibula.
   Peroneus  anticus.   See  Pcroneus brevis.
  Peroneus brevis.  This  muscle is the pcroneus se-
 ~..ndus, sen anticus, of Douglas; the peroneus medius,
 sou anticus  nf Winslow; the pcronaus  secundus of
 Coxvper; and prtit-pcroneo snsmettitarsien,of Dumas. |
 It an.-es, by au acute, thin, and fleshy origin, from the I
 anterior and  outer part of  the fibula, its fibres con- I
 Mnuing to adl-ere to  the loxver half of lhat bone.  Its I
       Kit;
 round tendon passes through the groove in the malleo
 lus externus, along xvith that of the peroneus longus,
 after which it runs in  a separate groove to be inserted
 into the upper and posterior part of the  tubercle at the
 basis ofthe metatarsal bone that supports the liltle toe
 Its use is to assist the peroneus longus.
   Peroneus longus.   This muscle, xvhich is the pe-
 roneus primus, seu posticus,  of Douglas ; peroneus
 maximus, seu posterior, of Winslow ;  peror.aus pri-
 mus, of Coxvper;  and tibi peroneo-tarsien, of Dumas,
 is situated somewhat anteriorly alone the outer side of
 the leg.  It arises tendinoas and fleshy from the exter-
 nal  lateral part of the head  of the tibia, and likewise
 from the upper anterior surface and outer side of the
 percne  or fibula, its fibres continuing to adhere to the
 outer surface of the latter, to 'within  three or  four
 inches of the malleolus e.rternus. It terminates in a long
 round tendon, xvhich runs  obliquely behind the mal-
 leolus internus, where :: passes through a cartilaginous
 groove  in common with the peroneus  brevis, being
 bound down by an annular  ligament.  When it has
 reached the os calcis. it quits the tendon ofthe peroneus
 brevis, and runs obliquely inwards along a groove in
 the os cuboides, under the  muscles on the sole of the
 foot, to be inserted into the outside ofthe posterior ex-
 tremity of the metatarsal bone that supports the great
 toe.   Near the insertion of this muscle we find a small
 bursa mucosa.  This muscle draws tlie foot outxvards,
 and likewise assists in extending it.
  Peroneus maximus.  See  Peroneus longus.
  Peroneus medius.  See Peroneus brevis.
  Peroneus posticus.  See Pcroneus longus.
  Peronkus primus.   See Peroneus longus.
  Peroneus secundus.  See Peroneus brevis.
  Peroneus tertius.   This is the name given by Al
 binus to a muscle  which,  by some writers, is called
 nanus Vesulii, or Vesalius's ninth muscle of the foot;
 but by most considered in the present day as a portion
 of the extensor longus digitorum pedis.  It is situated
 at the anterior, inferior, and outei part ofthe leg, along
 the outer edge ofthe last described muscle, to which it
 is intimately united. It arises fleshy from the anterior
 surface of the loxver half of the fibula, and from the ad-
 jacent part ofthe interosseous ligament.  Its fibres run
 obliquely doxvnxvards, towards a tendon  xvhich passes
 under the annular ligament, and then running obliquely
 outwards, it is inserted  into the root of die metatarsal
 bone that supports tlie little toe.  This muscle assists in
 bending the  foot.
  PERPENDICULAR!?.  Applied to parts of plants,
 as the root of the Daucus carota, which goes straight
 doxvn into the earth.
  PERSICA.   (From  Persia, its  native soil.)  The
 peach.  See Amygdalus persica.
  PERSICA'RIA.   (From Persica. the peach-tree: so
 called because its blossoms are like tliose  of the peach.)
 See Polygonum persicaria.
  Perskaria mitis.  See Polygonum persicaria.
  Persicaria ure.ns.  See Pclygonum hydropiper.
  Pe'rsicus ionis.  A carbuncle.  Avicenna says, it
 is that species of carbuncle  xvhich is attended xvilh
 pustules and vesications.
  [Persimmoh.  See Diospyros. A.l
  PERSISTENS. Permanent. Applied to iloxver-cups
 remaining a longtime after the floxver, as that of the
 Hyosciamus niger.
  Persistens febris.   A regular intermitting fever,
the paroxysms of xvhich return at  constant and stated
 hours.
  Persona'ta.  (From  persona,  a  mask; because,
 says Pliny, the ancient actors used to mask themselves
 xvilh the leaves of this plant.)  See Arctium lappa.
  PERSONATUS.  Personate.  A term applied to  a
 monopetalous corolla, when irregular, nnd closed ty a
 kind of palate; ns in Antirrhinum.
  PERSPIRATION.   Perspiratio.  The vapour that
 is secreted by the extremities of the cutaneous arteries
 from the external surface of the body. It  is distinguish-
 ed into sensible and insensible.  The former  is sepa-
 rated in the form of an invisible x-apoar, the latter so as
 to be visible in the form of very little drops adhering to
 the epidermis.  The secretory organ is composed of l he
 extremities of the cutaneous arteries-. The smell of the
 perspirable fluid, in a  healthy man, is fatuous and
 animal;  its taste manifestly sail and ammoniacal.  In
 consistence it is  vaporous or aqueous; and its specif,
grtwiti, in the lattei stale is grcaaer than that of waler 
PER
I'EIi
For the most part it is yelloxvish, from the passage of
the subcutaneous oil, and sebaceous matter of ihe sub-
cutaneous glands.
  Whatever form it takes, the liquid that escapes from
Ihe skin is composed, accordhig to Thenard, of a great
deal of water, a small quantny of acetic acid, of muri-
ate of soda and potassa, a small  quantity of earthy
phosphate, an atom of oxide of iron, and  a trace of
animal matter.  Berzelius considers the acid of sweat
not the same as acetic  ncid, but like the lactic acid of
Scheele.  The skin exhales, besides, an oily matter, and
some carbonic acid.
  Many experiments have been made to determine the
quantity of transpiration xvhich is formed in a given
time, and tlie  variations that  this  quantity undergoes
according to circumstances.  The first attempts are due
to Sanctorius, who, during thirty years, xveighed every
day, xvith extreme care, and an indefatigable patience,
his food and his drink, his solid and liquid excretions,
and even  himself.  Sanctorius, in spite of his zeal  and
perseverance,  arrived  at results that xvere  not very
etict.  Since  his time, several philosophers and phy-
sicians have been employed  on the same subject with
more success; but the most remarkable  labour in this
xvay is that of Lavoisier and Seguin.  These  philoso-
phers were  the  first who distinguished the loss lhat
takes place  by pulmonary transpiration from that of
tlie skin.  Seguin shut himself up iu a bag of gummed
silk, tied above his  head, and  presenting an opening,
the edges  of which  were fixed round his mouth by a
mixture of turpentine and pitch.  In this manner only,
the humour ofthe pulmonary transpiration passed into
tlie air.  In order to know the quantity, it was sufficient
to weigh himself, with the  bag, at  tlie beginning and
end ofthe experiment, in a very fine balance.  By re-
peating the experiment out  of the bag, he determined
the xvhole quantity of humour transpired; so that, by
deducting from this the quantity that  he  knew had
passed out from  ine lungs, he had tiie quantity of  hu-
mour exhaled by the skin.   Besides, he took  into  ac-
count the food that  he had used, his excretions solid
and liquid, and generally all the causes that could have
any influence upon the transpiration. By folloxving  this
plan, the results of Lavoisier and Seguin are these:—
  1st, The greatest  quantity of insensible  transpira-
tion (the  pulmonary included) is 23.6 grains  troy per
minute; consequently,  3 ounces, 1  drachm, 36 grains,
per hour; and  6 pounds,  4  ounces, 6 drachms, 24
grains, in 24 hours.
  2d, The least considerable loss is 8.8 grains per mi-
nute ; consequently, 2 pounds, 2 ounces, 3 drachms, in
24 hours.
  3d, It is during the digestion that the loss of weight
occasioned by insensible transpiration  is at its  mi-
nimum.
  4th,  The transpiration is at its maximum imme-
diately afler dinner.
  5th, The mean of the insensible transpiralion is 14.4
grains per minute; in the mean 14.4 grains, 8.8 depend
on  cutaneous  transpiration, and 5.6 upon  the pul-
monary.
  6th, The cutaneous transpiration a'one varies during
and after repasts.
  7th, Whatever quantity cf food is taken, or what-
ever are the variations of the atmosphere, the same
individual, after having augmented  in weight by all tlie
food that  he has taken, returns, in 24  hours, to  the
same xveigh' nearly that he was the day before, pro-
vided he is not groxving, or has not  eaten to excess.
  It is much to be wished that this interesting labour
had been continued, and that authors had not limited
their  studios to  insensible  transpiration, but  had  ex-
tended their observations to the sweat.
  Whenever the humour of transpiration is not evapo-
rated, as soon as it is in contact with the air, it appears
at the surface  of the skin in the form of a layer of
 quid  of  variable thickness.   Now,  this effect may
happen because  the transpiration is too copious, or
because of the diminution  of the dissolvent force of
the air. We perspire in an air hot and humid, by the
influence ofthe txvo causes joined;  we xvould perspire
xvith  more difficulty in an  air of the same heat, but
dry.  Certain  parts  of the  body transpire more co-
piously, and sxveat  xvith more facility, than others;
tucli are  tlie  hands and  the feet,  the armpits, the
groins, the brow, Sec   Generally  the skin of those
parts receives a greater proportional quantity of blood-.
 and, in some  people, the armpit, the sole of the foot,
 and the  intervals  between the toes, do not come so
 easily in contact xvith Ihe air.
  The sweat does not appear to have every xvhere the
 same composition; every one knoxvs that its odour is
 variable  according  lo the different parts of the Ifody.
 It is the same with its acidity, xvhich appears much
 stronger  in the armpits and feet than elsewhere.
  The cutaneous transpiration has  numerous uses in
 tbe animal  economy, keeps up the  suppleness of tho
 epidermis, and thus favours  Ihe exercise  of the tact
 and the touch.  It.  is by evaporation  along xvitii that of
 the lungs, the principal means of cooling, by which
 the body maintains itself xvithin certain hnnls of tern
 perature; also it*' expulsion fiom  ihe economy appears
 very important, for every time that  it is diminished or
 suspended, derangements of more or less consequence
 follow, nnd many discuses are not arrested  until a con
 siderable quantity of sweat is expelled.
  Beside water, it cannot  be doubted that carbon Is
 also emitted from the skin;  but in what state, the ex
 periments hitherto  made do not  enable us to decide
 Cruickshanks found, that the air of  the glass vessel in
xvhich his hand and foot had been confined for an
hour, contained carbonic acid gas; for a caudle burned
dimly in  it, and it  rendered lime-xvater turbid.  And
Jurine found, that  air which had remained for  some
time in contact xvitii the skin, consisted almost entirely
of carbonic  acid gas.  The same conclusion  may be
drawn from  the experiments of Im-enhousz and Milly
Trousset has  lately observed, that air was separated
copiously from a patient of  his, xvhile bathing.
  Besides water and carbon, or carbonic acid gas, the
skin emits also a particular odorous substance.  Thai
every animal has a peculiar smell, is well known: the
dog can discover his master, and  even trace him to a
distance  by  the scent.  A  dog,  chained  up  several
 hours after  his master  had set out on a  journey of
some  hundred  miles, followed his  footsteps by thn
 smell.  But it is needless to multiply the instances of this
 fact;  ihey are too well known to every one.  Now,
 this smell must be oxving to some peculiar matter which
 is constantly emitted;  and  this matter  must  differ
 somewhat, either in quantity or  some olher property,
 as xve see that the dog easily distinguishes the indivi-
 dual by means of it.  Cruickshanks has made it  pro-
 bable, that this matter is an oily substance, or at least
 that there is an oily  substance emitted by the skin.
 He wore  repeatedly, night and day, for a  month, the
 same  under ivaistcoat of fleecy  hosiery,  during the
 honest part of the summer.  At the end of this time,
 lie always found an oily substance accumulated in con-
 siderable masses on the nap of  the inner surface of
 the waistcoat,  in  the. form of black tears.  When
 rubbed on paper, it  rondeied it transparent, and hard
 ened on it like grease.   It burned with a white flume,
 and left behind it a charry residuum.
  Berthollet has observed the perspiration acid; and
 he has concluded, lhat the acid xvhich is present is the
phosphoric;  but this has not been proved.   Fourcroy
and Vauquelin have ascertained, that the scurf xvhich
collects upon the skins  of  horses, consists chiefly of
phosphate of lime, and urea is even sometimes mixed
with it.
  According to Thenard, hoxvever, who has lately en-
deavoured more particularly to  ascertain  this point,
the acid contained  in sweat is the acetous; xvhich, he
likewise  observes,  Is the only fre,e acid contained  in
 urine and in milk, this acid existing in both of them
 when quite fresh.  His account of his examination of
 it is as follows:—
  The sweat is more or less copious in different indi-
 viduals;  and its quantity is perceptibly in the inverse
 ratio of that of the urine.   All  other circumstanoiii
being similar, much more is produced during digestion
than during  repose.  The maximum of its production
appears to be  twenty-six grains  and  two-thirds  in a
minute; the minimum nine grains, troy weight.  It in
much inferior, hoxvever, to the pulmonary transpira
tion;  and there is likewise a great difference between
their nature and manner of formation. The one is n
product of a particular secretion, similar in some sort
to that of the  mine; the other, composed of a greal
deal of xvater and  carbonic ncid,  is the product of a
combustion gradually eflected by the atmospheric air
  The sxveat, in a healthy state, very sensibly reddeiiK
litmus paper or infusion.  In certain diseases, and par- 
PER                                             PEK
iicularly in putrid fevers, it is alkaline; yet its taste is
alxvays rather saline, and  more similar to that of salt
than acid.  Though  colourless, it stains  linen.  Its
Bmell Is peculiar, and insupportable xvhen it is concen-
trated, xvhich  is the case in particular during distilla-
tion*  But befoie he speaks of the trials to xvhich he
subjected it, and of xvhich he had occasion for a great
quantity, he describes the method  he adopted for pro-
curing  it, which was similar to that of  Ci lickshanks.
  Human sweat, according  to Thenard, is formed of
a great  deal of xvator, free acetous acid,  muriate of
soda, an atom of phosphate of lime and oxide of iron,
and an inappreciable quantity of animal matter, which
approaches much nearer Jo gelatin than to any other
substance.
  Perspiration varies in respect to,  1. The temperature
of the atmosphere.  Thus  men have a more copious,
viscid, and higher-coloured sxveat  in  summer than in
xx-inter, and in warm countries than in colder regions.
2.  Sex.  The sxveat  of a  man is  said to  smell more
acrid than that of a woman.   3. Age.  The young ate
more subject to sweat than the aged,  who, during the
excessive  heat of the summer, scarcely sxveat  at all.
4.  Ingesta.  An nlliacious sweat  is perceived from
eating garlick; a leguminous from  pease; an acid from
acids; a foetid from animal  food only; and a  tancid
sxveat from fat foods, as is observed in Greenland.   A
long abstinence from drink causes a  more acrid and
coloured sweat;  and the drinking a great  quantity
of cold water in summer, a limpid  and thin sweat.  5.
Medicines.  The sweat of those who have taken
musk, even moderately, and  asafaetida,  or  sulphur,
smells of their respective  natures.  6. Region of the
body.  The sxveat of the head is  greasy;  on the fore-
head it is more aqueous; under the axillae very ungui-
nous ;  and in the interstices  of  the toes, it is very
foetid, forming in the most healthy man blackish sordes.
7.  Discuses.   In this respect it varies very  much  in
regard to quantity, smell, and colour;  for the sxveat of
gouty persons  is said to turn blue  vegetable juices to a
red colour.  Some men also have a lucid sweat, others
a sweat tinging their linen of a cerulean colour.
  The uses of the insensible perspiration are,  1. To
liberate the blood from superfluous animal gas, azote,
and  water.  2. To eliminate  the noxious and hetero-
geneous excrements; hence  the acrid, rancid, legumi-
nous, or  putrid perspiration of  some men.   3. To
moisten the external  surface of the body, lest the epi-
dermis, cutis, and its nervous papillae, be dried up by
the  atmospheric air.  4. To counterbalance  the sup-
pressed pulmonary transpiiation of  the  lungs;  for
xvhen  it  is suppressed, the cutaneous is incieased;
hence the nature of both appears to be tlie same.
   The use of the sensible perspiration, or sxveat, in a
healthy  man, is scarcely  observable, unless  from  an
error of the non-naturals.   Its first effect on  the body
!* always prejudicial,  by exhausting and drying  it,
although it is sonietimes of advantage.  1. By supply-
ing a watery excretion:  thus xvhen  the urine  is defi-
cient, the sweat is often more abundant. In this man-
ner an aqueous diarrhoea is frequently cured by sxveat-
ing.   2. By eliminating, at the same lime, any morbid
matter.   Thus various miasmata are critically ex-
pelled, in acute and chronic diseases, xvith the sweat,
   PERTU'SSIS. (From^fr, much, and tussis, cough.)
The hooping cough.  A genus of diseases in the class
Neuroses, and order Spasmi, of Cullen, knoxvn  by a
convulsive strangulating cough, with hooping,  return-
ing by fits, that are usually terminated  by a vomiting;
andbv  ts being contagious.
   Children are most commonly the  subjects of this
disease., nnd it seems to depend on  a specific contagion,
whicli affects  them but once in their life.  The disease
being once produced, the fits of coughing ate often re-
peated xvithout any evident cause ; but, in many cases,
the contagion may be considered as only giving the
predisposition, and ihcfiequeiicy of the fits may depend
upon various  exciting causes, such as violent exercise,
a full meal, the having taken food of difficult digestion,
and  irritation  of the lungs by dust, smoke, or disagree-
able odours.  Emotions ofthe mind may likewise prove
an exciting cause.
   Its proximate or immediate cause seems to be a vis-
cid  matter or phlegm  lodged about  the  bronchia,
trachea, and  fauces, which  slicks so  close  as to  be
expectorated xvilh the greatest difficulty.  Some have
supposed it to be a morbid irritability of the  stomach,
       168
with increased action of its  mucous  glands; hut the
affection of the stomach which  takes place in the dis-
ease, is clearly only of a secondary nature, so that this
opinion must be erroneous.
  The hooping-cough usually comeson with a difficulty
of breathing, some degre* of thirst, a quick pulse, and
other slight febrile symptoms, which are succeeded  by
a hoarseness,  cough, and  difficulty of expectoration.
These symptoms continue perhaps for a  fortnight or
more, at the end of xvhich time  the disease puts on its
peculiar and characteristic form, and  is noxv evident
as the cough becomes convulsive, and is attended with
asomid, which has been called a hoop.
  When the sonorous  inspiration has happened, the
coughing is again renewed, and  continues in the same
manner as before, till either  a  quantity  of mucus is
thrown  up from  the  lungs,  or the  contents  of the
stomach are evacuated by vomiting.  The fit  is then
terminated,  and the patient  remains  free from any
otlier for some time, and shortly afterward returns to
the  amusements  he  xvas employed in before the fit,
expresses a desire for food, and when it is given to him,
takes it  greedily.   In those cases, however, where the
attack has been severe, he often  seems much  fatigued,
makes quick inspirations, and falls into a faint.
  On the first coming on of the disease, there is little or
no  expectoration  ; or  if any, it consists only of thin
mucus;  and as long as this  is the case, the fits of
coughing are frequent, and of considerable duration ;
but on the expectoration becoming free and copious,
the  fits  of coughing are less frequent, as well as of
shorter duration.
  By the violence of coughing, the free  transmission
of blood through the lungs is somewhat interrupted, as
likewise the free return~of the  blood from the head,
xvhich produces that turgescence and suffusion of the
face, xvhich commonly attend the  attack, and in some
instances brings on a haemorrhage either from the nose
or ears.
  The disease having arrived at  its height, usually con-
tinues for  some xxeeks  longer,  and at length goes off
gradually.  In some cases it is, however, protracted for
sex-eral  months, or even a year.
  Although the hooping-cough often proves tedious,
and is liable to return xvith  violence on  any fresh ex
posure to cold, when not entirely removed, it neverthe-
less is seldom  fatal, except to very young children, who
are always likely to sutler more from it than those of a
more advanced age.  The danger seems indeed always
to be in proportion to the youth of the person, and the
degree of fever, and difficulty of breathing, which ac-
company the disease, as likexvise the stale of debility
xvhich prevails.
  It has been  knoxvn in some instances to terminate in
apoplexy and suffocation.  If the fits are put an end to
by  vomiting, it may be regarded as a favourable symp-
tom, as may likexvise the taking place of a  moderate
and free expectoration, or the  ensuing  of  a slight
haemorrhage from the nose or ears.
  Dissections  of those who die of the hooping-cough
usually show the  consequence of the organs of respira-
tion being affected, and  particularly tho.-e parts which
are the seat of catarrh.  When the disease has been
long protracted, it is apt to degenerate into pulmonary
consumption, asthma, or visceral obstructions, in xvhich
last case the glands  of the mesentery are found in a
hard and enlarged state.
  In the treatment of this disease  it must be borne in
mind, lhat in the  early period palliative measures can
only be employed ; but xvhen it continues merely from
habit, a variety of means xvill often at once put a stop
to it. In the first stage  in mild cases  very little  is re-
quired,  except obviating occasional irritation,  keeping
the boxvels regular, &c.  But where it puts on a more
serious  character, the plan will differ accordingly as it
is attended with inflammatory symptoms, or exhibits a
purely spasmodic form. In  the  former case, it may
be  sometimes  proper in plethoric habits  to begin by a
full bleeding, or leeches to the  chest, if the patient bo
very young, then clear the boxvels effectually, apply a
blister, and exhibit antimonials,  or squill,  in nauseating
doses, assisted perhaps by opium, to promote diaphore
sis  and expectoration.  An occasional emetic, where
the breathing is  much oppressed xvitii  wheezing, in
young children particularly, may afford material iclief
When the disorder Is more of the spasmodic character,
some of these means may slill be useful, as blisters, and 
PES
PET
nauseating medicines, so far as the s'rength will ad- :
mil; but the  remedies of greatest efficacy are the nar-
cotics, as opium,  conium' Sec exhibited in  adequate
doses.   In the chronic or habitual stage ofthe disease,
almost any thing,  wliich produces a  considerable Im-
pression on the constitution, will occasionally succeed:
but we chiefly rely on sedative and antispasmodic, or
on tot.ic remedies, accordinsly as there are marks of
irritability, or of" mere debility in the system.  Of the
former description, opium is perhaps the*best, especially
in conjunction with squill, given in a full dose at night,
and in small quantities swallowed slowly from  time to
time during the day.  Conium,  asafoetida, Sec. may
however occasionally ansxver better in particular con-
stitutions Among Ihe tonics the cinchona is often high-
ly elhcaoious, where no appearances  of local  disease
f-'.tend ; some of the  metallic preparations also, par-
ticularly sulphaie of zinc, may he much relied upon.
Sometimes stimulant applications to the chest, but still
more certainly opiate frictions, xvitl be found  to cure
this disorder.  The same  is very often"  accomplished
by a change of air,  indeed occasionally after the failure
of most remedies.  The cold bath also, xvhere there is
no local disease, may have an excellent effect; assisted
by warm clothing,  especially xvearing  some kind of fur
ox'er the chest.   Fear and other emotions of the mind,
strangury induced by the use ofthe lytta, Sec. Sec rank
also among the reined u s of pertussis.
  Peruvian balsam.  See Myroxylon peru'ferum.
  Peruvian bark.  See Cinehma.
  Peruvia'nus cortex.  See Cinchona.
  Peruvianus cortex flavus.   See  Cinchona cordi-
folia,
  Peruvianus cortex ruber.   See  CincAona oblon-
gifolia.
  PERVIGILIUM.   (From per, much, nnd vigilo, to
watch.) Watching, or a want of sleep. See Vigilance.
  PERVl'NCA.   (From  pervincio, to tie together.)
So called  because its stringy roots xvere used for bind-
ing substances together.  See Vinca minor.
  FES.  (Pes, dis. m.; a foot.)   The foot.
  Pes alexandrinus.  See Anthemis pyrethrum.
  Pes capr.e.  Goat's foot, a species of Oxalis; also
a species of Convolvulus.
  Pes cati.   See Gnaphalium dioicum.
  Pes colombinus.  See  Geranium rotundifolium.
  Pes hippocampi. The name of txvo columns at the
end ofthe fornix ofthe brain, xvhich diverge posteriorly.
  Pes leonis.   See Alchemilla.
  Pes tigridis.  Tiger's foot.  A species of Ipomaa.
  PESSARY.  IPessarium;  from zztotru, to soften.)
An instrument  that is introduced into the vagina to
support the uterus.
  PESTILENCE.   A plague.
  PESTILENTIAL.   (Pestilenlialis;  from  pestes,
the plague.)   An epidemic, malignant, and contagious
disease, approaching to the nature ofthe plague.
  PESTILENTWORT.  See Tussilago pciasites.
  Pestilothia. See Aristolochia virginiana.
  PE STIS.   The  plague.  A genus of disease in the
class Pyrexia, and order  Exanthemata,  of Cullen,
;haracterized by typhus, wliich  is contagious  in the
extreme, prostration of strength, buboes, and carbun-
cles, petechial, haemorrhage, and colliquative diarrhoea.
 'By some writers the disease has been divided into
three species; that attended xvitii buboes; that attended
with carbuncles: and that accompanied with petechia;.
This division appears wholly superfluous.  Dr. Russel,
in his elaborate treatise  on the plague, makes mention
of many varieties; but  when these have arisen, they
seem to have depended in a great measure on the tem-
perament and constitution of the air at the time  the dis-
ease became epidemical, as likewise  on the patient's
habit of body at the time of his being attacked with it.
  The plague is by most writers considered as the con-
sequence  of a  pestilential contagion, xvhich is  propa-
gated from one person to another by association, or by
coming near infected materials.
  It has been  observed, that it  generally appears as
early as the fourth or fifth day after  infection: but it
has not yet been ascertained hoxv long a person xvho
has laboured  under the  disease is  capable of infecting
others, nor hoxv long the contagion may lurk in an un-
favourable habit xvithout producing  the disease, and
may yet be communicated, and the disease excited, in
habits more susceptible of the infection.   It has gene-
rally been supposed, hoxvever, that a quarantine of 40 I
days ft niiicl <onger than is necessary for persons, find
probably for goods also.  Experience has not yet deter
mined hoxv much of this term may be abated.  "If «
am not  much  mistaken,"  observes Dr. Thomas, "the
Board of Trade has,  however, very lately, under the
sanction of the  College  of  Physicians,  somewhat
abridged it "
  It sometimes happens, that after the application of
the putrid vapour, the patient experiences only a con
sideiable degree of languor and slight headache for
many days previous to a perfect attack of the discate:
but it more usually comes  to pass, that he is very soon
seized xvitii great depression of strength, anxiety, palpi-
tlons, syncope, stupor, giddiness, violent headache, and
delirium, the  pulse  becoming at the same time very
xveak and irregular.
  These symptoms are shortly succeeded by  nausea,
and a vomiting of n dark bilious matter, and in the
further  progress of the disease, carbuncles make their
appearance; buboes arise in different glands, such as
the parotid, maxillary, cervical,axillary, and inguinal;
or petechise ha-inorrhagies and a colliquative diarrhoea,
ensue, xvhich denote a putrid tendency prevailing to a
groat degree in the mass of the blood.
  Such  are the characteristic symptoms of this malig-
nant disease, but it seldom happens that ihey are all to
be met with in the same person.   Some, in  the ad-
vanced state of thedisease, labour under buboes, others
under carbuncles, and others again arc covered  xvitii
petechiae.
  The plague  is  always to  be considered as attended
with imminent danger, and  xvhen it prevailed  in this
country about 200 years  ago, proved  fatal to  most of
those xvho xvere attacked with it.  It is probable, hoxv-
ever, that many of them died  from  want of care and
proper nourishment, as the infected  weie forsaken by
their nearest friends; because in Turkey and other
countries, xvhere  attention is paid to the sick, a great
many recover.
  When the disease is unattended by buboes, it runs
its course more rapidly, and is more  generally fatal,
than xvhen accompanied by such inflammations.  The
earlier they appear, the  milder usually is the  disease.
When they proceed kindly to suppuration, they alxvays
prove critical,  and ensure the patient's  recovery. A
gentle  diaphoresis,  arising  spontaneously, has  been
knoxvn in many instances likewise to prove critical.
When carbuncles show  a  disposition to gangrene, the
event will be fatal.  Petechiae, haemorrhages, and colli-
quative diarrhoea, denote the same termination.
  Dissections of the plague have  discovered the gall-
bladder  full of black  bile,  the liver very considerably
enlarged, the  heart  much  increased in size, and the
lungs, kidneys, and  intestines  beset  with carbuncles.
They have likewise discovered all the olher appear-
ances of putrid fever.
  PETALUM.  A petal.  The name of the coloured
leaflets of the corolla of a  flower. The great variety
of form, duration, &c.  of the petals,  give rise to the
following names.
 • From their duration,
   1. Petalo patenlia; as  in Rosa canina,
   2. Patentissima ; very spreading.
   3. Erccta;  asin Allium nigrum.
   4. Connivcntia;  as in Rumex.
   5. Distantia ; as in Cucubalus bacciferus.
  From the figure of the border,
   6. Acuminata; as in Saxifraga stellaris.
   7. Setacea; as in Tropaeoluni minus.
   8. Apice coharentia; as in Vitis vinifera.
   9. Apicercflcxa; asin  Anemone pratensis
  10. Aristata; as in Galium aristatum.
  11. Bifida; as in Silene noctuma.
  )-i. Bipartita;  as in Alsine media.
  13. Biloba;  as  in Geranium striatum
  14. Carinata;  as in Carum carui.
  15. Concava; as in Ruta graveolens.
  16.  Cordata ; as in Sium selinum.
  17. Hirsuta; asin Menyanthes trifoliata
  18.  Ciliata; as in Asclepias undulata.
  19. Crenata; as in Linum usitatissimum
  20. Dentata; as in Silene lucitanica.
  21.  Serrata; as in Dianthus arboreus.
  22. Cuneiforma;  as in Epidendrum cordatum.
  23. Emarginata; as in Allium roseum.
  24. Inficxa; as In Pimpinella.
  25. Rtflexa; as in Pancratium zelanictim.
                                         Ktu 
PET
PE"I
  26  Involuta; asin Anethum.              •
  37  Integra;  as in Nigella arverfsis.
  28.  Lactniata ; as in Reseda.
  29.  Lanceolata; as in Narcissus minor.
  30.  Linearia; as in Tussilago farfara.
  31.  Lineata; as Scilla luoitanica.
  32.  Punctata; as in Mclauthium capensc.
  33.  Maculata;  as in Digitalis purpurea.
  34.  Oblonga; as in Citrus and Hedera.
  35.  Obtusa,;  as in Tropsolum majus.
  36.  Oreta; as iu Allium flavutn.
  37.  Plana; as in Pancratium maiitimum.
  38.  Subrotunda; as in Rosa cetitil'olia.
  39.  Truncata ;  as in Hura crepitans.
  40.  Coronala; as in Nerium oleander.
  The claxv of the petal  is very long, in Dianthus and
Baponaria;  and  connate,  in Malva  b/lvestris and
oxalis.
  PETAL!FORMIS.  Petaliform, like a petal; applied
lo tho stigma of  the Iris germanica.
  PET A LITE.  A  mineral found in the mine of Uts,
in Sxveden, interesting from its analysts having led to
the knowledge of a new alkali.
  PETALO DES.   (From  wtraXov,  a leaf, or  thin
Ecale.)  This term  is by  Hippocrates  applied  to  a
urine  xvhich  hath in it flaky substances resembling
leaves.
  PETASI'TES.   (From  Tttraaos, a hat: so named
because its leaves arc shaped like a hat.)  See Tussi-
lago prtiuites.
  PETE'CHtA.  (From the Italian pelechio, a flea-
bite, because  they resemble the bites of fleas.)  A red
or purple spot, xvhich resembles a flea-bite.
  PETIOLATUS.    Petiolate:  applied   to  leaves
which aie formed with a stalk, whether long or short,
simple or compound, as most leaves are: as in Verbas-
 um nigrum, &c.
  PETIOLIS.   (From pes, a foot.)  A petiole.   The
footstalk or leafstalk of a plant.  The term is applied
exclusively to the stalk of the leaf.
  It is distinguished into the apex, xvhich is inserted
into the leaf, and the base, xvhich comes from the
stem.
  From  its figure it is called,
  1. Linearis,  equal in  breadth  throughout; as in
 Uitrus medica.
  2. Alatus; as in Citrus aurantium.
  3. Appendiculatus,  xvhen  furnished xvith leaflets at
Its base; as in Dipsacuspilosus.
  4. Teres, round throughout; as in Pis-urn sativum.
  5. Scmitercs,  round on  one side, and  flat on the
other.
  6. Triquelrus, three-sided.
  7. Angulatus, having niirtles.
  8. Cuniliculatus,  channelled to its very base, xvhere
It is sometimes greatly dilated and  concave; as in
Angelica sylvestris.
  9. Compressus, compressed toxvards its base; as in
Populus tremula.
  10.  Clavatus, thicker toxvards the apex;  as in Caca-
lia suaveolens.
  11.  Spincsccns, becoming a spine after the fall of
the leaf; as in Rhamnus catharticus.
  From its insertion the petiolus is called,
  12  Insertus,  as in most  trees,  and the Pirus com-
munis.
  13.  Articulatus ;  as in Oxalis acetocclla.
  14.  Adnatus, adhering so lo the stem, that it cannot
be displaced xvithout injuring the  bark.
  15.  Dccurrcns, adhering at its base, and going some
little way dnxvn the stem;  ns in Pisum ochrus.
  10.  Amplcxicaulis, surrounding the stem nt its base ;
rs in  Senecio has talus.
  17.  Vaginans,  surrounding the stem xvitii a perfect
tnbie; us m ranna indica.
  From its length xvitii respect to the leaf, it is said to
 be  brcvissimus, xvhen much shorter, and longissimus,
 when longer; as in Anemone hepatica, and Geranium
tcrcbiiiihinaium.
  It is distinguished also into simple, xvhen not divided;
 as  in most leaves: and  compound, when divided into
 lateral branches;  as in all compound leaves.
  PETIT, John  Lexvis,  was born at Pans in 1G74.
 From his childhood he displayed a remarkable degree
 of  penetration, which gained him the attachment of
 M. de Liltre, a  celebrated anatomist, xvho resided in
 his father's ho-ise.  He look a pleasure, even at tlie
      170
age of seven, tu witnessing the process c>f dissection >
and being allowed to attend the demonstiations of thai
gentleman, he made such progress, thai xvhen scarcelj
twelve years old, the superintendence of the anatomi
cal theatre xvas confided to him.  He afterward stu
died surgery, and was admitted master at Paris in 1700
He became, as it xvere, the oracle in his profession ir.
that city, and his fame extended throughout Europe
He xvas sent for to the kings of Poland  and  Spain.
whom he restored to health : they endeavoured to re-
tain him near their persons by liberal offers, but  he pre-
ferred his native place.   He became a member of the
Academy  of Sciences ; and was appointed Director of
the Academy of Surgery, and Censor and Royal Pro-
fessor at ihe schools.  He  was likewise chosen a Fel
low of the Royal Society of London.  He died in 1750.
Many memoirs were  communicated  by him  to  the
French  academies.  His only separate publication waa
a Treatise on the Diseases of the Bones, which passed
through several editions,  but  involved him in much
controversy.  Some posthumous works, relating lo sur-
gical diseases and operations, likexvise appeared under
his name.
  Petra'pium.   (From pctra, a rock, and apium, pars-
ley : so called because it groxvs in stony places.)  See
Bubon macedonicum.
  Petrel.e'um.  (From xtrpa, a  rock, and  cXaiov,
oil.)   An oil or liquid bitumen xvhich distils from rocks,
  PETRIFACTIONS.  Stony matters deposited either
in the xvay of incrustation, or within the cavities of
organized  substances, are called petrifactions.   Calca
reous earth  being universally diffused  and capable of
solution in water,  either alone, or by the medium of
carbonic acid or sulphuric acid, xvhich  are likewise
very abundant,  is deposited xvhenever the xvater or the
acid becomes dissipated. In this way we have incrust
ntions of limestone or of selenite in the form of stalac
titcs or dropstones  from the roofs of caverns,  and in
various other situations.
  The most remarkable observations relative to petri-
factions are thus given by  Kirwan :—
   1. That  those of shells are  found on, or near, the
surface  of the earth;  tliose of fish deeper; and those
of wood deepest.  Shells in specie  arc  found  in  im-
mense quantities at considerable depths.
  2. That  tliose organic substances that resist putre-
faction  most, are frequently found  petrified ;  such as
shells, and the harder  species of woods: on the  con-
trary, tliose  that are aptest  to  putrefy  are  rarely
found petrified; as fish, and the softer  parts of ani
mats, &c-
  3. That they are  most commonly found in strata of
marl, chalk,  limestone, or clay, seldom  in sandstone,
still more  rarely in  gypsum ;  but never in gneiss, gra-
nite, basaltes, or shorle;  but  they  sometimes occur
among pyritee,  and ores of iron,  copper, and  silver
and almost always consist of that  species of earth,
stone, or other mineral that surrounds them, sometimes
of silex, agate, or carnelion.
  4. That they  are found in climates where their ori-
ginals could not have existed.
  5. That  those found in slate or clay arc compressed
and flattened.
  PETROLEUM.  (From petra, a rock, and  oleum,
oil.)   The name of petroleum is given to a liquid
bituminous substance xvhich floxvs between rocks, or
in different places at tlie surface of the earth. See  Bi-
tumen.
  [•' In the United Stales it is found, sometimes abun-
dantly, in Kentucky, the xvestern partsof Pennsylvania,
and iu New-York, at  Seneca Lake, &c    It  usually
floats on the surface of springs, which, iu many cases,
are known to be in the vicinity of coal.  It is some-
times called Seneca or Genesee oil."— Char. Min.  A.]
  Petroleum barb.xdense.   Barbadoes tar   This is
chiefly obtained from the island of Barbadoes, and is
sometimes employed externally in paralytic diseases
See Bitumen.
  Petroleum rubrum.   Oleum gabinmtm. Red pe-
troleum.  A species of rock-oil of a blackish-rcd colour
of thicker consistence, with a less penetrating and more
disagreeable  smell  than the other kinds of petroleum.
It abounds about the village of Gnbian in Langucdoc
It is a species of bitumen.   See Bitumen.
  Petroleum sulvhuratum.  A  stimulating balsa
mic remedy given iu coughs, asthmas, and other u'.Xec
tions of the chest. 
PEZ
PHA
    etropiiartng je'us.   A musc'e xvhich arises in the
pelrose portion of the temporal hone, and is inserted
into the pharynx.
  Petro-sxlpingo staphylinis. See Levator palati.
  PETROSELI'NUM.   (.From  irtrpn, a rock, aud
veXtvov, parsley.)  See Apium petroselinum.
  Petroselinum macedonicum.  See Bubon.
  Petroselinum  vulqare.   See Apium petroeeli-
num.
  PETRD SILEX.  Compact  felspar.  A species of
coarse flint, of a deep blue or yelloxvish green colour.
It is interspersed in veins through rocks; and from this
circumstance derives its name.
  ["Petuntze.  This would probably be  arranged
under  the common variety of felspar, had it not re-
ceived some additional importance fiom its use in the
manufacture  of porcelain.  It  appear?, in fact, to  be
that vanety of  felspar, which the Chinese  call Pe-
tuntze.
  " It is nearly or quite opaque, and its colour is usu-
ally whitish or gray.  It has in most cases less lustre
than common felspar.  Its fracture is lamellar, although
its masses often have a coarse granular structure.
  " It most frequently occurs in beds, and usually con-
tains a little  quartz.  Its poxvder is said to have a
slightly saline taste.
  "It  is employed in the enamel  of  porcelain xvare,
and enters, in certain  proportions, into the  composi-
tion of the porcelain itself. Any variety of felspar,
xvhich contains x'ery little or no metallic oxide, xvould,
undoubtedly,  answer  the  same  purpose."—Cleav.
Mm.   AJ
  PEUCE'DANUM.  (From vcvxn, the pine-tree:  so
called from its leax-cs resembling those of the pine-tree.)
1. The name of a genus of plants.  Class, Pentan-
dria;  Order, Digyn ia.
  2. The  pharniacopoeial  name of the hog's fennel.
See Peucedanum officinale.
  Peucldanum  officinale. The systematic name of
the hog's fennel.  Marathrum sylvestre; Marathrc-
phyUum;  Pinastcllum;  Fanicului.i porcinum.  The
plant which bears these names in the pharmacopoeias
is the Peucedanum:—foliis quinquepartitis,  filiformi-
bus linearibus, of Linna-us.  The root  is tlie officinal
part;  it ha? a strong foetid smell, sonic what resembling
that of sulphureous solutions, and an acrid, unctuous,
bitterish taste.  Wounded xvhen fresh, in tlie spring or
autumn, particularly in  the former season,  in which
the root is most vigorous, it yields a considerable quan-
tity of yellow  juice,  which soon dries into a solid
gummy ic-sin, xvhich retains the taste and strong smell
of the root.  This, as well as the root, is recommended
as a nerviue and anti-hysteric remedy.
  Peucedanum  silaus.  The systematic name of the
meadow saxifrage.  Saxifraga vulgaris, Saxifraga
anglica ;  Hippomai atkrum ;   Faniculum erraticum.
English or meadow saxifrage.  The roofs, leaves, and
shells of this plant have been commended as aperients,
diuretics, and carminatives; and appear, from their aro-
matic  smell, and moderately warm, pungent, bitterish
taste to have some claim to these virtues.   They are
rarely used.
  PEWTER.  A compound metal, the basis of which
is tin.   The best sort consists of tin alloyed with about
a txventieth or less of copper or other metallic bodies,
as  the experience ot the xvorkmen has shown to  be
the most conducive to the improvement of its hardness
and colour, such as lead, zinc, bismuth, and antimony
There are tliree sorts of pewter, distinguished by the
names of plate,  trifle,  and ley-pewter.  The first xvas
formerly  much  used  for  plates  and dishes;  of the
second are made the pints, quarts, and otlier measures
of  beer; and of the ley-pewter, wine measures and
large vessels.
  The best sort of pexvter consists of 17 parts of anti-
mony to 100 parts of tin;  but  the  French  add a little
copper to this kind of pewter.   A  very fine silver-
looking metal is composed of  100 pounds of tin, eight
of antimony, one of bismuth, and four of copper.  On
the contrary, the ley-pewter, by comparing its specific
gravity with  tliose  of the mixtures of tin  and lead,
must contain more than a fifth part of its xveight of
lead.
  Peye'ri glandul.e.   Peyer's glands.  The  small
glands situated under the villous coat of the  intestines.
  PEZIZ A.  I Somewhat altered from the Greek irdjxrf,
which is derived from ndLi. the sole of" the foot.  Piinv
speaks of the/ir:i':«, as the Greek appellation of such
fungi,  as grow xvithout any stalk or apparent root.)
The name of a genus of plants.  Class, Oryptogamia,
Order, Fungi.
  Pezi'za auricul.e.   Auricula juda; Fungus sam-
bucinus ; Agaricus auricula forma.  Jew's cars.  A
membranaceous fungus.  Peziza concava rugosa auri-
formis, of Linnaeus, xvhich resembles the human ear.
Its virtues are adstringent, and when employed  (by
some  its  internal  use is not thought safe), it is made
into a decoction, as a imrglie tor relaxed sore throats.
  PHACIA.  (<I>a»cia, a lentil.)   A cutaneous  spot or
blemish, called by  the Lai ins lentigo nnd lenticula.
  PHiENO'MENON.   liom ifiaivu, to make appear.)
An appearance wliich  is contrary to the usual process
of nature.
  PHAGEIVE NA.   (From vbayu, to eat.)  A species
of ulcer lhat spiends very rapidly.
  PHAGED.EN1C.   (Phagcdanicus; from qiaYu, to
eat.)  1.  An ulceration which spreads very rapidly
  2. Applications that destroy fungous flesh.
  Phalacrotis.   (From q)aXaxpos, bald.)  Baldness
  Pha'lacrum.  (From tbaXaxpos, bald.)  A surgical
instrument, xvith a blunt, smooth top; as a probe.
  Phala  noes. The plural of Phalanx.
  Phalanoo'sis.  (From q)aXay\, a roxv of soldiers.;
1. An affection of the eyelids, xvhere there are two or
more rows of hairs upon them.
  2. A morbid inversion of the eyelids.
  PHALANX   (Phalanx,  gis. f.;  from  QaXayl, a
battalion.)  The small  bones of the fingers and  toes.
which are distinguished into  the  first, second,  and
third phalanx.
  PHA'LARIS.   (From cbaXos, white, shining:  so
named from its white shining seed, supposed to be the
tbaXapos of Dioscorides.)   The  name of a genus of
plants.  Class, Triandria; Order  Digynia.  Canary
grass.
  Piialaris canariensis.  Canary grass.  The seed
of this plant is well knoxvn to be the common food of
canary-birds.  In  the Canary islands, the inhabitants
grind it uito meal,  and make a coarse sort of bread
xvitii it.
  PHA'LLUS.   (Named after the  qjaXXos  of the
Greeks, to xvhich it bears a striking resemblance.)  The
name of  a genus, of the Order Fungi ; Class, Crypto-
gamia.
  Phallus esculentus.   The systematic name of
morel fungus.  It  groxvs on moist banks and wet pas
tures, and" springs up in May.  It is used in the same
manner as the truffle, for gravies and stewed dishes, but
gives an inferior flavour.
  Phallus impudicus.  The systematic name of the
plant called Fungus phalloides, stink-horns.  A fungus
xvhich is, at a distance, intolerably foetid, so that it is
oftener smelted than seen, being supposed to be some
carrion, and therefore avoided; xvhen near il has only
the pungency of volatile alkali.  It is applied  to allay
pain in the limbs.
  PHANTA'SMA.  (From tbavTagu, to make appear.)
Imagination.
  Pha'ricum.  (From  Pharos, the island from xvhence
it xvas brought.)   A violent kind of poison.
  PHARMACEUTIC.  (Pharmaceutics ; from ibap
piaxtvu, to exhibit  medicines.)  Belonging to pharmacy
See Pharmacy.
  PHARMACOCHY'MIA.  (From cbappaxov, amedi
cine, and xvpta, chemistry.)  Pharmaceutic chemistry,
or that part of chemistry  which respects the prepara
tion of medicines.
  PHARMACOLITE.  Native arseniate of lime.
  PHARM ACOl'CE I A.  (From ibappaxov, a medicine,
and zzottu, to make.)   A  dispensatory, or book of
directions for the  composition of medicines approved
of by medical practitioners, or published by authority.
The following are the most noted, viz.
  P.  Amstclodamensis.      P. Edinburgensis.
  P.  Argentoratensis.        P. Hofniensis
  P.  Augctoratensis.        P. Londinensis.
  P.  Bateana.              P. Norimbergcnsis.
  P.  Brandenburgensis.      P. Parisiensis.
  P.  Brandenburgica.        P. Ratisboncnsis.
   P.  Bruxellensis.           P. Regia.
  PHARMACOPO'LA.  (From tpappaxov, amed'eine,
and tzuXtu,  to sell.)  An apothecary or vender of me-
dicines.
  PHARMACOPO'LIUM.  (From ehappaxor, a rnedi-
                                        171 
PHA                                             PHI
  cine, and zzuXtu, to sell.)  A druggist's or apothecary's
  Ehop.
    Pharmacopo'sia.  (From qjappaxov, a  medicine,
  and zzoois, a potion.)  A liquid medicine.
    PHARMACOTHE'CA.  (From qjappaxov, a medi-
  cine, and rtOripi, to place.)  A medicine-chest.
    PHARMACY.   (Pharmacia;  from qjappaxov, a
  medicine.)  The art  of preparing remedies for  the
  treatment of diseases.
    The articles of the Materia Medica, being generally
  unfit for administration in their original stale, are sub-
  jected  to various operations, mechanical or chemical,
  bywhich they become adapted to this purpose.  Herein
  consists the practice of pharmacy, wliich therefore re-
  quires a previous knowledge  of the  sensible  and
  chemical properties of  the  substances  operated  on.
  The qualities of many bodies are materially changed
  by heat, especially in conjunction with air and otlier
 chemical agents ; the virtues of others reside chiefly in
 certain parts, which maybe separated by the action of
 x'arious menslrua, particularly with the assistance of
 heat; and the joint operation of  remedies on the hu-
 man body is often very different  from xvhat xvould be
 anticipated,  from that which they exert separately;
 hence  in the preparations and  compositions of  the
 Pharmacopoeias, xve are furnished  with many powerful
 as well as elegant forms of medicine.
   [Pharmacy,  College of.  A College of Pharmacy
 was  instituted in the City of Nexv-York, in  1829, by
 the Druggists and  Apothecaries,  xvith the following
 provisions:
   "No person hereafter  engaging in  such  business,
 shall be admitted as a member, unless he has been  re-
 gularly educated  as a Druggist or Apothecary, or  has
 received a diploma from this college, and is of correct
 moral deportment.
   "Ii shall be ihe duty of the board of Trustees, to
 recommend suitable persons as Lecturers on Materia
 Medica, Chemistry, and Pharmacy, and on such other
 blanches of science as may be useful  in the instruc-
 tion of Apothecaries, xvho shall be elected by a majo-
 rity,  at a  general  meeting of the college.
   " The Trustees shall have poxver to publish in a pam-
 phlet form, from  time to time, such original essays or
 extracts from books of science, as  may in their opinion
 be deemed useful for the advancement of knowledge,
 connected with the business of Druggists or Apotheca-
 ries.—Extr. from circular.  A.l   '
   PHARYNGE'THRON.  J-apiiyytflpoi'.  The pha-
 rynx, or fauces.
   PHARYNGE'US.   .From qjapvyl,  the pharynx.)
 Belonging to or affecting the pharynx ;  thus cynanche
 pharyngea, &c.
   Pharyngostaphyi.i'nus.  A muscle originating  in
 the pharynx, and  terminating in tlie uvula.
   PHARYNGOTO'MIA. (From Qapvyl, the pharynx,
 and rtpvu, to cut.)  The operation of cutting tlie pha-
 rynx.
   PHARYNX,   (kiro rov 4>r.pu,  because it conveys
 the food into  the stomach.) Tlie muscular bag at ihe
 back  part of  the mouth.  It is shaped like a funnel,
 adheres to the fauces behind the larynx, and terminates
 in the oesophagus.  Its use is lo receive the masticated
 food,  and  lo convey it into the o-sophngus.
   PHASEOLUS.  (From ^acrijXoc, a little  ship, or
 galliot,  xvhich its pods xvere  supposed to resemble.)
 The name of" a genus of plants.   Class, Diadelpliia,«
 Order, Decandria.
   Phaseolus creticus.   A decoction of the leaves of
 this plant, called by the Americans Cujan  and Cayan,
 is said to restrain the bleeding from piles x\ hen exces-
 sive.—Ray.
   Phaseolus vulgaris.   The systematic name of the
 kidney-bean.  This is often called the French bean ;
 when young and well boiled it is easy of digestion, and
 dOuately  flavoured.  They are less liable to  pioduce
 flatulency than peasi.
  Phasoa'nium.   (From qjaoyovov, a knife: so tailed
 because us leaves are shaped like  n knife, or sword.)
 "'he hei h sxvordgrass.
  PHASIANUS.  1. The  name of a genus of birds,
 t»f the order Gallina.
  2. The pheasant.
  Puasianu-j colchicus.   Tl e common pheasant.
  Phasianus oalli s.  The common or xvild cock.
  Phat'mum. (From cbarvq, a stall.)  The socket of
a tooth.
      172
    PHELLA'NDRHM.  (From <i£XXoj, the cora-tree,
  and avipios, male: so calied because it floats upon the
  waler like cork.)  The name of n  geuus of plants.
  Class, Pentandria; Older, Dtgynia.
    Phellamdrium aquaticum.  The systematic name
  of the water-fennel, or  fine-leaved  xvaier hemlock.
  Faniculum aquaticum; Cicutaria aquatica. The plant
  which  bears this name in the phaimacopa-ins is the
  Phellandrium—foliorum ramificationibus  divartcatis,
  of Liniiet-us.  It  possesses  vertiginous and poisonous
  qualities, which  aie best counteracted  by acids, after
  clearing the primae viae.  The seeds are recommended
  by some, in conjunction with Peruvian bark, in the
  cure of pulmonary phthisis.
    Piie'mos. (From qjtpou, to shut up.)  A medicine
  against a dysentery.
    [" Phemcin  is produced by stopping the action ol
  the sulphuric acid on indigo before it is converted into
  cerulin ; diluting, filtering, and  washing the  mixture
  xvilh water, when it becomes of a bottle-green colour:
  muriate of polassa is added to the blue washings xvhich
  are finally obtained, when the pheniciu is piecipuated
  of a fine reddish  purple colour.  It is soluble in i\ ater,
  and iu alkohol,  forming blue-coloured solutions, and is
  easily converted  into cerulin  by the action of xvater.
  From its  ultimate analysis, Mr.  Crum is  disposed lo
  consider phenicin as constituted of 1  indigo-f-2wa
  ter."—Webs. Man. Chem.  A.]
    PHILADE'LPHUS.   (From  qjtXtu,  to  love, and
  aStXqios, a brother: so called because, by its rongnin ss,
  it  attaches itself to whatever is near it.)  See Galium
  aparine.
    PH1LANTHROTUS.  (From ehXtu, to love, and
  avOpu-os, a man: so called  from its uses.)  1. A medi
  cine which relieves the pain of the slone.
    2. The herb goose-giass, because il sticks to ihe gar-
  ments of those who touch it.  See Galium aparine.
    PHILONIUM.   (Fiom  Philo,  its  inventor.)  A
  xvariu opiate.
    Philonium lokdinense.   An  old name of the Con
 feclm epii.
    PHl'LTRUM.   (From qjtXtu, to love.)  LA philtre
  or imaginary medicine, to excite love.
    2. The depression on the upper lip, x\ here lovers sa
  lute.
    PHILLY R1A.  (ILXXupia of Dio.-cni ides, supposed
  to be so called from Phdlyria, ihe mother  of Chiron,
  xvho titstapplied it medicinally.   The name of agenua
  of plants, Class, Diandria ; Order, Monogynia.  Mock
  privet.
   PHIMO'SIS   (From  cbipu,  to bind up.) A Con-
 striction  or straitness of the extremity of tlie  pre-
 puce, xvhich, preventing the glans from being unco-
 vered, is often ihe occasion of many troublesome com-
 plaints.   It may arise from different causes, both in
 children and groxvn persons.  Children have naturally
 the prepuce very long; and as it exceeds the extremity
 of ihe glans, and  is not liable to be distended, it is apt
 to contract its orifice.  This often occasions a lodgment
 of  a small quantity of urine between that and the glans,
 which, if it groxvs corrosive, may irritate the parts so
 as  to produce an  inflammation.  In this case, the ex-
 tremity of the prepuce becomes more contriicled, and
 consequently the  urine more confined.   Hence  the
 xvhole inside of the prepuce excoriates and suppurates-
 the end  of it grows thick  and sxvells, and in some
 months becomes callous.  At other times it does  not
 groxv thick, but becmncs so stiait and contracted as
 hardly lo alloxv the introduction of a probe   The only
 w ay to remove  this disorder is by  an operation.  A
 phimosis  may affect groxvn persons from  ihe  same
 cause as little children ;  though there are some grown
 persons who cannot uncover  their glans, or at least not
 wiiliout  pain, and yet have not the extremity of the
 prepuce so contracted as to confine the urine fiom pass-
 ing, xve notxvitlislaiiding find them sometimes troubled
 with a phimosis, xvhich  might be suspected to arise
 Irom a xenereal taint, but has, in reality, a much more
 innocent cause. There are, xveknoxv, sebaceous glands,
 situated in the prepuce, round  the corona, which  se-
crete au unctuous humour, xvhich  sometimes becoaies
 acrimonious, irr'tates the skin Hint  covers the glans,
 and the irritation extended lo the internal membrane of
 the  prepuce, they both  become  inflamed,  and yield a
purulent serum, xvhich cannot be dischaiged, because
Ihe  glans is sxvelled, and the orifice of the prepuce con-
tacted.   We find  also some  groxvn  persons, who, 
PHL
FTiL
Humph tliry never uncovered the glans, have been sub-
ject to phimosis from a venereal cause.  In some, it is
owinjj to gonorrhoea, xvhorc the matter lodged between
the prepuce aud the glans occasioned the same excoria-
tion as the discharge before mentioned from the seba-
ceous glands.  In others,  it proceeds from venereal
chancres on  Ihe  prepuce, the glans, or the fraenum;
xvhich producing an inflammation either on tlie pre-
puce  or  glans, or both, the extremity of the foreskin
contracts, and prevents the discharge of the" matter.
The parts, in a  very little time, are greatly tumefied,
and sometimes  a gangrene comes on in  less than two
days.
  t'HLEBORRIIA GIA.  (Fiom cbXtd,, a  vein, and
pnyvvut,  to break out.)   A rupture of a vein.
  PHLEBOTOMY.  (Phlcbotomia; qfXtd,, a vein, and
rtuvu, to cut.)  The opening of a vein.
  PHLEGM.  (Phlcgma, atis. n.; from cbXtyu, to burn
or to excite.)   Iu chemistry it  means water from distil-
lation, hut, in the coinnion acceptation of the xvord, it
is a thick and tenacious mucus secreted in the lungs.
  Phleomacio'oa.  (From iXtypa, phlegm, and ayu,
to drive out.)  Medicines xvhicli promote the discharge
of phlegm.
  PHLEGMASIA.  (From qiXtyu, to burn.)  An in-
flammation.
  Phlegmasia dolens.  A very improper namegix-cn
bv Dr. Hull to a disease noticed by some of the French
xvriters, under the name of the L'enflure desjambes et
des cuisses de la femme  accouche'; xvhile others have
called it dipot du lait, from  its supposed cause.  By
lire Germans it is called  (Edema lacteum, and  by the
English thewhite leg.  Thisdisease  principally affects
women in the puerperal state; in a fexv  instances it
has been  observed to attack pregnant women; and, in
one or txvo cases, nurses, on losing their children, have
been  affected by it.  Women of all  descriptions arc-
liable to be attacked by it during and soon after child-
bed;  but those, whose limbs hax-e been pained or ana-
sarcous during pregnancy, and who do not suckle their
offspring,  are more especially subject  to it.   It has
 rarely occurred oftener than once to the same female.
 It supervenes to easy and natural, as xvell as to diffi-
cult and preternatural  births.  Il sometimes  makes its
 appearance  in twenty-four or forty-eight hours after
 delivery, and at other times, not till a month or six weeks
 nfter; but, in general, the attack takes place from the
 tenth to the sixteenth day of Ihe lying-in. It has, in many
 instances, attacked women xvho xvere recovering from
 puerperal fever;  and, in some cases, has supervened or
 succeededtothoracicinflammation.  Itnotuncommonly
 begins with coldness and rigors; these are succeeded by
 heat, thirst, and other symptoms of pyrexia; and then
 pain, stiffness, and other symptoms of topical  inflam-
 mation  supervene.  Sometimes the local affection is
 from (he first accompanied with, but is not preceded by,
 febrile symptoms.  Upon other occasions, the topical
 affection is  neither  preceded  by puerperal  fever, nor
 rigors, &c; bul soon after it has taken place, the pulse
 becomes more  frequent, the heat  of the body  is in-
 creased, and the patient is affected with thirst, head-
 ache, &c.  The pyrexia is very various in degree in
 different  patients, and  sometimes assumes an irre-
 gular lemittent or intermittent type.  The  complaint
 generally takes place on one side only at first, and the
 part xvhere  it commences is various;  but it most com-
 monly begins in the  lumbar, hypogastric, or inguinal
 region,  on one side, or  in  the  hip, or top of the thigh,
 and corresponding labium pudendi.  In this case, the
 patient first perceives  a  sense of pain, weight, and stiff-
 ness, in some ofthe above-mentioned parts, which are
 increased by every attempt to move the pelvis, or lower
 limb.   If the part be carefully examined, it generally is
 found rather fuller or hotter  than natural,  and  tender
  lo the touch, but not discoloured.  The pain increar.es,
  alxvays becomes very severe, and, in  some cases, is of
  the most excruciating kind.  It extends along the thigh,
  and xvhen  it has subsisted  for  some time, longer or
  shorter in different patients, the top of the thigh and
  the labium  pudendi  become greatly swelled, and the
  pain is  then sometimes alleviated,  but accompanied
  with a greater sense  of distention.  The pnin next ex-
  tends down to the knee, and is generally the most se-
  vere on the inside and back  of the thigh, in ihe direc-
  tion of the  internal cutaneous and the crural nerves ;
  when it has continued  for some time, the xvhole of the
  thigh becomes sxvelled, and the pain is somewhat re-
lieved.  The  pain  then extends down the Itg  to the*
foot, and is comnionly the most sevre in the direction
of the posterior tibial nerve; after some time, the
part  last attacked begins to sxvell, and the pain  abates
in violence, but is still very considerable, especially on
any attempt to move the limb. The extremity being
now swelled throughout Its whole extent, appears per-
fectly or nearly uniform, and it is not perceptibly les-
sened by an  horizontal position,  like an aedeuiaiisc
limb.  It is of the  natural colour, or even  whiter, is
hotter than natural; excessively tense, and exquisitely
tender xvhen touched.  When pres.-ed by the finger in
different parts, It is found to be elastic, little, If any, Im
presslon remaining, and that only for a very short time,
If a puncture, or incision, be made into ihe limb, in
some Instances,  no fluid is discharged ; in  others, a
small quantity only Issues out, whlqh coagulates soon
after; and in others a large quantity of fluid escapes,
wliich does not coagulate ; Lutfhe wholeof the  effused
matter cannot be drawn off in this xvay.  The swelling
of the limb varies  both in  degree and in tlie space or
time requisite for its full formation.   In most instances,
it arrives at double the natural size, and  hi some cases
at a much greater.    In lax habits, and in patients
whose legs have been very much affected xvith ana
sarca during pregnancy, the sxvelling takes place more
rapidly than in those iv ho areuifferently circumstanced;
it sometimes arrives, in the former class of patients, at
its greatest extent in twenty-four hours, or less, from the
first attack.
  Instead of  beginning invariably at the upper part of
the limb, and descending to the loxver, this complaint
has  been known to begin in the foot, the middle of the
leg,  the ham, and the knee.  In whichsoever of these
parts it happens to begin, it is generally soon diffused
over the whole of  the limb, and, xvhen  this has taken
place, the  limb presents the same phenomena, exactly,
lliat have been stated above, as observable xvhen the
 inguen, &c. are first affected.
   After some days, generally from two to eight, the
 febrile symptoms diminish, and the sxvelling, heat, ten-
 sion, xveight,  and  tenderness of the loxver extremity,
 begin to abate, first about the upper part of  the thigh
 orabout the knee, and afterxvard  in the leg and foot
 Some inequalities  are found in the limb, which, at first
 feel like indurated glands, but, upon being more nicelj
 examined, their edges are  not so well defined as thost
 of conglobate glands; and they appear to be occasion
 ed by the effused matter being of different degrees ofv
 consistence in different points.  The conglobate glands
 of the thigh  and leg are sometimes felt distinctly, and
 are tender to the touch, but  are seldom  materially en-
 larged:  and as the swelling subsides, it  has happened,
 that an  enlargement of  the  lymphatic vessels,  in
 some part of the limb, has been felt, or been supposed
 to be felt.
   The febrile symptoms having gradually disappeared
 the  pain and tenderness  of the limb being much re-
 lieved, and the sxvelling and tension being considerably
 diminished,  the patient is  debilitated  and  much  re-
 duced, and the limb feels stiff, heavy, benumbed, and
 xveak.   When the finger  is pressed strongly against it
 for  some time, in different points, it is found to be Ii ss
 elastic than  al first, in sonic places retaining  the  im-
 pression of the  finger for a longer, in otlier places  for
 a shorter time, or  scarcely at all.   And, if the limb be
 suffered to hang down, or if the patient xvalk much, it
 is found to  be more swelled  in the evening,  and a»-
 sumes more  of an  oedematose appearance.    Iu this
 state the  limb continues  for a longer or shorter time,
 and is commonly at length reduced xvholly, or nearly,
 to the natural size.
   Hitherto the disease has been described as affecting
 only one ofthe inferior extremities, and as terminating
 by  resolution, or the effusion of a fluid that is removed
  by  the  absorbents;  but,  unfortunately, it sometimes
  happens, that after it abates in one limb, the other is
  attacked  in  a similar way.  It also happens, in some
  cases, that the swelling is not terminated by resolution;
  for sometimes a suppuration takes place in one or both
  legs, and ulcers are formed xvhicli are difficult to heal
  In a few cases, a gangrene has supervened.   In some
  instances, the patient has been destroyed by the vio-
  lence of the disease, before either suppuration or gan-
  grene have happened.
   The predisposing  causes of this disease,  when it
  occurs during the pregnant or puerperal state, or in a
                                          173 
lJHL
WIO
•In,11 time afterxvard, appear to be, 1st, The increased
irritability and disposition, to inflammation which pre-
vail  during pregnancy, and in a still higher degree for
some lime after parturition.  2dly, The over-distend-
ed, or relaxed state of the blood-vessels of the inferior
part of the trunk and of the lower extremities, produced
during the latter mont/ts of utero-gestation.
  Among the exciting causes of this  disease may be
enumerated, 1st, Contusions,  or violent exertions of
ihe lower portions ofthe abdominal and other muscles
inserted in  tlie  pelvis, or thighs, or of  the muscles of
the inferior extremifies, and contusions of the cellular
texture connected with these muscles, during a tedious
labour.  2d!y,  The  application of cold and moisture,
which  nre  known to  act very poxverfully upon  every
system iu changing the natural distribution of the cir-
culating fluids,  and, consequently, in a system predis-
posed by parturition, may  assist in producing the dis-
ease, by occasioning the fluids to be impelled, in unu-
sual quantity, into the xveakened vessels of the lumbar,
hypogastric, nnd inguinal  regions, and of the inferior
extremities.  3dly, Suppression, or diminution of the
lochia, and of the secretion or milk, which, by inducing
a plethoric state of the sanguiferous system, may occa-
sion an inflammatory diathesis, may favour congestion,
and the determination of an unusual quantity of blood
to the vessels of the parts just mentioned, and thus con-
tribute to the production of an inflammation of these
parts.  4thly, Food taken in loo large nuantity, and of
a too stimulating quality,  especially wnen the patient
does 1101 give suck.  This cause both favours the pro-
duction of plethora, and stimulates the heart and arte-
ries lo more frequent and violent action; the effects of
which may be expected to be particularly felt in the
hi in bar, hypogastric, or inguinal legions, and in the
,ower cxti entities, from the state of their blood-vessels.
Stilly, Standing, or walking too much, before the arte-
ries and veins of the lower half of the body have re-
covered sufficiently  from the  effects of the  distention
which existed during tlie latter months of pregnancy.
This must necessarily occasion too great a determina-
tion  of blood to these parts, and consequently too great
a congestion in  them; whence they xvill be more stimu-
lated than  the upper parts of the body, and  inflamma-
tion  will sometimes be excited in them.
  From nn attentive consideration of  the whole of
the phenomena observable in this disease, and of its
remote causes  and cure, no  doubt remains, Dr. Hull
thinks, that the proximate cause consists in an inflam-
matory affection, producing suddenly a considerable
rffusiion of scrum and coagulating lymph from the ex-
halants into the cellular membrane of  the lymph.
  Phlegma'sije. The plural of phlegmasia.  Inflam-
mations.  The  name of the second order in the class
Pyrexia, of Cullen's Nosological arrangement, charac-
terized by pyrexia, xvith topical pain and inflammation;
the blood, afler venesection,  exhibiting a butty coat.
  PHLEGMATORRHA'GIA.  (FromtbXtypa, mucus,
and  pnyvvpt, to break out.)   A discharge of thin mu-
cous plilegm from the nose, through cold.
   PHLEGMON.   (Phlegmon, onis. m.; from cbXeyu,
to burn.)   Phlegmonc.  An inflammation of a  bright
red colour, xvitii a throbbing and pointed tumour, tend-
ing lo suppuration.
   PHLOGISTON.   (From q>Xoyi$u,  to burn.)   The
supposed general inflammable principle of Slahl, xvho
iiuaitiued It xvas pure fire, or the matter of" fire fixed
iu combustible bodies, in  order to distinguish it from
fite  in action, or in a state of liberty.
   Phlogisticated air.   See Nitrogen.
   Phlogisticated alkali.   See Alkali phlogisticated.
   Plilmnsticated gas.  Sec Nitrogen.
   PHLOGOSIS.   (From qiXoyou, to inflame.)  In-
 flammation. See Inflammation.
   PIILOGOTICA.   (Phlogoticus;  from  tbXtyu, to
 burii.i   The name of the second order ot the class
 Hamatica, in  Good's  Nosology.   Inflammation. Its
 genera are postern*; Phlegmonc; Phym't; Ionthus;
 Phlysis;  F.rylhcma; Empresma; Ophthalmia; Catar-
 rhus; Diiscnteria; Bucnemia; Arthrosia.
   PHLYCIVE'NA.   (^Xtmraivai, small  bladders.)
 Phlyctis;  Phlysis.  A small pellucid vesicle, that con-
 tains a serous fluid
   PHLYSIS.  (From q>Xvlu, to burn.)  The name of
 a genus of diseases in Good's Nosology.  Class, Ham.i-
 tica;  Order, Phlogctica.   It  has only one species,
 Phlysis paronychia.  Whillow.
  PHLYZA'CIUM.   (From ibXv^u, to be l*rt.)  A
pustule  on the skin, excited  by fire or heat.  Sea
Pustule.
  PHCENIGMUS.  t.From qiotvil, red.)  1.  A redness
of the skin, such as is  produced by stimulating sub-
stances.
  2.  That which reddens the skin xvhen applied to it.
  PHGE'NIX. (*oivi*;,of the ancient Greeks, the date
palm tree; from xvhicli, as aprimitive word,Phanicia,
the land of palm-trees, seems to have derived ils name,
as likewise the red colour phcteniceus.)  The name of
a genus of plants.  Class, Diacia; Order, Triandria.
The dele palm-tree.
  Phojnix dactylifera.  The  systematic name  of
the date-tree.   Phanix-  -frondibus pinnatis ; foliolis
ensiformibus  complicatis, of Linnaeus.   The fruit is
cal.ed dactylus or date.   Dates  are oblong.   Before
they are ripe, they are  rather rough and  astringent:
but xvhen perfectly matured, they are much of the na
ture of tlie fig.  See  Ficus carica.   Senegal dates are
much esteemed, they having a more sugary, agreeable
flavour than those of ./Egypt and other places.   Dates
are aperient.
  PHONICA.  (Phonicus; fiom tpuvrj, the voice.)
The name of the first order of the class Pneumatica,
in Good's Nosology.   Diseases  affecting the  vocal
avenues.  It  has six genera, viz. Coryza; Polypus;
Rhonchus ; Aphonia; Dysphonia;  Psetlismus.
  PHOSGENE GAS.    {Phosgene: so called  by  ita
discoverer, Doctor  John  Davy, from its mode of pro-
duction.)  Chloro-carbonaceous  acid, a combination
of carbonic oxide  and chlorine,  made  by exposing a
mixture of equal  volumes of chlorine, and carbonic
oxide, to the action of light. It has a peculiar pungent
odour, is soluble in xvater, and is resolved into carbonic
and muriatic acid gas.
  PHOSPHATE.  (Phosphas; from phosphorus.)  A
salt formed by the union of phosphoric  acid xvitii sali-
fiable bases;  thus, phosphate of ammonia, phospA<i2A
of lime, Sec.
  PHOSPHATIC  ACID.    Acidum  phosphaticum.
" This acid is obtained by tlie sloxv combustion of cy-
linders of phosphorus in tlie air   For xvhich purpose,
it is necessary that the  air be renewed to support the
combustion;  that it be humid, otherwise the dry coat
of phosphatic acid xvould screen the phosphorus from
farther action of the oxygen,  and  that the different
cylinders of phosphorus  be insulated,  to pieveut the
tient from becoming too high, xvhich xvould melt or  in-
flame them, so as to produce phosphoric acid.  The
acid, as it is  formed, must be collected in a vessel,  so
as to lose as little of it  as possible.  All these condi-
tions may be  thus fulfilled: We take a  parcel of glass
tubes, xvhich  are draxvn  out to  a  point at one end; xve
introduce into each a cylinder of phosphorus a little
shorter than the tube; x\-e dispose of these tubes along-
side of one another  to the amount of 30 or 40, in a
glass funnel,  the beak of which passes into a  bottle
placed on a  plate, covered xvitii xvater.   We then
cover the bottle and  ils funnel xvilh a  large bell-glass,
having a small hole  in its top, and another in  its side.
  A film of phosphorus first evaporates, then combines
with the oxygen and the xvater of the air, giving birth
to phosphatic acid, xvhich collects in small drops at the
end  of  the glass tubes, and falls through the funnel
into tlie bottle.   A little phosphatic acid is also found
on the sides of the bell-glass, and in the xx ater  of the
plate.  The process is a very slow one.
  The phosphaiic acid  thus collected  is very  dilute
We reduce it Jo a viscid consistence, by-healing it
gently;  and better still, by puttine it, at the ordinary
temperature,  into a capsule over "another capsule full
of concentrated  sulphuric ncid, under the receiver of
an air-pump, from which we exhaust the air.
  The acid thus formed is n viscid liquid, xvithout  co-
lour, having a faint smell of phosphorus, a strong taste,
reddening strongly the tincture of litmus, and  denser
than waler in a proportion not xvell determined   Every
thing loads to tlie belief that this acid xvould be solid,
could \xe deprive it of water.  When it is lieated in a
retort, pliosphuretted hydrogen  gas is evolved, and
phosphoric acid remains.  The  oxygen and hydrogen
of the wnter concur to this transformation.  Phosphatic
acid has no action, either on oxygen gas, or on the  at
mospheric nir nt ordinary temperatures.   In coin
bining xvilh water, ,i slight degree of heat is occasion
ed.   The phosphatic acid in ils action on the salitia 
PHO
PHO
 Die bases is transformed into phosphorous and  phos-
 phoric acids, whence proceed phosphites and  phos-
 phates."
   PHOSPHITE.   Phosplus   \  salt formed by the
 combination of phosphorous acid xvitii salifiable bases;
 Jms, ammoniacal phosphite, Sec
   Phosphorated hydrogen.   See Phosphorus.
   PHOSPHORESCENCE. The luminous appearance
 ■vhich is given off by phosphorescent bodies.
   PHOSPHORIC   ACID.   Acidum phosphoricum.
 "The base of this acid, or the acid itself, abounds iu
 the mineral, vegetable, and animal kingdoms.  In the
 mineral kingdom it is found in combination with lead,
 in the gieen  lead  ore;  xvith iron,  in  ihe bog ores,
 which afford cold short  iron, and more especially xvith
 calcareous earth in several  kinds of stone.  Whole
 mountains in the province of Estremadura in Spain are
 composed of" this combination of phosphoric  acid and
 lime.  Boxvles affirms,  that the stone is whitish and
 tasteless, and  affords a blue flame  without smell  xvhen
 throxvn upon  burning coals.   Prout describes it as a
 dense stone, not hard enough to strike fire with  sleel;
 and says that it is found in strata, wliich always  lie
 horizontally  upon quartz,  and xvhich are intersected
 Willi  veins of quartz.  When this stone is scattered
 upon burning cunls, it does not decrepitate, but  burns
 ivilh a beautiful green light, xvhich lasts a considerable
 time.  It niefs into a white enamel by the bloxv-pipe ;
 is soluble with heat, and some effervescence in the ni-
 tric acid, and forms sulphate of lime xvitii the sulphu-
 ric acid,  while the  phosphoric acid is set at liberty in
 the fluid.
  The vegetable kingdom abounds xvith phosphorus,
 or its acid.  It  is principally found in plants thai grow
 in marshy  places, in turf,  and several species of the
 white xvoods.  Yarious seeds, potatoes, agaric, soot,
 and  charcoal,  afford phosphoric acid, by abstracting
 the nitric acid from them, aud lixiviating the residue.
 The lixivium contains tlie phosphoric acid, xvhich may
 either be  saturated with lime by the addition of lime-
 xvatcr, in xvhich case ii forms  a solid compound; or il
 may be tried by examination  of its leading properties
 by other  chemical methods
   Iu the animal kingdom it is found  in  almost  every
 part of the bodies of animals xvhich are not considera-
 bly volatile.   There is not, in  all probability, any part
 of these organized beings which is  free from it.   It has
 been obtained from blood, flesh, both of land and xxater
 animals; from cheese; and it  exists in large quantities
 irUxmes, combined with calcareous earth.  Urine con-
 tains it,  not  only in a disengaged  state, but also com-
 bined with ammonia, soda, and lime. Il xvas by the
 ex-aporation  and distillation of this excrementitious
 fluid  with charcoal  that phosphorus was first made;
 the charcoal decomposing the disengaged acid and ihe
 ammoniacal salt.  But it is more cheaply obtained by
 the process of Scheele, from bones, by the application
 of an acid to their earthy residue after calcinaiion.
  In this  process the sulphuric acid appears to be the
 most convenient, because it forms a neatly insoluble
 compound with the lime of the bones.  Bones of beef,
 mutton, ur veal, being calcined to whiteness in an open
 fire,  lose almost half of their  xveight.  This  must be
 pounded,  and sifted; or the trouble may be spared by
 buying the powder that is sold to make cupels for the
 assayers, and is, in fact,  tlie powder of burned  bones
 ready sifted.  To three pounds of the powder  there
 may be  added about two pounds of concentrated sul-
 phuric acid.  Four or five pounds of xvaler must be af-
 lerivard  added to assist the  action of the acid; and
 during the whole process the operator must remember
 to place himself and his vessels so  that the fumes may
 do bloivn from him.  The xvhole may be  then left on a
 gentle sand bath for txvelx-e hours or more, taking care
 to supply the loss of xvater xvhich happens by evapora-
 tion.  The next day a large quantity of xvater must be
 added, the whole strained through a sieve, and the re-
 sidual matter, xvhich is sulphate of lime, must be  edul-
corated by repeated affusions of hot waler, till it passes
 tasteless.  The xvaters contain phosphoric acid nearly
free  from lime; and  by evaporation, first iu glazed
earthen, and then in glass vessels, or rather in vesseis  of
 t Jatina or silver, for the hot acid acts upon glass, afford
tfce aciiiin a concentrated state, xvhich, by the force of
strong neat in a crucible, may be made to acquire the
form of a transparent consistent  glass,  though  k  is
usually of a milky, opaque  appearance.
    For making pliosphorus, it Is not necessary  o cvnpo
  rate the xvater further tliun  to bring it to the cmism
  tence of syrup ;  and the small portion of lime It con
  tains is not an impediment xvorth the trouble of remov-
  ing, as it affects the produce very liltle.  But when the
  acid is  required in a purer state, it Is proper to add  a
  quantity of carbonate of ammonia, xvhich, by double
  elective attraction, precipitates the lime that  xvas held
  in  solution  by the phosphoric acid.  The fluid, being
  then  evaporated, affords  a crystallized  anunonincal
  salt, xvhich may he melted in a silver vessel, as the acid
  acts upon glass or oai ihen vessels.  The ammonia  is
  driven off by the tient,  and the acid acquires ihe form
  of a compact glass, as transparent as rock crystal, acid
  to  the  taste, soluble  iu  xvater,  and  deliquescent is
  ihe air.
    This acid is  coinr-ionly pure,  but nevertheless maj
  contain a small quantity of soda, originally existing in
  the bones, and not capable of being taken away by
  this process, ingenious as it is.  The only unequivocal
  method ol" obtaining a pure acid appears  to consist in
  first converting it into phosphorus by distillation of the
  materials xvith charcoal, and then convening il ateain
  into ncid by rapid combustion, nt a high temperature,
  eilher in oxygen or atmospheric uir, or some olher equi-
  valent process.
   Phosphorus may also be conx-erted into tho ncid state
  by  treating  it  xvitii nitric acid.   In  this operation,  a
  tubulated retort with a ground stopper, must  he half
  filled with nitric arid, and a  gentle heat applied.  A
  small  piece  of phosphorus  being  then  introduced
  through the  tube, will be dissolved xvith effervescence,
  produced by the escape of n large quantity of nitric
  oxide.  The addition of phosphorus must be continued
  until  the last  piece  remains undissolved.   The  fire
  being  then  raised to drive over the remainder of
  the nitric acid, the phosphoric  acid xvill be found in
  the retort, partly in the concrete and partly in the li-
  quid form.
    Sulphuric acid produces nearly the same effect as the
  nitric ;  a large quantity of sulphurous acid flying  off.
i  But as it requires a stronger heat to drive off the  last
  portions of this acid, it is not so well adapted to  tho
  purpose.  The  liquid chlorine likexvise acidifies it.
    When phosphorus is burned by a strong heat, suffi-
  cient lo cause il to flame rapidly, it is almost perfectly
  com fried into  dry acid, some of xvhich is thrown up
  by the  force of the combusfion, and the rest  remains
  upon the supporter.
   This  substance has also been acidified by the direct
  application  of  oxygen gas passed through hot water
  in xvhich the phosphorus was liquefied or fused.
   The general  characters of phosphoric acid are: 1.
  It is soluble in water in all proportions, producing  a
  specific  gravity, which increases as the quantity of acid
  is greater, but does not exceed 2.687,  whicli is that of
  the glacial acid. 2. It produces heat when mixed with
  water,  though  not ve:y  considerable.   3. It has no
  smell xvhen pure, and its taste is sour, but not corro-
  sive.  4. When perfectly dry, it sublimes in close ves-
  sels ;  but loses this property by the addition of water;
  in xvhich circumstance it greatly differs from the bora-
  cic acid, xvhich is fixed when dry, but rises by  the help
  of water. 5. When considerably diluted with water^
  and evaporated, ihe aqueous vapour carries up a small
  portion  of the acid.  6.  Wilh charcoal or inflammable
  matter,  in a  strong heat, it  loses its  oxygen, and  be
  comes converted into phosphorus.
   Phosphoric acid is difficult of crystallizing.
   Though the  phosphoric ncid  is scarcely corrosive,
  yet, when concentrated, it acts upon oils, which il dis
  colours, and at length blackens, producing heat, ami a
  strung smell like that of ether and nil of turpentine;
  but does not form  a true acid soap.  It has most effect
  on essential oils, less on drying oils, and least of all on
  fat oils.   Spirit  of wine and phosphoric  arid have a
  weak action on each other.  (Some heat  is excited by
  this mixture, and the product xvhich comes over in dis-
  tillation of the  mixture is  strongly acid, of a pungent
  arsenical smell, inflammable with smoke, inissible in
  all  proportions  with  xvater, precipitating  silver  and
  mercury from  their solutions,  but not gold ;  and  al-
 though  not an ether, ye' it seems to bs an approxirna
  tion to that kind of combination.
   Phosphoric acid, united  with  barytes, produces  an
I  insoluble salt, in the form of a heavy xvhite  powder,
I  fusible at a high temDeraturc into a gray enamel.  The 
I'WO
LJHU
itest motlo of preparing it is by adding an alkaline phos-
pjhale to Ihe nitrate or muriate of baryies.
  The phosphate of strontian differs from the preced-
ing in being soluble in an excess of its acid.
  Phosphate of lime is very abundant in  the native
state.
  The phosphate of lime is very difficult to fuse, but
in a glasshouse furnace it softens, and acquires the se-
mi transparency and grain of porcelain. It is insolu-
ble  iu water, but when xvell  calcined, forms a kind of
paste xvitii it, as in making cupeis.  Besides  this use of
it, it is employed for  polishing gems and metals, for ab-
sorbing grease from cloth,  linen, or paper, and for pre-
paring phosphorus   In medicine it has been strongly
recommended  against the rickets by Dr. Bonhoinme of
Avignon, either alone or combined xvitii phosphate of
soda.  The burnt hartshorn of the shops is a phosphate
of lime.
  An acidulous phosphate of lime is found in human
urine, and may he crystallized  in small silky filaments,
or shining scales, which unite  together into something
like the consistence  of honey, and have a perceptibly
acid taste.  It may  be prepared by partially decom-
posing the calcareous  phosphate of bones  by the sul-
phuric, nitric, or  muriatic acid, or by  dissolving that
phosphate in  phosphoric acid.  It is soluble in xvater,
and i rystallizable. Exposed to the action  of heat,  it
softens, liquefies, sxvells up, becomes dry, and may be
filled Into a transparent glass, which is  insipid, insolu-
ble, and unalterable in the air   In these characters it
differs from the glacial acid of phosphorus.   It is partly
decomposable by charcoal, so as lo afford phosphorus.
  The phosphate of potassa is very deliquescent, and
not crystallizable, but condensing into a kind of jelly.
Like the preceding species, it first undergoes the aque-
ous fusion, sxvells, dries, and may be fused into a glass ;
hut this uluss  deliquesces.   Il has a sweetish  saline
taste.
  Tlie phosphate of soda was first discovered  com-
bined with ammonia in urine, by Schocl; witz, and xvas
called fusible or microcosmic salt.  Margraffobtained
it alone by lixiviating the residuum left after preparing
phosphorus from this triple salt and charcoal.  Haupt,
who first discriminated the two. nave the phosphate of
soda the name of sal mirabile perlatum.  Rouellc very
properly announced  it to be a compound of soda and
phospho: ic acid.  Bergman considered  it, or rather the
acidulous phosphate, ns a peculiar acid, and  gave it the
name of perlate. acid.   Guyton-Morveau did the same,
but distinguished it by the name of ouretic  : at length
Klapioth  ascertained its  real nature to be as Rouellc
had affirmed.
  This phosphate is noxv commonly prepared by adding
to the acidulous phosphate of lime as much carbonate
of soda in solution as xvill fully saturate the  acid. The
carbonate of lime wliich precipitates, being separated
by  fill ration, the liquid is duly evaporated so as to crys-
tnli/.e the phosphate of soda; but if  there be not a
slight excess of alkali, the crystals xvill not be large and
regular.  Fpncke, of Linz,  leconiinends, as  a  more
economical and expeditious mode, to saturate the ex-
ecs* of lime in calcined bones  by dilute sulphuric acid,
at:d dissolve  the phosphate of"  lime that  remains in
nilric acid.  To this solution he adds an equal quan-
tity of sulphate of soda, and  recovers the nitric acid by
distillation.  He then separates Ihe phosphate of soda
from sulphate of lime by clutriation and crystallization,
as  usual.  The crystals are  rhomboidal prisms of dif-
ferent shapes; efflorescent;  soluble in 3 parts of cold,
and li of hot  xvater.  They  arecapable of being fused
i"to an opaque xvhite glass, xvhich may he acain dis-
solved and crystallized.  It may be converted into an
acidulous phosphate by an addition of acid, or by either
nt  the  strong acids, xvhich  partially, but not wholly,
decompose il.  As its taste  is simply saline, xvithout
any thing disagreeable, it is much used as a purgative,
chiefly in broth, in wliich it is not distinguishable from
common salt.  For this elegant addition to our phar-
 maceutical preparations, xve are indebted to Dr. Pear-
son.  In assays xvith the blow-pipe it is of great utility;
and it has hern used instead of borax for soldering.
  The phosphate of ammonia crystallizes in prisms xvilh
four regular sides, terminating in pyramids, and some-
times  in  bundles of small needles.  Its taste is cool,
Baline,  )-.urgent, and urinous.  On the fire  it comports
ih-.oll   ■ i e thn preceding species, except that the whole
of  iu ;«sr may be driven off by n continuance of the
       170
heat, leaving only the acid behind.  It is but little more
soluble in hot waler than iu  cold, which  takes up n
fourth of its xveight.  It  is pretty abundant in human
urine, particularly after it has  become putrid.   Ii is au
excellent flux both for assays and ihe blow-pipe, and iu
the fabrication of coloured glass and artificial gems.
  Phosphate  of  magnesia  crystallizes  in irregular
hexahedral prisms, obliquely truncated;  hut  is coin
inonly pulverulent, as it elfloresces very quickly.  It
requires fifty  parts of water to dissolve it.  Its taste is
cool  and sweetish.  This salt  too is found in urine.
  An ammoniaco-magnesian phosphate has been dis
covered in an intestinal  calculus of a horse by Four
croy, and since by liarlholdi, and likewise  by  the for-
mer, iu some human  urinary calculi.
  The phospho'."  cf glycine, has been examined bj
Vauquelin. who informs  us, that it is a xvhite powder,
or mucilaginous mass, xvithout any perceptible taste;
fusible but not decomposable  by heat; unalterable is
tbe air, and insoluble unless in an excess of its acid.
  It  has  been  observed, that the phosphoric acid,
aided by heat, acts upon silex; and xve may add, that
it  enters into many artificial gems in the  state of a
silicious phosphate."—Ure's Chemical Dictionary.
  PHOSPHORITE. A subspecies of apatite.   1. Com-
mon phosphorite.  This is of a  yelloxvish white colour,
xvhen rubbed  in an iron  mortar, or throxvn on  red-hot
coals.  It  emits a green-coloured phosphoric light.   It
is found in Estremadura, in Spain.
  2. Earthy phosphorite.  Of  a grayish white colour,
and consists of dull dusty particles, xxhich phospho
resce on glowing coals.  It is found in Hungary.
  PHOSPHOROUS ACID.    dcidum phosphorosum.
" This acid xvas  discovered in 1812 by Sir H. Davy.
When phosphorus and  corrosive  sublimate  act on
each other at. an elevated temperature, a liquid called
protochloride of phosphorus is formed. Water added
to this, resolves it into muriatic and  phosphorous acids.
A moderate heat  suffices lo expel the former, and the
latter remains associated xvith xvater. It has a very
sour taste, reddens xegetable  blues,  and  neutralizes
bases.  When heated  strongly in  open vessels, it in-
flames.   Phosphuretted hydrogen flies off, and phos-
phoric acid remains.   Ten parts of it heated  in close
vessels give off one-half of bihydroguret of pliosphorus,
and leave 8\ of phosphoric acid.  Hence theliquidacid
consists of fcO.7 acid -*- 19.3 xvater.  Its prime  equiva-
lent is 2.5."
  PHOSPHORUS.  (From qjus, light, and q)epu,  to
carry.)  Aulophospkcrus.  A  simple substance xvhich
has never been found pure in nature.   Il is  always
met with united lo oxygen, or in the state of phosphoric
acid.  In  thnt state if exists  very  plentifully,  and is
united to different animal, vegetable, and  mineral  sub
stances.
  '- If phosphoric acid be mixed xvith l-5th of its xveight
of powdered  charcoal, and the mixture  distilled at a
moderate  red heat, in a  coated earthen retort, xvhose
beak is partially immersed in a basin of  waler, drops
of a waxy-looking  substance xvill pass over, and, fall-
ing into the water, xvill concrete into the solid called
phosphorus.  It must be purified, by straining it through
a piece of chamois  leather, under warm water.  It is
yellow and semitranspaient.  It is as  soft as xvax, but
fully  more cohesive and ductile.   Its sp.  gr.  is 1.77.
It melts at 90° F.  and boils at 550°.
  In the atmosphere, at common temperatures,  it emits
a white smoke, xvhich, in tlie dark, appears luminous.
This smoke is  acidulous, and results from tlie slow-
oxygenation of the phosphorus.   In air perfectly dry,
hoxvever,  phosplioriis does not smoke, because  the acid
which is formed is solid, and, closely incasing tne com-
bustible, screens it from the atmospherical oxygen.
  When phosphorus is healed  in the nir lo about 1*8°,
it  takes fire,  and burns  xvitii  a splendid white light,
and a copious dense smoke.   If the combustion  lake
place within  a large glass receiver, the smoke becomes
condensed into snowy looking particles, whicli fall in
a  successive shoxver,  coating the  bottom  plate with
a spongy efflorescence  of phosphoric  acid.  This  acid
snoxv soon liquefies by the absorption of aqueous x a-
pour from the air.
   When  phosphorus  is inflamed in oxygen, the light
and heat  are incomparably more intense;  the former
dazzling the eye,  and  the latter cracking tlie glass ves-
sel.   Solid phosphoric acid results; consisting of 1.5
phosphorus -(- 2.0 oxegen. 
PHO
PHO
   W lien phosphorus is heated in highly rarefied air,
 thrre products are formed from it: one"is phosphoric
 acid; one is  a volatile xvhite powder; and tne third ia
 a red solid of comparative fixity, requiring a heat above
 that of boiling water for ils fusion.  The volatile sub-
 stance is soluble in xvater, imparting acid properties to
 It.   It seems to be phosphorous acid.  The  red sub-
 stance  is probably an oxide of phosphorus, since, for
 Its  conversion into phosphoric acid  it  requires  less
 oxygen than phosphorus does.  See Phosphoric, Phos-
 phorous, and Hypophosphorous Acids.
  Phosphorus  and chlorine combine with great facili-
 ty, when brought in contact xvith each olher at common
 temperatures.
  1. When chlorine is introduced  into  a retort ex-
 hausted  of air, and containing phosphorus, ihe phos-
 phorus takes tire, and burns with a pale flame, throxv-
 ing off sparks ; xvhile a xvhite substance rises and con-
 denses on the sides ofthe vessel.
  If ihe chlorine be in considerable quantity, as much as
 12 cubic inches to a grain of phosphorus, the latter will
 entirely disappear, and nothing but the xvhite poxvder
 will be formed, into wliich about!) cubic inches of the
 chlorine will be condensed.  No nexv gaseous matter
 is produced.
  The powder is a compound of phosphorus and chlo-
 rine, first described as a peculiar body by Sir H. Davy
 in 1810; and various analytical and synthetical experi-
 ments xvhich  he made with it, prove that  it consists of
 about 1  phosphorus, and b\S chlorine iu weight-  It is
 the bichloride of phosphorus.
  Its properties are very peculiar.   It is snow-xvhite,
 extremely volatile,  rising in a gaseous  form  at a tem-
 perature much beloiv  that of boiling waler.   Under
 pneumatic pressure it may be fused, aud then it crystal-
 lizes in transparent prisms.
  It acts violently on water, decomposing it, whence
 result the phosphoric and  muriatic acids; the former
 from the combination of the  phosphorus xvitii  the
 oxygen, and  the lalter from that of the chlorine xvith
 the hydrogen of the  water.  It produces flame when
 exposed  to  a  lighted taper.   If  it  be transmitted
 through an ignited  glass tube, along xvith oxygen, it is
 decomposed,  and phosphoric acid and  chlorine are ob-
 tained.   The superior fixity of the acid above the chlo-
 ride, seems to give  that ascendancy of attraction to the
 oxygen here,  which the chlorine  possesses in most other
 cases.   Dry litmus paper exposed to  its  vapour in  a
 vessel exhausted of air, is reddened.  W hen introduced
 into a vessel containing ammonia, a combination takes
 place, accompanied xvilh much heat, and  there results
 a compound, insoluble in xvater, undecomposable by
 acid or  alkaline solutions,  and possessing characters
analogous to earths.
  2. The protochloride of phosphorus w as first obtained
in a pure state by  Sir H. Dax-y, in the year 1809.  If
phosphorus be sublimed through corrosive sublimate,
in powder in a glass tube, a limpid fluid comes over as
clear as water, and having a specific  gravity of 1.45.
It emits  acid fumes when exposed to the air, by decom-
posing the aqueous vapour.  If paper, imbued  with it,
be exposed to the air, it becomes acid without inflam-
mation   It does not redden dry litmus paper plunged
into it.   Its vapour bums  in the flame of a  candle.
 When mixed xvith xvater, and  heated, muriatic acid
 flies off, and phosphorous acid remains. If it be intro-
duced into a vessel containing chloune, it is  converted
into the  bichloride; and if made to act upon ammonia,
phosphorus is produced, and the  same earthy-like coin-
pound results as that  formed by the bichloride and
ammonia.
  The compounds of iodine and  phosphorus have been
examined by  Sir H.Davy and Gay Lussac.
  Phosphorus unites to iodine with the disengagement
of heat,  but  no light.  One part of phosphorus and
eight of iodine form a compound of a red orange-broxvn
colour, fusible at about 212°, and volatile at a higher
temperature.
  One part of phosphorus and 16 of iodine produce  a
crystalline  matter  of a grayish-black colour, fusible
at 84°.
  One part of phosphorus, and 24 of iodine, produce a
black substance partially fusible at 115°.
  Phosphuretted hydrogen.  Of this compound there
are txvo  varieties; one  consisting of a prime  of each
ione'ituerit, and therefore to bo called phosphuretted
lij ii-ugen ; another, in which the relation ot phospho-
                                         Tt
 rus is one half less, to be called therefore subphosiih'i
 retted hydrogen.
    1. Phosphuretted hydrogen.   Into a small retorl
 filled xvith milk of lime,  or potassa  waler, let sonic
 fragments of phosphorus be introduced, and let the
 heat of an Aneand flame  be applied to tae bottom ol
 tlie retort, xvhile ils beak is immersed in the water of a
 pneumatic trough.  Bubbles of gas xvill come over
 which explode spontaneously with contact of air.  It
 may also be  procured  by the action of dilute muriatic
 acid on phosphuietof lime.   I u order to obtain the gas
 pure, hoxvever, xve must receive it over mercury   Its
 smell is very disagreeable.   Its sp. grav. is 0.9022.  10li
 cubic inches  xveigh 27.5 gr.  In oxygen, it inflames
 with a brilliant while light.   In coinnion  air, xvhen the
 gaseous bubble bursts tlie film of xvater, and exploder.
 there rises up a ring of white smoke,  luminous in the
 dark.  Water absorbs about l-40th of its bulk of this
 gas, and acquires a yellow  colour, a  bitler taste, and
 the characteiistic smell of ihe gas.  When  brought in
 contact xvilh chlorine it detonates with a brilliantgreeu
 light; but the products have never been particularly
 examined.
  2. Subphosphuretted hydrogen.  It was discovered
 by  Sir H. Davy in 181-2. "When the crystalline hydrate
 of  phosphorous acid is heated in  a relrrt  out of the
 contact of air, solid phosphoric acid is formed, and n
 large quantity of subphosphuretted hydrogen is evolved.
 Its  smell is fatid, but not so  disagreeably  so ns that of
 the preceding  gas.  It does uot spontaneously explode
 like il xvitii oxygen: but at a temperature of 300° a
 violent detonation takes place.  In chlorine it explodes
 xvith a xvhite flame.  Water absorbs one-eightii of ils
 volume ol" this gas.
  It is probable lhat phosphuretted hydrogen gas some
 times contains the subphosphuret and common hydro
 gen mixed xvilh it.
  '  There  is not, perhaps,' says Sir H. Davy,' in the
 xvhole series of chemical phenomena, a more beautiful
 illustration of the theory of  definite proportions, than
 that offered in the decomposition of" hydrophospliorous
 acid into phosphoric acid, and hydrophosphoric cas.
  '  Four proportions of the  acid contain four propor-
 tions of phosphorus and four of oxygen;  two propor
 lions of xvater contain four  proportions  of hydrogen
 and two of oxygen (all by volume.)  The six propor
 tions of oxygen unite to three proportions of phospho-
 rus to form three of phosphoric ncid, and  tlie four pro-
 portions of hydrogen combine xvith one of phosphorus
 to form one proportion of hydrophosphoric gas (that is,
 subphosphuretted hydrogen); and tliere are no other
 products.'—Elements, p. 297.
  Phosphorus and sulphur are capabl  ■ of combining.
 They maybe united by malting them together in a tube
 exhausted of air, or under waler.   In  this last case,
 they must be used in small quantities;  as, at the mo-
 ment of their action, xvater is decoinpwsed, sometimes
 with  explosions.   They unite in many  proportions
 The most fusible compound is that of one and a half
of sulphur to txvo of phosphorus.  This remains liquid
at 40° Fahrenheit.  When solid, its colour  is yelloxvish-
white.   It is  more combustible than phosphorus, and
distils undecompounded at  a strong  heat.   Had  it
consisted of 2 sulphur—3 phosphorus, we  should have
 had a definite compound of 1 prime of the first—2 of
the  second constituent.  This  proportion forms the
 best composition for phosphoric fire-matches or bottles.
 A particle of it attached to a brimstone match, inflames
 when gently rubbed against a surface of corkorxvood.
 An  oxide  made by heating phosphorus in a narroxv-
 mouthed phial xvith an ignited wire, answers the same
 purpose.  The phial musl be kept closely corked, other
 xvisc phosphorous acid is speedily formed.
  Phosphorus  is soluble in oils, and communicates n
 them the property of appearing luminous in the dark
 Alkohol and  ether also dissolve  it,  but more  spa-
 ringly."
  The earliest account xve have concerning the medi-
 cinal use of phosphorus, is  in the  seventh  volume ol
 Haller's Collection of Theses, relating to the history
 and cure of diseases.   The original dissertation i? en-
 titled, De Phosphori Loco Mcdicuancnti adsumpti vir
 lute mtdica, aliquot casibus  singularibus confirmata,
 Auctore J. Gobi Mrutz. There are three cases of sin-
 gular cures performed  by  means of phosphorus, nar-
 rated in this  thesis; the history  of these cases am
 cures was sent to Dr. Gubi Mentz, bv his father.
                                         177 
PHR
PHR
  The first instance is of a man tvlio laboured under a
putrid fever.
  Tlie second, is lhat of a man who laboured under a
bilious fever.
  The third case is entitled a malignant catarrhal fever,
with petechiae.
  The dangerous consequences xvhicli are likely to
folloxv the injudicious  administration of phosphorus
cannot be impressed on the mind  more strongly than
by reading the cases and experiments which are men-
tioned by Weickard, in  the fourth part of his miscella-
neous writings, (Vermischte Medicineche Schrifften,
von M. A. Weickard.)
  PHOSPHURET. (Phosphuretum, from phosphorus.)
A combination  of phosphorus, xvith a combustible or
metallic oxide.
  Phosphuretted hydrogen.  See Phosphorus.
  PHOSPHURETUM.   See Phosphuret.
  PHOTICTTE.  A mixture of the silicate and carbo-
silicate of manganese.
  PHOTOPHOBIA.  (From qjws, light, and o>o6rui,to
dread.)   Such an intolerance of light, that the eye, or
rather the retina, can scarcely bear ils irritating rays.
Such patients generally xvink, or  close their eyes in
light, which they cannot bear xvithout exquisite pain,
or confused vision.  The proximate cause is too great
a sensibility in the retina.  The species are,
  1.  Photophobia inflammatoria, or dread of light from
an inflammatory cause, which is a particular symptom
of the internal ophthalmia.
  2.  Photophobia, from the disuse of light, xvhich hap-
pens lo persons long confined in dark places or prisons ;
on tiie  coming  out of which into  light the pupil con-
tracts, and the persons cannot bear light.  The depres-
sion of the cataract occasions this symptom, xvhicli ap-
pears as though fire and lightning entered the eye, not
being able to bear the strong rays of light.
  3. Photophobia nervea,  or a  nervous photophobia,
which arises from an increased sensibility of the ner-
vous expansion and optic nerve.  It  is a  symptom  of
the hydrophobia, and many disorders, both acute and
nervous.
  4. Photophobia, from too great light, as looking at the
sun, or  at the strong light of modern lamps.
   PHOTO'PSIA.  (From qtus, light, and od/ic, vision.)
Lucid  visicn.  An affection of the eye in xvhich the
patient perceives luminous rays,  ignited lines, or co-
ruscations.
   Phra'omus.   (From qjpaoau, to enclose, or fence: so
called from their being set round like a fence of stakes.)
Tlie roxvs of teeth.
   PHRE'NES. (Phren, from qjpqv, themind; because
the  ancients imagined it xvas the seat of the mind.)
The diaphragm.
   PHRENE'SIS.  See Phrenitis.
   PHRENIC.   (Phrenicus ; from  qipevts, the dia-
 phragm.)  Belonging to the diaphragm.
   Phrenic artery.   Tiie  arteries going to the dia-
 phragm.
   Phrenic nrrve.  Diaphragmatic nerve.  It  arises
  from a union of the branches of the  third, fourth, and
 fifth cervical pairs, on each side, passes  betxveen the
  clavicle and subclavian  artery,  nnd descends from
  thence by the pericardium to the diaphragm.
   Phrenic  vein.  The veins  coming from the dia-
  phragm.
   PIIRENICA.  (Phrenicus :  from qjpnv, the mind,
  or intellect.)  The name of the first order of diseases
  of the class Neurotica, in  Good's  Nosology.  Diseases
  affecting the intellect. Its genera nre,  Ecphoronia;
  Empathema;  Alusia; Aphltxia; Paroniria; Moria.
   PHRENI'TIS.  (Phrenitis, idis. f. ♦prvinc;  from
  0pr/i>, the mind)  Phrenceis : Phrcnetiasis; Phrenis-
  in us ;  Cephalitis ; Sphacelismus ;   Cephalalgia  in-
  flammatoria.   By the Arabians,  karabitus.  Phrenzy
  or inflammation of the brain.  A genus  of disease  in
  the Class Pyrexia, and Order Phlegmasia, of Cullen ;
  characterized by strong fever, -violent hendnchc, red-
  ness ofthe face and eyes, impatience of light and noise,
  watchfulness, and furious delirium.  It is symptomatic
  of several diseases, as worms, hydrophobia, Sic  Phie-
  nitis often  makes its attacks xvith a sense of fulness in
  the bend, flushing of the countenance, nnd redness of
  the eyes, the pulse being full, but in  other respects na
  tural.   As these symptoms increase, the patient  be-
  comes restless, his sleep  is disturbed, or wholly for-
  sakes him.  It sonietimes comes on, as in the epidemic,
        176
of which Saalman gives an account, with pain, or a
peculiar sense of uneasiness of the head, back, loins,
and joints; in some cases, with tremor of the limbs,
and intolerable pains of the hands, feet, and legs.  It
now nnd then attacks with stupor and rigidity  if the
whole body, sometimes  xvitii anxiety and a sense of
tension referred to the breast, often accompanied xvith
palpitation of the heart.   Sometimes nausea and a
painful sense of weight in the stomach, are among the
earliest  symptoms.  In otlier cases, the patient is at-
tacked xvitii vomiting, or complains of tlie heart-burn,
and  griping pains in the bowels.  When the intimate
connexion which subsists between the brain and every
part of the system i3 considered, the variety ol* tlie
symptoms attending the commencement of phienitis is
not so surprising, nor that  the stomach in  particular
should suffer, xvhich so  remarkably sympathizes xvith            #
the brain.  These symptoms assist in forming the diag-
nosis between  phrenitis and  synocha.   The  pain of
the head soon becomes  more considerable, and  some-
times very acute.  " If the meninges," says Dr. For-
dyce, " are affected, the pain is acute; if the substance
only, obtuse, and sometimes but just sensible."  And
Dr. Cullen remarks, " 1 am here, as in other analogous
cases, of opinion, that the symptoms above mentioned
of an acute inflammation, always mark inflammations
of membraneous parts,  and that an inflammation of
parenchyma, or substance of viscera, exhibits, at least
comnionly, a more chronic inflammation."
  Tlie seat of the pain is various': sometimes it seems
to occupy the whole head;  sometimes, although more
circumscribed, it is deep-seated, and ill-defined.   In
other cases, it is felt principally in the forehead or oc-
ciput. The redness of the  face and eyes generally in-
creases with the pain, and there is often a sense of
heat  and throbbing in ihe  head, the countenance ac-
quiring a peculiar fierceness.  These symptoms, for the
most part, do not last long before the patient begins lo
talk incoherently, and  to shoxv other marks of delirium
Sometimes, hoxvever, Saalman observes, delirium did
not come on till the fifth, sixth, or seventh day.  The
delirium gradually increases, till it  often arrives at a
stale of phrenzy.  The face  becomes turgid, ihe eyes
stare, and seem as if bursting from their sockets, teuis,
and sometimes even blood,  floxviug from them:  the pa-
 tient, in many cases, resembling a furious maniac, from
 ivhom it is often impossible to distinguish him, except
 by the shorter duration of his complaint  The delirium
assists  in distinguishing phrenitis and synocha, as it is
 not a common symptom in  the latter.  When delirium
does attend synocha, hoxvever, it is of the same kind as
in phrenitis.
   We should, a priori, expect in phrenitis considerable
derangement in the different organs of sense, which so
 immediately depend on the state of the brain.  The
eyes are incapable of bearing the light, and false vision,
 particularly that termed musca volitantes, and flashes
of light seeming to dart before the eyes, are frequent
symptoms.   The hearing  is often so acute, lhat the
 least noise is intolerable:  sometimes,  on the othet
 hand, the  patient becomes deaf; and the  deafness,
 Saalman observes, and morbid acuteness nf hearim:,
 sometimes  alternate.   Affections of the smell, taste,
 and touch, are less observable.
   As the organs of sense are not frequently deranged
 in synocha, the foregoing symptoms farther assist the
 diagnosis betxveen this complaint and phrenitis.
   The  pulse is not alxvays so much disturbed at an
 earlier period, as xve  should  expect from the violence
 of the other symptoms, compared with what we ob-
 serve in idiopathic fevers.  When this circumstance is
 distinctly marked, it forms, perhaps, the best diagnosis
 betxveen phrenitis and synocha, and gives to phrenitis
 more of the appearance  of mania,  in ninny cases,
 hoxvever, the fever runs as high as the delirium;  then
 the case often almost exactly  resembles a case of vio-
 lent synocha, from which it Is the more difficult to dis
 tinguisli it if the pulse be full nnd strong.   In  general,
 hoxvever, the hardness is more  remarkable  than  in
 synocha, and in many cases the pulse is small and bard,
 which may be regarded as one of the best  diagnostics
 betxveen the  txvo complaints, the  pulse in synocha
 being always strong and full.  In phrenitis it is some-
 times, though rarely, intermitting.   The respiration is
 Generally deep and slow, sometimes difficult, now and
 then interrupted xvith hiccough, seldom hurried and
 frequent; n very unfax-ournble symptom.  In many of 
PHR                                            fHT
*ft> cases mentioned by Saalman, pntumonia super-
vened.
  The deglutition is often difficult, sometimes convul-
sive.  The stomach  is frequently oppressed xvith bile,
which is an unfavourable symptom;  and  complete
jaundice, the skin and urine being tinged yellow,soine-
•irnes supervenes.  Worms in the stomach and bowels
are also frequent attendants on phrenitis, and tliere is
reason to believe, may have a share in producing it.
The hydrocephalus  internus, xvhich is more allied to
phrenitis than dropsy of the brain, properly so called,
seems often, in  part at least, to arise from derange-
ment of  the prima; viae, particularly from worms.  We
cannot otherwise account for the  frequent occurrence
of these complaints.
  Instead of a superabundance of bile  iu the primae
viae, there  is sometimes a  deficiency, which seems to
afford even  a woise prognosis.   Tlie alvine  feces be-
ing of a xvhite colour, and a black cloud in the urine,
are regarded by Lobb as fatal symptoms.  The black
cloud in  the urine is owing to an admixture ot' blood ;
when unmixed with blood, it is generally pale.
  There  is often a remarkable tendency to the xvorsl
species of baemorrhfuiies, towards the fatal termination
of phrenitis.  Haemorrhagy from the eyes has already
been  mentioned.   Haemorrhagy  from tlie intestines
also, tinging the stools with a black colour, is uot un-
common. These haemorrhagies are never favourable;
bul the haemorrhagies characteristic of synocha, parti
cularly that from  the  nose, sometimes occur at an
earlier period, and,  if copious, generally bring relief.
More frequently, however, blood drops slowly from the
nose, demonstrating the violence of tlie disease, xvith-
out relieving it.  In other cases, there is a discharge of
thin mucus from the nose.
  Tremours of the joints, convulsions of the muscles
of the face, grinding of the teeth, the face  from bting
florid suddenly becoming pale, involuntary tears, a dis-
charge of mucus from the  nose, the urine being of a
dark red or yelloxv colour, or black, or covered with a
pellicle,  the faxes being either bilious or white, and
very  foetid, profuse  sweat  of the head,  neck,  and
shoulders, paralysis of the tongue, general convulsions,
much derangement of the internal functions, and the
symptoms of other visceral inflammations, particularly
of tlie pneumonia, supervening, are enumerated  by
Saalman as affording the most unfavourable prognosis.
The delirium changing to coma, the pulse at the same |
time becoming xveak, and the deglutition difficult, xvns,
generally the forerunner of  death.   When, on  the I
contrary, there  is a copious hsmorrhagy from  the
haemorrhoidal vessels, from the lungs, mouth, or even
from the urinary passages, when the delirium is reliev-
ed by sleep, and the patient remembers his  dreams,
when the sweats are free and general, the deafness is
diminished or removed, and the febrile symptoms be-
come milder, there are hopes of recovery.
  In almost  all diseases, if we except those which kill
suddenly, as tbe  fatal termination approaches, nearly
the same train of symptoms supervenes, viz. those de-
noting extreme debility of all the functions.  Saalman
remarks, that the blood  did not always show the buffy
eoat.
  Phrenitis, like most other  complainLs, has sometimes
assumed an intermitting form, the fits coming  on daily,
sometimes every second day.  When phrenitis termi-
czu.3 favourably, the typhus, which  succeeds tlie in-
creased excitement, is  generally less in proportion to
that excitement, than in idiopathic fevers  ; a circum-
stance which assists in distinguishing phrenitis from
synocha.
  The imperfect diagnosis between these complaints ia
further assisted by the effects of the remedies employ
oil.   For in  phrenitis, in removing the delirium and
other loeal symptoms, the febrile symptoms in general
soon abate.   Whereas in  synocha, although (ne deli-
rium  and headache be removed, yet the pulse conti-
nues frequent, and other marks of indisposition remain
for a much longer time.
  It will  be of use to present, at one view, the circum-
stances which form the diagnosis between phrenitis and
synocha.
  Svnocha generally makes its attack in the same man-
nei , .is  symptoms  are  fexv and  little varied.  The
symptoms at the commencement of phrenitis are often
more  complicated, and differ considerably in different
eases.  Derangement of the internal functions is com-
paratively  rare  in  synocha.  In phrenitis it almosi
constantly  attends, and often appears very early.   The
same observation  applies to ihe derangement of the
organs of sense.   In synocha, the pulse from the com
menceinent is frequent and strong. In phrenitis,syni[)
Ionis denoting tlie  local affection often become com'
derable before the  pulse is much disturbed.  In phre-
nitis, xve have seen  that the pulse sometimes very sud-
denly  loses its strength, the xvorst  species of haemor-
rhagies, and other symptoms denoting extreme debility,
shoxving themselves; and such symptoms are generally
the forerunners of death: but that xvhen the termina-
tion is favourable, the degree of typhus which succeeds
it is less in  proportion to "the preceding excitement thau
In synocha.  Lastly,  if xve succeed in removing the
delirium and other symptoms affecting the head, the
state of the fever is  found to partake of this favourable
change  more immediately  and  completely than in
synocha, where, although xve succeed  in relieving the
headache or delirium, the  fever often  suffers  little
abatement.
  With regard to the duration of phrenitis, Eller ob-
serves, that xvhen it proves fatal, the patient generally
dies within six or seven days.  In  many fatal case s,
hoxx-ever, it is protracted for  a longer  lime, especially
where the remissions have been considerable.  Upon
Ihe xvhole, however, the longer  it is protracted,  pro-
viding  tlie symptoms do nol become  worse, the hetltr
is the prognosis.
  On the first attack of lli?  disease  we must begin by
bleeding the patient as largely as his  strength xvill per
init: it may be productive of more relief lo the head,
where the  patient  cannot  spare much blood, if the
temporal artery,  or the jugular vein be opened; and in
the progress  of the complaint occasional  cupping or
leeches may materially assist the other means employ-
ed.  Active cathartics  should be given directly after
taking blood, calomel  with jalap, followed by some
saline compound in the infusion of senna, until the
boxvels are copiously evacuated.  Th3 head should be
shaved, and kept constantly cool by  homs evaporatini*
lotion.  Antimonial and mercurial  preparations  may
then be given to promote tlie several discharges, anil
diminish arterial action :  to whicli  purpose digitalis
also may powerfully concur.  Blisters to the back of
the neck, behind the ears, or to the temples, each per-
haps successively, when the violence of the disorder h
lessened  by proper evacuations, may  contribute  very
much to obviate  internal mischief.  The  head should
be kept raised, tu counteract the accumulation of blood
tliere ; and the antiphlogistic regimen must be observe 1
in the fullest extent.  Stimulating the extremities by
tlie pediluviuin, sinapisms, Sec. may  be of some use in
the decline  of the complaint, where  an irritable state
of the brain appears.
  Piirkneti'asis.   See Phrenitis.
  PHRENSV.  See Phrenitis.
  PHTHEIRl'ASIS.   (From  tbQttp, a louse.)   See
Phthiriasis.
  Phthei'rium.  See Phthciroetonum.
  PHTHEIRO'CTONUM.   (From^flcip, a louse, and
xretvu, to kill; because it destroys lice.)   Phtheirium.
The herb Staves-acre.  See Delphiniumstaphisagriu.
  PHTHIRl'ASIS.   (From  tbOtip, a louse.)  Morbus
pediculosus ; pediculatio ;  phthciriasis.  A disease i
which  several parts of  the body  generate lice, whic'.
often puncture  the skin,  and  produce  little  sordiv,
ulcers.
  PHTHISIS. (From cbOiu, to consume.)   Tabes put-
monalis.  Pulmonary consumption.   A disease repre-
sented by Dr. Cullen as a  sequel of  haemoptysis:  it is
known by emaciation, debility, cough, hectic fever, an-1
purulent expectoration.
  Species:  1. Phthisis incipiens, incipient, without an
expectoration of  pus.
  2.  Phthisis humida, xvilh an expectoration of pus.
  3.  Phthisis scrophulosa, from scrofulous tubercles
in the lungs, &c.
  4.  Phthisis hamoptoico, from haemoptysis.
  5.  Phthisis exanthematica, from exanthemata.
  6.  Phthisis chlorolica, from chlorosis.
  7.  Phtltisit syphilitica, from a  venerea. «lcer in the
Inures.
  Tbe causie? xvhich predispose to this disease -.re very
numerous.  The following a-e, however, the most gr
neral:  hereditary disposition: particular formation of
tho body, obvious by a long tick prominent shoulders 
HT                                           PH
 and narrow chest;  scrofulous diathesis, indicated  by
 a fine clear skin, fair hair, delicate rosy complexion,
 arge veins, thick upper lip, a xveak voice, and  great
 sensibility; certain diseases, sucli as syphilis, scrofula,
 the small pox, and  measles;  particular employments,
 exposing artificers  to  dust, such as  needle-pointers,
 stone cutters, millers, &c. or to the fumes of metals or
 minerals under a confined and unwholesome air; vio-
 lent passions, exertions, or affections of the mind, as
 irief, disappointment, anxiety, or close application to
 study, xvithout using proper exercise;  frequent and
 excessive debaucheries, late watching, and drinking
 freely of strong liquors: great evacuations, as  diar-
 ihaea, diabetes, excessive venery, fluor albus, immo-
 e'erate discharge of the menstrual flux, and the conti-
 iiiiHg to suckle too long under a debilitated state; and,
 lastly, the application of cold, either  by too sudden a
 change of apparel, keeping on xvet clothes, lying in
 damp beds, or exposing  the body too suddenly to cool
 »ir, when  heated by exercise; in short, by any  thing
 that gives a  considerable check  to the perspiration.
 The more immediate or occasional causes of phthisis
 are,  haemoptysis, pneumonic inflammation proceeding
 to suppuration, catarrh,-asthma, and tubercles, the last
 of which is by far the  most general.  The incipient
 symptoms  usually vary with the cause of the disease;
 but when  it arises  from tubercles, it is  usually thus
 marked:  it begins  with a short dry cough, that  at
 length becomes habitual, but from  whicli  nothing is
 t«pit  up for some time,  exeept a frothy  mucus  that
 seems to proceed from  the fauces.  The breathing is
 at the same time somewhat impeded, and upon the
 least bodily motion  is much hurried: a sense of strait-
 i ess, with oppression at the chest, is experienced: the
 body  becomes gradually leaner, and  great languor,
 xvitii indolence, dejection of spirits, and loss of appe-
 tite, prevail.  In this state tlie patient frequently con-
 tinues a considerable length of time, daring xvhich  he
 is, however, more readily affected than usual by slight
 colds, and  upon  one or  other of  these occasions the
 cough  becomes more troublesome  and  severe, particu-
 larly by night, and it is at length attended with an ex-
 pectoration, which toxvards morning is more free mid
 copious.   By degrees the matter which is expectorated
 becomes more viscid and opaque, and now assumes a
 greenish colour  and purulent appearance, being  on
 many occasions streaked with blood.  In somecases,a
 Time severe degree of  haemoptysis attends, and the
 satient spits up a considerable quantity of florid, frothy
 aloud.   The breathing at length becomes more difficult,
 and  the  emaciation and weakness go on  increasing.
 With these, the person begins to be sensible of pain  in
Fome  part  of the thorax, which, however,  is usually
 felt at first under the sternum, particularly on cough-
 ing.  At a more advanced period of the disease, a  pain
 is sometimes felt on one side, and at times prevails in
 so high a degree, as to prevent the person  from lying
easily on thai side; but it  more frequently happens,
 that  it is felt  only on making a full inspiration,  or
 coughing.  Even  where no pain is felt, it often  hap-
pens that those who labour under phthisis cannot lie
easily on one or other of their sides, without a fit of
t uighing being excited, or  the difficulty of breathing
 being much increased.  At  the first commencement of
 tiie disease, the pulse is often natural, or  perhaps  is
soft, small, and a  litlle quicker than usual;  but when
the symptoms which have been enumerated have sub-
sisted tor any length of time, it then becomes full, hard,
 Mid frequent.  At the same time the face flushes,  par-
 ticularly  after  eating;  the  palms ofthe  hands,  and
 soles of the feel,  are affected xvith burning  heat; the
 t-'spiralion is difficult and  laborious; evening exacer-
 I tiiions  become obvious, and, by degrees,  the fever
 f«uincs the hectic form.  This species of fever is evi-
 dently  of the remittent  kind, and  has exacerbations
 t nice every duy.   The first  occurs usually about noon,
 end a  slight remission  ensues about five in the after-
i urn.  This last is, however, soon succeeded by an-
other exacerbation,  which  increases  gradually  until
 ifter midnight; but, nbout two o'clock in the morning,
 t remission fakes place, and this becomes more appa-
 cnt  as the morning advances.  During the exacerba-
 tions the patient is very sensible to any coolness of the
 ■y.r  and often complains of a sense of cold xvhen his
skin  is, nt the  same time, preternaturally xvarm.  Of
 .nese  exacerbations, that of the evening is by far tlie
 most considerable.   From the first appearance of the
      It'll
 hectic symptoms, the urine is high coloured, and <fepr>
 sites a copious branny  red  sediment.  The appetite,
 however, is  not  greatly impaired, the tongue appears
 clean, the mouth is usually moist, and the thirst is in-
 considerable.  As the disease advances, the fauces put
 on rather an inflamed appearance, and are beset wnn
 aphthae, and the  red vessels  of the tunica  adnata be-
 come of a pearly white.  During the exacerbations, a
 florid circumscribed redness  appears on each cheek;
 but at other times the face is pale, and the countenance
 ■iomexviiiit dejected. At the  commencement of hectic
 fever,  the belly is usually costive; but in the more ad-
 vanced st;:L'es  0f it a diarrhoea  often comes on, and
 this continues  to recur  frequently during the remain
 der of the disease; colliquative sweats likewise break
 out, and these  alternate with each other, and  induce
 vast debility. In tlie last stage  of tlie disease the ema-
 ciation is so great, lhat the patient has the appearance
 of a walking skeleton;  his countenance is altered, his
 cheeks are  prominent,  his eyes look hollow and Ian
 guid, his hair falls off, his  nails are  of a livid colour,
 and much incurvated, and his feet  are affected with
 oedetuatous  swellings.  To the  end of the disease the
 senses remain  entire, and  the  mind is confident and
 full of hope.  It  is, indeed, a- happy circumstance at-
 tendant on phthisis, that  those who labour under it are
 seldom  apprehensive or  aware  of any danger; and  it
 is  no  uncommon occurrence to  meet  with persons
 labouring under  its most  advanced stage,  flattering
 themselves xvith a speedy recovery,  and forming dis-
 tant projects  under that vain hope.  Some days before
 death the extremities become cold.  In some cases a
 delirium precedes that event, and continues until life
 is extinguished.
   As an expectoration of mucus  from the lungs may
 possibly be  mistaken for purulent  matter,  and may
 thereby give us  reason  to suspect  that the patient
 labours under a confirmed phthisis, it may not be amiss
 to point out a sure criterion, by which we shall always
 be  able to distinguish the  one  from the other.  The
 medical world  are indebted  to the  lale Mr. Charles
 Darivin for the discovery, who has directed the experi-
 ment to be made  in the following  manner:
  Let  the expectorated  matter be dissolved in vitrio-
 lic acid, and iu caustic lixivium,  and add pure water
 to  both  solutions.  If there is a  fair precipitation in
 each, it is a certain sign of the presence ef pus; but
 if there is not a  precipitate  in either, it is certainly
 mucus.
  Sir Everarrf Ilonie, in his dissertation on the proper-
 ties of pus, informs us of a curious, but  not a decisive
 mode of distinguishing accurately betxveen  pus  and
 animal mucus.  The properly he observes, xvhich cha-
 racterizes pus,  and distinguishes  it  from most other
 substances, is,  its being  composed of globules, xvhich
 are  visible  xvhen  viewed  through a  microscope;
 xyhcieas animal  mucus, and all  chemical  combina-
 tions of animal substances, appear in the microscope
 to be made up of  flakes.  This property  xvas first no-
 ticed by tire lale Mr. John Hunter.
  Pulmonary consumption  is in every case to be con-
sideted as attended with  much danger; but  it is more
so xvhen it proceeds from  tubercles, than xvhen it arises
in consequence either of haemoptysis, or pneumonic
suppuration.  In  the last instance,  the  risk xvill be
greater  where the abscess breaks  inxvardly, and gives
rise to empyema, than when its contents are discharged
by the  mouth.  Even cases of this nature have, hoxv-
ever, been knoxvn to  terminate in  immediate death.
The impending danger  is  generally to be judged of,
however, by the hectic  symptoms; but more particu-
larly by the foetor of the  expectoration,  the  degree of
emaciation and debility,  the  colliquative sweats, and
the diarrhoea.  The disease has,  in many cases, been
found to be  considerably retarded in its progress by
pregnancy;  and  iu a fexv  has  been alleviated by an
attack of mania.
  The  morbid appearance  most frequently to be  mei
xvilh, on the dissection of those  xvho  die of phthisis, is
the existence of tubercles in the cellular substance of
the lungs. These are small tumours which have the
appearance of indurated  glands, are of different sizes,
und are often  found in ctusteis. Their firmness is
usunlly  In proportion to their size, and when  laid open
in this state  they  are of a white colour, and of" a con-
sistence nearly approaching to c.triiluce.  Although in
dolctit  at first,  Ihey at length become infls.med, ui.o 
PHT                                            PHY
lastly torre *Vtte abscesses or vomicae, which breaking,
and pourix-}, their contents into the bronchia, give rise
to a purulent expectoration, and thus lay the founda-
•fion of phthisis.  Such tubercles or vomicae are most
usually situated at the upper and back part of the
lungs; but  in  some instances they occupy the outer
part,   and then adhesions to the  pleura  are often
formed.
   When tlie disease is partial, only about a fourth of
the upper and  posterior  part of the  lungs  is usually
found  diseased ; but, In some cases, life has  been pro-
tracted till not one-tw-entieth part of them appeared, on
dissection, fit for performing their function.   A singu-
lar observation, confirmed by the morbid collections of
anatomists,  is,  that the left lobe is much oftener af-
fected  tlinn the  right.  The indications are,
   1. To moderate inflammatory action.
  2. To support the strength, and promote the healing
of ulcers in the lungs.
  3. To palliate urgent symptoms.
  The first object may require occasional small bleed-
ings, xvhere the strength xvill permit,  in  the early pe-
riod of the disease; but in the scrofulous this measure
is scarcely admissible.   Local pain xvill more fre-
quently lead to the use nf cupping, xvith or without the
scarificator,  leeches, blisters, and other modes of de-
riving the nervous  energy, as well as blood, from the
s-eat of the disease.  The bowels must be kept soluble
by gentle laxatives, as cassia, manna, sulphate of mag-
nesia, tc: and diaphoresis promoted by saline medi-
cines, or  the pulvis ipecacuanha compositus.  The
occasional use  of an emetic may benefit the patient
by promoting the function of the skin, and expectora-
tion, especially  where there is a wheezing respiration.
The inhalation  of steam, impregnated, perhaps, with
hemlock, or e'iier, may be useful as soothing the lungs,
and facilitating expectoration.  Certain sedative reme-
dies, particularly digitalis,  and hemlock, have been
much  employea in this disease; and  in so far as they
moderate the cuculation, and  relieve pain,  they are
clearly beneficial:  out too much reliance must  not be
placed upon them.  Certain sedative gases have been
also proposed to be respired by the patient,  as  hydro-
gen,  tc.;  but their  utility  is  very  questionable.
Amoug the tonic medicines, the mineral acids are, per-
haps, the  most  generally useful;  however, myrrh and
chaiybeates, in moderate doses, often answer a good
purpose.   Rut a great deal will depend on a due regu-
lation  nf the diet,  which should be of a  nutritious
kind, but not heating, or difficult of digestion: milk,
especially that of  the ass: farinaceous vegetables;
acescent fruits; the different kinds of she!'-fish; the
lichen  islandicus, boiled  with  milk,  tc, are of this
description.  Some mode of gestation, regularly em-
ployed, particularly sailing; warm clothing; removal
to a xx-arm climate, or lo a pure and  mild air in this,
may materially  concur in arresting the progress of the
disease, in its incipient stage.  With regard to urgent
symptoms, requiring  palliation,  the cough may be
allayed by demulcents, but especially  mild opiates
cxvallowed slowly;  colliquative sxveats, by acids, par-
ticularly  the mineral:  diarrhoea, by- chalk and  other
astringents,  mt most effectually  by  small  doses of
opium.
   Phthisis  pupillje.  An amaurosis.
   Phtho'ria.  (From qtBopa, an abortion.) Medicines
which promote abortion.
   PHU.   (qjov, or d>tv; from  phua,  Arabian.) The
uame of a plant,   see.Valerianaphu.
   PHYGE'THLON.  '(From ^tiu, to grow.)  A red
and painful tubercle in the arm-pits, neck, and groins.
   PHYLACTE'RIUM.   (From ebvXaoeu, to preserve.)
An amulet or preservative against infection.
   PHYLLA'NTHUS.    (From tfaXXov,  a  leaf, and
avOcs,  a floxver; because the  floxvers  in one of the
.original species,  noxv  a Hylophytta, groxv  out of the
leaves.)   The name of a genus of plants.  Class, Mo-
nacia ; Order,  Monadelphia.
   Phyllanthus  emblica.  The systematic name of
the Indian tree  from xvhich the emblic  myrobalan is
obtained.
   PH YLLIT1S.   (From 4>vX\ov, a leaf:  so called be-
cause Ihe  leaves only appear.  See Asplenium scolo-
pendrium.
  PHYMA.  (From <pvu, to produce.)  A tubercle on
any external part of tlie body.
  PHY'SALLS.  (From  choaau,  to inflate : so called
because its  seed is contained in a kind of bladder
The name of a genus of plants.  Class, Pcntandiit,
Order, Monogynia.
  Physalis  alkkkenoi. The systematic name of the
xvinter  cherry.   Alkekengi;   Halicacabum.   This
plant, Physalis—foliis geminis  integris acutis caule
herbaceo, infernt subramosa, of Linnaeus, is Cultivated
in our gardens.  Tlie Verries are recommended as a
diuretic, from six to twelve for a dose, in dropsical and
calculous disease?.
  PHYSAL1TE.   Prophysalite.   A sub-species of pi i
mitive topaz of Jameson.  A greenish  xvhite miuer.il
found in granite in Finbo, in Sweden.
  PHYSOO'NIA.  (From (bvaxuv, a big-bellied follow'.;
Hypesarca ; Hypersarckidios.   Enlargement of Ihe
abdomen*.  A genus of disease  in the class Cachexia:
and order Intumescentia,of Cullen; known  by a tu-
mour occupying chiefly one  part of  tine abdomen,
increasing slowly, and neither sonorous nor fluctuating
Species: 1.  Hepatica.   2. Splenica.  3. Rcnnlis.  -t
Utcrina.  5. Ab ovario.   6.  Mesenteriea.  7. Omen
talis.  8. Viseeralis.
  PHYSE'MA.  (From  epvaau, to inflate )   Physesis
A xvindv tumour.
  PHYSETER.  (Physetcr. from  qjvoau,  to inflalo ■
so named from its action of blowing and dischn'givc
water  from  its nostrils.) The  name  of a genus oi
whale-fish in the Linnaean system.
  Physktkr macrocephalus. The spermaceti whae
Spermaceti, noxv called in Ihe pharmacopoeia Celaceum,
is an oily, concrete, crystalline, semi-transparent  mat
ter, obtained from the cavity of the cranium of several
species of xvhales,  but principally from the Physticr
macrocephalus, or spermaceti whale.  It was formerly
very highly esteemed, and many virtues xvere attributed
to it; but it  is noxv chiefly employed in affections of
t lungs, primte viae, kidneys, tc. as a softening remedy
   ted xvitii  mucilages.   It is also employed hy sur
'eons as an emollient in form of cerates, ointments, Sec
i-ee also Ambergris, and Balana macrocephala.
  PHYSIOGNOMY.  (Physiognomia,  from qjvais,
nature, and ytvuoxu, to knoiv.)   The art of knowing
tlie disposition of a person from the countenance.
  PHYSIOLOGY.   (Physiologia; from  civets,  na-
ture, and Aoyoc, a discourse.)  That science xvhich lia«
for  ils object the knowledeeof the phenomena proper
to living bodies.  It is divided into Vegetable Physio-
logy, which  is employed  in the consideration of vege-
tables; into  Animal or ComparativePhysiolosy, wliich
treats of animals;  and  into Human Physiology, ol
which the special object  is man.
  PHYSIS.  Nature.
  PHYSOCE'LE.   (From ebvoa,  wind, and xqXij,  «
tumour.)  A species of  hernia, the contents of which
are  distended with wind.
  PHYSOCE'PHALUS.  (From  qiwsa, wind,  and
xtQaXij, the  head.)   Emphysema of the hend.  :-'< c
Pneumatosis.
  PHYSOMETRA.  (From qjvoau, to in'lat-e,  anrl
pr\rpa, the womb.)   Hyslerophyse. A windy sxvelliis:.1
of the uterus.  A tympany of the xvomb.  A genus of
disease in the class Cachexia, and order Intumescentia,
of Cullen ; characterized by a permanent elastic swell-
ing of the hypogastrium, from flatulent distention of t he
womb.  It is a rare  disease, and seldom admits of a
cure.
  PHYTEU'MA.  (Phyteuma, atis. n.; from qiin.
lo generate: so called  from its great increase  :
growth.)  The  name of a genus of  plants.  CI. -■■
Pentandria; Order, Monogynia.
  Phyteuma orbiculare.   Rapnnculus  comiculi
tus.  Horned rampions.   By  some supposed  efllca
cious in the  cure of syphilis.
  PHYTOLA'CCA.  (Phytolacca;  from ebvrov,  n
plant, and Xaxxa, gum lac: so called because it is oi
the colour of lacca.)  The name of a genus of plants
Class, Decandria ; Order, Decagynia.
  Phytolacca decandria   The systematic name
of  the  Pork-physic; Pork-weed;  Poke-weed;  Rnl
weed of Virginia;  Red night-shade; American nigiit
shade.  Solanum  raeemosum americanum; Solan in,
magnum virginianum rubrum.   In Virginia and oth<-i
partsof America, the inhabitants boil the leaves, anil
cat them in the manner of spinach.  They  are said fe
have an anodyne quality, and the juice of the root  is
violently cathartic.  The Portuguese had  foiiucr'y  .-,
'*ick of mixing the juice of the herrioe  with their "r i
                                        181 
PIG
PIL
•vines, in order .o give them a deeper colour: but it I
xvas  found  io  debase the  flavour.   This was  repre-
sented to his Portuguese  majesty, xvho ordered all the
-terns to be cut doxvn  yearly  before they  produced
flowers, thereby  to  prevent  any further adulteration.
This plant has been used as  a cure for cancers, but to
i*> purpose.
  PHYTOLOGY.   (Phytologia.  From qjvrov,  an
herb, and Xoyoj, a discourse.) That part of ihe science
of natural history, which treats on plants.
  PHYTOMINERA'LIS.   (From ejurov, a plant, and
nitiieralis, a mineral.)  A substance of a vegetable and
mineral nature; as amber.
  PIA  MATER.   (Pia mater, the natural  mother,
so called because it embraces the brain, as a good mo-
ther  lolds her child.)   Localis membrana; Memnx
tenuis.  A thin membrane,  almost  wholly  vascular,
lhat is firmly accreted to  the  convolutions of the cere-
brum,  cerebellum,  medulla  oblongata,  and medulla
spinalis.  Its use appears to be, lo distribute the vessels
to, and contain the substance of, the cerebrum.
  PICA,  i Pica, the magpie:  so named because it is
said the magpie is subject lo  this affection.)   Picalio ;
Malaria; Allolriophagia;  Cilia; Cissa.  Loiigiiis.
Depraved appetite,  xvith strong desire  for unnatural
food.   It is  very couiinon  to  pregnant women and
chloiotic girls, and by some it is said to occur in men
xvho labour under suppressed haemorrhoids.
  PI'CEA.  (Ilirus, pitch.)  The common  or  red fir
.ir pitch tree is so termed  The cones, branches, and
ex-ery part of the tree, affords the common resin called
frankincense.  See  Pinus abies.
  Pivhu'rim.  See  Pechurim.
  PICMTE.  Pyenite.  See Schorlite.
  PI'CRIS.   (From ittxpos,  bitter)  The name of a
genus of plants.   Class, Syngencsia; Order, Polyga-
mia aqualcs.                                    A
  Pu ris echoiDks.  The name of the common ox-
tongue.  The  leaves are frequently used as a pot-heib
by ihe country people, who esteem it good to relax the
hoxvels.
  P1CROMEL.  (From  mxpos, bitter, and ptyt, honey :
so called from its taste.)  The characteristic principle
of bile.  If sulphuric acid,  diluted with five parts of
water, be mixed with fresh  bile, a yellow precipitate
will fall,  heat the mixture, then leave it in repose, and
decant off the clear  part.  What remains xvas formerly
called resin of bile; but it is a greenish compound oi'
sulphuric acid and  picromei.  Edulcorate it with xva-
ter, and digest with carbonate of baryies.  Tlie picro-
mei  noxv liberated  will dissolve in  the xvater.  On
evaporating the solution, it is obtained in a solid state.
Or by dissolving the green  sulphate in alkohol, and
digesting the solution over carbonate of potassa till it
i-ease to redden  litmus paper, xve obtain the picromei
combined with alkohol.
   It resembles inspissated  bile.  Its colour is greenish-
yellow; i's taste is  intensely bitter at first, with  a suc-
ceeding impression of sweetness.  It is not affected by
 i fusion of galls; but the salts of iron and subacetate
if  lead piecipitate it from its  aqueous solution.   It
 affords no  ammonia by  its  destructive distillation.
 rience  Ihe absence  of azote is  inferred, and the pecu-
 liarity of picromei.
   PICROTOXIA.   Picrotoxine.  The poisonous prin-
 ciple of the  cocculus  indicus.   See  Menispermum
 rorculus, and Cocculus indicus.
   PICTO'N 1US.   (From  the Pictones,  xvho xvere sub-
 ject  to  this disease.)   Applied lo a species of colic.
 It should be rather called colica pictorum, the painter's
 colic, because, fiom their use of lead, they are much
 afflicted with it.
   Pik'strum. (From irttgu, to press.)  An instrument
 to compress the head of a  dead fietus, for its more easy
 extraction from the womb.
   Pig-nut.   The bulbuus root of  the Bunium bulbo-
 ■ tstanum, of Linna-us: so called because pigs are very
 fond of them, and will dig xvith their snouts to some
 depth for them.  See Bunium bulbocastanum.
   PIGME'NTUM.  (From pingo, to paint.)  rigmenl.
 This name is given by anatomists to a mucous sub-
 stance found  in the eye, xvhich is of two kinds.  The
 , igment of tht  iris is  that which covers the anterior
 tuid posterior surface of tlie iris, and gives  the beau-
 tiful variety of colour  in tho  eyes.  The pigment of
 ike choroid membrane  is  a  black or brownish mucus,
 wliich covers the anterior surface ofthe di noid uuem.-
brane, contiguous to the retina and the anterior surface
of the ciliary processes.
  Pi'la hystricis.  The bezoar hystricis.
  Pila  marina.  A  species of alcvonium found on
Bea-coasts among wrack.  It is said to kill worms, ana.
xvhen calcined, to be useful in sciofma.
  PILE.  See Hamerrhois.
  PILE-WORT.  See Ranunculus ficaria.
  PILEUS.  (Pileus, a hat.)  That part of a gymnos
perm fungus or mushroom,  xvhich forms the  upper
toiind part or head ; as iu Boletus, and Agaricus.
  Pit!  congeniti. The hair of  the head, eyebrows,
and  eyelids, are so termed, because  they  grow in
utero.
  Pi'li  postoeniti.  The hair which grows from the
surface of the body after birth is so termed, in contra-
diction  to lhat wliich appears before birth; as the hair
of the'head, eyebrows, and eyelids.
  PILOSELLA.   (From pilus, hair: because  its
leaves are hairy.)  See Hieracium pilocclla.
  Pill,  aloitic, with myrrh.  See Pilula alois cum
myrrha.
  Pill, compound atactic.  See Pilula alois composita.
  Pill,  compound  calomel.   See  Pilula  hydrargyri
submuriatis composita.
  Pili, compound galbanum.  See Pilula galbani com-
posita.
  Pill, compound gamboge. See Pilula cambogia com-
posita.
  Pill, compound squill.  See Pilula scilla composita
  Pill of iron with myrrh.  See Pilula ferri composita
  Pill,  mercurial.   See Pilula hydrargyri.
  Pill, snap,withopium.   Si e Pilula saponis cum opio.
  PlLOSbS.  Hairy.  Applied to the stems, leaves,
and receptacles of plants, as that of the Cerastium
alpinum ; and to the nectary of the Parnassus palus
Ins, which is in form of five hairy fascules at the base
of tne stamina  Tiie leceptacle ofthe Carthamus tinc-
torius.
   PILULA.   (Pilula, a, f; diminutive of pila.)   A
pill.  A small  round form of medicine, the size  of a
 pea. 'Phe  consistence ol" pills is best preserved  by
 keeping the mass in bladdeis, and occasionally moist-
 ening it.  In the direction of masses to be thus divided,
 the  proper consistence is to be looked for at first, as ivell
 as its  preservation afti-.nvuid ; for if the mass  then
 become hard and dry, it  is unfit for  thai division for
 which  it xvas originally intended; and this is in many
 instances such an objection to the  form, lhat it is doubt
 ful  whether,  for the purposes  of the pharmacopceia,
 the  greater number of articles had net better be kept in
 poxvder, and their application to the formation of pills,
 left to extemporaneous direction.
   Pilule aloes  composite.  Compoundaloftic pills.
 Take of extract of spike-aloe, powdered, an ounce; eet-
 tract of gentian, naif an ounce;  oil of caraway, forty
 minims; simple syrup, as much as is sufficient.  Beat
 them together, until they form a uniform mass.  From
 fifteen  to twenty-five grains  prove moderately purga
 live and stomachic.
   PlLUL.* ALOES  Cl'M MYRRHA.   Alottie pills with
 myrrh.  Take of extract  of spike aloe, two ounces;
 saffron, myrrh, of eacli  an ounce;  simple  svrup,  as
 much  as is sufficient.  Poxvder the aloes and myrrh
 separately; then beat them all together uutil they form
 a uniform mass.  From ten grains to a scruple of this
 pill, substituted for  the pilula  Rufi, prove stomachic
 and laxative, and nre calculated  for delicate females,
 especially where there is uterine obstruction.
   Pilul.*: ammomareti  ct'PRi.   An excellent tonic
 and diuretic pill, which may be given xvith adv'antage
 in dropsical diseases, xvhere tonics  and diuretics are
 indicated.
   Pilul.e CAMBoni.t: composite.  Compound gam-
 boge pills.   Take of gamboge powdered, extract cf
 spike-aloe, poxvdered, compound cinnamon poxvder, of
 each a drachm; soap, two drachms.   Mix the powders
 together; then having added the soap,  beat the xvhole
 together until Ihey are thoroughly incorporated.  These
 pills are noxv first introduced into the London pharma-
 copoeia, ns forming a more active purgative pill ihan
 the pil. aloSs cum myrrha, and in this  xvay supplying
 an  article very commonly necessary in  practice.  The
 dose is from ten grains lo a scruple.
   Pin L.e  fkrri  composite.   Compound  iron  pills.
 Pills of iron and  myrrh.   Take  of myrrh, powdered,
 two di acinus -.  subcarboaate ot soda, sulphate of iron, 
PIL
P1M
               sugar  of each, a drachm.  Rub the  myrrh xvith tlie
               subcarbonate of  soda;  add the sulphate of iron, and
               tub  them again: then  beat the whole  together until
               they are thoroughly incorporated.  These pills ansxver
               tlie same purpose us the mistura ferri composita.  The
               dose is from ten grains to one scruple.
                  Pilul.f. galbani composite. Compound galbanum
               pills.   Formerly called pilula gummosa.   Take of
               galbanum gum resin, an ounce; myrrh, sagapenum, of
               each an ounce and half;  asafietida gum  resin, half
               an ounce; simple syrup, as much as is  sufficient.  Bent
               them together  until they form a  uniform  mass.  A
               stimulating antispasmodic  and emiueuagogue.  From
               half a  scruple  to half a drachm may bo given three
               times a day in nervous disorders ofthe stomach nnd in-
               testines, iu hysterical affections and hypochondriasis.
                  Pilule hydrargyri.  Mercurial pills.  Often from
               its colour culled the  blue pill.   Take  of purified mer-
               cury, txvo drachms;  confection of  red roses,  three
               drachms; liquorice-toot, poxxdered, a drachm.   Rub
               the mercury with the confection, until the globules dis-
               appear ; then add the liquorice-root, and beat the xvhole
               together, until they are thoroughly incorporated.  An
               alterative and  anti-veiieieal pill,  xvhich mostly acts
               upon tlie bowels if gix-en  in suflicient quantify to at-
               tempt the removal of the venereal disease, and there-
               fore requires the addition of opium.  The dose is from
               five grains tu  a scruple.   Three  grains of the mass
               contain one of mercury. Joined wilh the squill pill, u
               forms an excellent expectorant and alterative, calcu-
               lated to assist tlie removal of drop-ical diseases of the
               chest, aud asthmas attended with visceral obstruction.
                  PlLUL.E  HYDRARGYRI   SUB.MURIAT1S  COMPOSITE.
               Compound pills of  submuiiaic of mercury.   Take of
                submuriate of mercury, precipitated sulphuret of anti-
                mony, of eacli  a drachm;  guaiacum  resin, poxxdered,
                two drachms.   Rub  the submuriate of mercury, first
                xvith the precipitated sulphuret of antimony, then xvith
                the  guiacum resin, and  add as much  acacia mucilage
                as may be requisite to  give the mass a proper consist-
                ence.  This  is intended as a substitute for the famed
                Plummer's pill.  It  is exhibited as a alternative in a
                variety  of  diseases, especially cutaneous eruptions,
                pains of the venereal or rheumatic  kind, cancerous and
                schirrous affections,  and  chronic ophlhalti'cj.   The
                dose is from five to ten grains.  In about five grains of
                the mass there is one grain of the  submuriate of mer-
                cury.
                  Pilulb saponis cum opio.  Pills of soap and opium.
                Formerly called pilulae saponaceae.   Take  of hard
                opium  poxvdered,  half au ounce;  hard  soap, two
                ounces.  Beat them together until they are thoroughly
                incorporated.  The dose is from  three to ten grains.
                Five grains ofthe mass contain one of opium.
                  Pilul* scill-E  composite.   Compound squill
                pills.  Take of squill root,  fresh dried  and poxvdered, a
                drachm; ginger-root, poxvdered,  hard soap, of each
                three drachms: aiiimoniacuiu, powdered, two drachms.
                Mix the powders together: then  beat them  with tiie
                soap, adding as much simple syrup us  may be sufficient
                to give a proper  consistence.   An attcnuaiit, expecto-
                rant, and diuretic pill, mostly administered in the cure
                of asthma and dropsy.  The dose  is from ten grains to
                a scruple.
                  PI'LOS.   (TIiXoj, wool carded.)
                  1. In anatomy the short hair  which is  found all
                over the body.   See Capillus.
                  2. In botany, a hair:  which, according to Linnaeus,
                is an excretory  duct of a  bristle-like  form.  They are
                fine, slender, cylindrical, flexible bodies, found on tlie
                surfaces of the  herbaceous parts  of plants.  Some of
•               them are the excretory ducts  of glands, but  many of
                them are not:  and It is not easy to conceive any satis-
                factory opinion of their use to the plant.
                  When placed under the microscope  they appear to be
                membraneous tubes, articulated in the majority of in-
                stances,  often punctured,  and in some  plants, as the
                Borago laxiflora, covered xvitii xvarts.   They are either
                simple or undivided, compound or branched.
                  1. Pili simplices, the most common form of a simple
                hair is that of a  jointed thread, generally too flexible to
                support itself, and thus most commonly found bent and
                wiived.  According to its  degree of firmness, its quan-
                tity, and the mode of its application to the surfaces of
                stems  and leaves, it constitutes  the characteristic of
                surfaces: thus, the surface is termed  pilosus, or hairy,
                when the hairs are few and scattered, but conspicuous,
 as in Ilieracium pilecella;—lanatus, woolly, when they
 are complicated, but nevertlieless the single hairs are
 distinguishuble,ns in Verbascum;—(omenfosus, shaggy,
 xvhen  they are so thickly matted thut the  Individual
 hairs cannot be distinguished, and when Uie position
 of the  hair is nearly paiallel with the disk, being at the
 same time straight,  or very slightly curved, and thick
 although  unmatted: it constitutes  the silky surface,
 as  is seen on  the leaves of Potentilla auserina, and
 Achemilla alpinn.  In some instances  tlie Bimple Viait
 is firm enough  10 support itself erect,  in which case il
 is usually awl-shaped, and the articulations are shortei
 towards the base, as in  Bryonia alba.  Il does not
 alxvays, hoxvever, terminate in a point, but someiiiues
 iu  a small knob, as in  Ihe nexvly-tvolved succulent
 shoots of ligneous plants, Belladonna, tc.  I n some iu
 stances also, ns 011  Ihe under disk ofthe le.ives of ihe
 Sy mphilum officinale, the simple hair is hooked towards
 apex;  xvhich occasions the velvety feeling xvhen the
 linger  is passed over the surface of tliose leaves, the
 convex part of the curve of the hair being that only
 wh.rii comes in contact ivitli the finger.  Another va-
 rietyof the simple hair is that xvhich has given rise- to
 the  term  glanduloso-ciliata •   il is a  slender hollow
 thread, supporting a small, cup-shaped, glandular body,
 and is  rather to be regarded as a stipate gland.
  2. Pili  compositi  are either, plumosus,  feathery,
 which is a simple hair with other hairs attached to it
 laterally,  as inHieracium iiudulatum ; or it is ramosus,
 branched, that is, laleial hairs are given off from com-
 mon stalks, as  on the petiole of the gooseberry leal, or
 it consists of" an erect firm stein, from  the summit of
 which smaller hairs diverge in every  direction, as in
 Marrubium peregrinum; or it  is stctlatus, star-like,
 being composed of a number of simple diverging, awl-
 shaped hairs, springing from a common centre, xvhicli
 is a small knob sunk in the cutis, as on the* leaves of
 maish-malloxv. Some authors have applied  the term
 ramenta  to small, flat,  or strnplike  hairs xvhich are
 found  on tlie leaves of some of the genus Begonia.—
 Thomson.  See Pubescence.
   PIMELITE.  A variety of steatite found at Kose-
 mutz,  in Silesia.
   PIMENTA.  (From Pimienta,  the Spanish  fir 1
 Pepper.   See Myrtus pimenta.
   Pime'nto.  See Myrtus pimenta.
   PIMPERNEL.  See Anagallis arvensis.
   Pimpernel, water.  See Veronica beccabunga.
   PIMPINE'LLA.   (Quasi bipinella, or bipenula,
 from the double  pennaie order of its leaves.)  1. The
 name  of a genus of plants in  the Linna-an system.
 Class, Pentandria ; Order, Digynia.  Pimpinella.
   2. The pharniacopoeial name of the Pimpinella alba
 and magni.
   Pimpinella  alba.   A  variety of  the pimpinella
 magna, the root of xvhich is  indifferently used xvitii
 lhat of the greater pimpiuell.   The pimpinella saxi-
 fraga was also so called.
   Pimpinella  anisum.  The systematic name of the
 anise plant.  Anisum ; Anisum vulgare.  Pimpinella
 —foliis radicalibus trifidis incisis, of Linnaeus.   A
 native of Egypt.   Anise seeds have an  aromatic smell,
 and a pleasant, warm, and sweetish taste.  An essen
 tial oil and distilled water are prepared from them,which
 are  employed in flatulencies aud gripes, to whicli child-
 ren  are more  especially subject; also in weakness of
 the  stomach, diarrhoeas, and  loss of tone in tlie pri
 mae viae.
   Pimpinella  italica.  The  root xvhich bears thi
 name  in  some pharmacopoeias is now fallen into dis
 use.  See Sanguisorba officinalis.
   Pimpinella magna.   The  systematic name of th-
 greater pimpinella.  Pimpinella nigra.  The root o
 this plant has been lately extolled in the cure of erysi
 pelalous  ulcerations, tinea, capitis,  rheumatism, ain
 other diseases.
   Pimpinella nigra.  Sec Pimpinella magna.
   Pimpinella nostras.  See  Pimpinella.
   Pimpinella saxifraga. The systematic name 01
 the lluruet saxifrage.  Tragosclinum  Several species
 of pimpinella  xvere formerly used ofncinally; but the
 roots xvhich obtain  a place in tlie Materia Medica of
 the Edinburgh  Pharmacopoeia, are tliose of this specie.*
 of saxifrage, the Pimpinella—foliis pinnatis, foliolis
 radicalibus  subrotundis,  ummis lineanbus,  of Lin-
 na-us.  They  have an  unpleasant smell; and a hot,
1 p uigeaf,  bitterish taste; they are recommended by ee
                                          183 
PLN
PIP
veral  writers as a stomachic: in the  way of gargle,
(hey have been employed for dissolving viscid mucus,
and to stimulate the tongue when that organ becomes
paralytic.
  Pinaste'llum.  (From  pinus,  the  pine-tree;  so
sailed because  its leaves resemble tliose of the pine-
tree.)  Hog's fennel.   See Peucedanum silans.
  Pi'nea.  See  Pinus  pinea.
  PINEAL.  (Pinealis; from pinea,  a pine-apple,
fiom its supposed resemblance to that fruit.)  Formed
like the fruit of the pine.
  Pineal oland.  Glandula pinealis; Conarium.  A
small  heart-like substance,  about the  size of a pea,
situated  immediately over the corpora quadrigemina,
and hanging from the thalami nci-vorum opticorum by
wo crura  or peduncles.   lis use is not knoxvn.  It
was fin merly supposed to be the seat ofthe soul.
  PINE-APPLE. See Bromelia ananus.
  Pine-thistle.  See Atrcctylis gummifera.
  Pi'necs  purgans.   See Jatropha curcas.
  PINGUE'DO.  (Fiom pinguis, fat.)  Fat.   See
Fat.
  PINCI'I'CULA.  (From pinguis, fat: so called be-
i ause its leaves  ate fat to the touch.)  The name of a '
genus of  plants.  Class, Diandria;  Order, Mono-
gynia.
  Pinguecula vulgaris.  Sanicula montana; Sani-
rula eboraeensis; Viola palustris: Liparis ; Cucul-
lala;  Dodecatheon; Plinii.  Butterxvort.  Yorkshire
-anicle.  The remarkable unctuosity of this plant has
",i:ised it to be applied to chaps, and as a pomatum to
the hair.  Decoctions of the leaves iu broths arc used
by the common  people  in Wales as a cathartic.
  Pinho'nks  indici.   See Jatropha curcas.
  FINITE.  Micarelle of Kirwan.  A  blackish green
mineral, consisting of silica, alumina, and oxide  of
iron, found in the graniteof St. "Michael's Mount, Corn-
wall, and in porphyry  in Scotland.
  PINK, INDIAN. "See Spigelia.
  PINNA. (Utvva, a xving.)  1. The name of the late-
ral and inferior  part of the nose, and the broad part of
ihe ear
  2. The leaflet of a pinnate leaf.  See Leaf.
  Pinna'cdlum.  (Dim. of pinna, a wing.)  A pinna-
i:-Ie.  A  name of the uvula from its shape.
  PINNATIFIDUS.  Pinnatifid:  applied to  leaves
which are cut  transversely into several oblong paral-
lel segments;  as in Ipomosis, and Myriophyllum verti-
lillatum.
  PINNATUS. Applied to a leaf xvhich has several
leaflets  proceeding laterally from one stalk, and imi-
tates a pinnatifid leaf.   Of this there areseverai kinds.
  1. Folium pinnatum cum impari, xvith an odd nr ter-
minal leaflet; as in roses.
  2. F.  p.  cirrosum,  with  a tendril, when furnished
with a tendril instead  of tlie odd leaflet; as in the pea
and vetch tribe.
  3. F.  cbrupli pinnatum, abruptly, xvithout either a
terminal leaflet  or a tendril; as in the genus Mimosa.
  4. F. opposite pinnatum, oppositely, when the leaflets
are opposite or  in pairs; as in saintfoin, roses, and sium
angus'.i folium.
  5. F.  allernatim pinnatum,  alternately,  when they
ate alternate; asin Viscia dumetorum.
  6. F.  interrupte pinnatum,  interrupfedly, when the
principal leaflets are ranged alternately with an inter-
mediate seties of smaller ones;  as in  Spira-a filipen-
dula and ulmaria.
  7. F.  articulate pinnatum, joiutedly, xvilh  apparent
joints in the common foot-stalk; as in Weinmannia
pinnnta.
  8  F.  decursivi pinnatum,  decurrently, when the
leaflets arc deourrent; as in Eongiumcampestre.
  9  F. lyrato  pinnatum, in a lyrnte manner, having
the terminal  leaflet largest, and the  rest  gradually
t-maller as they approach tne  base; as in Erysimum
precox: nnd with intermediate smaller leaflets; as in
Gcuin rivale, and the common turnip.
  10.  F. vcrticillato pinnatum. in a whirled manner,
the leaflets cut into five divaricated segments, embra-
i  ing the foot-stalk : asin Sium verticillntum.
  t'lNNULA.   The leaflet  of  bi  and tripir.nate
leaves.
  PINUS.   The name  of n  genus of plants in the
l.iniia-an  system.  Class, Monacia; Order, Monadel-
phia,  The pine-tree.
  Pinus abies.   Elate ;   Thel'ia.   The  Norway
      184
spruce fir, xvhich affords the Burgundypitch and com
mon frankincense.
  1  Pix arida.   Formerly called  Pix burgundica,
from the place it was made at.  The preparedresin of
Pinus abies—foliis  solitariis,  subtetragonis aculius
cutis distichis, ramis infra nudis conis cylindraceis,
of Linnaeus.  It is of a solid consistence, yet somewhat
soft, of a reddish brown colour, and  not disagreeable
smell.  It is used  externally as a stimulant in form of
j 'aster in catarrh, pertussis, and dyspnoea.
  2.  Abictis resina;  Thus.  Common frankincense
This is a  spontaneous exudation, and is  brought in
small masses, or tears, chiefly from Germany, but partly
and purest from France.  It is applicable to the same
purposes as Burgundy pitch, but little used at present.
  Pinus balsamea.  The systematic name of the tree
which affords the Canada balsam.  Abies canadensis
The Canada  balsam is one of the purest turpentines,
procured from the Pinus balsamea of Linnaeus, and im-
ported from Canada.  For its properties, see Turpentine
  Pinus  cedrus.  The wood of this  species, cedar
xvood. is very odorous, more fragrant than  that of the
fir, and it possesses similar virtues.
  Pinus  cembra.  This affords the Carpathian bal-
sam.  Oleum germanis;  Carpathic.um.  This balsam
is obtained both  by ivounding the young branches of
the Pinus—foliis quinvs, levibus of Linna-us. and by
boiling them.  Il is mostly diluted with turpentine, and
comes to us in a very liquid and  pellucid state, rathci
white.
  Pinus  larix.   The systematic  name of  the  tree
which gives us the agaric and Venice turpentine. The
larch-tree.   The  Venice turpentine  issues spontane-
ously through the  bark of the Pinus—foliis faseicu-
latis  mollibus obtusiusculis bractcis extra  squamis
slrobilomm extanlibus.  Hort. Kew.  It is usually
thinner than any of the other sorts; of a clear whitish
or pale yelloxvish colour; a  hot, pungent, bitterish, dis-
agreeable taste; and a strong smell, without any thing
of the aromatic flavour of the Cliian  kind. For its
virtues, see Turpentine. See also Boletus laricis.
  Pinus picea.  The systematic name ofthe silver fir.
  Pinus pinea.   The systematic name of  the stone
pine-tree.  The young and fresh fruit of this plant is
eaten in some countries in the same manner as almonds
are here, either alone or xvitii sugar. They  are nutri-
tive, aperient, and diuretic.
  Pinus sylvestris.  The systematic name of th«
Scotch fir. Pinus—foliis geminis rigidis, conis, orator
conicis longitudine  foliorum sub geminis basi rotunda-
tis of Linnaeus, xvhich affords the folloxving officinals.
  1. Common turpentine is  the juice which floxvs oul
on the tree being wounded  in hot weather.   Sec Tur-
pentine.
  2. From this the oil is obtained by distillation, mostly
xvith xvater, in xvhich case yelloxv resin is  left; but if
without  addition, the  residuum  is common resin, o»
colophony.  The  oil is ordered  to  be  purified in the
pharmacopor-ia.  See Oleum terebinlhina rcctificalum.
  3. Whenthccoal begins to check the exudation ofthe
juice, part of this concretes in the wounds; which  is
collected, and termed galipot in Provence, barras in
Guienne, sometimes also white resin, xvhen thoroughly
hardened by long exposure to the air.  See Resina
flava, and alba.
  4. The Pix liquida, or tar, is produced by cutting the
xvood into pieces, which are enclosed in a large oven
constructed for the purpose.  It is xvell knoxvn for its
economical uses.   Tar-water, or water impregnated
xvith the more soluble parts of tar, xvas some time ago
a very fashionable temedy in  a variety  of  complaints,
but is in the present practice fallen into disuse.
  5. Common pitch is tar inspissated; it is noxv termed
in tlie pharmacopoeia, Resina nigra.
  PITER.  (Il£7:rpi; from irtirrui, to concoct; because
by its heat it assists digestion.)  Pepper.  The name
of a seenus of plante in the Linnaean system.   Clais,
Diandria ; Order, Trigynia.
  Piper album.  Sec Piper nigrum.
  Piper brasilianum. See Capsicum annuum.
  Piper calkcuticum. See Capsicum annuum.
  Piper caryopiiyllatum.  See Myrtus pimenta
  Piper iaudatum.   Sec Piper cubeba.
  Piper itbzba.   The plant, the berries of xvhich are
called ci-hebs.  Piper caudatum ; Cumumus. Piper—
I ul.is oblique ovat's, sen oblovgus venosis aeutis, spica
sul.tari i pciUniculala i-ypositifolia, fructibus pedicel- 
PIS                                              pis
[o<is, of Linnieus.  The dried berries arc of au ash-
brown colour, generally wrinkled, nnd resembling pep-
per, but furnished each xvith a  slender stalk.  They
ure a xvarm spice, of a pleasant smell, and moderately
pungent taste, imported from Java:  and maybe ex-
hibited in all cases xvhere warm spicy medicines are
indicated, but they are inferior to pepper.   Of late they
have been successfully given internally in the cure of
► encreal gonorrhoea.
  Piper decorticatum.   White pepper.
  Piper favasci.  The clove-berry tree.
  Piper gui^eensk.  See Capsicum annuum.
  Piper hispanicum.  See Capsicum annuum.
  Piper indicitm.  See Capsicum annuum.
  Piper jamaicense.  See Myrtus pimenta.
  Piper lonoum.  Macropiper; Acapalli; Catu-tri-
pali: Pimpilim.   Long  pepper.  Piper—foliis cor-
datis petiulatis sessilibusque, of Linnaeus.  The ber-
ries or grains of this plant are gathered while green, and
dried in tlie heat of the  sun, xvhen they change to a
blackish or dark-gray colour.  They possess precisely
the same qualities as the Cayenne pepper, only in a
weaker degree.
  Piper lusitanicum.  See Capsicum annuum.
  Piper murale.  See Sedum acre.
  Piper nigrum.  Melanopiper: Molagocodi; Lada;
Piper  aromaticum.  Black pepper.  1 his species  of
pepper is obtained in the  East Indies, from the Piper
—foliis ovatis septan- nerviis glabris, petiolis simpli-
etssimis, of Linnieus.  Its virtues are similar to those of
the other peppers.  The black and xvhite pepper are
both obtained from the same tree, the difference de-
pending on their preparation and degrees of maturity.
Pelletier has extracted a nexv vegetable principle from
black pepper, in xvhich the active part of tln?«grain  re-
sides, lo xvhicli the name of pipcrine is given.  To ob-
tain it, black pepper xvas  digested repeatedly in alko-
hol, and the  solution evaporated until a fatty resinous
 matter was left.  This,  on  being  washed in  xvarm
 xvater. became of a good green colour.   It had a hot
 and burning taste; dissolved readily in alkohol, less so
 in aether.   Concentrated sulphuric acid gave it a fine
 scarlet colour.  The alkoholic solution afier some days
 deposited crystals; which were purified  by repeated
 crystallization in alkohol and aether.   They then form-
 ed colourless four-sided prisms, with single inclined
 terminations.  They have scarcely any taste.  Boiling
 water dissolx-es a small portion; but not cold xvater.
 They are soluble in acetic acid, from which combina-
 tion feather-formed crystals  are obtained.  This sub-
stance fuses at 21:2° F." The fatty matter left after ex-
tracting the piperine, is solid at a temperature near
3e2°, but liquefies at a slight heat.  It has  an extremely
bitter and  acrid taste, is very slightly volatile, tending
rather to decompose than  to rise in vapour.  It may be
considered as composed of two  oils, one volatile and
balsamic; the otlier more  fixed, and containing the ac-
rimony of the pepper.
  PIPERINE.  The active principle of  pepper. See
Piper nigrum.
  Piperi'tis.  (From piper, pepper: so called because
ils leaves and roots are biting like pepper to the taste.)
The herb dittany or lepidium and peppermint.
  PIPERITIS.  (From piper, pepper.)  Peppered.
  PIPERITA.   The name of an order of plains in
 Linnaeus's Fragments of a Natural Method, consisting
nf the Piper, and such as, like  it,  have flowers in a
 Ihick spike.
   Piramidalia coRroRA.  See Corpus pyramidale.
   PIRAMIDA'LIS.  (So called from its form.)  Of a
 pyramidal figure.
   Piss-a-bcd.  See Leontodon taraxacum.
   PiSIFORM.  (Pisiformis; frompisum, a pea, and
forma, likeness.)  Pea-like.
   PISIFO'RME OS.  The fourth bone of the first row
ofthe carpus.
   ["Pisolite.   This  variety of carbonate of lime
occurs in globular or spheroidal concretions, usually
about the size of a pea,  though sometimes  larger.
These concretions are composed of distinct, concentric
layers, and almost invariably contain a grain of sand,
or some other foreign  substance, as a nucleus. The
pisolite is nearly or quite opaque, and has a dull frac-
ture.   Its colour  is usually white, often dull or wilh a
shade of yclloxv, Sec.
  "These conoietions,  sometimes  detached and scat-
tered  me inoic frequently united  by  a calcaieous
 cement.  Thus united,  they form  masses of various
 sizes, and also continuous beds, xvhich arc sometimes
 covered xvith alluvial deposites.
   "The pisolite has been found chiefly near the warm
 springs of Carlsbad in Bohemia, and tlie baths of St.
 Philip in Tuscany.
   "The structure of the pisolite, and the situation in
 xx hich it is found, seem to indicate the mode of forma-
 tion.   The particles of sand, or nuclei of these concre-
 tions, xvere probably raised and suspended by an ngi
 tated or rotary  motion of certain springs or streams,
 strongly impregnated with calcnieous particles.  These
 particles xvere then deposited  aiound the floating mi
 clei, xvhich,  being thus  incrustcd  xvith a scries of
 layers, became  sufficiently heavy to fall through  the
 fluid."—Clear. Min.  A.l
   PISMIRE.  See Formica rufa.
   Pissaspiia'ltus.  (From iricoa,pitch,andaor^aXrot,
 bitumen.1  The thicker  kind of rock-oil.
   PISTACIA.   (IIiraKia,  supposed to be  « Syrian
 xx-ord.)  The name of a genus of plants in the Linnaean
 system. Class, Diacia ; Croer, Pentandria.
   Pistacia lentiscus.  Tlie systematic name of the
 tree xvhich  affords tlie mastich.  Mastiche;  Mastix.
 Pistacia—foliis abrupti pinnatis, foliolis lanceolatis,
 of Linnaeus.   A natix-e ot the south of Europe.  In the
 island of Chio, ihe officinal  mastich is  obtained most
 abundantly; and, according to Tournefort, by making
 transverse incisions in the bark of the tree, from xvhence
 ihe mastich exudes in drops, wliich are suffered to run
 doxvn to the ground, xx hen,  after sufficient lime is al-
 loxved for their concretion, ihey are collected for use.
 Mastich is brought to us in  small, yelloxvish, trans-
 parent, brittle tears, or grains;  it has a light agreeable
 smell,  especially xvhen  rubbed or  healed;  on  being
 chexved, it first crumbles, soon after sticks together,
 and becomes soft and xvhile,  like xvax, xvithout impress
 ing any considerable taste.   No volatile  oil is  obtained
 from this substance when distilled  xvitii xvater.  Purt
 alkohol and oiiof turpentine dissolve it;  xvater scarcel"
 acts upon it; though by mastication it becomes soft and
 tough,  like  xvax.   When chexved a little xvhile, hoy
 ever, it is li'hite, opaque, and brittle, so as  not to be
 softened again by chexvine.  The part insoluble in al-
 kohol much resembles in its properties caoutchouc.  It
 is considered to be a mild corroborant and adstringent;
 and as possessing a balsamic power,it has been recom-
 mended in  haemoptysis,  proceeding from ulceration,
 leucorrhoea, debility of the stomach, and in diarrhoeas
 and internal ulcerations.   Chewing this drug has like-
 xvise been said to have been of use in pains of the teeth
 and gums, and in some catarrhal complaints; it is, hoxv-
 ever, in the present day,  seldom used eitlier externally
 or internally.  The xvood abounds xvith the  resinous
 principle, and a  tincture may he  obtained from it,
 xvhich  is esteemed in some countries in the cure of
 haemorrhages, dysenteries, and gout.
   Pistacia nux.  See Pistacia vera.
   Pistacia tereeinthus.  The systematic  mime of
 the tree xvhich gives out  the Cyprus turpentine.   Tcre-
 binthina de  Chio.  Chio or Chian turpentine.  This
 substance is classed among the resms.  It is prooureo
 by wounding the bark of the trunk of the tree.  The
 best Chio turpentine is about the consistence of honey,
 very tenacious, clear, and  almost  transparent;  of  a
 xvhite colour, inclining to yellnxv, and a fragrant smell,
 moderately xvarm to the laste, but free from acrimony
 and bitterness.   Its medicinal qualities are similar to
 those of the other turpentines.  See Turpentines.
   Pistacia vera.  The systematic name of a large
j tree, xvhich affords the pistachio-nut.  Pistacia vera—
 foliis impari pinnatis—foliolis subovatis recurvis, oi
 Linnaeus.  An oblong pointed nut,  about the size and
 shape of a filbert, including  a kernel of a pale greenish
 colour, covered xvitii a yellow or greenish skin.   Pista-
I chio-nuts hnve  a sweetish unctuous taste, resembling
[ thntof sweet almonds, and, like the latter, afford anoil,
! and may he formed into  an emulsion.
   Pistachio-nut.  See Pistacia vera.
j   Pistacite.  See Epidote.
I   PISTILLUM.  (Pistillum,  a  pestle, from  in  'ke-
1 ness.)  A pistil or pointal:  the female genital organ  il
 a flower, which, being no less essential than the iun'<?
 stands xvithin them iu the centre of the floxver.   Lin-
[ noeus conceived the pistil originated from the pith, and
 the stamens from the. wood, and hence constructed un
 ingenious hypothesis relative lo tho propucation of
                                         "IS5 
PIT                                               PL A
vegetables, which is not destitute of observations and
analogies to support it, but not countenanced by the
anatomy and physiology of the parts.
  A pist.l consists of tliree parts.
  1. The germen, or rudiment of the young fruit and
Bced, which of course is essential.
  2. The  stylus, or style, various in length and thick-
ness, sometimes wanting, and, when present, serving
merely to elevate  the third part.
  3. The  stigma, which is  indispensable.  The Nico-
tiana tabacum has these organs well displayed.
  Pistolo'chia.  (From irtyoc,  faithful, and Xoxtta,
parturition: so called because it xvas thought to pro-
mote delivery.)  Birthwort.  See Aristolochia.
  PISUM. (An ancient name, the origin of which is
ost in ils antiquity.)  The name of a genus of plants.
Class, Diadelphia;  Order, Decandria.   The pea.
  Pisum sativum.  The common pea.   A very nutri-
tious, but somewhat flatulent article of food.
  P1TCA1RN, Archibald, xvas bom at  Edinburgh, in
1652.  He applied to the study of divinity, and after-
ward ofthe law, in that university, with such intensity,
that he was threatened with symptoms of consumption,
for tlie removal of which ho went to Montpelier, where
his attention was diverted to medicine; on his return,
he applied himself zealously to the mathematics, xvhich
appearing tu him  capable of elucidating medical  sub-
jects, he was determined in consequence to adopt this
profession. After attending diligently to the various
branches at Edinburgh, he xvent to complete his me-
dical studies at Paris, and then returned to settle in his
native place, where he quickly obtained a large prac-
tice and extensive reputation.  In 1688 he published a
little tract to establish Harvey's claim to  the Discovery
ofthe Circulation.  About four years after he xvas in-
vited to become professor of physic at Leyden, which
he accepted accordingly ;  and he ranked among his
pupils the celebrated Boerhaave.  Hoxvever, his ma-
thematical illustrations of medicine not  being favour-
ably received, he relinquished the appointment in about
a year.   He returned then to  practise at Edinburgh,
where his life terminated in 1713.  He published while
at Leyden, and subsequently, several dissertations to
prove the utility of mathematics in niedicaldiscussion ;
which  were  more  than  once reprinted.   After  his
death, his lectures were made public, under the title of
" Elementa Medicinae Physico-Matheinatica."
  PITCH.  Pix.  See Resina.
  Pitch, Burgundy.  See Pinus abies.
  Pitch, Jews'. See Bitumen judaicum.
  Pitch-tree.  See Pinus abies.
  PITCHSTONE.  A subspecies of indivisible quartz
of a green colour, and vitreo-resinous lustre found in
Scotland and Ireland.
  Pitta'cium.  (From irirra, pitch.)  A pitch plaster.
  Pittizite.   Pitchy iron ore.
  Pitto'ta. (From7riTra, pitch.)  Medicines in xvhich
pitch is tlie principal ingredient.
  PITUI'TA.   Phlegm, that is,  viscid and glutinous
mucus.
  PITUITARY.  Of or belonging to phlegm.
  Pituitary gland.  Glandula pituitaria.  A gland
situated within the cranium, between a duplicnture
of the dura mater, in tlie sella turcica of the sphenoid
bone.
  Pituitary  membrane.    Membrana pituitaria.
Sclmeiderian membrane.   The mucous  membrane
that lines the nostrils and sinuses, communicating with
the  nose, is so called, because it secretes the mucus of
those parts, to xviiich the ancients assigned the name
of pituita.
  PITYRl'ASIS.   (From rrirupo!, bran: so named
from its branny-like appearance.)   A genus in the se-
cond order, or scaly diseases, of Dr. Willan's cutaneous
disimses.  The pityriasis consists of irregular patches
of small Ihin scales, xvhich repeatedly form  and sepa-
rate, but never collect into crusts, nor are attended with
redness  or inflammation, as in the lepra  and scaly  tet-
ter.  Dr. Willan distinguishes pityriasis fiom the  por-
rtgo of the Latins, whicli has a more extensive signifi-
cation, ami comprehends a disease of the scalp, ter-
uiiuafine in ulceration; whereas the former is. by the
nest Greek authors, represented as always dry  and
scaly.  Thus, acootding to Alexander and Paulus, pity-
nasis is characterized by " the separation of slight fur-
furnceous substances from the sur'ace of the head, or
oilier parts of the body, xx ithout ulceration."  Their
      166
 account of this appeaiance is conformable to expert
 ence,  and the two varieties of" it which  they have
 pointed out may be denominated, Pityriasis  capitis,
 and Pityriasis versicolor.
   1. Pityriasis capitis, when it affects very young in-
 fants, is termed by nurses the dandnff.   it afipeais at
 the upper edge of  the forehead and temples,as a slight
 whitish scun set in the form of a horse-shoe; on other
 parts of the head  there are large scales, at a distance
 from each otlier, flat, and semipellucid.   Sometimes,
 hoxvever,  they nearly cover the whole  of the hairy
 scalp, being close together, and imbricate*.  A similar
 appearance may take place in adults; but it is usually
 the effect of lepra,  scaly tetter, or some general disease
 of tlie skin.
   Elderly persons  have the pityriasis capitis in nearly
 the same form as  infants;  tlie only difference is, that
 this  complaint iu  old people occasions larger exfolia
 tions of ihe cuticle.
   2.  The pityriasis versicolor chiefly affects the arms,
 breast, and abdomen.  It is diffused very irregularly;
 and  being of a different  colour  from the  usual skin
 colour,  it  exhibits  a  singular chequered appearance.
 These irregular patches, which are  at first small, and
 of a broxvn or yellow  hue,  appear at the scrobiculus
 cordis, about tiie mamma-, clavicles, &c.   Enlarging
 gradually, they assume a tesselated form; in other
 cases they are branched,  so as to resemble the foliace-
 ous lichens groxving on the bark of trees;  and some-
 times when the discoloration is not continuous, they
 suggest the idea of a map being distributed on the skin
 like  islands, continents, peninsulas,  &c.   All the dis-
coloured parts are slightly rough, xvilh minute scales,
 xvhich  soon  fall off, but are constantly  replaced  by
 others.  This scurf, or scaliness, is most conspicuous
 on the sides and epigastric region. The cuticular lines
 are somexvhat deeper  in tlie patches than on the con-
 tiguous parts; but  there is  no elevated border, or dis-
 tinguishing boundary betxveen tbe discoloured part of
 the skin, and  that wliich retains its natural colour
 The discoloration rarely extends  over the whole body
 It is  strongest  and  fullest round  the umbilicus, on the
 breasts, and sides; it seldom appears in the skin over
 the sternum,  or along the  spine of the back.   Inter-
 stices of proper skin  colour are more numerous, and
 largest at  the  loxver part of the abdomen  and hack,
 where the scales are  often small, distinct, and a little
 depressed.  Tlie face, nates, and loxver extremities are
 least affected: the patches are found upon the arms,
 but mostly on the inside, where they are distinct and
 of different sizes.   The pityriasis versicolor is not a
 cuticular disease; for xxhen the cuticle is abraded from
 any of the patches, the sallow colour remains  as be-
 fore  in the skin or  rete mucosum.   This singular ap-
 pearance is not attended xvilh any internal disorder,
 nor  with  any troublesome  symptom, except a little
 itching or irritation felt on  getting inlo bed, and after
 strong exercise, or  drinking xvarm liquors.  There  is
 in some cases a slight exanthema, partially distributed
 among the discoloured patches; and sometimes an ap-
 pearance like  the  lichen pilaris; but eruptions of this
 kind are not permanent, neither do  they  produce any
change  in the original form of the complaint.  The
duration of the pityriasis versicolor is always consider-
able.  Dr. Willan has observed its continuance in some
 persons for four, five, or six years.   It is not limited  to
 any age or sex.   Its causes are  not pointed out xvilh
certainty.   Several patients have referred it to fruit
taken in too  great quantities; some have  thought  it
 xvas  produced  by eating mushrooms; others by "expo-
sure  to sudden alterations of cold and heat.   In some
 individuals, who had  an irritable skin, and occasion-
 ally used violent exercise, tlie complaint has been pro-
duced, or at least much aggravated, by wearing flanne.
 next to the skin.   It is likexvise often observed in per
sons who had resided  for a length of time in a tropical
 climate.
  PIX.  (Pix, picis,  f.;  from irtaaa.)   Pitch.  See
 Resina,
  Pix arida.  See Pinus abies.
  Pix buhoundica.  See Pinus abies.
  Pix liquida.  Tar or liquid pitch.  Sec  Pinus syl-
 vestris.
  PLACE'BO.  I  xvill please: an epithet given to any
 medicine adapted  more to  please than benefit the pa-
 tient.
  PLACE'NTA.    (Trow 7r.Wotic, a cake, so  called 
PLA
PLA
from its resemblance to a cake.)  The afterbirth.  The
membranes of the ovum have usually been mentioned
as two, the amnion and the chorion;  and the latter
has again been divided into the true  and the false.
The third membrane (which, from its appearance, has
likexvise been called the villous or spongy, and from
the consideration of it as the inner lamina of the ute-
rus, cast off like the exuviae ol" some animals, the de-
cidua,)  has been  described by Harx-ey, not as one of
the membranes of the ovum, but as a production of
the uterus.  The  following  is the older of the mem-
branes ofthe ovum, at the full period of gestation: 1st,
There is the outer or connecting, which is flocculent,
spongy, and extremely vascular, completely investing
the xvhole ovum, and lining the uterus.   3dly, The
middie  membrane, xvhich is nearly pellucid, xvitii a
very fexv small  blood-vessels  scattered over  it, and
xvhich forms a covering to the placenta and funis, but
does not pass between the placenta and uterus.  3dly,
The inner membrane, xvhich is transparent, of a firmer
texture  than the others, and lines the whole ovum,
making, like the middle membrane, a covering for the
placenta and funis xvith the txx-o last.  The ovum is
clothed  when it passes from  the ovarium into the ute-
rus, xvhere the first is provid.-d for its reception.
  These membranes,  in the advanced  state of preg-
nancy, cohere slightly lo each olher, though, in some
ova, tliere is a considerable quantity of fluid collected
betxveen them, xvhich, being discharged xvhen one of
the outer membranes  is broken, forms one of the cir-
cumstances which have been  distinguished  by  the
name of by or false waters.
  Betxveen the middle and inner membrane, upon or
near the funis, tliere  is a small, flatkand oblong body,
which, in the early part of pregnancy, seems to be a
vesicle containing milky lymph, xvhicli afterward he-
comes of a firm,  and apparently fatty texture.   This
is called the vesicula umbilicatis; but its use  is not
knoxvn.
  The placenta is a circular, flat, vascular, and appa-
rently fleshy substance, different in its diameter in dif-
ferent subjects, but usually extending about six ioches,
or upwards, over about one-fourth part of the outside
of  the ovum in pregnant women. It is more than one
inch in thickness in the middle, and becomes gradually
thinner tow-ards  the  circumference from xvhich the
membranes are continued.  The placenta is the prin-
cipal medium by xvhich  tlie communication  betxveen
the parent and child is preserx-ed; but, though all have
alloxved the importance of the office which ii perforins,
there has been a  variety of opinions on the nature of
that office, and of the manner in which it is executed.
  The  surface of the placenta, wliich  is attached lo
the uterus by the intervention of the connecting mem-
brane, is tabulated and convex; but the other, xvhich
is covered xvith  the amnion and chorion, is  concave
and smooth, except the little eminence made by the
blood-vessels. It is seldom found attached to the same
part of the uterus in two successive births; and, though
it most  frequently adheres to the anterior part, it is oc-
casionally fixed lo any other, even to the  os  uteri, in
which state it becomes a cause of a dangerous haemor-
rhage at the titneof parturition.  The placenta is com-
posed of arteiies  and veins, with a mixture of pulpy
or  cellular substance.  Of these vessels there are txvo
orders,  very curiously interwoven  with each other.
The  first is a continuation of those from the funis,
which ramify on  the internal surface of the placenta,
the arteries running over the veins, which is a circum-
stance peculiar to the placenta; and then, sinking into
ils substance, anastomose and divide into innumerable
small branches.   The second order proceeds from the
uterus; and these  ramify in  a similar manner xvith
those from the funis, as appears xvhen a placenta is in-
jected from those of the parent.  The  veins, in their
ramifications, accompany the arteries as in otlier parts.
There have been many different opinions xvith respect
to  the manner in which  the blood circulates between
tiie parent  and  child,  during  its continuance in the
uterus.  For a long time it was believed that the inter-
course  betxveen them xvas uninterrupted, and that the
blood propelled by the powers of the parent pervaded,
by a continuance of  the same force, the vascular sys-
tem of the foetus; but repealed attempts  having been
midc, without success, to  inject the whole  placenta,
funis and foetus,  from the vessels of the parent, or any
part of the  uterus, from tlie vessels of the funis it is
now generally allowed, lliat the txvo systems of vessel!
in tlie placenta, one of xvhicli may be called ninlernal,
the other fartalj are distinct.   It is also admitted, that
the blood of the  foetus is, xvitii regard to ils formation,
increase, and circulation, unconnected with,and tolal
ly independent of the  parent; except that ihe mallei
by xvhich the blood of the foetus is formed must be de
rived from the parent.   It is thought  that which  has
probably undergone some preparatory changes  in its
passage through  the uterus, is conducted by the uterine
or maternal nneries of the placenta  to some cells or
small cavities, in xvhich it is deposited: and that some
part of it, or something secreted from it, is absorbed
by the futetal veins of the placenta, and by them con-
veyed to the lintus for ils nutriment.  When the blood
which circulates iu the fielus requires any alteration
iu its qualities, or when it has gone through the course
of the circulation, it is carried by the arteries ol" the
funis to .he placenta, in the cells of xvhich it  is  depo-
sited, and then absoibed by the maternal veins uf ihe
placenta, and conducted lo the uterus, whence it may
enter ihe couiinon ciiculiiliou of Ihe  parent.  Thus it
appears, according to  the opinion of Harvey, that the
placenta perforins the office of a gland, conveying air,
or secreting the nutritious juices from the blood brought
from the parent  by the arteries of the uterus, and car-
ried to the foetus  by the veins of the funis, iu a manner
probably not unlike lo that in xvhicli  milk is secreted
and absorbed from the breasts.  The veins iu the pla-
centa are mentioned as the nbsorbeuls, because no lym-
phatic vessels have yet been found in the placenta or
funis;  nor nre tliere any nerves in these parts; so that
the only communication hitherto discovered  betxveen
the parent nnd  child, is by the  sanguineous system.
The proofs of the manner in xvhicli the blood circulntes
betxveen the parent and child are chietly drawn from
observations made upon the funis.  When it xvns sup-
iiosed that the child was  supplied xvitii blood in a di-
rect stream from the parent, it xvas asserted that, on
the division of the funis, if that part next to the pla-
centa xvas not secured by a ligature, the patent xvould
be  brought  into extreme danger by the  haemorrhage
which  must necessarily follow.   Bul this opinion,
xvhich laid  the  foundation of several peculiarities in
the management of the funis  and placenta, is proved
not to be irue: for, if  the  funis be compressed imme-
diately after tlie birth ofthe child, and xvhile the circu-
lation  in it is going on, the arteries between the  part
compressed and  the child throb violently, but those be-
tween the compression and the placenta have no pulsa
tion; but the vein between  the  part compressed  and
the placenta sxvells, and  that part next  lo the foetus
becomes flaccid; hut if, under the same circumstances,
Ihe funis be divided, and  that part next the child be
not secured, the child xvould be in danger of losing its
life by the  haemorrhage; yet  the  mother would suffer
no inconvenience if the other  part xvas neglected. It
is,  moreover, proved, that a  woman may die of an
haemorrhage occasioned by a separation of ihe  pla-
centa, and the  child  be nevertheless born,  after her
death, in perfect health.  But if the placenta be in
ju»ed, without separation, either by the rupture of the
vessels wliich pass U|>on  its  inner surface, or in any
otlier xvay, the child being deprix-ed of its proper blood,
would  perish, yet the parent might escape without
injury.
  The receptacle of the fructification of plants has
been called placenta.   Sec Receptaculum
   Place'ntula.  (Diminutive of placenta.)  A small
 placenta.
   Pladaro'tis.   (From 7rAa<5upof, moist, flaccid.) A
funzous and flaccid tumour within the eyelid.
   Plaited leaf.  See Plieatus.
   PLANTA'GO.  (From planta, the sole of the feet:
so  called from  the shape of ils leaves, or because its
 leaves lie upon the ground and are trodden upon.)  1.
Tlie name of a  genus of plants in the Linnaean sys-
 tem.   Class, Telrandria; Order,  Monogynia.  The
 plantain.
   2. The pharmacopceial name of the Plantago major.
   Plant ago coronopus. The systematic "name of
 the buck's-horn plantain.  Coronopodium ; Cornu cer-
 vinum; Stellaterra.   Its medicinal  virtues aie the
 same  as those of tlie other plantains.
   Plantago latifolia. See Plantago major.
   Plantaoo major.   The  systematic  name  of tn,
 broad-leaved plantain.  Ccnlincrvia; Hrplaplcurum-
                                          io. 
PLA                                                PLA
 Poltjnenron ;  Plantago latifolia.   Plantago—foliis
 ovatis glabris, scapo tereti, spica flosculis imbricatis,
 af Linnaeus.  This plant was retained until very lately
 in the Materia Medica of the Edinburgh College, iii
 xvhicli the leaves are mentioned as the pharmaceutical
 part of the plant; they have a xveak herbaceous smeil,
 an austere, bitterish, subsaline taste ;  and their quali-
 ties are s«id to be refrigerant, attenuating, substyptic,
 and diuretic.
  Plantago psyllium.  The systematic name of the
 branching   plantain.    Psyllium;  Pulicaris  herba;
 ( rystnllion, and Cynomoia, of Oribasius.  Flea-wort.
 The seeds ,if this plant, Plantago—caule ramoso hcr-
 baceo, foliis subdentatis, recurvalis;  capilulis aphyl-
 lis. of  Linnaeus, have a nauseous mucilaginous taste,
 and no remarkable smell.  Thedecociion ofthe seeds
 is recommended in hoarseness and asperity of the fauces.
  PLANTAIN. See Plantago.
  PLANTAIN-TREE.  See Musa paradisiaca
  PLANTA'RIS.  (From planla, the sole of the foot.)
 Tibialis gracilis, vulgo plantaris, of  Winslow.  Ex-
 tensor  tarsi minor, vulgo plantaris, of Douglas.   A
 muscle of the foot, situated on the leg, that assists the
 soleus, and pulls  the capsular ligament of the knee
 from between the bones.  It is sometimes, though sel-
 dom, found  wanting  on both  sides.   This long and
 slender muscle, which is situated under the gastrocne-
 mius externus, arises, by a thin fleshy  origin, from the
 upper and  back part of the outer condyle of the os
 femoris.  it adheres to the capsular ligament of the
 'oint; and after running obliquely downwards and out-
 wards, for the space of three or four inches, along the
second origin of the gastrocnemius internus, and  under
the gastrocnemius externus, terminates in a long, thin,
and slender tendon, xvhich adheres to the inside of the
tendo Achilles, and is inserted into  the  inside of the
posterior part of the os calcis.  This tendon sometimes
sends off an  aponeurosis that loses itself in the capsular
 ligament, but il does not at all  contribute to form  the
aponeurosis that is spread over the sole of the foot, as
was formerly supposed, and as  its name xvould seem to
 imply.   Ils use is to assist the gastrocnetnii in extend-
ing the foot.  It likewise serves to prevent the capsular
ligament of  the knee from being pinched.
  PLANTS, sexual system  of. The sexual system
of plants was invented  by the immortal Linnaeus, pro-
 fessor of physic and botany at Upsal, in Sweden.  It is
founded on  the  parts of fructification, viz. the stamens
and pistils;  these having  been observed with  more
 accuracy since the discovery of the uses for xvhich  na-
ture has  assigned them, a  new set of principles has
 been derived from them, by means of xvhicli the distri-
 bilion of plants has been  brought to  a greater  preci-
 sion, and rendered more conformable to true philo-
 sophy, in this system, than in any one of those which
 preceded it.   The author does not pretend to call it a
 natural system, he gives it as  artificial only, and mo-
 destly owns his inability to detect the order pursued by
 nature in her  vegetable productions; but of  this he
 secins confident,  that  no  natural order can ever be
 framed without taking in  the  materials  out of xvhich
 he has raised his own ;  and urges the necessity of ad-
 mitting artificial systems for convenience, till one truly
 natural shall appear.   Linnaeus has given us his Frag-
 menta methodi naturalis, in xvhich he has made a dis-
 tribution of plants under various orders, putting toge-
 ther in each such as appear to  have  a  natural aifinify
 to each other;  this, after  a long and fruitless searcn
 after the natural method, he gives as  the result of his
 own speculation,  for tbe assistance  of such as may
 ensage in the same pursuit.
   Not able to form a  system after the natural method,
 Linnieus was  more  fully convinced of the absolute
 necessity of adopting an  artificial one.   For the stu-
 dent to enter into the advantages this system maintain
 over all others, it  is necessary that he be instructed 1.
 the science of botany, which will amply repay him foi
 his inquiry.  The following is a short  outline of the
 sexual system.
   The parts of fructification of a plant are,
   1. The calyx, called also the empalement, or flower
 cup.  See Calyx, and Anthodium.
  2. The corolla, or foliation, which is the gaudy part
 of the flower, called vulgarly the leaves ofthe floxver.
 See Corolla.
  3. The stamens, or  threads, called also the chives ;
 these are considered as tlie male parts of the floxver.
 See Stamen.
  4. The pistil, or pointal, which is the female part
 See Pistillum.
  5. The seed-vessel.  See Pericarpium.
  6. The seed.  See Semen.
  7. The receptacle, or base, on xvhich these parts arc
 seated.   See  Receptaculum.
  The first four, are properly parts of the flower, an<5
 the last three partsof the fruit.   It is from the number
 proportion, position, and otlier circumstances attending
 these parts of the  fructification, that  the clashes  and
 orders, and the genera they  contain, are to be charac-
 terized, according to the sexual system.
  Such floxvers ias ivant the  stamens, and have the
 pistil, are termed /em,ile.
  Those  floxvers which have  the stamens, and want
 the pistils, are called male.
  Floxvers xvhich  have both stamens and pistils are
 said to be hermaphrodite.
  Neuter floxvers  are such  as have  neither stamens
 nor pistils.
  Hermaphrodite floxvers  are sometimes distinguished
 into male hermaphrodites and female hermaphrodites.
 This distinction takes place xvhen, although the flowei
 contains  the  parts belonging to each sex, one of them
 proves abortive or ineffectual; if the defect be iu the
 stamina,  it is a female  hermaphrodite, if in the pistil,
 a male one.
  Plants, in  regard to sex, take also  their  denomina
 Lions in the following manner:
  I.  Hermaphrodite plants  are such p.s bear floxx-ers
 upon the same root  that are all hermaphrodite.
  2.  Androgynous plants are such as, upon the same
 root, bear both male and female floxvers, distinct from
 each other, that is,  in separate floxx-ers.
  3.  Male plants, such as bear male flowers only upon
 the same root.
  4.  Female plants, such as bear female floxvers only
 upon the same root.
  5.  Polygamous plants, such as, either on the same
 or on ditlerent roots, bear hermaphrodite floxvers, and
 floxvers of either or both sexes.
  The first general division of the xvhole body of vege-
 tables is, in the sexual system, into txventy-four classes;
 these again are subdivided into orders ; the orders into
genera; the genera into species; and the species into
varieties, where they are worthy of note.
A Table of the Classes and Orders.
     Classes.
 I. Monundria.
 2. Diandria.
 3. Triandria.
 4. Tetrandria.
 5. Pentandria.
 6 Hcxaudria.
 7. Hcptandria.
 rt. Octandria.
 9. Enueaiidiia.
IU. Decandria.
11. Dodecandria.
12. Icosaudria.
13. Pnlyandna.
11. Didynamia.
15. Tetrndyt.amia.
16. Monadelphia.
      188
Monogynia.   Digynia.
Monogynia.   Digynia.
Monogynia.   Digynia.
Monogynia.
Monogynia.
Monogynia.
Monogynia.
Monogynia.
Monogynia.
Orders.
Trigynia.
Trigynia.
Tetragvnia.
Trigynia.   Telraaynia.  Pentagynia.  Polygynia.
Trigynia   Tetragvnia.  Polygynia.
Tetragynia.  Heptagyi to.
Trigynia.   Tetragynia
Diirynia
Digynia.
Digynia.
Diieytiia.
Digynia.   _
Trigynia.  Hexagynia.
Monogynia.   Digynia.  Trigynia
Monogynia.   Ditiynin.  Trmynia.
Monogynia.   Diaynia.  Trigynia
Monocynia.   Digynia.  Trigynia
Uymnosperniia.  Angiospermia.
Siliculosa.    Siliqiiosa.
Pentandria.   Decandria.  Emieandria.
Pentniynia
Pentagynia.
Pentagynia
Tetragynia
Decagynia.
Dndecagynia.
Polygynia.
Pentagynia.
Hexagynia.   Polygynl*
Dodecandria.  Polyandria. 
PLA                                             PLA
      Classes.                                          Orders
17  Diadelphia.      Pentandria.  Hexandria.
r8  Polyadelphia    Pentandria.  Icosandria.  Polyandria.
19.  Syngtucsia      Poiygamia aequalis.  Polygamia superflua. Polygamia frustranoa.  Polygamia neccssari*
                      Polygamia searegata.  Monogamia.
20.  Gynaudria.      Diandria.  Triandria.  Tetrandria.  Pentandria. Hexandria. Decandria.  Dodecandria,
                      Polyandria.
21.  Monoecia.        Monandria.  Diandria.  Triandria.  Tetrandria. Pentandria.  Hexandria.  Ilepinndria,
                      Polyandria.  Monadelphia.  Syngenesia.  Gynandria.
--.  Diorecia.         Monandria.  Diandria.  Triandria.  Tetrandria.  Pentandria.   Hexandria.  Octandria.
                      Enneandria.   Decandria.  Dodecandria.   Polyandria.   Monadelphia.   Syngenesia
                      Gynandria.
21.  Polygnin'a.      Monoecia.  Dicecia.  Triaecia.
21.  Cryptogamia.    Filices.  Musci.  Algae.  Fungi.
      Appends.    Pohnae.
    PLANUM  Oy.  (Planus, soft, smooth ;  appHed to
  a bone whose  surface is  smooth or flat.)  The papy-
  raceous or orbital portion ofthe ethmoid bone was for-
  merly so called.
    PLANUS.  Flat.  Applied to tlie receptacle of the
  fruit of •, lants; as that of the Helianthus annuus.
    PLASMA.  A mineral of grass or leek-green colour.
  It occurs in beds associated xvith common  caleedony,
  and found also among tlie ruins at Rome.
    PLASTER.   See Emplastrum.
    Plaster,  ammoniacum.   See  Emplastrum  ammo-
  niaci.
    Pl.ister, ammoniacum, with mercury.  See Emplas-
  trum ammoniaci cum hydrurgvro.
    Plaster, blistering fly.   See Emplastrum cantha-
  ridis.
    Plaster,  compound galbanum.  See  Emplastrum
  golbani compositum.
    Plaster, compound pitch.  See  E-n plastrum picis
  compositum.
    Plaster, cumin.   See Emplastrum tumini.
    Dlastcr, leid.  Sep Emplastrum plumbi.
    Plaster, mtrcun :l.   See E-nplaslrum hydrargjri.
    Plaster of opium.   See F.inpl istrum opii.
    "lasterof Paris.   See Gyp-turn.
    Plaster, resin.  See  F.mp'lostrtt:i resma.
    Plaster, sorp   S, e Eiiiplistrum saponis.
    Plaster, w • c.  See F.inuliii,truiii cera.
    PLATA  rroniT.Virvs-. broad. The shoulder-blade.
    PLATER, Fiei is, xvas borne  at Itasle, in 1536, his
  father being principal of the College there. He xvent to
  complete his medical studies at Muiilpelier, xvhere he
  distinguished himself at an early ace, and obtained his
  doctor's degree at twenty.  He then settled in his native
  place, and four years after was appointed to the chair
  of medicine, and became the confidential physician of
  Ihe princes and nobles of the Upper Rhine.  He  pos-
  ="°s' d an extensive knoxvledge of the  branches of
  su  nee  connected  ivith  medicine, and  contributed
  much to  the reputation of the  University,  xvhere he*
  continued a teacher upwards of fifty years.  He  died
  in 1614, extremely regretted by his countrymen.   The
  following are his principal works: "De Corporis Hu-
  mani Structuraet Usu," in three books; "De Febri-
  bus:" " Praxeos Medica;, tomi tres;"  " Observationum
  Medicinalium,  libri tres."
   PLATl.VSMUS.  (From irXarvs, broad.)  A defect
  in the speech in consequence of too broad a mouth.
   PLA'TINUM.  (The  name  platina xvas given to
  this  metal by  the Spaniards, from  the  xvord  plata,
  which signifies silver in  their language, by way of
  comparison with that metal, whose colour it imitates:
  ot from the river Plata, near which it is found.)   Pla-
  tina.  A metal  xvhich exists in nature, only in a metal-
  lic state.   Its ore  has recently been found to contain,
  likexvise,  four nexv metals, palladium,iridlum, osmium,
  and rhodium, besides iron and chrome.  The largest
  mass of xvhich  we have heard, is one of the size  of a
  pigeon's egg, in possession ofthe Royal Society of Ber-
  para.   It  is found in the parishes of Novila and Cita-
  ria, north  from  Choco in Peru, and near Carthagena in
  Pouth ^-nerica.  In was  unknown in Europe before
• the yea. «i48.  Don  Antonio Ulloa then gave the  first
 information concerning its existence, iu the  narrative
 of his voyage with the French academicians to Peru.
   ••The crude  platina is to be dissolved in nitro-mu-
 riivtic  acid,  precipitated by muriate of ammonia, and
 exposed to a very violent heat.  Then the acid  and
 alkali are f xpelled. and the  metal reduced in an as-
 glutinated state, xvhicli  is rendered more compact by
 pressure xvhile red-hot
   Pure or refined platina is by much the Iieavicst Douy
 in nature.  Ils sp. gr. is il..">.  Il  is very  malleable,
 though considerably harder than either gold or silver;
 and it hardens much under the hammer.  Its colour on
 the touchstone is not distinguishable from  that of sil
 ver.  Pure platina requires a very strong heat to melt
 it; but when urged by a xvhite heat, its parts xvill ad
 here together by hammering.   This property, winch is
 distinguished by  the name of welding,  is peculiar to
 platina and iron, xvhich  resemble each otlier likewise
 in their iufusibility.
   Platina is  not  altered  by exposure to air; neither ia
 it acted upon by  the vrnst  concentrated simple acids,
 even when boiling, or distilled from it.
   The aqua regia best adapted to the solution of plati-
 na, is composed of one part of the  nitric and three of
 the muriatic acid. Tlie solution does not take place xvitii
 rapidity.  A small quantity of nitric oxide is disengaged,
 the colour of the fluid becomine first yellow, and after-
 xvard of a deep reddish-brown,  xvhich,  upon  dilution
 wilh water, is found to be an intense yelloiv.  This so
 lution is very corrosive, and linges animal matters of a
 blackish-brown colour,it affords crystals by evaporation.
   Muriate of tin  is so delicate a test of platina, that»
 single drop of the recent solutionof tin in muriatic acio
 gives a  bright red colour to a solution of muriate oi
 platina, scarcely distinguishable from water.
   If the muriatic solution of platina be  agitated with
 ether, the ether  xvill become impregnated  xvith  th*
 metal.  The ethereal solution is of  a fine pale yellow
 does not stain the skin, and is precipitable by ammonia
   If" the nitro-muriatio solution of platina be  precipi
 fated by lime, and the precipitate digested in sulphuric
 acid, a sulphate of platinum will 6e formed.  A sub-
 nitrate may be  formed in the same  manner.  Accord-
 ing  to Chenevix, the insoluble sulphate contains 54.5
 oxide of platinum, and 45.5 acid and water;  the insolu-
 ble muriate, 70 of oxide;  and the subnitrate, 89 of
 oxide; but the purity ofthe oxide of platinum in these
 is uncertain.
   Platinum does  not combine with sulphur directly,
 but  is soluble by the alkaline sulphurets, and precipi-
 tated from its  nitro-muriatic solution  by sulphuretted
 hydrogen.
   Pellctier united it with  phosphorus,  by  projecting
 small bits of phosphorus on the metal heated to redness
 in a crucible; or exposing to  a strong heat four parts
 each of platinum and  concrete phosphoric acid xvitii
 one of charcoal poxvder.  The phosphuret of plat'num
 is of a silvery-xvhite, very brittle, and  hard  enough to
 strike fire xvith steel.
  Platinum unites xvith most other metals.  Added in
 the proportion of one-txvelfth to gold, it forms a yellow-
 ish while metal, highly ductile, and  tolerably elastic.
  Platinum renders silver  more hard, but  its colour
 more dull.
  Copper Is much improved by alloying with platinum
  Alloys of platinum xvith tin and lead are very apt lo
 tarnish.
  From its hardness,  infusibiiity,  and  difficulty  of
 being acted upon by most agents, platinum is  of great
 value for  making various  chemical vessels.  These
 have, it is true, the inconvenience of being liable tc
erosion from tlie caustic alkalies and some ofthe neu
 tral salts.
  Platinum is noxv hammered in Paris into leaves of
extreme thinness.   By enclosing a wire of it in a little
tube of silver, and draxving this through ,i steel plate ir.
the usual  xvay, Dr. Wollaston has  succeeded in pro-
ducing platinum  wire  not exceeding l-3000th of an
inch in diameter
                                         13D 
PLE                                            PLE
  There are txvo oxides of platinum.
  1. When 100 parts of the protochloride, or muriate
of platinum are calcined, they leave 73.3 of metal; 26.7
of chlorine escape.  Hence the prime equivalent of the
metal xvould seem  to be 12.3.   When the above pro-
tochloride is treated with caustic potassa, it is resolved
inlo a black oxide of platinum nnd chloride of potas-
sium.  This oxide should consist of 12.3 metal -(-  1
oxygen.
  2. The peroxide appears to contain three prime pro-
portions.  Berzelius obtained it by treating tlie muriate
of platinum xvilh sulphuric ncid, at a  distilling heat,
and decomposing the sulphate by aqueous potassa.
The precipitated oxide is a yellowish-broxvn powder,
easily reducible hy a red heat to the metallic state.
  According to E. Davy, there are two phcsphurels
and three sulphurets of platinum.
  The salts of platinum  have  tlie following general
characters :—
  1. Their solution in xvater is  yelloxvish-brown.
  2. Potassa and ammonia determine tlie formation of
small orange-coloured crystals.
  3. Sulphuretted hydrogen  liiroxvs doxvn the  metal in
a black poxvder.
  Ferroprussiate of potassa and infusion of galls occa-
sion no precipitate."
  PLATVCO'RIA.   (From nXarvs, broad, and xopn,
the pupil ofthe eye.)  An enlarged pupil.
  Platyophtua'lmum.   (From nXarvs,  broad, and
tqjOaApos,  the eye:  so called  because  it  is  used by
women to enlarge the appearance of the  eye.)   An-
timony.
  PLATYPHY'LLUM.   (From  nXarvs, broad,  and
ivXXov,  a leaf.)  Broad-leaved.
  PLATY'SMA-MYOIDES.  (From irXarvs,  b'jdd,
pvs, a muscle, and ttios, resemblance.)  Musculus cu-
taneus, of Winsloxv.  Quadratus gena eel latissimus
colli, of Douglas. Latissimus colli, of Albinus.  Quad-
ratus gena, seu telragonus, of Winslow; and thoraco
maxilli facial, of Dumas.  A thin muscle on the side
of the neck, immediately under the skin,  that assists
in drawing the skin of  the check downxvards; and
when the mouth is shut, it draws all that part of the
skin to xvhich it is connected beloxv the loxx-er  jaw, up-
xvards.
  Ple'ctanje.  (From rrXtxru, to fold.)  The horns
of the uterus.
  Ple'ctrum.  (From irXnrJu, to strike: so named
from their resemblance to a drum-stick.)   The styloid
process of the temporal bone, and the uvula.
  PLEMPIUS, Vopiscus Fortunatus, was born at
Amsterdam in 1601.   He commenced his medical stu-
dies at  Leyden, then travelled for improvement to
Italy, and took his degree at Bologna. He settled as a
physician in his native city,  and acquired a high repu-
tation there; whence  he was  invited to a professor-
ship at  Louvain, whither  he  repaired in 1633.  He
adopted, on this occasion,  the Catholic religion, and
took a new degree, in conformity xvith the rules of the
university.  He was soon after nominated principal
of the college of Breugel.   His  death happened in
1671. He increased the reputation of Louvain  by the
extent of his attainments, and distinguished himself iu
all  the  public questions that came under discussion.
lie was author of many xvorks in  Latin and Dutch;
in one of xvhich, entitled "Fundamenta, seu  Institu-
liones Medicinae," he gave  a satisfactory proof of his
candour, by strenuously advocating the circulation of
the blood, of  which he had previously expressed
doubts.
  PLEONASTE.   See Celanite.
  Plkro'sis.  See  Plethora.
  Plk'smonk.  See Plethora.
  PLETHORA.  (From wAreflw, to fill.)  Plesmcne.
Plerosis.  1. An excessive  fulness of vessels, or a re-
dundance of blood.
  2. A fulness of Imhit or body.
  Plkumo'nia.  See Pneumonia.
   PLEU'RA.  nXtvpa.   A membrane which lines the
internal surface of tne thorax, and covers its viscera,
It forms a groat process, the mediastinum, whxch di-
vides the thorax  into two cavities.  Its use is to ren-
der the surface of the thorax  moist by the vapour it
exhales.  The cavity of the  thorax is every where
lined bv this smooth and glistening membrane, xvhich
is  iu reality two distinct portions  or bags, xvhich, by
being applied to each other  laterally, form Ihe septum
      1<JU
.called mediastinum: thus divides the cavity into two
 parts, and  is attached posteriorly to the vertebrae of
 the back; and anteriorly to the sternum.  Bui the txvo
 laminae, of  whicli this septum is formed, do not every
 where adhere to each other; for at  the lower part of
 the thorax  they are separated,  to afford a lodgment
 to the heart;  and at the upper part of the cavity they
 receive between them the thymus gland.  Tlie pleura
 is plentifully supplied with arteries and veins from the
 internal mammary, and the intercostals.  Its nerves,
 wliicn  are  very inconsiderable, are derived chiefly
 from the dorsal and intercostal  nerves.  The surface
 of the pleura, like  lhat of the peritonaeum and other
 membranes lining cavities, is constantly bedew ed  with
 a serous moisture,  wiiich pievents  adhesions of the
 viscera. The mediastinum, by dividing the breast into
 txvo cavities, obviates many inconveniences to wiiich
 we should  otherwise be liable.  It  prevents the two
 lobes of the lungs from compressing each other xvhen
 we lie on one side, and consequently contributes to the
 freedom of respiration, which is disturbed by the  least
 pressure on the lungs.  If the point of a sword pene-
 trates betxveen the  ribs into the cavity of the thorax,
 the lungs on that side cease to perform their  office,
 because the air being admitted  through the wound,
 prevents the  dilatation of that  lobe, xvhile the other
 lobe, which is separated from it by the mediastinum,
 remains unhurt, and continues to perform its functions
 as usual.
   PLEURALGIA.   (From irXevpa,  and AXyos, pain.)
 Pain in the  pleura, or side.
   ["Pleurisy root.  This species of root is  found
 from Maine to Georgia, and  is  readily distinguished
 from other roots, by  its bright orange-coloured flowers.
 The root when dry is brittle, and easily reduced to
 poxvder.  Ils  taste is moderately bitter, and its chief
 soluble proportions are extractive matter and frecula
 It acts medicinally as a mild diaphoretic, expectorant,
 and subtonic.  It  ha.- been much used in the United
 States in catarrh, bronchitis, the secondary stages of
 pneumonia, and in  phthisis as  a palliative.   From
 some associations of this kind, it is known in many
 places ns pleurisy root.  It has the property of pro-
 ducing diaphoresis xvilh less previous heat and excite-
 ment than attends the use of most vegetable sudoriiics.
 Twenty or thirty grains can  be given three times a
 day, or a gill of  the infusion, prepared like lliat of
 serpentaria."—Big.  Mat. Med.  A.]
   PLEURITIS.  (Pleuritis, idis. f.; from vXcvpa, the
 pleura.)  Pleurisy, or inflammation of the pleura. A
 species of  pneumonia, of Cullen.   See Pneumonia.
 In some instances the inflammation is partial, or affects
 one place in  particular, xvhich  is commonly on the
 right side;  but, in general, a morbid affection is com-
 municated throughout its xvhole extent  The disease
 is occasioned by exposure to cold, and by all the causes
 xvhich usually give  rise to all  inflammatory com-
 plaints ; and it attacks chiefly those of a vigorous con -
 stitution and  plethoric habit.  In consequence of the
 previous inflammation, it is apt, at  its departure, to
 leave behind a thickening of the pleura, or adhesions
 to tlie ribs and intercostal muscles, which either lay the
 foundation of future pneumonic complaints, or render
 the  patient more susceptible  of the changes in the
 state of the atmosphere than before.
   It comes on xvitii an acute pain in the side, xvhich is
 much increased by making a  full inspiration, and is
 accompanied  by flushing  in the face, increased  heat
 over the xvhole body, rigors, difliculty  of lying on
 the side  affected, together with  a cough  and nausea,
 nnd the pulse is hard, strong, and  frequent, and vi-
 bratcs under the finger when pressed upon,  not  unlike
 the tense string of a musical instrument.  If blood  is
 drawn, and allowed  to stand  for a  short time, it will
 exhibit a thick, sizy, or buffy coat on its surface. If
 the disease  be neglected  at iu onset, and the inflam-
 mation proceeds with great violence and rapidity, the
 lungs themselves become affected, the passage  of the
 blood through them is stopped, mid the patient is suffo-
 cated ; or, from the combination of the two affections,
 the inflammation  proceeds on to suppuration, and an
 abscess is  formed.  The  prognostic in pleurfey must
 be drawn from  the sex-erlty of the symptoms.  If the
 fever and inflammation have run high, and the  pain
 should cease suddenly, with a change of countenance,
 and a sinking of the pitlse, great danger may be  appro
 he'nded; but  if the heal and  otlier  febrile symptom* 
PLU                                              PLU
abate  gndually,  if respiration  is  performed with
greater ease and less pain, and a  free and copious ex-
pectoration ensues, a speedy recovery may be expected.
  The appearances on dissection are much the same
as those mentioned under the head of pneumonia, viz.
an  inflamed stale of ihe pleura,  connected xvitii  the
lungs,  having its surface Covered xvith red vessels, and
a layer of coagulated lymph lying upon it, adhesions,
too, of the substance of the lungs to  the pleura.  Be-
sides these, ihe lungs themselves are often found in an
inflamed state, with an extravasation either of blood
or coagulated  lymph in their substance.  Tubercles
and abscesses  ure  likexvise frequently met xvitii.  See
Pneumonia.
  Plkorocolle'sis.  (From  irXtvpa, the pleura, and
■roXAaw, to adhere.)  An adhesion of the pleura to the
lungs, or some neighbouring part.
  PLEURODYNIA.  (From itXtvpa, andolvvn, pain.)
\ pain in  ihe side, from a rheumatic affection of the
pleura.
  PLEURO-PNEUMO MA.  (From icXtvpa, and rrvev-
porta, au inflammation of the lungs.)  An iiiriamnia-
lion of the luugs  aud pleura.
  PLEURORTHOPN^E'A. (From ir.\n;pa, the pleura,
opOos, upright,  and  -rntu, to breathe.)  A pleurisy in
xvhich the patient cannot breathe without keeping his
body upright.
  PLEUROSTHO'TONOS.   (From irAteupev, the side,
and rttvu, to stretch.)   A spasmodic disease, iu xvhicli
the body is bent to one side.
  PLE Xl'S.  t,From plector, to plait or knit)  A
net-work of x-essels.  The union of two or more nerves
is also called a plexus.
  Plexus cardiacus.  The caidiac plexus of nerves
is the  union of the eighth pair  of nerves and great
sympathetic.
  Plexus choroides.   The choroid plexus is a net-
work of vessels situated in the lateral ventricle of ihe
brain.
  Plexus  pampiniformis.   The  plexus of  vessels
about the  spermatic chord.
  Plexcs  pilmomcus.   The  pulmonic plexus  is
formed hy the  union of the eighth pair of nerves xvith
the greal sympathetic
  Plexits RETieiLARis.  A nei-xvork  of vessels un-
der the fornix of the brain.
  PLICA  (From plico, to entangle.  This disease is
commonly distinguished by the adjective Polonica, it
being almost peculiar  lo the  inhabitants of Poland.)
Helvtis;  Kolto; Rhopalosis;  Plica polonica.   Tri-
choma.  Plaited hair.   A disease of ihe hairs, in xvhich
they- become long and coarse,  and  matted and glued
inlo inextricable tangles.  It is peculiar to Poland, Li-
thuania, aud Tartary,  and generally appears  during
tlie autumnal season.
  PLICA'RIA.  (From plico, to  entangle:  so called
because its leaves are entangled together in one mass.)
Wolf s-cliw, or club moss.  See Li/copodium.
  PLICATUS.  Plaited, folded.   A  term  applied lo
leaves, xvhen the disk, especially toxvards the margin,
is acutely  folded up and doxvn ; as in Malva erispa.
  Pli'nthu-s.  nAivrOioc.  The fourfold bandage.
  PLUM.  Pruna.  Three sorts of plums are ranked
anion.- the articles of the materia medica; they  are all
met xvith in the gardens of this country, but the shops
are supplied with them moderately dried, from abroad.
1. The pruna  brignolensia;  Ihe  Brmuole  plum, or
prunello, brought from Brignole, in Provence;  it is of a
reddish yellow colour, and has a very grateful, sweet,
subacid taste.  2.  Tlie pruna gallica;  the common
or French prune.   3. The pruna  damascena, or dam-
son.   All  these fruits possess  the  same general quali-
ties with the other summer fruits.  The prunelloes, in
which the sweetness has a greater mixture of acidity
than in the other sorts, are used as mild refrigerants in
fevers  and otlier  hot  indispositions.  The  French
prunes and damsons are the most emollient and laxa-
tive; they are often taken by themselves,  to  gently
move the  belly, where tliere is a  tendency to Inflam-
mations.  Decoctions of them afford a useful  basis for
laxative or purgative mixtures, and the  pulp, in sub-
stance, for electuaries.
  Plum, Malabar.   See Eugenia jambos.
  PLUMBA'GO.    (From plumbum, lead  so called
because it  is covered with lead-coloured spots.)   1. The
name of a genus of plants.  Class, Pentandria • Or-
der, Monogynia.
  2. Lead-ivort.  See Polygonum persiearia.
  3. Black lead.  An ore oi a shining blue-black co-
lour, a greasy feel, and turberculated when fractured.
See Graphite.
  Plumbago kl'rop.ca.  The systematic name of the
tooth-wort.   Denlaria; Dcntillaria.  This plant is to
be  distincuished from the  pellitory of Spain, which n
also called dentaria. It is  the Plumbago—foliis am-
plexicaulibus, lanceolatis scabris,  of  Linna-us.   The
root was formerly esteemed, prepared  iu  a variety of
ways, as a cure for the toothache, arising from caries.
  Plumbi  acltas.  Crrussa acetata.   Plumbi super-
acetas.   Saccharum saturni, or sugar of lead, from its
sxveet taste.  It possesses sedative and astringent quali-
ties in a very high degree, and  is  perhaps the mosl
poxverful internal medicine iu profuse haemorrhages,
especially combined with opium;  but its use is uoi
entirely without hazard, as it has sometimes produced
violent colic  and palsy;  wherefore it is better not  to
continue it unnecessarily.  The dose may  be from one
lo  three  grains.   It has been also recommended  to
check the expectoration, and colliquative discharges  in
phthisis, but xvill probably be only  of lempoinry service.
Externally il  is used for the same ,iiuposes as the
liquor plumbi subacetatis.
  Plumbi acetatis liquor.   Solution of Rcetate of
lead, formerly called aon« lithargyri acitnti.  Gou-
lard's extiact.  Take of semi vitrified oxide of lead,
txvo pounds;  ncelic acid,  a  gallon.  Mix, and boil
doxvn to  six  pints,constantly stirring; then set it by,
lhat the  feculencies may subside,  and strain.   It  is
principally employed iu a diluted  state, by surgeons, as
a resolvent against inflammatory affections.
  Plumbi acetatis liquor ductus. Diluted solu-
tion of acetate of lead.   Aqua lithargyri acetati com-
posita.  Take of solution  of  sub-acelate of lead, a
fluid drachm; distilled water, a  pint; weak spirit, i.
fluid diachm. Mix. The  virtues  of  this xvater, the
aqua vegeto-mineralis  of former pharmacopoeias, ap-
plied externally, are resolvent, refrigerant, and seda
live.
  Plumbi carbonas.  See Plumbi subcarbonas.
  Plumbi oxydum semivitreum.  See Litliargyrus.
  Plumbi subcarbonas.  Carbonas plumbi. Subcar-
bonate of lend commonly called cerusse, or xvhite lead
This  article  is made in the large way in xvhite  lead
manufactories, by exposing thin sheets of lead to "he
vapour of vinegar.  The lead is curled  up and put
into pots of earthenware, in which the vinegar is,  in
such a xvay as to rest just above the  vinegar.  Hun-
dreds of  these are arranged together, and surrounded
with dung, the heat from xvhich volatilizes the acetic
acid, xvhich is decomposed by the lead, and an imper-
fect carbonate of lead '« formed, which is of a white
colour.  This  preparation is seldom used in medicine
or surgery but for the purpose  of  making other prepa-
rations, as the superacetnte.  It is sometimes employed
medicinally In foim of powder and ointment, to chil-
dren whose skin is  fretted.   It should, hoxvever, be
cautiously used, as there is great  reason to believe thai
complaints of the boxvelsof children originate from its
absorption.  See Pulvis cerussa compositus
  PLU'MBUM.  See Lead.
  Plumbum candidum.  Sec  Tin.
  Plumbum cinereum.   Bismuth.
  Plumbum nigrum.  Black-lead.
  Plumbum rubelm.  The philosopher's stone
  Plumbum ustum. Burnt lead.
  Plumme'ri pilui..«.  Plummet's pit's.   Acomposl
tion of calomel, antimony, and guaiacum.   See Pilula
hydrargyri submuriatis composita.
  PLUMULA.  (A diminutive of pluma, a feather.)
A little feather.  The expanding embryo or germ of a
plant within the seed, resembling a little  feather.  It
soon becomes a tuft of young leaves, with xvhich the
young stem, if tliere be any, ascends.  See Corculum
and Cotyledon.
  Plunket's  cancer remedy.   Take croxv's.foot,
which grows  in taw grounds, one handful; dog's fen-
nel, three sprigs, both well  pounded:  crude brim-
stone in poxvder, three middling  thimblefuls;  xvhite
arsenic the same quantity; incorporated all in a mor
tar, and made into small balls the  size of a nutniee,
and dried in the sun. These balls  must be powdered
and mixed with the yelk of an egg, and laid over the
sore or cancer on a piece of pig's  bladder,  or stripping
of a calf  xvhen dropped, xvhicli must be cut to the size
                                        l!l| 
PNE                                             PNE
t>f the sore,  and smeared xvith the yelk of an egg.
This must be applied cautiously to the lips or nose lest
any part of it get doxvn ; nor is it  to  be  laid on too
broad on the face, or too near the heart, nor to exceed
Ihe breadth of half-a-croxvn ;  but elsewhere as far as
the sore goes.  The plaster must not be stirred until it
drops off of itself, xvhich will be in a week.  Clean ban-
datcs are often to be put on.
  I'NEUMATIC.  (Pneumaticus; from irvtvpa, wind,
relating lo air.)  Of or belonging to air or gas.
  Pneumatic apparatus.   See  Apparatus, pneu-
matic.
  PNEUMATICS.  (Fromirvtvpuv, the lung.)  The
name given  by  Dr. Good,  lo the second class of dis-
eases iu his Nosology.  Diseases of Ihe  respiratory
In iiiion.  It has txvoorders, Phonica and Pneumonica.
  PNEUMATOCELE.   (From  irvtvpa, xvind,  and
107X17, a tumour.)  Any species of hernia,  that is  dis-
tended with flatus.
  PNEUMATO'MPIIALUS.   (From  irvtvpa, xvind,
and  opcbaXos, the  navel.)   A flatulent, umbilical
hernia.
  PNEUMATOSIS.   (From  irvtvuaTou,  to  inflate.)
Emphysema.  Windy  sxvelling.   A genus of disease
in the Class Cachexia, and Order Intumescentia, of
Cullen, known  by a collection of air in the  cellular
texture  under the skin, rendering it tense,  elastic,  and
crepitating.   Air in the cellular membrane is confined
to one place; but in a fexv cases, it spreads universally
over  the whole  body, and occasions  a considerable
degree of sxvelling.  It sometimes arises spontaneously,
which is, hoxvever, a very rare occurrence, or comes
on immediately after delivery, without  any evident
cause;  but  it  is most  generally  induced by some
wound or injury done 10 the thorax, and xvhich affects
the  lungs; in which case the air passes  from these,
through the wound, into the surrounding cellular mem-
brane, and from thence spreads over the xvhole body.
   Pneumatosis is attended xvith an evident crackling
noise, and elasticity upon pressure;  and sometimes
with much  difficulty  of breathing,  oppression, and
anxiety.
   We are to consider it as a disease by no means unat-
tended  xvith danger;  but more  probably from  the
causes xvhich give rise to it, than any hazard from the
complaint itself.
   The species of pneumatosis are:
   1. Pneumatosis spontanea, without any  manifest
 muse.
   2. Pneumatosis traumatica, from a wound.
   3. Pneumatosis venenata, from poisons.
   4. Pneumatosis hysterica, with  hysteria.
   PNEUMONIA.  (From rsvtvpuv, a lung.)  Pneu-
monitis ;  Peripneumonia; Peripneumonia vera.  In-
flammation of the lungs.  A genus of disease in the
Class  Pyrexia,  and  Order  Phlegmasia, of Cullen;
characterized by pyrexia, difficult respiration, cough,
 nnd a sense of xveight and pain in the Ihorax.  The
 s|»eoies of pneumonia, according to the above nosolo-
 gic, ate,
   1. Peripneumonia  Tlie pulse not alxvays hard, but
sometimes soft: an obtuse pain in the breast:  tlie
 respiration  always difficult;  sometimes  the  patient
 cannot brpathe,  unless in an upright posture;  the face
 swelled, and of a livid colour; tlie cough  for  the most
 part wilh expectoration, frequently bloody.
   2.  Pleuritis.   The  pulse hard: a pungent  pain in
 one side; aggravated during the lime of  inspiration;
 an uneasiness xvhen lying on one side ; a very painful
 cough, dry in the beginning of the  disease, afterward
 xvitii  expectoration,  and  frequently  bloody.   See
 Pleuritis.
   With respect to pneumonia, the most general cause
 of this inflammation is  the application of cold to the
 body, xvhich gives a check to the  perspiration, and de-
 termines a gtent flow of blood to the lungs. It attacks
 principally  those of a robust constitution nnd  plethoric
 habit, and occurs most frequently in the winter season
 and spring ofthe year:  but  it may arise in  eitlier of
 the other seasons, when there nre sudden vicissitudes
 from bent to cold.                                  1
   Olher causes, such  as violent exertions in  singing,
 speaking, or playing on xvind instruments, by ptoducing
 nu  increased action of the hunts, have been knoxvn 10 ]
 occasion peripiieuiuony.  These xvho have  laboured
 under a former  attack of thiecemplniiit, are much pre- j
 disposed io returns of it
        Vi-i
  The true peripneuinnny conies  on with an obtuse
pain in the chest or side, great difliculty of breathing,
(particularly in a recumbent  position, or xvhen  lying
on the side affected,) together xvitii a cough, dryness of
the skin, heat, anxiety, and thirst.   At the first  com-
mencement of the disease the pulse is usually full.
strong, hard, and frequent, bul  in  a more advanced
stage it is commonly weak, soft, and often irregular.
In the besiiiuing, the cough is frequently dry nnd  xvith-
out expectoration ;  but in some cases it is moist, even
from the first, and the matter spit  up is various both
iu coloui and in consistence,and is often streaked xvith-
blood.
  If relief is not afforded in time, and the inflammation
proceeds xvitii such violence as to endanger suffocation,
the vessels of the neck will become turgid and swelled;
the face xvill alter to a purple colour; an effusion of
blood xvill take place into the  cellular substance of the
lungs, so  as to  impede the circulation through that
organ, and the patient will soon be deprived of life.
  If these violent symptoms do not arise, and  the pro
per means for carrying off the inflammation have either
been  neglected, or have  proved ineffectual, although
adopted  at an early period of the disease, a suppura-
tion may ensue, xvhich event is to be knoxvn by fre-
quent slight quiverings, and an abatement of the pain
and sense of fulness  in  the  part, and by the  patient
being able to lie on the side xvhich  xvas affected, with-
out experiencing great uneasiness.
  When peripiicumony proves fatal, it is generally by
an effusion of blood taking place in the cellular texture
of the lungs, so as 10 occasion suffocation, which usu-
ally happens between the third and seventh days  ; but
it may likewise  prove fatal, by terminating either in
suppuration or gangrene.
  When it goes off by  resolution, some very evident
evacuation always attends it; such as a great flow of
urine, with a copious sediment, diarrhoea, a sweat dif-
fused over the xvhole body, or a haemorrhage from tl.e
nose; but the evacuation which most frequently ter-
minates the complaint, and  which  does it xvith the
greatest effect, is a free  and copious expectoration of
thick while or  yellow matter,  sliehtly streaked  xvith
blood ; and by this the disease is carried off generally
iu the course of ten or txvelx-e days.
   Our opinion as to the event is to be draxvn from the
symptoms xvhich are present.   A high degree of fever
attended xvith delirium, great difficulty of breathing
acute pain, and dry cough, denote  great danger; (in
the contrary, an abatement of the febrile symptoms,
and of the difficulty of breathing,  and  pain, taking
place on the coming on of a free expectoration, or the
happening of any other  critical evacuation, promises
fair for the recovery of the patient.  A termination of
the inflammation in suppuration is alxvays to be con
sidered as dangerous.
  On dissection, the lungs usually appear inflamed;
and there is often found an  extravasation, cither of
blood, or of coagulable lymph,  in their cellular sub-
stance.  The same appearances likexvise present them-
selves iu the cavily of the thorax, and within the peri-
cardium.  The  pleura,  connected xvitii  the lungs, is
also in an inflated state, having its surface every where
crowded with red vessels.  Besides these, abscrtsi s arc
frequently found in the substance of the  lung;, as like-
xvise tubercles and adhesions to the ribs are formed.  A
quantity of purulent matter is often discovered also  in
the bronchia.   In the early period of this disease xve
may hope, by active measures, to bring about imme-
diate resolution; but xvhen it  is more advanced,  xve
must look  for a discharge by  expectoration, as the
means of restoring ihe  part  to a healthy stale.   We
should  begin by large and free bleeding, not deterred
by the obscure  pulse sonietimes  found in peripneu-
mony, carrying this evacuation to faintness, or to the
manifest  relief of the breathing.   In the subsequent
use of this measure, xve must  be guided by the violence
of the disease on Ihe one hand, and the strength ofthe
patient on  tlie  other;  the scrofulous,  in particular,
cannot bear it to any extent; and it  is more especially
in the early part of the complaint, that it produces a
full and decisive effect.  Under doubtful circumstances
it xvill be better  to take blood locally, parlicnlarlx  xvhen
there are pleuritic symptoms: xvith xx Inch bliste'rs may
co-opeiale. The bowels must bo xvell  evacuated  iit
the fun ieistaiice, and subsequently kept regular: and
niitimouinls- may be given xvith great advantage  cum 
POU
 ineucften with mrremialsto promotet-ie discnargcs,
especially from tlie skin and lungs.   Digitalis is proper
also, as lessening the activity of the circulation.  The
antiphlogistic regimen U to be observed, except that the
patient xvill not bear too free exposure to cold.   To
quiet the  cough, demulcents may be of some use or
cooling sialagogues: but xvhere the urgency  of the
symptoms is lessened by copious depletion, opiates are
more to he relied upon ;  a little syrup of poppy, for in-
stance, swallowed  sloxvly from time to  time; or a full
do^e of opium may be given at night to procure sleep,
•oi ud xvitii calomel and antimony, that it may not
beat the  system, but, on the contrary,  assist  them in
promoting  the  secretions.  Inhaling steam will occa-
sionally assist in  bringing about expectoration; or,
where there is a wheezing respiiation, squill in nau-
seating  or sonietimes even  emetic, doses may relieve
the pnrient fiom the viscid matter collected in the air
|>a:_-'iL-i'S.  •When  the expectoration is  copious iu the
decline of the complaint, tonic medicines, particularly
myrrh, xvith n more nutritious diet,  become •iteessary
to support  the stiengih.  and Ihe same me.,ns will be
proper, if it should go on to suppiirali'm.   Where ad-
hesions have occurred, or other orgtmc change, though
the symptoms may appear tiitliug, much caution is re-
quired to  prevent the patient falling into Phthisis; on
xvhicli subject see  the management of that disease:
and should serous effusion happen, see Hydrothorax.
  I'NEUMOMCA.  (From xvtvpuv, tlie lung.)  Tlie
nam? of the  second order of diseases in  the  t'lass
Fneumatica of Good's Nosology.  Diseases  affecting
Ihe lungs, iheir membranes, or motive poxver.  It lias
six genera, viz. Bex ; Dyspnaa ,  Asthma; Ephialtis;
Stenialgiu; Pleura!/in
  PNEUMOPLEURITIS. (Fiom zzvtvpuv, thelungs,
""d raXv.piTis, ?:i inflammation of the pleura.)  An in-
flammation of tlie  lungs and pleura.
  PNIGA'LIUM.  (From bv/io, to suffocate.)  The
lightmare.  A disorder in which the patient appears
to be suffocated.
   Pmx.   (From zzvtyu, to suffocate.)  A sense of suf-
focation.
   POD.   See Sdiu-.a.
   PODA'CRA.  (From sr-jvc, the  fool, and aypa, a
taking,  or seizure.)  Fe.bris podagrica.  Arthritis;
Dolor podagricus; The gout.  A genus of disease in
the Class Pyrexia, and Order Phlegmasia, of Cullen;
known by pyrexia, pain in the joints, chiefly of the
great toe, or at any rate of the hands aud feet, return-
ing al intervals: prexious to the attack, tiie functions
of the stomach are commonly distuibed.  The species
are,
  1. Podagra rcgularis.  Arthritis podagra; Arthri-
tis rachialgica ;  Arthritis astioa, of Sauvages.  The
regular gout.
  2. Podagra  atonica.  Arthritis melancholic a; hie-
malis; cHorotica; and uslkmatica, of Sauvages. The
atonic gout.
  3. Podagra retrograde.  The retrocedent.
  4. Pulugra  aherrans.   Misplaced  or  wandering
gout.
  The gout is a very painful disease, preceded usually
by flatulency, and  indigestion,  and  accompanied  by
fever pains in the joints of the hands and feet, particu-
larly in  that of the great toe, and xvhich returns by
paroxysms, occurring chiefly in  the spring and begin-
ning of xvinter.  The only disorder for xvhich the regu-
lar gout can possibly be mistaken, is the rheumatism;
and cases may occur xvherein there  may be some difli-
culty in  making a just discrimination: but the most
certain xvay of distinguishing  them will  be, to give
due consideration to the predisposition in the habit, the
symptoms xvhicli have preceded, the parts alfected, the
recurrences of the disease,  and its connexion xvitii
other parts of the  system.  Its snacks are much con-
fined to the male sex, particularly those of a corpulent
habit, and robust body ; but every  now and then we
meet with instances of it in robust females.  Those
xvho are employed in constant bodily  labour, or who
live much upon vegetable  food, as likexvise those who
make no use of wine, or other fermented  liquors, are
seldom  afflicted with the gout.  Tiie  disease seldom
appears at an earlier period of life than from five-and-
thirty to  forty; and, when it does, it may be presumed
to arise from an hereditary disposition.   Indolence, in-
activity,  and too free  a use of tarlareous wines, fer-
mented liquors, and animal food, are the principal
tn„ es    ch give ri-e to the gout, >»ut t may likewtsr
be brought on by greatsensualiiy and excess in vent: .
intense and  close application to study, long xvnnt  »'
rest, grief, or uneasiness of mind, exposure lo cold, to.,
free a use of acidulated  liquors, a sudden change  lion:
a  full to  a  spare diet,  the suppression of any accus-
tomed  discharge, or by excessive evacuations; mid
that it sometimes proceeds from an hereditary disposi
lion, is  beyond  all  doubt, as females who have  been
remarked  for their  great abstemiousness, und yi'iiih.-
of a lender age, have been attacked xvitii it.
  1. Podagra regularis. A paroxysm of reirulnr gout
sonietimes comes on suddenly, without any picvious
warning,  at otlier times il  is  preceded by au unusual
coldness of the feet  and legs,  a suppression of perspi-
ration in them, and numbness, or a sense of prickling
along the whole ofllie  loxver extremities: and  xvitii
these symptoms the  appetite isdiminished, the stomach
is  troubled xvitii flatulency aud indigestion, a degree of
torpor and languor is fell over the whole body,  great
lassitude and fatigue are experienced after tlie least ex
ercise, the body is costix-e, and tlie urine pallid.  On
the night of the attack, the patient perhaps goes lobed
in  tolerable health,  and  after a few hours is axvakenelt
by the severity of the pain, most commonly in the first
joint of the great toe; sometimes, however, it attacks
other parts of the foot, the heal, calf of the leu, or per-
haps the  xvhole of the fool.  The pain resembles that
of a dislocated  bone, and is  attended xvitii the sensa-
tion as if cold xvater xvas poured upon the part; and
this pain, becoming more violent, is succeeded by rigors
and other febrile symptoms, together xvilh  a severe
throbbing  and inflammation in the  part.  Sometimes
both feet become sxvelled and  inflamed, so that neithei
of them can be put  to the ground; nor can the patient
endure the least motion  xvithout suffering excruciating
pain.  Toxvards morning, he  falls asleep, and a gentle
sweat  breaks  out,  and  terminates  the  paroxysm,  a
number of which constitutes xvhat is called a tit ofthe
gout. The duration of the fit will be longer or shorter,
according to the disposition of the body to the disease,
tlie season of the year, and  the age  and strength of
the patient.  When a paroxysm has thus taken place.
although there is an alleviation of pain at the expira-
tion of some hours,  still the patient is not entirely  re-
lieved from it; and, for some  evenings successively, he
has a return both of pain and fever, which continue,
with moie or less  violence, until morning.  Tlie pa-
roxysms, however, prove usually mote mild every day,
till al length the disease  goes off either ny perspiration,
urine, or some other evacuation; the parts xvhich  have
been affected becoming  itchy, the cuticle falling off in
scales from  them, and some slight degree of lameness
remaining.  At first, an  attack of gout occurs, perhaps,
only once in  two  or tliree  years; it then probably
comes  on every year, and  at length it becomes  more
frequent, and  is moie severe, and of longer duration,
each succeeding  fit.  In the progress of tlie disease,
various parts of the body are  affected, and translations
take place from  one joint, or limb, to another; and,
after frequent attacks, the joints lose their strength nnd
flexibility, and become so stiff as to be deprived of all
motion.  Concretions, of a  chalky appearance, are
likewise  formed upon the outside of the joints, and
nephritic affections of the kidneys arise  from a depo-
site of  the same  kind of matter in them, xvhich,  al-
though  fluid at first, becomes gradually dry and firm
This matter is partly soluble in acids, but  xvithout ef-
fervescence ; and Dr. Wollaston discovered it not to be
carbonate of lime, iut a compound ofthe uric or  lithic
acid and soda.
  2. Podagra  atonica.   A Ionic  gout.   It somclimen
happens  that, although a gouty diathesis prevails in
the system, yet, from certain causes, no  inflammatory
affection of the joints is produced ;  in which case, the
stomach becomes particularly affected, and the patient
is  troubled with  flatulency, indigestion, loss of appe-
tite, eructations,  nausea, vomiting, and severe pains;
and these affections are  often  accompanied with much
dejection of spirits,  and other hypochondriacal symp-
toms. In some cases, the head is affected with pain nnd
giddiness, and  now and then xvith a tendency to apo-
plexy ; and  in other case.-, Ihe viscera of (lie thorax
suffer from the disease, and palpitations, faintings, and
asthma ntise.  This is what is called atonic gout.
  3. Podngrarclrograda, Retrocedent gout.  ItsoniR
times happens, that, after the inflammation has occn
                                         193 
POD
POl
  pied a joint, instead  of its  continuing the usual time,
  and so going off gradually, it ceases suddenly, and is
  translated to some internal part.  The term retroce-
  dent gout is applied to  occurrences  of this  nature.
  When  it falls  on the stomach, it occasions nausea,
  vomiting, anxiety, or  great pain; when on tlie heart,
  it brings on syncope; when on the iungs, il produces
  an affection  resembling asthma: and,  xvhen it oc-
  cupies the head, it is apt to give rise to  apoplexy, or
  palsy.
   4. Podagra aberrans, or misplaced gout, is xvhen tlie
  gouty diathesis, instead of producing the inflammatory
  affection of the joints, occasions an inflammatory af-
  fection of some internal  parts, and  whicli  appears
  from the same symptoms  that attend the inflammation
 uf those parts  from other causes.   All occurrences of
 this nature, as well as of  tho two former,  are to be re-
 garded as attacks of irregular gout, and are to be guarded
 against as much ns possible.
   In the regular  gout, generally, little medical interfe-
 rence is necessary.   The antiphlogistic regimen should
 be observed, in proportion  to the strength ofthe patient,
 the boxvels kept regular, and the part  of a moderate
 temperature, by  covering it xvith flannel, &c; it may
 be useful too to promote a gentle diaphoresis. In young
 and robust constitutions, where there is no hereditary
 tendency to the disease, «id the inflammation and fever
 run high, more  active evacuations may sometimes be
 required;  and, on the contrary, in persons advanced
 In life, xvho have suffered  much from the  disease, and
 been accustomed to a generous diet, this must be in
 some degree allowed, even during the paroxysm, to
 obviate a metastasis;  recommending fish in preference
 to other animal food, and madeira as tlie least acescent
 xvine.  The application of cold to the part is a danger-
 ous practice; and it is belter to abstain from any local
 measures, lest the favourable progress of the  disease
 should be interrupted.  When the paroxysm is termi-
 nated, any remaining stiff'ncss of the joint will probably
 De gradually removed by friction, &c.  With respect to
 Ihe means of obviating future attacks, the chief de-
 pendence is to be placed on abstemiousness, xvith regu-
 lar moderate exercise.  Proper medicines may be occa-
 sionally prescribed to remove any dyspeptic symptoms,
 keep the bowels regular, the skin perspirable, &c.  If
 the disease appear to hang  about  the  patient in  the
 atonic form, a more nutritious diet, xvitii tonic or even
 stimulant medicines, maybe required  to  reestablish
 the health, xvhich xvill probably not be accomplished
 without a paroxysm intervening. The Batli xvaters have
 often been found useful under thesecircumstances.   In
 the retrocedent gout, the object is lo bring back the in-
 flammation to the joint us  soon as possible: for xvhicli
 purpose  a sinapism, or other  stimulant  application,
 should be put upon the part; xvhile  ammonia, aroma-
 tics, either xvarm wine, or biandy and xvater, Sec,  arc
 administered internally, in proportion to the urgency
 of the symptoms; but in general the best form of me-
 dicine is the combination  of opium  xvitii some of  (he
 stimulants just mentioned,  unless where  congestion
 appears in the head.  Sometimes blisters or rubefacients
 may be properly applied over the internal part affected,
 xvhere  this is of importance to life,  or even the local
 abstraction of blood becomes necessary.  This, hoxv-
 ever, holds more  especially xvhere the attack is inflam-
 matory, constituting the misplaced gout, and a more
 antiphlogistic plan must then be pursued :  but evacu-
 ations cannot be borne to the same extent as in the idi-
 opathic phlegmasia.
  PODAGRA'RIA.  (From podagra,  the gout:  so
 called because il xvas thought to expel the gout.)  See
 JEgopodium podagraria.
  PODECIUM.  (From rr«, a foot.)  The name given
 hy Acharius to the peculiar footstalk of the tubercles
 in the cup lichens.
  Pt/DONI'PTRUM.  (Fiom bouj, a foot,  and wir7«,
 to xvash.)  A bath for the feet.
  PODOPHY'LLI' M. (From atone, n foot,and tbvXXov,
a leaf; so named from 'ts shape.)  A species ot wolf's
bane.
  ["Podophyllum  peltatum.    Stem   erect, two
 leaved;  leaves  peltate  Inhabits woods,  floxvers  in
May, is perennial.  K'.fin one foot high; leaves  lobed;
 flowers, solilmy,  xvhite, fret it ovate.— Torrcy's Com-
pendium.
  "The podophyllum peltatum is an American plant,
groxving  in loxv shady situations, from Nexv-England
      194
  to Georgia.   The plant has only txvo leaves, wiin a
  flower in the fork, followed by a yellow acid fruit.
    '• Tlie root is creeping and jointed, and, when dry,
  it is brittle and easily reduced to powder.   Its taste is
  unpleasant, and, when chewed for some time, becomes
  intensely bitter.  Water and alkonol extract its bitter-
  ness.  It contains resin, foecula, bitter  extractive, and
  a portion of gummy substance.
    " Podophyllum is one of the most certain and effica-
  cious of the cathartic vegetables, xvhich have been
  examined in this country.   It  very nearly resembles
  jalap in  iti operation, hut is somewhat slower, ano
  continues its effects for a longer time.  In irritable sto-
  machs it sometimes occasions nausea, but not more
  than other  medicines of its class.   In  small doses, it
  proves a gradual and easy laxative; in large ones, a
  poxverful and long continued purge.   It has been par-
  ticularly  recommended in dropsy, to xvhich disease
  it seems xvell adapted, by the  large evacuations it oc-
  casions.
    "It is best given in powder.   Ten grains taken  at
  night, produce a free operation on the following morn-
  ing,  and  tiventy grains purge xvilh activity.  If calo
  mel be combined witli it, it  operates sooner and xvilh
  less griping."—Big. Mat. Med.  A.l
    PODOTHE CA.  (From tzovs, a loot, and riOnpt,  In
  put.)  A shoe or stocking.  An anatomical  prepara-
  tion, consisting of a  kind of shoe of the  scarf-skin,
  xvith the nails adhering to it, taken from a dead subject.
    POIX'ILIA.   (UotxtXia, from iroixiXos, versicolor.)
 The specific name of a species of Epichrosis in Good's
 Nosology, to designate the pyc-bald skin, or that affection
| found among negroes, in which it is marbled generally
 xvitii alternate spots, or patches of black and  white.
    Pointed leaf.  See Acuminatus.
    POISON.   Venenum.  Thai substance whicli, xvhen
 applied externally, or taken into the human body, uni-
I formly effects such  a  derangement in the  auiinul
 economy  as  to   produce  disease, may be defined  a
 poison. It is extremely difficult,  hoxvever, lo give a
 definition of a poison; and the above is subject togreal
 inaccuracy.   Poisons  are divided, with  respect to the
 kingdom to xvhich ihey belong, into animal, vegetable,
I minera),.'ind halituous, or afirial.
   Poisons, in general, are  only deleterious  in certain
 doses; for the most active, in small doses, form the
 most  valuable medicines.   There  are  nevertheless,
 certain poisons, xvhich  are really such in the smallest
 quantity, and xvhich are  never administered inedici
 nally; as the  poison  of hydrophobia or the plague
 There are likexvise substances xvhich are innocent xvhen
 taken into the stomach, but xvhich prove deleterious
 when taken into the lungs, or when  applied to an
 abraded surface; thus carbonic   acid is continually
 sxvalloxved with fermented liquors, and thus  the poison
 of the viper may be taken with impunity;  while in
 spiring carbonic acid kills, and the poison of the viper,
 inserted into tlie flesh, often proves fatal.
   Several substances also act as poisonous  when ap
 plied either externally or internally; as arsenic.
   When a substance  produces disease, not  only in
mankind, but in all animals, it is distinguished by the
term common poison; as  arsenic,  sublimate, Sec;
while that xvhich  is poisonous to man only, or to ani-
mals,  and often  lo one genus merely, is snid to lie a
relative poison ; ihus aloes arc poisonous to dogs an il
wolves: the  Phellaiidrium nquaticum  kills  horses,
xvhile oxen devour it greedily, and xvilh impunity. It
appears, then, that substances act  as poisonous only ia
regard to  llieir dose, the part  of Ihe body they are ap-
plied lo, and the subject.
  Poisons enter the Ixidy in the folloxving xvays:
  1. Through the oesophagus alone, or with the food
  2. Through the anus by clysters.
  3. Through the nostrils.
  4. Through tlie lungs xvith tlie air.
  5. Through the absorbents of the skin cither xvhole
ulcerated, cut, or torn.
  Poisons' have been arranged in six classes:
         I-—Corrosive or escharotic poisons.
  They are so named because they usually irritate, 'ei-
flame, nnd corrode the animal texture with which they
come into contact.  Their  action  is iu general more
violent nnd formidable ihan that of the other poisons.
The following list from Orfila contains the  principal
bodies of this class:—
  I   Mercurial jnpitrations ;  corrosive  sublim&ta 
POI
POl
 red oxide ol mercury; turbeth mineral, or yellow sub-
 sulphate of mercury;  pcrnitrate of mercury;  mercu-
 rial vapours.
   2. Arsenical preparations ; mch as xvhite oxide of
 arsenic, and its combination with the  bases, called ar-
 seniates ,  arsenic acid, and the iirseniates; yelloxv and
 red sulphuret of arsenic; black  oxide of arsenic, or fly-
 powder.
   3. . Inti.itonitil preparations ; such  as tartar emetic,
 or cream  tartrate of antimony; oxide of antimony;
 kjrnies mineral; muriate of antimony;  and antimo-
 nial xvine.
   4. Cupreous  preparations; such as verdigris; ace-
 tate of copper;  the cupreous sulphate,  nitrate, and mu-
 riate;  aninioiiiacal  copper; oxide of copper; cupreous
 soaps,  or grease tainted xvilh  oxide of copper ; and cu-
 preous wiues or vinegars.
   5. Muriate of tin.
   6. Oxide and sulphate of zinc.
   7. Nitrate of silver.
   8. Muriate of gold.
   9. Pearl-white, or  the oxide of bismuth, and the
 subnitrate of this metal.
   10. Concentrated  acids; sulphuric, nitric, phospho-
 ric, muriatic, hydriodic, acetic, &c.
   11. Corrosive alkalies, pure  or  subcarbonated po-
 tassa, soda, and ammonia.
   I-i. The caustic earths, lime and barytes.
   13. .Muriate and carbonate of barytes.
   14. Glass and enamel powder.
   Ii Cantharides.
             II.—Astringent pcisvns.
   1. Preparations of lead, such as the acetate, carbo-
 nate, wines sweetened xvilh  lead,  xvater  impregnated
 xvitii its oxide,  food cooked in vessels containing lead,
 syrups clarified xvitii subacetate of lead, plumbean xa-
 pours.
                III.—Acrid poisons.
    1. The gases; chlorine, murialic acid, sulphurous
 acid, nitrous gas, and nitro-muriatic vapours.
   2. Jatropha manihot, the fresh  root, and its juice,
 from which cassava is made.
 *  3.  7'Ae Indian ricinus, or  Molucca xvood.
    4. Scammony.
   5. Gamboge.
   6. Seeds of Patma Christi.
   7. Elaterium.
   8. Colocynth.
   'J. White hellebore root.
   10. Black hellebore root.
   11. Seeds of Stavesacre.
   12. The xvood and fruit ofthe Ahovdi of Brazil.
   13. Rhododendron ckrysantkum.
   14. Bulbs of  Colchicum,  gathered in summer and
autumn.
  15. The milky juice of the Convolvulus arvensis.   >
  16. Asclepias.
  17. lEnanthe fistulosa and crocata.
  18. Some species of clemulis.
  19. Anemone Pulsatilla.
  20. Root of Wolf's-bane.
  21. Fresh roots of Arum maculatum.
  22. Berries and bark of Daphne mezereum.
  23. The plant and emanations of the Rhus toxico-
dendron.
  24. Euphorbia officinalis.
  23. Several species of Ranunculus, particularly the
 dquatUis.
  20. Nitre, in a large dose.
  27. Some muscles and othersbell-fish.
        IV.—Narcotic and stupifying poisons.
   1. The gases - hydrogen, azote,  and oxide of azote.
   2. Poppy aud opium.
   3. The roots of the Solanum somniferum; berries
and Icax-csof the Solanum nigrum; those of the Morel
With yelloxv fruit.
   4. The roots and leaves of the Atropa mandragora.
   5. Datura stramonium.
   6. Hyocianuts, or henbane.
   7. Lactuca virosa.
   8. Paris quadrifolia, or herb Paris.
   9 Liturocerasus, or bay laurel and prussic acid.
  ID. Berries of the yew-tree.
  11. Ervum ervilia; the seeds.
  12. The seeds of Lathyrus  cicera.
  13. Distilled water of bitter almonds.
  14  Tlie effluvia of many of the above plants.
                                       Uu2
            V.—Narcotics-acrid poisons.
    1. Carbonic acid, the gas of charooal stoves ui-d
 fermenting liquors.
    2. The manckincel.
    3. Faba Sancti Ignatii.
    4. The exhalations and juice of the poison tree of
 Macassar, or Upas-Antiar.
    5. The Ticunas.
    6. Certain species of Strychnos.
    7. The whole plant, Lauro-cerasus.
    8. Belladonna, or deadly nightshade.
    9. Tobaces.
   10. Roots of while bryony.
   11. Roots of the Charophyllum sylvestrc.
   13. Conium maculatum, or spotted hemlock.
   13. JEthusa cynapium.
   14. Cicuta virosa.
   lo. Anagallis arvensis.
   10. Mercurialis percnnis.
   17. Digitalis purpurea.
   18. The distilled waters and oils of some of the
 above plants.
   19. The odorant principle of some of them.
   20. Woorara of G uiana.
   21. Camphor.
   22. Cocculus indicus.
   23. Several mushrooms.
   24. Scenic cornutum.
   25. Lolium lemulentum.
   26. Sium latifolium.
   27. Coriaria myrtifolia.
         VI.—Septic or putrescent poisons
   1. Sulphuretted  hydrogen.
   2. Putrid effluvia of animal bodies.
   3. Contagious effluvia, or fomites and miasmata.
   4. Venomous  animals; the viper, rattlesnake, scor-
 pion, mad dog, &c.
   Antidote for vegetable poisons.  Drapiez has ascer
 tained, by numerous experiments, that the fruit of the
 Feuillea cordifolia is a poxverful antidote against the ve-
 getable poisons.  He poisoned dogs xvitii the rhus toxi-
 codendron, hemlock, and nux  vomica;  and  all those
 which were left  to the effects of the poison  died, but
 those to which the above fruit was administered reco-
 vered completely, after a short illness.  To see xvhether
 the antidote xvould act in the same way, applied exter-
 nally to xvounds, into xvhich vegetable poisons had
 been introduced, he took two arrows, xvhich  had been
 dipped into the juice of the  manchcnille, and slightly
 wounded xvitii them txvo cats; to one of these wounds
 he applied a poultice, composed of the fruit ofthe feu-
 illea cordifolia, xvhile the other  was left without any
 application.  The  former suffered  no inconvenience,
 except from the  jwin of the wound, which speedily
 healed; while the other, in a short time, fell  into con
 vulsions, and died.   This fruit loses these valuable
 virtues, if kept txvo years after it is  gathered.
  Dr. Chisholm states, lhat tlie juice ofthe sugar cane
is tho best antidote for arsenic.
  Dr. Lyman Spalding, of Nexv-York, announces in a
small pamphlet,  that,  for above these fifty years, the
Scutellaria lateriflora has proved  to be an  infallible
means for the prevention and cure ofthe hydrophobia,
afler the bite of rabid animals.  It is better applied as
a dry poxvder than fresh.  According to tbe testimo-
nies of several American physicians, this plant,  not
yet received  as a remedy into any European Materia
Medica, afforded perfect  relief  in above a  thousand
cases, as well in the human species as in the brute
creation (dogs, swine, and oxen).
  [From  a personal acquaintance with Dr. Spalding
we are enabled to state, lliat Ills pamphlet of cases of
hydrophobia,  said  to have been cured by the route!
laria, has led  both the French and English phys ciann
into a mistake, in  relation to the curative virtues of
this plant.  There are fbw physicians in the United
States xvho place any reliance upon it.  At  the time
of the publication of" Dr. Spalding's pamphlet, there
was great  excitement about rabid dogs, and much
nexvspaper discussion on  the  virtues of Scutellaria
lateriflora, aa a  remedy in the cure of  hydrophobia.
The subject being very popular, Dr. Spalding, by means
of the newspapers, collected all the cases of alleged
cure, and  published them  in  a pamphlet, without
vouching for  their authenticity, or  knowing whethe*
Ihey could be relied on as correct.  Having led physi
 tians into a belief lliat these were ail  ivell  anthen
                                         195 
<LU
POl
ncaujd  cases,  the Doctor  afterward  corrected  the
mistake, by  publishing  a proper explanation.   The
writer hereof xvas invited by the attending physician,
to see a patient in tlie last stage of hydrophobia, who
had taken the Scutellaria in  greal quantity, from the
trine  he was bitten until tlie fatal symptoms occur-
red.   A.]
           Method of detecting poisons.
  ■' When sudden death  is suspected to have been oc-
casioned by the administration  of poison, either wil-
fully or by accident, tiie testimony of the physician is
occasionally required  to confirm or invalidate this sus-
picion.  He  may  also be sometimes called upon to
ascertain the cause of the noxious effects arising from
the presence  of poisonous substances  iu articles ojf
diet;  and it may, therefore, serve an important purpose
ti point out concisely  the  simplest and  most practica-
ble modes of obtaining, by experiment, the  necessary
information.
  The only poisons, however, that can  be clearly and
decisively delected, by chemical  means,  are those ol"
tnc mineral kingdom.  Arsenic and corrosive subli-
mate are most likely to be exhibited xvith the view of"
producing deatli; and lead and copper may be intro-
duced undesignedly,  in several xvays, into  our  food
and drink.  The continued and unsuspected  operation
of the last two may often produce effects less sudden
aim violent, but not less baneful  to health and life ihan
the more active poisons;  and their operation generally
involves, in  the  pernicious  consequences,  a greater
number of sufferers.
  Method of discovering arsenic.—When the cause
  f sudden death is believed,  from the symptoms pre-
ceding it, to be tlie administration of arsenic, tlie con-
 eiits  of the  stomach must  be attentively examined.
To effect this, let a ligature be made at each orifice, Ihe
stomach removed entirely from the body, and its whole
com ents washed out  into an earthen or glass vessel.
The arsenic, on account of its greater specific gravity,
will  settle to the bottom, and may be  obtained  sepa-
rate, after washing off the other substances by repeated
effusions of cold water.   These washings should not
be thrown away, till the presence  of arsenic lias been
Clearly ascertained.  It may be expected at the bottom
ol" the vessel in the form of a  white  poxvder, xvhich
must  be carefully collected, dried on a filter, and sub-
mitted to experiment
  A.  Boil a small portion of the  powder xvitii a fexv
ounces of distilled xvater, in a  clean Florence  flask,
and filter the  solution.
  B. To this solution add a portion of xvater, saturated
with sulphuretted hydrogen gas.   If arsenic be present,
a golden yellow sediment xxiil fall down, whicli xvill
appear sooner, if a fexv dropsof acetic acid be added
  C.  A similar effect is  produced by the addition of
sulphuret of  ammonia, or hydrosulphuret of potassa.
  It is necessary, hoxvevci, to observe, lhat these  tests
are decomposed not only by all metallic solutions, but
by the mere  addition  of* any  acid. But among these
precipitates, Dr. Bostock assures us, the greatest  part
are so obviously different as not to afford a probability
of being mistaken; the only txvo xvhich bear  a  close
resemblance  to it, are the precipitate from tartarized
iintiiuony, aud lliat sc paraled  by an acid.  In Ihe latter,
however, the sulphur pieserves its peculiar yelloxv co-
lour, xvhile the arsenic presents a deep shade of orange;
but no obvious circumstance of discrimination can be
pointed out between  the hydrosiilphurets of aisenic
and of antimony.  Hence Dr. Bostock concludes, lhat
sulphuretted  hydrogen and its compounds merit our
confidence only as collateral tests.  They  discover
sn-erne Willi  great delicacy:  sixty grains of xvater, io
wliich one grain only  of  liquid sulphuret (hydroguret-
ted sulphuret 1) had heen added, was almost instantly
rendered completely opaque by one eightieth of a grain
of the white oxide of aisenic in solution.
   I).  To a little of the solution A, udd a single drop of
a xveak solution of subcnihonnte of potassa, and after-
ward a fexv dropsof a solution of sulphate of copper.
The presence of arsenic will be maui'/ested by a yel-
loxx ish-green precipitate.  Or boil a portion of the sus-
pected powder with  a dilute solution of pure potassa,
and xvith this precipitale the  sulphate of copper  when
a similar appearance  xvill ensue still mice roina kahly,
if nr-enic be present. The  colour of  this precipitate
is perfectly  ihaiacterislic.   It is  that of Ihe  pigment
called Scheele's  green.   To identify tlie aiseiiii: xx ith
       too
still greater cei tamty, it may be proper, at the time 6
making the experiments on a suspected tubstance, Ic
perform similar ones, as a standard of comparison, on
xvhat is actually knoxvn to be  arsenic.   Let the colour,
therefore, produced by adding au alkaline solution of
tlie substance under examination, lo a solution of sul
phate of copper, be compared xvilh that obtained oy n
similar admixture of a solutio i of copper wilh one of
real arsenic in alkali.
  The proportions in  which  the different Higwediems
are employed, Dr. Bostoek ha? found to have consider-
able influence on the  distinct exhibition of the effect.
Those xvhicli he has observed  to answer best, -veie one
of arsenic, three of potassa,  (probably the subcarbon-
ate of, or common salt of tartar,) and five of sulphate
of copper.  For instance, a solution of one giain of
aisenic,  and three grains of potassa, in two diachms
of waier, being mingled with  another solution of five
grains of sulphate of copper in the  same quantify of
xvater, tlie xvhole was converted into a  beautiful grass
green, from xvhich a  copious  precipitate of the same
hue stawly subsided,  .'caving the supernatant liquor
transparent and neatly colourless.   The same mate-
rials, except xvitii the omission of" the  arsenic, being
employed in tiie same maimer, a delicate sky-blue re-
sulted, so diffeieni from the former as not lo admit of
the possibility of mistake. In  this xvay,  one-fortieth of
a grain of arsenic, diffused through sixty grains of xva
ter, afforded, by the addition of sulphate of copper and
potassa in proper proportions,  a distinct precipitate of
Scheele's green.  In employing this test, it is neces-
sary to viexv tlie fluid by reflected and not by transpa-
rent light, mid  to make the examination by daylight.
To render the effect  more apparent, a sheet of white
paper may  be  placed  behind  the glass in  which the
mixed fluids are contained;  or the precipitation  may
be effected by mixing  the fluids on a piece of xviitiug-
paper.
  E. Tiie sediments, produced by any ot' the foregoing
experiments, may le collected, dried, and laid on red-
hot charcoal.   A  smell of sulphur xvill first aii-e, and
xvill be followed by that of garlic.
  F A process im- detecting arsenic has been proposed
by Hume, of Loudon, in the Philosophical Magazine,
for May, 1809, vol. xxxiii. The lest xvhicli he has sug-
gested, is the fused  nitrate of  silver, or lunar caustic,
which he employs in the folloxving manner —
  Into a  clean Florence oil-flask,  introduce two oi
three grains of any poxx-der suspected  lo be arsenic;
add mil less than eight ounce-measures  of eitlier lain
or distilled xvater; and heat this gradually over a lamp,
or a clear coal fire, till the solution  begins to  boil.
Then xvhile it boils, frequently shake the flask, xvhich
may he readily done  by wrapping a piece of leather
round iis neck, or putting a glox-e upon the hand.   To
tit" h i -  •lutiini, add a grain or txvo of subcarbonate of
polassa or soda, agitating the xvhole to make the mix-
ture uniform.
  In the next  place,  pour into an ounce-phial, or a
small xvinc-glass, about  txvo  table  spoonfuls of this
solution, and present lo the mere surface of ihe fluid a
stick of dry nit rale of silver or lunar caustic.  If there
be any arsenic  piesent, a beautiful yellow precipitate
xvill instantly appear,  which  xvill  proceed  from the
point of contact of the nitrate xvilh the fluid ; and set-
tle toxvards the bottom of the vessel as a tlocculcul and
copious precipitate.
  The nitrate of silver,  IInine finds, also,  acts  very
sensibly upon  arsenate of polnssn, and  decidedly dis
tinguishes this salt from the above solution or arscnite
of potus-a: the colour of ihe precipitate, occasioned by
the arsenate, being much darker and more inclined to
brick-red.  Iu both cases, he is of opinion, thai the tesl
of nil rale of silver is eically superior lo lhat of sulphate
of copper;  inasmuch  as  it  produces  a nuch mote
copious precipitate,  xvhen equal quantities  arc sub-
mitted to experiment.  Tbe tests he recommends to be
employed in llieir dry state,  iu pielerence  lo  that of
solution;  and that the piece of salt he held on the sup
face only.
  A moditied application of  this lest has since  been
proposed  by Dr. Marcet, xvhose dircclions are as fol-
linv :— Let the fluid,  suspected  lo contain a>srnit, be
filtered   let the end of a glass rod, xxvtted with n solu-
tion of pure ammonia, be brought into contact  with
Ihis fluid, and let the end of  it clean  mil,  similarly
welled with solution-of  nitrate of silver, be iu niorsed 
POI
POl
 "•« "the mixture   If the  minutest quantity of arsenic
 "be present, a piecipitate of a bright-yelloxv colour, in-
 clining to orange, xvill appear at the point of contact,
 and  xvill readily subside at the bottom of the  vessel.
 As this precipitate is soluble in ammonia, the greatest
 care is necessary not to  add an excess of that alkali.
 The acid of arsenic, xvitii the same test, affords a brick-
 red precipitate.—Hume, it may be added, noxv prepares
 his test by dissolving a fexv grains, say ten, of lunar
 caustic in nine or ten times its xveight of distilled water;
 precipitating by liquid ammonia:  and adding cautious-
 ly, and by a fexv drops ut once, liquid ammonia, till the
 piecipitate .s redlssolved, and no longer.  To obviate
 the possibility of any excess of ammonia, a small quan-
 tity of the  precipitate  may be left undissolved.  To
 apply tins test, nothing more is required than to dip a
 rod of glass into this liquor,  and then touch xvith it the
 surface of a solution supposed to contain arsenic, which
 will be indicated by a yellow precipitate.
   Sy Ivestcr has objected to this  test, that it will not
 pioduce the expected appearance, when common salt
 ,s present.  He has, therefore, proposed the red acetate
 of iron as a better test of arsenic, xvith xvhich it forms
 a bright-yelloxv deposite; or the acetate of copper, which
 affords a green precipitate.   Of tiie two, he recom-
 mends the latter  in  preference,  but adxises that both
 should be resorted  to in  doubtful cases.  Dr. Marcet,
 hoxvever, has replied, that tlie objection  arising from
 the presence of common salt is essily obviated ;  for if
 .t  little ailuted nitric acid be added to  the suspected
 liquid, and then nitrate of silver vc i y cautiously till the
 precipitate ceases, the muriate 2nd will he removed,
 but the a-rscnic xvill remain in solution, and the ad-
 dition of ammonia-will produce the yellow piecipitate
 in  its characteristic form.  It is scarcely necessary to
 add,  that the quantity of ammonia must be sufficient to
 saturate any excess of nitric  acid, which  the fluid may
 contain.
   A  more important objection to nitrate of silver as a
 test of arsenic is, that it affords, xvitii tlie alkaline phos-
 phates, a precipitate of phosphate of silx-er, scarcely
 distinguishable by its colour  from the arseniate of that
 metal. In ansxver to this, it is alleged by Hume, that
 ■the arsonite of silver may be discriminated by a curdy
 or flocculent figure, resembling lliat of  fresh precipi-
 tated muriate of silver, except that its colour is yellow;
 while the phosphate is smo<i.*i and homogeneous.  The
 lietter to discriminate thest txvo arsenites, he advises
 two  parallel experiments to be made, upon separate
 pieces of clean writing-paper, spreading  on tlie  one  a
 little of the fresh prepared arsenite, and on the other a
 tittle of the phosphate.  When these are suffered to
 irv,  the phosphate vx-Hl  gradually assume  a  black
 colour, or nearly so, whHe the arsenite will pass from
 its original vivid yelloxv to an Indian yelloxv, or nearly
 a fawn colour.
   Dr. Paris conducts the trial in thefolloxving manner:
 Drop  tlie suspected fluid on a piece of white paper,
 making xvitii it a broad line; along this line a stick of
 lunar caustic is to be sloxvly draxvn several limes suc-
 cessively, when a streak xvill appear of tlie colour re-
 sembling that  knoxvn by the name of Indian yellow.
 This is equally produced by arsenic and by an alkaline
 phosphate, but the one from arsenic is  rough, curdy,
 and flocculent, like lhat from a crayon ; that from  a
 phosphate is homogeneous and uniform, resembling  a
 xvater colour laid smoothly on xvitii a brush.   But a
 more important and distinctive peculiarity soon suc-
ceeds ; for in less than two minutes the phosphoric  yel-
 loxv fades  into a sad green, and  becomes gradually
 darker, and ultimately quite black, while on the other
 hand the arsenic yellow continues permanent, or nearly
 so, for some time, and  then  becomes brown.  In  per-
forming this   experiment,  tlie  sunshine should be
 avoided, or the change of colour  will take place too
 rapidly,  (.fun. of Phil.  x.  GO.)   The author of the
 Lc ndou Dispensatory adds, that the test is improved
 by brushing the streak  lightly over xvitii  liquid ammo-
 nia immediately after the application of tlie  caustic,
 when, if arsenic be piesent, a bright queen's yellow is
produced, which remains permanent for nearly an
hour; but. that when lunar  caustic produces  a  while
yellow before the  ammonia  is applied, xve may infer
ihe presence of some alkaline phosphate rather than
jf arsenic.
  G.  Smithson proposes to fist- any powder suspected
to  couUiiu ar-i/euic ivilh nitre; this produces orae:uaie,
 of pornss-n, of wliich  the solution affords a fcrick-red
 precipitate xvith nitrate of silver.   In cases where any
 sensible portion of the alkali of* the nitre has been s-:i
 free, it must be saturated  witli acetous acid, and the
 saline mixture  dried  and redissolved  in  xvater.  So
 small is the quantify of" arsenic required for this  mode
 of trial, that a drop of solution of oxide of arsenic ii
 xvater (xvhicli, at 54° 0f Fahr. may be estimated  I i
 contain  one-eightieth its xveight  of the oxide), mixed
 xvith a little nitrate of potassa, and fused in a planum.
 spoon, atfntds a very sensible quantity of arseniate ol
 silver.   (Ann. of Phil. N. S. iv. 127.)
   II.  Dr. Cooper, President of Columbia College, find:
 a solution of chromate of potassa to be one of the In si
 tests of arsenic.  One drop is turned  green by  il;e
 fourth of a grain of aisenic, by txvo or three drops e:
 Fowler's mineral solution, or any otlier arsenite of po-
 tassa.  The arsenious acid  takes oxygen  from  ihe
 chromic, which is converted  into oxide  of clnoii e
 To exhibit the  effect, take five watch-glasses ; put on
 one, txvo or three drops of a xvatery solution of xvhile
 arsenic; on the second, as  much arsenite of poliis'.a;
 on the third, one-fourth of a grain of xvhite arsenic   i
 substance; on the fourth, two or three drops of a -o
 lulion of corrosive sublimate ; on the fifth,  txvo or llnce
 drops of a solution ol" copper. Add to each three or (<■■;,-
 dropsof a solution of chromate of potassa.  in hah ..n
 hour, a bright, clear, grass-green colour xvill appear  in
 numbers 1, 2, 3, unchangeable by ammonia; number
 4 xvill instantly exhibit an orange precipitate; aud iiliii-
 ber 5 a green, which a drop of ammonia will instantly
 change to blue.  (Silliman'e American Journal, iii.)
   I. But the  most decisix-e mode of determining the
 presence of arsenic (xvhich, though not  absolutely in-
 dispensable, should alxvays be resorted  to, xvhen ttie
 suspected substance can be obtained in sufficient quan-
 tity) is by reducing it to a metallic state; for its charac-
 ters are then clear and unequivocal.  For this purpose,
 let a portion of  ihe white sediment, collected from the
 contents ofthe stomach, be dried aud mixed xvith thice
 times ils weight of black  flux; or if this cannot be pro-
 cured, x\ ilh two parts of very dry carbonate of potass
 (the salt of tartar of the shops), and one of poxvdered
 charcoal.  Dr. Bostock finds, that for this  mixture xve
 may advantageously substitute one composed of half a
 grain of charcoal, and two drops of oil, lo a  grain of the
 sediment.   Procure a tube eight or nine inches  long,
 and one-fourth or one-sixth of an inch iu diameter, of
 thin glass, sealed  hermetically at one end.  Then put
 into the tube the mixture of the powder and  its  flux.
 and if any should adhere to the inner surface, let il be
 iviped oil"  by a feather, so that the  inside of all tlie
 upper  part of the tube may be quite clean and dry.
 Stop tlie end of the tube loosely, xvilh a little paper, aid
 heat the sealed end only, on  a  chafing-dish of red-hot
 coals, taking care to avoid breathing the funics.  The
 arsenic, if  present, xvill rise to the upper  part of the
 tube, on the inner surface of xvhicli it xvill  form a tlein
 brilliant  coating.  Break the tube, and scrape off the
 reduced metal.  Lay a little on a heated iron, when,:'
 ii  be  arsenic, a  dense smoke will arise, and a stio..,*
 smell of garlic xvill be perceived.   The aisenic may I,
 further identified, by putting a small quantity betxvi c.,
 txvo polished plates of copper,  surrounding it  by pow-
 dered charcoal,  to prevent its  escape,  binding  the e
 tightly together  by iron wire, and exposing them lo a
 low red heat.   If the included substances be arsenic, a
 xvhite stain will be left on the copper.
  K. It may be proper to observe, that neither the  stain
 on  copper, nor the odour of garlic, is produced by the
 white oxide of arsenic, xvhen heated  xvithout the ml
 dition of some inflammable ingredient.  The  nbsc.-xc
 of arsenic  must not, therefore,  be inferred, if no sun .1
 should be occasioned by laying the while poxvder o:i i
 lieated iron.
  Dr. Black ascertained that all the necessary expen
 ments, for Ihe detection of arsenic, may be made on a
single grain of the white oxide;  this small  quantify
 having produced, xvhen heated in a lube with its proper
flux, as much of the metal as clearly established  t:s
presence.
  If the quantity of arsenic in the stomach should be s<
small, xvhich is not very probable, as to occasion death,
and yet  to  remain suspended  in the xvashings,  the
 ivhoiie contents, and the xvater employed to xvash then!
 must be filtered, and the clear liquor assayed  foi ar»e
 uic bv ifue tests 1>, C, I), and E.
                                         107 
IPO I
V
   In this case, it  is necessary to be careful that the
 eolour of the precipitate is not modified by that of the
 liquid found  in the stomach.  If" this be yellow, the
 precipitate by sulphate of copper and carbonate of po-
 tassa  xvill appear green,  even though  no arsenic  bo
 present; but  on  leaving it to settle, decanting off tlie
 rluid, and replacing it  xvith water, it will evidently be
 blue xvithout any tinge of green, being no longer seen
 through a yellow medium.—(Dr. Paris./
   The  liquid contents of the stomach  may also  be
 evaporated  to dryness beloxv 250° Fahr. and  the dry
 mass be exposed  to heat at  the bottom of a Florence
 fiask, to sublime the arsenic.  If dissolved in  an oily
 fluid, Dr. Ure proposes to boil  the  solution  xvith dis
 tilled xvater, and  afterward to separate  the oil by the
 capillary action of wick threads.   The walery  fluid
 may then be subjected  to the usual tests
   In an investigation, the evcutof which is to affect tho
 life of an accused person, it is the duty of every one
 who may prepare himself to give evidence, not to rest
 satisfied with the appearances produced  by any one
 lest of arsenic; but to render its presence quite un-
 equivocal by the concurring results of several.
   Discovery  of  corrosive sublimate,  baryta,  Sec.—
 Corrosive sublimate (the bichloride or oxymuriate of
 mercury,) next to arsenic, is tlie most virulent of the
 metallic poisons.   It may be collected by treating the
 contents of  the stomach  iu the  manner already de-
 scribed ; but as  it is  more soluble  than aisenic, viz.
 in about nineteen  times its weight of xvater, no more
 water musi  be employed than is barely sufficient, and
 the washings must be carefully preserved for examina-
 tion.
   If a poxvder should  be collected by this operation,
 xvhich proves, on examination, not to  be arsenic, it
 may be known to be corrosive sublimate by the follow-
 ing characters:
   A. Expose a small  quantity of it, xvithout any ad-
 mixture, to heat in a coated glass tube,  as directed in
the treatment of arsenic.   Corrosive sublimate will be
 ascertained  by its rising  to the top of tlie  tube, lining
the inner surface in the form of a shining white crust.
   B. Dissolve another  portion in distilled xvater;  and
it  may be proper to observe how much of the salt the
water is capable of taking up.
  C. To the watery solution  add a little lime-water.
A  precipitate of an orange yelloxv colour xvill instantly
 appear.
   D. To another  portion of the solution add a single
drop of a dilute solution of" sub-carbonate of potassa
(salt of tartar). A xvhite precipitate xvill appear;  but,
ori a still further addition of alkali, an orange-coloured
sediment will be formed.
   E. The caibonate of soda has similar effects.
   F. Sulphuretted xvater throws doxvn a dark-colour-
ed sediment, which, when dried  and strongly heated,
 is  wholly volatilized, without any odour of garlic.
   For  the detection of corrosive  sublimate, Sylvester
has recommended the application of galvanism, which
exhibits the  mercury in a metallic state.  A piece of
 zinc xvire, or if that cannot be had, ol" iron wire aboul
three inches long, is to  be txvice bent at right angles, so
 si i to resemble the Greek letter n.  The txvo legs of
 this  figure should he distant aboul  the diameter of a
couiinon gold wedding-ring  from each other, nnd the
 two ends of the bent wire must afterward be tied  to a
 ring of this description. Let a plate of glass, not  less
 than three inches square, be laid as_nearly horizontal
 tt ^ possible, and on one side drop sonic sulphuric acid,
 f'.luted with about six  limes its xveight of water, till it
spreads to the size of a halfpenny.  At a little distance
from this,  towards the other side, next drop some of
 I': e solution  supposed  to contain corrosive sublimate,
till the edges of the two liquids join together; and let
 f  e xvire and  ring prepared as above belaid in such a
 way that  the xvire may touch the acid, while the gold
 r.'v:  is  in contact with the  suspected liquid.   If the
 i mutest quantity of corrosive sublimate be present,
 I'.e ring in a  fexv  minutes  xvill be cox-ered xvitii mer-
 cury on the part xvhicli touched ihe fluid.
   Smithson  remarks,  lhat all the  oxides and  saline
 compounds  of mercury,  if laid  in a drop of marine
 acid on gold, xvitii u bit of tin, quickly amalgamate the
 Wold.   Ii'i this way, a  x-ery minute quantity of  corro-
 sive sublimate, or a drop of Its solution may be tried,
 and  no addition  of muriatic  ncid  Is ihen required.
 Quantities of mercury may this be rendered evident.
       l'J8
  xvhich could not be so by any other means.  Even the
  mercury of cinnabar  may  be exhibited;  but it must
  previously be boiled with a  little  sulphuric acid in a
  platinum spoon, to convert it into sulphate.  An ex
  ceedingly minute quanti / of metallic mercury in any
  powder may be diseove.-ed by placing it in nitric acid
  on gold, drying, and adding muriatic acid and tin.
    Th" only mineral  poison of greal virulence mat hag
  not  Deen mentioned, and which, from its being Utile
  known to act as such, it is very improbable xve should
  meet with, is the caibonate  of baryta.  This, in the
  country where it is  found, is employed as a poison for
  rots, and there  can be no doubt xvould be equally de-
  structive to human life.  It may be discovered by dis-
  solving it in  muriatic acid, and by ihe insolubility of
  the precipitate which this solution yields on adding sul-
  phuric acid, or sulphate of soda.  Soluble barytic salts,
  if these have been the means of poison, xvill be con-
  tained in the xvater employed lo wash the contents of
  the stomach, and will be detected, on adding sulphuric
  acid, by a copious precipitate.
    It  may be proper to observe, that the failure  of al
  tempts to discover poisonous substances in the alirnen
 tary  canal after death, is by no means a sufficient proof
 lhat death has  not been occasioned by poison,  lor it
 has been clearly established, by experiments made on
 animals, that a poison may be so completely evacuated,
 that no traces of it shall be found, and  yet tiiat death
 may  ensue  from the  morbid changes xvhich it has
 occasioned  in the alimentary canal, or in tiie general -
 system.
   Method of detecting copper or  lead.—Copper and
 lead sonietimes gain admission into articles of food, in
 consequence of the employment of kitciien utensils of
 these materials.
   1.  If copper be suspected in any liquor, its presence
 will be ascertained by adding  a solution of pure am-
 monia, which xvill strike a beautiful blue colour.  If
 the solution be very  dilute, it may be concentrated by
 evaporation ;  and if  the liquor contain a considerable
 excess of acid, like  that  used  to preserve pickles, aa
 much of the alkali must be added as is more than suf-
 ficient to saturate tlie acid.   In this, and all otlier ex-
 periments of the same kind, the fluid should be viewed
 by reflected, and not by transmitted light.
   If  into a newly prepared linctureof guaiacum xvood
 xve drop  a  concentrated  olution of a  salt of copper,
 tiie mixture instantly  assumes a blue colour.   This
 effect does not  take  place when the solution is very
 xveak, for example,  when there is  not abox-e half a
 grain of the salt to anounce of xvater;  but then, by the
 addition of a few drops of prussic acid, the blue colour
 is  instantly developed of great purity and intensity.
 This  colour is  not permanent, hut  soon passes lo a
 green, and at length  totally disappears.  For xx ant of
 prussic acid, distilled  laurel-water  may be employed.
 The test produces its effect, even xvhen ihe proportion
 of the  salt  of copper to the water does not exceed
 l-450O0th.   In this minute  proportion  no other test
 whether the prussiate of  potassa, soda, or ammonia!
 gives the least indication of copper.—(Quart. Journ
 x. 18-2.)
   2. Lead is occasionally  found, iu suflicient quantity
 to  be injurious  to health, in water that has  passed
 through  leaden  pipes, or been  kept  in  leaden vessels
 nnd sometimes even in pump-water,  iu consequence of
 that metal having been used in the constiiiction of the
 pump.  Acetate of lead has also been known to be
 fraudulently added to bad  xvines, xvith tbe view of con-
 cealing their defects.
   Lead may be  discovered by adding, to a portion of
 the suspected  water, about half its bulk of xvater im-
 pregnated xvith sulphuretted hydrogen seas.  If lead _e
 present,  it xvill  be manifested by  a dark  broxvn  oi
 blackish, tinge.  This  test is so delicate, that xvater
 condensed by  the leaden  worm of a still-tub, is sensi-
 bly affected by it. Lead  is  also delected by a similai
 effect ensuing or the  addition of sulphuret of ammo-
 nia, or potassa.
   The adequacy of this metliod, hoxvever, to the dis-
 covery of very minute quantities of lead, lias been set
 aside by the experiments  of Dr. Lamb*;, the author of
 a skilful analysis of the springs of Leamington Priors
 near  Warwick.   By nexv methods of examination, he
 has detected the presence of lead  in several spring-
 waters, that manifest no change on the addition of the
. sulohuretted test; at d has found that metal in tbe pre 
POl
POL
 clpitate, sepaiatcd from such waters by the carbonate
 nf potassa or of soda.  In operating on these xvaters,
 Dr Lambe noticed the following appearances:
   a. The test forms  sometimes a dnrk cloud, xvith the
 precipitate aff-cted by alkalies, whicli lias been redis-
 solved in nitric acid.
   b. Though it forms, in other cases, no cloud, the pre-
 cipitate itself becomes darkened by the sulphuretted test.
   c. The test forms  a xvhite cloud, treated  xvith the
 precipitate  as in a.  These txvo appearances may be
 united.
   d. Tlie test neither forms a cloud, nor darkens the
 precipitate.
   e. In the cases 4, e, «*, heat the precipitate, in con-
 tact xvith an alkaline carbonate, to redness; dissolve
 out the caibonate  by  xvater:  and treat the precipitate
 as in a.  The sulphuretted test then forms a dark cloud
 xvith the solution of the  piecipitate.  In these experi-
 ments, it is essential that the acid, used to redissolve
 the precipitate, shall not be in excess; and if it should
 so happen, that  excess must  be  saturated before  the
 ■est is applied.   It is  belter to use so little acid, that
 some of the precipitate may remain undissolved.
  /. Instead  of the- process e, the precipitate may be
 exposed, xvithout  addition, to a red heat, and then
 treated  as in a.  In this  case, the test xvill detect the
metallic mailer; bul xvitii less certainty than the fore-
going one.
   The nitric acid, used in these experiments, should be
perfectly Dure; and the  test  should be recently pre-
 pared by saturating xxater xvitii sulphuretted hydrogen
tas.  A fexv dropsof nitric acid added to a xvater con-
taining lead, xvhicli has been reduced to l-8th or l-10th
 its bulk by evaporation, and then folloxved by the addi-
tion of a fexv drops of hydriodate of totassa, produces
 a yelloxv insoluble precipitate.
   Another mode of analysis, employed by Dr. Lambe,
consists in precipitating ihe lead  toy solution of com-
 mon salt; but as-muriate of lead is partly soluble  in
 xvater, this test cannot be applied to small portions of
 suspected xvater.  The precipitate must be, therefore,
 collected, from two or three gallons, and heated to red-
 ness with txvice its weight of carbonate of soda.  Dis-
 solve  out the soda;  add nitric  acid, saturating any
 superfluity;  and then  apply the sulphuretted test.
 Sulphate of soda xvould be found more effectual in this
 process than the muriate, on account ofthe greater in-
solubility of sulphate  of lead.  This properly, indeed,
 renders sulphate of soda an excellent  test of the pre-
sence of lead, xvhen  held in  solution by  acids, for it
throxvs down that  metal, even xvlien present in very
small quantity, in the form of a heavy white precipi-
tate, xvhich is nol soluble by acetic acid.
   The  third process, which is  the most satisfactory of
all, and is very easy, except for the trouble of collect-
ing a large quantity of precipitate, is the actual reduc-
tion of the metal, and its exhibition inn separate fonn.
The precipitate may be mixed xvith its own weight of
alkaline carbonate, and exposed either xvilh or xvithout
the addition  of a small  proportion of charcoal, lo a
heat sufficient to melt  the alkali.  On breaking tlie
crucible, a small clobule of lead xvill be found reduced
at the bottom. Tlie precipitate from about fifty gajjons
of water yielded Dr.  Lambe,  in  one instance,  about
txvo grains of lead.
   For discoverinti the presence of lead  in  xvine, a test
 invented by Dr. Hahnemann, and knoxvn by the title of
 Hahnemann's xvine test, may be employed.  This test
 is prepared by putting togellicr, into a small phial, six-
 teen grains of sulphuret of lime, prepared in the diy
 xvay (by exposing to a red heat, in a covered crucible,
 equal weights of poxvdered lime and sulphur, accurate-
 ly mixed), and twenty grains of bitarlrate of potassa
 (cream of tartar).  The phial is to be filled witli water,
 xvell corked,  and occasionally shaken for the space of
 ten minutes.  When  the poxvder lias subsided, decani
 the clear liquor, and preserve it,  in a xvell stopped bot-
 tle, for use.  The liquor, when  ficph prepared, dis-
covers lead by a dark coloured precipitate. A further
 proof of the presence of lead inxvines is ihe occurrence
of a precipitate on adding a solution ofthe sulphate of
soda.
   Sylvester has proposed the gallic acid as an excellent
test "of the presence of lead.
  The quantity of lead, xvhicli has been detected in so-
 phisticated xvine, may be estimated at forty grains of
 tlie metal in every fifty galloi'"-
   When n considerable quantity of acetate of lead has
 been taken  into the stomach ias sometimes, owing  tu
 its sweet taste, happens to children), after the exhibi-
 tion of an active emetic, thehydro-sulphuretof potassa
 or of ammonia may beieiven ; or probably a solutionol
 sulphate of soda ^Glauber's salt) would render  it in-
 noxious."— Henry's (hem.
   l'ai..on-e>ak.  See U/ius toxicodendron.
   POLEMO'MUM.  (An ancient name derived from
 iroXtpos, xvar: bei-tmsc, according to Pliny, king- had
 contended  for the  honour of its discovery.)  1. The
 name of a  genus of plants iu  the  Linna-an  system
 Class, Pentandria; Order, Monogynia.
   2. Wild sage, or  Teucrium scorodonia of Linna-us.
   Polkmonr'm i luci.iscm.  The systematic name of
 Ihe Greek valerian, or Jacob's ladder, the mot of xvhicli
 is esteemed  by some as a good astringent against dial
 rhu-as and dysentery.
   rOLEY-MOUNTALV  See  Teucrium.
   POL IOSIS .(From 7roXr>c, candidus, xvhite or hoary.,
 The specific name of a species of Trichosis  in Good's
 arrangement, iu xvhicli the hairs are  piem.'iturely gray
 or hoary.
   PO'LIUM.  (From -toAmj, xvhite:  so called from its
 xvhile capillaments.)  Foley.  'Teucrium of Linnaeus.
   Pol.il M CKK ill I'M.   See Teucrium creticum.
   Folium mo.mxm m.   Si--  'Teucrium  capitatum
   POLLEN.  (Pollen, mis. n.; fine  flour,  or dust.)
Tlie poxvder xvhicli  adheres to the nnlhers of the flow-
ers of plants, and which is contained  in the anther, and
is thrown out chiefly in xvarm, dry xveather, xvhen the
coat of the latler contracts  aid bursts.  The jmiIIch,
though to Ihe  naked eye a fine poxvder, and  light
enough to be wafted along by the air,  is so curiously
formed, and so various iu different plants, us to be an
interesting  and  popular  object for the  microscope.
 Each grain of it is commonly a membranous bag, round
or angular, rougli or smooth, xvhich remains entire till
it meets xvilh any moisture,  being contrary in  this re-
spect to the nature  of the anther; then it bursts xvith
great force, discharging its subtile and vivifying vapour
   In the  Hclianthus annuus, the pollen  is cchiiutte
   In Geraniums,  perforate.
   Tlie pollen of Symphatum  is didymous
   That of the Mullow, dtntate.
   It is angulale in Viola niorata.
   Reniforme in Narcissi.s ;  and
   In Borago, convolute.
  POLLEN1N.   Tiie pollen of tulips has been ascer
taiued by Professor John to contain a peculiar sub-
stance, insoluble  in alkohol, aether, xvater, oil  of tur
pontine,  naphtha, carbonated  and  pure alkalies; ex-
tremely combustible, burning xvitii  great  rapidity and
flame; and hence used at the theatres to imitate light-
ning.
  POLLEX. The thumb, or great toe.
  POLYADELPHIA.   (From iroXuc, many, and aStX
$ta, a brotherhood.)  The name of a class of plants in
the sexuid system of Linna-us, embracing plants with
hermaphrodite flowers, iu xvhicli several stamina arc
united  by their filaments  into three  or more distinct
bundles.
  POLY A'NDRIA.  (From iro>uc, many, and  avrio, a
husband.)  The name of a class of plants in the sexual
system ot Linnieus.  It consists of plants xvith hermaph-
rodite  floxvers, furnished xvilh  several stamina,  thn'
are inserted into the common receptacle of ihe floxx-er
by which circumstance this class is distinguished  from
Icosandria, in xvhich thestrikingcharacter is the situa-
tion of the stamina on the calyx or petals.
   POLYCHRE'STUS.   (From tzoXvs,  much, and
Xpriyoc, useful.)  Having many virtues, or uses.  Ap-
plied fo many medicines from their extensive  useful-
ness.
  POLYCHROITE.  The colouring matter of saffron.
  POLYDIPSIA.  (From  noXuc, much, and ti\p?,
thirst.)  Excessive thirst.  A genus of" disease iu the
Class Locales, and Order Dysorexia, of Cullen.  It is
mostly symptomatic of fever, dropsy,  excessive dis
charges, or poisons.
   POLY'GALA.  (FromejoAvc,much,andyaXu,milk.
so named from the abundance of its  milky juice.)  I
Tlie name of n genus of plants in the Linnaean syvi.n
Class, Diadclphia;  Order, Or.tandria.
  2. The pharmacopceial  name  of the  c  mmon milJi
ivort.  See Polygala vulgaris.
  Polyoma am.vua. This isa remarkably bitter plan
                                         I9:i 
POL                                             POL
 and, though not used in this country, promises to be as
 efficacious as those in greater repute.  It has been given
 freely in phthisis pulmonalis, and, like other remedies,
 failed in producing a cure; yet, as a palliative, it claims
 attention.  Its virtues are balsamic, demulcent, and
 corroborant.
   Polygala. senega.  The systematic name of the
 rattlesnake milk-wort.  Seneka.   Polygala—fioribus
 impcrbibus spicatis, caule credo herbaceo simplicis-
 simo, foliis ovato lanceolatis, of Linnaeus.  The root
 of this plant xvas formerly much esteemed as a specific
 against the poison of the rattlesnake, and as au anti-
 phlogistic iu pleurisy, pneumonia, &c.; but it is now
 very much laid aside.  Its dose is from ten to txventy
 grains ; but xvhen employed, it is generally used in the
 form of decoction, which, when prepared according to
 tiie formula of the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia, may bo
 given every second or third hour.
   Polygala vulgaris.   The systematic name of the
 common milk-wort. The root of this  plant is some-
 xvhat similar in taste to that of tlie seneka, but much
 weaker.   The leaves are  very bitter, and a handful of
 them, infused  in wine, is  said to be a safe and gentle
 puree.
   POLYGA'MIA.  (From jtoXuj, many, and yapos, a
 marriage.)  Polygamy.  The name of a class of plants
 in tlie sexual  system of Linnaeus, consisting of poly-
 gamous plants, or plants  having hermaphrodite floxv-
 ers,  aud likewise male and female flowers, or both.
 The orders of this division are according to the beauti-
 ful uniformity or  plan xvhicli runs through this inge-
 nious system, distinguished upon the principles of tlie
 Classes Monacia, Diacia, and Triacia.   It lias  the
 live following orders:
   I.  Polygamia aqualis.   The name of an order of
 Class Syngenesia, of the sexual system of plants.  The
 florets aie all perfect or united, that is, each furnished
 with perfect stamens.
  2.  Polygamia frustranca.  Florets of the disk, xvitii
 stamens aud pistil:  tliose  of the radius with merely an
 abortive pistil, or xvitii not even the rudiments of any.
  H.  Polygamia nccessaria.  Florets of the disk with
 stamens only, those  ofthe radius with pistils only.
  4. Polygamia segregata. Several floxvers, either sim-
 p.e or compound,  but xvitii united anthers, and xvitii a
 proper calyx, included iu one common calyx.
  5.  Polygamia superflua.  Florets of" tiie disk, xx ith
 stamens and  pistil: those of the radiusxvith pistil only,
 but each, of both kinds, forming perfect seed.
  POLYGONA'TUM.  (From tzohvs, many,and yovv,
 a joint: so named from its numerous joints or knots.)
 Solomon's seal.  See Coiivallnriapolygonatum.
  POLY'GONUM.   (From zzoXvs,  many, and yovv, a
 joint: so named fiom its numerous joints.)   The name
 of a genus of plants in the Linnaean system.   Class,
 Or.tandria; Order, Trigynia.  Knot-grass.
  Polygonum aviculake. The systematic name of
 the knot-grass.  Ctntttmnodia; Polygonum latifolium;
 Polygonum mas; Sanguinaria.  'Ihis plant is never
 used in this country; it is raid to be useful in stopping
 haemorrhages, diarrhoeas, &.c.; but little credit is to be
 given to this account.
  Polygonum dacciferum.  A species of equisetum,
 or horse-tail.
  Polygonum bistorta.   The systematic name of the
 officinal bistort.  Bistorta.   Polygonum—caule sim-
 plicissimo movostachio, fuliis ovatis in petiolum decur-
 rentibus, of  Linnaeus.  This plant is a native of Rii-
 tain.  Every part manifests a degree of stypticity to the
 taste, and the  root is esteemed to be one of the mosl
 poxverful of  the vegetable astringents, and  frequently
 made use of as such, iu disorders proceeding  from a
 laxity nnd debility of the  solids, for restraining alvine
 fluxes, after due evacuations, and  otlier preternatural
discharges, both serous and sanguineous.  It has been
sometimes given in intermitting fevers; and sometimes
also, iu small doses, as a corroborant and antiseptic, in
 acute malignant and colliquative fevers;  in which in-
 tentions Peruvian bark lias noxv deservedly superseded
 both these and till other adsiringeiits.  The common
dose of bistort root in substance, is fifteen or twenty
grains: in urgent cases it is extended to adiachni.   Its
astringent matter is totally dissolved both by xvater and
 rectified spirits.
  Polyoonu.m  DiVAiitc.iTfM.   The systematic name
of the eastern buckxvheat plant.  The roots, reduced
 to a coarse meal, are the oidinaryfoodof the Sibetians.
      -200
   Polygonum fagopyrum.  The systematic name «*f
 the buckwheat.  The grain of this plant  constitutes
 the principal food of the  inhabitants of Russia, Ger
 many and Switzerland.
   Polygonum hydroi-iper.  The systematic namcol
 the poor man's pepper. Hydropiper. Bitingarse-smait;
 Lake-xveed ; Water-pepper.  This plant is very com-
 mon in our ditches ;  the leaves have an acrid, burning
 taste, and seem to be nearly of the same nature xvitii
 those of tlie arum.   They have been recommended as
 possessing antiseptic, aperient, diuretic virtues,  and
 given  in scurvies and cachexies, asthmas, hypochon-
 driacal and nephritic complaints, and wandering gout.
 The first leaves have been applied externally, as a sti-
 mulating cataplasm.
   Polygonum latifolium. Common knot-grass.  See
 Polygonum avtcularc.
   Polygonum  mas.  See Polygonum avicitlare.
   Polygonum  minus.   Rupture-xvort.  See Hernia-
 ria glabra.
   Polygonum  persicaria. The systematic name of
 Ihe Persicaria of the old pharmacopoeias.   Persicaria
 mitis;  Plumbago.  Arse-smart.   This plant is said to
 possess vulnerary  and antiseptic  properties;  with
 xvhich intentions it is given in xvine to restrain the pro-
 gress of gangrene.
   Polygonum  selunoides.  Parsley breakstone.
   POLYPODIUM.   (From zzoXvs, many,  and irovs,
 a  foot: so called because it has many roots.*;  The
 name of a genus of plants in  the Linnaean system.
 Class,  Cryptogamia; Order, Filices.  Fern, or poly-
 pody.
   Polypodium aculeatum.  Filix aculeata.  Spear-
 pointed fern.   Fallen into disuse.
   Polypodium filix mas.   Aspidium filix mas, of
 Dr. Smith ; Pteris;  Blancnon;  Orbasii;   Lonchitis.
 Male  polypody, or fern.   The  root of this plant has
 been greatly celebrated for its effects upon ihe tania
 osculis superficialibus,or broad tape-worm.   Madame
 Noufer acquired great celebrity by employing it  as a
 specific. This secret xvas thought of such importance
 by some ofthe principal physicians at Paris, xvho xvere
 deputed to make a complete trial of its efficacy, that
 it  xvas  purchased by the French  king, and  aflerxvard
 published by his  order.  Tlie method of  cure is the
 folloxving:—After the patient has been prepared by an
 emollient glyster, and a supper of panada, xvith butter
 and salt, he is directed to take in the morning, xvhile
 iu bed, a dose of txvo or three drachms of the poxvder-
 ed root of the male fern.  The poxvder must  be xvashed
 down xx ith a draught of water, and, txvo hours after, a
 strong cathartic, composed of calomel and scammony,
 is  to be given,  proportioned to tiie strength  of Ihe pa
 tient.   If this docs not operate in due time, it is to be
 folloxved by a dose of purging salts, and if the xvonn
 he not expelled in a few hours, this process is to be re-
 peated at proper intervals.   Of the success  of this, or
 a  similar mode of treatment, in cases of taenia, there
 can be no doubt, as many proofs in this country afliiid
 sufficient testiiiiony;  but whether  the fern-root or tlie
strong cathartic is the principal agent in the destruc-
tion of the xvonn, may admit of a question; and the
 latter   opinion,  Dr. Woodville believes, is  the more
generally adoplcd by physicians.   It appeals, however
ironi some  experiments made in  Germany, that tlie
 taenia lias, in several instances, been expelled by the
repeated exhibition of tlie root, without the  assistance
of any purgative.
  [Polypodium  barometz.   See Agnus tarta^i.
cus-   A "*
   PO'LYPUS.  (From zzoAvs, many, annzzois, a foet:
from its sending off many ramifications, .'ike .*» -,'s )  1.
The name of a genus of zoophytes.
  2. A species of sarcoma  in Cullen's Nosology.   A
polypus is a tumour,  xvhich is generally  narroxv xvhere
it originates, and then becomes xvider, somexvhat like
a pear.  It  is most commonly met xvith in the noeeo
uterus, or vagina; and has  received its name from nn
erroneous idea, that  it usually had several roots, ol
feet, like zoophyte polypi.
  Polypi vary from each other accordina to the differ-
ent causes that produce them, and the alterations that
happen in thtm.  Sometimes a polypus of the nose is
owing to a swelling of the  pituitary membrane, which
sxvelling may  possess a greater or  less space  of the
membrane, as also its cellular substance, and may affect
cither one or both nostrils.  At olher times it arises 
POM
POll
 from an ulcer produced by a  caries of some of the
 bones which form the internal surface of the nostrils.
 Polypuses  are sometimes so soft, that  upon tho least
 touch they are lacerated, and  bleed; at olhcr  times
 they are very compact,  and even scirrhous.   Some
 continue small a great xvhile; others iucrease so fast
 as, in n short  time, to push out at  the nostrils,  or ex-
 tend backwards toxvards the throat.   Le Drau men-
 tions, that lis  has known them fill up the space hehind
 the uvula,  and, turning toxvards the mouth, have pro-
 truded the fleshy arch of tlie palate so far forxvnrds as
 to  make it parallel xvith the third  denies  molares.
 There are  others xvhich, though at first free from any
 malignant  disposition, become  afterward  carcinoma-
 tous, and even highly cancerous.  Of xvhatever nature
 the polypus is, it  intercepts the passage of tlie air
 through the nostril, and, xvhen large, Ibices Ihe septum
 nanuin into the other nostril, so  that the patient  is
 unable to breathe, unless through the mouth.   A large
 polypus pressing in like manner upon the spongy bones,
 gradually forces them doxvn upon the maxillary bones,
 and thus compresses and stops up the orifice of the
 ductus lachrymalis; nor  is it impossible for the sides
 of" tlie canalis nasalis to be pressed together. In xvhich
 case, the tears, having no passage through ihe nose, the
 eye is kept constantly xx utering, and the sacchus lachry-
 malis, not being able to discharge its contents, is some-
 limes so much dilated as to form what is called a flat
 fistula.  The above xvriler has seen instances of  poly
 puses so much enlarged as to force dawn the ossa palati.
  The polypus ot" the uterus  is of liiree kinds, in re-
 spect to situation.   It either groxvs from  the fundus,
 the inside of tlie cervix, or from the lower edge of the
 03 uteri.  The first case is the most frequent, the Inst
 the most uncommon.  Polypi ofthe uterus are alxvays
 shaped like a pear, and have a thin  pedicle.  They are
 almost invariably  of that species  xvhich is  denomi-
 nated fleshy, hardly ever Uiug  scirrhous,  cancerous,
 or ulcerated.
  3. The coagulated substance which is found in the
 cavities of tlie heart of tho.-e xvho are some lime t«
 arlicnlo mortis, is improperly called a polypus.
  POLYSA'UCIA.   (.Front z;oXvs, much, and  <rapi;,
 flesh.)  Polysomatia; Obcsitas; Corpulcntia;  Stea-
 tites.  Troublesome corpulency, obesity, or fatness.
 A genus of  diseases in the Class Cachexia, and Order
 Intumrscentia, of Culleiu
  POLYSOMA TIA.  (From Eo.**xt>c,much, and aupa,
 a jody.)   See Polysarcia.
  Polyspa stum.   (From zzoXvs,  much,  nnd  orau,
 to draw.)   A  forcible instrunient  for reducing  luxa-
 tions.
  POLYTRI'CHUM.  (From zzoXvs, many, and Opt\,
 hair: so callt d from ils  resemblance to  a xvoman's
 hair, or because, in ancient times, women used to dye
 the hair xvitii it, to keep it from  shedding.)  Polytry-
 con.  1. The name of a genus of plants in the  Lin-
 naean system.  Class, Cryptogamia; Order, Musei.
  2. The phanuacopreial name of the golden maiden-
 hair. See Polytricum commune.
  Polytricu.m commune.  The  systematic name of
 the golden maidenhair.  Adianthum aurcmn.   It pos-
 sesses, in an inferior degree, astringent virtues: and
 xvas formerly given in diseases of the lungs and calcu-
 ous complaints.
  POMACEiE.  (From pnmum, an apple.) The name
 of an order of plants in  Linnieus's Fragments  of a
 Natural Method, consisting  of  tliose which hax-e a
 fruit of a pulpy, esculent, apple, berry, or cherry  kind.
  POMA'CEUM.  (From pomum, an apple.)  Cider,
 or the fermented juice of apple.
  POMEGRANATE.  See Punicagranatum.
  POMPHOLYGO DES.  (From tzouqjoXvl, a bubble,
 tinJ eirJoc, resemblance.)   Urine, with bubbles on the
 surface.
  PO'MPHOLYX.  (From tzoptpos, a bladder.)   1. A
 wnall vesicle, or bubble.
  2. The whitish oxide of zinc,  which adheres to the
covers of the crucibles in making brass, in the form of
amall bubbles.
  PO'MPHOS.  (From iztpcbu,  to  put forth.)   Pom-
pkus.  A bladder, or xvatery pustule.
  POMUM.   1. An apple.
  2.  In botanical distinctions and language this is a
 fleshy pericarpium or seed-vessel, containing a capsule
 within it, withseveral seeds.   lis species are,
  1. Pomum oblongum; us in Pyrus communis-.
   2.  P. bac, atum; a* in Pyrus baccata.
   y.  P. muricatuvi; as iu Momordica trifoliata.
   4.  P.hispidum; as in Momordica elaterium
   The mix cl-like remains is part of the colyx.
   The pomum is comprehended by Cuertucr under the
 different kinds of bacca, it being sometimes scai ceiy pos-
 sible to draxv the line between them.  See Pyrus malus
   Pomui*  adami.   (Pomum, nn  apple: so called in
 consequence of  a xvhinisical supposition, that part of
 the  forbidden  apple  which Adam ate, stuck iu the
 throat, and thus became the cause.) The protuberance
 in the anterior part of Ihe neck, formed by the forepart
 of the thyroid gland.
   Pomum  amoris.  See Solanum lijcopcrsicum.
   Ponderous spar.  See Heavy spar and  Barytes.
   PO NS.   A bridge.  A part of the  brain is so culled
 from its arched appearance.
   Poets varolii. Corpus annulare;  Processus annu-
 laris ; Eminentia annularis.   Varolius's  bridge.  An
 eminence of the medulla oblongata, firsi described by
 Yarolius.  It is  formed by the "txvo exterior crura of
 the  cerebellum  becoming  flattened and passing over
 the crura of the  cerebrum.
   Po stii* vin.x.  Acid, feculent, and tartarous xvines
   Po.ntii im mel.  A  poisonous honey.
   Poor man's pepper.  See  Polygonum  hydropiper,
 and  Lepidtum.
   POPLAR.  See Po;>ulus.
   IO PLFS.  The ham, or joint of the knee.
   POPLITEAL  (Popliteus; fiompoplcs, the ham.)
 A small triangular muscle  lying across ihe back part
 of the knee-joint, is so  called.
   Popliteal artery.  Artrriupoplitea.   The con
 linuntion of the  crural artery, through  tlie hollow o"
 the ham.
   POPPY.  See Fapavcr.
   Poppy, red corn.  See Papaver rhaas.
   Poppy, white.  See Papaver somniferum.
   POPULA'GO. (From populus, the poplar; because
 its leaves resemble those of Ihe poplar.)   See Caltha
 palustris.
   POPULUS.   (From tzoXvs, many; because of tlie
 multitude of its shoots.)  1. The  name of a genus of
 plants iu the Linnaean system. Class,Dixcia; Older
 Octandria.
   2. The pharmacoposial name of the black poplar
 See  Populus nigra.
   Populus dalsamii era.  See Fagara.
   Populus nigra. The systematic nameof the black
 poplar,  ^j-eiros.  The young  buds, oculi, or rudi-
 ments of the leaves, which appear iu the beginning of
 the spring,  xvere  formerly employed in  an officinal oint-
 ment.  At present they are almost entirely disregarded,
 though they should seem, from their sensible qualities,
 to bo applicable lo purposes of some importance.  They
 have u yelloxv, unctuous, odorous, balsamic juice
   Po'rcus.  A name for the pudendum muliebre.
   Pori biliarii. The biliary pores or ducts, that re
ceive the bile from the peuicilli of the liver, and con
 vey it to the hepatic duct.  See Liver.
   PORIFORMIS.  Resembling n pore: applied to a
nectary, xvhen  of that appearance, as  that of the hya-
cinth, xvhicli has three like pores in tlie germen.
  Poroce'le.   (From  tzupos, a callus, and xnXn, a
tumour.)   A hard tumour of any part, but especially
of the testicle.
  Poro'mphalum  (From ewpoe, a callus, and  outba.
Xos, the navel. *>   A hard tumour of Ihe navel
  PORPHYRA.  Dr. Good's name for scurvy.  ete
Scorbutus.
  PORPHYRY.   A compound rock,  having *,  b&sis,
in wliich the otlier contempoi ancous constituent parts
are imbedded.    The base is sometimes  clay-stone,
sometimes hornstone, sometimes compact  felspar • or
pitchstone,  pearlstone,  and  obsidian.   The imbedded
parts are most commonly  felspar and quartz, xvhich
are usually crystallized more or less perfectly, and
hence they appear sometimes granular.  According io
Werner, there  are two distinct porphyry formations j
the oldest occurs in gneiss, in beds of great magnitude;
and also in  mica-slate and  clay-slate.   Betxveen Blall
in Athole  and Dalnacardoch, there !x a very fine ex-
ample of a bed of porphyry-slate in inica.  The second
porphyry formation is  much  more widely extern.'e-i
It consists  principally  of clay porphyry,  while the
former consists chiefly of liornsloiiC porphyry and  el
spar  porphyry.
                                        •Ml 
POT
POl
   t sometimes contains considerable repositories of
ore, in veins.  Gold,  silver, lead, tin, copper, iron, and
manganese occur in it; but chiefly in llie newer por-
phyry, as happens with tlie Hungarian mines.  It  oc-
curs 111 Anan,and in Perthshire betxveerrDalnacardoch
and Tuminel-bridge.
  PORRET.  See Allium porrum.
  PORRI'GO.  (A porrigendo;  from ils  spreading
abroad.)  A disease very couiinon among children, in
whicli the skin of the hairy part of the head becomes
dry and callous, and comes off like bran upon combing
the head.
  PO'RRUM.  See Allium porrum.
  PORTA.   (A portando, because through it tlie blood
is carried to the liver.)  That part of the  liver xvhere
Is vessels enter.
  Port/e vena.  See Vena porta.
  Portaiguille.  The acuieiiaciilum.
  PORTIO.   A portion or branch :  applied lo a nerve.
  Portio dura.  (One branch of tlie seven  pair of
nerves is called portio dura, the hard portion, either
from its being more linn tl.au tlie other, or because it
runs into the hard part of the skull; anil the other the
portio mollis,  or soft portion.)   Facial nerve.  This
nerve arises near the  [ions, from the crus of" the brain,
enters the petrous portion of the temporal bone, gives
off a branch into  the tympanum, xvhich is  called the
chorda tympani, and then proceeds to form the pes an-
serinus on the face, from xvhence the integuments of
the face are supplied xvith nerves.  See Facial  nerve.
  Portio mollis.  Auditory nerve.  Acoustic nerve.
This  nerve  arises from tlie medulla oblongata  and
fourth ventricle of the brain, enters the petrous portion
nf the temporal bone, and is distributed on tlie  internal
ear, by innumerable branches, not only to  the cochlea,
but also to the membrane lining the vestibulum  anil
semicircular canals,  and is  the immediate organ of
hearing.
  Portland powder.   A celebrated gout  remedy.   It
consists of various bitters ; principally of hoarhound,
bitluvort, the  tops and leaves  of germander,  ground-
pine, ami centaury, dried, poxvdered, and sifted.  It is
now fallen into disuse.
  Portora'rium.   (From  porta, a door; because it
is, as it xvere, the door or entrance of the intestines.)
The riL'ht orifice of the stomach.
  PORTULA'CA.  (From porta, to carry, and  lac,
milk; because it iucreases the animal  milk.)  1. The
name of a genus  of plants in  the Linnaean  system.
Class, Dodecandria; Older, Digynia.
  2. The pharmacopceial name of the purslane.  See
Portulaca vleracea.
  Portuuca  oleracea.  The  systematic name of
the eatable purslane.   Andrachnc; Allium gallicum.
The plant xvhich is so called iu dietetical and  medical
writings, abounds xvitii a watery and somewhat acid
juice, and is often put into soups,or pickled xvitii spices.
It is said to be  antiseptic and aperient.
  PO'RUS.  A pore or duct.  A term used in anatomy,
and botany; the pores ofthe  skin; and  particularly
applied  in botany to the small puncture-like openings
in the inferior  surface of the  genus Boletus.
  Po'sia.  Vinegar and xvater mixed.
  POSSE'TUM.  Posset.   Milk curdled  with xvine,
ireacle, or any acid.
  POSTE'RIOR.  Parts are so named from their re-
lative situation.
  Postkrior  annularis.   Musculus posterior annu-
laris.  An  external  inferosseal muscle of the hand,
that e.-.iends and draxvs the ring-finger inwards.
  Posterior  auris.   See Rctrahentes auris.
  Posterior  ini>Ii:IS.   Musculus posterior  indicis.
An internal  inteiosseal muscle  ofthe hand, that ex-
.vnds the fore-finger obliquely, and draxvs it outwards.
  Posterior  medii.  An  external Interosseal  muscle
of the hand, that extends ihe middle finger, and draws
it outward*.
  POTA.MiJGEI'TON.  (From tzorapos,  a  river, and
yttruv,  adjacent: to named because il mows about
rivers.)  The name of  a genus  of plants  iu the Lin-
nrcan  system.  Clans,  Tetrandria; Order, Tetragynia.
  POTASH.   See Potassa.
  POTASS \.  [Potassa, a. f.; so  called from the
pots, oi  vessels, in whicli it xvas first made.)  Vegetable
nlkali: so called because it is obtained in an  impure
elate  hy the  incineration  of  vegetables.    Potass;
Potash : Kali.  An hydrnted protoxide of potassium
      H)2
 Table, of '* saline product of one thousand pounds *f
        ashy of the following vegetables ;—
                  Saline products.
 Stalks of  Turkey wheat or l  10g !bg
  maise,..................S
 Stalks of sun-flower,......... 349
 Vine brandies,..............  162.6
 Elm,........................  166
 Box,.......................  78
 Sallow,.....................  102
 Oak,........................ Ill
 Aspen,......................  61
 Beech,...................... 219
 Fir,......................... 132

 Fern cut in August,.......... U6 j "'to WiKeinf
 Wormwood,................ 748
 Fumitory,................... 30*0
 Heath,...................... 115 Wildenheim.
  On these tables Kirwan makes  the  following re
 marks:—
  1.  That  in  general  xveeds  yield more asties, and
 their ashes much more salt, than xvoods ;  and that, con-
sequently, as to salts of the xegetable alkali kind,  nt
potassa, pearlash, cashup, Sec. neither America, Trieste,
nor tlie northern countries have any advantage over
Ireland.
  2.  That of all xveeds fumitory produces more salt,
and next to it xvorinwood.   Cut if xve attend only  to
Ihe quar-tity of salt iu a given  xveight  of ashes, the
ashes of wormwood contain  most.  Trifolium fibri
num also produces more ashes and salt than fern.
  The process for obtaining pot and  pearlash is given
by Kirwan, as follows : —
  1.  The xveeds should be cut just before they seed,
 then spread, well dried, and gathered clean.
  2.  They should be burned within doors on a  grate,
and  the ashes laid in a chest as fast as  they are pro-
 duced.  If any charcoal be visible, it should be picked
 out, and thrown back into the fire.   If the xveeds  be
 moist, much coal xvill be  found.   A close smothered
 fire,  which has been  recommended by some, is very
 prejudicial.
  3.  They should be lixiviated xvitii twelve times theii
 xveight of  boiling  xvater.  A  drop of the solution of
 corrosive sublimate xvill Immediately discover  when
 the xvater  ceases to  take up any more alkali   The
earthy matter that remains is said to be a good manure
 for clayey soils.
  4.  The  ley thus formed should be evaporated  to
dryness in iron pans.  Txvo or three at  least of these
should be used, and the ley, as fast  as it is concreted,
 passed from the one to the other.  Thus,  much lime is
saved, as xveak leys evaporate more quickly than the
stronger.  The salt thus produced is of a dark colour,
and contains much extractive matter, and being formed
in iron pots is called potassa.
  5.  This salt should then be carried to a reverberatory
furnace, in xvhich the extractive matter  is burned off.
and much of the xvater dissipated: hence it generally
loses from ten to fifteen per cent, of ils  xveight.  Par-
ticular care should be taken to prevent its melting,  as
the extractive matter xvould not then be perfectly con-
sumed, and the alkali  xvould form such  a union with
the earthy parts as could not easily be dissolx-ed.  Kir
xvan adds this caution, because Dr. Lexvis and Dossic
have  inadvertently directed the contrary.  This sail
thus refined is called  peat lash, and  must be the sain?
as the Dantzic pearlash.
  To obtain this alkali pure, liethollet recommends, lo
evaporate  a solution of potassa, made caustic by boil-
ing xvith quicklime, till it becomes of a  thickish con
sistence; to add about an equal xveight of alkohol, and
let the  mixture stand some  time in a close  vessel.
Some solid  matter  partly crystallized will collect  at
the bottom ; above this will, be a small quantity of a
dark coloured fluid; and on  the top another lighter.
The latter, separaled bv decantation, is to  be evaporated
quickly  in a silver basin in  a sand-heat.  Glass, or
almost any other metal, would be corroded by the po-
tassa.  Before the evaporation has been carried far.
the solution is  to be removed from the fire, nnd suf
fered to stand at lest; xvhen il will again separate into
txvo fluids.   The lighter being poured off, is again to hi
evaporated xvith a quick heat; and on standing a day
or txvo in  a  close vessel, it xvill deposite '.ranspnreiit
c.'xstrUs of pure potassa.  If the liquor  lie evaporated 
POT
POT
to a pellicle, the potassa xvill concrete xxiliiou. TCgultJ-
crystallization.  In both cases a high-coloured liquor is
separated, which is to be poured off; and  the  potassa
must be k-pt carefully secluded from air.
  A perfectly pure solution of potassa will remain tians-
pareut on the  addition of lime-water, show no eller-
/cscence xvith dilute sulphuric acid, and not give any
precipitate on  blowing air from the lungs through it by
means of a tube.
  Pure potassa for experimental purposes may most
easily  be obtained by igniting cream of tartar in a cru-
cible, dissolving the residue in xvater, filtering, boiling
xvilh  a quantity of  q-iicklime, and after subsidence,
decanting tlie clear liquid, and evaporating iu a loosely
covered silver  capsule, till  it  flows like oil, and then
soaring it out  on a clean  iron plate.  A solid xvhite
cake of pure hydrate of potassa is thus obtained, with-
out the agency of alkohol.  Ii must be immediately
broken into fragments, and kept in a well stoppered
phial.
  As 100 parts of subcarbonate of potassa are equiva-
lent to about 70 of pure concentrated, oil of vitriol, if
into a  measure  tube, graduated into 100 equal  parts,
we introduce  the 70  giains of acid, and fill up the re-
maining space xvilh water, then xve hax e an alkalimeter
for estimating ihe value of  commercial pearlashes,
which, if pure, wiil require for 100 grainsone hundred
divisions of the liquid tu neutralize them.  If they con-
tain only  00 per cent, of genuine subcarbonate, then
100 grains xvill  require only 60 divisions, and so on.
When the alkalimeter indications are required in pure
or absolute  potassa, such as  constitutes tlie basis of
nitre, then we  must use lt>2 grains of pure oil of vitriol,
along xvith the requisite  bulk  of xvater to fill  up the
volume of the graduated tube.
  The hydrate of potassa, as obtained by the preceding
process, is solid, xxhite, and  extremely caustic ; in mi-
nute quantities, changing the purple of violets and cab-
bage to a green, reddened litmus to  purple, and yellow
tumeric to a reddish-broxvii.  It rapidly attracts humi-
dity from the air, passing into the oil of" tartar perdeli-
quium of Ihe chemists; a name, hoxvever, also given to
the  deliquesced subcarbonate.   Charcoal applied to
the hydrate of potassa nt a cherry-red heat, gives birth
tocai buretted hydrogen, aud an alkaline subcarbonate;
but at a heat bordering  on xvhitencss, carburetted hy-
drogen, carbonous oxide, am! potassium, are formed.
Several metals decompose lite hx di ate of potassa, by
the aid of heat;  particularly potassium,  sodium, and
iron.   The fused  hydrate of potassa cou»isi of 6 deu-
toxide of potassium -f- 1.J25 xvater s= 7.105,  xvhich
number represents tlie compound prime equivalent.  It
is used in surgery, as the potential  cautery for forming
eschars; and  it was  formerly employed  iu  medicine
diluted xvith broths as a lithontriptic.  In chemistry, it
is very extensively employed, both in manufactures and
as a reagent in analysis.  It is tlie basis of all the com-
mon soil soaps.  The oxides of the folloxviug metals
are soluble  in  aqueous  potassa;—Lead, tin,  nickel,
arsenic, cobalt, manganese,  zinc, antimony, tellurium,
tungsten, molybdenum.
   The preparations of this alkali that are used in medi-
cine are:
   1. Potassa fusa.
   2.  Liquor potassae.
   3.  Potassa cum calce.
   4.  Subcarbonas potassa.
   5.  Cai bonas potassae.
   6.  Sulphas potassae.
   r   Super-sulphas  potassae.
   6.  Tarlras potassae.
   9.  Acetas potassae.
   10.  Citras potassae.
   II.  Oxychloras potassae,
   12.  Ar»tnias potassae.
   )3.  Siilpliiiictuiii potassa-.
   Potassa,  acetate of.  See Potassa acetas.
   Potassa,  carbonate of.  Si e Potassa carbonas.
   Potassa,fused.  See Potassa fusa.
   Potassa,  solution of.  See Potassa liquor
   Potassa, subcarbonate of. See Potassa subcarbonas.
   Potassa, xubcarbonate of, solution of.  See Potassa
tubcarbunalis liquor.
   Potassa, sulphate of.  See  Potassa sulphas.
   Potassa, sulohurct of.  See Potassa sulphuretum.
   Potassa,  supersuli>halc  of.   See Potassa  super
 tulvhas.
  Potassa, supertartrate of.  See Tartarum.
  Potassa, tartrate of.  See Potassa tartras.
  Potassa with lime.  See Potassa cum calce.
  Potassa cum calce.  Potassa with lime. Calx cuts
kali puro ; Cuusticum commune fortius;  Lapis infer-
nalis sive  septu-vs.  Take of solution of poliissa three
pints;  fresh lime, a pound.   Koil  the solution of po-
tassa  down to a pint, then odd the lime, previously
slaked by the addition of water, and mix them  together
intimately.  This is  in couiinon use with surgeons, as
a caustic, to produce ulcerations, and to open abscesses
  Potassa kusa.  Fused  potassa.  Kali purum;  ul
kali rrgdubile fixum causticum.  Take of solulion of
putaLsa a gallon.  F.x apoiuie the xvater, in a clean iron
pot, over the lire, until, xvhen the ebullition has < eased,
the potassa remains in a stale of fusion;  pour it upon
a clean iron plate, into pieces of convenient form  This
preparation  of potassa is violently caustic, destroying
the living  animal fibre xvilhgieat energy.
  Potassa impura.   See Potassa.
  Potass*:  acetas.  Acetate  ol" potassa.  Acetated
vegetable  alkali.   Kali  acetatum; Sal diureticu*:
Ta-ra foliata tartan ; Sal senna ti. Take of subcar
bouate of  potassa a pound.  Strong acetic acid,  ixvn
pints.  Distilled  xvater, txvo pints.   Mix the acid with
the xvater, and add it gradually to the subcarbonate of
potas-a so long as may be necessary for periict satin a
linn.  Lei the solulion be further reduced to one-hull'
by cxaporation, and strain it:  then by means of a
xvater-bath eva[>orate it, so that on being removed from
the fire, it shall crystallize.  The acetate  of poiassa is
esteemed  as a saline diuretic and deobstruent.  It is
given in the dose of  from gr. x. to 3 ss. three times a
day in any  appropriate vehicle  against  dropsies,  he
paiic obstructions, and the like.
  Potass*  arsemas.  S< e Liquor arsenicalis.
  Potass* carbonas.  Carbonate of potassa.  This
preparation, whicli has  been loixg knoxvn by '.he name
of Kuti airutum, appeared in the last Lyndon  Phaima
copieia for the first time.  It is made thus:—Take of
subcarbonate of potassa made from tartar, a pound:
subcarbonate  of ammonia,  three  ounces;   distilled
xxater, a  pint.  Having previously dissolved  the  sub
carbonate of potassa in tiie xvater, add the subcaibn
nale of ammonia; then, by means of a sand bath, apply
a heat  of 180°  for three hours, or until  the ammonia
shall be driven off; lastly, set the  solution by, to crys-
tallize. The remaining solution may bo evaporated in
the same manner, that crystals may again form when
it is set by.
  This process xv.-.s invented by Berthollet.   The po
tassa takes the caibonic acid from tlie ammonia, xvhich
is volatile, and passes off in the temperature employed.
It is, hex; over, very difficult to detach the ammonia en-
tirely.   Potassa is thus saturated with carbonic acid,
of xvhich it  contains double Ihe quantity that  the pure
subcarbonate of poiassa does; it gives out ibis propor-
tion on the addition of muriatic-acid, and may be con-
vertcd into the subsalt, by heating it a short time to red-
ness.   It  is less nauseous to the  taste than  the  sub-
carbonate ;  it crystallizes, and does not deliquesce.
Water, al  the  common  temperature, dissolves  one-
fourth its  weight,and at 212°, live-sixths; but this latlci
heat detaches some of tlie carbonic acid.
  The carbonate of  potassa is noxv generally used for
the purpose of imparting carbonic acid lo the  stomach,
by giving  a scruple in solution xvilh a table-spoonful of
lemon juice, in the act of eli'ervesciug.
  Potassje chloras.  Formerly called oxymuriate of
potassa.
  Potass* liquor.  Solution of potassa.  Aqua kali
puri ; LiLiiiutn saponarium.  Take of subcarbonate
of potassa a pound, lime newly prepared  half a pound.
 Boiling distilled xvater, a gallon.  Dissolve the potassa
in two pints of the water;  add the remaining xvatti to
the lime.  Mix the liquors xvhile they are hot, 6tir them
together, then set  the mixture by in a covered vessel ,
and after it has cooled, strain the solution through a
cotton bag.
   If any diluted ncid dropped into the solution occasion
 tlie extrication of bubbles of gns, it will be nc:ess,iry to
 add more lime,  and to strain it again  A pint of  this
 solution ought to weigii sixteen ounces.
   Potass.t: nitras.  See Nitre.
   Potass.*: suoeAKRONAS.  Stibcntbonale of potassa,
 formerly called, Kali praparntum; Sal absinlhii ; *i;t
 lartari;  Sul plaularum.   Take  of  impure potassa
                                         <M3 
POT
POT
 poxvdercl, three pounds; boiling xvater, three pints and
 a half  Dissolve the potassa in xvater, and filter;  then
 pour the solution into a clean iron pot, and  evaporate
 the xvauer over a moderate fire, until the liquor thickens ;
 then let the fire be xviihdraxvn and stir the liquor  con-
 stantly xvilh an iron rod, until  the salt concretes into
 granular crystals.
  A purer  subcarbonate of  potassa may be prepared in
 the same manner from tartar, xvhicli must be first burned
 until it becomes ash-coloured.
  This preparation of potassa is in general use to form
 the citrate of potassa for the saline draughts.  A scru-
 ple is generally directed to be saturated  with lemon
 juice.  In  tliis  process, the  salt which is composed of
 potassa and carbonic acid  is decomposed.   The citric
 acid having a greater affinity for the potassa than the
 carbonic, seizes it and forms the citrate of potassa while
 the caibonic acid flies off in the form of air.  The sub-
 cai bonule  of potassa possesses antacid virtues, and may
 be  exhibited xvitii advantage in convulsions and other
 spasms of the intestines arising from acidity, in calcu-
 lous  and gouty complaints, leucorrhoea, scrofula, and
 aphthous  affections.  Tlie  dose is from ten grains to
 half n drachm.
   Potass.e subcarbon • i us  liquor.   Solution  of
 subcarbuiiate of potass'   Aqua kali praparati;  Lix-
 ivium tarturi; Olc»   tartari per  ddiquinm.  Take
 of* subcarbonate o''  otassa, a pound ; distilled water,
 twelve fluid-ounces.  Dissolve Ihe subcai bonate of" po-
 tassa in  the xvater, and then strain tlie solution through
 paper.
   Potass £ sulphas.  Formerly called Kali vitriola-
 tum;  Alkali vegetabile vitriolatum; Sal de ditobus;
 Arcanum  duplicatum ;  Sal polychrcstus; Nitrum vit-
 riolatum ;  'Tartarum  vitriolatum.   Take  of the salt
 xvhich remains after the distillation of nitric acid, ixvo
 pounds; boiling xvater,  txvo gallons.  Mix  them thM
 the salt may he dissolved ;  next add as much subcarbo-
 nate of potassa as  may be  requisite for the saturation
 of th* acid; then boil the solution, until a pellicle ap-
. pears upon the surface, and, after straining, set  it by,
 that crystals may form.   Having  poured axvay the
 water, dry the crystals on  bibulous paper.  Its virtues
 are cathartic,  diuretic, and deobstruent; wilh whicli
  mentions it is administered in a great variety of dis-
 eases, as constipation, suppression ofthe lochia, fevers,
 icterus, dropsies, milk tumours, &c.   The dose is from
 one scruple to half an ounce.
    Potass.e sulphuretum.   Sulphuret of  potassa.
 Kali sulphitratum; Hepar sulphuris.   Liver of sul-
 phur.  Take of xvashed sulphur, an ounce; subcarbo-
 nate of potassa, two ounces; rub them together, and put
 them in a covered crucible, xvhich is to be kept on the
 fire till they unite.  In this process the carbonic acid is
 draivn  oft', and a compound formed  of potassa and
 sulphur.  This preparation lias been employed m  se-
 veral cutaneous diseases with advantage, both inter-
 nally and in the form-of bath or ointment.  It has also
 been recommended in diabetes.  Tlie dose is from five
 totxvenly grains.
    Potass.e supeharsenias.  See  Superarscnias po-
  '.ass.p.
    Potass.e supersulphas. Supersulphate of potassa.
  Pake of the salt xvhich remains after the distillation of
  nitric acid, txvo pounds; boiling water four pints.  Mix
  them together, so  that tlie salt may be dissolved, and
  strain the solution; then boil it to one-half, and  set il
  by, that crystals may form. Having poured away the
  water, dry these crystals upon bibulous paper.
    Potass.e supertartras.   See Tartarum.
    Pot.xss.t-: tartras.  Tartrate of potassa, tormeily
  called Kali tartarisatum;  Tartarum solubilc ; Tarta-
  rus lartarisatus ;  Sal vegetabilts; Alkali vegetabile
  tartarisatum.  Take of subcaibonalc of potassa, six-
  teen ounces; supertartrate of poiassa, three pounds;
  boiling  xvater, a gallon.  Ihssolve the subcai bonate of
  potassa iu the water; next add line supertartrvteof po-
  tassa, piexiously reduced  to poxvder, gradually, until
  bubble- of gas shall cease to arise.   Strain the solulion
  through paper, then hnil it until a pellicle appear upon
  tnc surface, and sol it by, that crystals may form. Hav-
  ing poured away the xvater, dry the  crystals upon bibu-
  lous piper.  Diuretic, deobstruent, and eccoprotic vir-
  tues ae attributed lo Ibis preparation.
    POT \SSIUM.   Tin-metallic basis of potassa.  "If
  a thin piece of solid hydrate of potassa he placed be-
  tween  txvo discs  of platinum, connected xvilh the ex
        201
tremities of a Voltaic apparatus of 200 double plates
four inches square, it xvill soon undergo  fusion ; oxy-
gen xvill separate at the positive surface, and small me-
tallic  globules  will appear at the negative surface.
These form the marvellous metal  potassium, first re-
vealed to the xvorld by Sir II. Davy, early in October,
1807.
  If iron-turnings  be heated  to xvhiteness in a curved
gun-barrel, and potassa be melted and made sloxvly  to
come  in contact xvitii tlie turnings, air being excluded,
potassium will  be  formed, and will collect in the cool
part oi' the tube. This method of procuring it xvas dis-
covered by Gay Lussac and Thenard, in 1808.  It may
likexvise be produced, by  igniting poiassa xvilh char-
coal, as Curnudau showed tht same year.
  Potassium is possessed of very extraordinary proper-
ties.  It js lighter than water; its sp. gr. being 0.8G5 to
water 1.0.   At  common temperatures it is solid, soft,
and easily moulded by the fingers.  At 150° F. il fuses,
and in a heat a little beloxv redness it rises in xapour.
It is perfectly opaque.   When newly cut, its colour is
splendent xvhite, like that of silver, bul it rapidly tar-
nishes in tlie air.  To preserve il unchanged, xve must
enclose it in a small phial, xvitii pure naphtha.  It con-
ducts electricity like the common  metals.    When
throxvn upon water, it acts xvith  great violence, and
sxvims upon the surface, burning with  a beautiful light
of a red colour, mixed  xvitii violet.   The water  be-
comes a solution of pure  potassa.  When moderately
heated  in  the air, it inflames, burns xvith a red light,
and throws dff alkaline fumes.  Placed in  chlorine, it
spontaneously burns xvilh great brilliancy.
  On all  fluid  bodies xvhicli contain xvater, or much
oxygen or chlorine, it readily acts ; and iu its general
poxvers of chemical combination, says its illustrious
discoverer,  potassium may be compared to tlie alka-
hest,  or universal  solvent, imagined by tbe alchemists.
  Potassium combines xvith oxygen in different propor
tions.  When potassium is gently heated  in common
air or  in  oxygen, the result of its combustion is  an
orange-coloured fusible substance. Fur every grain of
the metal consumed, about 1 7-10 cubic inches of oxy-
gen are conri-ensed.  To make the experiment  accu-
rately, the metal should be burned in  a tray of platina
covered xvith a coating of fused muriate of poiassa.
  The substance procured by the combustion of potas-
sium at a loxv temperature, xvas  first observed in Octo-
ber, 1807, by Sir H. Davy, xvho supposed  it  lo be the
protoxide;  but Gay  Lussac and Thenard,  iu lclO,
showed that it xvas in reality the deutoxide or pero.xide.
 When it is thrown into xx .iter, oxygen is evolved, and
a solution of the  protoxide results, constituting com-
mon aqueous potassa.   When it  is fused and  brought
in contact  xvitii combustible bodies, they  burn  vividly.
by  the excess of its oxygen,  if it be  heated in cartM>
nic acid, oxygen  is disengaged, and  common subcar
bonate  of  potassa  is formed.
  When it is heated very strongly upon  platina, oxy-
gen gas is expelled from it, and there  remains a  dilii
cullly fusible substance of a gray colour,  vitreous I'rac
turo,  soluble in water xvithout effervescence,  but with
much heat.  Aqueous potassa is produced.  The above
ignited solid is protoxide of potassium, xvhicli becomes
pure  potassa by combination xvitii the equivalent quan-
tity of xvater.  When we produce potassium xvith ig
uited iron-turnings and poiassa, much hydrogen is dis
engaged from the  xvater of ihe hydrate, xvhile the iron
 becomes oxidized  from the residuary oxvgeu.  By heat
ing together pure hydrate ol" potassa and boracic acid,
Sir II. Daw obtained from  17 io IS of xvater from 100
 parts of the solid alkali.
  By acting on potassium xvith a verv small quantity
 of  xvater, or by heating potassium wiili fused potassa,
 the protoxide may also be obtained.   Tlie proportion
 of  oxygen in the protoxide is determined  by the  action
 of  potassium upon xvater.  8 grains of poiassium pro-
 duce from xvater about 9i  cubic inches of hydrogen;
 and  from these the mctaT  must have  fi\cd 4$ cubic
 inches of oxygen.  But as 100 cubic  inches of oxygen
 xx-eigh  33.9 gr. 4e]  xvill weigh 1.61. Thus, 9.61  gr/of
 the protoxide  xvill  contain  8 of metal; and 100 xvill
 contain 83.25 metal -f 16.75 oxygen.  From these data,
 the prime  of pnlassium comes out 4.9G9; and that of
 the protoxide 5.969.  Sir  II. Davy adopts the number
  <> for  potassium, corresponding to 00  >n the oxygen
 scale.                                           "
    When potassium is heated strongly in a small quan 
                       POT

tityo. common  air, the oxygen of xvhich is (•otsufli-j
cient for  ils conversion into  potassa, a substance is
formed of a grayish colour, xvhich, xvlien thrown into
xvater, effervesces without taking fiie.  It is doubtful |
whether it be a mixture of the  protoxide and  potas-
sium, or a combination of potassium with a smaller
proportion of oxygen than exists in the protoxide.  In
this case it xvould be a suboxide, consisting of 2 primes
of potassium =10+1 of oxygen = 11.
  When thin pieces of potassium are introduced into
chlorine, the inflammation is very vivid; and then po-
tassium is made to act on chloride of sulphui, there is
an  explosion.  Tlie attraction of chlorine  for  potas-
sium  is much stronger  than the attraction of oxygen
for  the metal.   Both of the oxides of potassium are
immediately decomposed by chlorine,  with the forma-
tion of a fixed chloride, and the extrication of oxygen.
  The combination of potassium and chlorine  is the
substance whicli has been improperly called  muriate
of potassa, and xvhich, in common cases, is formed by
causing liquid muriatic acid to saturate solution of po-
tassa, and then  evaporating the liquid to dryness  and
igniting the solid residuum.  The hydrogen of* the ncid
litre unites to the oxygen of the alkali, forming xvater,
xvhich is exhaled ;  xvhile the  remaining chlorine  and
potassium combine.  It  consists  of 5 potassium + 4.5
chlorine.
  Potassium combines xvitii hydrogen to form potassu-
retted  hydrogen,  a spontaneously inflammable gas,
xvhich couies.over occasionally  in the production  of po-
tassium by the  gun-barrel experiment.  Cay Lussac
and Thenard describe also a  solid  compound of the
same  txvo ingredients, xvhich they call a hydro ret of
potassium.  It is formed by healing ihe metal a long
xvhile in the gas, at a temperature just under ignition.
They describe it as a grayish solid, giving out its hy-
drogen on contact xvitii mercury.
  When  potassium and sulphur are heated together,
ihey combine xvith great energy, xvitii disengagement
of heat and light oxen  in vacuo.  The  resulting  sul-
phuret of potassium, is of a daik gray colour.  It  acts
xvitii greatenergy on water, producing sulphuretted hy-
drogen, and burns  brilliantly xvhen  heated  in the air,
becoming sulphate of potassa.  It consists of 2 sulphur
+ 5 potassium, by Sir H. Davy's experiments.  Potas-
riuni  has  so strong an attraction for  sulphur, that it
rapidly separates if from hydrogen.  If the  potassium
be healed iu the sulphuretted gas, it takes fire and burns
xviih great brilliancy; sulphuret of potassium is formed,
and pure hydrogen is set free.
  Potassium and phosphorus enter into union xvith the
evolution  of light;  but the mutual action is feebler
than in the preceding compound.  The phosphuret of
potassium, iu its common form, is a substance of a
dark chocolate colour, but xvhen heated xvitb potassium
in great excess, it becomes of a deep gray colour, wilh
considerable lustre.   Hence it is probable,  that phos-
phorus and  potassium  are capable of combining in
txvo proportions.  The phosphuret of potassium  bums
with great brilliancy, when exposed to air, and when
throxvn into  xvater produces an explosion, in conse-
quence of the immediate disengagement of phosphu-
retted hydrogen.
  Charcoal xvhich ha3 been strongly heated in contact
with potassium, effervesces in waler, rendering il alka-
.ine, though the charcoal may be previously exposed lo
a  temperature  at  xvhich  potassium  is volatilized.
Hence, there is probably a compound of the two formed
by a feeble attraction.
  Of all  knoxvn substances, potassium is that which
has Ihe strongest attraction for oxygen  ; and it produces
such a condensation of it, that  the oxides of potassium
are denser than ihe metal itself.  Potassium has been
skilfully used  by Sit  H. Davy and Gay Lussac  and
Thenard,  for detecting  the presence ot  oxygen iu bo-
dies.   A  number of substances, undecomposable by
other chemical  agents, are  readily  decomposed by
this substance."—Ore's Chem. Diet.
  Potassium, oxide  of.  The potassa of the shops.
  POTATO.  Tiie word potato is a  degeneration of
'jatatas, the provincial name ofthe root in that part of
Peru from xvhich it was first obtained.  See Solanum
uberosum.
  Potato,  Spanish.  Sec Convolvulus  batatas.
  [Potato files.   See Cantharides vittata.  A.]
  \Potiitn. wild.  See Convolvulus pr.nduratus.  A.]
  POTENTIAL.   Potcnlialis   1  Qualities xvhich
                       IOU

 are supposed to exist in the body in potentia oniy; or
 xvhich they are capable, in some nieusure, of effecting
 and  impressing on us the  ideas  of  such qualities,
 thougli not really inherent in themselves:  in this, sens*
 xve say, potential heat, potential cold, &c.
   2.  In a medical sense it is opposed to actual:  hence
 xve say, an actual  and potential caustic.  A red-hot
 iron is actually caustic; whereas potassa p«r«, and ul-
 tras argentia are potentially so, though cold lo the touch.
   Potential cautery.  See Potassa  fusa, Olid .Iigenii
 nitras.
   POTF.NTI'LLA.   (A potentia,  from  its efficacy.)
 I.  Tiie nnnie of ttjiius of plants in the Liuna-an sys-
 tem.   Cl'iss, Icosaudria; Order, Polygynia.
   2.  The pharmacopoeia) name of the wild tansy.   See
 Potent ilia anserina.
   Potentilla  anserina.  The systematic name of
 the silver-ivecd, or xvild tansy.  Argentina ;  Anserina.
 The  leaves of this plant, Potentilla—foliis  den tut is,
 serratis, caule repente, pendunculis unifioris, of Lin-
 naeus, possess mildly adstringent and corroborant qua-
 lities; but are seldom u>,d, except by the loxver otders.
   Potentilla reptans.   The systematic name of the
 common cinquefoil, or five-leaved  gia-'j.   Pentaphyl-
 lum.   The roots of this plant, Potentilla—foliis quina
 tis, caule  repente, pedunculis unifioris, of Linnieus,
 have a bitterish styptic taste.  They xvere used by the
 ancients iu the cure of intermittents:  but  tlie medi-
 cinal quality nf cinquefoil is confined, in the present
 day, to stop diarrhoeas and other fluxes.
   POTE'KIl'M.  (From  tzortiptov, a cup: so named
 from the shape of its flowers.)   Tlie name of a genus
 of plants in the Linnaean system.   Class, Monacia;
 Order, Polyandria.
   Poteru m sanouisorda.  The systematic name of
 the Burnet saxifrage, the leaves of which are often  put
 into cool tankards; they have an adstringent qualify.
   POTSTONE. Lapis otluris.  A greenish-gray mi-
 neral,  found abundantly on the shores of the lake
 Como, iu  Lombardy, iu thick beds  of primitive slate,
 and fashioned into culinary vessels in Greenland,  it
 is a subspecies of rhomboidal mica of Jameson.
   POTT,  Percival, xvas born in London, iff 1713.   It
 xvas  the  xvish of his friends to bring him up to the
 church, in xvhich he might have obtained good patron-
 age;  but he had an irresistible inclination to the sur-
 gical profession. He  xvas accordingly apprenticed to
 Mr Nourse, of St. Bartholomew's Hospital, xvho gave
 anatomical lectures;  for which he xvas employed in
 preparing  the subjects, and thus laid the best founda-
 tion for chirurgical  skill.   In 1744,  he was elected  as-
 sistant-surgeon; and, five years  after, one of tlie prin-
 cipal surgeons at  the hospital,  lie had the merit of
 chiefly brintiing about a great improvement in his pro-
 fession, availing himself of the resources of nature
 under a lenient mode of treatment, and exploding the
 frequent use of  the  cautery, and other severe methods
 formerly resorted to.  In 1756, he had the misfortune
 to  receive a compound fracture of the leg: but  the
 confinement occasioned by this accident led  him to
 compose his  "Treatise on  Ruptures;"  which xvas
 soon  fnlloxved by ati account of flic  Hernia Congenita.
 In 1758, he produced a  judicious  essay on "Fistula
 Lachrymalis;"  and, txvo  years after, an elaborate dis-
 sertation "On Injuries of the Head;" xvhich was soon
 folloxved by " Practical Piemarks on the Hydrocele,"
 &c.  In 1764, he was elected a Fellow of the  Royal
 Society; and about the same  period  he  instituted a
 course of lectures on surgery.  In the following  year,
 his treatise "On Fistula in Ano" appeared, in which
 he effected a very great  improvement; and, in  1768,
 some remarks  " On Fractures and Dislocations"  xvere
 added to a nexv edition of his work on Injuries of tlie
 Head.  Seven  years after this, he published "Chirur-
 gical Observations"  on Cataract, Polypus ofthe Nose
 Cancer of the Scrotum, Ruptures, and Mortification ol
 the loxver Extremities: this xvas soon succeeded by a
 "Treatise on tlie Necessity of  Amputation in  some
 Cases;" and by "Remarks on the Palsy of the loxver
 Limbs," from Curvature of the Spine. He had noxv
 attained the greatest eminence in his profession , but
 towards the close of the year 1788, a severe altlack ol
 fever, neglected at first, terminated  his active and va
 lllilh'e life.
   POUCH.  1.  Saccvlus.  In anatomy, a morbid dils
 tation of any part of a canal, as the intestine
i   2.  In botanv, see Silicula.
                                          205 
PP..E                                             PRE
  Poupart's  ligament.   Ligamentum  Poupartii.
Fallopian ligament.   Inguinal  ligament.   A  strong
ligament, or rather a tendinous expansion of the exter-
nal oblique muscle, going across from the inferior and
anterior  spinous process of the  ilium to the crista of
the os pubis.  It is under this ligament that the femoral
vessels pass;  and, xvhen  the  intestine or  omentum
passes underneath it, the disease is called a femoral
hernia.
  Powder antimonial.  See Antimonialis pulvis.
  Powder of burnt hartshorn with opium.  See Pul-
vis lornu usli cum opio.
  Powder, compound, of aloes.  See Pulvis alnts com-
positus.
  Powder,  compound, of  chalk.  See Pulvis creta
compositus.
  Powder, compound, of ckalk, with opium.  See Pul-
vis creta compositus cum opio.
  Powder, compound, of cinnamon.  See Pulvis cin-
namomi compositus.
  Powder, compound, of contrayerva.  See Pulois con-
trayei va, compositus.
  Powder,  compound, of  ipecacuanha.  See  Pulvis
ipecacuanha compositus.
  Powder, ccfmpou-.id, of kino.  See Pulois kino com-
positus.
  Powder, compound, of scammony. See Pulvis scam-
tnonea compositus.
  Powder,  compound, of  senna.  See Pulvis  senna
compositus.
  Powder, compound, of tragacanth.  See Pulvis tra-
gacantha compositus.
  Power, muscular.   See Irritability, and  Muscular
motion.
  Power, tonic.  See Irritability.
  Pracipitate, red.   See Hydrargyri nilrico-oxydum.
  Pracipitate, while. See Hydrargyrum prmcipilatum
album.
  PR/ECO'RDIA   (Pracordia, arum. n.;  from pra,
before, and cor, the  heart.)  The forepart of  the re-
gion of" the thorax.
  Pr.efu'rniuh.  (From pra, before, and fur nus, a
furnace)  Vhe mouth of a chemical furnace.
  TRiEMORSUS.  (From pramordes,  to bite off.)
Bitten oft*.  In botany, this term  is differently upplk-d:
the radix pramorsa is an  abrupt root, naturally, it is
supposed, inclined to a taper root; but, from some
decay or interruption  in its  descending point,  it be-
comes abrupt, or, as it xvere, bitten off; as iu the Sca-
liiosa succisa, and Hcdypnois hirla.
  The old opinion of this formed root is thus described
in Gerald's Herbal: " The great part of the root seem-
eth to he bitten away : old fantastickecharmers report,
that the  divel did bite it  for envie, because it is an
herbe that hath so many good venues, and is so benefi-
cial to mauktiidc."
  Tlie folium  pramorsum is jagged, pointed, very
blunt, xvitii various irregular notches, us in Epidcn-
drnm pramorsum, Sec
  Pr.epara'ntia medicamenta.  Medicines  xvhich
weie supposed to prepare the peccant fluids to pass off.
   Pr/eparantsa vasa.  The spermatic vessels of tlie
testicles.
   PR/EPUOE.  See Pr/rpntium.
   PR/EPU'TI UM.  (From prapnto, to rut off before,
because  some  nations used to cut it off in circumci-
sion.)  Epagogionof Dioscorides.  Posthe.  The pre-
puce.  The membranous or cutaneous  fold th.it  covers
the elans jreni-  and clitoris.
   PRASE.   A green  leek-coloured mineral, found in
the island of Bute, and in  Borrodale.
   Pra'siim   (From rpneta, a  square  border:  so
called from its square stalks.)  Honrhound.   Sec Mur-
rubium vulgare.
   Pra's-um.  (From  itpau, to burn; because of its hot
taste)  The leek.
   PR.VXIS.  (From irpiioffw. to perform.)  The prac-
tice of nnv thine, as of medicine.
   PRKCIPITA'TION. (Pracipitatio; frompracipito,
to  .-ast doxvn.)   When txvo  bodies nre united,  for in-
stance, an acid and  an oxide, ami  a third body is
added, such  as mi alkali, which has a  greater affinity
 wilh the ncid thnn the metallic oxide has, the couse-
 ipu nee  is, that the niltftli combines xvilh the acid, and
 lb- oxide, thus deserted, appears in a separate state at
 'he bottom of the vei-eel in xvhicli theoperalioii is per-
 fiiimcd  'Ihis decomposition is comnionly knoxvn by
       206
the  name  of precipitation, and  the substance th*
sinks is named a precipitate.  The substance, by the
addition of which the phenomenon is produced, is de
nominated the precipitant.
  PREDISPOSING.   (Pradisponens; from pradis
pono,  to  predispose.)   Causa prolgumcna.    That
whicli renders  the body susceptible of disease.   The
most frequent predisposing causes of diseases are, the
temperament and habit of the body, idiosyncrasy, age,
sex,  and structure of the part.
  PREDISPOSITION.  (Pradieposilio.  That con-
stitution, or state of the solids, or fluids, or of both,
which disposes the body to the action of disease.
  PREGNANCY.  Utero gestation.   The particular
manner in xvhich  pregnancy lakes place has hitherto
remained  involved in obscurity, notwithstanding  tlie
laborious investigation of the  most  eminent philoso-
phers of all  ages.  Although in a state xvhich (xvitii
a few exceptions) is natural to  all women, it is  in  ge
neral the source of many disagreeable sensations, and
often tiie cause of diseases xvhich might be attended
xvitii the worst consequences, if not properly treated.
  It  is noxv, however, universally acknowledged, that
those xvomen xvho bear children  enjoy, usually, more
certain health, and are much less  liable to dangerous
disease-;, than those xvho are unmarried, or xvho prove
barren.
  Signs of pregnancy.—The womb has a  very exten-
sive  influence, by means of its  nerves, on many oilier
parts of the body;  hence, Ihe changes xvhich are pro
duced on  it by impregnation, must  be productive of
changes on  the state  of ihe general  system.  These
constitute the signs of pregnancy.
  During the first fourteen or fifteen xveeks, the  signs
of pregnancy nre very ambiguous, and cannot be de-
pended on; for, ns they proceed from the irritation of
the xvomb on olher pails,  they may be occasioned by
every circumstance which can  alter  the natural state
of that organ.
  The first circumstance which renders pregnancy pro-
bable, is the suppression of tlie periodical evacuation,
xvhich is generally accompanied xvith fulness in  the
breasts, headache, flushings in the face, and heat in
the palms of the hands.
  These symptoms are comnionly the consequences of
suppression, and therefore are to be regarded as signs
of pregnancy, in so far only as they depend on it.
  As, hoxvever, the suppression of tlie periodical eva
cuation often  happens  from  accidental exposure to
cold, or from the change of life in consequence of mar-
riage, it can ftever be considered as an infallible sign
  The belly, some xveeks after pregnancy, becomes
flat,  from the xvomb sinking, and hence drawing dowr
the intestines along wilh it; but this cannot  he looket.
upon as a certain sign of pregnancy, because an  en-
largement of the xvomb from any other cause will pro-
duce the same effect.
  Many xvomen, soon  after they are pregnant, become
very much altered in their looks, and have peculiar
irritable feelings, inducing a disposition of mind xvhich
renders their tempers easily ruffled,  and  inciting  an
irresistible  proiiensity to actions of xvhich, on  other
occasions, they xvould be ashamed.
  In such cases, the features acquire a peculiar sharp-
ness, the eyes appear larger, and the mouth xvider. than
usual; and  the woman has a  particular appearance.
xvhich cannot be described, but with which xvomen at-e
xvell acquainted.
  These breeding symptoms, as they nre called, origi
nnte from the irritation  produced on the xvomb by im
prcgnation; and, as they may proceed from  any othel
circumstance which can irritate that organ, they can-
not be depended on when the xvoman is not young, oi
xx-here there is not a continued suppression for at leasi
three periods.
  The irritations on flic parts cont'nuoits- to the vxoinL
are  equally ambiguous; and  therefore the sigr.s of
pregnancy, in the first four months, arc always to be
eonsiderciLis doubtful, unless every one enumerated be
distinctly and equivocally present.
  From the fourth mouth, the signsof pregnancy are less
ambiguous, especially after the xvomb has ascended
into  tlie cavity of the  belly.  In general,  about the
fourth month, or a short time nfter, Ihe child becomes
so much enlarged, thnt its motions begin to be felt bv
the  mother; nnd  hence a  sign is furnished  at that
period called quickening.  Women  very  improtiorlv 
PRE
PRI
 consider  this sign as the  most uncquivrcai proof of
 pregnancy; for though, xvhen it occurs about the pe-
 riod described, preceded by the symptoms formerly enu-
 merated,  ii  may be looked upon as a sure indication
 that the woman is xvitii child, yet, xvhen tliere is an ir-
 regularity, either in tlie preceding symptoms or in its
 appearance,  the situation  of tlie xvoman  must  be
 doubtful.
  This fact will be easily understood;  for as the sensa-
 tion of the motion of tlie child cannot be explained, or
 accurately described, xvomen may readily mistake otlier
 sensations for that of quickening.   Flatus Iuib often
 been so pent up in the boxvels, that the natural  pulsa-
 tion of the great arteries, of which people ure conscious
 only in certain stales of the Itedy, has frequently been
mistaken for this feeling.
  After the fourth month, the xvomb  rises gradually
from the cavity of the pelvis, enlarges the belly, and
pushes out the navel: hence the protrusion ofllie navel
has been considered one of the most certain signs oi
   4. Presbyopia from a custom of viewing continually
 remote objects;  hence artificers who aie occupied in
 remote objects nre said to contract this malady.  The
 reason of this phenomenon is not very clear.
   5. Presbyopia senilis.  From a multitude of causes
 aged persons are prcsbyopes; firm  u  penury of hu-
 mours, xvhich  render the cornea and lens flatter, and
 the bulb shorter.  When in senile age, from  dryness,
 the buib of Ihe eye becomes flatter and shorter, and the
 cornea flatter, those xvho were short-sighted or.myopM
 bi'i'oie, see noxv xvithout their concave glasses.
  6. Presbyopia, from too close a proximity of objects,
 The focus  is shorter of distant, but  longer of neaiei
 objects.
  7. Presbyopia from a coarctated pupil.
  8. Presbyjpiamercurialis, xvhich arises from ,hc usa
 of mercurial preparations.  The patient feels t,uifsiug
 pain in the eye, xvhich, from being touched, is increased,
and the bulb of the eye appears ns if rigid, and  w ilh
difficulty can be moved.  Near objects Ihe patient can
pregnancy in the latter months.  Every circumstance, | scarcely distinguish, and distant only in  u confused
 hoxvever, which increases tlie bulk of the belly occa-
 sions this symptom ; and therefore it cannot be trusted
 to, unless oilier signs concur.
   The progressive increase ofthe belly, along with sup-
 pression, after having been formerly regular, and the
 consequent  symptoms, together xvilh the  sensation of
 quickening  at the proper period, afford the only Hue
 marks of pregnancy.
   These signs, hoxvever, are not to be entirely depend-
 ed on ;  for the natural desire xvhich every woman has
 to be a mother, xvill induce her to conceal, even from
 herself, every symptom xvhich may render Iter situation
 doubtful, and to magnify every circumstance xxhich
 can tend to  prove that she is pregnant.
   Besides quickening and increase of bulk of the belly,
 another symptom appears in the latter months, which,
 when preceded by the ordinary signs, renders pregnancy
 certain beyond a doubt.  Il is the presence of milk in
 the breasts.   When, however, there is any irregularity
 in the preceding symptoms, this sign  is no longer lo be
 considered of any consequence.
   As every practitionei must naturally xvjsh to distin-
 guish  presiiancy from disease, the disorders which re-
 semble il should be thoroughly understood, and also
 theirdiagnostics.  Il it, hoxvever, necessary to remark,
 that wherever any circumstance occurs xvhich affords
 the  most distant reason to doubt the case, recourse
 ought to be  had lo the advice of an experienced practi-
 tioner, and  every symptom should be unreservedly de-
 scribed to him.
   Prehe'nsio.  (Fromprc/irndo, to surprise: so named
 from its sudden seizure.,,  Tlie catalepsy.
   PREHN'ITE.  Of prismatic prehnitc there are two
 subspecies, the foliated, and  tlie fibrous.  The first is
 of au apple  green colour, found in  France, ihe Savoy
 and Tyrol,  and beautiful varieties in the interior of
 southern Africa. The fibrous is of a siskin green co-
 lour, and <>c. u - in Scotland.
   PRESBYO'PIA.   (From uptoCoj,  old, and uyV, the
 eye; because  it is frequent with old  men.)  Thai de-
 lect of the sight ty xvhich objects close aie seen con-
 fusedly, Inn, at remoter distances, distinctly.   As the
 myopia is common to infants, so the presbyopia  is a
 malady common to the aged.   The proximate cause is
 a  tardy adunation ofthe rays in a focus, so thai il falls
 beyond the retina.  The species are,
   1. Presbyopia from a flatness of ihe cornea.  By so
 much the cornea is flatter, so much lire less and more
 jirdy it refracts tlie rays into a focus.   This evil arises,
 1st, From a xvant of aqueous or vitreous humour, xvhich
 is  common  to the aged; or may arise from some dis-
 ease; 2d, From  a cicatrix, xvhich diminishes the  con-
 vexity of the cornea: 3d, From a natural conformation
 ofthe cornea.
  2.  1'rr■/njopia from too flat a crystalline lens.  This
 evil is most common to the aged, or it may happen  from
 a wasting of tlie crystalline lens.
  3. Presbyopia from too small density of the cornea
 or humours of the eye.  By so much more  these hu-
 mours are thin or rarified, so much the less Ihey refract
 the rays of light.  Whosoever is affected from this
cause is cured in older age; for age induces a greater
density of the cornea and lens.  From this il is an ob-
served  fact,  lhat the presbyoprs ate often cured spon-
taneously, and throw axvay iheir glasses, xvhicli younger
persons in lni« disease are obliged to use.
 manner.  Many have suppose:! this disorder an imper
 feet amaurosis.
   Pre sdi-t*.   See Presbyopia.
   F-KFSIIY'TIA.   (From zzpccGvs, old; because it ia
 usual to old people.)  See Presbyopia.
   Pkksu'ra.  (From zovlho. to inflame.)   Inflamma-
 tion at the ends of the lingers from cold.
   Pi-.iapki'a.  See Nicotiana rustica.
   Priai'i'sl-iis.  (From irpiairo;, the penis.)  1. A tent
 made in the form of a penis.
   2. A bougie.
   PRIAPISM.  See Priapismus.
   PRIAPI SMUS.   (From  irpiaefo,, a  heathen  god
 whose penis is always painted erect)   Priapism.  A
 continual ercatifoii  of the  penis.
   PRIA'PUS.  (npcas-oj, a  heathen god,  remarkable
 lor the largeness ol his genitals.)
   I  The  penis or membrum virile.
   -. A  name of the  nepenthes, or xvonderful plant,
 from the  appendages at  the end of the leaves resem
 bling an erected penis.
   PRICKLE. See Aculeus.
   Prickly-luat.  See Lichen tropicus.
   ["Prickly ash.   Xanthoxylum fraxineum.   The
 Xanthoxylum fruxincum is  a prickly shrub, found in
 the northern, middle, and ivestern partsof ihe United
 States, in  woods and moist shady declivities.
   "The leaves and rind of the fruit resemble those of
 Ihe lemon in their taste and smell, and possess a similai
 volatile oil.  The bark possesses a separate acrid prin-
 ciple, xvhich is communicated to  water and alkohol,
 but does not come over iu distillation.  The acrimony
 is  not perccrVied when the bark or  liquid is first taken
 into the mouth, but gradually devclopes  itself by  a
 burning sensation on the  tongue and fauces.
  "Prickly ash  has acquired much reputation as  a
 remedy in chronic rheumatism.  In that disease it has
 an operation analogous to lhat of mezereon and guaia-
cum,  xvhich it  resembles in  Its  sensible properties.
Taken in full doses, it produces a sense of heal iu the
stomach, a  tendency  to  peispiration, and a relief to
theunialic pains.
  "Txventy grains  can betaken ihree times a day  in
poxvder, or an ounce may  be boiled in a quart of xvater,
and the decoction taken during twenty-four hours."—
Big. Mat. Med.  A.]
  PRI'Mitt XIJF..  The first pa:
                           passages.  The stomach
and the intestinal tube are so called, because they are
the first passages  of xvhat is taken into the stomach;
the lacteals the stennda via, because the nourishment
next  goes inlo th< m :  and lastly, the blood  vessels,
which" are  supplied  by the  lacteals,  are  called  via
terIia.
  PRIMARY.  Primarius.  A  term  in very genera!
u?e in medicine and surgery.  It is applied to dieeates,
to their symptoms, causes, Sec. and denotes priority iu
opposition to what folloxvs, xvhich is secondary; thus,
xvhen inflammation ofthe diaphragm produces furious
delirium, the primary disease is tlie  paraphienilis ; so
when gallstones produce violent  pain, vomiting,  Sec
which  are followed by jaundice,  xvhite fa-ces,  porter-
coloured urine, Sec; the pain and vomiting are primary
symptoms, the jaundice and xvhite stools are second
nry, &.c
  Primary teeth.  See Teeth.
  Primrose.  See Primula vulgaris.
                                        207 
PRl
PKU
   PRIMULA.  (From  primulas,  the  beginning: so
 called because it flowers in the beginning of the spring.)
 The name of a genus of plants in the Linna-nn system.
 Class, Pentandria; Order, Monogynia.
   Primula  veris. (From primulus, the beginning;
 so called  because it floxvers  iu the beginning  cf the
 spring.)  Verbasculum.  Tlie coxvslip, paigil, or peagle.
 The tloweisi of this plant have a moderately strong and
 pleasan'  smell, and a somewhat roughish bitter taste.
 Vinous liquors impregnated xvitii their flavour by ma-
 ceration or fermentation, and  strong infusions of them
 drank as ten, are supposed to be  mildly corroborant,
 antispasmodic,  and anodyne.  An infusion of three
 pounds of the fiesli flowers  in five pints of boiling
 xxater is made in theshopsintoasyrupof a fine yelloxv
 colour, and agreeably impregnated with the flavour of
 the coxx-slip.
  Primula vulgaris. The primrose. Tlie leaves and
 root  of this common  plant possess sternutatory  pro-
 perties.
  Pri'nceps alexipharmacorum.  The Angelica xvas
 formerly so much esteemed as to obtain  this name.
   PRINCIPLES.   Principia.  Primary  substances.
 Substances or particles xvhich  are composed  of two or
 more elements; thus xvater,gelatine, sugar, fibrine, Sec.
are the principles of many bodies.   These principles
 are composed of elementary bodies, as oxygen, hydro
gen, azote, Sec. xvhicli are undecomposable.
  PRINGLE, Sir John,  xvas born in Scotland in 1707,
 Having determined to make medicine his profession, he
 xvent to Edinburgh for a year, and then  to Leyden, to
 profit  by the instructions ofthe celebrated  Boerhaave,
xvhere lie  took his degree in  1730.   Then settling at
 Edinburgh, he  obtained four years  after the appoint-
ment of professor of moral philosophy jointly xvitii  Mr.
Scott.  In 1742 he xvas made  physician  to the Earl of
Stair, xvho then commanded the British army, and soon
after  physician  to the military hospital in Flanders.
He acquitted himself xvith  so much credit, that the
 Duke of Cumberland, xvho succeeded to the command,
appointed  him, in 17-15, physician-general to the forces,
and subsequently  to the  royal hospitals, in  the Low
Countries, xvhen lie resigned his  Scotch professorship.
He soon after accompanied the same nobleman  in his
expedition against the rebels in Scotland: hut in 1717,
 went  again to tlie army abroad, xvhere  he continued
till the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle.  The Duke of Cum-
berland then appointed him his physician, and he  set-
tled in London ; but the  xvar of 1755 called him again
to the army, xvliich, hoxx-ever, he finally quitted three
years  after.  He had been elected a felloxv of the Royal
Society in 1745, and on settling in London, contributed
many papers to  their Transactions,  particulaily his
 Experiments on Septic and Antiseptic Substances, for
 xvhich he xvas presented xvith the Copleian  medal.  In
 I75J his "  Observations on the Diseases of the Army"
first appeared, and rapidly passed through several edi-
tions, and xvas translated into olher languages:  the
 utility of the xvork, indeed, equalled the reputation it
 acquired, and wliich it still preserves, especially from
 the importance of the prophylactic measures suggested.
 After quitting tlie army, ho was admitted a licentiate,
 and his fame as a physician,  as xvell as philosopher,
 speedily attained a high pitch;  he received successively
 various appointments about the royal family, was elect-
 ed a follow of the College, and in  1766 raised to  the
 dignity of a baronet.  Among numerous liteiaty  ho-
 nours from various academics of science  in Europe,
 the highest was conferred upon him in 1770, being then
 elected president of the  Royal Society: the duties of
 ivliich office he zealously fulfilled for eight years, when
 declining  health compelled his resignation.  His  dis-
 courses on the nnnnul presentation of  the  Copleian
 medals displayed  so much learning  and  general  infor-
 mation, that their publication was requested.   In 1780
 hie xvent to Edinburgh  for the  imp.oxen.cut of his
 health;  but the want  of his accustomed society,  and
 the sharpness ofthe air, compelled him to return in the
 following  year; he presented,  hoxvever,  to the College
 of Physicians tlrere before  his departure  Iph folio
 volumes,  In manuscript, of  "Medical  and  Physical
 Observations," xvilh the restriction that they should
 not be published, nor lent out of ihe library.   I lis death
 happened soon alter hi*  return to London, namely, in
 tin- beeiiiiiingol'17,-*-.'.
   PRI. ..NO'DI'.S.  (From  itpiuv, a saw.)  Serrated:
 ipplii d tu old xvritings to the sutures ofthe skull.
      2m
   PRI'OR.  The first; a term applied to sou,'  .nisei
 from their order.
   Prior  annularis   Musculus  prior  annularii
 Fourth interosseus, of Winslow.   An  internal  in
 terosseus muscle of the hand.  See Interossei manus.
   Prior indicis.  Extensor  tertii internodii indicis,
 of Douglas.  Seu-metacarpo-lateriphalangien, of Du-
 mas.  An internal interosseal muscle of  the  hand,
 which draxvs tlie  fore-finger inwards toxvards the
 thumb, and extends it obliquely.
   Prior MKDir.  Musculus prior medii; Second inter-
 osseus, of Douglas, and seu-metacarpo-lateri phalan-
 gien, of Dumas.  An external interosseous muscle of
 the hand.  See Interossei manus.
   Pro re nata.  A tenn frequently used in extempo
 raucous   prescriptions, and  implies  occasionally, as
 the  occasion may require; thus, an  aperient dose is
 directed to be taken pro re nata.
   PROBANG.   A flexible  piece of  whalebone  xvith
 sponge fixed at the end.
   PROBE.  (From probo, to try;  because  surgeon's
 try the depth and extent of wounds, Sec  xvitii it.)
 Stylus.  A surgical instrument of a long and slender
 form.
   Pro'bole. (UpoSoXri, a prominence ; from irpoSaX
 Xu, to project.)   See Apophysis.
   PROBOSCIS.   (From rpu, before, and fioaxu, to
 feed.)  A snout or trunk, as that of an elephant, by
 xvhich it feeds itself.
   PROCA'RDIUM. (From irpo, before, and icapoia, the
 stomach or heart.)  The pit of the stomach.
   PROCATARCTIC.  (Procatarclicus; from npoxa
 rapxu, to go before.)   See Exciting cause.
   PROCESS.  (Processus; from proccdo, to go be-
 fore.)  An eminence of a bone; as the spinous and
 transverse processes ofthe vertebrae.
   PROCESSUS.  See Process.
   Processus ceci vermiformis.  See Intestine.
   Processus caudatus.  See Lobulus caudatus.
   Processus ciliaris.  See Ciliar ligament.
   Processus mamillares.  A name formerly applied
 to the olfactory nerves.
   PROCIDENTIA.   (From  prneido, to  fall down.)
 A falling  down  of any  part;  thus, procidentia  ani,
 uteri, vagina, Sec
   Proio'ndvlus.  (From rpo, before, and kovc"ii>(<s
 the middle joint of the finger.)  The first joint of a fin
 ger next the metacarpus.
   PROCTALGIA.  (From  jrpuiicroj,  the fundament.
 and  aXy>>;. pain.   A  violent pain of the anus.  It is
 mostly symptom.uic of some disease, as piles, scirrhus,
 prurigo, cancer, Sec
   PROCTl'i'A.   >,Froin irpuxros, the  fundament *l
 The name of a genus of diseases in Good's Nosology,
 Class,  Caliaca;  Order,  Enterica.  Pain  or  derange
 ment about the anus,  xvithout primary inflammation
 It lias six  species, viz. Proctica simplex, spasmodica,
 callosa, tenesmus, marisca, exenia.
   PROCTITIS.  (From irptoA-roc, the anus.)  Clune-
sia,  Cyss:itis.  Inflammation of the internal or mucous
 membrane of the loxver part ofthe rectum.
  Procioi.ei corrhoh'a.   (From rpwicroc, the anus,
Xtvxos, xvhite, and ptu, to floxv.)  Proclorrhcea.  A
purging of white mucus.
  Proctorrho!":'a. (From irpuxros, tlie nnus, and ptu,
to floxv.)   Sec Proctoleucorrhaa.
  PRODI  CTIO.  See Apophysis.
  PRCEOTlA.  (From trout, premature.)  The name
of a genus of diseases in Good's Nosology.  Class Ge-
nctica; Order, Orgastica. Genital precocity.  It has
 two species, viz. Praotia masculina, and feminina.
  PROCUMBENS. Procumbent.  Applied to stemf
 as that of Lvsimachia nemorum.
  PROFLUVIUM. (From profiuo, to run down.) A  flux.
  Pkokluvia. Fluxes.  The fifth  order in the class
 Pyrexia, of Cullen's Nosology, characterized by py-
 rexia, xvitii increased excretions.
   Proflix u eor.'i'EX.   See Nerium nntidyscntcricum,
   PROFl'N DI S.  See Flexor profundus' perforans
   PROFU'SIO.  A genus of disease in Ihe class Lo-
 cales, and older Apocenoses, of Cullen.  A passive loss
 of blood.
   Peoglo'ssis.   (From irpo,  before, and )Xucraa, the
 tonsup.)   The tip of the tongue.
   PROGNO'SIS.  ri'" m irpo, before, and yu'w-nx-u
 to know.)  The  fotetelling the event of diseases from
 particular symptoms. 
PRO
FRO
  PROGNOS'4 IC  (ProgTKWttcus; from tpoytvutrxu,
•o know bef»»fehand.)  Applied  to  tliose  symptoms
 vhich enable the physician to form his judgment oi
»jog:iosis ofthe probable cause or event of a disease.
  Projector.*..  See Apophysis.
  PROLAPSUS.   (From prolabor, to  slip down.)
 Procidentia;  Delapsio; Exania; Proptoma; Prop-
 osis.  A protrusion.   A genus of disease in tlie class
 Locales, and order  Ectopia, of Cullen ; distinguished
 »y the falling down of a part that is uncovered.
  Prole'pticus.    (."From ^poXapSavo, to anticipate.)
 Applied to those diseases, the paroxysms of which  an-
 icipate each other, or return after less and less inter-
nals of intermission.
  PROLIFER.  (From proles, an offspring, and fero,
to bear.)  Prolific,  or  proliferous: applied  to tliose
stems xvhich shoot out nexv branches from the suuiinit
of tiie former ones, as in the  Scotch fir; Pinus  syl-
vestris.
  Promalacte'rium   (From  irpo, before, and paXao-
eu, to soften.)   The room xvhere the body is softened
previous to bathing.
  Prometopi'dium.   (From irpo, before, and ptrwirov,
the forehead.)   Prometopis.  The skin  upon the lore-
head.
  Promkto'pis.  See Prometopidium.
  PRONATION.  Pronatio.   The act of turning  the
;alm of the hand doxvnwards.   It is performed by rota-
ting tlie radius upon  the ulna, by menus of several
muscles xvhicli are termed pronators.
  PRONATOR.  A name given to two muscles of the
hand, the pronator radii quadratus, and pronator radii
teres; the use of xvliich is to perform the opposite ac-
tion lo that ofthe  supinators, viz. pronation.
  Pronator o.uadratus.  See Pronattr radii quad-
ratus.
  Pronator radii brevis.   See Pronator radii quad-
ratus.
  Pronator radii quadratus.  Pronator quadratus,
of Douglas  and  Albinus;  Pronator quadratus  sive
trensrersus,  of Winsloxv ;  Pronator radii brevis  seu
quadratus, of  Coxvper;  Cubito  radial,  of Dumas.
This, which has gotten its  name from its use and its
shape, is a smali  fleshy muscle, situated at the lower
and inner part ofthe forearm, and covered by the ten-
dons of the  flexor muscles of the hand.  It arises ten-
dinous and fleshy from the lower and inner part ofthe
ulna, and runs nearly in a  transverse airection, to be
inserted into that part of the radius xvhich is opposite
to its origin, its inner fibres adhering to the interosseous
ligament. This muscle assists in the pronation of the
hand, by turning the radius inxxards.
  Pronator radii teres.   Pronator teres, of Albi-
nus and  Douulas;  Pronator teres,  sive obliquus, of
W'r.slow; Epitrochtoradial,  of Dumas.   A small
muscle situated at the  upper and anterior part of  the
forearm   It is called teres, to  distinguish it from  the
pronator  quadratus.   It arises tendinous  and fleshy
from the anterior and inferior part ofthe outer condyle
of the os humeri; and tendinous from the coronoid pro-
cess of the ulna, near  the insertion of  the braehialis
internus.  The median nerve passes between these txvo
portions. From these origins the muscle runs obliquely
doxvnwards  and outxvards,  and is inserted, tendinous
and  fleshy, into the anterior and  convex edge of  the
radius, about the middle of that bone.   This muscle,
as its name indicates, serves to turn the hand  in-
wards.
  Pronerva'tio.   (From pro, before, and nervus, a
strins.)  A tendon or string, like the end of a muscle.
  PROPAGO. A slip, layer, or cutting ofthe vine.
  PROPHYLACTIC.  (Prophylacticus; from  rpo,
and  qjvXaovu, to defend.)  Any means made use of to
preserve health and prex-ent disease.
  Proprikta'tis elixir.   Sec Tinctura alols com-

■""pROPTO'MA.  (From irpomifju, to fall down.) Pro-
cidentia.  A relaxation, such as that of the scrotum,
ofthe under lip, of  the breasts in females, of the  prae-
puce, or ofthe ears.
   Propye'ma.  (From boo, before, and vvov, pus.)  A
 premature collection of piis.
  PRO'R A.  (From irpupa,  the prow of a vessel.)  The
 OCC'ipllt.                                ,   n     .  I
   ProsaRTHRo'sis.  (From upos, to, and apflpow, to.
 articulate.)   The  articulation xvhich   has manifest t
 notion                                  x        I
  Prospk qma.  (From trpoairriyvvpi, to fix near.j  A
 fixing of humours in one spot.
  Pro'stasis.  (From irpoisTj/u, to predominate.)  . n
 abundance of morbid humours.
  PROSTATE.  (-Glandula prostata; from rpo, be-
 fore, and toTnpi, to stand: because it is situated bcloro
 the urinary bladder.)   Corpus gtandulosum;  Ade-
 noides.  A very large, heart-like, firm gland, situated
 between the neck of the urinary bladder and the bul-
 bous part of the urethra. Il secretes the lacteal fluid,
 xvhich is emitted Into tlie  urethra by ten or twelve
 ducts, that  open near the vcrunioiitanuin, during coi-
 tion.  This gland is liable to inflammation and its con
 sequences.
  Prostate inferior muscle.   See Transversis perinti
 alter.
  PROSTRATUS.  Prostrate.  Applied synonymously
 xvith depressus, depressed, to a stem which lies natu
 rally remarkably flat,  spreading horizontally over tho
 ground; as in Coldcnia  procumbens, and Coronopus
 Ruelli, sxvine's cress.
  PROTO'GALA.   (From -npuTOSi  fir8'i ana 1'aXa,
 milk.)   The first milk after delivery.
  PROTOXYH1*.   See  Oxide.
  PROTUBER.VM1A.  1. A protuberance on any
 part.
  2. An apophysis.
  PROXIMATE.  (Causaproximo: so called because
 ix-hen the exciting cause  begins to have effect it is the
proximum, or next tiling that  happens.)   The  proxi
 mate cause of a disease  may be said lo be in reality
 the disease itself.   All  proximate causes are  either
 diseased actions of simple fibres, or an altered state of
 tlie fluids.
  PRUI'NA.   (A perurendo,  quod fruges peruent.^
 The poxvder-like appearance after tho bloom observed
 on ripe fruit, especially plums.
  PRUNA.  (Pruna, ae. f.; a live coal.)  The carbun-
 cle.  See Anthrax.
  PRUNE.  See Plums.
  PRUNE'LLA.  (From pruno, a burn ; because It
 heals  burns.)  1. The name of a  genus of plants iu
 the Linnaean system.   Class, Didynamia;  Order,
 Gymnospermia.
  2. The pharmacopceial name of the self-heal.  See
 Prunella vulgaris.
  3. The name  used by Paracelsus for sore throat, or
 cynanche.
  Prum:lla vulgaris.  The systematic name of Ihe
 self-heal.   Prunella; Consolida minor;  Symphitum
 minus.  Prunella—foliis omnibus ovatooblongis, ser-
 ratis, petiolatis, of Linnaeus; it is recommended as an
 adstringent in haemorrhages and fluxes, as also in gar-
 gles against aphthae and inflammation of the fauces.
  PRUNUM. (Prunum, i. n.; from prunus.)  A plum
 or prune.  See Plums.
  Prunelloe.  See Plum.
  Prunum  oallicum.  See Prunus domestica.
  Prunum  sylvestre.  See Prunus spinosa.
  PRUNUS.  (Prunus, i. f.)  1. A plum.
  2. The name of a genus of plants in the Linnaean
 system.   Class, Icosandria; Order, Monogynia.
  Prunus armkniaca.  Apricots, xvhich are the fruit
 of this plant, are, when ripe, easily digested, and are
 considered as a pleasant and nutritious delicacy.
  Prunus avium.   The systematic name ofthe black
 cherry-tree. Prunus—umbellis sessilibus,foliisovato-
 lanceolatis- sublus pubcscentibus, conduplicatis, of" Lin-
 naeus.  The flavour of the  ripe fruit is esteemed by
 many, and if not taken in  too large quantities, they
 are extremely salutary.  A gum exudes from the tree,
 whose properties are similar to ih.ze of gum-arabic.
  Prunus  cerasus.  Tlie systematic  name of the
 red cherry-tree.   Prunus—umbellis subpedunculatis,
 foliis ovato-lanceolatis, glabris conduplicatis, of Lin-
 naeus.   The fruit of this tree,  Cerasa rubra, anglica,
 sativa,  possess  a  pleasant, acidulated, sweet flavour
 and are proper in  fevers, scurvy, and bilious  obstruc
 lions.  Red cherries are  mostly eaten as a luxury, and
 are very wholesome, except to those whose bowels are
 remarkably irritable.
  Pruncs  domestica.  The systematic name of Ilia
 plum or damson-tree.  Prunus—pedunculis subsoil-
 tariis, foliis lanceolnto ovatis convolutis, ramis muti-
 cis; gemma  florifene aphylla, of Liniiaeus.   Prunes
 are considered as emollient, cooling, and laxative, espe
 cially the French prunes, xvhich are directed in th
                                        209 
fRlT                                           PRU
decoction of senna, and other purgatives; and the pulp
ts ordered  in the electuarium 4 senna.  The damson
is only a variety, wliich, xvhen  perfectly ripe,  affords
a wholesome article for pies, tarts, Sec gently opening
the body: but xvhen damsons are not perfectly mature,
they produce colicky pains, diarrhoea, and convulsions
in children. See Plums.
  Prunus  lauro-cerasus.   The systematic name of
Ihe poison laurel.  Lauro-cerusus.  Couiinon or cherry
laurel.   Prunus—fioribus raccmosis foliis sempervi-
rentibus  dorso biglandulosis, of Linnaeus.  Tlie leaves
of the lauro-cerasus have a bitter styptic taste, accom-
panied witli a flavour resembling tliatof bitter-almonds,
or other kernels of the drupaceous fruits:  the floxvers
also manifest a similar flavour.  Tlie poxvdered leaves,
applied to the nostrils, excite sneezing, though  not so
strongly  as tobacco.   The kernel-like flavour xvhich
these leaves impart being generally esteemed grateful,
has sometimes caused them to be employed for culinary
purposes, and especially  in custards, puddings, blanc-
mange, Sec; and as the proportion of this sapid mat-
ter of tlie leaf to the quantity of tlie milk is commonly
inconsiderable, bad effects have seldom ensued.   But,
as the poisonous quality of this laurel is noxv indubita-
bly proved  and known  to be the prussic  acid which
can  be obtained  in  a separate form (See Prussic
acid), the public ought to be cautioned against its in-
ternal use.
  The following communication  to the Royal Society,
by Dr. Madden, of Dublin, contains the first aud prin-
cipal proofs of the deleterious eli'ects of this vegetable
upim  mankind:—"A very extraordinary accident that
fell out here some months ago, has discovered to us a
most dangerous poison, xvhicli was never before knoxvn
to be so,  though it lias been in frequent use among us.
The thing I mean is a simple xvater, distilled from tlie
leaves ofthe lauro-cerasus; the xvater is at first milky,
but the oil which comes over being, in a good measure,
separated from the phlegm,  by  passing it  through a
flannel bag, it becomes as clear as common xvater.  It
has the smell of bitter almonds,  or peach kernel, and
has been for many years in  frequent  use  among  our
housewives and  cooks, to give that agreeable flavour
to their creams and puddings. It has  also been much
in use among our drinkers of drams; and the propor-
tion they generally use it in has been one part of laurel-
water to  four of brandy.  Nor has this practice, how-
ever frequent, ever been attended with any apparent
ill consequences, till some time in the mouth of Sep-
tember, 1728, when it happened that one Manila Boyse,
a servant, xvho  lived xvitii a person xvho  sold great
quantities of this water, got a bottle  of it from  her
mistress, and gave it to her mother.  Ami Boyse made
a present of it to Frances Eaton, her sister, xvho was
a shopkeeper in town, and who, she  thought, might
oblige her  customers xvitii it.  Accordingly, in  a  few
days, she gave about  txvo ounces to a xvoinan called
Mary Whaley, who drank  about txvo-thirds of xvhat
was filled out, and xvent axvay.   Frances Eaton drank
the rest.  In a quarter of au hour after Mary Whaley
had  drunk the xvater, (as I am  informed,) she com-
plained of a violent disorder in her sioinach, soon after
lost her speech, and died in about an hour, xvithout any
vomiting or purging,  or  any convulsion.   The shop-
keeper, F. Eaton, sent xvord  to her sister, Ann Boyse,
of what had happened,  who came to her upon  ihe
message, and affirmed lhat it xvas not possible the cor-
dial (as she called it) could have  occasioned the death
of the woman;  and,  to convince her  of it, she filled
out about three ounces and drank it.   She continued
talking with  F. Eaton about txvo minutes longer, and
was so earnest to persuade her of the liquor's being
inoffensive, that she drank about txvo spoonfuls more,
but xvas  hardly xvell seated In her chair xvhen she died
without  the least  groan, or convulsion.   Frances
Eaton, xvho, as before observed,  had drank somewhat
more than  a spoonful, found no disorder iu her  sto-
mach, or elsewhere; but to prevent any ill  conse-
quences, she look a vomit immediately, and has been
xvell ever since."—Dr. Madden mentions another case,
of a gentleman at Kilkenny, xvho mistook a bottle of
laurel-water for a bottle of ptisan.  What quantity he
drank is uncertain, but he died in a few minutes, com-
plaining of a violent disorder in  the stomach.  In ad-
dition to this, xve may refer to the unfortunate case of
Sir Tlieodosius Boughton, whose  death, in 1780, an
 English  jury declared to be occasioned by this poison
       210
 In  this case, the active principle of t.ie lauro-cerasu!
 was concentrated  by repeated distillations, and given
 to the*quantity of one ounce; the suddenly fatal etfecia
 of xvhich must be still in the recollection of the public
 To brute animals this poison is almost instantaneously
 mortal, as amply appears by the experiments of Mad
 den, Mortimer, Nicliolls, Fontana, Langrish, Vater,
 and others.   The experiments conducted by these gen-
 tlemcn, shoxv that the laurel-xvater is destructive to
 animal life, not only when taken into the 6tomach, but
 also on being injected into tlie intestines, or applied
 externally to different  organs of the  body.   It is  re-
 marked,   by Abbe Fontana, that this poison, even
 " xvhen applied in a very small quantity to the eyes, or
 to the  inner part of  the mouth, without touching Hie
 oesophagus, or being  carried into the stomach, is capa-
 ble of  killing  an animal  in a fexv minutes: while, ap-
 plied iu a much greater quantity to wounds, it has so
 little activity, that the weakest animals, such as pigeons,
 resist its action."
  The poisonous quality of the  species of laurel is tlie
 prussic acid; and if  we judge from its sensible quali
 tics, an analogous principle seems  to  pervade many
 other vegetable substances, especially the kernels  of
 drupaceous fruits:  and in various species of the amyg-
 dalus,  this sapid principle extends to the floxvers and
 leaves. It is of importance to notice, that this is much
 less powerful in ils action upon  human subjects than
 upon dogs, rabbits, pigeons, and reptiles.  To poison
 man,  tlie  essential oil  of the lauro-cerasus must  be
 separated  by distillation, as in the spirituous or common
 laurel-water; and unless this is strongly imbued xvilh
 the oil, or given in a large dose, it proves innocent.
 Dr. Cullen observes, that the sedative poxver of  the
 lauro-cerasus, acts upon the nervous system in a dif-
 ferent  manner from opium and other narcotic sub
 stances, whose primary action is upon the animal func-
 tions;  for the lauro-cerasus does not occasion sleep,
 nor does it  produce  local inflammation, but seems to
 act directly  upon  the vital poxvers.  Abbe' Fontana
 supposes lhat this poison destroys animal life, by ex-
 erting  its effects upon the blood ; but the experiments
 and observations from xvhich he draws this opinion
 are evidently inconclusive.   It may also be remarked,
 that many ol" the Abbe's  experiments contradict each
 other.  Thus, it appears from tlie citation given above,
 that the  poison of ihis  vegetable,  when applied  to
 ivounds, does not prove fatal; but future experiments
 led the Abb6 to assert, thaj the oil ofthe lauro-cerasus,
 ix-liether given internally, or applied to the wounds of
 animals, is one of the most terrible and deadly poisons
 known. Though this vegetable  seems to have escaped
 the notice of Stoerck, yel it is not without advocates
 for  its medical use.   Linna-us informs us, that  in
 Switzerland it is  commonly and successfully used  in
 pulmonary complaints.  Langrish mentions its efficacy
 in agues;  and as Bergius  found bitter almonds to have
this etlect, we  may, by analogy, conclude that  this
power  of the lauro-cerasus is xveil established.  Bay
lies found  that it possessed a remarkable poxver of di-
luting the  blood, and from  experience, recommended
it iu all cases of disease supposed to proceed from too
dense  a state of that fluid; adducing  particular  in-
stances of its efficacy in rheumatisms, asthmas, and
scirrhous  affections.  Nor  does  this author seem  to
 have been much afraid of the  deleterious quality  of
 lauro-cerasus, as he directs a pound of its leaves to be
 macerated in a pint of xvater, of xvhich he gives from
 thirty to sixty drops three or four times a-day.
  Prunus padus.  The systematic  name of the xvild
cluster, or bird cherry-tree.  Padus.  The bark and
 berriesof this shrub are used medicinally.  Tiie former,
 xvhen taken  from the tree, has a fragrant smell, and .-»
 bitter, subastringent taste, somewhat similar to thnt  of
 bitter almonds. Made into a decoction, it cures inter.
 mittents, and it has been recommended in  the cure of
several forms of syphilis.  Tiie  latter are said to cure
 the dysentery.
  Prunus spinosa.  The systematic name of the sloe
 tree.   Prunus sylvestris; Prunus—pedunculis solita
 riis, foliis  lanceolatis, glabris, ramis spinosis,  ol
 Linnaeus.   It is sometimes employed in gurgles,  to
 tumefactions of the  tonsils nnd uvula, and from  its
 adstringent  taste xvas formerly much used in haeinor
 rhages, Sec.
  PRURIGO.   (From  prurio,  to itch.)   Pruritus;
 Scabies; Psora;  Porta; Libido; Pa-jor.  The pru- 
PRU
PRU
 Ptgo Is "a genus of disease m the order Papulous erup-
 tions  of Dr. Willan's  cautaneous diseases.   As it
 arises from different causes, or at different periods of
 life, and exhibits some x ai ieties in its form, he describes
 it under the titles of prurigo mitis, prurigo furmicans,
 and prurigo senilis.   In these, the xvhole surface of the
 skin is usually affected;  but there are likexvise many
 cases of local prurigo, which will be afterxvard  noticed
 according to their respectixe situations.
   1. The Prurigo mitis originates without  any pre-
 vious indisposition, generally in spring, or the beginning
 •Ji* summer.  It is characterized by soft  and  smooth
 elevations of the cuticle, somexvhat larecr  than the
 papula? of the lichen, from xvhich they alsit differ by
 retaining the usual colour of the skin ; "for they seldom
 appear red, or much inflamed, except  from  violent
 friction.  They are  not, ns in the other  case,  accom-
 panied with tingling, hut xvitii  a sense of itching almost
 incessant.  This is.  hoxvever,  felt more particularly on
 undressing, and often prevent  rest for some hours after
 getting into a bed.  VViien the tops of the papulae are
 removed  by rubbing or scratching, a clear fluid oozes
 nut from them,  and  gradually  concretes into thin black
 scabs.
   This species  of prurigo  mostly affects young per-
 sons; and its cause  may, I think, says Dr. Willan, in
 general be referred to sordes collected on the skin, pro-
 ducing  some degree of irritation, and also peventing
 the  free discharge of the  cutaneous exhalation ; the
 bad consequences of which must necessarily by felt at
 that season  of the year when  perspiration is tlie most
 copious.  Those xvlro have  originally a delicate or
 irritable skin, must likexvise, in the same circumstances,
 be the greatest sufferers.
   The eruption extends to the arms, breast, back, and
 thighs, and  often continues during txvo or three months
 of the summer,  if not relieved  by proper treatment.
 When  persons  affected  with it  neglect  xvashing the
 skin, or are uncleanly in  their apparel, tlie eruption
 grows  more  inveterate, and  at  length, changing  its
 form,  often terminates  in  the itch.   Pustules arise
 among the papula-, some filled xvitii lymph, others with
 pus.  The acarus scabiei begins to breed in the furrows
 Of tlie cuticle, and the disorder becomes contagious.
   2. The Prurigo formicans is a much more obstinate
 and troublesome disease than the foregoing.  It usually
 affects persons of adult age, commencing at all seasons
 of the  year indifferently;  and ils duration  is from
 four months to txvo or  three years, xvith occasional
 short  intermissions.   The  papuls are  sometimes
 lanrer, sometimes more obscure, than in the preceding
 species; but are, under  every form, attended xvitii an
 incessant, almost intolerable  itching.  They are dif-
 fused over  the xvhole body, except the face, feet, and
 palms  of the hands;  they appear,  hoxvever,  in  tlie
 gi"e°*atest number on those parts xvhich, from the mode
 of dress, are subjected to tight ligatures; as about the
 neck, loins, and thighs.
  The itching is complicated with olher sensctions,
 which  are  variously  described  by patients.   They
 Bometines feel as if small insects were creeping  on the
 skin; sometimes as  if stung all  over by ants;  some-
 times as if hot needles were piercing the skin in divers
 places.  On standing before a  fire, or undressing, and
 more particularly on getting into  bed, these sensations
 become  most violent, and  usually preclude  all  rest
 during  the  greatest  part of the  night.  The prurigo
 formicans is by most practitioners deemed contagious,
 and confounded xvitii the  itch.  In endeavouring to
 ascertain the justness of this opinion, Dr. Willan has
 been led to make the following remarks: 1. The erup-
 tion is, for the most part, connected xvith internal dis-
 order, and arises xvhen no source of infection can  be
 traced.  2. Persons affected may have constant inter-
 course with several others, and yet never communicate
 the disease to any of them.  3. Several persons of one
family may have the prurigo formicans about the same
time; but he thinks this should be referred rather to a
esmmon predisposition than to contagion, having ob-
served that individuals of a family are often so affected
at certain seasons of the year, even when they reside
at a distance from each other.
  Although  the  prurigo  formicans  is never,  like the
former species, converted into  the itch, yet it does  oc-
casionally terminate in a  pustular disease, not con-
tattious.
  3.  Prur-ro 'tnilis.  This nffection does not difl'er
          B                              Xx2
 much in its symptoms and external appearances from
 the prurigo formicans; but has been thought by medical
 xvriters to merit a distinct consideration on account of
 its peculiar inveteracy.  The prurigo is perhaps aggrn
 vatcd, or becomes more permanent in old age from the
 dry, condensed state of the skin and cuticle xvhich
 often takes place at that  period.  Tliose who are at*
 lected xvith it in a high degree have little more comfort
 to expect  during life, being incessantly tormented xvitii
 a violent nnd  universal itching.   The state of tiie
 skin in  the prurigo senilis, is favourable to the produc-
 tion  of nn  insect,  the pediculus  humanus,  more
 especially to  the variety of it usually termed body-lice
   These insects, it is xvell knoxvn, are bred abundantly
 among  the inhabitants  of sordid  dxvellings, of j:ul>,
 work-houses, Sec and  in such situations prey upon
 persons of all naes indiscriminately. But in the prurigo
 senilis they arise, notwithstanding every attention u,
 cleanliness or regimen, and multiply so rapidly that tlie
 patient endures extreme distress, from their perpetual
 irritation.  The nits or eggs nre deposited on the small
 bails of the skin, and the pediculi  are only found on
 the skin, or on  tlie linen, not under the cuticle, nssonie
 authors have  represented.   In connexion with  the
 foregoing  series of complaints, Dr. Willan mentions
 some pruriginous affections whicli are merely local.
 He confines his observations to the most troublesome
 of these,  seated in the podex, praeputium, urethra,
 pubes, scrotum, and pudendum muliebre.  Itching ol"
 the nostrils, eyelids, lips, or of the external ear, being
 generally symptomatic of otlier diseases, donotrequirn
 a particular consideration.
  1.  Prurigo podicis.  Ascarides in the rectum excite
 a frequent itching and irritation about the sphincter ani,
 ivhich ceases xvhen  the cause  is  removed by  proper
 medicines.  A  similar complaint often arises, indepen
 dently of xvorms, haemorrhoidal  tumours, or.other
 obvious causes, which is mostly found to affect persons
 engaged in sedentary occupations ;  and may lie referred
 to a morbid  state of secretion in  the parts, founded,
 perhaps, on  a diminution  of constitutional vigour.
 The itching is  not always  accompanied  with an  ap-
 pearance of papulae or tubercles; it is little troublesome
 during the day-time, but returns every night soon after
 getting  into bed, and precludes rest for several  hours.
 The complaint continues in this form  during three or
 four months,  and has then an intermission, till it is pro-
 duced again by  hot weather, fatigue, xvatching, or some
 irregularity in diet.  The same disease occurs  at the
 decline of life, tuidei a variety of circumstances.
  Women, after the cessation of the catamenia, are
 liable to be affected xvitii this species of prurigo, more
 especially iu summer or autumn.   The skin  between
 the nates is rough and papulaied, sometimes scaly, and
 a  little  humour  is  discharged by violent  friction.
 Along wilh this complaint, theie is often au  eruption
 of itching papulae on  the  neck,  breast,  and  back;
 a sxvelling and inflammation of one or both ears, and a
 discharge  of  matter from  behind them, and from the
 external  meatus  auditorius.   Tlie  prurigo  podicis
sonietimes occurs as a symptom of the lues venerea.
  2. The prurigo praputii is owing to an altered stale
of secretion on the glans penis, and inner surface of
 Ihe praeputium.  During the heat of summer there is
 also, iu some  persons, an unusual discharge of mucus,
 which becomes acrimonious, and  produces a trouble-
 some  itching, and often an excoriation of these parts
 Washing of them with water, or soap and xvater, em-
 ployed from time to time, relieves  the  complaint, and
 should indeed be practised  as  an ordinary point of
 cleanliness, xvhere no inconvenience  is immediately
 felt.  If the  fluid be secreted  in too large a quantity,
 that excess may be  restrained, by washes made with
 the liquor plumbi subacetatis, or by applying the un
 guentum plumbi superacetatis.
  3. Prurigo urethralis.  A very troublesome Itching
sometimes takes place at the extremity of the uretlna
 in females, without any manifest cause.  It occurs as
 well in young xvomen as in those who are of an ad-
 vanced age.  On examination, no  stricture or tumour
 has been found  along the course of the urethra.  Pro-
 bably, however, the  itching may be occasioned by a
 morbid state of  the neck of the bladder, being in some
 instances connected with pain and difliculty of making
waler.
  An itching at the extremity of the urethra in men is
produced by calculi, and by some diseases of the blad
                                         211 
 aer.  In cases of stricture an itcliing is  also felt, But l
 near the place where the stricture is situated.  An-
 other  cause of it  is small  broken hairs, which are
 so nctimes diaxvn in from tlie pubes, between tlie prae-
 putiuni and glans, and xvhicli afterxvard becoming fi ,ed
 iu the entrance of the urethra, occasion an itching, or
 slight  stinging, particularly  on motion.  J. Pearson,
 surgeon of the Lock  Hospital,  lias seen five cases of
 this kind, and gave immediate relief by extracting the
 small hair from the urethra.
  4. Prurigo pubis.  Itching papulae often arise on the
 pubes, and become extremely sore if their tops are re-
 moved by scratching.   They are occasioned sometimes
 by  neglect of cleanliness, but more commonly by a
 speciesof pediculus, which perforates the cuticle, and
 thus derives  its nourishment, remaining  fixed in the
 same situation.  These insects are termed by Linnaeus,
 Sec. pediculi pubis; they do not, however, affect the
 pubes only, but often adhere to the eyebrows, eyelids,
 and axilla-.  They are often found, also, on the breast,
 abdomen, thighs,  and legs, in persons of the sanguine
 temperament, xvho have those parts covered  with
 strong hairs.  It  is remarkable that they seldom or
 nexer fix upon the  hairy scalp.  The great irritation
 produced  by them  on  the  skin,  solicits  constantly
 scratching, by xvhicli  they are torn from their attach-
 ments : and painful tubercles arise at the places where
 they had adhered.   When the  pediculi  are diffused
 over the greater part of the surface of the  body, the
 patient's linen often appears as if sprinkled with drops
 of blood.
  5. Prurigo scroti.  The scrotum  is affected with a
 troublesome and constant itcliing from ascarides xvithin
 tlie rectum,  from friction  by violent exercise in hot
 weather, and very usually from the pediculi  pubis.
 Another and more important form ofthe complaint ap-
 pears in  old  men, sometimes connected xvitii the pru-
rigo podicis, and  referrible to a morbid state of the
skin, or superficial gland of the part.  Tlie scrotum, in
 this case, assumes a.brown colour, often also becoming
 ihick, scaly, and xvrinkled.  The itching extends to the
skin covering the  penis, more  especially along the
course of the urethra; and has little respite, eitlier by
 lay or night.
  6. The  Prurigo  pudendi  muliebris,  is somewhat
 analogous to the  prurigo scroti in men.   It is often a
symptomatic complaint in the lichen  and lepra; it like-
 wise originates from  ascarides  irritating tlie rectum,
and is iu some cases connected xvitii  a discharge of the
 liuor albus.
   A  similar  affection arises in  consequence  of a
change of state in the genital organs at the lime of pu-
oerty, attended  with a series uf most distressing sensa-
tions.  Dr. Willan confines his attention to one case of"
tlie disorder, xvhich may be considered as idiopathic,
and which usually affects women soon after the cessa-
 tion of the catamenia.  It chiefly occurs iu those xvho
are of the  phlegmatic temperament, and  inclined to
corpulency.   Its seat is the labia pudendi, and entrance
to the vagina.   It is often accompanied xvith an ap-
pearance of tension or fulness of  those  parts,   and
sometimes with inflamed itching papula; on the labia
 and  iiiiiiis veneris.  The distress arising from a strong
 and almost  peipetual  itching in the above situation,
 may be easily imagined.  In older to allay it in some de-
gree, the sufferers have frequent recourse to friction,
and  to cooling applications; whence they are neces-
sitated to forego the enjoyment of society.  Au excite-
ment of venereal sensations also takes place from the
 constant direction of the mind to the parts affected, as
 xvell as from the means employed to procure allevia-
 tion.  The complicated distress thus arising, renders
exi-teuce almost  insupportable, and often  produces a
stale of mind bordering on frenzy.
  Deep ulcerations of the parts seldom take place in
 the prurigo pudendi: but Hie appearance of aphthae on
 line labia and nymphne, is by no means unusual. From
 intercourse xvith  females under these circumstances,
men aie liable to be affected xx ilh aphthous ulcerations
on  the  glans, and  inside of the pr.-epuiium, xvhich
 prove troublesome for a length of time, and often ex-
cite an alarm, being mistaken for chancres.
  Women, utter the fourth month of their pregnancy,
 often suffer greatly from the prurigo pudendi, attended
 with aphtha:.  These, in a few cases, have been suc-
cc di-d by extensive ulcerations,  xvhich destroyed the
 nympliii!,' and produced a filial hectic : such instances
                        PRU

 are, however, extremely rare.  The complaint has, to
 general, some intervals or remissions;  and the aphtliae
 usually disappear  soon after delivery, whether  at tlie
 full time, or by a miscarriage.
   PRURITUS. (From prurio, to itch.)  See Prurig.i
   Prussian alkali. See Alkali, phlogisticated.
   Prussianblue.  See Blue, Prussian.
   PRUSSIATE.  A  salt formed by the union of the
 prussic acid, or colouring mallei of Prussian blue, with
 a salifiable basis :  thus, prussiate of potassa, Sec
   PRL'SSIC ACID.   Acidum prussir.um.   Acidum
 hydrocyanicum. Hydrocyanic acid.  "The combina-
 tion of this acid xvilh iron was long known, aud used
 as a pigment by tlie name of Prussian blue, before ils
 nature was understood. Scheele's method of obtaining it
 is this :—Mix fourounees of Prussian blue xvith txvo of
 red  oxide of mercury prepared by nitric acid, and boil
 them in tivelve ounces by xveight of xvater, till  the
 xvhole becomes colourless; filter the liquor,  and add to
 it one  ounce of clean  iron tilings,  and six or sex'en
 drachms of sulphuric acid.  Draw off by  distillation
 about a fourth of the liquor,  which will  be prussic
 acid; though, as it is liable to be contaminated wilh a
 portion of sulphuric, to render it puie, it may be  recti-
 fied  by  redistilling it from carbonate of lime.
   This prussic  acid has a strong smell of peach-blos-
 soms, or bitter almonds; its taste is at first sweetish,
 then acrid, hot, and virulent, and  excites coughing; it
 has  a strong tendency to assume the form of gas; it
 lias been decomposed in a high temperature,  and by the
 contact of light, into carbonic acid, ammonia, and car-
 buretted hydrogen.  It does not completely  neutralize
 alkalies, nnd is displaced even by the carbonic acid ; it
 has no action upon metals, but unites with their oxides,
 and  forms salts for the  most part insoluble;  it likewise
 unites into triple salts  xvith these oxides and aiKalies;
 the oxygenated muriatic acid decomposes  it.
   The peculiar smell of the prussic acid could scarcely
 fail to suggest its affinity xvitii the deleterious principle
 that rises in the distillation of the leaves of the lauro-
 cerasus, bitter kernels of fruits, and some other  vege
 table productions;  and Schroder, of Berlin,  has ascer
 tained the fact, that these vegetable substances do con
 tani a principle capable of forming  a blue  piecipitate
 with iron ; and that xvith lime they afford a  test of the
 presence of iron equal to  the  prussiate of  that earth.
 Dr.  Bucholz, of Weimar,  and Roloff, of Magdeburg,
 confirm this fact.  The prussic acid appears to come
 over in the distilled oil.
   Prussic acid and its combinations have been lately
 investigated  by Cay Lussac and Vauquelin  in France,
 and  Porrett in England.
  To a quantity of powdered Prussian blue  diffused iu
 boiling  xxater,  let  red oxide of mercury  be added in
 successive  portions till tlie blue  colour is  destroyed.
 Filter the liquid, and concentrate  by evaporation  till a
 pellicle  appears.  On cooling, crystals of prussiate,  or
 cyanide of mercury, wilt be  formed.  Dry  these, and
 put them into a tubulated glass retort, to  the  beak of
 which is adapted a horizontal tube about txvo feet long,
 and fully half an inch  xvide at its middle part.  The
 first third-part of the tube next the retort is filled  xvith
 small pieces of" xvhite marble, the  two other thirds
 with fused muriate of lime.  To  the end  of this tube
 is adapted a small receiver, xvhich should b« artificially
 refrigerated.   Pour on the crystals  muriatic  acid,  in
 rather less  quantity than is sufficient lo saturate the
 oxide of mercury which formed them.  Apply a  very
 gentle heat to the retort.  Prussic acid, named hydro
 cyanic by Gay Lussac, xvill be evolved in  vapour, and
 xvill  condense in tlie tube.  Whatever muriatic  acid
 may  pass over with it, xvill be abstracted by the mar
 ble, xvhile  the  water  xvill be  absoibed  by the  mu-
 riate of lime.  By means of moderate heat  applied  to
 the tube, the prussic acid may be made lo pass succes
 sively along; and after being left sometime  in contac'
 with the muriate of lime, it may be finally driven into
 the receiver.  As the caibonic acid evolved from mar
 ble by the murialic  is apt to carry ofLsome ofthe prus-
sic ncid, care should be taken lo conduct ihe  heat so  as
 to  prevent the distillation of" this mineral acid.
  Prussic acid thus  olmined has tlie  folloxviug proper-
ties .—It is  a colourlew liquid,  possessing  a strong
odour; and  tlie  exhalation, if incautiously snuffed up
the nostrils,  may produce sickness or  fainting.   Its
taste is  cooling at first, then hot, asthenic  in  a  ligh
degree, nnd a true poison. 
PRU
PRU
  This acid, xvhen compared xvith tlie other animal
 rroducts, is distinguished  by the great quantity of ni-
 irogen  it contains, by its small quantity of hydrogen,
 said especially by the absence of oxygen.
  When this acid is kept in well-closed vessels, even
 though no air be present,  it is sometimes decomposed
 in less than an hour.   It has been occasionally kept 15
 days xvithout alteration ; but it is seldom that  it can be
 kept longer, xvithout exhibiting signs of decomposition.
 It begins by assuming a reddish-broxvn colour, which
 becomes deeper and deeper; aud it giaduallydeposites
 a considerable carbonaceous matter  which gives a
 deep colour to both xvater and acids, and emits a strong
 smell of ammonia. If the bottle containing the prus-
 sic  acid be not hermetically staled, nothing remains
 but a dry charry mass, which gives no colour to xvater.
 Thus a prussiate  of ammouia is formed  at the expense
 of a part of the acid, and anazoturel of carbon. When
 potassium is heated in prussic acid vapour mixed xvitii
 hydrogen or nitrogen, there is absorption  xvithout in-
 flammation, and the metal is converted  into a gray
 spongy substance, which melts, and assumes a yelloxv
colour.
  Supposing the quantity of potassium employed capa-
 ble of disengaging from water a volume of hydrogen
equal to 50 parts, we find after the action of the  po-
 tassium.
  1. That the gaseous mixture lias experienced a dimi-
 nution of volume  amounting to 50 parts.
  i. On treating  tliis  mixture xvitii potassa and ana-
 lyzing the iesidue by oxygen, that 50 parts of hydrogen
have been produced.
  3. And consequently that tlie potassium hasabsoibed
 100 parts of prussic vapour; for there is a diminution
of 50  parts which would obviously have been  txvice as
 great  had not 50  parts of hydrogen been  disengaged.
 The yellow matter is prussiate of potassa; properly a
 prusside of potassium, analogous in its formation to the
 chloride and iodide, xvhen muriatic and hydriodic gases
 are made to act on potassium.
  Tlie base of prussic  acid ihus divested of its acidi-
 fying hydrogen, should be called, agreeably to tlie same
 chemical analogy, prussine.  Gay Lussac styles it  cy-
 anogen, because  it is tlie  principle which generates
 blue; or, literally, the blue-maker.
  Like muriatic  and  hydriodic  acids also, it contains
 half its volume of hydrogen.  The only difference is,
 that the former have in the present state of our know-
 n-due simple radicals, chlorine and iodine,  while that
 of tlie latter is a compound of one volume vapour of
 carbon, and half a volume  of nitrogen.   This radical
 forms true prussides xvith metals.
  If the term cyanogen be objectionable as allying it to
 g-ygen, instead of chlorine and iodine, the term hydro-
 /yar..c acid must be  equally so, as implying that it
 contains xvater.  Thus xve say, hydronittic, hydromuri-
 atic, and hydrophosphoric, to denote the aqueous com-
 pounds nf the nitric,  muriatic, and phosphoric acids.
 As the singular  merit of Gay Lussac,  however, has
 commanded a very general compliance among chemists
 with  his nomenclature, we shall use the terms prussic
 acid and hydrocyanic indifferently, as has long been
 done  xvith tlie words nitrogen and azote.
  The prusside or cyanide of potassium gives a very
 alkaline solution  in water, even when  a great excess
 of  hydrocyanic vapour has been present at its forma-
 tion.    In this respect it  differs from  the chlorides
 and iodides of that metal, which are perfectly neutral.
   Barytefe, potassa, and soda combine with prussine,
 forming true prussides of these alkaline oxides; ana-
 logous  to what  are  vulgarly called  oxymuriafes of
 lime, potassa, and soda.  The  red oxide  of  mercury
 acts so powerfully on  prussic acid vapour, xvhen  as-
 sisted by heat, that the compound xvhich ought to re-
 sult is destroyed  by the heat disengaged.  The same
 thing happens when a little of the concentrated acid is
 poured upon the  oxide.  A great elevation of tempe-
 rature takes place, xvhich xvould occasion a dangerous
 explosion if the experiment xvere made upon consider-
 able quantities.  When the acid is diluted, the oxide
 dissolves rapidly, with a considerable  heat, and with-
 out the disengagement  of any gas.  The substance
 formerly called  prussiate of mercury is generated,
 xvhich  xvhen moist may, like the muriates, still  re-
 tain  that name; but when dry  is a  prusside of  the
 metal.
   When the cold oxide is placed in coeitact with  the
acid, dilated into a gaseous form by hydregen, its va-
pour is absorbed in a fexv minutes.  The hydrogen is
unchanged.   When a considerable quantity of vapour
has thus been  absorbed, the oxide adheres to the sidt
of the tube, and on applying heat, xvater is obtained.
The hydrogen of the acid has here united xvith flic
oxygen of the oxide to form the xvater, xvhile their txxc
radicals combine.  Bed oxide of mercury becomes an
excellent reagent for detecting prussic acil.
  By  exposing the  dry prusside of mercury to heat
in a  retort, the radical cyanogen or prussiiie  is ob-
tained.
  From tho experiments of Magendie it appears that
the puie  hydrocyanic acid is tlie  most violent ol' all
poisons.   When a rod dipped into it is brum-hi in c>n
tact xvilh the tongue of mi animal, death ensues benne
the rod can  be xvitlidraxvu.   If a bird  be held a n.o
ment over the mouth of a phial containing this ncid,  it
dies.  In the Annates de Cliiniie for 181-1, xve find this
notice:—JI. B., Professor of Chemistry, left by accident
on a table a flask containim: alkohol impregnated xviih
pni-sic acid; the servant, enticed by the agreeable ll.i-
vour of the liquid, sxvalloxxed  a small glass of it.   In
Hx-o minutes Hie dropped down dead, as If struck xvitii
apoplexy.  The body xvas not examined.
  '■ Scharinger, a professor  at Vienna," says Orfila.
"prepared, six or seven months ago,a pure and concen-
trated prussic acid ; he  spread a certain quantity of
it on his naked arm, and died a little time thereafter."
  Dr. Magendie has,  hoxvever, ventured to introduce
its employment into medicine.  He found it beneficial
against phthisis and chronic catarrhs.  His formulae  is
tlie following :—
  Mix one part ofthe pure prussic or hydrocyanic acid
of Cay  Lussac with 8\ of  water by  weight.   To
this mixture he gives the name of medicinal pru-sic
acid.
    Of this he takes 1 gros. or    59 grs. Troy
    Distilled  xvater, 1 lb.   or  75G0 grs.
    Pure sugar,    l.J oz.  or   708jj grs.
And mixing the ingredients xvell together, he adminis-
ters a table-spoonful every morning and evening.  A
well-written report of the use of the  prussic ncid  in
certain diseases, by Dr. Magendie, xvas communicated
by  Dr. Granville to Mr. Brande, and is inserted in t!;i
fourth volume of the Journal of Science.
  For the fnlloxving ingenious and accurate process fo»
preparing prussic acid lor medicinal uses, I am indelit
ed to Dr. Niinmo of Glasgoxv.
  " Take of the ferroprussiate of potassa 100 grains,
of tlie piotosulphate of iron B4\ grains, dissolve theii
separately in four ounces of water, and mingle them
After allowing the precipitate of the  protoprussiate ol
iron to settle, pour off the clear part, and add xvater to
wash the  sulphate of potassa  completely away.  To
the protoprussiate of iron, mixed with four ounces of
pure water, add 135 grains of the peroxide of mercury.
and boil the whole till  the  oxide is dissolved.  Wilh
the above proportions of peroxide of mercury, the pro-
toprussiate of iron  is completely decomposed.  The
vessel being kept warm, the  oxide of iron xvill fall  to
the bottom ;  the clear part may be poured off to he fil-
tered  through paper, taking care to keep tlie funnel
covered, so that crystals may  not  form in it  by refri-
geration.  Tlie residuum may be  treated xvitii moie
water, and thrown upon the filter, upon xvhich xvarm
xvater ought to be  poured, until all the soluble pan  i.-
xvashed away.  By evaporation, and subsequent res-i
in a cool place, 145 grains of crystals of the  prusside,
or cyanide of mercury will be procured in quadrangu-
lar prisms.
  "The folloxving process for eliminating the hydrocy
anicacidl believe to be new:—Take of the cyanide ol
mercury in fine powder one ounce, diffuse it in tan
ounces of xvater, and  to it, hyslow degrees, add a selit
tion of hydrosulphuret of barytes, made by riecoi.q ■>.
ing sulphate of barytes xvitii charcoal in the comm.  i<
way.  Of the sulphuret of barytes  take an ounce, hod
it with six ounces of xvater, and filter it as hoi aspo-n-
ble.  Add this in small portions to the cyanide ol mer-
cury,  agitating the whole very well, anil allowing fin-
licit nt time  for the cyanide to dissolve, while the lie
composifion  is going on between il nnd the hydrosul
phuret,  ns it is added.  Continue the addition of tin
hydrosulphuret so long as a dark precipitate of eiilphu
ret of mercury falls  doxvn, and even alioxving a small
excess.  Let the xvlinlc  he  thrown upon a  filter, and
                                         213 
PRU
PSA
 Rept xvarm till the fluid drops through; add more xvater
 lo wash the sulphuret of mercury, until eight ounces
 of fluid iiave  passed through the  filter, and it has be-
 come tasteless.  To this fluid, which contains the prus-
 siate of barytes, xvith a small excess of hydrosulphuret
 of baiytes, add sulphuric acid, diluted xvith an equal
 weight of water, and alloxved to become cold, so long
 as sulphate of barytes falls doxvn.   The excess of sul-
 phuretted hydrogen will be removed by adding a suffi-
 cient portion of carbonate of lead, and auitating very
 xvell.   Tlie xvhoie may now be put  upon a filter, xvhich
 must be closely covered ;  the fluid  which passes is the
 hydrocyanic acid of what is called the medical stand-
 ard strength."
  Scheele  found that prussic  acid  occasioned precipi-
 tates xvith only the following  three metallic solutions:
 nitrates of silver and meicury, and carbonate of silver.
 The first  is white, the second black, the third green,
 becoming blue.
  The hydrocyanates  are all alkaline, even  when a
 great excess of acid is employed in their formation, and
 they ate decomposed by  the xveukest acids."—Ure's
 Chem.  Diet.
  PRUSSINE.  Prussic gas.  Cyanogen.  This i3 ob-
 tained  by decomposing the prusside or cyanide of mer-
 cury by heat.
  When the simple  mercurial prusside  is exposed to
 heat in a small glass retort, or tube, shut at one extre-
 mity, it soon begins to blacken.  It appears to melt like
 an animal matter, and then the prussine is disengaged
 in abundance.   This gas  is pure from tlie beginning
 of the  process to the end, provided always that the
 heat be not very high: for if it xvere  not sufficiently
 intense to melt the glass, a little azote xvould be evolv-
 ed.  Mercury  is volatilized xvith a  considerable quan-
 tity of  prusside, and  there remains  a cliany matter of
 the colour of soot, and as  light as  lampblack.   The
 prusside of silver gix-es out  likewise  prussine  xvhen
heated ; but the  mercurial prusside is  preferable to
every otlier.
  Prussine or cyanogen is a permanently  elastic fluid.
Its smell, which it fs impossible to describe, is  very-
strong  and penetrating.   Its  solution in  xvater lias  a
 very sharp taste.  The gas burns with a bluish flame
mixed  with purple.   Its sp. gr., compared to that of
 air, is 1.80G4.
  Prussine is capable of sustaining  a pretty high heat,
 xvithout being decomposed. Water, agitated  xvitii it
for some minutes, at  tlie temperature of 68°, absorbed
 about  41 times its volume.  Pure alkohol absorbs 23
times its volume.  Sulphuric  aether  and oil of turpen-
tine dissolve at least as much as xvater.   Tincture of
 litmus  is  reddened by prussine.  The carbonic  acid
proceeds, no doubt, from the decomposition of a small
 quantity of prussine  and  water.  It deprives tlie red'
 sulphate of manganese of its colour, a property whicli
 prussic acid does not possess.
  Phosphorus, sulphur, and iodine  may  be sublimed
 by the  heat of  a spirit-lamp in prussine, xvithout occa-
 sioning any change on it.  Its mixture xvith hydrogen
 xvas not altered by thesame temperature, or by passing
 electrical sparks through  it.  Copper and gold do not
 combine with it; but iron,  when  heated  almost to
 whiteness, decomposes it in part.
  In the cold, potassium acts but sloxvly on prussine,
 because a crust is formed on its surface, xvhich presenLs
 an obstacle to the  mutual action. On applying the
 snirit-lamp, the  potassium becomes speedily  incan-
 descent ; the absorption of the gas begins, the inflamed
 disc gradually  diminishes, and when it disappears en-
 tirely,  which takes plate in a fexv seconds, the absorp-
 tion is  likewise at an end.
  The  compound of prussine  and potassium is yellow-
 ish.  It dissolves in  water  without  effervescence, and
 the solution is strongly alkaline.  Its lasle is the same
 as that of hydrocyanateor simple prussiate of poiassa,
 of whicli it possesses all the properties.
  When a pure solution  of potassa is introduced into
 this gas, the absorption is rapid.   If the alkali he not
 loo concentrated, and  be not quite  saturated,  it is
 scarcely tinged of a  lenion-yclloxv  colour.   But if the
 prussine be in excess, we obtain  a broxvn solution,
 apparently carbonaceous.  On pouring potassa com-
 bined  xvitii prussine  into  a saline  solution of a black
 oxide of iron,  and adding  an  acid,  xve obtain Prussian
 blue.
  The instant an acid is poured into the solution of
       "U
 prussine in potassa, a strong effervescence of carbonic
 acid is produced, and at the same time a strong smell of
 prussic acid  becomes perceptible.  Ammonia is like-
 xvise formed, wliich  remains combined xvilh the acid
 employed and xvhich may be rendered very sensible tc
 the smell by the addition of quicklime.  Since,  there-
 fore, xve are obliged  to add an acid  in order to form
 Prussian blue, its formation occasions no  farther difli
 culty.
  Soda, barytes, and strontites produce the same effect
 as potassa.  We must, therefore, admit that prussine
 forms particular combinations xvitii the alkalies, which
 are permanent till some circumstance  determines  the
 formation of nexv products.  These combinations are
 true salts, which may be  regarded us analogous lo tliose
 formed by acids. In fact, prussine possesses acid cha-
 racters.  It contains two elements, azote and carbon,
 the first of xvhich is strontily acidifying, according io
 Gay Lussac.   Prussine reddens tlie tincture of litmus,
 and neutralizes  the bases.  On the other hand, it acts
 as a simple body xvhen it  combines with hydrogen; and
 it is this double  function of a simple  aud compound
 body, xvhich renders its nomenclature so embarrassing.
  Be this as it may, the compounds nf prussine and tlie
 alkalies, which may be distinguished by the term prus-
 sides. do not separate in  xvater like the alkaiine'chlo-
 rurels (oxymuriates), xvhich produce chlorates and mu
 riates.
  The metallic  oxides do not Eeem capable of pro-
 ducing the same  changes on  prussine as the alkalies.
  Prussine rapidly decomposes the carbonates at  a dull
 red heat, and" prussides  of  the  oxides are  obtained.
 When passed through sulphuret of barytes, ilcombines
 xvithout disengaging the sulphur,  and  renders it very
 fusible and of a broxvnish-black colour.    When put
 into xvater, xve obtain a colourless solution, but xvhich
 gives a deep  broxvn  (maroon) colour to muriate of
 iron.  What does not dissolve contains a good deal of
 sulphate, xvhich  is doubtless formed during the prepa-
 ration of the sulphuret of barytes.
  On dissolving prussine  iu tlie sulphuretted hydrosul-
 phuret of barytes,  sulphur is precipitated, xvhich is
 again dissolved xvhen tlie liquor is saturated with prus-
sine, and xve  obtain  a solution  having  a very deep
 brown maroon colour.  This gas does  not decompose
sulphuret of silver, nor of potassa.
  Prussine  and sulphuretted hydrogen combine slowly
 with each other.  A yelloxv substance is obtained in
tine needle*, xvhich dissolves in xvater, does not precipi-
tate nitrate of lead, produces no Prussian blue, and is
composed of 1 volume prussine  (cyanogen), and li
 volumes of sulphuretted hydrogen.
  Ammoniacal gas aud prussine begin to act on each
otlier whenever they come in contact;  but some hours
 are requisite to render the effect  complete.  We per-
ceive at first a  xvhile thick vapour, xvhich  soon disap-
 pears.   The diminution of volume is considerable, and
 the glass in xvhicli the mixture is made becomes opaque,
 its inside being covered  xvilh  a solid  broxvn matter
 On mixing 90 parts of prussine, and 2~2~ ammonia, they
combined nearly in the proportion of  1 to l.t.   This
compound gives a dark orange-brown colour to watei
 but dissolves only in  a very small proportion.  The
liquid produces  no Prussian blue xvilh  the salts of
iron.
  In  the first volume ofthe Journal of  Science and the
 Arts, Sir II. Davy has stated some interesting particu-
 lars relative to prussine.   By heating prusside of mer-
 cury in muriatic acid gas, he obtained  pure  liquid
 prussic  acid  and  corrosive sublimate.   By heating
 iodine, sulphur, and phosphorus, in comae  xvith prus
 side of mercury,  compounds of these bodies xvith prus-
 sine or cyanogen may be  formed.   That of iodine is a
 veiy curious body.  It is volatile at a very moderate
 heat; and  on  coolin" collects in floccu]J( tdhermc to-
 gether like oxide of zinc formed by coint ustion.  Il lias
 apunm-nt smell,  nnd very acrid taste.
  PSALLOI'DES.  (From if/aXA&f, a strimecd instiu-
 nicnt, and  tiios, a likeness :  because it appears ns if
 stringed like  a dulcimer.)  Applied bv the ancients lo
 the inner surface ofthe fornix of the brain.
  l'SALTE'KIUM.   (A  harp: because it is marked
 witli lines that give Utile appearance of a harp.)   Lyra.
 The medullary body that unites the posterior crurii of
 the fornix of tlie  brain.
  PSAMMI'SMUS.   (From ipapuos, sand.) An aj>
 plication of hot sand tu any part ot the body. 
PSO
PSO
  PSAMMO'DES.   (From e:uw<;s,sand.)   Applied to
urine which deposites a sand* sidnnent.
  PSELLI'SMUS.   (From ^(XXt^, to have a hesita-
tion of speech.)  Psellotis.  Defect of speech.  A ge-
nus of disease in the Class Locales, and Order Dysci-
nesia, of Cullen.
  Psello'tis.   Sec Pscllismus.
  PSEUDACORUS.  (From if-to^ns, '"''Ise, and axo-
oov, the acorus plant:  because it  resembled and xvas
substituted for that plant.)  Sea Iris Pseudacorus.
  PSEUDO.   (tcviris, false.)   Spurious.  This xvord
is fixed to the name of several diseases, because liny
resemble them, but are not tliose diseases ; as Pseudo-
vneumoma,  Pseudo-phrenitis.   It is also  prefixed to
many suostances which are  only fictitious  imitations;
as Pseudamomum, a spurious kind of ainomuin, &c.
  FSEUDOBLE'PSIS.   (From  d/rinSr/s,  false, and
S'Xtd/ij,  sight.)   Phantasma;  Suffusio.   Imaginary
vision of objects.  A genus of disease in the Class Lo-
cales, and Order Dysathesiw, of Cullen;  characterized
by depraved sight, creating objects,  or representing ihcm
different from xvhat ihey are.  Species:—
  1.  Pseudoblepsis imaginaria, in xvhich  objects are
perceived  that are not present.
  2.  Pseudoblepsis mutans, in  xvliich objects that are
piesent appear somexvhat changed.
  PSEUDOCYESIS.  (From ifcvSns,false,  and (citric,
pregnancy.)  The name of a genus of disease in Good's
Nosology.  Class, Genetica ; Order, Carpotica. False
conception.  It has two species, viz. Pscudocyesis mo-
laris, and inanis.
  PSEUDOMELANTHIUM.   (From  xpcvSiis, false,
and melanthium, the name of a  plant.)   See Agro-
stcmma githago.
  PSEUDOPYRETHRUM.  (From ^tvins, false, and
pyrethrum, the  name  of  a plant: so called, because
when tlie floxvers are chewed  they impart a  warmth
somexvhat like that of pyrethrum root.)   See Achillaa
ptarmica.
  PSI'DIUM.   (Altered by Linna-us from dniias of
the ancient Greeks.)  The"nameof agenus  of plains in
the Linnxan system.  Class,/ccsandWa;  Order, Me
nogynia.
  Psidii m pomifcrum.  The systematic name of the
apple guava.  This  plant, and the pyriferum,  beat
fruits, the former like apples, the latter like pears.  The
apple kind is most cultivated in the Indies, on account
of tlie pulp having a fine acid flavour, whereas the pear
species is sxveet, and therefore notso agreeable in xvarm
climates.  Of the inner pulp of either, the  inhabitants
make jellies; and of  the  outer rind they  make tarts,
marmalades, &c.   Tlie latter they also stew and eat
xvith milk, and  prefer them to any other stexved fruits.
They have an astringent quality,  xvliich exists also in
every part ofthe tree, and  abundantly in the leaf-buds,
xvhich are occasionally boiled with barley,  and liquor-
ice, as an excellent drink  against  diarrhoeas.  A  sim-
ple decoction of the leaves,  used  as a bath, is said to
cure the itch, and most cutaneous eruptions.
  Psidium pyriferum.  The systematic name of the
pear guava.  See Psidium pomiferum.
  Psilo'thra.   (From il/tXou, to denudate.)  Appli-
cations to remove the hair.
  Psilo'thrum.  (From  v-'NoW) to depilate: so called
because it was  used to remove tho hair.)  The white
briony.
  Psimmy'thium.   (From xpiu, lo smooth: so called
because of its use as a cosmetic.)   Cerusse,  or white
lead.
  PSO'JE.  (Voat, the loins.) Alopeces ; Ntfrometra;
Neuromcteres.   1. The loins.
  2. The  nanieof two pair of muscles in the loins.
  PSO'AS.  (From Vr'oai, the loins.)  Belonging to the
loins.
  Psoas abscess.  See Lumbar abscess.
  Psoas magnus.   Psoas, seu lumbaris internus, of
Winsloxv. Pre-lumbo-trochantin, of Dumas. This is
a long,  thick, and very consideiable muscle, situated
close to the forepart and sides of the lumbar vertebrae.
It arises from the bodies of the last vertebrae of tlie back,
and of all the lumbar vertebra? laterally, as well as from
Ihe anterior surfaces of their transverse processes by
distinct tendinous and fleshy slips, that arc gradually
collected into one mass,  xvhich becomes thicker as it
descends, till it readies the last of the lumbar vertebrtp,
xvhere it grows narrower again, and uniting  its outer
and posterior edge  (where it logins to bee"""= »«-■»•»
nous) xvith the iliacus interims,  descends along with
mat muscle under the ligamentum Fallopii, and goes to
be inserted tendinous at the  bottom of the trochanter
minor, of the os femoris, and  fleshy into the bone a
little beloxv that process.  Betxveen the tendon of this
muscle and the ischium, xve  find a considerable bursa
mucosa.   This muscle, at its origin, has some connex
ionwitli the diaphragm, and  likexxise wilh the quadra-
tus lumborum.  Il  is one of the most powerful flexors
of the thighs  fonvurds, and may likexvise assist  in
turning it outxvards.  When the inferior extremity is
fixed, it may help to bend the body forxvards, and in an
erect posture it greatly assists in preserving  the equili-
brium ofthe trunk upon the  upper part of the thigh.
  Psoas Parvus.  Prc-lumbo-pubicn, of Dumas.  This
muscle, which xvas first described by Riolanus, is situ-
ated upon the psoas magnus,  at the anterior part of thr
loins.  The psoas  parvus arises  thin and fleshy from
the side of the uppermost vertebra of the  loins, and
sometimes also from the loxver edge of the last vertebra
of the back, and from Ihe transverse processes, of each
of those  vertebra;: it then extends  ever  part of tlie
psoas magnus, and  terminates in a thin, flat tendon,
xvhich is inserted into that part of the  brim  ofthe pel-
vis,  xx-here the os  pubis joins the ilium.  From  this
tendon a great number of fibres are sent off, xvhicli form
a thin fascia, that covers parts ofthe psoas magnus and
iliacus internus, and gradually loses itself on the fore
part of the thigh.   In  the human body, this muscle  is
very often wanting; but in a dog, according to Douglas,
it is never deficient.  Riolanus xvas of opinion, thai il
occurs  oftener in men  than in women.  Winslow as-
serts just the contrary; but the truth seems to be,  that
it is as often wanting in one sex as in the other.   Its
use seems to be to assist the psoas magnus in  bending
ihe loins forxvards; and when xve are lying upon out
baf k, it may help lo taise the pelvis.
  Psoas sivk lumbaris internus. See  Psoas mag
nus.
  PSO'RA.  twpa.  Scabies-  The itch.  Agenusof
disease in the Class Locales, and Order Dyalyses, of
Cullen: appearing  first on tlie xvrists, and betxveen tlie
lingers, iu small pustules xvitii xvatery heads.   It is con-
tagious.
  PSORALEA. (From xpupaXtos, scabby; because the
calyx, and other parts of the plant, are more or less
besprinkled xvitii glandular dots, giving a scurfy rough
ness.)  The name  of a genus of plants.  Class, Dia-
delphia; Older, Decandria.
  Psoralea pkntaphylla.  The systematic name  of
the Chexicum contrayerva, Contrayerva nova, xvhich
is by many as much esteemed as the Dorstenia. It xvas
introduced into Europe soon  after tlie true plant, from
Guiana as xvell as Mexico.
  PSORI'ASIS.  (From xpupa, the itch.)  Thedisease
to xvhich Dr. Willan gives tliis title is characterized by
a rough and scaly stale of tlie cuticle, sometimes con-
tinuous, sometimes in separate  patches, of  various
sizes, but of an irregular figure, and for the  moot part
accompanied with  rhagades or  fissures of the skin.
From tlie lepra it may be distinguished, not only by the
distribution of the  patches,  but also by its cessation  \
and  recurrence at certain seasons of tlie year, and by
the disorderoi'thc constitution witli xvhich it  is usually
attended.  Dr. Willan gives the following xarieties :
  I.  Psoriasis guttata. This complaint  appears in
small,  distinct,  but irregular  patches  of  laminated
scales,  xvith little  or no inflammation round them.
The patches very seldom extend to the size of a  six
pence.  They have neither an elevated border, nor the
oval or circular form  by which all the varieties of
lepra are  distinguished;  but their circumference  is
sometimes angular, and sometimes goes into  small  ser-
pentine processes.   The scale formed upon each of
them is thin, and may be easily detached, leaving a red,
shining base.   The patches are often distrituted over
the greatest part of the body, but more particularly on
the back  part of the neck,  the  breasts, arms, loins,
thighs, nnd legs.   They appear  also upon  the face,
xvhich rarely happens in lepra.  In that situation, liny
are red and more rough than  the adjoining cuticle, but
not covered xvith scales. Tlie  psoriasis guttata often
appears on children in a sudden eruption, attended
xvith a slight disorder of the constitution, and spreads
over the body xvithin txvo or three days.  In adults  it
commences xvitii a fexv scaly patches on theextiemi-
,io* proceeds very gradually, and has a longer duration
                                        ■215 
PSO
PSO
than m children.   Its first occurrence is usually in the
spring season, after violent pains in the head, stomach,
and lunbs.   During the summer it disappears sponta-
neously, or  may be soon removed by proper applica-
tions, but it is apt to return again early in the ensuing
spring,  and continues so  to do for several successive
years.  When the scales have  been  removed, and the
disease is about  to  go off, the small patches have a
shining appearance, and they, retain a daik red, inter-
mixed with  somewhat of a  bluish  colour, for many
days, or even xveeks, before the skin is restored to its
usual state.  In Ihe venereal disease tliere is an erup-
tion xvhich very much resembles the psoriasis guttata,
 he only difference being a slighter degree of scaliness,
and a different shade of colour in the patches, approach-
ing to  a livid red, or very dark  rose  colour. The
patches vary in their extent, from the section of a pea,
to the size of a silver penny, but are  not exactly cir-
cular.  They rise at first very little, if at all, above the
cuticle.  As soon,  hoxvever, as tlie scales appear on
them, they become sensibly elevated;  and sometimes
the edge or circumference of the patch is higher than
the little scales in its centre.  This eruption is usually
seen upon the forehead, breast,"between the shoulders,
or in the inside of the forearms, in  the  groins, about
the inside of tlie thighs, and upon tlie skin covering the
lower' part  of the abdomen.   The syphilitic psoriasis
guttata is  attended  xvith, or soon followed by, an ul-
ceration of the throat.  It appears about six or eight
weeks after a chancre has been  healed by an ineffectual
course of mercury.  A similar appearance takes place
at nearly the same period, in some cases where no local
Bymptoms had been noticed.  When a venereal sore is
in a discharging state, this eruption, or other secondary
symptoms, often  appear much later than the  period
above mentioned.  They may also be kept back three
months, or even longer, by an inefficient application of
mercury.  If no  medicine be employed, the syphilitic
form of the psoriasis guttata will proceed during several
months, the  number of the spots increasing, and their
bulk  being somexvhat enlarged, but without any other
material alteration.
  2 The Psoriasis diffusa spreads into large patches
irregularly circumscribed, reddish, rough, aud chappv,
xvith  scales interspersed.  It commences, in general,
xvitii numerous minute asperities, or elevations of the
cuticle, more perceptible by the touch than  by sight.
Upon these, small distinct scales arc soon after formed,
adhering by a dark central point, while their edges may
be seen white and detached.  In the course of txvo or
Ihree xveeks all the intervening  cuticle becomes rough
and chappy, appears red, and raised, and wrinkled, the
lines of the skin sinking into deep furroxvs.  The scales
xvhich form among them are often slight, and repeat-
edly exfoliate.  Sometimes, without any previous erup-
tion of papulae, a large portion of the skin becomes dry,
harsh, cracked, reddish, and scaly, as above described.
In other cases, the disorder commences xvitii separate
patches of an uncertain form and size, some of them
being small, like  those in tlie psoriasis guttata, some
much larger.  The patches gradually expand till they
become confluent, and nearly cover the part or limb af-
fected.   Both the psoriasis guttata and diffusa like-
wise occur as a sequel of the  lichen simplex.  This
transition takes place more certainly after frequent re-
turns of the lichen.  The parts  most affected by psori-
asis diffusa  are the cheeks, chin, upper eyelids, and
corners of the eyes, the temples, Ihe  external ear, tlie
neck,  the fleshy parts ofthe loxver extremities, and the
forearm, from the eiboxv to tin- back of the hand,  along
the supinator  muscle of the radius.  The fingers are
Bometimes  nearly surrounded xvith a loose scaly in-
crustation; the nails crack and  exfoliate superficially.
The scaly patches likexvise appear,  thougli less fre-
quently, on the forehead nnd scalp, on the shoulders,
back, and loins, on the abdomen, and  instep.  This
disease occasionally extends to nil the parts above men-
tioned at the same time; but, in general,  it affects them
successively, leaving one place free, and appearing in
others ;  sometimes again returning to  its first situation.
Tlie psoriasis diffusa  is attended xvith a sensation of
heat, and xvith a very troublesome itching, especially
at night.  It exhibits small,  slight, distinct scales,
having less  disposition  than the lepra  to  form  thick
crusts.  The chaps or fissures of theskin, wliich usually
make a part of this complaint, nre very sore and  pain
 are removed by frequent washin    r by the application
 of unguents, the  surface, thoug*  laised and uneven,
 appears smooth and shining; ann the deep furrows oi
 the cuticle are lined by a 6light scaliness.  Should any
 portion of the diseased surface be forcibly excoriated,
 there .ssues out a thin lymph, mixed xvith some drops
 of blood, xvhicli slightly  stains and stiffens tlie linen,
 but soon concretes into  a thin dry scab ; this is again
 succeeded  by a xvhite scaliness, gradually increasing,
 and spreading iu various directions.  As the complaint
 declines, the roughness, chaps, scales, &c. disappear,
 and  a nexv cuticle  is formed, at first red, dry, and
 shrivelled,  but wliich, in two or three xveeks, acquires
 tlie proper  texture.   The duration ofthe psoriasis dif
 fusa is from one to four months.  If, in some constitu
 tions, it does not then disappear, but becomes, to a cer-
 tain degree, permanent, there is, at least, an aggrava
 tion or extension of it,  about the usual periods of its
 return.  In otlier cases, the disease, at the vernal re-
 turns, differs much as to its extent, and also xvitii re-
 spect to tlie violence of the preceding symptoms.   The
 eruption is, indeed, often confined to a single scaly
 patch, red, itching, and  chapped,  of a moderate size.
 but irregularly circumscribed.  This solitary  patch is
 sonietimes situated on the temple, or upper part of the
 cheek, frequently on the breast,  the calf of the leg,
 about the xvrist, or within and a little beloxv the eiboxv
 joint, but especially at the loxver part erf*tile thigh, be
 hind.  It continues in any of these situations seven'
 months,  without  much  observable alteration.   Tr.»
 complaint, denominated witli us the bakers' itch, is an
 appearance of psoriasis diffusa on the back of the
 hand, commencing xvilh one or txvo small, rough, scaly
 patches, and finally extending from tlie knuckles to the
 xvrist.  The rhagades, or chaps, and fissures of the
 skin, are numerous about the knuckles and ball ofthe
 thumb, aud xvhere the back of the  baud joins the xvrist.
 They are often highly inflamed, and painful, but have
 no discharge of fluid from them. The back ofthe hand
 is a liltle raised  or tumefied,  and, at  an advanced
 period of tbe disorder, exhibits a reddish, glossy surface,
 without  crusts or numerous  scales.   Hoxvever, the
 deep  furrows of  the cuticle are, for the most part,
 xvhitened by a slight scaliuess.  This complaint is not
 general among bakers;  that  it is only aggravated by
 their  business, and affects those  xvho are otherwise
 disposed to it, may be collected from the folloxving cir-
 cumstances: 1. It disappears about midsummer,  and
 returns in the cold weather at the beginning of the
 year; 2. Persons  constantly  engaged iu the business,
 after having been once  affected  xvith tbe eruption,
 sometimes enjoy  a  respite from it for two or three
 years;  3. When the business is discontinued, the com-
 plaint does not immediately cease.  The grocers' itch
 lias some affinity with the bakers' itch, or tetter; but,
 being usually a pustular disease at  its commencement,
 il  properly belongs to another genus.  Washer-xvoinen,
 probably from the  irritation of soap, are liable to be af-
 fected xvitii  a similar  scaly disease  on tlie hands, and
 arms, sometimes on the face and neck, xvhich, in par-
 ticular constitutions, proves very troublesome, and ol
 long duration.
  3. The  Psoriasis gyrala is distributed in narrow
 patches or stripes, variously figured ; some of them are
 neatly longitudinal;  some circular, or semicircular,
 xvitii vcrniform appendages; some  are tortuo-is, or ser-
 pentine; others like earth-worms or leeches: the fni-
 rows  of the cuticle being deeper than usual, make tlie
 resemblance more  striking, by giving to them nn annu-
 lled appearance.  Tliere is a separation of slight scales
 from the diseased  surface, but no  thick incrustations
 are formed.   The uniform disposition of these patches
 is  singular.   I have seen a large circular one situated
 on each breast above the papillae; and txvo or  three
 others  of  a  serpentine form, in analogous situations
 along the sides of the chest.   The back is often varie
 gated in like manner, xvitii convoluted tetters, similaily
 arranged on each side of the spine.   They likewise ap-
 pear, in sonic cases, on the arms and thighs, intersect-
 ing each other in various directions.  A slighter kind
 of this complaint  affects delicate young women aud
children in small scaly circles or rings, little discolour-
ed ; they appear on the cheeks, neck, or upper  part of
the breast, and are mostly confounded with the heipe-
tic, or pustular ringworm. The psoriasis evrata has
its remissions and  returns, like the  psoriasis "diffusa; It
fui, but seldom discharge any fluid.  When the scales | also oxhibiis, in some cases, patches of the  latter dis
      216 
PSO                                             PTE
»rder on the face, scalp, or extremities xvhile the trunk
if the body ischequered xvith the singular figures above
iescribed.
  4. Psoriasis palmaria.  This verv obstinate 6peeies
if tetter is nearly confined to the palm of the hand.  It
:oiumences xvith a small, harsh, or scaly patch, which
gradually spreads over tlie xvhole palm, and sometimes
appears in a slight degree .on the inside of the fingers
»nd xvrist.   The surface feels rough from the detached
nnd raised edges of the scaly laminae; its colour often
riianges to  broxvn or black, as if dirty ; yet the most
iiligent washing produces no  favourable effect.  The
euticular furrows  are  deep, and cleft at the  bottom
ongitudinally, in various places, so as to bleed on
itretching tlie fingers.  A sensation of heat, pain, and
itiffness in the motions of the hand, attends this com-
plaint.  It is xvorse  in xviuter or spring,  and occa-
lionally disappears in  autumn or summer, leaving a
«oft, dark-red cuticle ; but many persons are troubled
arith it for  a series  of years, experiencing only very
slight remissions.  Every return or aggraxation of it is
preceded by an increase of heat and  dryness, xvith in-
tolerable itching.  Shoemakers have the psoriasis pa-
tnaria  locally, from ihe irritation of the xvax they so
constantly employ.   In braziers, tinmen, silversmiths,
fee. the complaint seems  to  be produced by handling
cold metals.  A long predisposition to it from a xveak,
languid, hectical stale  of the  constitution, may give
reflect to different occasional causes.  Dr. Willan has
ihserved it in xvomen after lying-in ; in some persons
t is connected or alternates xvith arthritic complaints.
When the  palms of  the hands are  affected ns above
stated, a similar appearance often takes place on the
soles of the feet; but xvilh the exception ofrhagades or
fissures, which seem less liable to form there, the feet
being usually  kept warm nnd covered.   Sometimes,
also, the psoriasis palmaria is attended xvith a thicknc -s
of the praeputium, xvitii scaliness and painful cracks.
These symptoms at  last produce a phimosis, and  ren-
der connubial intercourse difficult  or impracticable;
so great, in  some cases, is the  obstinacy of tiiem, that
remedies are of no  avail, and the patient can only be
relieved by circumcision.  This affection of tiie pi;:pii-
tium is nol exactly similar to any venereal appearance;
but rhagades or fissures, and indurated patches xvithin
the palm of tlie hand, take place in syphilis, nnd some-
what resemble the  psoriasis palmaria.  The venereal
patches are, however, distinct,  white, and elevated,
having nearly the consistence of a soft corn.  From the
rhagades there is a slight discharge, very offensive to
the smell.  The soles of the feet are likewise, in this
case, affected  xvith the patches, not wilh rhagades.
When the disease  yields to  the operation of mercury,
the indurated portions of cuticle separate, and a smooth
new cuticle is found  formed underneath.  The  fingers
and toes are not affected  xvith  tiie  patches,  &c. in
venereal cases.
  5. Psoriasis  labialis.  The psoriasis sometimes af-
fects the lip without appearing  on any other part of the
body.  Its characteristics are, as usual, scaliness, in-
termixed with chaps and fissures of tlie skin.  The
scales are of a considerable  magnitude, so that their
edges  are often loose, while  Hie central points  are
attached; a nexv cuticle  gradually forms beneath the
scales, but is not durable.  In the  course of a  few
hours  it becomes  dry, shrivelled, and  broken; and,
while it exfoliates, gix'es way to another layer of tender
cuticle, which soon,  in like manner, perishes.   These
appearances should  be distinguished from the light
chaps  and  roughnt-s  of the  lips produced by very
cold or frosty xveather, but  easily  removed.  The
psoriasis labialis may be a little aggravated by frost or
sharp winds, yet it receives no material alleviation from
an  opposite temperature.  It  is not, indeed, confined
within any certain limit, or period of duration, having,
in several  instances, been protracted through  all the
seasons. The under lip is alxvays more affected than
the upper;  and the disease takes place more especially
in tliose persons whose lips are full and prominent.
  6. Psoriasis scrotalis.   The skin of the scrotum
mny be affected  in the psoriasis diffusa like other parts
of the surface ofthe body; but sometimes a roughness
and scaliness of the scrotum appears as an'independent
complaint, attended xvith much heat, itching, tension,
and redness. Tbe above symptoms are succeeded by
a hard, thickened, brittle texture of the skin, and by
painful chaps or excoriations, xvhich are not easily to
be  healed.   This complaint is sometimes  produced
under ihe  sainc  ciioitinstuuces as Ihe piurigo  scroti,
and appears to be in some cases a sequel  ol"  it.  A
species ofthe psoriasis scrotalis likexvise occuis in the
lues venerea, but merits  no particular attention, being
alxvays combined xvith other secondary symptoms at
tlie disease.
  7. Psoriasis  infantilis.  Infants between the ages
of two months and two years, are occasionally subject
to tlie dry tetter.  Irregular scaly patches, of various
sizes appear on  tlie cheeks, chin, bieast,  back, limes,
and thighs.  They are sometimes red, and a little rough
or elevated ; sometimes excoriated, then again covered
xvitii a thin incrustation; and, lastly,  intersected by
chaps or fissures.  Thegeneral appearances nearly coin
cide wilh those of the psoriasis difl'usn: but there are
several peculiarities in tlie tellers of  infants,  xvhich
require a distinct consideration.
  o. Tlie Psoriasis inveterata  is characterized  by an
almost universal  scaliness, with  a harsh,  dry, and
thickened state of the skin.  It commences from a fexv
irregular, though distinct patches on the  extremities
Others appear  afterward on different  parts, and, be-
coming confluent, spread at length over all the surface
ofthe body, except u part ofthe face, or sometimes tlie
palms of tlie hands, and soles of the feet.  The  skin is
red, deeply furrowed, or xvriukled, stiff and rigid, so as
somewhat  to impede the motion of the muscles, and
of the joints,   eso quick,  likexvise,  is  the production
aud separation of scales, that large quantities of them
are found in the bed on xvhich  a person affected xvith
tlie disease i»as slept.  They fall off in  the same pro-
portion by  day, aud being confined within the linen,
excite a troublesome and perpetual itching.
  1'so'rh.a.   (.From tpupa, Ihe itch.)   Medicines to
cure the itch.
  PSUROPHTHA'LMIA.  (From dywpa, the itch, and
o&'JaXuos, an eye.)  An inflammation or the eyelids,
attended with ulcerations, xvliich itch very much. By
psorophthalmy, Mr. Ware  means a case in xvhich tlie
inflammation of the eyelids is attended xvitii an ulcera-
tion of their edges,  upon xvhicli  a glutinous matter
lodges, and becomes hard,  so that in sleep, xvhen they
have been  long in contact, they become so adherent,
that  they  cannot be sepaiuted xvithout  pain.  The
proximate cause is au acrimony deposited in line glands
of the eyelids.  The species of the psoroplithalmia are,
   1. Panophthalmia crustosa,  xvhich forms diy or Im
mid crusts  in the  margins of the eyelids.
  2. Psorophthalmia herpctica, in xvhich small papulae,
itcliing extremely, aud terminating  in scurf, are ob-
served.
  Psychaoo'oica.   (From il/vxv, the mind, and ayu,
to move.)   Medicines which recover  iu  syncope or
apoplexy.
  FSYCHOTROPHUM.   (From uVuXoc, cold: be-
cause it groxvs in cold places. A name altered by Lin-
naeus from  the  Psychotrophum of Broxvne, which
alludes to  the shady place of growth of most  of the
species.  Vvxorpodiov is an ancient name for an herb-
loving shade, j  The name  of a genus of plants in the
Linnaeau system.  Class,  Pentandria;  Order, Mono-
gynia.
  Psychotria kmetica.   See Callicocca ipecacuanha.
  Pbyciio'trophum.  (From -d/vxos, cold, and rptqiu
to nourish:  so called because it groxvs in places ex-
posed to the cold.)  Tlie herb  betony.  See Betonica
ofjicinalis.
  rsvciiROLU'TRUM.  (From 4t>x°5i cold, and Xovu,
to wash.)  A cold bath.
  Psy'i htica.  (From tpvxu,  to refrigerate.)   Refri-
gerating medicines.
  PSYDRA'CIA.  (From tpvxos,  cold.)    Red and
somexvhat  elevated spots, xvhich soon form broad and
superficial  vesicles,  such as those produced  by the
stinging-nettle, tlie bites of insects, &c.  See Pustule.
  PSYLLIUM.  (From xpvXXos, a flea: so called be
cause it was thought to destroy fleas.)   See Plantagc
psyllium.
  PTARMICA.  (From  irraipu, to sneeze: so called
because it irritates the nose, and provokes sneezing)
Sneezewort.  See Achillaa ptarmica.
  PTE'RIS.  (From irrcpov, a  xving: so called from
the  likeness of" its leaves lo wings.)  The name of q
genus of plants in the Linna-an  system.  Class, Cryo
togamia; Order, Filiccs.
  Ptkris  aquilina.  The systematic   name of xnt
                                        S17 
PTE                                            PUB
common ..lake, or female fern.  Filix famina.  The
plant xvhich is thus called, in the pharmacopoeias, is
not the Polypodium filix famina, but the Pteris—fron-
dibus  supradecompositis, foliolis  pinnatis,  pinnis
lanceolatis, infimis, pinnatifidis,  superioribus minori-
bus, of Linnaus.   The root  is esteemed as an anthel-
mintic, and is supposed to be as efficacious in destroy-
ing tlie tapeworm as the root of the male fern.
  PTEROCA'RPUS.   (From tzfcpov, a wing, and
xamos, fruit.)  Tlie name of a geniis of plants in the
Linnaean system.
  Pterocarpus santalinus.  The systematic name
of tlie red saunders-tree.  Santalum rubrum.  There
is some reason to believe that several red xvoods, capa-
ble of communicating this colour to spirituous liquors,
are sold as red saunders; but the true officinal  kind
appears, on the best authority, to  be of this tree, which
is extremely hard, of a bright gnrnet-red  colour, and
bears a fine  polish.   It  is only the inner substance
of the wood that is used as a colouring matter, and the
more florid red is mostly esteemed.  On  being cut, it
is said to  manifest a  fragrant odour, xvhich is more
especially observed in old trees.  According to Lewis,
this xvood is ot a dull red, almost blackish colour on
the outside, and a deep brighter red xvithin ;  its fibres
are noxv and then curled, as in knots.  It has no mani-
fest  smell,  and little or no  taste;  even  of  extracts
made from  it xvith water, or with spirit, the taste  is
not considerable.
  To watery liquors, it communicates only a yellowish
tinge, but to rectified  spirit a fine deep red.   A small
quantity  of an extract, made with  this  menstruum,
tinges a large one of fresh spirit of the same colour;
though It does not, like most other resinous bodies, dis-
solve in expressed oils.  Of distilled  oils, there are
some, as that of lavender, xvliich  receive a red tincture
from the xvood itself, and from its resinous extract, but
the greater number do not.   Red  saunders has been
esteemed as a medicine; but  its only use attaches tc ils
colouring property. Tlie  juice of this tree, like that
of some others, affords a species of sanguis  draconis.
  PTERY'GIUM.  (Tlltavl., a  xving.i   A  membra-
neous excrescence xvhicli groxvs upon tne internal can-
thus of the eye chiefly, and expands  itself  ox-er the
albuginea and cornea toxvards the  pupil.  It appears
to be an extension or promulgation of the fibres and
vessels of the caruneula lachrymalis,  or semi-lunar
membrane, appearing like a wing.  The species of
pterygium are lour:
  1. Pterygium tenuc, seu ungula, is a pellucid pelli-
cle, thin, of a cineritiouscolour,,aiid unpainful; groxv-
ing out from the caruneula lachrymalis, or membrana
semilunaris.
  2. Pterygium crassum, sen pannus,  differs from the
ungula by its thickness, red colour, and fulness of the
red  vessels on the xvhite  of the eye, and il stretches
ox-er the cornea like fasciculi of vessels.
  3. Pterygium malignum, is u pannus of various co-
lours, painful, and arising  from a cancerous acrimony.
  4. Pterygiumpinguc, seu pinguicula, is a molecule
like lard or fat, soft, xvithout pain,  and of a light yel-
low colour, xvliich comnionly is situated in the external
angle ofthe eye, and rarely extends to the cornea; but
often remains through life.
  PTERYGO.  Names compounded of this word be-
long to muscles which are  connected with the ptery-
goid process of the sphenoid  bone ; as pterygo-pharyn-
geus, Sec.
  Pteuyuo-fiiaryngiius. See Constrictor pharyngis
superior.
  Pterygo-stahiilinus  externus.   See  Levator
paluti.
  PTERYGOID.  (Ptcrygoides ; from irjcpvl, a xving,
and cidoc, resemblance)  Beseinbling  the wing of a
bird.
  Pterygoid process.  A xx ing-like process of tlie
sphenoid bone.
  Ptekyooide'uiu os.  See Ethmoid bone-
  Pteuygoidei s  externus.   (Pterygoideus,  from
i*s belonging to the processus ptcrygoides.)  Pterygoi-
dcus minor,  of Winslow.  Pterygo-colli-maxillaire,
of Dumas.  Musculus  alaris externus.  A  muscle
placed, ns it xvere, horizontally along the basis of the
skull, between the pterygoid process and the condyle
of the lower jaw.  It usually  arises by  two distinct
heads; one of xvhich  is thick, tendinous, and fleshy,
•torn the outer xving of the pterygoid process of the os
sphenoides, and from a small part of the ce maxillare
adjoining to it; the other is thin and fleshy, from  a
ridge in the temporal process of the sphenoid bone, just
behind  the slit that transmits the vessels to the eye.
Sometimes this latter origin is wanting, and, in that
case, part  of the temporal muscle arises from this
ridge.  Now  and then it affords a  common origin to
both these muscles.  From these origins the muscle
forms a strong, fleshy belly, whicli  descends  almost
transversely outwards and backwards, and is inserted,
tendinous and fleshy, into a depression  in the forepart
of the condyloid process of the lower jaw, and into the
anterior surface of tlie  caosulnx ligament that sur-
rounds the  articulation of tliat  bone.  Al! that part of
this muscle, xvhich is not  hid by the pterygoideus in-
ternus, is covered by a  ligamentous  expansion, wliich
is broader than  that  belonging  to tlie pterygoideus
internus, and originates  from  the inner edge of the
glenoid cavity of the lower jaw, immediately before
the styloid process of the  temporal bone, and extend?
obliquely downwards, forwards, and outwards, to the
inner surface of  the angle of the jaw.  When  these
muscles act  together, they bring the jaw horizontally
forwards.   When they act singly, the jaxv is moved
forwards, and to  the opposite  side.  The fibres that
are inserted into the capsular ligament, serve likexvise
to bring the moveable cartilage forwards.
  Pterygoideus internus.   Pterygoideus  major,
of Winsloxv.   Ptcrygo-anguli-maxillaire, of Dumas.
This muscle arises tendinous and fleshy from the whole
inner surface of the external ala of tlie pterygoid pro-
cess, filling all the space between the two wings ; and
from that process of liie  os palati lhat makes part of
the pterygoid fossa.  From thence,  growing larger, it
descends obliquely  downwards, forxvards, and  out-
wards, and is inserted, by tendinous and fleshy fibies.
into the inside of  the loxver jaxv, near its angle.  This
muscle covers a great part of the pterygoideus exter-
nus ; and along its posterior edge we obscrxe a liga-
mentous baud, which extends  from the back part of
the styloid  process  to the bottom of the  angle of the
lower jaxv.   The use of this  muscle is  to raise the
loxver jaw,  and to pull it a little to one side.
  Pterygoideus major. See Pterygoideus internus.
  Pterygoideus minor. See Pterygoideus externus
  PTILO'SIS. (From -x^iXos, bald.) See Madarosis
  PTI'SANA. (From -miaou, to decorticate, bruise
or pound.)  Ptissana. 1.  Barley deprived of its husks,
pounded, and made into bails.
  2.  A drink is so called  by the  French, made mostly
of farinaceous substances; as  barley, rice, grits, and
the  like, boiled with  xvater,  and sxveetened  to tht
palate.
  PTOSIS.   (From istirlu, to fall.)   Blcpharoptosis
An inability  of raising the upper eyelid.  The  affec- '
tion  may be  oxving to  several causes,  the chief of
xvliich are  a redundance of the  skin on tlie eyelid;  r
paralytic state of tlie levator muscle, and a spasm of
Ihe orbicularis.
  Ptosis iridis.  Prolapsus iridis.  A prolapsus of
the iris  through a wound of tlie cornea.  It is knoxvn
by a blackish tubercle, xvhich projects a little from the
cornea in various forms.  The species of the ptosis of
the iris are,
  1. Ptosis recens, or a recent ptosis  from a side wound
of the cornea, as that xvliich happens, though raiely,
in or after  the extraction  of the cataract.
  2. Ptosis inveterala, ill xvhich tlie incarcerated pro
lapsed iris  is  groxvn or attached to the wound or ulcer,
and  has become callous or indurated.
   PTYALAGO'l'UE.   (From  ir7uaXov,  spittle, and
ayu, to excite.)   Medicines whicli promote a discharge
of the salix a, or cause salivation.
  •PTYALI'SMOS.  See Ptyalismus.
  P'I'YALI'SMUS.  (From ir7vaXi";u,  to spit.)  A
ptyalism or salivation, or increased  secretion of saliva
from the mouth.
  PTY'ALUM.  (Fiom  nfvu, totpitup.)  The saliva
or mucus from the bronchia.
  Ptyasmaoo'u x.  (From ir"]vaapa, sputum, and ayu,
to expel.)  Medicines xvliich promote llie secretion of
saliva.
  PU'BES.  1. The external  part of the organs ol
generationof both sexes, xvliich after pubertv is covered
xvilh hair.
  2  Tlie d- xvn or pubescence on leaves, seeds, &c of
some plants. 
PUL
PUL
  Pubks seminis.  See Pappus.
  PUBESCENCE.  Pubcscinlia.  Under this term is
included all kinds of doxvn, hairs, and bristle-like bo-
dies found on tlie surface of the leaves, stems, pods,
tec. of plants.  They  dilfer considerably in form and
texture, but consist of small, slender bodies, xvhicli are
either soft  and  yielding to the slightest impression, or
rigid and comparatively  unyielding:  the  former tiro,
properly speaking, pili, or hairs;  the latter bristles,
seta; and, therefore,  under these txvo heads  every
kind of pubescence may be arranged.  See Pilus and
Seta.
  PUBESCENS.  Pubescent: applied  to the stigma
of the genus Vicia.
  Pubis os.  A separate hone ofthe foetal pelvis.  See
Innominatum os.
  PUDENDUM.  (From  ysrfiir, shame.)  The parts
of generation.
  I'UDEND.VGRA.   (From pudenda, the prix-ate
pans, and aypa, a seizure.)   Ccdma. The venereal dis-
ease has been so named by some.  A pain in the private
parts.
  Pudendum muliedre.   The female parts of gene-
ration.
  PUDICAL.  (Pudicus ; from pndor, shame.)   Be-
longing to the pudenda.
  Pudical  artery.  Arteria pudiea.  Pudendal ar-
tery.  A branch of the internal iliac distributed on the
organs of generation.
  Pukri'lis morbus.  The epilepsy.
  PUERPERAL.   Pucrperalis.   Appertaining  to
child-bearing; as puerperal convulsions, fever, ic.
  PUFFBALL.  See Lycoperdon.
  PUG1 LLUS.  (From pugnus, the fist.)   Dragmis.
A pimilk, or handful.
  PUUE'GIUM.  (From pulez, h flea;  because the
smell of its leaves, burned, destroys fleas.)  See Mentha
vulegium.
  Pi-LEGiue.1 cervinum.   Hart's pennyroyal.   The
M'.ntha cervina, of Linnaeus.
  PULICA'RIA.  (From pulex, a ffea: so named be-
cause it xvas thought to  destroy fleas if hung in a
chamber.)  See Plantago psyllium.
  PULMO.  (Pulmo,onio  m.  Plin. irvevpuv  Attice
irXtvpuv, unde, per metuthesin pulmo.)  The lung.
See Lung.
  PULMONA'RIA.  (From pa/mo, the lims ; so called
because of  its virtues in affections of the lungs.)   The
name of a  genus of plains i-i  the  Limia-au system.
Clas*, Pentandria ; Order, Monogynia.  Lungxvort.
  Pulmonaria  arborea.   S.-e Lichen pulmonarius.
  Pulmonaria  maciilaTa.   Se ■ Pulmonaria  --Jici-
nalis.
  Pulmonaria  officinalis.   The systematic  name
of tlie  spotted  lungwort.   Pulmonaria  macutata;
Symphitum maculosum.  Jerusalem cowslips; Jerusa-
lem sase.  This plant is rarely found  to grow xvild in
England; but is very commonly cultivated in gardens,
xvhere its leaves become broader, and approach  more
to a cordate shape.  The leaves, xvliich are the  part
medicinally used, have no peculiar smell; hut, in their
recent state, manifest a slightly adstringent and muci-
laginous  taste:  hence it seems not wholly xvithout
foundation  that they have been supposed to be demul-
cent and pectoral.  They have  been recommended iu
haemoptoes, tickling  coughs, and catarrhal defluxions
upon ihe lungs.  The name pulmonaria, hoxvever,
seems to have arisen rather from the speckled appear-
ance of these leaves resembling that of the lungs, than
from any intrinsic quality wliich experience discovered
to be useful in pulmonary complaints.
  PULMONARY.  Pulmonaris.   Belonging to the
luntzs.
  Pulmonary artery. The pulmonary artery, ar-
teria pulmvnalis, arises; from the right ventricle of the
heart, and soon divides into the right and left, which
ramify throughout the lungs, and form a beautiful net-
work on the air vesicles, xvhere they terminate in the
i-eins, venapiilmonales, whose branches at length form
four trunks, xvhich empty themselves  into the left au-
ricle of the heart.
  Pulmonary consumption. See Phthisis.
  Pulmonary vein.  See  Pulmonary artery.
  Pulmo'nica.  (From pulmo, the lungs.)  Medicines
for the lungs.
  PULMONl'TIS.  (From pulmo, the lungs.) An in
flammation of the lungs.
  Pulsatilla  nigricans.   (From pulso, tn beat
about: so called  from ils being  perpetually agita;ed
hy the air.)  See Anemone pratensis.
  PULSE.  Pulsus.  The beating of the heart nnd
arteries.  The pulse is  generally felt al theix-risl, by
pressing the radial artery with the fingers.  The action
depends upon the impulse  given to the blood by the
heart; hence physicians feel the pulse, to ascertain the
quickness or tardiness of the  blood's motion, the
strength of ihe heart, Sec   Sec Circulation.
  PULSILE'GIUM.   (From  pulsus,  the pulse, and
lego, to tell.)  An instrument  for measuring tlie pulse
  Pulvi'nar. (From pulvis, dust or chaff,  w'th xvhich
Ihey are filled.)  A medicated  cushion.
  Pi lxina'iuum.  See Pulvmar.
  FU'LYIS   (Pulvis, veris. in.)   A powder.  Pulci-
narium.   This  form of medicine  is  either coarse  or
x-ery fine, simple or compound.   Iu  the compounded
powders, the  intimate  and complete  admixture of the
several  ingredients, and more especially  in those' tu
xvhich any of the more active substances, as opium
scammony, &c. are added, cannot be too  strongly re-
commended, and for this purpose it  may be proper to
pass them, after they are mixed mechanically, through
a fine sieve.
  Pulvis aloes compositus.  Compound powder of
aloes.   Formerly  called  pulvis  aloes cum guaiaco.
Take of extract of spiked  aloe, an ounce  and a half;
guaiacum resin, an ounce ; compound poxvder of cinna-
mon,  half an ounce.  Poxx-dcr the extract of aloe and
guaiacum resin separately; then mix  them xx ith tlie
compound poxvder of  cinnamon.  The dose is from
gr. x. to 3j.  It Is a xvarm, aperient, laxative poxvder,
calculated for the aged, and those affected xvitii dys-
peptic gout attended xvitii costiveness  and spasmodic
complaints ofllie stomach and boxvels.
  Pulvis  aloes cum canella.   A  cathartic, deob-
9eeruent poxvder, possessing stimulating and aloCtic pro-
perties omitted in  the last London Pharmacopoeia,  as
rather suited to the purpose  of extemporaneous pre-
scription.
  Pulvis aloes cum ferro.  This possesses aperient
and d>obstruent virtues; and  is mostly given in chlo-
rosis and constipation.   In the London  Pharmacopoeia
this prescription is omitted for  the same reason as pul-
vis aloes cum canella.
  Pulvis aloes cum guaiaco. See  Pulvis aloes com-
positus.
  Pulvis antimonialis.  See Antimonialis pulvis.
  Pulvis  aromaticus.  See  Pulvis cinnamomi com-
positus.
  Pulvis ceruss.e compositus.  This is mostly used
in the form of collyrium, lotion, or injection, os a mu-
cilaginous sedative.
  Pulvis chelarum cancri  compositus. An anta-
cid and adstringent poxvder, mostly given  to children
xvith diarrhoea and acidity of the prinue viae.
  Pulvis cinnamomi compositus.   Compound poxv-
der of cinnamon.  Formerly called pulvis aromaticus :
spcciis aromatica:  species diambra  sine  odoratis.
Take of common cinnamon hark, txvo ounces;  carda-
mom seeds, an ounce and a half: ginger-root, an ounce;
long pepper,  half an ounce.   Rub them together, so
as to make a very fine poxvder. The dose  is from five
to ten grains.  An elegant stimulant,  carminative, and
stomachic poxvder.
  Pulvis  cobbh.   Pulvis tung-umensis.  This once
celebrated poxvder consists of sixteen giains of musk,
and forty-tight grains of cinnabar.  It is directed to be
mixed in a gill of arrack.
  Pulvis contrajerv.e compositus.  Take of con-
trajerva root poxvdered,  five ounces; prepared shells, a
pound and a half. Mix.   \ febrifuge diaphoretic, mostly
given in the dose of from one to twi  scruples in slight
febrile affections.
  Pulvis cornu usit  cum opio.   Poxxder of burnt
hartshorn xvith opium.   Pulvis opiatus. Take of hard
opium, powdered, a drachm;  hartshorn,  burned and
prepared, an ounce:  cochineal, poxvdered, a drachm.
Mix.  This preparation affords a convenient mode of
exhibiting Binall quantities of opium, ten grains con-
taining one of the opium.   It is  absorbent and ano-
dyne.
  Pulvis crista compositus. Compound po.vdcr of
chalk.  Pulvis e bolo compositus spine  opio.  Species
e scordio sine opio.  Diascordium, 1720. Take of pre-
pared chalk,  half a  pound;  cinnamon  bark, four
                                       91" 
PUL
PUL
ounces:  tormeniil root, acacia gum, of each  tliree
ounces:  long  pepper, half an ounce.  Reduce  them
separately into a very fine powder and then mix.  The
dose is from "5ss. to  3 i.  An astringent, carminative,
and  stomachic poxvder, exhibited  iu the cure of diar-
rhoea, pyrosis,  and diseases arising from acidity of the
bowels, inducing much  pain.
  Pulvis crkt.*; compositus cum oi-io.  Compound
poxvder of chalk xvith opium.  Pulvts e bolo composi-
tus cum opio.   Species e cordio cum opio.  Take of
compound  powder of chalk,  six  ounces and a half.
Hard opium,  poxvdered,  lour scruples.   Mix.  The
dose from one  scruple  to two.   The  above powder,
with the addition of opium, in the proportion of one
grain to two scruples.
  Pulvis ipecacua nh.e compositus.  Compound poxv-
der of ipecacuanha.  Take of ipecacuanha root, poxv-
dered, liaid opium powdered,  of each  a drachm; sul-
phate of potassa, powdered, an ounce.  Mix.  A dia-
phoretic powder, similar to that of Dr. Dover, which
gained such repute in the cure of rheumatisms, and
other diseases arising from obstructed perspiration aud
spasm.  Tlie dose is from five grains to a scruple.
  Pulvis kino compositus.   Compound poxvder of
kino. Take of kino 15 drachms; cinnamon bark, half
an ounce ; hard opium,  a drachm.  Reduce them sepa-
rately to a very fine powder; and then mix.  The pro-
portion of opium  this astringent contains is one part
to twenty.   The dose is from five grains to a scruple.
  Pulvis  myrriije" compositus.  A stimulant,  anti-
spasmodic, and emmenagogue poxvder,  mostly  exhi-
bited in tlie dose of from fifteen grains to txvo scruples,
in uterine obstructions and hysterical affections.
  Pulvis opiatus.  See Pulvis cornuusti cum opio.
  Pulvis scammone* compositus.  Compound poxv-
der  of  scammony.   Pulvis   comitis  Warwicensis.
Take of scammony gum resin, hard extract of jalap,
of each two ounces;  ginger-roou half an ounce.   Re-
duce them separately to a very fine poxvder, and then
mix.  From ten to fifteen grains or a scruple are exhi-
bited as a stimulating cathartic.
  Pulvis scammonii  cum aloe  A stimulating cathar-
tic, in the dose of from ten to fifteen grains.
  Pulvis scammonii cum calomslane.   A vermi-
fugal cathartic, in the dose  of  from ten  to fifteen
grains.
  Pulvis sennje compositus.  Compound poxvder of
senna.  Pulvis diasenna.  Take of senna leaves, su-
pertartrate of potassa, of each  txvo ounces; scammony
gum resin, half an ounce;  ginger-root, txvo drachms.
Reduce the scammony gum resin  separately, the rest
together,  to a very fine  poxvder; and then mix.  The
dose is from one scruple to one drachm.  A  saline sti-
mulating cathartic.
  Pulvis tragacantha; compositus.  Compound pow-
der of tragacanth.  Species diatragacantha frigida.
Take of tragacanth poxvdered, acacia gum  poxvdered,
starch, of each an ounce aud a half, refined sugar thiee
ounces.  Poxvder the starch and sugar together; then
add the tragacanth arxd  acacia gum, and mix the xvhole.
Tragaoanlh is  very difficultly reduced to poxvder.  The
dose is from ten  grains to a  drachm.  A very useful
demulcent powder, which may be given in coughs, diar-
rhoeas, strangury, &c.
  [Pulvis  parturiens.   In a letter from Dr.  John
Steams, of  Saratoga county, to Dr. S. Akerly, dated
Waterford, January  e25th, 1907, is the following nar-
ration:—
  " In compliance xvith your  request, I hereby trans-
mit you a sample of the pulvis parturiens, which I
have been in the habit of using for several years with
the most complete success.  It expedites lingering par-
turition, and saves to  the accoucheur a considerable
portion of time, xvithout producing any bad effects on
the  patient.   The cases in wliich  I  hax'e generally
found this poxvder to be useful, are xvhen the pains are
lingerim.', have wholly subsided, or are in any xvay in-
competent to exclude tlie foetus.  Previous to its exhibi-
tion, it is of the utmost consequence to ascertain the
presentation, and whether  any preternatural obstruc-
tion prevents  the delivety: ae the violent and almost
incessant  action wliich it induces in  the uterus pre-
cludes the possibility of turning.   The pains produced
by it are peculiarly forcing, though  not accompanied
with lhat distress and agony of wliich the patients fre-
quently complain xvhen the action is much  less.  My
method of administering it is either in decoction  or
      220
poxvder.  Boil half a drachm of the poxxder in half a
pint of xvater, and  give one-third every twenty mi-
nutes, till the pains commence.  In powder, I  give
from five to ten grains;  some patients  require larger
doses, though I have generally found these sufficient.
  " If the dose is large,  it will  produce nausea ai d
vomiting. In  most cases, you xvill be  surprised xvitii
the suddenness of ils operation;  it is, therefore, neces-
sary to be completely ready before you  give the medi-
cine, as the urgency of the pains will allow you but a
short time afterward.  Since I  have adopted the use
of this powder, I have seldom found a case that de-
tained me more than tliree hours.  Other  physicians,
xvho have administered it, concur with  me in tlie suc-
cess of its operafion.
  " The modus operandi I  feel incompetent to explain.
At the same time that it  augments the action of the
uterus, it appears to relax the rigidity of the muscular
fibres.  May it not  produce the beneficial effects of
bleeding, xvithout inducing that extreme debility which
is  always consequent upon copious depletion!   This
appears to be corroborated by its  nauseating effects on
the stomach, and the knoxvn sympathy between  this
viscus and the uterus.
  "It is  a vegetable,  and appears to be  a spurious
groxvth of rye.  On  examining a granary, where rye
is stored, you xvill  be able to procure a suflicient quan-
tity from among that grain.  Rye, whicli groxvs in low,
wet ground, yields it in  greatest abundance."—New-
York Med. Repos.
  This substance, xvhich Dr. Stearns called pulvis par-
turiens, (more correctly pulvis ad parturandum) is the
ergot, or spurred  rye, or the secale cornutum.  The
above notice, from the Med. Rep., xvas the first publica-
tion in the United States, in relation to the use of spur-
red rye in cases of parturition. Since then, to the present
time (1829),  many trials have been made, and many
cases reported of its efficacy in difficult labours.  Some
physicianshax-econdemned its use, asoften proving fatal
t> the life of the child in  delivery.  Dr. Bigelow, of
Boston,  however, has introduced it into his Materia
Medica, and given the following account of its use.
  '• Various species of grain and grasses are subject to
a morbid excrescence on some part of the ear or spike,
lo which the  French  name ergot has been applied.
Kye is more  frequently affected  xvilh this appendage
than auy other grain.  Different conjectures have been
offered relative to the nature of this  excrescence, the
most probable of xvhicli is  that of Decandolle, xvho
considers the etgot to be a parasitic vegetable, of the
tribe of fungi, and genus sclerotium.
  " Ergot resembles a  grain of rye, elongated to seve-
ral times the common lemith, of an irregular form, and
a dark colour. It has a light and brittle texture,  and
an unpleasant taste.  According  to Vauquelin, it con-
tains a pale-yelloxv colouring matter; an oily matter;
a violet colouring matter;  au acid, probably phospho-
ric ; and a vegeto-animal matter.
  " This substance  xvas  formerly suspected of pro-
ducing certain epidemic diseases—the  dry gangrene,
and raphania  but  the  suspicion xvas  probably  un-
founded.   Iu regard to its immediate effect on the  sys-
tem, the reports of medical authors differ widely, soiue
considering it highly deleterious.  From my own ob-
servations, I have found  that  it  produces nausea and
vomiting, in doses of from  a scruple to a drachm;  that
it  seldom operates upon  the boxvels; and that large
doses  produce headache and temporary febrile symp-
toms.  Il has very liltle acrimony, and does not prove
sternutatory xvhen snuffed  up Ihe nostrils.
  "Besides these more general effects, ergot has a  spe-
cific poxver of stimulating the uterus during the  pro-
cess of parturition, in a manner that is  not knoxvn to
be produced by any other medicinal agent.  This effect
is xvholly unequix-ocal, and cannot lie confounded xvith
the common uterine efforts.  It is moreover certain, or
at least its failures ore not  more  frequent than those of
any of our most common operative drugs.  This ope-
ration consists in e  poxverful, incessant, and uurcinit
ting contraction of the uterus, not alternating with in-
tervals of ease, as in common labour, but continuing
without intermission until the child is expelled.  When
ergot is prematurely or injudiciously administered, tito
child does not breathe at  birth,  is difficult  to resusci
tate, and is sometimes irrecoverably dead.  This effect
has been  attributed lo a poisonous qualify iu the ergot.
but is obviously the consequence, simply, of long-con 
PUR
Hill
:.lnurd ond imremitting  pressure on the child, a fact
pointed out in tlie New England Journal, as eailx a.i
181i                      °            '
  11 A few medical xvritcre, principally in  Europe,
In  consequence, probably, of  not being furnished
with  a  genuine  article,  in  an  unimpaired state,
have  doubted  the  power of ergot to effect or alter tlie
action of the  uterus.  But I may safely assert, that,
after  fifteen years, during xvhich lliis drug has attracted
notice among us, tliere is scarcely an article of the ma-
teria  medica, upon the character of xvhich the minds
of the profession in this country are more fully made
up, than upon this.   Indeed our medical journals, and
books of materia medica, have teemed with evidences
of its activity.
  " For obvious reasons, ergot should never be given
In natural and favourable cases of  labour.   It is
strongly contraindicated, at all times,  by earlincss of
the stage, rigidity of the soft parts, any unfavourable
conformation,  or  any  presentation xvhich  requires
changing.  It is admissible in lingering cases of chil-
dren ascertained to be dead, and in lingering cases of
abortion.   It is useful in retained placenta; and, from
its poxver of causing contraction of the uterus, it ar-
rests  flooding  after delivery.   In  females habitually
subject to profuse haemorrhage at this period, tliere is
perhaps no better preventive than a full dose of ergot,
administered just  before  delivery.   Its elficacy  lias
been repeatedly attested.
  " Spurred rye has been administered as an eminena-
gogue xvitii various success.  Its action on the impreg-
nated uterus is much less than it displays in labour;
yet the result of many trials has been, on the xvhole,
in favour of its emmenasogue power.
  "Ergot  is commonly given  in  powder, boiled or in-
fused in hot water.  A drachm may be prepared in this
way  for a  puerperal patient, and  one quarter of tlie
mixture, while turbid, given every txventy minutes, till
its effect becomes perceptible.  In amcuorrhoea, ten or
fifteen grains may be given,  tliree times a day,  and
increased if nausea does not ensue."—Bigelow's Ma-
teria  Medica.   A.]
  PUMICE. A mineral of xvliich there are three spe-
cies, tiie glossy, common, and porphyritic, found in the
Li pari islands and Hungary.
  PUMPION.  See Cucurbita.
  PUNCTATUS.  Dotted.  Applied to petals of the
Melanthium capense: receptacle of the Leontodon ta-
raxacum.
  PU'NCTUM.  A point.  The opening or commence
ment  of a duct of the  eye has received  this name,
because ils projection gives it the  appearance of a spot.
  Punctum adreum.  Formerly,  xvhen a hernia of
the intestines was reduced by aii incision made through
the skin and membrana  adiposa, quite doxvn to the
ui,ier part  ofthe spermatic vessels, a golden xvire xvas
fixed  and txvisted, so as to prevent the descent of any
thing  down the tunica vaginalis.
  Puncttjm lachrimale.  Lachrymal point.  Txvo
small  orifices, one of which is conspicuous in each eye-
lid, at the extremity of the tarsus, near the internal can-
thus,  are called puncta lachrymalia.
  PU'NICA.  The  name  of a genus of plants in the
Linnaean system.  Class, Icosandria; Order, Mono-
gynia.
  Punica  granatum.  The systematic name of the
pomegranate.   Granatum.  Punica—foliis  lanceola-
tis, caule arboreo, of Linnaeus.  The rind of the fruit
and the  flowers called  Balaustine flowers,  are the
parts  directed for medicinal use.  In their smell there
is nothing  remarkable, but to the taste they are very
adstringent, and have successfully been employed as
such,  in diseases both internal and external.
  PUPIL.   (Pupilla; from pupa, a babe: because it
reflects the diminished image of the person who looks
upon  it like a puppet.) The round opening iu the mid-
dle of the iris, in xvhich xve see ourselves in the eye of
another.
  PUPI'LLA.  See Pupil.
  PUPrLLA'RIS.   Of or belonging to the pupil.
  Pupillaris membrana.  (From  pupilla, the pupil.)
See Membrana pupillaris.
  PupiLL.e velum.   See Membrana pupillaris.
  PURGAME'NTUM.   A purge.
  PURGATIVE.  Whatever increases the peristaltic
motion of the bowels, so  as to considerably increase
the alvine evacuations.  See Cathartic.
  Purging flax,  t»e J.iiiii.in catharlicnm
  Purxiii»-itiit.   See Jatropha curcas.
  PURH'ORM.   (Puriformis;  from pus. and forma
resemblance.,   Like unto the secretion calied pus.
  PURPURA.   (Tlopipvpa, tlie name of a shell of a
purple colour: hence purpura,  a purple colour.)  An
efflorescence consisting of smali, distinct, purplespecki
and patches, attended xvith general debility, but not al-
ways xvith fever, xvliich are caused by an extravasa-
tion of the vessels under the cuticle.  It is divided into
the five following species:
  1.  Purpura simplex.   This has the appearance  of
petechia?,  xvithout much disorder of  the  constitution,
except languor,  pain  iu the limbs, and  a salloxv  com
plexion.   The  petechia:  are  most numerous  on the
breast, inside of the arms and logs, and  are of various
sizes, and commonly  circular.  There is no itching 01
other sensation attending the petechise.
  2.  Purpura hamorrhagica  is considerably more se-
x-ere; the petechias are ot larger size, and interspersed
xvitii  vibiccs and ecchymoses, resembling the marks
left by  the  strokes of a  whip, or by violent bruises.
They ap|>ear first on  the legs, afterward on the thighs,
arms, mid trunk of the body; tlie  hands  being  more
rarely spotted xvith them, and tho face generally free.
They are of  a bright  red colour xvhen they first appear,
but soon become purple or  livid ; and when about to
disappear they  change to a brown or yelloxvish hue;
the cuticle over them appears smooth and shining, but
is  not sensibly elevated;  in a fexv cases, however,  it
has been seen raised  into a  sort of vesicle, containing
black blood.  This more particularly happens in the
spots wliich  appear on the  tongue, gums, and  palate,
and inside of the cheeks  and lips xvhere the cuticle is
exticmely thin;  the gentlest pressure on the Mn, even
feeling of the pulse, will often produce a purple blotch,
like that which is left after a severe bruise.
  The same state of habit, xvhich gives rise to these
effusions under  the cuticle,  produces likexvise copious
discharges of blood, especially from the internal parts;
they are often very profuse, and suddenly prove fatal;
but in other cases they are less copious ■ sonietimes
returning  every day  at stated periods, and sometimes
less frequent, and at regular intervals; and sometimes
there is a  sloxv and almost  incessant  oozing of" blond.
The bleeding occurs from  the gums, nostrils,  throat,
inside of the cheeks,  tongue, and lips, and sometimes
from  the lining membrane of the eyelids, the urethra,
and external ear; and  aiso from the internal cavities
of the lungs, stomach, bowels, uterus, kidneys, and
bladder.
  This  disease is often preceded by great lassitude,
faintness, and pains in tlie limbs; but not unfrequently
it appears suddenly  in the midst of apparent  good
health.  It is alxvays accompanied with  extreme de-
bility  and depression  of spirits; the pulse is comnionly
feeble, and sometimes quickened; aiid  heat, flushing,
perspiration, and otlier symptoms of febrile irritation,
occasionally attend.   When the  disease has  con-
tinued for some time, the patient becomes sallow, and
much emaciated ; and some degree of oedema appears
on the loxver extremities,  xvhich afterward extends  to
other parts of the body.    This disease is  extremely
uncertain in its duration;  in some instances it has ter-
minated in a few days, xvhile in others it has continued,
not only for many months, hut even for years
  The causes of this disease are by no means c'caily
ascertained: it occurs at every period of life, and in both
sexes, but especially in women and in boys before the
as;e of puberty,  particularly tliose xvho are employed in
sedentary occupations, and xvho live in close and croxvd-
ed situations.  It has sometimes occurred as a sequa-la,
of small-pox, and of measles, and sonietimes in the
third or fourth xveek  of puerperal confinement.   It is
supposed  that some  local visceral  obstruction is the
cause of the disease in different instances, as artificial
bleedinL', and purging, tend  greatly to  relieve it.  The
ancient physicians attributed the haeinorrhngies from
the nose, gums, and other parts, to the morbid enlarge-
ment  of the  spleen.
  In  the slighter degrees of purpura occurring in chil
dren xvho are ill fed  and nursed, and who nside  in
close places, or in xvomen shut up msimilar situations,
and debilitated  by anxiety  of mind,  want of  propel
food, and by fatigue, the use of toiiics, wilh the inincial
acids, and xvine, will  doubtless be adequate lo the cu e
ofthe d  - • especially where exercise  in the opei> 
PUR                                             PUS
 Mr can be employed  at the same time.   But xvhen it
 occurs in adults, especially those xvho already have the
 cenefit of exercise in  the air of tlie country, and xvho
 have suffered no privation xvitii respect to diet, when
 It is accompanied with a xvhite and loaded tongue, a
 quick and  somewhat small though sharp pulse, oc-
 casional  chills  and  heats, and  other symptoms of
 feverishness,  however  moderate, and if there be, at
 the same  time fixed internal pains, a dry cough,  and an
 irregular state of the bowels (symptoms which may be
 presumed to indicate some local congestion);^then the
 administration of tonic medicines, particularly xvine,
 cinchona, and other xvarmcr tonics xvill be  found inef-
 ficacious, if not decidedly injurious. In such cases, free
 and repeated doses of medicines  containing the sub-
 muriate of mercury, and regulated by their effects on
 the symptoms ofthe complaint, and by the appearance
 of the excretions, from the intestines, xvill be found
 most beneficial.
  If the pains are fixed, the marks of febrile irritation
 sonsiderable,  and the  spontaneous haemorrhage not
 profuse, local or general blood-letting may be employed
 with great benefit, especially in robust adults.   When
 Ihe urgency of haemorrhagic tendency has  been  dimi-
 nished by these means, flic constitution rallies, though
 not rapidly, with the  assistance of the  mineral  acids,
 and cinchona or cascarilla, orsome preparation of iron,
 together xvitii moderate exercise and nutritious diet.
  3. Purpura urticans is distinguished by commencing
 iii the. form of rounded and reddisli elevations of the
 cuticle, resembling wheals, xvhich are nol accompanied
 like tlie xvheals of urticaria by any sensation of tingling
 and itcliing.   These tumours gradually  dilate,  but
 within one or txvo days they subside to a level of the
 surrounding  cuticle, and their hue  becomes darker,
 and at length livid.  They are most common on the
 legs where they appear xvitii petechiae, but also appear
on the arms, thighs, breast, &c.
  It usually occurs in  summer and autumn, and lasts
 from three lo five weeks.  Some  oedema of the ex-
 tremities usually accompanies it, and it is occasionally
 preceded by a stiffness and  weight  of the  limbs.   Tlie
 same  rules of treatment apply  to this  as  to the pre-
ceding varieties of tlie disease.
  4. Purpura senilis appears principally along the out-
side of the forearm, in elderly xvomen, in successive
dark purple blotches, of an irregular form, and various
 magnitude; each of these continues from  a week to
ten days, when the extravasated blood is absorbed.
  Tonics or any other  expedient do not appear to exert
 any influence over the erciption.
  5. Purpura  contagiosa, is an eruption of petechia
 xvhich occasionally accompanies typho'd fevers; where
they occur in  close  situations, they are merely symp-
tomatic, and are very rarely seen.
  Purpura  alba.  Purpura  rubra.   Many writers
 term the  miliary fever, xvhen  the  pustules tire white,
 purpura alba; and when they are red, purpura rubra.
  Purpura scorbutica.  Petechial eruptions in scurvy.
  PURPURIC ACID.  Acidum purpuricum : so called
 from its fine red  colour.   The  excrements of the ser-
 pent,  Boa constrictor,  consist of pure  lithic  acid.
 Dr. Prout found that on digesting  this substance thus
 obtained, or from urinary calculi, in dilute  nitric acid,
 an effervescence takes place, and the lithic acid Is  dis-
 solved; forming a beautiful purple liquid.   The excess
 of nitric acid being neutralized xvilh ammonia, and the
 xvhole concentrated  by sloxv evaporation, the colour of
 the solution becomes of a deeper purple ; and dark red
 granular crystals, sometimes of a greenish  hue  exter-
 nally, soon  begin to separate in  abundance.  These
crystals are  a compound of ammonia  xxith the acid
 trinciple  in  question.   The ammonia xvas displaced
 y digesting  the  salt in  a solution of caustic potassa,
 till the red colour entirely disappeared.  This alkaline
solulion xvas then gradually dropped into dilute sulphu-
 ric acid, xvhich, uniting xvith the |iotassa, left the acid
principle in a state of purify.
  This acid principle  is likexvise produced from  lithic
ncid by chlorine, and also, but with inor.' difficulty, by
 iodine. Dr. Prout, the discoverer of this nexv acid, has,
at the suggestion of Dr. Wollaston, called  it purpuric
 acid, because its saline compounds have for the most
 part a red or purple colour.
  This acid, as obtained  by  the  picceding process,
 usually exists In  the form of n very fine poxvder, of a
 elightly yellowish or cream colour; and when examined
I xvith a  magnifier, especially under water,  appears to
 possess a pearly lustre.  It has no smell nor taste.  Its
 spec. grav. is considerably above xvater.   It is scarcely
 soluble  in  water.  One-tenth of a grain, boiled  for a
 considerable time in 1000 grains of water xvas not en
 tirely  dissolved.   The xvater, however, assumed a
 purple tint, probably, Dr. Prout thinks, from the forma-
 tion of a little purpurate of ammonia.  Purpuric  acid
 is insoluble in alkohol and pettier.  The mineral  acids
 dissolve it only xvhen thev ar> concentrated.
   PURSLANE.  See Portulaca.
   PURULENT.  (Purulens, from pus.)  Having the
 appearance of pus.
   PUS.  Matter.  A whitish, bland, crcainlike fluid,
 heavier  than xvater, found in phlegmonous  abscesses,
 or on the surface of sores.  If is distinguished, accord-
 ing to its nature, into laudable or good pus, scrofulous,
 serous, and ichorous pus, Sec.
   Pus taken from a healthy ulcer, near the  source ol
 circulation, ns on the arm or breast, Sir Everard Home
 observes, readily  separates  from  the surface  of the
 sore, the granulations underneath being small, pointed,
 and of n florid red colour, and has the following pro
 perties:  it  is nearly ol" the consistence of cream ; is of
 a xvhile colour:  has a maxvkish taste; and, xvhen cold.
 is inodorous; but, when xvarm, has a peculiar smell'
 Examined  in a  microscope,  it is found to  consist of
 txvo parts, of globules,  and a transparent  colourless
 fluid ;  ihe  globules are probably while, at least they
 appear to have  some degree  of opacity.  Its specific
gravity  is  greater than  that  of xvater.   It does  not
readily go  into putrefaction.   Exposed  to heat, it
evaiKirarcs to dryness; but does not coagulate.  It does
not unite xvith xvater  in  the  heat  of  the atmosphere,
but falls to the  bottom;  yet, if kept in a considerable-
degree of" heat,  it rises and diffuses itself through  the
 xvat-r, and remains mixed with it, even after having
 been alloxved to  cool, the globules being decomposed.
  Pus varies in  its appearance, according to the dif-
ferent circumstances xvhich affect the  ulcer that forms
it; such as, the degree of xlolence of the inflammation,
also its nature, xxhether healthy  or  unhealthy ;  and
these depend upon the state of health, and  strength of
the  parts  yielding pus.   These changes  arise  more
from indolence and irritability, than from any absolute
disease;  many  specific diseases, in healthy constitu-
tions, producing no change in the appearance nf tlie
matter from their specific quality.  Thus, ths matter
from a gonorrhoea, from the small-pox pustules, or  the
chicken-pock, has the same appearance, and seems to
be made up of similar  parts, consisting  of globules
floating in a transparent  fluid, like common  pus ;  the
specific properties of each of these poisons  being  su
perndded to those of pus. Matter  from a cancer may
be consideied as an exception; but a  cancerous ulcer
is never in  a healthy state.
  In indolent ulcers, xvhether the indolence arise from
the nature of the parts, or the nature of theinflamma
lion, the  pus is  made of globules and flaky  particles,
floating in a transparent fluid ; and globules and flakes
are in different proportions, according to the  degree of
indolence:  this  is particularly observable in scrofulous
abscesses, preceded by a small degree of inflammation.
Thnt this flaky appearance is no part of  true pus, is
xvell illustrated  by observing, that the proportion it
hears to the globules is greater xvhere there is the least
inflammation ; and in tliose abscesses lhat sometimes
occur, xvhich have not been preceded by any inflamma-
tion nt all, the contents are wholly made up of a curdy
or flaky substance of different degrees of consistence.
which is  not considered to he pus, from its  not having
the properties stated in the definition of that fluid.
  The constitution and part must be in health to form
food pus; for very slight changes in the general health
ure capable of producing an alteration in it,  and ex-en
of preventing its being formed at all, and substituting
in its place coagulating lymph.
  This happens  most readily in ulcers in the  lower ex-
tremities, owing to their  distance from the source ol
the circulation rendering them weaker.  And itlscti
rious to observe the influence that distance  alone has
upon the appearance of pus.
  Pus differs from chyle in  its globules being larcer,
not coagulating  by exposure to the air, nor by heat,
xvhich those of chyle do.
  The pancreatic juice contains globules, but they are
much smaller than those of pus. 
PUZ                                             PYR
   Milk  Is composed of globules, nearly ofthe same
 size as those of pus, but much more numerous   Milk
 coagulates by runnet, which pus docs not;  and con-
 tains oil and sugar, which are not to be discovered in
 pus.
   The cases in xvhicli pus is formed,  are,  properly
 speaking,  all reducible to one, xvhich is, the state of
 parts  consequent to inflammation.  For as  far as xve
 yet know, observes Sir  E.  Home, pus  has  in no  in-
 stance been met  with, unless preceded  bv inflamma-
 tion ;  and although, in some  cases, a fluid  lias be:-u
 formed  independent of preceding inflammation, it dif-
 fers from pus in many of its properties.
   In considering the time required for the formation of
 pus, it is necessary to take notice of tlie periods wliich
 are found, under different circumstances, to  intervene
 betxveen a healthy or natural  state of tho parts, and
 the presence of that fluid after the application of some
 irritating substance to the skin.
   In cases of wounds made into muscular parts, where
 blood-vessels are divided, the first process xvhich takes
 place is  the extravasation of red blood ;  the second is
 the exudation of coagulating lymph, ivliich afierxvard
 becomes vascular;  and  the third,  the  formation of
 matter, xvhich last does uot, in connnon, take place  in
 less than txvo days; the precise  time xvill, however,
 vary exceedingly, according to the nature of ihe  con-
 stitution, and the state of the parts at the lime.
   If an  irritating  substance is applied lo a  cuticular
 surface,  upon  which it raises  a blister, pus xvill  be
 formed in about txventv-four  hours.
   PUSTULA.  A liltle pustule.   See Pustule.
   Pustula oris.  See Aphtha.
   PUSTULE.  (Pustula, a  little pustule; from  pus,
 matter.)   Ecthyma; Eczema.  Dr. Willan defines a
 pustule  to be  an elevation of the cuticle, sometimes
 globate, sometimes conoidal iu its form, and containing
 pus, or a lymph which is in general discoloured.   Pus-
 tules are various  in llieir size,  but the diameter of the
 largest seldom exceeds two lines.  There are many-
 different kinds of pustules,  properly distinguished  in
 medical authors by specific appellations; as, 1. P/tly-
 zacium,  a small pustule containing pus, and raised on a
 hard, circular  inflamed base, of a vivid red colour.  It
 is succeeded by a thick, hard,  dark-coloured  scab.  2.
 Psydracium, according to Dr. Willan, a minute pus-
 tule, irregularly circumscribed, producing but ,i slight
 elevation of the cuticle, and terminating in a laminated
 scab.   Many of these  pustules usually  appear toge-
 ther, and become confluent.  When mature, they con-
 tain pus; and, after breaking, discharge a thin xvatery
 humour.
   PUTA'MEN.   (From puto, to  cut.)  The  bark  or
 paring of any vegetable, as the walnut.  See Juglans
 revia.
   PUTAMINE^E.  The  name of an order  in Lin-
 naeus's Fragments of a Natural  Method,  embracing
 those xvhich have  an miter shell,  or putamen, ox-er a
 hard fruit; as in Capparis and Merisoinn.
   PUTREFACTION. (Putrcfactio ; from pvtrefacio,
 to become  rotten, to dissolve.)  Putrid fermentation.
 Putrefactive  fermentation.  The spontaneous decom-
 position of such animal and vegetable  matters as.ex-
 hale a foetid  smell.  The solid and  the fluid  matters
 are  resolved  into  easeou3 compounds and vapours,
 xvhich escape and  unite  an earthy residuum.   Th.e re-
 quisites to this  process are, 1. A certain degree of hu-
 midity.  2. The access of atmospheric air.  3. A cer-
 tain degree of heat: hence the abstraction  of the air
 and xxater,  or humidity, by  drying,  or its  fixation
 by cold, by salt, sugar, spices, Sec, xvill  counteract the
 process of putrefaction, and favour the preservation of
 food, on  which principle some  patents  have been ob-
 tained.   See  Fermentation.
   [" Puzzolana.  This usually occurs in small frag-
 ments, or friable  masses, xvhich  have a dull, earthy
 ispect  and fracture, and  seem to have been baked.  Its
 solidity does  not exceed that of chalk.   It is seldom
 tumefied; and its pores are neither so lame nor nume-
 rous as those of scoria. Its colours are gray, or xvhitish,
 reddish, or nearly black
  "By exposure to heal, it loses its poxver of affecting
the  needle, and melts into a black slat;.  A  variety^
examined by Bergman, yielded silex, 55 to CO;  alu-
mine, 19  to 20; iron, 15 to 20; lime, 5  to 6.  Il often
contains  distinct  articles  of  pumice,  quartz,  and
scoria
   "Some mineralogists suppose the ulack puzzomna
 to be altered  scoria;  the  white to be pumice, ond
 lias  proceeded from argillaceous minerals, baked  or
 calcined in the interior of tlie volcano.
   " But, whatever may have been  its  origin, it jb ex
 tremely useful in the preparation of a  mortar, wliich
 hardens quickly, even  under water.  When  thus cm
 ployed,  it is mixed xvith n  small proportion  of lime,
 perhaps one-third.   Mr. Uirxvan supposes, that  the
 rapid induration  ol" this mortar mists  from the very
 low  oxidntiou of tlie iron.   If the  mortar  be a long
 time exposed  to  the  air, previous  to  its use, it will
 not harden.
   " The best puzzolana is said to occur in old currenu
 of lava; but, xvhen too earthy, it loses its peculiar pro-
 perties.   That xvliich conies from  Naples is generally
 gray."—Cleav. Min.  A.]
   Puli id Fever.   See 'Typhus gravior.
   PYLORIC.   (Pyloricus;  from pylorus.)   Belong-
 ing to the pylorus.
   Pyloric artery.  Arteriapylorica.  A brnnch of
 the hepatic artery.
   PYLO'RUS.  (From irvXri, an entrance, and oupos,
 a guard;  because it guards, as it wore, tne. entrance
 of the bowels.)   Janitor;  Portorarium ; Ostiariut.
 The inferior aperture of the stomach,  xvliich  opens
 into the  intestines.
   Pvopoe'tic  (From irvov, pus, andiroitu, lo make.)
 Suppurative.
   Pyorrhce'a.  (From jrvov, pus, and  pcu, to floxv. •
 A purulent discharge from the belly.
   Pyotu'ria.  (From  nvov, pus, and  ovp'jv, urine '
 Pyuria.   A  mucous or purulent urine.
   PYRAMIDALIS.  (From irvpapis, a pyramid.)   A
 muscle  in the front of tiie  belly.  Fallopius. xvho is
 considered as the first accurate describer of this nuts
 cle, gave it the name of pyramidalis, from its siiape:
 hence it is  called pyramidalis Fallopii, by Douglas.
 Bul Vesalius seems to have been acquainted xvitii  it,
 and to have described  it as a part of the rectus.  It  Is
 called pyramidalis vclsuccenturiatus, by Coxvper; and
 pubio-ombilical, by Dumas.   It  is a very small muscle
 situated  at tlie bottom of the foiepart of the rectus,
 and is covered by ihe name aponeurosis  that forms the
 anterior part of the  sheath  of tiiat muscle.   It arises
 by short, tendinous fibres, from the upper and forepart
 of the os pubis.   From this origin,  xvhicli is seldom
 more than an inch in breadth, its fibies  ascend some-
 xvhat obliquely, to be inserted into the linea albn, and
 inner edge of the  rectus, commonly at about the dis-
 tance of two inches  from the pubes,  and frequently  at
 a greater or less distance, but always below the umbi-
 licus.  In some subjects, the pyramidalis is wanting on
 one or both sides; and, xvhen this happens, the inter-
 nal oblique is usually found  to be of  greater thickness
 at its loxver part.  Noxv and then, though rarely, there
 are txvo  at one side, and only one at the other, and Sa
 batier has even seen  txvo on each side.  Fallopius, and
 many others after him, have considered it as the con-
 gener of the internal  oblique; but its use seems to be
 to assist  the loxver part of the rectus.
  Pyramidalis faciei.  See Levator labii superioris
 alaque nasi.
  PYRENEITE.  A grayish-black coloured mineral.
 found in  the Pyrenees.
  Pvrenoi'des.   (From tzvpi/v,  a kernel, and ttSos,
 likeness: so  called from its  kernel-like  shape.)  Ap-
 plied to the odontoid process of  the second vertebra.
  Pyrete'rium.   (From zzvp, fire, and rriptu, to koep.)
 Tlie fire-hole of a furnace.
  PYRE'THRUM.  (From  zzvp,  fire, because of the
 hot taste  of ils root.)   See Anthemis pyrethrum.
  Pyrethrum  sylvestre.   See Achillea ptarmica.
  PYRETICA.  The name given by Dr. Good to an
 order of his  class Hamatica.  Fevers.   It  has four
 genera:  Ephemera;  Anctus; Epanctus; Enccia.
  PYRETOLOGY.    (Pyrctologia;   from  nvptfos,
 fever, nnd  Xoyos, a discourse.)   A discourse, or  doc
 trine on fevers.
  PYRE'XfA.  (From tzvo,  fire.)  Fever.
  Pyrexi.c.  Febrile diseases.  The flist class of Cul-
 len's Nosology; characterized by frequency  of pulse
 after a cold shivering, xvith increase of heat, and espe-
cially, among other impaired functions,  a diminution
of strength.
  PYRF.XIAL.  (From pyrexia, fever.)  Appertain
ing to fever.
                                        223 
PYR                                             PYR
   PYRIFO'RMIS.  (From pyrus, a  pear, and forma,
 a shape;  shaped like a pear.)   A small radiated mus-
 cle of the pelvis, situated under tlie glutaeus maximus,
 along the inferior edge of the  glutaeus maximus.   Py-
 rifonnis,  seu iliacus externus, of Douglas and Coxvper.
 Spigelius  xvas the first xvho gave a name to this muscle,
 which he called pyriformis, from its supposed  resem-
 blance to  a pear.   It is tlie pyriformis sive pyramida-
 lis of Winsloxv ;  and subtrochantericn of" Dumas. It
 arises by tiiree,  and sometimes  four, tendinous  and
 fleshy origins, from the anterior surface of the second,
 third, and fourth pieces of the os sacrum, so that  this
 part of it is xvithin the pelvis.   From these origins, the
 muscle gtoxvs narrower, and passing out of the pelvis,
 beloxv tlie niche in tlie posterior part of the ilium, from
 which it  receives a  few fleshy fibres, is inserted by a
 roundish tendon, of un inch in length, inlo the upper
 pail of tlie cavity at tlie root of the trochanter major.
 Tlie use of this muscle is to assist in moving the thigh
 outwards, and moving it a little upwards.
   PYRITES.  (From zzvp, fire:  so called because it
 strikes fire xvith  steel.)  Native compounds of metal
 Willi sulphur.
   Pvriths  arsenicalis.   Sulphuret  of  iron xvith
 arsenic.
   PYRMONT.   The name of a  village in the  circle
 of Westphalia, in Germany, in xvhicli is a celeDrated
mineral spring.  Pyrniont water.  Aqua pyrmontana
 is of an  agreeable, though strongly acidulated  taste,
and  emits a  large portion of  gas;  which  affects  the
 persons xvho attend at the well, as well as those who
drink the  fluid, xvith a sensation somexvhat resembling
that produced by  intoxication.   A general view of the
analysis of this xvater xvill show that il stands the first
in rank of the highly carbonated chalybeates, and con-
tains such an abundance of carbonic acid, as not only
to hold dissolved a  number of carbonic salts,  but to
show all  the properties of this acid uncombined,  and
in its most active form.   Pyrniont xvater is likexvise a l
strong chalybeate, xvitii regard lo  the  proportion of
iron; and it is, besides, a very hard xvater, containing |
 much selenite and earthy carbonates.  The diseases to
 which this mineral xvater may be advantageously ap-
 plied, are  the  same as those for which the Spa,  and
others of  the  acidulated chalybeates, are resorted lo;
that is, in all  cases of debility that require an  active
tonic that is not  permanently  heating; as various  dis-
 orders in  the  alimentary canal, especially bilious  vo-
tniting, and diarrhoea, and  complaints that originate
 from obstructed menstruation.   At Pyrniont, the com-
 pany generally drink this xvater by glassfuls, in a morn-
 ing,  to the quantity of txvo, three, or more English
pints.  Its common operation is by urine; but, if taken
copiously, it  generally proves laxative; and xx lieu it
has not this effect, and that effect is xvanted, they com-
monly mix, with  tlie first  glass drank  in the morning,
from one  to five or six drachms of some purging  salts.
   PYROACETIC ACID.   (Acidum pyeitneum ; so
called becnuse it is obtained by the action of tire on the
acetic acid.)   Pyroacetic spirit.  Obtained by the  de-
structive distillation of Ihe acetates, from xvhicli a mo-
dified vinegar escapes, called pyroacetic or spirit.
  PYROCITRIC  ACID.  Acidum  pyrocitricum.  A
noxv acid  obtained by distilling citric acid.
  " When citric acid is put to distil in a retort, it begins
at first by melting; tlie xvater  of crystallization sepa-
rates almost entirely from  it by a continuance of the
fusion ; then it assumes a yelloxvish lint, xvliich gradu-
ally deepens.   At the same time there is disengaged a
xvhite vapour xvliich  goes over, to  be condensed in the
receiver.   Toxvardsllie end of the calcination a broxvn-
ish vapour is  seen to  form, and there  remains iu the
bottom of the retort a light very brilliant charcoal.
  The product contained In the  receiver consists of two
dilferent liquids.  One of an amber yelloxv colour, and
an oily aspect, occupies tlie lower part;  another, colour-
less and liquid like xvater, of a  very decided acid taste,
floats above.   A fler separating them from one another,
xve perceive that the  first has a very strong bituminous
odour, and an acid and acrid  taste:  that it  reddens
poxverfully the tincture of litmus, but that it may be
deprived  almost entirely of that acidity  by agitation
xvitii  xvater, In which it divides  Itself into globules,
xvhich soon fall to the bottom of the vessel, and are not
long iu uniting to one mass, in the manner of oils hea-
 vier than water.
  In this  atate it possesses some of tlie properties of  I
      224
 these substances; it is soluble in alkohol, tether, nnd
 tlie caustic alkalies.  However, it does not long con-
 tinue thus; it becomes acid, and sometimes even it is
 observed lo deposite at the end of some days,  white
 crystals, which have a very strong acidity; if we then
 agitate it anexv xvith xvater, it dissolves in a great mea
 sure, and abandons a yellow or broxvnish pitchy mat
 ter, of a very obvious einpyreumatic smell, and wiiich
 lias much analogy xvith the oil obtained in the distilla-
 tion of other vegetable matters.  The same effect takes
 place xvhen we keep  it under xvater;  it diminishes
 gradually in volume, the water acquires a sour laste
 uiul a thick oil remains at the bottom ofthe vessel.
   This  liquid may be  regarded as n combination (of
 little permanence indeed) of the peculiar acid with the
 oil formed in similar circumstances.
   As to tlie liquid and colourless portion xvhich floated
 over this oil, it xvas  ascertained to contain no citric
 acid carried over,  nor acetic acid; first, because on
 saturating it with carbonate of lime, a  soluble calca-
 reous salt xvas obtained; and, secondly, because this salt,
 treated with sulphuric  acid, evolved no odour of acetic
 acid.
   From this calcareous salt the lime xvas separated by
 oxalic acid ;  or  tlie salt itself xvas decomposed xvith
 acetate of lead,  and the precipitate treated with sul-
 phuretted hydrogen.  By these two processes, this nexv
 acid was separated in a state of purity.
   Properties of the pyrocitric acid.—This acid is xvhite,
 inodorous,  of a  strongly acid  taste.  It is difficult to
 make it crystallize in a  regular manner, but it is usually
 presented iu a xvhite mass, formed by the interlacement
 of very fine small needles.  Projected on a hot body it
 melts, is converted  into  xvhite very pungent vapours,
 and leaves  some traces of carbon.  When heated in a
 retort, it  affords an oily-looking acid, and  yellowish
  iipiM, 11 id ,- partially  decomposed.  It is very soluble
 in .- ,uer :n,d  m alkohol; xvater at the temperature of
 I no i    jo- t  ) dissolves one-third of its weight.  The
 xv-i»> y  .- .1  ,n in has a strongly acid  taste, it does not
 prtCii  tate  line or barytes water, nor tlie greater part
 u" im  .lii  -. lotions, with the exception of acetate of
 lead and protonitraie of mercury.   With the oxides it
 forms salts possessing  properties different from the ci-
 trates.
   The pyrocitrate of potassa crystallizes in small nee
 dies, xvhich are xvhite,  and unalterable in the  air.   It
 dissolves in about 4 parts of xvater.  Its solution  gives
 no precipitate with the nitrate of silver, or of barytes,
 xvhile that of tiie citrate of barytes forms precipitate
 xx ith these salts.
   The pyrocitrate of lime directly formed,  exUbits a
 white crystalline mass, composed of needles, opposed
 to each otlier, in a ramification form.  This  salt has a
 sharp taste.  Il dissolves in 25 parts of water at 50° "
 Fahr.
   Tiie solution  of the  pyrocitric acid saturated  with
 barytes xvater. lets full, at the end of some hours, a very
 xvhite crystalline poxvder, whicli is pyrocitrate of ba-
 rytes.  This salt is soluble in 150 parts of cold xvater,
 and in 50 of boiling xvater.
   The pyrocitrate of lead is easily obtained by pouring
 pyrocitrate of potassa into a solution of acetate of lead.
 The pyrocitrate of lead presents itself under the form
 of a xvhile gelatinous seniitransparent mass, xvhich be-
 comes dry in the air."
   PYROCOM.   A variety of diopside.
  PYROLA.  (From pyrus, a pear: so named be-
 cause its leaves resemble those of a pear-tree.)  1. The
 nnmeofa genus of plants in the Linnaean system  Class,
 Decandria; Order,  .Monogynia.
  2. The pharniacopoeial name of the wintergreen.  Sea
 Pyrola rotundifolia.
  Pyrola rotundifolia.  The systematic  name of
 the  round-leaved wintergreen.   This  elegant  little
 plant, common in our xvoods, is now forgotten in the              J
 practice of medicine.  It possesses gently adstringent
 qualities, and lias a somexvhat bitter laste.
  |_" Pyrola umbell.xta  The pyrola  umbellala, or
 wintergreen, is a common  plant  of the American
 forest.  Its leaves have  a taste intermediate  between
 sweet and bitter, xvhich in the stalk and roots, is com-
 bined with some pungency.   Spirit extracts these pro-
 perties ; likewise water, though less perfectly.  This
 plant has been formerly used iu rheumatism.  More
recently it has been found a very useful palliative in
strangury and nephritis, both In this countr.v and in 
PVR                                               PYR
Europe.  In dropsy it has sometimes exhibited striking
effects as a diuretic, a pint of the saturated infusion
being taken every twenty-four hours.   It has the ad-
vantage over the more common diuretics, that it does
not offend the stomach, but, on the contrary, invigo-
rates  that organ, and assists digestion.  The bruised
leaves, externally applied, act as a  rubefacient and a
discutient to indolent sxvelliiigs."—Bigelow's Materia
Medica.  A]
  PYROLIGNEOUS ACID. (Acidum pyrolignosum;
so called  because it  is procured by distilling wood.)
 ' Iu the destructive distillation of any kind of wood, an
acid is obtained, xvhich xvas formerly called acid spirit
»/ wood, and since, pyroligneous acid.   Fourcroy and
Vauquelin showed that the acid xvas merely the acetic,
contaminated xvitii empyreumatic oil and bitumen.  See
 ticetic acid.
  Under Acetic Acid xvill be found a full account of
the production and purification of pyroligneous  acid.
Monge discovered about two years  ago, that this acid
has the property of preventing the decomposition of
animal substances.  Mr. William  Dmsdalc,  of  Field
Cottage, Colchester, tliree  years prior  to the dale of
Monge's discovery did propose to the Lords Commis-
sioners of the Admiralty, to apply a pyroligneous acid,
(prepared out of the contact of iron  vessels, xvhich
blacken it,) to the purpose of preserving animal  food,
wherever their ships  might go.   As this application
may in many cases afford valuable anti-scorbutic arti-
cles of food, and thence be eminently conducive to the
health of seamen, it is to be hoped that their  Lordship's
will, ere long, carry into effect Mr. Dinsdale's ingenious
plan, as far as shall be deemed necessary.  It is  sufli-
cient tu plunge meal for a fexv moments into this acid,
even slightly empyreumatic, to preserve it  as long as
you please.  ' Putrefaction,' it  is said,' not  only stops,
but retrogrades.'  To the empyreumatic oil a part of
tills effect has been ascribed ; and hence has been ac-
counted for, the agency of smoke in the preservation of
tongues, hams, herrings, &c.  Dr. Jorg  of Leipsic has
entirely  recovered several anatomical  preparations
from incipient corruption by pouring  this acid over
(hem.   With the  empyreumatic  oil  or tar he has
smeared  pieces of flesh already advanced in decay, and
notxvitlis'anding  that the xveather xvas  hot, they soon
became dry and sound.  To tlie above statements Mr.
Ramsay of Glasgoxv, an eminent manufacturer of py-
roligneous acid, and xx-ell knoxvn for the purity of his
vinegar from xvood, has recently added the following
facts in the 5ih number of the Edinburgh Philosophical
Journal.  If fish be simply dipped in redistilled pyroligne-
ous acid, of tlie specific gravity of 1.012, and afterward
dried iu  the shade, they preserve perfectly well.  On
boiling herrings treated in this manner, they were very
agreeable to the tasle, and had nothing of the disagree-
able empyreuma xvhich those of his earlier experiments
had, which xvere steeped  for three hours in the acid.
A number of x-ery fine haddocks xvere  cleaned, split,
and slightly sprinkled with salt for six hours.  After
being drained, they xvere dipped for about three seconds
in pyroligneous acid, then hung up in the shade for six
days.  On  being broiled, the fish were of  an uncom-
monly fine flavour, and delicately white.  Beef treated
in the same way had the  same flavour as  Hamburgh
beef, and kept as well.  Mr. Ramsay has since found,
that his   perfectly  purified vinegar, specific  gravity
1.034, being applied by a cloth or sponge to the surface
of fresh meat, makes it keep sweet and sound for se-
veral days longer in summer than it otherwise would.
Immersion for a minute in his purified common vinegar,
specific gravity  1.009, protects beef  and fish from all
taint  in  summer, provided they be hung up and dried
in theshacie.   When, by frequent use, the pyroligneous
acid has become impure, it may be clarified by beating
up twenty gallons of it with a dozen of eggs in the usual
manner,  and heating the mixture in an iron boiler.
Before boiling, the eggs coagulate, and bring the impu-
rities to the surface ofthe boiler, xvhich are of course to
be carefully skimmed off.  The acid must be imme-
diately withdraxvn from the boiler, as it acts on iron."
  PYROLITHIC ACID.  "When  uric acid concre-
tions  are distilled in a retort, silvery white plate sub-
lime.   These are pyrolithate of ammonia.  When their
solution is poured into that of subacetate of lead, a py
rolilhateof lead falls, which, after proper washing, is to
be shaken with water, and decomposed by sulphuretted
hydrogen gas.  The supernatant liquid is noxv a •solu-
tion of pyrolithic acid, which yields small aciculat
crystals by evaporation.  By heat, these melt and sub-
lime in xvhite needles.  They are soluble  in four parts
of cold xvater, and the solution reddens vegetable blues.
Boiling alkohol dissolves the acid,  but on cooling it
deposites it, in small white grains.  Nitric acid dissolves
without changing it.   Hence, pyrolithic is a different
acid from the  lithic, which, by nitric acid, is convert
iblc into  purpuraie of  ammonia.  The pyrolithate of
lime crystallizes in stalactites which have a bitter and
slightly acrid tasle.  It  consists of 91 a acid -4- 8.6 lime.
Pyrolithate of barytes is a nearly  insoluble poxvder.
The salts  of potassa, soda, and amiiioniu, arc soluble,
and tlie former two crystallizable.   At a red heat, and
by passing it over ignited oxide of copper, it is decom-
posed, into oxygen 44.32, carbon 28.2S), azote 16.84, hy-
drogen 10."
  PYROMAL1C  ACID.  " When r>alic or sorbic acid
for  they are the same, is distilled in a retort, an acid
sublimate, in xx Lite needles, appears hi the neck of the
retort, and an acid liquid distils into tne receiver.  This
liquid, by evaporation, affords crystals, constituting a
peculiar acid to which the above name has been given.
  They are permanent in the air, melt at 118° Fahr., and
on cooling, form a pearl-coloured >»>a*s of diverging nee-
dles.  When thrown on red-hot coals, they completely
evaporate in au acrid, cough-exciting smoke.  Exposed
to a strong heat in a retort, they v< -vutly sublimed in
needles, and  are partly decomposed. They are very
soluble in  strong alkohol, and in double their weight of
water, at the  ordinary temperature.  The solulion
reddens vegetable blues, and yields white flocculent
precipitates wilh  acetate  of lead and nitrate  of mer-
cury ;  but produces no precipitate with lime-water.
By mixing il xvitii barytes water, a xvhile powder falls,
which is redissolved  by dilution  with  xvater, after
which, by gentle evaporation, the pyromalatc of bary
tes may be obtained in silvery plates. These consist of
100 acid, and 185.142 barytes, or in prime equivalents,
of 5.25 -f 9.75."
  PYROMETER.  (From zzvp, fire, and ptrpov, mea-
sure.)  Te measure those  higher  degrees of heat to
which the thermometer cannot be applied, there have
been otlier instruments invented by different philoso-
phers : these are  called pyrometers. The  most cele
brated instrument of this kind,  and which has been
adopted into general use, is that invented by  the  late
ingenious  Mr. Wedgwood.
  This instrument is also sufficiently simple.  Il con-
sists of txvo pieces of brass fixed on a plate, so as to be
6- lOths of au inch asunder  at one end, and 3-10ths at
the other; a scale is marked upon thorn, xvhich is di-
vided into 240 equal parts, eacli l-10thof an inch ;  and
with this  his gauge, aie furnished a sufficient number
of pieces  of baked clay, xvhich must have been pre
pared in a red  heat, and must be of  given dimensions
These pieces of clay, thus prepared, are first to be ap-
plied cold, to the rule of the gauge, that there may no
mistake take place in regard to their dimensions.  Then
any one of them is to be exposed to the heat wliich is
to be measured, till it shall have been completely pene-
trated  by  it.  It is  then removed and applied to the
gauge. The difference between its former and its pre-
sent dimensions will shoxv how much it has shrunk;
and will consequently indicate to what degree the in-
tensity of  the heat to which it was exposed amounted.
  High temperatures can thus be ascertained xvilh ac-
curacy.   Each degree of Wedgwood's  pyrometer is
equal to 130° of Fahrenheit's.
  PYROMUCIC  ACID.  (Acidum pyromucicum ; be-
cause it was obtained  from the distillation of  gum.)
Pyromucous acid.  "This acid, discovered in 1818, by
Houtou Labillardiere, is one ofthe products ofthe dis-
tillation of mucic acid. When we wish to procure it,
the operation must be performed in  a glass retort  fur-
nished with a  receiver.  The acid  is formed in the
brown liquid,  xvhich is produced along  with it,  and
xvliich contains water, acetic acid, and empyrcurnatir
oil;  a very small quantity  ofthe pyromucic  acid re
maining attached to the vault of the retort, under the
form of crystals.   These crystals being coloured, are
added to the brown liquor, which is then diluted with
three or  four times its,quantity of water, in order fo
throxv down a certain portion of oil.  The whole ia
next filtered, and  evaporated to a suitable degree.  A
great deal of acetic acid is volatilized, and then the
new acid  crystallizes.  On  decanting the mother wa» 
QUA
QUA
 ters. and concentrating them farther, they yield crys-
 tttls'nnew; but as these are small and yellowish, it is ne-
 cessary to make them undergo a second distillation to
 render thein susceptible of being perfectly purified  by
 crystallization.   150 parts of mucic acid furnish about
 CO of brown liquor, from which xve can obtain 8 lo 10
 of pure pyromucic acid.
  This acid is  white,  inodorous,  of a strongly  acid
 taste, and a decided action on litmus.  Exposed to heat
 in a retort it melts at the tempeiature of 266° F., then
 volatilizes, and condenses into a liquid, which passes
 on  cooling into a crystalline mass, covered with very
 fine needles.  It  leaves very slight traces of residuum
 in the bottom of the retort.
  On burning coals, it instantly diffuses xvhite, pun-
 gent vapours.  Air has no action on it.  Water at 60°
 dissolves one twenty-eighth of its weight.  Boiling wa-
 fer dissolves it much more abundantly, nnd on cooling
 abandons a portion of it, In small elongated plates,
 xvhich cross in every direction."
  Pyro-mucous acid.  See Pyromucic acid.
  PYROPE. A subspecies of dodecahedral garnet, of
 a dark blood-red  colour.   It comes from Saxony, and
 is highly esteemed as a gem.
  PYROPHORUS. An artificial product,  xvhich takes
fire or becomes ignited, on exposure  to the air.  It is
 prepared from alum by calcination, with  the addition
of various inflammable bodies.
  PYROPHYSALITE.  See  Physalite.
  PYRO'SIS.  (From zzvpou-.  to burn.)   Pyrosis sue-
cica, of Sauvages.   Cardialgia sputatoria, of Lin-
naeus.  A disease called in Scotland the water-brash;
in England, black-water.  A genus of disease in the
class Neuroses,  and order Spasmi, of Cullen ; known
by a burning pain  in the stomach, attended with co-
pious eructation, generally of a watery insipid fluid.
  PYROSMALlTE. A liver-coloured mineral, which
comes from Wermeland.
  PYROTARTARIC ACID.   (Acidum pyro-tartari-
cum; so called  because obtained  by the destructive
distillation of tartaric acid.)   " Into a coated glass re-
tort introduce tartar,  or rather tartaric acid, till it is
half full, and fit to it a tubulated receiver.   Apply
 heat, which is to be gradually raised to redness.  Pyro-
tartaric acid of a broxvn colour, from impurity, Is found
in the liquid products.  We must  filter these through
paper previously wetted, to separate the  oily matter.
Saturate tlie liquid with carbonate of potassa; evapo-
rate to dryness;  redissoive, and filter through clean
moistened paper.   By repeating this process of evapo-
ration, solution, and  filtration, several times, we suc-
ceed in separating  all the oil.  The dry salt is then  to
be treated in a glass retort, at a moderate heat, with
dilute sulphuric  acid.  There  passes over into the re-
ceiver, first of all, a liquor containing evidently acetic
acid; but towards the end of the distillation, there  is
condensed in the vault of the retort, a xvhite and fo-
      QP. An abbreviation of quantum placet, as much
    *  as you please.
  Q. S. The  contraction for quantum sufficit,  a suffi-
cient quantity.
  Q. V. Au abbreviation of quantum vis, ns much as
you will.
  QUADRANGULUS.  Quadrangular.  Often used
to express form of muscles, leaves, 4u»   The recepta-
cle of  the  Dorstenia houstonii, and contrayerva, is
quadrangulara.
  QUADRA'TUS. (From quadra, square : so called
from its figure.)  See Depressor labii inferioris.
  Quadratus femoris.   Tuber-ischiotrockanterien,
of Dumas.  A muscle of the thigh, situated on  the
outside  of the pelvis.  It is a  flat, thin, and  fleshy
muscle, but not of the shape its name would seem to
indicate.  It is situated immediately below the gemini.
It arises tendinous and fleshy from the external sur-
face and lower edge of the tuberosity of the  ischium,
and is inserted by short tendinous fibres Into a ridge
which is seen extending from ihe bases of the trochan-
       226
 Bated sublimate, which is the pyrotartaric acid, pel
 fectly pure.
   It has a very sour taste, and reddens powerfully the
 tincture  of turnsole.   Heated in an  open vessel, the
 acid rises in a white smoke, xvithout leaving the char
 coaly  residuum which is left in a retort.  It is very so-
 luble in water, from which it is separated in crystals
 by spontaneous evaporation.   The bases combine xvith
 it, forming pyrotartarates, of which those of potassa,
 soda, ammonia, barytes, strontites, and lime, are very
 soluble.   That of potassa is  deliquescent, soluble in
 alkohol, capable of crystallizing in plates, like the ace-
 tate of potassa.  This  pyrotariarate precipitates both
 acetate of lead and nitrate of mercury, while the acid
 itself precipitates only the latter.  Rose is the disco-
 verer  of this  acid, which was  formerly  confounded
 with the acetic."
   Pyro-tarlarous acid.  See Pyro-tartaric arid.
   Pyrote'chnia.  (From zzvp, fire, and rtxvi, an art./
 Chemistry, or that art by wliich the properties of bo-
 dies are examined by fire.
  Pyro'tica.   (From tzvpou, to burn.)  Caustics.
  PYROXENE.  See Augite.
  PY'RUS.  The name of a genus of plants in the
 Linnaean system.  Class,  Icosandria; Order, Penta-
gynia.
  Pyrus  communis.   The  pear-tree.  The fruit  Is
anaiagous to that of the apple, but more delicately fla-
 voured.  Its juice, when fermented  forms perry.
  Pyrus cydonia. Tlfc systematic nanieof thequince-
tree.  The fruit is termed Cydonium malum, or quince.
The tree xvhich affords this fruit  is the Pyrus—foliis
integerrimis, fioribus, solitariis, of Linnstus.  Quince
seeds are directed by the London College  to be made
into  a decoction,  xvhich is recommended  in  aph-
thous affections, and  excoriations of the  mouth and
fauces.
  Pyrus malus.  The systematic name of the apple-
tree.  The common crab-tree  is the parent of all ihr
vast variety of apples  at present cultivated.  Apples,
in general, xvhen ripe, afford a pleasant and easily di-
gestible fruit for the table;  but, when the stomach  is
xveak, they are very apt to remain unaltered for some
days, and  to  produce  dyspepsia.  Sour fruits are to
be considered  unxvholesome, except  xvhen boiled or
baked, and rend red soft and mellow with the addition
of sugar.
  Pyu'lcom.  (From  tsvov,  pus,  and cAntu, to draxv.)
An instrument to extract the pus from the cavity of
any sinuous ulcer.
  Pyu'ria.  See Pyoturia.
  Pyxaca'ntha.   (From  tzv\os,  do*) and axavOa,  a
thorn.) The barberry, or thorny boi-trce.
  PY'XIS.  (Pyxis, idis.  f.; so called because it was
made with tlie irvl-oy, or box-tree.)   Properly a  box;
bul,  from its  resemblance, the cavity of the hip-bone,
or acetabulum, has been sometimes so called.
ter major to that of the trochanter minor.  Its use is In
bring the os femoris outwards.
  Quadratus  okn*.  See Platysma-myoides.
  Quadratus  labii  inferioris.    See Depressor
labii inferioris.
  Quadratus  lumborum.  Quadratus, seu lumbans
externus, of Winslow.  Ilio-lumbicostal, of Dumas.  A
muscle situated within the cavity of the abdomen. This
is a small, flat, and oblong muscle, that has gotten the
name of quadratus, from its shape, xvhich is that of an
irregular square.   It it situated laterally, at the lower
part of the spine.  It arises tendinous and fleshy from
about two inches from the posterior part of tlie spine
of the  ilium.   From this  broad  origin it ascends
obliquely inwards, and is inserted into tlie transverse
processes of the four superior lumbar vertebre, Into
the lower edge of the last rib, and, by a small tendon,
that passes up under the diaphragm into the side of the
last vetebra of the back.  When this muscle actsslngly,
it draws the loins to one side; when both muscles act,
they serve to support ihe spina, and perhaps to bend It
Q, 
QUA
QUA
Ibfwards.  In laborious respiration, the quadratus lum-
borum may assist in pulling doxvn ihe ribs.
  Quadratus maxill.c inferioris.  See Platysma-
my aides.
  Quadratus radii.  See Pronator radii-quadratus.
  Quadri'oa.  (From quatuor, four, and jugum,  a
yoke.)  A  bandage xvhich resembles the trappings of a
four-horse  cart.
  [uQuadro\alate  of  potassa. This  may be com-
posed  by several  methods.   It xvas  formed  by  Dr.
Wollaston  by digesting the binoxaltitc in  nitric or mu-
riatic acid.  The alkali is divided into txvo parts, one
of xvliich unites with the mineral acid, and the other
half remains in combination xvith the oxalic acid.  It
forms beautiful crystals,  xvhich may be obtained pure
by solution, and a second crystallization.
  " If" three parts  by  xveight of the  quadroxalnte  be
decomposed by burning, and the alkali, wliich  is thus
disengaged, be  mixed xvitii a solution of one part  of
the crystallized salt, the  latter  is exactly neutralized.
Hence the  quadroxalate contains four times the acid
that exists in the  oxalate.  The analysis  of this class
of salts, from which Dr. Wollaston drew a striking ex-
emplification ofthe laxv of simple multiples discovered
by Mr. Dalton, may be recapitulated as folloxvs:
                   Atoms or  Atom            Eqair.
                     hue.  •faeid. Bue.   Acid.   ran.
The oralate consists ofl+148+3o =   84
Thebln-oxalate......  1  -f-   2  48  -j-   72 =  120
The quadroxalate...    1  +   4  48  -+■  144 =  192
  " Estimating, therefore, from the xveights of their
atoms, ItW of potassa should be united, in the oxalate,
xvith 75 of acid; in the bin-oxalate xvitii  150; and in
the quadroxalate xvitii 300."—Web's Manualof'Cke-
mislry.  A.]
  QUARTA'NA.  Febris quartana.  A fourth-day
ague.  Of  this species of ague, as well   as the other
kinds, there are several x-arieties noticed by authors.
The most  frequent of these are,  1. The  double quar-
tan, with txvo paroxysms, or fits, on the first day, none
on the second and third,  and two again on the fourth
day.  2. The double quartan, xvith a paroxysm on the
fiist day, another on the second, but none on the third.
3. The triple quartan, vWth three paroxysms every
fourth day.   4.  The triple quartans with  a slight
paroxysm  every  day, every fourth  paroxysm being
similar.  See also Febris intermittens.
  QUARTATION.   An operation,   in  assaying,  by
'.x hich the quantity of one  thing is made equal to a
fourth part of the quantity of another thing.
   QUARTZ.  This name is given to  augenus of min-
erals xvhich Jameson divides into two species, rhom
boidal quartz, and indivisible quartz.
  The rhomboidal contains fourteen subspecies.   1.
Amethyst.  2.  Rock crystal.  3. Milk quartz, which is
of a rose red, and milk-white colour.  It is found in Ba-
varia.  4. Common quartz  of  many colours, and  is
one of the most abundant minerals in nature.   6. Cat's
eye.  7. Fibrous quartz of a grayish or yellowish white
colour, found on the banks of tlie Moldau, in Bohemia.
8. Iron flint.   9.  Hornstone.   10. Flinty slate.  11.
Flint.  12.  Caleedony.  13.  Heliotrope.   14.  Jasper.
  The indivisible quartz has nine subspecies.  1. Float-
stone.   2.  Quartz or  siliceous sinter, of  which there
are three kinds, the common, opaline, and pearly.  3.
Hyalite.   4.  Opal.   5.  Msuilite.  6. Obsidian.   7.
Pitchstone.  8. Pearlstone.  9. Pumicestone.
  [Quartz rksixite commune. Bee Halb-opal.  A.]
  QUASSIA.  (From a slave of the nanieof Quasst,
who  first  used it xvith uncommon success as a secret
remedy in tlie malignant endemic fevers which  fre-
quently  prevailed at  Surinam.)  1. The name of a
genus  of plants in tbe Linnaean system.   Class, De-
candria ; Order, Monogynia.
  2. The pharmacopoeia! name of the bitter  quassia.
See Quassia amara.
  Quassia amara.   The systematic name of the bit-
ter quassia-tree.   The root, bark, and  wood of this
tree, Quassia—-fioribus hermaphroditis, foliis impari-
pinnatis, foliolis oppositis, sessilibus, pctiolo articulato
alato, fioribus racemosis, of Linnieus, are all compre-
hended in the catalogues of the  materia medica.  The
tree is a native of South America, particularly of Suri-
nam, and also of some of the West India islands.
  The roots are perfectly ligneous; they may be medi-
cally considered in tlie same light as  the  wood, whicli
is now most generally employed, and seems  to differ
                                        Yv2
from the bark in being less inttnsely blttei; tlie lattru
is therefore thought to be a more powerful medicine.
Quassia has no sensible odour; its taste is that of n
pure bitter, more intense  and durable than that cf
almost any  other known substance;  it imparts its
virtues more completely  to watery than to spirituous
menstrua, and its infusions are not blackened by the ad-
dition of sulphate of iron. The watery extract is from a
sixth to a ninth of the xveight of the xvood, the spirituous
about a twenty-fourth.  Quassia, as  before observed,
derived  its name from a  negro  named Quassi, who
employed it xvitii uncommon success as a secret remedy
in the malignant endemic fevers, which  frequently
prevailed at Surinam.  In consequence of a valuable
consideration, this secret was disclosed to Daniel Ro
lander, a Sxvede, xvho  brought specimens of the quassia
wood to Stockholm, in the year 1756  ; and since then
the effects of this drug  have been generally tried in
Europe, and numerous testimonies of its efficacy pub-
lished by many respectable authors.  Various experi-
ments with quassia have likewise been made, xvitii a
view to ascertain its antiseptic powers; from which it
appears to have considerable influence in retarding the
tendency  to putrefaction; and this, Professor Murray
thinks, onnnot be attributed to its sensible qualities, as it
possesses no adstringency xvhutever;  nor can it depend
upon its bitterness, as gentian is much bitterer, yet  less
antiseptic.  The medicinal virtues ascribed to quassia
are those of a tonic, stomachic, antiseptic, and  febri-
fuge.  It has been  found very  effectual in  restoring
digestion, expelling flatulencies, and removing habitual
costiveness, produced  from debility of the intestines,
and common to a sedentary life.  Dr. Lettsom, xvhose
extensive practice gave him an opportunity of trying
the effects of quassia in a great number of cases, says,
" In debility, succeeding febrile diseases, the Peruvian
bark is most generally more tonic and salutary than
any other vegetable hitherto known ;  but in hysterical
atony, to which the female sex is so prone, the quassia
affords more  vigour and relief to the system than  the
other,  especially when  united  with  the  vitriolum
album, and still more xvith the aid of  some absorbent."
In dyspepsia, arising from hard drinking, and also in
diarrhoeas, tlie doctor  exhibited the quassia with great
success.   But with respect to the tonic and febrifuge
qualities of quassia, he says, "I by no means subscribe
to the Linnaean opinion,  where the author  declares,
' me quidem  judice chinchinam longe  superat.'"  It
is very well known, that there are certain peculiarities
of tlie air, and idiosyncrasies of  constitution,  unfa-
vourable to the exhibition of Peruvian bark, even in the
most  clear intermissions of fever;  and writers have
repeatedly noticed it.  But this is comparatively rare.
About midsummer, 1785, Dr. L. met  with several in-
siai.ces  of loxv remittent and nervous fevers, wherein
ihe bark uniformly aggravated the symptoms, though
given in intermissions tlie most favourable to its success,
and wherein quassia, or snakeroot,  was successfully-
substituted.   In  such  cases, he mostly observed, that
tliere was great congestion in the hepatic system,  and
the debility at the same time discouraged copious eva-
cuations.  And in many fevers, without evident remis-
sions to warrant the use of the bark,  while at the time
increasing debility began  to threaten the life of the
patient, the Doctor found that quassia, or snakeroot,
singly or combined,  upheld the vital powers, and pro-
moted a critical  intermission of fever, by wliich an
opportunity was afforded for the bark to effect a cure.
It may tie given in infusion, or in pills made from the
watery extract;  the former is generally preferred, in
the proportion of three or four scruples of the wood to
twelve ounces of water.
  Quassia simarouba.  The systematic name of the
simarouba quassia.   Simarouba; Simaraba; Euony-
mus; Quassia—fioribus monoids, foliis abrupte pin-
natis, foliolis alternis subpetiolatis peliolo nudo fiori-
bus paniculatis, of Linnieus.  The bark of this tree,
which is met with in the shops, is obtained  from the
roots; and, acccording to Dr. Wright of Jamaica, it is
rough, scaly, and xvarted ; tbe  inside, when  fresh  Is a
full yellow, but  xvhen dried, paler i it has  but little
smell; the taste is  bitter, but  not  disagreeable    It Is
esteemed in the West Indies, in dysenteries and other
fluxes, as restoring tone to the intestines, allaying their
spasmodic motions, promoting the secretions by urine
and  perspiration, and removing lowness of spirits at-
tending those diseases   It is said  also  that it soon 
QUE
QUE
 disposes the patient to sleep; takes off the gripes and
 tenesmuj, and changes the 6tools to their natural colour
 and consistence.
  Qua'trio.  (From quatuor, four: so ca'led because
 tl has four sides.)  The astragalus.
  Queen of the meadow.  See Spiraa ulmaria
  Qukrckra.  See Epialus.
  [Quercitron.  See Quercus  tinctoria.  A.)
  Que'rcula.   (Quercula; diminutive of  quercus,
 the oak : so called  because it has leaves like the oak.)
 An antiquated name of the germander.  See Teucrium
 chamadrys.
  QUE'RCUS.   (From  quero, to inquire;  because
 divinations xvere  formerly given from  oaks by the
 Druids.)  The oak.
  1. The name of  a genus of plants in the Linnaean
 system.  Class Monacia; Order, Polyandria.
  2. The pharmacopoeia! name of tlie oak. See Quer-
 cus robur.
  Quercus cerris.  The systematic name of the tree
 xvliich affords the Nux galla.  Galla maxima orbicu-
 lata.  The gall-nut.  By this name is usually denoted
 any protuberance, tubercle,  or  tumour,  produced by
 the puncture of insects on plants and trees of different
 kinds.   These galls are of various forms and  sizes,
 and no less different with regard to their internal struc-
 ture.  Some have only one cavity, and others a  num-
ber of small  cells, communicating with each other.
Borne of them are as hard as the wood of the tree they
grow on, while others aie soft  and spongy;  the first
being termed gall-nuts, and  the latter berry-galls, or
apple-galls.
  The  gall used in medicine is thus produced:—the
cynips quercus folii, an insect of the fly-kind, deposites
its eggs in the leaves and other tender parts of the tree.
 Around each puncture an  excrescence  is  presently
formed, within which the egg is hatched, and the worm
passes  through all the stages of  its metamorphosis,
until it  becomes a  perfect insect, when it eats its way
out of its prison.  The best oak-galls are heavy, knotted,
 and of a bluish colour,  and are  obtained from Aleppo.
They are  nearly entirely soluble  in water,  with the
 assistance of heat. From 500 grains of  Aleppo galls,
 Sir Humphry Davy obtained by infusion 185  grains of*
solid matter, which on  analysis  appeared to consist of
 tannin  130; mucilage, and matter  rendered  insoluble
 by evaporation, 12; gallic acid, with a  little extractive
 matter, 31 ; the remainder, calcareous earth and saline
 matter,  12.   Another sort comes from  the  south of
 Europe, of a  light brownish or whitish colour, smooth,
 round, easily broken, less compact, and of a  much
 larger  size.  The txvo sorts differ only  in  size and
strength, two of the blue galls being supposed equiea-
 lent in  this respect  to three of the others.
  Oak-galls are supposed to be the strongest adstrin&«>i
 in the vegetable kingdom.  Both waler and spirit take
 up nearly all their virtue, though the spirituous extract
 is the strongest preparation.  The powder is, however,
 the best form ; and the dose is  from a few grains to
 half a drachm.
  They are not  much  used  in medicine, thougli they
 are said to be beneficial in  intermittents.  Dr. Cullen
 has cured agues, by giving half a drachm of  the poxv-
 der of  galls every two or tliree hours during the inter-
 mission ; and by it alone, or joined with camomile
 floxvers, has  prevented tiie  return of the paroxysms.
 But Ihe Doctor slates the amount of his results only io
 he this: that," in ninny cases, the galls cured the inter
 mittents;  but that it failed also in many cases  irt xvhich
 the Peruvian bark afteixvard proved successful."  A
 fomentation,  made by macerating half  an ounce of
 biuised galls in a quart of boiling water for an hour, has
 6een found useful  for the piles,  the prolapsus ani, and
 the fluor albus, applied cold.  An injection, simply ad-
 stringent,  is made by diluting this fomentation, and
 used in gleets  nnd leucorrhoea.   The  camphorated
 ointment of galls has been found also serviceable in
 piles, after the use of leeches; and is made by incor-
 porating half n drachm of camphor xvitii one ounce of
 hog's lard, and adding two drachms of galls in  very fine
 powder.  In fact, galls may be employed for the same
 purposes as oak-bark,  and are  used under the  same
 forms.
  Quercus ksculus.  The systematic  name of the
 Italian oak, whose acorns are, in times of scarcity, said
 to afford a meal of which bread is made.
  Quercus marina  See Fucus vesiculosus.
      228
   Quercus phel-lob.  The systematic name of the
 willow-leaved oak, the acorns of which are much
 sweeter than chesnuts, and much eaten by the Ini**ns.
 They afford, by expression, an oil  little inferior to oil
 of almonds.
   Quercus robur. The oak-tree. Balanos.  Quercus
 —foliis oblongis,  glabris  sinuatis,  lobis rotundis
 irlandibus oblongis, of Linnaeus.  This valuable tree is
 Indigenous  to Britain.   Its  adstringent effects were
 sufficiently  known to the ancients, but it is the bark
 which is now directed for medicinal use  by our phar-
 macopoeias.   Oak-bark manifests to the taste a strong
 adstringency, accompanied with a moderate bitterness.
 Like other  adstringents, it litis been recommended in
 agues, and for restraining haemorrhages, alvine fluxes,
 and other immoderate evacuations.  A decoction of it
 has  likewise  been advantageously  employed  as a
 gargle, and as a fomentation or lotion in procidentia
 recti et uteri.
   The fruit of this tree was tlie food of the first ages;
 but xvhen corn was cultivated, acorns were neglected.
 They are of little use xvilh us, except for fattening hogs
 and other cattle and poultry.  Among the Spaniards,
 the acorn, or glans iberica, is said to have long remain-
 ed a delicacy, and to have been served up in the form
 of a dessert.  In dearths, acorns have been sometimes
 dried, ground into meal, and baked  as bread.  Bar-
 tholin relates that they are  used in Norway for this
 purpose.  The  inhabitants of Chio held out a long
 siege without any other food ; and  in a time of scarcity
 in France, A. D. 1709, they recurred to this food.  But
 Ihey are said to be hard of digestion, and to occasion
 headaches, flatulency, and colics.  In  Smoland, how
 ever,*many instances occur,  in which they have sup-
 plied a salutary and nutritious food.   With this view
 they ne previously boiled in xvater and separated fron-
 their husks, and then dried and ground; and the pow
 der is mixed xvitii  about one-half,  or one-third of corn
 flour.  A decoction of acorns is reputed good against
 dysenteries and colics: and a pessary of them is said
 to be useful in immoderate fluxes of the menses. Some
 have recommended the powder of acorns iu intermit
 tent fever;  and in Bruusxvick, they mix it with xvarm
 ale, and administer il for producing a sweat in cases ol
 erysipelas.   Acorns roasted and bruised have restrain-
 ed  a violent diarrhoea.  For other  medical  uses to
 which they have  been applied, see Murray's Appar
 Medic, vol. i. page  100.
   From some late  reports of the Academy of Sciences,
 at Petersburg!), we learn that acorns are the  best sub-
 stitute to coffee that  has been  hitherto knoxvn.  To
 cMmnunicate to them the oily properties of coffee, the
: tolloxving process is recommended. When the acorns
I have  been  toasted brown, add  fresh  butter in small
I pieces to them, xvhile hot in the  ladle, and stir them
 xvith care, cover the ladle and shake it, that the whole
 may be well mixed.  The acorns of the Holm oak are
 formed at Venice into cups aboul  one inch and a hal.
 in diameter, and somewhat less in depth.  They are
 used for dressing leather, and instead of galls for dying
 woollen cloth black.
   Quercus subkr.  The systematic name ofthe cork
 tree.  Suber.  The fruit of this tree is much more nu
 tritious than our acorns, and  is sxveet nnd often eater.
 when roasted in  some parts of  Spain.   The  bark,
 called cork, when burned, is applied as an astringent ap-
 plication to bleeding piles, and to allay the pain usually
 attendant on hemorrhoids, xvhen  mixed with an oint-
 ment.  Pessaries and oilier chirurgical instruments are
 also made of this useful bark.
   ["Quercus alba.  Whiteoak.  Most, and perhaps
 all the species of oak, have a high degree of astrin-
 gency, depending upon tannin, xvhich Ihey possess in
 greal quantities, and on account of xvliich they are ex-
 tensively used  in  the  preparation of leather.  The
 xvhite oak  is one of the American species, which is
 most  esteemed for this property.  The  bark of the
 young branches is probably more  astringent than that
 of the trunk, on account of the mass  of dead cortical
 layers, which constitutes a part of  the thickness of the
 'alter.  Oak-bark has been given in some instances as
 a substitute for cinchona, to xvliich,  however,  It is
 greatly inferior.  Ils chief use is  an  external astrin-
 gent and antiseptic. A strong decoction  is employed
 xvilh advantage as a gargle in cynanche, and as a lotion
 in gangrenous ulcers and offensive discharges of differ
 cut kinds."—Big. Mai. Med.  A.l 
RAB                                            RAtJ
  l^QoBrcus tinctoria.   Black oak.  This is also
  native species, the bark of xvliich affords the extract
known to dyers, by the  name of quercitron.  Its pro-
perties are similar to tliose of the preceding.  Both are
very common trees,  and are properly substituted for
tlie quercus rob*.-, of European Dispensatories, which
«s not found here '—Big. Mat. Med.  A]
  [Querci  Americans. American oaks. Thesehave
been described and delineated by Andrew Michaux, in
his history  of  the  oaks of America.   He describes
twenty-nine  species and varieties of oaks growing
spontaneously in North America.  He arranges them
in tlie following manner, viz.
     " Methodical disposition of American oaks.
                   SECTION  I.
  Quercus, foliis adultae plantae muticis; fructu pedun-
culalo; fructificationc annua:—Specie (ita bienni.
                    Division 1-
                   Foliis—tobatis.
Species 1. Quercus obtusiloba, upland white oak, iron
            oak.
        2. Q. macrocarpa,  over cup,  xvhite oak.
        3. Q. lyrata, water white oak.
        4. Q. alba-variety, P'^flda, j wllileoaks.

                   Division 2.
                 Foliis—dentatis.
Species 5. Q.Pnnus—var. palustris—swamp chesnut
                           oak.
                         moniicola—mountain ches-
                           nut oak, rock oak.
                          acuminata — narroxv leaf
                           chesnut oak.
                          pumila—Chinquapin oak.
                          tometitosa—Illinois oak.
                   Division 3.
                  Foliis—integris.
Species 6. Quercus virens.—Live  oak of Carolina.
                  SECTION II.
  Quercus,  foliis adultae plants setaceo-mucronatis;
"fructu  subsessili; fructiticatione bienni.
                    Division  1.
                  Foliis integris.
Species 7. Q. Phcllos—var. syivatica, willow oak.
                          maritima, sea willow oak.
                          pumila, dwarf xvillow oak.
Species 8. Q. Cinerea—upland willoxv oak.
        Q. Q. Imbricaria—shingle willoxv oak.
        10.  Q. Laurifolia—swamp willow oak.
                         obtusiloba.
                    DixtsirrN 2.
              Foliis—breviter lobatis.
Species 11.  Q. Aquatica—water oak.
        12  Q. Nigra—black oak.
        13. Q. Tinctoria—var. angulosa,  great black
                           oak,  Cbamplain  black
                               oak.
                           sinuosa—quercitron oak.
Species 14. Q. Triloba—downy black  oak.
                   Division 3.
             Foliis profunde multifidis.
Species 15. Q. Banisteri—running downy oak.
        16. Q. Falcata—downy red-oak.
        17. Q. Catesboei—sandy red-oak.
        18. Q. Coccinea—scarlet-oak.
        19. Q. Palustris—swamp red-oak.
   ..   20. Q. Rubra—red-oak.
  " We have been ihe  more particular to exhibit tllti
systematic arrangement of the oaks, because we be-
lieve  it will  be  welcome  to our readers, and enabl6
them better to understand this difficult genus of plants.'
—Med. Renos.  A.J
  QUESNAY, Francis, was born nenr Paris in 1094
Though of humble parentage, and almost xvithout edu
cation, he displayed an extraordinary  zenl for know-
ledge, and after studying medicine in the French me-
tropolis, he settled at Mantes.  Having ably controvert-
ed the doctrines of Silva respecting blood-letting,  he
xvas appointed secretary to the Academy of Surgery;
but the duties of this office having impaired his health,
he graduated in physic, and wasmude consulting phy
sician to the king. He was subsequently honoured
xvilh  letters of nobility, and otlier marks of royal  fa-
vour; and became a member of several learned socie-
ties.  He died in 1774.   He left several xvorks, xvhich
display much research and observation, but with too
great  partiality to  hypothesis.  Besides the essays in
favour of bleeding in many diseases, his preface to the
Memoirs ofthe Academy of Surgery, gained him con-
siderable applause:  as likewise his Researches into the
Progress of Surgery in France, though tlie accuracy of
some of his statements was controverted.
  Quick-grass.   See Triticum repens.
  Quick-lime. See Lime.
  QUICKSILVER.  See Mercury.
  Qt'iD pro quo.  These words are applied the same
as succedaneum, xvhen one thing is made use of to sup-
ply the defect of another.
  QUIESCENT.  Quiescens.  At rest.
  Quiescent affinity. See Affinity quiescent.
  Quina quina.  The Peruvian bark.
  QUINCE  See Pyrus cydonia.
  Quince, Bengal.  See Erateva marmelos
  QUINCY.   See Cynanche.
  QUINIA.  See  Cinchonina.
  QUININA.  See Cinchonina.
  Quininje sulphas.  Sulphate of quinine.  Sulphate
of cinchonina.   A saline combination  of sulphuric
acid, wilh the active principle of cinchona bark. See
Cinchonina.
  Quinine, sulphate of.   See Quinina sulphas.
  QUINQUEFO'LIUM.  (From  quinque, five, and
folium, a leaf: so called because it  has five leaves on
each  foot-stalk.)  Pentaphyllum.  Cinquefoil, or fi
leaved grass.  See Potentilla reptans.
  Quinquina.  See Cinchona.
  QUOTIDIAN.   See  Febris intermittens.
R
TO   or R.  This letter is placed at the beginning of
*•'• a prescription, as » contraction of recipe, take:
thus, R Magnes, 3j. signifies, Take a drachm of mag-
nesia.  " In ancient times, such was the supposed im-
portance," says Dr. Paris,  in his most excellent work
on pharmacology, uof planatory influence, that it was
usual to  prefix a symbol  of the planet under  whose
■•cigti the ingredients were to be collected ; and it is not
perhaps generally knoxvn, that the character xvhich we
at this day place at the head of our prescriptions, and
which is understood and is supposed to mean recipe,
is a relict of  the astrological  symbol of Jupiter,  aa
may be seen  in many of  the  older works on phar-
macy."
  RABBIT.  A well knoxvn animal of the  hare kind:
the l^pus cuniculus of Linnaeus, the flesii of which is
tender, nnd easy of digestion.
  RA'BIES.   (From rabio, to be mad.)   Madness.
Genn'ally applied to lhat disease of adog, under which
 the saliva has the property of producing hydrophobia
 in man.  See Hydrophobia.
  Rabies canina. See Hydrophobia.
  RACE'MUS.   (Racemus, i. m.; from ramus.)  a
 raceme or cluster.  A species of inflorescence, consist-
 ing of a cluster of flowers, rather distant  from each
 olher,  each on its own proper  stalk, tlie tops of the
 lower ones not coming near to  the tops of the upper
 ones, as in a corymb, and all connected by one com
 mon stalk ; as a bunch of currants.  It is therefore a
 kind of pedunculated spike.
  From the division of the common  stalk,  it Is deno-
 minated,
  1.  Simple, not having  any branches; as iu Ribes
 rubra, and Acer pscudo-platanus.
  2.  Compound, being branched;  as  in Vitis  vint-
 fera.
  3.  Conjugate, txvo clusters going from the end of the
common peduncle.
                                        229 
RAC
RAD
  4. Aggregate, several being gathered together; as in
 Aetata racemosa.
  5. Unilateral, the proper stalks of the flowers pro-
 ceeding from one side only of the common stalk ; as in
 Pyrola secunda.
  6. Second, the proper stalks ofthe flowers come from
 every part of the common stalk, yet they all look to one
 side only ; as in Andromeda racemosa, Teucrium sco-
 rodonia, &c.
  From the direction of the racemus,
  7. Ereetus; as in Chenopodium album. Ribes alpi-
 num, and Astragalus austriacus.
  8. Pendulus ;  as in Cytisus laburnum.
  9. Laxus, easily  bent;  as in  Celosia trigynia. and
 Solanum carolinense.
  10. Slrictus,  bent xvith  difliculty;  as in  Ononis
 ceruua.
  From its vesture,
  11. Nadus; as in Vaccinium legustrinum.
  12.  Pilusus;  as in Ribes nigrum.
  13. Foliatus;  as  in Chenopodium ambrosioides.
  14. Bracteatus; asin Andromeda racemosa.
  KACHIA'LGIA.   (From  paxts,  the spine,  and
 aAyos, pain.)  A pain in  the spine.  It was formerly
 applied to several species of colic which  induced pain
 in the back.
  RACHIS.   See Rhachis.
  RACHITIS.  (Rachitis, idis. f.;  from paxn, the
 spine of the  back: so called because it was supposed
 to originate in a fault of the spinal marroxv.)  Cyrto-
 nosus.   Tlie English disease.  The rickets.  A genus
of disease in the Class Cachexia, and Order Intumes-
centia, of Cullen ; knoxvn by a large head, prominent
 forehead, protruded  sternum, flattened ribs, big belly,
 and emaciated limbs, with great debility.  It is usually
confined in its attack between the two periods of nine
months and two years of age, seldom appearing sooner
 than the former, or shoxving itself for the first time, after
 the  latter period.  The muscles become flaccid, the
head enlarges, the carotids are distended, the limbs
xvaste away, and  their epiphyses increase in bulk.
The bones and  spine of the back are variously dis-
torted ; disinclination to  muscular  exertion follows; the
 abdomen swells and grows hard; the stools are fre-
quent and loose; a  slow  fever succeeds, xvith cough
and difliculty of respiration; atrophy is confirmed, and
 death ensues.  Frequently it happens that nature re-
stores the general health,  and leaves the limbs  dis-
torted.
  After death, the  liver  and the spleen have  been
 found enlarged and scirrhous; the mesenteric glands in-
durated, and the lungs either charged with vomicae, or
 adhering to the pleura;  tbe bones soft, the brain flac-
cid, or oppressed with lymph, and  the distended bowels
loaded  most frequently xvith slime, sometimes  with
worms.
  It is remarkable, that  in  the kindred disease, xvhich
Hoffman and Sauvages  call the atrophy of infants, xve
have many of the same symptoms and the same ap-
pearances nearly after death. They who perish by
tins disease, says Hoffman, have the mesenteric glands
enlarged and scirrhous;  the liver and spleen obstructed,
and increased in size; the intestines are much inflated,
 nnd nre  loaded xvith black and foetid matters, aud the
muscles, more especially ofthe abdomen,  xvaste axvay.
  In the treatment of rickets, besides altering any im-
 proprieties in the regimen, which may have co-operated
 in producing  it, those means should  be employed, by
 which the system may be invigorated.   Tonic medi-
 cines are  therefore proper,  particularly chalybeates,
 which are easily given to children; and the cold-bath
 may be essentially  beneficial. The child should  be
 regularly xvell exercised,kept clean and dry, and a pure
 air  selected; tlie food nutritious and  easy of digestion.
 When  the appetite  is much  impaired, "an occasional
 gentle emetic may  do  good; more  frequently tonic
 aperients, as rhubarb, will be  required to regulate the
 bowels; or sometimes a  dose of calomel in gross habits.
 Of  late, certain compounds of lime have been strongly
 recommended, particularly the phosphate, which is the
 earthy basis  of the bones;  thougli it does not  appear
 likely to enter the system, unless rendered soluble by
 an  excess of ncid.  Others have conceived the disease
 to arise from an excess of acid, and  therefore  recom-
 mended aikalies; xvhich  may certainly  be useful in
 correcting the morbid prevalence  of acid  in tlie prima'
 viae so frequent in  children.  When the bones ate
      230
 inclined to bend, care must be taken not to throw the
 weight of the body too much upon them.
   Racka'sira balsamum. See Balsamum rackasira.
   RACO'SIS.  (From paxos, a rag.)  A ragged exco
 riation of the relaxed scrotum.
   RADCLIFFE, John, was born at Wakefield, York
 skire, in 1650.  He xvent to Oxford at the age of 15;
 and having determined upon the medical profession, he
 passed rapidly through the prehminary studies, thougli
 xvith very little profoundness of research; and having
 taken the  degree of bachelor of medicine in  1675, he
 immediately began to practise there.  He professed to
 pay very little regard to the  rules generally followed,
 xvhich naturally drew upon him  the enmity of the old
 practitioners; yet  his vivacity and talents  procured
 him a great number of patients, even of the highest
 rank.  In  1684, he removed  to London, having taken
 his doctor's degree two years before, and his success
 xvas  unusually rapid; in the second year he was ap-
 pointed  physician to the princess Anne of Denmark;
 and after the Revolution, he was consulted  by king
 William.  By his  rough independence  of spirit ana
 freedom  of language,  however, he ultimately lost all
 favour at court; though  he is said to have been still
 privately consulted in cases of emergency.  In 1703,
 he had an attack of pleurisy, which had nearly proved
 fatal  from  his oxvn imprudence.   He continued, after
 his recovery, in very extensive practice, notxvithstand-
 ing the caprice which he continually displayed : but his
 declining to  attend queen Anne iu  her last illness,
 though it does nol appear that  he was sent for officially,
 excited the popular resentment strongly against him;
 and  his  apprehensions of the consequences are sup-
 posed to have accelerated his own death, which hap-
 pened about  three  months after,  in 1714.  He was
 buried in St. Mary's church at Oxford.  He founded a
 noble library and  infirmary at  that  university; and
 also endowed txvo travelling medical fellowships, with
 an annual  income of 300/. attached to each.  It does
 not appear  that  he ever attempted to xvrite; and,
 indeed, he is believed to have been very little conver-
 sant xvilh books; yet the universal reputation which he
 acquired  and maintained, notwithstanding his capri-
 cious conduct, seem to  sanction  the testimony of Dr.
 Mead, that " he was deservedly at the  head of his
 profession, on account of his great medical penetration
 and experience."
   RADIAL.   (Radialis; from radius, the name of a
 bone.) Belonging to the radius.
   Radial artery. Arteria  radialis.   A branch of
 the humeral artery that runs doxvn the side of the
 radius.
   Radialis externus brevior.  See Extensor carpi
radialis brevior.
   Radialis externus longior.  See Extensor carpi
radialis longior.
  Radialis externus primus.   See Extensor carpi
radialis longior.
  Radialis internus.  See Flexor carpi radialis.
  Radialis secundus.  See Extensor caipi radialis
brevior.
  RADICAL. In  chemistry,  this term is applied to
lhat which  is considered  as  constituting the distin-
guishing  part of an acid, by its union xvith the acidi-
fying principle or oxygen, xvhich  is common to  all
acids.  Thus  sulphur  is the radical of the sulphuric
and sulphurous acids.  It is sometimes called the base
of the acid; but  base  is a  term of more extensive
application.
   Radical vinegar. See Acetum.
   RADICAL1S.  Radical: applied to leaves.  J'olia
 radicalia are such  as spring from the root, like those
 of the cowslip.
   RAD1CANS.  A botanical  term, applied to a slem
 xvhich clings to  any other body for support, by means
 of fibres  xvhich do not imbibe nourishment; as the ivy
 Hedera helix.
   RADI'CULA.  (Diminutive of radii, a root.)  LA
 radicle, rootlet, or  little root.  It  probably means the
 fibres xvliich come from the main root, and which are
 the most essential  to the life of the plant, they only
 imbibing the nourishment.
   2. Applied to the origin of vessels and nerves.
   3. The common  radish is sometimes so called   Sot
 Raphanus sativus.
   RADISH.   See  Cochlearia  and Raphanus.
   Radish, garden.  See Raphanus sativus 
•   RAD
RAD
   Radish, horse.  See Cochlearia armoracia.
   RA'DIUS.   .  A bone of the forearm, xvliich has
gotten its name from its supposed resemblance to the
spoko of a xvheel, or to a weaver's  beam; and some-
times, from its supporting the hand, it has been called
manubrium manus.  Like the ulna,  it isof a triangular
figure, but it differs from that bone, in growing larger
as it descends, so that its smaller part answers to the
larger part of the ulna, and vice versd.   Of its txvo
extremities, the uppermost and smallest is formed into
a  small rounded head, furnished with cartilage, and
hollowed at its summit, for an  articulation with the
little  head at  the side of the pulley of the os humeri.
The round border of this head, next the ulna, is formed
for an  articulation with the 'es&  sigmoid cavity  of
lhat bone.   This little head of the radius is supported
by a neck, at the  bottom of xvhich,  laterally, is a con-
siderable tuberosity, into tlie posterior half of wliich is
inserted the posterior tendon of  the biceps, while the
interior half is covered xvith cartilage, and surrounded
xvitii a capsular ligament, so as to alloxv this tendon to
slide  upon it as upon a pulley.   Immediately  beloxv
this  tuberosity, tlie  body of the  bone may be  said to
begin.  We find  it slightly  curved throughout  its
whole length, by xvhich  means a greater  space is
formed for the lodgment of muscles, and h is  enabled
to cross the ulna  xvithout  compressing  them.  Of
the three surfaces  to  be distinguished  on the body
of the bone, the external and internal ones  are  the
broadest  and flattest,  Tlie anterior surface  is nar-
rower and  more convex.  Of its angles, the external
and  internal ones  are  rounded; but  the posterior
angle, which is turned towards the ulna, is formed into
a sharp spine, which serves for the attachment of the
interosseous ligament, of which mention  is made in
the description of the ulna.  This strong ligament,
which is a  little interrupted above and below, serves
not only to  connect the  bones of the forearm to each
other, but likexvise to afford a greater surface for the
lodgment of muscles.  On the forepart of the bone,
and  at  about  one-third of  its length from its upper
end, we observe a channel  for vessels,  slanting ob-
liquely upwards.   Toxvards its  loxver extremity,  the
radius becomes broader, of an irregular shape, and
somexvhat flattened, affording three surfaces, of which
the posterior one is the smallest; the second, xvhich is
a continuation of the internal surface of the body of
the bone, is  broader and flatter than the first; and the
third, xvhich is the broadest of  the three, answers to
the anterior and  external surface of the body of the
bone.  On this last, xve observe several  sinuosities,
covered  xvith a thin layer of cartilage, upon  which
slide the tendons of several  muscles of the xvrist and
fingers.  The lowest part of the bone is formed into an
oblong articulating cavity, divided into two by a slight
transverse rising.   This cavity is formed for an articu-
lation with the bones of the wrist.  Towards the an-
terior and convex surface of the bone, this cavily is
defended by a remarkable eminence, called the styloid
process of the radius, which  is covered with  a carti-
lage that is extended to the lower extremity of the
ulna; a ligament  is likexvise stretched from it to the
xvrist.  Besides this large  cavity, the  radius  has
anolher much smaller one, opposite to styloid  process,
xvliich is lined with cartilage, and receives ihe rounded
surface of the  ulna.  The articulation of the  radius
with the  less sigmoid cavity of the ulna, is strength-
ened by a circular ligament wliich is attached  to the
txvo extremities of that  cavily, and  from  thence sur-
rounds the beat! of the radius.  This ligament is nar-
roxvest, but thickest at  its middle part.   But, besides
this  ligament, which connects the  two bones of the
forearm with each other, the ligaments which secure
the articulation of the radius with the os humeri, are
common both to it and to the ulna, and therefore can-
not, well be understood till both these bones  are de-
scribed.   These ligaments  are  a capsular and two
lateral ligaments.  The capsular ligament is attached
.o the anterior  and posterior surface of the lower ex-
tremity of the os humeri, to the  upper edges and sides
of the  cavities, we remarked, at the bottom of the
pulley and little head, and likexvise to some part of the
condyles: from thence it is spread over the ulna, to the
edges of the greater sigmoid cavity, so as to include in
ittlin end ofthe olecranon and of the coronoid  process;
and  it is likewise  fiied round the neck of the radius,
so as to include the  head of that bone within it.  The
lateral ligaments may be distinguished Into  externa
and  internal, or, according  to Winslow, into brachio-
radialis and brachio-cubilalis.   They both  descend
laterally from the loxvest part of each condyle of the
os humeri, and, from their fibres spreading wide as they
descend, have been compared to a goose's  foot. The
internal ligament or brachio-cubitalis, xvhich  is the
longest and thickest of the two, is attached to the co-
ronoid process of the ulna.  The external ligament, or
brachio-radialis,  terminates in the circular ligament of
the radius.   Both these ligaments  adhere firmly to the
capsular ligament, and to the tendons of some of the
adjacent muscles.  In considering the articulation of
the forearm xvith the os humeri, we  find  that when
both the bones arc moved logethei upon the os humeri
the motion of Ihe ulna upon the pulley alloxvs only of
flexion and extension; xvhereus, when the palm of the
hand is turned doxvnwards or upxvards, or,  in olhei
words, In pronation and supination,  xve see the radius
moving upon its axis, and  in these  motions  its head
turns upon the liltle head of the os humeri at the side
of the pulley, xvhile its circular edge rolls  in the less
sigmoid cavity of the ulna.  At the loxver end of the
forearm the edge of the ulna is received into a super
ficial cavity at the side of the radius.  This  articula-
tion, which is surrounded by a loose capsular ligament.
concurs xvith the articulation above, in enabling the
radius to turn with great facility upon its axis; and it
is chiefly xvith ihe assistance of  this bone that we are
enabled to turn the palm  of the  hand upwards or
downwards, the ulna having but a very inconsiderable
share in these motions.
  2.  The  term  radius,  in  botany,  is  applied  to the
marginal part of the  corolla of compound  flowers,
thus, in the daisy, the marginal xvhite flowrels form
the rays or radius, and the yelloxv central ones tlie dis-
cus or disk.   See Discus.
  The radii of a  peduncle of a  compound umbel are
the common stalks of the umbel, and pedicelli are the
stalks of the floxvrets.
  RA'DIX.  (Radix, dtcis.  f.)  A root.  I. In botany,
that  part of a plant which imbibes ils nourishment,
producing the herbaceous part and  the  fructification,
and  which consists  of the caudex, or  body, and radi-
cles.— Linnaus.
  That part of the plant by which it attaches itself to
the soil in  which it grows,  or to  tiie  substance on
which it feeds, and  is the principal organ of nutrition.
—Keith.
  In all plants, the primary root is a simple elongation
of that part whicli, during the germination of the seed,
is first protruded, and is denominated the radicle; and
as the plant continues to grow, the root gradually as-
sumes a determinate form and structore, xvhich differs
materially in different plants, but always is found simi-
lar in all the individuals of the same  species.   From
the figure, duration, direction, and insertion, roots are
arranged into,
  From their figure,
  1.  Radix fusiformis, spindle-shaped, of an oblong,
tapering form, pointed at its extremity; as in Daucus
carota, the  carrot;  Beta  vulgaris, beet; Pastinaca
sativa, parsnip, Sec.
  2.  Radix ramosa, branched, which consists of  a
caudex, or main root, divided into lateral branches,
which are again subdivided; so that it resembles in its
divisions the stem and branches inverted.  Most trees,
shrubs, and many herbaceous plants, have this form of
root.
  3.  Radix fibrosa,  fibrous, consisting  xvholly of small
radicles; as the  Hordeum vulgare, common  barley,
and most grasses.
  4.  Radix pramorsq, abrupt or truncated, appearing
as if bitten off close to the top; as in Scabiosa succisa,
the devil's bite; Plantago major, larger plantain; Hie-
racium pramorsum, Sec
  5.  Radix globosa, globose, having the caudex round,
or subrotund, sending off radicles  in many places; as
in Cyclamen europeum, soxv-bread;  Brassica  rapa,
turnip, &c.
  6.  Radix  tubcrosa, tuberose, furnished with  farina-
ceous tubers; as in Solanum tuberosum, the potato;
Helianthus tuberosus, Jerusalem artichoke, &c.
  7.  Radix pendula, pendulous,  consisting of tubers
connected to the plant by thin, or filiform portions; as
in Spiraa  filipcndula, common  dropwort;  vaonia
officinalis  paeony, Sec 
RAM
RAN   •
   C Radix granulata, granulated, formed of many
 Bmal! globules; asin Saxifraga granulata, meadow
 saxifrage, Sec.
   9. Radix arliculata,  articulated, or jointed, appa-
 rently formed of distinct pieces united, as if one piece
 grew out of another, with  radicles proceeding from
 eacli joint: as in Oxalis acetocclla, woodsorrel; Asa-
 rum canadense, wild ginger, &c.
   10. Radix dentata, toothed, which has a fleshy cau-
 dex, xvith teeth like prolongations; as in Ophrys coral-
 lorhiza.
   11. Radix squamosa, scaly,  covered with  fleshy
 stales ;  as in Lathraa squamaria, toothwort, Sec.
   12. Radix fascicularis, bundled, or fasciculate: as
 in Ophrys, nidus avis, Sec.
   13. Radix  cava,  hollow;  as in Fumaria cava.
 There are other distinctions of modern botanists  de-
 rived from the form; as conical, subrotund, napiform,
 placentiform, filiform, capillary, tufted, funiliform, ge-
 niculate, contorted, moniliform, &c.
   From the direction, roots are distinguished into,
   14. Radix  perpcndicularis,   perpendicular,  which
 descends in a straight direction; as in Daucus corota,
 Beta vulgaris,  Scorzonera hispanica, Sec.
  15. Radix i;orizontalis, horizontal, which is extended
 under the earth transversely ; as in Laserpitium pru-
 thenium, Sec.
  1G. Radix obliqua, oblique, descending obliquely; as
 in Iris germanicii, Sec.
  17. Radix repent, creeping, descending transversely,
 but here and there tending off new plants; as in Sam-
 bucus cbulus;  Glycyrrhiza  glabra; Ranunculus  re-
 pens, Sec
  The duration affords,
  18. Radix annua, yearly, which perishes  the same
 year with the plant;  as Draba vcrv.a, and all annuals.
  19. Radix biennis, biennial, xvliich vegetates the first
 year, floxvers the next, and ihen perishes; as the CEno-
 thera biennis, Beta vulgaris, Sec
  20. Radix perennis, perennial, whicli lives for many
 years; as trees  and shrubs.
  Roots are also distinguished from their situation into,
  21. Terrena,  earth-root,  which grow  only  in the
 iirth; as tlie roots of most plants.
  "22. Aquatica, water-root,  xvhich groxv only  in the
 water, and perish when out of it; as Trapa nutans,
 Nymphaa alba.
  23. Parasitica, parasitical, xvhich inserts the root
 into  another plant; as in Epidendrum vanilla, Sec
  24. Arrihza, xvhich does not insert radicles, but co-
 heres toother plants by an anastomosis of vessels; as
 in Viscum album, Horanlhus europaus, Sec.
  II. In anatomy, the term radix is applied to some
 parts which are inserted into others, as  tiie root of a
 plant is in the earth;  as  the fangs of the  teeth, the
 origin of some of the nerves, &c.
  Radix dengale.  See Cassumuniar.
  Radix brasiliensis.  See Callicocca ipecacuanha.
  Radix dulcis. See  Glycyrrhiza.
  Radix Indiana.  See Callicocca ipecacuanha.
  Radix rosea.  See Rhodiola.
  Radix rubra.  See Rubia tinctorum.
  Radix ursina. See JEthusa meum.
  RA'DULA.   (From rado, to scrape off.)  A wooden
spatula, or scraper.
  RAGWORT.  See Senecio Jacobaa.
  RAISIN.  Sec Vitis vinifera.
  Rama'lis vena.   (From  ramale, a  dead bough.)
Applied to the vena portae, from  its numerous ramifi-
cations, which resemble a bough stripped of its leaves.
  RAMAZZINI, Bernardin, xvas born at  Carpi, in
Italy, in 1633.   He graduated at  Parma  at the  age of
26, and, after studying some  time lonrer at Rome, set-
fled in the dutchy of Castro:  but ill health obliged him
speedily to  return to his native place.  His reputation
increasing, he  removed  to Modena in  1671,  where he
met  xvith considerable success; and, In  1682, he was
appointed  professor of the theory of medicine  m the
university  recently established there, xvhich office  lie
filled for eighteen years wilh  great credit.   He xvas
then invited to a similar appointment at Padua, and
exerted himself with laudable ardour for three  years;
 when he was attacked xvitii a  disease of tlie eyes,
 which ultimately deprived him of sight.   In 1708, the
 senate of Venice appointed him President of the Col-
 legeof Physicians of" thai capital, and in the following
 year raised mm to the  first professorship of the prac-
 tice of medicine.  He continued to perform the duties
 of these offices with great diligence and reputation till
 his death, in 1714.  He xvas a member of many of the
 academies of science, established in Germany, &c.,
 and left several  works in the Latin language, leuiark-
 able for the elegance  of their style,  and other merits.
 The principal of these, and which will be ever held  in
 estimation, is entitled " De Morbus Artificum Diatri-
 ba," giving an account of the diseases peculiar to dif-
 ferent artists and manufacturers.
   RAMENTUM.  A species of pubescence of plants',
 consisting of hairs in form of fiat, strap-like portions,
 resembling shavings, seen on the leaves of some ofthe
 genus  Bigonia.  See Pilus.
   RAMEUS.  Of o:  belonging to a bough or  branch;
 applied to branch  leaves,  which  are  so  distinguish-
 ed,  because they sometimes  differ from those of the
 main  stem;  as  is the case in Melampyrum arvense;
 and also to a leaf-stalk when it comes directly from the
 main branch; as in Eugenia malaccensis.
   Ra'mex.   (From  ramus, a branch:  from  its  pro-
 truding forwards, like a bud.)  An obsolete term for a
 rupture.
   RAMOSISSIMUS. Much branched.  Applied  to a
 stem which is repeatedly subdivided into a great many
 branches,  without order; as those of the apple, pear,
 and gooseberr" -tree.
  RAMOSUS.   Branched.  Applied to the roots, and
 especially those of trees.
  RAMUS.  A branch, or primary division of a stem
 into lateral stems.  In the language of botanists rami,
 or branches, are  denominated,
  1. Oppositi, when they go off, or pair  opposite to
 each other, as they do in Mentha arvensis.
  2. Alterni, one after another, alternately ; as in Al-
 thaea officinalis.
  3. Verticillati, xvhen more than  txvo go from  the
 stem in a whirlwind manner; as in Pinus abies.
  4. Sparsi, without any order.
  5. Erecti, rising close to the stem; as in Populus dl
 Iatata.
  6. Patentes, descending from the stalk  at an ob-
 tuse angle; as in Galium mollugo, and Cistus italicus
  7. Patenlissimi, descending at a right angle; as in
 Ammania ramosior.
  8. Brachiati, the opposite spreading branches cross-
 ing each other; as iu Pisonia aculeata, and Panisteria
 hrachiata.
  9. Deflexi, arched, xvith the apex doxvnwards; as in
 Pinus larix.
  10. Reflexi, hanging perpendicularly from the trunk,
 as in the Salix babylonica.
  11. Retrofiexi,  turned  backwards; as in Solanum
dulcamara.
  12. Fastigiati, forming a kind  of pyramid;  as in
Chrysanthemum corymbosum.
  13. Vergati, twig-like,  long and xveak; as in Salix
vimialis.
  RA'NA.  The name of a genus of animals.  Class,
Amphibia; Order, Reptilia.  The frog.
  Rana ssciilenta.   The French frog.  The flesh of
this species of frog, very common in France, is highly
nutritious and easily digested.
  RANCID.  Oily substances are said to have become
rancid, when, by keeping, they acquire a strong, offen
sive smell, and altered taste.
  RANCIDITY. The change which oils undergo by
exposure to air, which is probably an effect analogous
to the oxidation of metals.
  RANINE.  (Raninus, from rana, a frog.)  1.  Apper-
 taining to a frog.
  2. The name of nn artery, called  also Arteria ra-
 ni nil.  Sublingual artery.  The  second branch  of the
external carotid.
  RA'NULA.  (Fmm rana, a frog: so called from its
 resemblance to a fog, or because it makes the patient
 croak like a frog.)  Balrachos;  Hypoglossus;  Hyvo-
glossum;  Rana.  An inflammatory  or indolent tu-
 mour, under the tongue.   These tumours are of va-
 rious sizes and degrees of consistence, seated on either
 side of the fra-num.  Children, as xvell as adults, are
 sometimes affected xvitii tumours of this kind ; in the
 former, they impede the action of sucking; in the lattei
 of mastication,  anc  even  speech.  The contents of
 them are various; in some, they resemble the saliva,
 in others, the glairy matter found in the cells of sxvelled
 joints   Sometimes it is  said that a fatty matter has 
RAN
RAP
been found in them; but from the nature and structure
of the parts, xve are sure that this can seldom Iiappen ;
and, in oy far the greatest number of cases, we find
that the contents resemble the saliva itself.  This, in-
deed, might naturally be expected, for the cause of
these tumours is universally to be looked for iu an ob-
struction  of the salivary ducts.   Obstructions  here
may arise from a  cold, inflammation, violent fits of
the toothache, attended xvith sxvelling in the inside of
Hie mouth;  and, in not a fexv cases, xve find the duels
obstructed by a stony matter, seemingly separated from
the saliva, as the calculous  matter is from tlie urine;
bul where inflammation has been the cause, xve always
find matter mixed with the other contents of the tu-
mour  As these tumours are not usually Rttendcd xvith
much pain,  they are sometimes neglected, till  they
burst  of themselves, xvhich  they commonly do when
arrived at the bulk of a large nut.  As they xvere pro-
duced originally from an obstruction in the salivary
duct, and this obstruction  cannot be removed by the
bursting of the tumour, it thence happens that  they
 eave  an  ulcer extremely difficult to heal, nay, xvhich
cannot be healed ot all till the cause is removed.
  RANUNCULOI DES. (From ranunculus, and ttSos,
resemblance:  so named from its resemblance to the
ranunculus.)   The  marsh marigold. See Caltha pa-
lustris.
  RANU  NCULUS.  (Diminutive of rana, a frog:
because  it is found in fenny  places, xvhere frogs
abound.)  The name of a genus of plants in the Liu-
na>an system.  Class, Polyandria; Order, Polygynia.
  The greal acrimony of most of the species of ranuncu-
lus is such, that, on being applied to the skin, they excite
itching, redness,  and inflammation, and even produce
blisters, tumefaction, and ulceration of the part.  On
being chewed, they corrode the tongue ; and, if taken
into the stomach, bring on all the deleterious effects of
an  acrid  poison.  The corrosive acrimony which this
family of plants  possesses, xvas  not unknoxvn to the
ancients, as appears from the xvrjtings of Dioscorides;
but its nature and extent had nex-er been investigated
by experiments, before tliose  instituted by C. Krapf,  at
Vienna, by which we learn that the most virulent of
the Linnaean species are the bulbosus, sceleralus, acris,
arvensis,  thora, and illyricus.
  The effects of  these were tried, eitlier upon himself
or upon dogs, and shoxv that the acrimony of the dif-
ferent species is often confined to certain parts of the
plants, manifesting itself either  in the roots, stalks,
leaves, floxvers, or buds; the expressed juice, extract,
decoction, and infusion of the  plants,  were also  sub-
jected to  experiments.   In addition to these species
mentioned by Krapf, xve may also notice the R. Flam-
mula, and especially the R. Alpestris, which, accord-
ing  to Haller, is the most acrid  of this  genus.  Curtis
observes, that even pulling up the ranunculus acris, the
common meadow species, xvhich possesses tlie active
principle of this  tribe, in a very considerable degree,
throughout the whole herb, and carrying it to some
little distance, excited a considerable inflammation  in
the  palm of the hand in xvhich it xvas held.  It is ne-
cessary  to remark, that the  acrimonious quality of
these  plants  is not of a fixed nature; for it may be
completely dissipated by heat; and the plant, on being
thoroughly dried, becomes perfectly bland.  Krapf at-
tempted to counteract this venomous acrimony of the
ranunculus by means of various otlier vegetables, none
of xvhicli  was found to answer the purpose, though he
thought that the  juice of sorrel, and that of unripe cur-
rants, had some effect in this way;  yet these were
much less availing than water; while vinegar, honey,
sugar,  wine, spirit, mineral acids,  oil  of tartar,  p. d.
and other sapid substances,  manifestly rendered the
acrimony more corrosix-e.  It may be also noticed, that
the virulency of most of the plants of this genus de-
pends much  upon the situation  in  which they grow,
and is greatly diminished in the cultivated plant.
  Ranunculus abortivus.   The systematic name of
a species  of ranunculus, wliich possesses acrid and ve-
sicating properties.
  Ranunculus  acris.  The systematic name of the
meadow  crow-foot.  Ranunculus  pratensis.   This,
and some other species of ranunculus,  have, for me-
dical purposes, been chiefly  employed externally as a
vesicatory, and  are said  to have the advantage of p.
common blistering plaster, in producing  a quicker ef-
fect and  never causing  a strangury; but, on the other
 hand, it has been obstived, that the ranunculus Is less
I certain in ils operation, and that it sometimes occasions
| ulcers, xvhich prove  very troublesome and difficult to
 heal.  Therefore their use seems to be applicable only
 to certain fixed pains, and such complaints as require
 a long-continued topical stimulus or discharge from the
 part, in the xvay of an issue, xvhich, in various cases,
 has been found to be a powerful remedy.
   Ranunculus albus.  The plant which bears  this
 name in the pharmacopoeias is the Anemone ntmorosa,
 of Linnaeus.  See Anemone ncmorosa.
   Ranunculus bulbosus.  Bulbous-rooted croxv-foot.
 The roots and leaves of this plaot, Ranunculus—ealy
 cibus retrofiexis, pedunculis sulcatis, caule erecto mul-
 tifloro, foliis compositis, ot Linnaeus, have no consider-
 able smell, but a highly acrid and fiery taste.  Taken
 internally, they appear to be deleterious, even xvhen so
 far freed from the caustic matter by boiling in waler, as
 to discover no ill quality to the palate.  The effluvia,
 likewise, xvhen freely inspired, are said to  occasion
 headaches,  anxieties,  vomitings, &c.   The leaves and
 roots, applied externally, inflame and ulcerate, or vesi-
 cate the parts, and are liable to affect also the adjacent
 parts to a considerable extent.
   Ranuncui/us ficaria.  The systematic name of the
 pilexvort.  Chelidonium minus; Scrophularia minor;
 Chelidonia rotundifolia minor  • Cursuma hamorrhoi-
 dalis herba;  Ranunculus vermis.   Less celandine,
 and pilexvort.  The leaves and root  of this plant, Ra-
 nunculus—foliis cordatis angulatis pctiolatis, caule
 unifioro, of Linnaeus, are  used  medicinally.  The
 leaves  are deemed anti-scorbutic, and the root reck-
 oned a specific, if beat into cataplasms, and applied to
 the piles.
   Ranunculus flammula.  The systematic name of
 the smaller water crow-foot, or spearwort.  Surrecta
 alba.  The roots aud leaves of this common plant, Ra-
 nunculus—foliis  ovatis-lanceolatis, pctiolatis, caule
 dcclinato, of Linnaeus, taste very acrid and hot, and
 xvhen  taken in a small quantity,  produce vomiting,
 spasms of the stomach, and delirium.  Applied exter
 nally, they vesicate the skin. The best antidote, after
 clearing the stomach, is cold xvater acidulated with
 lemon-juice, and then mucilaginous drinks.
   Ranunculus palustris.  Water croxv-foot.  See
 Ranunculus sccleratus.
   Ranunculus pratensis.  Meadoxv crow-foot. See
 Ranunculus acris.
   Ranunculus sceleratus.   Tile systematic name
 of the marsh crow-foot.  Ranunculus palustris.  The
 leaves of this  species of crow-foot are  so extremely
 acrid, that the beggars in Switzerland are  said,  by rub-
 bing their legs xvitii them,  to produce a very foetid and
 acrimonious ulceration.
   RA'PA.   See Brassica rapa.
   RAPE.  See Brassica rapa.
   RAPHA'NIA   (From raphanus,   the  radish,  oi
 charlock; because the disease is said  lo  be produced
 by eating the seeds of a species of raphanus.) Con-
 vulsio ab ustilagine;  Convulsio  raphania; Eclamp-
 sia typhodes ;  Convulsio solonicnsis ;  Necrosis usti-
 laginea. Cripple disease.  A genus of disease in the
 class Neuroses, and order  Spasmi, of Cullen ;  charac-
 terized  by a spasmodic contraction of the joints, with
 convulsive motions, and a most violent  pain  return-
 ing at various periods.  It begins with cold chills and
 lassitude, pain in the head, aud anxiety  about  the
 praecordia.   These symptoms are  followed by spas-
 modic twitchings In the tendons of  the Angers  nnd of
 the feet, discernible to the eye, heat, fever, stupor, de-
 lirium, sense of suffocation, aphonia, and horrid con-
 vulsions ofthe limbs.   After these, vomiting and diar-
 rhoea come on, xxith a discharge of worms, if there are
 any.  About the eleventh or the twentieth day, co-
 pious sweats succeed, or purple exanthema, or tabes, ot
 rigidity of all the joints.
   RAPHANISTRUM.  The trivial name of a species
 of raphanus.
   RA'PHANUS. (?aq)avos zzapa ro paStus(batvtaOat:
 from its quick  groxvth.)  1. A genus of plants in the
 Linnaean system.  Class, Tetradynamia; Order, Sili-
 culosa.
   2. The radish.  See  Raphanus sativus.
   Raphanus hortensis.  See Raphanus sativus
   Raphanus niuer.   See  Raphanus sativus.
   Raphanus rus.ticanus.  See Cochlearia armoracia
   Raphanus sativus.  The systematic  name of the
                                         233 
REA
REA
radish plant.  Raphanus hortensis; Radicula; Rapha-
nus nicer.  The radish.  The  several varieties of this
plant, arc said to be employed medicinally in the cure
of calculous affections.  The juice, made into a syrup,
is given  to  relieve  hoarseness.  Mixed  with  ho-
ney or sugar, it is administered in pituitous asthma;
and as antiscorbutics, their efficacy is generally ac-
knowledged.
  Raphanus  sylvestris.  See Lepidium sativum.
  RA'PHE.   (Paqjn,  a suture.)   A suture. Applied
to parts wliich appear as if they xvere sewed together;
as the Raphe scroti, cerebri, Sec
  Raphe cerebri.  The longitudinal eminence of the
corpus callosum ofthe brain is so called, because it ap-
pears somexvhat like a suture.
  Raphe scroti.  The rough eminence which divides
the scrotum, as it were, in two.  It proceeds from the
root of the penis inferiorly towards the perinaeurn.
  RAPI'STRUM.  (From rapa, the turnip; because
its leaves resemble tliose of  turnip.   Originally, tlie
xvild turnip: so called from its  affinity to Rapa, the
cultivated  one.)  1. The  name of a genus of plants.
Class, Tetradynamia,  Order, Siliculosa.
  2. The name of txvo species of Crambe, the orientalis
and hispanica.
  RA'PUM.  (Etymology uncertain.)
  1. The turnip.  See Brassica rapa.
  2. The Campanula rapunculus.
  RAPUNCULUS.  (Diminutive of rapa, the turnip.)
The trivial name of a species of Campanula.
  Rapunculus corniculatus.  See Phyteuma  orbi-
culare.
  Rapunculus  viroinianus.   The name given  by
Morrison to the blue cardinal floxver.  See Lobelia.
  RA'PUS.  See Brassica rapa.
  RASH.  See Exanthema.
  Raspato'rium.  (From rado, to scrape.)  A sur-
geon's rasp.
  RASPBERRY.  See Rubus idaus.
  RASU'RA.  (From rado, to scrape.)
  1. A rasure or scratch.
  2. The raspings or shavings of any substance.
  RATIFIA.  A liquor prepared by imparting to ardent
spirits tlie flavour of various kinds of fruits.
  RATTLESNAKE.  See Crotalus horridus
  Rattlesnake-root.  See Polygala senega.
  RAUCE'DO. (From raucus,  hoarse.)  Raucitas.
Hoarseness.  It is always symptomatic of some other
disease.           •
  Ray of a flower.  See Radius.
  REAGENT.  Test.  A substance used in chemis-
try to detect the presence of oilier bodies.  In the ap-
plication of tests there are txvo circumstances to be at-
tended to, viz. to avoid deceitful appearances, and to
have good tests.
  The principal tests are the folloxving:
  1. Litmus.    The purple of litmus is  changed to
red by  eveiy acid; so that  this is the  test generally
made use of  to delect excess of acid in any fluid.  It
may be used eitlier by dipping into tlie xvater a paper
stained xvitii litmus, or by adding a drop of the tincture
to the xvater to be  examined, and comparing its hue
with that of an equal quantity of the tincture in dis-
Mlcd water.
  Litmus  already reddened by  an acid will have its
purple restored by an alkali; and thus it may also be
used as a test for alkalies, but it is much less active than
other direct alkaline tests.
  2. Red cabbage has been found by  Watt to furnish
as delicate a lest for  acids as Litmus, and to be still
more sensible to alkalies.  The  natural colour of an
illusion of this plant  is blue, xvliich is changed to red
hi ai ids, and to green by alkalies in very minute quan-
tities.
  3. Brazil wood.  When chips of this wood are in-
fused in xvarm water they yield a red liquor, xvhich rea-
dily turns blue by alkalies, either caustic or carbonated.
 It is also rendered blut by the carbonated  earths held
 in solution by carbonic acid, so that it is not an une-
 quivocal test of alkalies till ihe earthy carbonates have
 been  precipitated by boiling.  Acids change to yelloxv
 the natural red of Brazil wood, and restore the red xvhen
 changed by alkalies.
  4. Violets-  The delicate blue of the common scented
 violet is readily changed to green by alkalies, and this
 affords a delicate test for t!use substances. Syrup of
 violets is generally used as it is at hand, being used in
       234
medicine.  But a tincture of the flower xvill answer at
well.
  5. Turmeric.   This is a very delicate lest  for alka-
lies, and on the whole, perhaps, is the best.  The na-
tural colour either in watery or spirituous infusion ia
yellow, xvhich is changed to a brick or orange-red by
alkalies, caustic or carbonated, but  not by carbonated
earths,  on which account it is  preferable to Brazil
xvood.
  The pure earths, such as lime and barytes, produce
the same change.
  6. Rhubarb.  Infusion or tincture of rhubarb under-
goes a  similar change with turmeric, and is equally
delicate.
  7. Sulphuric acid.  A drop or two  of concentrated
sulphuric acid, added to water lhat contains  carbonic
acid, free or in combination, causes the latter to escape
with a pretty brisk effervescence, whereby  the presence
of this gaseous acid may be detected.
  8. Nitric and oxymuriatie acid.  A peculiar use at-
tends the employment of these acids in the sulphuretted
waters, as the sulphuretted hydrogen is decomposed by
them, its hydrogen absorbed, and the sulphur separated
in its natural form.
  9. Oxalic acid and oxalate of ammonia.  These are
the most delicate tests for lime and all soluble calca-
reous salts.  Oxalate of lime, though nearly insoluble in
water, dissolves  in a moderate quantity in its own or
any other acid, and hence in  analysis oxalate of am-
monia  is often preferred, as no excess of this salt can
redissolve the precipitated oxalate  of lime.   On the
other hand, the ammonia should not exceed, otherwise
it might give a false indication.
  10. Gallic acid and tincture  of galls.   These are
tests of iron.  Where the iron is in very minute quan-
tities, and the water  somewhat acidulous, these tests
do not always produce a precipitate, but only a slight
reddening, but their action is much heightened by pre-
viously adding a  few drops of any alkaline  solution
  11. Prussiate of potassa or lime.  The  presence of
iron in xvater is  equally xvell  indicated by these prus-
siates, causing a blue precipitate: and if the  prussiate of
potassa  is properly prepared, it xvill  only be precipi-
tated by a metallic salt, so that manganese and  coppei
will also be detected, the former giving a white precipi-
tate, the latter a red precipitate.
  12. Lime-water is the common test for carbonic acid;
it decomposes all the magnesian salts, and  likewise the
aluminous salts; it likewise produces a cloudiness xvitii
most of the sulphates, owing  to the formation of selc
nitc.
  13. Ammonia.  This alkali  xvhen perfectly caustic
serves  as a distinction betxveen the salts of lime and
those of magnesia, as it precipitates the earth from the
latter salts, but not from the former.   There are two
sources of error to be obviated, one is that of  carbonic
acid being present in the xvater, the other is  tbe pre-
sence of aluminous salts.
  14. Carbonated alkalies.  These are used to precipi-
tate all the earths; xvhere carbonate of potassa is used,
particular care should be taken of its purity, as it gene-
rally contains silex.
  15. Muriated alumine.  This test is proposed by Mr.
Kirwan to detect carbonate of magnesia, xvhich cannot,
like carbonated lime, be separated by ebullition, but re
mains till the whole liquid is evaporated
  16. Barytic salts.  The nitrate, muriate, and  ace-
tate of barytes are all equally good tests of sulphuric
acid in any combination.
   17. Salts of silver.   The salts of silver are the most
delicate tests of muriatic  acid, in any combination,
producing the precipitated luna cornea.   All the salts
of  silver likewise give a dark-brown precipitate with
the sulphuretted waters, whicli is as  delicate a test as
any that we possess.
   18. Salts of lead.   The nitrate and acetate of lead
are the sails of this  metal employed as tests.  They
xvill indicate the sulphuric, muriatic, and boracic acids,
and sulphui ctted hydrogen or  sulphuret of potassa.
   19. Soap.  A solution of soap in distilled waler or in
alkohol is curdled by water containing any earthy ot
metallic salt.
   20.  Tartaric  acid.  This  acid is of use in distin-
guishing the salts of potassa  (with which it forms a
precipitate of cream of tartar), from tliose of soda, from
which it does not precipitate.   The potassa, however,
. must exist in some quantity to be detected by the test 
REC
REC
   21  Nitre muriate of platinum.  This sort is stil.
 Store discriminative betxveen  potassa and the  otlier
 Alkalies, than acid of tartar, and will produce a precipi-
 tate  xvith a very weak solution of any Ball with po-
 tassa.
   22. Alkohol.  This most useful reagent is applicable
 in a variety of ways in analysis.  As it dissolves some
 substances found in fluids, and leaves others untoiiched,
 it ;s a means of separating theui into txx o classes, which
 saves considerable trouble iu the further investigation.
 Tliose salts which it does not  dissolve, it precipitates
 from their watery solution, but more or less completely
 according to the salt contained, and the strength of tbe
 alkohol, and as a precipitant it also assists iu many de-
 compositions.
   REA'LGAR.  Arlada;  Arladar; Auripigmentum
 rubrum>  Arsenicum  rubrum factitium ; Abessi.  A
 native ore of sulphuret of arsenic.
   RECEIVER.   A  chemical  vessel adapted  to tbe
 neck or beak of a retort, alembic and  other distilla-
 tory vessel, to receive and contain the product of dis-
 tillation.
   RECEPTA CULUM.  (From recipio, to receive.)
 1. A  name gixen by the older anatomists to a part of
 the thoracic duct.  See Receptaculum chyli.
   2. In botany, lite common basis or point of connexion
 of the other parts of the fructification of  plants; by
 some called the Thalamus and the Placenta.
   It is distinguished by botanists into proper aud com-
 mon ; one floxver only belongs to the former, and it is
 formed mostly from the apex ofthe peduncle or scape;
 as in Tulipa gesneriana, and Lilium candidum.  The
 latter has many floxvers; as in Heliantlius annuus.
   Tbe proper receptacle or apex of the peduncle swells
 in some floxvers, and becomes the fruit:  thus the Fra-
 garia vesca is not a berry, but a fleshy receptacle, with
 its naked seeds nestling on its surface: so, in the Ho-
 venia dulcis, the peduncles swell inlo a thick fleshy re-
 ceptacle on which there are small capsules; and, in the
 Anacardium Occident ale, the peduncle swells into a re-
 ceptacle, on which the nut rests.
   The varieties ofthe common receptacle are,
   1. Planum ; as in Heliantlius annuus.
   2. Couvexum;  as in Leontodon taraxacum.
   3. Coiticum ; as in Billis perennis.
   4. Punctatum ;  as in Leontodon taraxacum.
   5. Globosum ; as in Cephalanthus.
   G. Ooals ; as in Dorstenia drakenia.
   7.  Ocatum ; as in Omphalea.
   8. Favosum, cellular on the surface,  honeycomb-
 like;  as in Onopordium.
  9. Scrobiculatum, having round and deep holes; as
 in Helianthus annuus.
  10.  Subulatum ; as in Scabiosa alropurpurea.
  11.  Quadrangulum : as in Dorstenia houslonii, and
 Contrayeroa.
  12.  Turbinatum ; as iu Ficus carica.
  13.  Digitiforme ; as in Arum maculatum, and Calla
 trthiopica.
  14.  Filiforme, thread-like; as in  the catkins and
 lorylus.
  15.  Occlusum.   The Ficus carica is a  connivent
 fleshy receptacle enclosing the florets.
  16.  Nudum, xvithout any vesture; as in Lactuca, and
 Leontodon taraxacum.
  17.  Pilositm ;  as in Carthamus tinctorius.
  18  Villosum ; as in  Artemisia absynthium.
  19.  Setosum; as in Echynops spharocephalus, and
 Centaurea.
  20.  Paleaceum, covered xvith chaffy scales;  as In Ze-
 ranlhemum, Dipsacus, Sec.
  On the  receptacle  and seed-down  are founded the
 most solid  generic characters of syngenesious plants,
 admirably illustrated by the inimitable Gaertner.
  The term receptacle  is sometimes extended by Lin-
 naeus  to express the base of a floxver, or even its inter-
 nal part  between  the stamens and  pistils,  provided
 there  be any thing remarkable in such parts, xvithout
 reference to the foundation ofthe xvhole fructification.
 It also expresses the part to which the seeds are attach-
 ed in a seed vessel, and the common stalk of a spike,
or spikelet, in grasses.
   Receptaculum chvli.   Receptaculum  pecqueti,
 because Pecquet first attempted to demonstrate it; Di-
versorium;  Sacculus chyliferus.   The existence of
such a receptacle in  the human body is doubted.   In
brute animals the receptacle ofthe chyle is situated on
 the dorsal vertebrae xvhere the  lacteals all meet.  See
 Absorbents.
   Reciprocal affinity.  See Affinity, reciprocal.
   RECLINATUS. Reclining: appliedtostems.leavcs,
 Sec which are curved  towards tlie ground;  as the
 stem ofthe bramble, and leaves of the Leonurus car-
 diaca.
   RECTIFICATION   (Reetificatio ; from  rectifico,
 to make clear.)   A second distillation, in which sub-
 stances are purified by their more volatile parts being
 raised by heat carefully managed; thus, spirit of wine,
 tether,  Sec are rectified by their separation from the
 less volatile and  foreign matter which altered or de-
 based their properties.
   Re'ctor spiritus.  The aromatic part of  plants.
 See Aroma.
   RE'CTUM.  (Rectum intestiiium: so named from
 an erroneous opinion that il xvas straight.)  Apeuthys-
 menos; Longanon; Lpngaon;  Archos;  Cyssaros.
 The last portion of the large intestines terminating in
 tlie anus.  See Intestine.
   RE'CTUS.  Straight.   Several parts of the body,
 particularly muscles, are so called from their direction.
   Parts of plants also have this term ; as Caulis rectus,
 the straight stem ofthe garden-lily, spinarecta, Sec
   Rectus abdominis.   Pubio-stcrnal, of Dumas.  A
 long and straight muscle situated near its fellow, at the
 middle  aud forepart of  the abdomen, parallel  to the
 linea alba, and betxveen  the aponeuroses of the other
 abdominal muscles.   It  arises sometimes by  a single
 broad tendon  from the upper and inner part of the os
 pubis, but more commonly by two heads, one of which
 is fleshy, and originates from the upper edge  of the
 pubis, and the other tendinous, from the inside  of the
 symphysis pubis,  behind  the  pyramidalis  muscle
 From these beginnings, the muscle runs upxvards the
 xvhole length  of the linea alba, and becoming broader
 and thinner as it ascends, is inserted by a thin aponeu-
 rosis into the edge ofthe  cartilago ensiformis, and into
 the cartilages of  the fifth, sixth, and seventh ribs.
 This aponeurosis is placed under  the pectoral muscle,
 and sometimes adheres to the fourth rib. The fibres of
 this muscle are comnionly divided by three tendinous
 intersections,  xvhich xvere first noticed by Berenger, or
 as he is commonly called, Carpi, an Italian anatomist,
 xvho flourished in  the sixteenth century. One of these
 intersections is usually where the muscle runs over the
 cartilage of the seventh rib; unother is at the umbili-
 cus ; and the third is between these two.  Sometimes
 there is one, and even txvo, between the umbilicus and
 the  pubes.  When one or  both-of these occur,  hoxv-
 ever, they seldom  extend more than half way across
 the  muscle.  As those intersections seldom penetrate
 through the whole substance of the  muscle, they are
 all of them  most apparent on  its anterior surface,
 where they firmly  adhere to the sheath; tbe adhesions
 of the rectus to the posterior  layer of the internal ob-
 lique, are only by means  of cellular membrane, and of
 a few vessels which pass from one to another.
   Albinus and some others have seen this muscle ex
 tending as far as the upper part of the sternum.
  The use of the rectus ia to compress the forepart of
 the abdomen, but  more  particularly the lower  part;
 and according to the different positions of the  body, it
 may likewise  serve to bend the trunk forwards, or to
 raise the pelvis.  Its situation betxveen the two layers
 of the internal oblique, and ils adhesions to this sheath,
 secure it in its place, and prevent it from rising into a
 prominent  form  when in action: and, lastly, its ten-
 dinous intersections enable it to contract at any of the
 intermediate spaces.
  Rectus  abducens oculi.   See flectus externus
 oculi.
  Rectus  adducens oculi.   Sec Rectus internus
 oculi.
  Rectus  anterior brevis.  See Rectus capitis in-
 ternus minor.
  Rectus anterior longus.  See Rectus capitis in
 ternus major.
  Rectus  attollens oculi.  See  Rectus superior
 oculi.
  Rectus capitis anticus longus.  See Rectus ca-
pitis internus  major.
  Rectus capitis  internus  major.  A muscle situ-
 ated on  the anterior part  of the neck, close to the ver-
 tebrae.  Rectus internus  major, of Albinus, Douglas,
 and  Coxvper   Trachclobasilairc, of Dumas.  Rectus
                                        235 
REC                                            REG
mOerior longus, of Winslow.   It xvas known to  most
nf the ancient anatomists, but xvas not distinguished by
any particular name until Coxvper gave it the present
appellation,  and xvhicli has been adopted by  most
writers except Winslow.  It is  a long muscle, thicker
and broader above than below, xvhere  it is thin, and
terminates in a point.  It arises, by distinct and flat
tendons, from the anterior points ofthe transverse pro-
cesses of the five inferior vertebrae of the neck, and as-
cending obliquely upwards is inserted into the anterior
part  of the cuneiform  process of the occipital bone.
'Ihe use of this muscle is to bend the head forxvards.
  Rectus capitis internus minor.   Cowper,  who
xvas tlie first accurate describer of this little muscle,
gave it the name of tectus internus minor, xvhich has
been adopted by Douglas and Albinus.  Winslow calls
it rectus anterior brevis, and  Dumas petil-trachelo-
basilairc.  It is in part covered by the rectus major.  It
arises fleshy from the upper and forepart of ihe  body
of tlie first vertebra of the neck, near the origin of its
transverse process,  and, ascending obliquely inwards,
is inserted near the root ofthe condyloid process ofthe
occipital bone, under tlie last described muscle.  It as-
sists in bending the head forwards.
  Rectus capitis lateralis.   Rectus lateralis Fal-
lopii, of Douglas.   Transversalis anticus primus, of
Winsloxv.  Rectus lateralis, of Coxvper; and  Tra-
chcli-altoido basilaire, of Dumas.  This muscle seems
to have been first described by Fallopius.  Winslow
calls it transversalis anticus primus.  It is somexvhat
larger than the rectus minor, but resembles it in shape,
and is situated immediately behind the internal jugular
vein, al its coming out of the cranium.  It arises fleshy
from the upper  and forepart of the transverse process
ofthe first vertebra of tlie neck, and, ascending a  little
obliquely upxvards  and outxvards, is inserted into the
occipital bone, opposite to the stylo-mastoid hole of the
os temporis.  This muscle serves to pull the head to
one side.
  Rectus  capitis  posticus major.   This muscle,
whicli is the rectus major of Douglas and Winslow, the
rectus capitis posticus minor of Albinus, and the spine-
axoido-occipital of Dumas, is  small, short, and  flat,
broader above  than below, and is situated, not in a
straight direction, as its name xvould insinuate, but ob-
liquely, betxveen the occiput and the second vertebra
of Ihe neck, immediately under the complexus.)  It
arises, by a short,  thick tendon, from  the upper and
posterior part ofthe spinous process ofthe second ver-
tebra  of the neck; it soon becomes broader, and, as-
cending obliquely outwards, is inserted, by a flat ten-
don, into the external lateral part of the lower semi-
circular ridge of the os occipitis.  The use of this is to
extend the head, and pull it backxvards.
  Rectus capitis  posticus minor. This is the rectus
minor of Douglas and Winslow, and the tuber-altoido-
occipital of Dumas.  It is smaller than the last-described
muscle, but resembles it in shape, and is placed  close
by its fellow, in the space betxveen the recti  majores.
It arises, by a short, thick tendon, from the upper and
lateral part of a little protuberance in the middle of the
back part of the first vertebra  of the neck,  and, be-
coming broader and thinner as  it ascends, is  inserted,
by a broad, flat tendon, into the occipital bone, imme-
diately under the insertion ofthe last-described muscle.
The use nf it is to assist the rectus major in drawing
the head backxvards.
  Rectus cruris.  See Rectus femoris.
  Rectus  deprimens oculi.    See Rectus inferior
oculi.
  Rectus externus oculi.  The outer straight mus-
cle of the eye.   Abductor ocuti; Iracundus; Indigna-
bundus.  It arises from the bony partition between the
foramen opticum and lacerum, being the longest  ofthe
straight muscles of the eye, and is inserted into the
sclerotic membrane, opposite to the outer canthus of
the eye.  Its use is to move the eye outxvards.
  Rectus  femoris.  A straight muscle of the  thigh,
situated immediately at the forepart. Rectus cive Gra-
cilis anterior, of Winslow.  Rectus cruris, of Albinus;
and Ilio-rotulien, of Dumas.   It  arises from the  os
ilium by two tendons.  The foremost and shortest of
these springs from the outer surface ofthe inferior and
anterior spinous procesu of the ilium; the posterior ten-
don, which is thicker and longer than the other,  arises
from the posterior  and outer part of the edge of the
 cotyloid  cavity, and from the  adjacent capsular liga-
ment.  These txvo tendons soon unite,  and form an
aponeurosis, which  spreads over the anterior surface
of the upper part of the muscle;  and through ite whole
length xve observe a middle tendon, towards which its
fleshy fibres run on each side in an oblique direction,
eo that it may be styled a penniform muscle. It is in
serted tendinous into the upper edge and anterior sur
face of the patella, and  from  thence sends  off a thin
aponeurosis, which adheres to the superior and lateral
part of the tibia.  Its use is to extend the leg.
  Rectus inferior oculi.  The inferior of the straight
muscles of the eye.  Depressor oculi;  Deprimens
Humilis; Amatorius.   It arises within the socket
from below the optic foramen, and passes forwards to
be inserted into the sclerotic membrane of the bulb on
the  under part.  It pulls the eye downwards.
  Rectus internus femoris.  See Gracilis.
  Rectus internus oculi.  The  internal straight
muscle of the eye.  Adducens oculi; Adductor oculi;
Bibitorius.  It arises from the inferior part of the fora-
men opticum,  between the obliquus  superior, and the
rectus inferior, being,  from its situation, the shortest
muscle of the eye,  and  is inserted into the sclerotic
membrane opposite  to the inner angle.  Its use is  to
turn the eye toxvards the nose
  Rectus lateralis fallopii.  See Rectus tapitis
lateralis.
  Rectus major capitis.  See Rectus capitis posti-
cus  major.
  Rectus superior oculi. The uppermost straight
muscle of the eye.  Attollens oculi.  Levator oculi.
Superbus.  It arises from the upper part of the foramen
opticum of the sphenoid  bone below the levator palpe-
brae superioris, and runs forxvard to be inserted into the
superior  and  forepart  of the sclerotic membrane by
broad and thin tendon.
  RECURRENT.  (Recurrens: so named from
direction.)  Reflected.
  Recurrent nerve.   Two  branches of the par va
gum in the cavity of  the thorax are so  railed.   Tin
right is given off near tlie subclavian artery, which
surrounds,  and is reflected upwards  to the thyroid
gland ; the left a little lower, and reflected around ths
aorta to the oesophagus, as far  as the larynx.   They
are both distributed to the muscles of the larynx and
pharynx.
  RECURVUS.  Recurved;  reflexed;  turned  back
ward: applied to the leaves of the Erica retorta.
  Red saunders.  See Pterocarpus santalinus.
  REDDLE.  A species of ochre or argillaceous earth,
of a dark red colour, which has been used medicinally
as a tonic and antacid.
  REDUCTION.  Revivification.  This word,  in  its
most extensive sense, is  applicable to all operations  by
xvhich any substance is restored to its natural state, or
xvhich is considered as such : but custom confines it to
operations by which metals arc restored to their metal-
 ic state, after they have been deprived of this, either  by
combustion, ns the metallic  oxides, or by the union  of
some heterogeneous matters which disguise them, :n
fulminating gold, luna  cornea, cinnabar,  and  othet
compounds of the same kind.  These reductions ar
also called revivifications.
  REFLEXUS.  Reflected; recurved; bent backward.
applied to tlie leaves of plants, as the Erica retorta, and
to the border of the flower-cup of the  (Enothera bien-
nis, and the petals ofthe Pancratium zeylanicum.
  REFRIGERANT.  (Refrigerans; from refrigero,
to cool.)  Medicines wliich allay the heat of the body
or  ofthe blood.
  REFRIGERATO'RIUM. (From refrigero, to cool.)
 A  vessel filled xvitii xvater to condense  vapours, or tu
make cool any substance xvhich passes through it
  RE'GIMEN.   (From rego, to govern.) A term em-
 ployed in medicine  to express the plan or regulation of
 the diet.
  REGI'NA.  A queen.  A  name given  by way of
excellence to some plants.
  Regina prati. See  Spiraa ulmaria.
  REGION.  (Regio, onis. f. a rego.)   A part  of tho
body; generally  applied to external parts, under which
is some particular viscus, that the particular place may
be  knoxvn.  Anatomists have divided the  regions, or
several parts of the body when entire, as follows:
   Into caput, or head; truncus, or funk; and txtremi-
 tatis, or extremities.
   A. The head is divided into 
IlEO
REN
  1. Fades, the face.
  B. Pars capillata, the scalp.
            The regions of the scalp are,
  a  Vertex the top or croxvn of the head.
  b. Synciput, the forepart ofllie scalp.
  c. Occiput, the back part ofthe head.
 . d. Partes later ales, the sides.
            The regions of the face are,
  a. Frons, the forehead.
  b. Tempora, the temples.
  c. Nasus, the nose, on xvhich are, the radix, or root;
the dorsum or bridge;  the apex, or tip;  and the ala,
or sides.
  d. Oculus, the eye.
  e. Os, the  mouth, the external parts of xvliich are,
labia, the lips ;  anguli oris, xvhere the lips meet; pAil-
trum, an oblong depression in tho middle of the upper
lip.
  f.  Men turn,  the chin, the hair of which  is culled
barba, xvhereas that of the upper lip is termed mistax.
  g. Bucca, the cheeks.
  h. Auris, the ear, on xvhich  arc the auricula, helix,
antihelix, tragus, antitragus, concha, scapha, and lo-
bulus.
  B. The  trunk is divided into the collum, or neck;
the thorax, or chest; the abdomen, or belly.
  1. Collum, the neck, wliich has,
  a. Pars antica, in which is the pomum adami, or
 arynx.
  b. Pars postica, in xvhich is the fossa, and nucha, or
nape ofthe neck.
  2.  Thorax, tbe chest, which is divided into,
  a. The front, on which is mamma, the breasts, and
icrobiculus cordis, the pit ofthe stomach.
  b. The back part, or dorsum.
  c. The sides.
  3. Abdomen, is divided into  the forepart, which is
strictly the abdomen, or belly;  the hindpart, or Iambi,
the loins; the lateral parts or sides.
  Ou the  abdomen, or forepart, are the  following re-
gions :—
  The Epigastric, the sides of which are termed hypo-
chondria.
  The Umbilical, the sides  of which aie termed  the
tpicolic regions.
  The Hypogastric, the sides of wliich are the ilia.
  The Pubes is tlie region beloxv the abdomen, covered
xvith  iair;  in xvomen,  termed mons veneris: the sides
are inguina, or groins.
  Bcioxv the pubes are the parts of generation in men,
tbe scrotum and penis ; in women, the labia pudendi,
and the rime, vulva.  The space between the genitals
and anus is called perinaum, or fork.
  C. The extremities are tlie superior and the inferior.
  The upper extremity has,
  1.  The shoulder or top, under which is  tlie axilla, or
arm-pit.
  2. The brachium, or arm.
  3.  Tlie antibrachium, or fore-arm, in xvhich are the
bend, orfiexura, and elbow.
  4. The manus, or  hand, which has  vola, the palm ;
and dorsum, tbe back ; and is divided into the carpus,
ur wrist, the metacarpus, and fingers.
  The lower extremity embraces,
  1. The femur, or thigh, the upper and outer part of
xvhich is called coxa, or the regia ischiadica.
  2. The crus, or leg, in which are the genu, or knee,
cavum popletis, or ham, and the sura, or calf.
  3. Thepes, or foot, wliich is divided into the tarsus,
metatarsus, and toes.
  The upper part of the tarsus laterally has the mal-
leolus  externus and internus, or the  inner and outer
ankle.
  RE'GIUS.   (From rex, a king.)  Royal: applied to
a disease, and to a chemical preparation ; to the former,
the jaundice, because in it the colour ofthe skin is like
gold; and to the latter, because it dissolves gold.
  REGULAR.  Regnlaris.  A term applied to dis-
eases, xvhich observe their usual course,  in opposition
to irregular, in which the course of symptoms deviate
from what is usual, as regular  gout, regular small-
pox, Szc.
  Regular gout.  See Arthritis.
  RE'GULUS.  (Diminutive of rex, a king:  so called
because the alchemist expected to find gold, Ihe king of
metals, collided at the bottom  of the crucible after
fusion.1  The name regulus was given by chemists to
metallic matters xx hen separated from other wibstaiMH
by fusion.  This name was introduced by alchemists,
who, expecting alxvays to find gold  in the metal col-
lected at the bottom of their  crucibles  after fusion,
called this metal, thus collected, regulus, as containing
gold, the king of metals.  It was afterward applied to
the metal extracted from the ores of the  semi-metals,
which formerly bore the name that is now given to the
seuii-metals themselves.  Thus xve had regulus of an-
timony,  regulus of arsenic, and  regulus  of cobalt.
  Regulus of antimony.  See Antimony.
  Regulus of arsenic.  See Arsenic.
  REMEDIUM.   (A re, and medeor, to cure.)   A re-
medy, or that which is employed with a view to pre-
vent, palliate, or remove a disease.
  Remedium divinum.  See Imperatoria.
  RKMEDY.  See Remedium.
  REMINISCENCE.  See Memory.
  REMITTENT.  (Remittens;  from remitto, lo as-
suage or lessen.)  Any disorder, the symptoms of xvhich
diminish very considerably, and return  again, so as not
to leave the person ever free.
  Remittent fever.  See Febris intermittens.
  Re'mora aratri.   (From remoror,  to hinder, and
aratrum, a plough.)  See Ononis spinosa.
  Remote cause.  See Exciting cause.
  REN.   i Ren, nis, m. Ren,  airo  rov priv; because
through  them the urine ffoxvs.)  The kidney.   See
Kidney.
  RENAL.  (Renalis; from  ren, the kidney.)   Ap-
pertaining to the kidney.
  Renal artery.  See Emulgent artery.
  Renal gland.   Glandula renalis.  Renal capsule.
Supra-renal gland.  The  supra-renal glands are txvo
holloxv bodies, like glands in fabric, and placed, one on
each side, upon the  kidney.   They are covered by a
double tunic, and their cavities are filled xvith a liquor
of a broxvnish red colour.  Their figure is triangular;
and they are larger in the foetus than the kidneys; but,
in adults, they are less than the kidneys.  The right is
affixed lo the liver, the left to the  spleen and pancreas,
and both to the diaphragm and kidneys.  They have
arteries, veins, lymphatics, and nerves; their arteries
arise from the diaphragmatic,  the aorta, nnd the renal
arteries.   The vein of the right  supra-renal  gland
empties itself  into the vena cava; that of tlie left into
the renal vein; their lymphatic vessels  go directly into
the thoracic duct; they have nerves common  alike to
these glands and  the kidneys.  They  have no excre-
tory duct, and their use is at present unknown.   It is
supposed they answer one use in the  foetus, and an-
other in the adult, but xvhat these uses are is uncertain.
Boerhaave supposed their use to consist in their fur-
nishing  lymph to dilute the blood  returned, after the
secretion of the  urine, in the  renal vein;  but this is
very improbable, since the vein of the  right supra-re-
nal gland goes to the vena cava, and the blood carried
back by the renal vein wants no dilution.  It has also
been said, that these glands not only prepare lymph, by
which the blood is fitted for the  nutrition of the deli-
cate foetus; but that  in adults they serve to restore to
the blood of the  vena cava the  irritable parts xvhich
it loses  by the secretion of bile and  urine.  Some,
again, have considered  them as diverticula in the foe-
tus, lo divert the blood from the kidneys, and lessen
the quantity of urine.  The celebrated Morgagni be-
lieved their office to consist in conveying something te
the thoracic duct.   It is singular, that in children who
are bom without  the cerebrum,  these  glands  are ex-
tremely  small, and sometimes wanting.
  Renal vein.  See Emulgent vein.
  Renal vessels.   Sic-Emulgent.
  RENIFORMIS.  Kidney-shaped.   1. In  anatomy
this term is  applied  to any  deviations of parts as
suming a kidney-like form.
  2. In  botany, leaves, seeds,  &c. are so called from
their shape; it is  a  short, broad, roundish leaf, the
base of xvhicli is  hollowed out, as that  of the Asarum
europaum, and Sibthorpia europaa, and  the seeds of
Beta and Phaseolus.
  RENNET.  Runnet. The  gastric juice  and con-
tents of  the stomach of calves.  It is much employed
in preparing cheese, and  in  pharmacy,  for making
whey.   To about  a pound of milk,  in  a silver or
earthen  basin, placed on  hot ashes, add  three or four
grains of rennet,  diluted xvith a little xvater; as it be.
comes cold, the milk curdles, and the xvhey, or serous
                                        237 
REP
RES
port  teieparates Itself from the caseous  part.  When
these parts  appear perfectly distinct, pour the whole
upon a strainer, through which the xvhey will pass,
while the curds remain behind.  This whey is always
rendered somexvhat whitish, by a very  small and
much divided portion of the caseous part;  but it may
be separated iu such a manner, that the Whey will re-
main limpid and colourless, and this is what is called
clarifying it.  Put into a basin  tlie white of an egg, a
glass of the serum of milk, and a few grains of tar-
taric acid in poxvder; whip the mixture wilh an ozier
twig, and, having added the remainder of the unclari-
fied xvhey, place the mixture again over the fire until
it begins to  boil.  The tartaric acid completes the co-
agulation ofthe xvhite part of the milk which remains;
the xvhile of egg, as it becomes  hot, coagulates and en-
velopes the  caseous part.   When  the whey is  clear,
filter  it through  paper: what passes will be perfectly
limpid, and  have a greenish colour.  This is clarified
xvhey.
  Re'nuens.  (From renuo, to nod the head back in
sign of refusal: so called from its office of jeriting back
the head.)  A muscle of the head.
  REPANDUS.   Repand ; wavy:  a leaf is so caHed
whicli is  bordered with many acute angles, and  small
segments of  circles  alternately; as that of the Meny-
anthes nymphaeoides.
  REPELLENT.   (Repellens ; from repello, to drive
back.) Applications are sometimes so named which
make diseases recede, as it were, from tlie surface of
the body.
  REPENS.  Creeping; often used in botany:  caulis
repens, one that creeps along the earth, as  that of the
Ranunculus  repens.  Applied to a root, it means run-
ning transversely,  and here and there giving off new
plants; as that of the Glycyrrhiza glabra, and Sambu-
cus ebulus.
  REPULSION.  All matter possesses a power which
is in  constant opposition to attraction.  This agency,
xvhich is equally powerful and equally obvious, acts
an important part in the phenomena of nature, and is
called the power of repulsion.
  That such a force exists, xvhich opposes the approach
of bodies towards each other, is evident from number-
less facts.
  Neivton has shown, that when a convex lens is put
apon a flat glass, it  remains at  a distance of the one-
hundred-aiid-thirty-seventh  part of an inch, and a
very considerable pressure is required to diminish this
distance; nor  does any force  which can  be applied
bring them into actual mathematical contact. A force
may indeed  be  applied sufficient to break the glasses
into  pieces, but it -may be demonstrated that it does
not diminish their distance much beyond the one-thou-
sandth part of an inch.  There is, therefore, a repul-
sive  force, which prevents tlie two glasses from touch-
ing each other.
  Boscovich has shown, that when an ivory billiard-
ball  sets  another in motion, by striking agatnst  it, an
equal quantity of its own  motion is lost, and the ball
at rest begins to move xvhile  the other is still at a
distance.
  There  exists, therefore, a repulsion betxveen bodies;
this  repulsion takes place while they are yet at a dis-
tance from  each other ; and it opposes their approach
towards each other.
  The cause or the nature of this force  Is equally in-
scrutable with that of attraction, but ils existence is
undoubted .  il increases, as far as has been ascertained,
inversely as the  square of the distance, consequently
at the point  of contact it is infinite.
  The fallowing experiments will  serve to prove  the
energy of repulsion more fully.
   Experiment.—When a  glass tube is  immersed  in
water, the fluid is attracted by the glass, and drawn up
into  the tube;  but, if xve substitute mercury instead of
water, we shall And a different effect.  If a glass tube
of any bore  be immersed in this fluid, it docs not rise,
but the surface of the mercury is considerably below
the level  of  that wliich surrounds it, when the diame-
ter cf the tube is very small.
  In  this ense, therefore, a repulsion takes place  be-
tween the glass and the mercury, which Is  even consi-
derably greater than the attraction existing betxveen
the particles of the mercury; nnd hence the latter can-
not rise  in the tube, but is repelled, and becomes  de-
pressed.
      239
   Experiment.—When we present the north pole ot a
 magnet A, to the same pole of another magnet B, sus-
 pended on a pivot, and at liberty to move, the magnet
 B will recede as the other approaches; and, by follow-
 ing it with A, at a proper distance, It  may be made to
 turn round on its pivot with considerable velocity.
   In this case,  there is evidently some agency, which
 opposes the approach of the north poles of A and B,
 which acts as an antagonist, and causes the moveable
 magnet to retire before the other.  There is, therefore,
 a repulsion  between the two magnets,  a  repulsion
 which  increases with  the poxver of the  magnets,
 which  may be made so great, that all the force of a
 strong man is insufficient  to make the two north  poles
 touch each other. The same repulsion is equally ob-
 vious in electrical bodies, for instance:
   Experiment.—If two small cork balls be suspended
 from a body, so as  to touch one another, and if we
 charge the body in the usual manner with electricity.
 the two cork bails separate from each other, and stand
 at a distance proportional to the quantity of electricity
 with which the body is charged; the  balls, of course,
 repel each other.
   Experiment.—If we rub over the surface of a sheet
 of paper the fine dust of lycopodium, or puff-ball, and
 then let water fall on It in small quantities, the xvater
 will instantly be repelled, and form itself into distinct
 drops,  which do not touch the  lycopodium,  but roll
 over it with uncommon rapidity.  That the drops do
 not touch the lycopodium, but are actually kept  at a
 distance above il, is obvious from the copious reflection
 of xvhite light.
   Experiment.—If he surface of xvater contained in a
 basin be covered over with lycopodium, a solid  suo
 stance,  deposited at  the  bottom of tlie fluid, may lie
 taken out of it with the hand, without wetting it.  In
 this case, tiie repulsion is so poxverful as to defend Ihe
 hand completely from the contact of the fluid.
   RES.  A thing.
   Res naturales. The naturals.  According to Boer
 haave,  these are life, the cause of life, and ils effects
 These,  he says, remain in some degree, however disor
 dered a person may be.
   Res  non-naturales.   See Non-naturals.
   RESE'DA.   (From resedo, to appease: so called
 from its virtue of allaying inflammation.)  The name
 of a genus of plants in the Linnaean system. Class,
 Dodecandria; Order, Trigynia.
   2. The name, in some pharmacopoeias, of the dyers'
 xveed.  See Reseda luteola.
   Reseda luteola.  The systematic name of the
 dyers' xveed.  Dioscorides mentions it  as useful in
 jaundice.
   RESIN.  Resina.   The name resin is used to de-
 note solid inflammable substances, of vegetable origin,
 soluble in alkohol, usually affording much soot by theil
 combustion.  They are likewise soluble in oils, but not
 at all in xvater; and are more or less acted upon by the
 alkalies.
   All the resins appear to be nothing else but volatile
 oils rendered concrete by their combination xvith oxy-
 gen.  The exposure  of these to the open air, and the
 decomposition of acids applied to them, evidently prove
 this conclusion.
   There are some among the knoxvn resins which are
 very pure, and perfectly soluble In alkohol, such as the
 balsam of Mecca and of Capivi, turpentines, tacama-
 haca, elemi: others are less pure, and contain a small
 portion of extract, wliich renders them not totally solu-
 ble in alkohol; such are mastic, sandaiach, guaiacum,
 labdanum, and dragon's blood.
   The  essential  properties of resin are, being In the
 solid form, Insoluble in water, pei fectly soluble in  alko-
 hol, nnd in essential and  expressed oils, and being in-
 capable of being volatilized without decomposition.
   Resins are obtained chiefly from the vegetable  king-
 dom, cither by  spontaneous  exudation, or from inci-
 sions made into vegetables affording juices which con-
 tain this principle.  These juices contain a portion of
 essential oil, which, from exposure to the air, is eitlier
 volatilized or convetted into resinous  matter, or some-
 times  the oil is abstracted by distillation.  In some
 plants the resin is deposited, In a concrete state, ha the
 interstices of the xvood, or other parts of the plant.
   Resins, when  concrete, are brittle, and have gene-
 rally a smooth and conchoidai fracture; their luiare is
| peculiar, they nre more or less transparent and of a 
RE3
RES
eoxmr which is usually some shade of yellow, or
broxvn; they me of  a greater specific gravity than
xvater; they are often odorous  and sapid, easily fusi-
ble, and, on cooling, become solid.
   Resin, black.  See Resina nigra.
   Resin, elastic.  See Caoutchouc.
   Resin-tree, elastic.  See Caoutr.kouc.
   Resin, white.  See Resina alba.
   Resin, yellow.  See Resina flava.
   RESINA.  (From peu, to floxv: because  it floxvs
spontaneously from the tree.")  See Resin.
   Resina alda.  The inspissated juice of the Finns
sylvestris, Sec. is so called; and sometimes the r»si-
tluum of the  distillation  of oil  of turpentine.   See
Resina flava.
   Resina elastica.  See Caoutchouc.
   Resina flava.   Resina alba. Yellow resin, what
remains in the still after distilling oil of turpentine, by
adding water to the common turpentine.  It is of very
extensive use  in surgery as an active detergent, and
forms the base of the unguentum resina flava.
   Resina nigra.  Colophonia.   What remains in the
retort after  distilling  the  oil of turpentine from the
common turpentine. This name is also given, in the
London Pharmacopoeia, to pitch.
   Resina novi beluh.   See Botany-bay.
   RESOLUTION.   (Resolutio; from  resolvo, to
loosen.)  A  termination of inflammation in xvhich the
disease disappears xvithout any abscess, mortification,
See being occasioned.
  The term  is also applied to the dispersion of swell-
ings, indurations, Sec
   RESOLVENT.   (Resolvens; from  resolvo, to
loosen.)  This term  is applied by surgeons to  such
substances as discuss inflammatory and otlier tumours.
   RESPIRATION.   (Rcspiratio;  from  respiro, to
take breath.)  To comprehend  the important function
of breathing or respiration, it is not only necessary to
have a  knowledge of the structure  of the  thotacic
viscera, the form of ihe parietes, of the chost. and to
comprehend the mechanism by Which the air enters
and passes  out of it, but also  to be  xvell acquainted
with the chemical  and  physical properties of the air,
and the circulation of the blood.
   The lungs are txvo spongy and vascular organs of a
considerable size, situated in the lateral  parts of the
chest. Their parenchyma is divided and subdivided
into lobes and lobules, the forms and dimensions of
xvhich il is difficult to determine.
   We learn, by the careful examination of a pulmo-
nary lobule, that it  is formed  of a spongy tissue, the
areola of xvhich are so small that a strong lens is ne-
cessary to observe  them  distinctly; these areola all
communicate xvilh each other, and they are surrounded
by a thin layer of cellular tissue xvhich separates thein
from  the adjoining lobules.
   Into each lobule  enters one of the  divisions of the
bronchia, and one of the pulmonary artery; this last is
distributed in the body of the lobule in a manner that
is  not xvell knoxvn ; it seems to be transformed into nu-
merous radicles of the pulmonary veins.   Dr. Magen-
die believes that these numerous  small  vessels,  by
which the artery terminates and the pulmonary veins
begin, by  crossing and joining  in different manners,
form the areola of the  tissue  of the lobules.  The
small bronchial  division that ends  in the lobule, does
not enter into the interior of it,  but breaks  off as  soon
as it has arrived  at the parenchyma.
   This  last circumstance  appears remarkable:  be-
cause, since the bronchia do  not  penetrate  into the
spongy tissue  of the lungs, it is not probable that the
surface of the cells xvith whicli  the air is in contact is
covered by the mucous membrane.  The most minute
anatomy cannot prove its existence in  thispiace.
   A  part of the nerve of the  eighth pair, and some
filaments of the sympathetic,  are expended  on the
lungs, but it is  not knoxx-n how they are  distributed;
the surface of the  organ  is covered  by the pleura, a
serous membrane, similar to  the peritonaum in its
structure and functions.
   Round the bronchia, and near the place  where they
enter into the  tissue of the lungs, a certain number of
lytnphatic glands exist, the colour of which is almost
black, and to  which the small  number of lymphatic
vessels which  spring  from the surface and from the
'nterior of the pulmonary tissue are directed.
  With regard to the lungs, xve  receive from the art of
delicate injections some information that we ought nt*
to neglect.
  If xve  inject mercury, or even coloured xvater, Into
ihe pulmonary artery, the injected matter passes  im-
mediately into the pulmonary veins, but  at the same
time a part  enters the bronchia, and goes out by the
trachea.   If the matter be Injected into a pulmonary
vein, it passes partly into the artery and partly into the
bronchia.  Lastly, if it be introduced into the trachea,
It very soon penetrates into the artery, into the pulmo-
nary  veins, and  even  Into  the bronchial artery and
vein.
  Tne lungs fill  up a  gi i^it part of the cavity of the
chest, and enlarge nnd  contract with it; and ns they
communicate xvilh the exlernal air by the trachea nnd
tin  larynx, ex-cry  time that the chest enlarges it is dis-
lenc-.ed by the air, which  is again expelled when the
c-hc st resumes its  former dimensions.  We must then
necessarily stop to examine this cavily.
  The breast, or  the thorax, is of the form of a cone,
Ihe summit of wliich is above, and the base below.
  The apparent form and dimensions of the breast nre
determined by the length, disposition, nnd motions of
the ribs upon the  vertebra.
  The chest  is capable of  being dilated vertically,
transversely,  forward and backxvard, that is,  in  tiie
direction of its principal diameters.
  The principal,  and almost  the only, agent of the
vertical dilatation, Is the diaphragm, which, iu contract
ing, tends to  lose ils vaulted form, and  to become  a
plane ; amotion which cannot take place without the
pectoral  motion of the thorax  increasing, and the ab-
dominal portion diminishing.
  The sides of this muscle, which are fleshy, and cor-
respond xvith the lungs, descend farther than the cen-
tie, which, being  aponeurotic, can make  no effort by
itself, and which is, besides, retained by its union with
the sternum and the pericardium.
  in most cases this lowering of the diaphragm is sufli
cient for the dilatation of the breast; but it often hap-
pens that the sternum and the ribs, in changing the po-
sition between them and the vertebral column, produce
a sensible augmentation in the pectoral cavity.
  In tlie general  eievation of the thorax, ils form ne-
cessarily changes, as well as the relations of the bones
of xvhich it  is composed:  the cartilages  of the ribs
seem particularly intended to assist these  changes; as
soon as they are  ossified, and consequently lose their
elasticity, the breast becomes immoveable.
  While the  sternum is carried upwards, its inferior
extremity is directed a little forward: it thus undergoes
a slight sxvinging motion; the ribs  become less oblique
upon Ihe vertebral column ; they remove a little from
each other, and their inferior edge is directed outxvard
by a small tension of the cartilage.  All  these pheno-
mena are not very apparent except in the superior ribs
  A general enlargement of the thorax takes place by
its elevation, as  well from  front to  back, as trans-
versely, and upwards.
  This enlargement is called inspiration.   It presents
three degrees:  1st, ordinary  inspiration, which takes
place  by  the  depression nf the diaphragm, and  an al-
most insensible elevation of the thorax; 2dly, the^real
inspiration, in whicli there is an evident elevation 01
the thorax, and, at the same time, a depression of the
diaphragm; 3dly,  forced inspiration, in which the di-
mensions of the thorax are augmented in  every direc-
tion, as far as the physical disposition of this cavity
will permit.
  Expiration succeeds to the dilatation of the thorax;
that is, the return of the thorax to  its ordinary position
and dimensions.
  The  mechanism of this  motion  is the  feverse of
what xve  have just described.  It is produced by the
elasticity of the cartilages, and by the ligaments ofthe
ribs, which have  a tendency to resume  their former
Bhape,  by the  relaxation of the muscles that  had
raised  the thorax, and  by the  contraction of a great
number of muscles, so disposed that they lower and
contract the chest.
  The  contraction of the thorax,  or expiration, pre-
sents also three  degrees:  1st, ordinary  expiration;
2d, great  expiration; 3d, forced expiration.
  In ordinary expiration,  the  relaxation of the dia-
phragm, pressed upxvards by the  abdominal viscera,
which are themselves urged by the anterior muscles of
this cavity, produces  the  diminution of  the vertical 
RES
RES
 diameter-  vehement expiration  is produced by the
 relaxation of the inspiring muscles, and a slight con-
 traction of those of expiration, which permits the ribs
 to assume their ordinary relations with the vertebral
 column. Bul Ihe contraction of the chest may go still
 farther.  If the abdominal and other expiratory mus-
 cles contract lorcibly, a greater depression of the  dia-
 phragm takes place, the ribs descend lower, the base
 of the conoid shrinks, and there is, consequently, a
 greater diminution of  the  capacity of  the thorax.
 This is called forced expiration.
  We shall now consider the  air as an elastic fluid,
 which possesses the  property of exerting   pressure
 upon the bodies it surrounds, and upon the sides of the
 vessels that contain it.  This property supposes, in the
 particles of air, a continual tendency to repulse each
 otlier.
  Another property of the air is compressibility ; that is,
 its volume changes wilh the pressure which it supports.
  The air expands  by heat like all other bodies; its
 volume augments 1-480, by an increase of one degree
 of Fahrenheit's thermometer.
  The air has weight: this is ascertained by weighing
 a vessel full of air, and then xveighiug the same vessel
 after ihe uir has been taken out by the air-pump.
  The air is more or less charged with humidity.
  Air, notxvithstanding its thinness and transparency,
 refracts, intercepts, and reflects the light.
  The air is composed of two gases that are very dif-
 ferent in their properties.
  1st,Oxygen: this gas is a little heavier  than air, in
 the proportion of 11 to 10, and it combines with all the
 simple bodies; it is an element of xvater, of vegetable
 and animal matters, aud of almost all  known bodies ;
 it is essential for combustion and respiration.  2dly,
 Azote: this gas is a little lighter than air; it  is an  ele-
 ment of ammonia and of animal substances ;  it extin-
 guishes bodies in combustion.
  It has been thus found that 100 parts in weight of air
 contain 21  parts of oxygen and 79 of  azote.  These
 Sroportions  are the same in every place and  at all
 eights, and have not sensibly changed for these fifteen
 years,  since they were positively established by che-
 mistry.
  Besides oxygen and azote, the air contains a variable
 quantity of the vapour of water,  as xve have already
 observed, and  a small  quantity  of  carbonic acid,
 the proportion of which has not  yet been  positively
■fixed.
  The air  is decomposed  by almost all  combustible
 bodies, at a temperature which is peculiar lo each.   In
 this decomposition they combine xvitii the oxygen, and
 set the azote at liberty.
  Of  inspiration and expiration.—If we call to mind
 the disposition of the pulmonary  lobules, the extensi-
 bility of their tissue, their communication  with  the
 external air by means of the bronchia, of the  trachea,
 and of the larynx, xve will easily conceive that every
 time the breast dilates, the  air immediately enters the
 pulmonary tissue,  in  a quantity proportionate  to the
 degree of dilatation.  When  the breast  contracts, a
 part of the air that R contains is expelled, and  passes
 out hy the glottis.
  In order  to  arrive at the glottis in inspiration, or  to
 go outxvards in expiration, the air sometimes traverses
 the nasal canal and sometimes the mouth: the position
 of the velum of the palate, in these txvo cases, de-
 serves to be described.  When the  air traverses the
 nasal canals and the pharynx to enter or to  pass out
 of the larynx, the velum of the palate  is vertical, and
 placed wilh its nnterior surface against the posterior
 part of the base of tlie tongue, so that the mouth has
 no communication with the larynx.  When the air tra-
 verses  the  mouth In inspiration or expiration, the
 velum of the palate is horizontal, its posterior edge is
 embraced by the concave surface of the pharynx, and
 all communication is cut off between the inferior parts
 of the pharynx and the superior part  of this cannl,  as
 well as with the nasal canals.  Thence the necessity  of
 making the sick breathe by the mouth, if it is necessary
 to examine the tonsils or the pharynx.
  These txvo xvays for the air to arrive at the glottis
 xvere necessary, for they assist each other: thus when
 the mouth  is  full of food, the  respiration takes place
 by the nose; it  takes place by the mouth xvhen the
 lasal  canals are obstructed  by  mucus, by a slight
 •welling of the  membrane, or  unv other  cause.  The
       240
glottis opens In the instant of inspiration, and, on tin
contrary, it shuts in the expiration.
  It appears  that in a given time the number of in-
spirations made by one person are very different from
those of another.  Haller thinks there are txventy in the
space ol a minute.  A man upon xvhom Menzies made
experiments respired only fourteen times in a minute
Sir II. Davy informs us lhat he  respires in the same
period twenty-six or twenty-seven times, Dr. Thomson
says that he respires generally nineteen times; and Dr.
Magendie only respires fifteen times.  Taking twenty
times in a minute for the mean, this  will give  28,800
inspirations  in twenty-four  hours.  But this number
probably varies according to  many circumstances, such
as the state  of sleep, motion, distention of the sto-
mach by food, the capacity  of the chest, moral affec-
tions, &c. What quantity of air enters the chest at
each inspiration ?  What quantify  goes out at each
expiration 1   Hoxv much generally remains'!
  According to Menzies, tlie  mean quantity of air  that
enters the lungs at each inspiration,  is 40 cubic inches.
Goodwin  thinks  that the quantity remaining after a
complete expiration is 109 cubic  inches; Menzies af-
firms that this quantity is greater, and  that it amounts
to 179 cubic inches.
  According lo Davy,  after  a forced expiration, his
lungs contained 41 cubic inches.
  After a natural expiration..............  118
  After a natural  inspiration..............  135
  After a forced inspiration...............  254
  By a forced expiration, after a forced  in-
    spiration, tliere passed out of the lungs 190
  A ftcr a natural inspiration..............   78.5
  After a natural expiration..............   67.5 c. i.
  Dr. Thomson thinks  lhat we should not be far from
the truth in  supposing that the ordinary quantity of
air contained in the lungs is  280, and lhat there entei
or go out at each inspiration, or expiration, 40 inches
Thus, supposing 20 inspirations in a  minute, the quan
tity of air that would  enter  and pass  out in this time
would  be 800 inches; which makes  48,000 in the
hour, and in 24 hours 1,152,000 cubic inches.  A great
number of experiments have been made by chemists
to determine  if the volume of  air diminishes while it
remains in the lungs.   In  considering the latest expe-
riments,  it appears, that  in most  cases there is no
diminution; that is, a volume of expired air is exactly
the same as  one of inspired  air.   When this diminu-
tion takes place it appears to be only accidental.
  By successively traversing the  mouth  or the nasa'
cavities, the pharynx, the  larynx, the trachia, and tlit
bronchia, the  inspired  air becomes  of a similar tern
peralure with the body.  It most generally becomei
heated,  and consequently tariffed, so that the samt
quantity in  xveight of air  occupies a  much greater
space in the lungs than it occupied before it entered
them.  Besides this change of volume, the inspired air
is charged with the vapour that it carries away from
ihe mucous  membranes of  the  air-passages,  and in
this state  alxvays, hut and  humid, it arrives in the
pulmonary lobules; also this portion  of air of  which
xve treat mixes with that xvhicli  the  lungs contained
before.
  But expiration  soon succeeds to  inspiration:  an
interval, only of a few seconds, passes in general be-
txveen them ; the air contained  by  the  lungs, pressed
by the poxxersof expiration, escapes by the expiratory
canal in a contrary direction to that of the inspired air.
  We must here remark that the portion of air expired
is not exactly lhat which xvas  inspired immediately
before, but a portion of the mass xvhich  the lungs con-
tained after inspiration; and if the volume of air that
the lungs usually contain is  compared xvitl  that which
is inspired nnd expired at each motion  of  respiration,
xve xvill be  inclined  lo believe lhat inspiration and
expiration are intended to renew in part the consider
able mass of air contained by the lungs.
   This renewal xvill be so much more considerable as
the quantity of air expired  is greater, and as the fol-
lowing inspiration is more complete.
   Physical  and chemical changes that  the air under-
goes in the lungs.—The  air,  in its passage from the
lungs has a temperature nearly the same as that ofthe
body; there escapes xvith it from  the  breast a greal
quantity of vapour called pulmonary transpiration;
besides, its chemical composition is  different from that
of the inspired air.  1 he proportion of  azote is much 
RES
RES
the sum, but  that of  oxygen and carbonic acid is
quite different.
  In place of 0.21  of oxygen, and a trace of carbonic
acid, whicli the atmospheric air presents, the expired
air gives 0.18 or 0.19 of oxygen, and 0.3 to 0.4 of car-
bonic acid:  generally, the quantity of carbonic acid
exactly represents  ihe quantity of oxygen which has
disappeared; nevertheless, tbe last experiments of Gay
Lussac aud  Davy  give a small excess of acid; that is,
tliere is a Utile  more acid  formed than tbe oxygen ab-
sorbed.
  In order to determine the quantity of oxygen con-
sumed by an adult iu 24 hours, xx e have only to know
the quantity of air respired in this lime.   According to
Lavoisier, and  Sir H. Davy, 32 cubic  inches ure con-
sumed in a minute, which  gives for  24  hours 46,037
cubic inches.
  It is not  difficult to  appreciate the quantity of car-
bonic  acid that passes  out of tbe lungs  in  the  same
time, since it nearly represents, the volume of oxygen
that disappears.  Thomson values it at  40,000 cubic
inches, though he says it is probably a little less: noxv
this  quantity of carbonic acid represents nearly 12
ounces avoirdupois of carbon.
  Some chemists say that a small quantity of azote
disappears during  respiration;  others think, on the
contrary, that ils quantity is sensibly augmented; but
there is nothing positive in this respect.
  We  are informed of the degree of alteration that
the air undergoes iu our  luugs by a feeling xvhich in-
clines us to  renew it: though this is scarcely sensible
in ordinary respiration, because we always continue it,
it  nevertheless  becomes very painful if xve do not
satisfy it quickly;  carried to this degree,  it is accom-
panied xvith anxiety and fear, an  instinctive warning
of the importance of respiration.
  While the air contained in the luugs is thus modified
■n its  physical and  chemical properties, tbe venous
olood  traverses the ramifications of tlie pulmonary
artery, of wliich the tissue of tlie lobules of the lungs
is partly formed: it passes into the radicles of the pul-
monary veins, aud very soon into these  veins them-
selves ; bul in  passing  from the one to the otlier, it
changes its nature from venous to arterial blood.
   Rest-harrow. See Ononis spinosa.
   Re sta bovis.  The plant named  in  English rest-
barroxv : so called because it hinders  the plough ; and
oence resta bovis.   See Ononis spinosa.
   RESUP1NATUS.  Resupinato.  Reversed: applied
to leaves, Sec. wlieu the upper surface is turned down-
wards ; as in the leaf of the Pharus latifolius.
   RESUSCITATION.  (Rcsuscilatio; from resuscito,
to rouse aud awake.)   Revivification. The restoring
of persons, apparently dead, to life.  Under this head,
strictly speaking, is considered  the restoring of those
who faint, or  have breathed  noxious air;  yet it is
chiefly confined to the  restoring of those who are ap-
parently dead from being  immersed in a  fluid, or by
hanging. Dr. Curry has written a very valuable treatise
on this subject; from which the following account is
taken.
  " From considering,"  he observes, " that a drowned
person is surrounded by water instead of air, and lhat
in this situation be makes strong and  repeated efforts
to breathe, xve should  expect  that the waler would
enter and  completely fill tlie lungs.  This opinion, in-
deed, was once very general, and  it  still continues to
prevail among  the common people.  Experience, how-
ever, has shown, that unless the body lies so long in tlie
water as to have its living principle entirely destroyed,
the quantity of fluid present in the lungs is inconsider-
able ;  and  it would seem that some of this Is tlie natu-
ral moisture of the part accumulated; for, upon drow n-
ing  kittens, puppies, Sec. in ink, or otlier coloured li-
quors, and»-afterward examining the lungs, it is found
that very little of the coloured liquor has gained admit-
tance  to them.   To explain the reason why the lungs
id drowned animals are so free from water, H is neces-
sary lo observe, that the muscles which form the open-
ing into the wind-pipe are exquisitely sensible, and con-
tract violently  upon the least irritation, as xve frequent
ly experience when any part of the food or drink hap-
pens to touch that  part.  In  the efforts made by  a
drowning person, or animal to draw  in air, the water
rushes into tbe month anil throat, and is applied to
these parts, which immediately contract in such a man-
lier as to shut up the passage into the lungs.  This con-
tracted state continues as long as tlie muscles retain the
principle of life, upon which  tlie poxver of muscular
contraction depends;  when that is gone,  they become
relaxed, and the water enters the wind-pipe, and com
pletely fills it.   On dissecting the  body of a recently
drowned  animal, no particular fulness of the vessels
within the  skull, nor any disease of the brain or its
membrane*, are visible. The lungB are also sound, mid
the branches of the windpipe generally contain more
or less of a frothy matter, consisting chiefly of air,
mixed with a small quantity of colourless fluid.  The
right cavity uf the heart, and  the trunks of the large
internal veins xvhich open into it, and also tlie tiimk
and larger branches of the artery  wliich carries the
blood from this cavily  through the  lungs, arc  all dis-
tended  xvitii dark-coloured blood, approaching  almost
to blackness.  The left cavity of the heart, on tlie con-
trary, is nearly, or entirely empty, as are likexvise the
large veins of the lun^s which supply it with blood,
and the trunk and principal branches of ihe great urte-
ry which conveys tlie blood from hence to the various
parts of  the  body.   The external  blood-vessels are
empty; and tlie fleshy  parts areas paie as if the ani-
mal had been bled to death. When a body has  lain  hi
the water for some time, oilier appearances will  also
be observable ; such as, the skin livid, the eyes blood-
shot, and the  countenance bloated  and  swoln ; but
these appearances, though certainly unfavourable, do
not absolutely prove that life is irrecoverably gone.  It
is now knoxvn, that in the cose of drowning, no injury
is done to any of the parts essential to life;  but that
the right cavity of the heart,  together wilh the veins
and arteries leading to and from that cavity, are turgid
with blood, while every other part is almost drained of
this fluid.  The practice of holding  up  the bodies of
drowned persons  by the  heels, or rolling them over a
cask, is unnecessary; the lungs not being filled  with
any thing that can  be evacuated in this way.   There-
fore such a practice is highly dangerous, as the violence
attending it may readily  burst some of those  vessels
 which  are already overcharged with blood, and thus
convert xvhat xvas only suspended animation, into abso-
 lute and permanent death. The operation of inflating
 the lungs is a perfectly safe, and much more effectual
method of removing any frothy matter they may  con-
tain ; and while it promotes the passage of the blood
through them, atso renders it  capable of stimulating
the left cavity of the heart, and exciting it to contrac
tion.  As soon as the body is laken out of the water, it
should  be stripped of any clothes it may have on, aud
be immediately xvell dried.  It should then be wrapped
in dry, warm  blankets, or in  the spare clothes taken
from some of the by-staiiders, and be  removed as
quickly as possible to the nearest house that can be got
convenient for the purpose.  The fittest  will be one
that has a tolerably large apartment, in which a fire is
ready or  can be made.  The  body may be carried in
men's arms, or laid upon a door; or, in case the house
be at a distance from the place, if a cart can  be pro-
cured, let the body be  placed in it, on one side, upon
some straw, with  the head and upper part somewhat
raised; and in this position a brisk motion will do no
harm   Whatever be the  mode of conveyance  adopt
ed, particular  care  should be  taken that the head be
neither suffered to hang backxvards,  nor to bend doxvn
xvith the chin  upon the  breast.   When arrived at the
house, lay the body on a matrass, or a double blanket,
spread upon a low table, or upon a door supported by
stools ; the head and chest being elevated by pillnxvs.
Aa the air of a room is very soon rendered impure by
a number of people breathing  in it, for this reason, as
xvell as to avoid the confusion and embarrassment at-
tending a crowd, no more persons should  be admitted
into the apartment where the body is placed, than are
necessary to  assist  immediately in the recovery:  in
general six will be found sufficient for this purpose, and
these should be the most active and intelligent  of tlie
by-standers. It wiH be found  most convenient to di-
 vide the  assistants into two sets; one set being em-
ployed  in restoring the heat of the body, while the
other institutes an artificial breathing in the best man-
ner they are able.  Every skilful person should be pro
vided with a flexible tube made of elastic gum, half a
yard in length, to introduce  into the wind-pipe, and
 also with a similar tube lo  which  a syringe can be
affixed, to be  put  into the oesophagus.  Should thcK
I not be at hand, air should be thrown into tlie lung* in
                                         'Ml 
RES
rlES
 the best manner that  can be suggested at the time
 Should it still be found  that the air does not pass readi-
 ly into the lungs, immediate recourse must be had to
 another and more effectual method for obtaining that
 object.   As this method, however,  requires  address,
 and also some knowledge of the parts about the throat,
 we would recommend that when there is  not a medi-
 cal gentleman present,  the mode  already described, be
 tried repeatedly before this be attempted.  As a quan-
 tity of frothy  matter occupying the branches of" the
 wind-pipe, and preventing the entrance of the air into
 the lungs, is generally the circumstance xvhich renders
 this mode of inflation necessary, the mouth should be
opened from time to time to remove  this matter as it is
discharged.  While one set of the assistants are en-
gaged  in performing  artificial  respiration, the other
should be employed in communicating  heat to the
body.  The warm bath has been usually recommended
 for this purpose; but wrapping the body  in blankets,
or woollen cloths, strongly xvrung out of warm xvater,
and renewing them as  they grow cold, besides being a
speedier  and more practicable  method of imparting
 heat, has this great advantage, that it admits of the
operation of inflating the lungs being carried on with-
out interruption.   Untfia sufficient quantity of warm
xvater  can  be  got ready, other  methods of restoring
warmth may be employed; such as  tiie application of
dry xvarm blankets round the body and limbs ; bags of
xvarm grains or sand, bladders or bottles of hot water,
or hot  bricks applied to the hands, feet, and under the
arm-pits, the bottles and bricks being covered xvith flan-
nel :  or the body may be  placed before the fire, or  in
the sunshine, if strong at the time, and be gently rubbed
by the  assistants  xvitii their xvarm hands, or wilh
cloths heated at the fire by  a xvarming-pan.  The re-
storation of heat should alxvays be  gradual, and the
warmth applied ought never to be greater than can be
comfortably  borne by the  assistants.  If the iveather
happen to be cold, and especially if the body has been
 exposed to it for some time,  heat should be applied in a
 very loxv degree at first: and if the  weather be under
 Ihe freezing  point, and the body, xvhen stripped, feel
 cold and nearly.in the same condition with one that is
 frozen, it will be necessary at first t: rub it well xvith
snow, or wash it xvitii cold water; th" sudden applica-
tion of heat in such cases having been found very per-
nicious.  In a short time, hoxvever,  warmth must  be
gradually applied.  To  assist in rousing the activity of
the vital principle, it has been customary to apply va-
rious stimulating matters to different  parts of the body.
 But as some  of these applications arc in  themselves
 hurtful, and the others serviceable only according to the
time and manner of their employment, it will be pro-
 per to consider them particularly.  The application of
 all such matters in cases of apparent death, is founded
 upon tlie supposition that the skin still retains sensibi-
 lity enough to be affected by them.  It is xvell known,
 hoxvever, that even during  life, the skin  loses sensibi-
 lity in proportion as it is deprived of heat, and docs
 not recover it again until the natural  degree of warmth
 be restored.   Previous  to the restoration of heat, there-
 fore, to  a droxvned body, all stimulating applications
 are useless, and so far  as they interfere xvitii the other
 measures, are also prejudicial. The practice of rubbing
 the body with salt or spirits is noxv justly condemned.
 The salt quickly frets the skin, and has, in some cases,
 produced sores, which  xvere very painful and difficult
to heal after recovery.  Spirits of all kinds evaporate
 fast, and thereby, instead of creating warmth, as they
 are expected to do, carry off a great deal of heat from
 the body.  Spirit of hartshorn, or of sal volatile, are
 liable to the same objection as brandy or other distilled
 spirits, and are besides very distressing to the eyes of
 Ihe assistants.  When  tliere is reason to think the skin
 has in any degree recovered its sensibility, let an assist-
 ant moisten his hand  with spirit of hartshorn, or eau
 de luce, and hold it closely applied to one part: in this
 way evaporation is prevented, nnd  the full stimulant
 effect of the application obtained.   A liniment com-
 posed of equal parts of spirit of hartshorn and sallad
 oil, well shaken together, would appear to be siifficieiitly
 stimulating for 'he purpose, and as  it evaporates very
 slowly, xvill admit of being rubbed on  without producing
 cold. The places to xvhich such remedies me usually
 applied, are,  the xvrists, ankles, temples, and the parts
 opposite the stomach and heart.  The intestines, from
 their  internal situation  and  peculiar  constitution
       248
 retain  their  irritability  longer than the other par*.a
 of the  body,  and,  accordingly, various means nave
 been proposed for Increasing the action of their fibres
 in order to restore  the activity of the whole system
 Tobacco-smoke, injected  by way of clyster, is what
 has been generally employed with this view, and the
fumigator, or instrument  for administering it, makes a
 part of the apparatus which is at present distributed by
 the different societies  established  for  the recovery of
 drowned persons.   Of late, hoxvever, the use of tobac-
 co-smoke has been objected to, and upon very strong
 grounds;  for when we consider that the same remedy
 is successfully employed with the very opposite inten-
 tion, namely, that of lessening the  power of contrac-
tion in the muscles, and occasioning the greatest relaxa-
tion consistent with life, it must be acknowledged to be
a very doubtful, if  not dangerous  remedy, where the
 poxvers of life are already nearly exhausted.  Instead
of tobacco-smoke, then, xve xvould recommend a clyster,
consisting  of  a pint or more of water, moderately
wanned, xvith the addition of one or two table-spoon-
fuls of spirit of hartshorn,  a heaped tea-spoonful of
strong mustard, or a table-spoonful of essence of pep-
permint ; in defect of one or other of these, half a gill or
more of rum, brandy, or gin may be added, or the warm
water given alone.  This  step, however, need not be
taken, until artificial respiration has been begun;  for it
will ansxver but little  purpose  to stimulate the heart
through the medium of the intestines, unless we at the
same time supply the left cavity with blood fitted to
act upon it; xvhich xve cannot do xvithout first re
moving the collapsed state of the lungs, and promoting
the passage of the blood through them by  a regular in-
flation.  As the stomach is a highly sensible part, and
intimately connected with  the heart and brain, tlie in-
troduction of some moderately warm  and stimulating
liquor into it, seems well calculated  to  rouse  the dor-
mant poxvers of life.  This is very conveniently done
by means ofthe syringe and flexible tube.  The quanti-
ty of fluid thrown in ought not to exceed half a pint,
and may be either warm negus, or xvater with the addi-
tion of one or other of the stimulating matters recom
mended above, using, however, only half the quantities
mentioned there.  As soon as the pulse or beating of
the heart can be felt, the inside of the nostrils may be
occasionally touched with  a feather dipped in spirit of
hartshorn, or sharp mustard ; it being  found  by experi-
ence, that any irritation given to the  nose, has consi-
derable influence in exciting the action of the muscles
concerned in respiration.  When the natural breathing
commences, the flexible tube and  canula  should be
withdrawn, and any farther inflation that may be ne-
cessary, performed by blowing into  the nostril.  Let-
ting blood has  been-generally thought requisite in every
case of suspended animation.  The practice, hoxvever,
does not  appear to have  been founded upon any ra-
tional principle at first, and it has been continued from
the force of custom, rather than from any experience
of its good effects.  In  the case of droxvned persons
there is not, as in those xvho suffer from hanging or
apoplexy, any  unusual fulness of the x-essels of the
brain;  and the quantity of blood that can be draxvn
 from the external veins, xvill nol sensibly  diminish the
accumulation of it in those  near the heart.   Besides,
 blood-letting, xvliich always tends to lessen the action
of the  heart and arteries in the living body,  cannot be
 supposed to have a directly opposite "effect in cases of
 apparent death; on the contrary, if employed here, it
 will hazard the entire destruction of those feeble poxvers
 which yet remain, and  to increase and support xvhich
 all our endeavours should be directed. When the se-
 veral measures recommended above have been steadily
 pursued for an hour or more, without any appearance
 of returning life, electricity  should  be tried; experi
 ence having shown it to be one of the most powerful
 stimuli yet known,  nnd capable of exciting contraction
 in the  heart and other muscles of the body, after every
 other stimulus had  ceased to produce the least effect.
 Moderate shocks are  found to answer best, and these
 should, at intervals, Im; passed through the chest in dif-
 ferent directions, in order, if possible, to rouse the heart
 to act.  Shocks may likexvise be sent through the limbs,
 and along the spine;  but xve are doubtful how far it is
 safe or useful  to pass them through the brain, as some
 have recommended.   The body may  be conveniently
 insulated, hy placing it on a door, supported by a num-
 ber of quart-bottles, whose sides are previously wiped 
RES
RET
 with a towel, to remove any moisture they may nave
 contracted.  By experiments made on dilierenl animals,
 it is found that the blood passes through the lungs most
 readily when ihey are fully distended with air; conse-
 quently, that if the lungs of a droxvned person are in-
 flated, and kept in the expanded  state xvhile the elec-
 tric shock is passed through tlie chest, the blood accu-
 mulated in the right cavity of the tieart and its vessels
 will move forward without any resistance, should  Ihe
 heart be brought to contract upon it.  As soon as the
 shock is given, let the lungs be emptied of the air they
 contain, and filled  again with fresh  air;  then pass
 another shock, and repeat this until the heart is brought
 into action, or until it appear that all  farther attempts
 are useless.   In order more certainly to pass the shock
 through the heart, place the kHob  of one discharging
 rod above the collar-bone of  the  right  side, and  the
 knob of the other above the short ribs of the left:  the
 position  of the discharging rods,  however, may be
 changed occasionally, so as to vary the direction of the
 shock.  Two thick brass wires,  each about eighteen
 inches long, passed through txvo glass tubes, or xvooden
 cases, well varnished, and having at one end a knob,
 and at the other a ring to fasten the brass chain to, form
 very convenient discharging rods; and  by means of
 them, the shock may be  administered without Ihe risk
 of its being communicated to tbe assistants, or carried
 off by the skin  being wet.  When Jhe patient is so far
 recovered as lo be able  to swallow, he should  be  put
 into a warm bed, xvith his head aud shoulders some-
 what raised by means of pillows.  Plenty of warm
 wine-xvhey, ale-posset, and olher light  aud moderately
 nourishing drink,  should  noxv be  given, and gentle
 sweating promoted, by wrapping the feet and  less in
 flannels well wrung out  of hot water.  If the stomach
 and bowels feel distended and uneasy, a clyster, con-
 sisting of a pint of warm xvater, wilh a  table-spoonful
 of common salt, or an ounce or  more of Glauber's or
 Epsom salt, dissolved in  it, may be administered.  The
 general practice in this case, is to give an emetic;  but
 considering  that the poxvers of the machine are still
 very weak, the agitation of vomiting is certainly ha-
 zardous   The patient should on no account be  left
 alone, until the senses are perfectly restored, and he be
 able to assist himself; several persons having relapsed
 and been lost from want of proper attention to them,
 after the vital functions  were, to  all appearance, com-
 pletely established.  Either from the distention wliich
 the arteries ofthe lungs have sunt- red, or from the sudden
 change from great coldness to considerable warmth, il
 now and then happens, that the patient is attacked soon
 afler recovery, with inflammation of some of the parts
 within tlie chest  This occurrence is pointed  out by
 pain in the breast or side, increased on  inspiration, and
 accompanied xvith frequent, and full or hard pulse, and
 sometimes with cough.  Here the taking away some
 blood from the arm, or the application of cupping
 glasses, leeches, or a blister, over the seat of the pain,
 will be x-ery proper; but the necessity for Ihcf e mea-
 sures, as xvell as the limes for putting them in practice,
 should be left to the judgment and discretion of a medi-
 cal person. Dull pain in the head, lasting sometimes
 for two or three days, is by no means au unfrequent
 complaint in  those who  are recovered from this  and
 from the other states of suspended animation;  and
 here  also a moderate  bleeding from the neck, either
 with the lancet or wilh cupping-glasses may prove
 serviceable.
  In hanging, the external veins of the neck are com-
 pressed by tiie cord, and the return of the blood from
 tbe head thereby impeded, fiom the moment that sus-
 pension takes place ; but as the heart continues to  act
 for a  fexv seconds after the wind-pipe  is closed,  the
 blood which is sent to the head during this interval, is
 necessarily accumulated there.  Hence  it is, that in
 hanged persons the face is greatly sxvoln,  and of a dark
 red or purple colour: the eyes are commonly suffused
 with  jlood, enlarged, and prominent   On dissection,
 the blood-vessels of the brain arc  found considerably
 distended, but, in  general, no further marks  of dis-
 ease  appear xvithin the  skull.  The lungs  are found
generally quite  collapsed, and free from frothy matter.
The heart, and the large blood-vessels adjoining to it
exhibit the same  apiearances as  in  the bodies  of
drowned persons.  From the great accumulation of
blood in  the vessels of the head, many  have been of
Dpinion, that hanging kills chiefly  by inducing apo-
 plexy ; but the following  experiment made at Edin-
 burgh  sovcral years ago, by an eminent medical pro-
 fessor there, clearly proves that in hanging as well as in
 drowning, the exclusion of air from the lungs is the
 immediate cause of death.  A dog was suspended by
 the neck xvitii a cord, an opening having been previ
 ou.-vx made in tlie wind pipe, below the plnce where the
 coul xvas applied so as to admit air into  the lungs.  In
 ihis state he was allowed to hang for ihree-quarters of
 an hour,duiing xvhich time the circulation and breath-
 ing xvent on.  He xvas then cut doxvn xvithout appear
 ing to have suffered much from the experiment.  Tlie
 cord xvas now shifted below the opening Into tlie xvind
 pipe, so as to prevent the ingress of air to the lungs ,
 and the animal being again suspended, he xvas com
 pletely dead in a fexv minutes.  Upon the whole, thru,
 it appears, that the same measures recommended for
 drowned  persons, arc also  necessary here; xvitii this
 addition, that opening the jugular veins, or  applying
 cupping-glasses to the neck, will tend considerably to
 facilitate the restoration of life, by lessening the quan
 tity of blood contained in the vessels of the head,
 and thereby taking  off the  pressure from the brain.
 Except in petsons xvho arc very full  of blood, the
 quantity taken away need seldom exceed an ordinary
 tea-cupful, which xvill in general be sufficient to un-
 load the vessels ofthe head without xveakening the pow-
 ers of life."
   RE'TE.  A net.  Applied to cellular membranes,
 vessels, nerves, parts  of plants, ic. which are formed!
 of meshes,  like a net.
   Bete malpighii.  The  fine net-work of the extre-
 mities of the pulmonary arteries.
   Rete mibabile.  A network of blood-vessels in the
 basis ofthe brain of quadrupeds.
   Rete mucosum.  Corpus reticulare; Corpus muco
 sum; Mucus malpigii.  A mucous substance, depo-
 sited in a net-like form, between the epidermis and
 cutis, which covers Ihe sensible cutaneous  papillae,
i connects the  epidermis  with tbe cutis, and gives the
' colour to  the body : in Europeans it is of a xvhite co-
| lour, in Ethiopians black.  Sec Shin.
   RETICULAR.    (Reticularis;  from  rete,  a net.)
 Interwoven like a net.
   RETIFORM.  (Rctiformis; from rete,  a net, and
 forma, resemblance.)  Net-like.
   RETINA.  (From rete, a net.)  Amphiblestraides.
 The  third, or innermost membrane of the  eye, ex
 panded round the choroid coat, lo the ciliary ligament
 It is the true organ of vision, and is formed by an ex
 pansion of the pulp of the optic nerve.   See Vision.
   Retina'culum.   (From  retineo,  to  prop or  re-
 strain.)  An instrument for keeping theboxvels in theii
 place.
   RETIN-ASPHALTUM.  See Retinite.
   RETINITE.  Retin-asphalt of Hatchet  A yelloxv
 ish and reddish-broxvn coloured mineral, composed of
 resin, asphalt, and earth; found  at Bovey Tracy, in
 Devonshire, adhering to coal.
   RETORT. (Retorta; from relorqueo, to bend back
 again:  probably so called, because its neck was curved
 and bent back again.)  A chemical vessel employed for
 many distillations, and most frequently for those which
 require a degree of heat superior to that of boiling water.
 They differ in form and materials:  when pierced with a
 little  hole  in  their roof,  they are called tubulated  re-
 torts.  They arc made  of common glass, stone-ware,
 and iron.
   RETRA'CTOR.  A muscle, the office of xvhich i»
 to retract the part into xx hich it is inserted.
   Retractor anouli oris.  See Buccinator.
   RETRAHENS.  Diawing back.
   Retrahkns auris.  Posterior auris, of Winslow.
 Retrahcns  auricula, of Albinus.  Deprimens auricula,
 of Douglas.   Retrahens  auriculam,  of  Coxvper; and
 Mastoido-conchinien, of Dumas.  Two small bundles
 of muscular fibres which arise  from the external and
 postes ior part of the mastoid process of the temporal
 bone  immediately above the insertion of the sterno-
 cleido-mastoideus  muscle.   They are  inserted  into
 that part of Ihe back of the ear which is opposite to
 the septum which divides  the concha and   scapha.
 Their  use  is to draxv the ear backwards, and stretch
 the concha.
   RETROCEDENT.  Retrocedens.   Rctrogradus
 When a disease that moves about from one  part to
 another, and ic sometimes fixed, has been some time in
                                         S43 
KHA                                            KB**
 tts more common situation, and  retires from it, it is
 said to be retrocndent.
   RETROGRADE.  See Retrocedcnt.
   Retrocedent gout.  See Arthritis.
   RETROVERSION.  Retroversio.  See Uterus, re-
 troversion of.
   RETUSUS.  Retuse.  Applied  to a leaf, xvhich ends
 in a broad shallow notch, as in the Rumex digynus.
   REUSSITE.   A vegetable compound saline,  found
 as an efflorescence on the surface, in the country  round
 Seidlitz and Seidschutz.
  REVERBERATORY. Sec Furnace.
   REVOLUTUS.  Revolute, rolled back. Applied to
 a leaf, tlie margin of xvhicli is turned or rolled  back-
 xvards, as in Andromeda polifolia.
   REVULSION.  (Revulsio; from  revello, to  draxv
 axvay.)  An  old term used by the humoral patholo-
 gists,  signifying  the draxving of humours a contrary
 xvav.
  RHABARBARUM.   (From  Rha, and barbarus,
 xvild : so called  because it xvas brought from the  banks
 of the Rha, noxv called  the Wolga,  in Russia.) See
 Rheum.
   Rhabarbarum album.  See  Convolvulus mechoa-
 canna.
  Rhauarbarum antiquorum.   See Rheum rhapon-
 ticum.
  Rhabarbarum dioscoridis.   See Rheum rhapon-
 ticum.
   Rhabarbarum  monachorum.   See  Rumex pa-
 ticntia.
  Rhabarbarum rhaponticum.  See Rheum rhapon-
 ticum.
  Rhabarbarum sibericum.  See Rheum undulatum.
  Rhabarbarum tartaricum.  See Rheum.
  Rhabarbarum verum.  See Rheum.
  RHACHIA'LGIA.  (From  paxn, the  spine of the
 back, and aXyos, pain.)  A pain in the spine of theback.
  RHA'CHIS.  (Paxif. the spine of the back.)   1. In
 anatomy, the spine.
  2. In botany, the common stalk or receptacle of the
 florets in the spikelets of grasses, or of the spikelets
 themselves; as  in Lolium,  Trilicum,  Hordeum, Sec.
 It  also means the rib or leaf-stalk of ferns, which is
 often winged or  bordered.
  RHACHISA'GRA.  (From paw- t>>e  spine of the
 hack, and aypa, a prey.)   A sudden pain  in tlie  spine,
 applied to gout fixed in the spine of the back.
  Rhachita.  (From paxts, the spine of tlie back.)  A
 muscle belonging to tlie spine of the back.
  Rhachitis.  See Rachitis.
  RHACO'SIS.  (From  paxos, a  rag.)   A ragged ex-
 coriation.
  RHA'GAS.   (Rhagas, adis. f.;  from  prjyvvpi,  to
 break or bruise.)  Fissura.  A chap or cleft. A malig-
 nant, dry, and deep cutaneous fissure.
  Rhagoides.  (From pal-,  a grape-stone, and  ttios,
 a likeness: so called from its likeness  in colour to a
grape-seed.)  Applied to the retifonn tunic of the eye.
  RHA'MNUS.  (From  paid), lo  destroy ; because of
 its many thorns.)  1. The name of a genus of  plants
 in  the Linnaean system.  Class,  Pentandria; Order,
 Monogynia.  Buckthorn.
  2. The pharniacopoeial name of the purging  buck-
 thorn.  See Rhamnus catharticus.
  Rhamnus catharticus.  The  systematic name of
 the buckthorn.  Spina cervina;  Rhamnus solutivus;
 Spina  infcctoria;  Cervispina.   Purging buckthorn.
The  fruit or  berries of this shrub, Rhamnus—spinis
 tcrminalibus fioribus quadrifidis dioicis, foliis ovatis,
 caule erecto,of Linnaeus, have been long received Into the
 materia medica: they contain a pulpy, deep green juice,
 of a faint unpleasant smell, a bitterish, acrid, nauseous
 tas-tt, xvhicli operates briskly  by stool, producing  thirst,
 dryness of the mouth nnd fauces, and severe gripings,
 unless some diluting liquor be drank plentifully after
 it: at present It is rarely prescribed except as a drastic
 purge. The dose is  said to he about twenty of the
 fresh berries in substance; twice or thrice that number
 In decoction ; a  drachm or a drachm and a half of the
 dried berries; an ounce of the expressed juice, or half
 an ounce ofthe rob or extract, obtained  by inspissating
 the juice.
  Rhamnus franucla.  The systematic  name of the
 black alder.  Frui^gula alnus; Alnus nigra; Rham-
 nus—mcrmis fioribus monogynis hermnphroditis, foliis
 integerrimis, of Linnaeus.
      244
   All the parts of this tree, as well as of the common
 alder, are astringent and bitter.  The bark is most as-
 tringent; a decoction of it has cured agues, and  ia
 often used  lo repel inflammatory tumours of the throat,
 by way of  gargle. The inner yellow bark ofthe trunk,
 or root, given to 3 ij, vomits, purges, and gripes; but
 joined with aromatics, it operates more agreeably. An
 infusion, or decoction in waler, inspissated to an ex-
 tract, acts  yet more mildly than these.  It is mostly
 employed by the common people in dropsy and other
 disorders.  The berries of alder are  purgative.   They
 are not in  use under their own name,  but are often
 substituted for buckthorn berries ;  lo discover which, it
 should be observed, that  the berries Df the black alder
 have a black skin, a blue juice, and two seeds in each
 of them; whereas the buckthorn berries  have a green
 juice, nnd commonly four se< ds.  The substirutiof of
 one for the otlier is not of material consequence, as the
 plants belong to the same genus, and the berries do not
 differ greatly.
  Dr. Murray, of Gottingen,  recommends,  from his
 own experience, the leaves of alder  ebopped in small
 pieces, and heated over the lire, as the  best remedy
 with which he is acquainted for dispersing milk in the
 breasts.
  Rhamnus zizyphus.  The systematic  name of the
tree which affords the jujubs.  A  half-dried fruit o«*
the plum kind, about the size and shape of an  olive.
Jujubes, when in perfection, have an agreeable, sweet
taste, and in the southern parts of Europe, where they
are common, they make  an article of food in their re-
cent state, and of medicine when half dried.
  RHA'PHANUS.  See  Raphanus.
  RHAPONTICUM.  (Tlie Rha of Pontus, i. e. the
 Rha, in Russia, a river on the banks of which it grew.)
See Rheum rhaponticum.
  Rhapontic rhubarb.  See Rheum rhaponticum.
  Rhaponticum vulgare officinarum.   See Cen
 taurca.
  RHATA'NIA.  See Krameria.
  RHAZES, was born at Rhei,  in  the  province of
 Khorasan, about the year 852.  He is said not to have
 commenced the study of  medicine till more than thirty
 years old, having previously removed to Bagdad: but
 by indefatigable application he obtained the highest re-
 putation ; and was selected to superintend  the  cele-
 brated hospital of that city.   He has been considered as
 the Galen of the Arabians; and from bis assiduous at-
 tention during the rest of a long life, to the varieties of
disease, he  obtained the appellation of £Ae experienced.
 He travelled much in pursuit of knowledge, particu-
 larly into his native country; and was much consulted
 by Almanzor, the chief of that province, to whom se-
 veral of his writings arc dedicated, as xvell as by other
 princes.  Abi Osbaia enumerated 236 treatises com
 posed by Rhazes, but only a few of these are preserved
 through the medium of  Latin translations.  The ten
 books dedicated to Almanzor, were designed by him as
 a complete  bodyof physic, and indeed may be regarded
 as the great  magazine of ail the Arabian  medicine,
 the ninth book  in particular, treating of the cure of
diseases,  was in such general estimation for several
 centuries, as  to be used as a  text-book by professors.
 Hoxvever, they contain little more than the substance
of the writings of the Greek physicians; though  cer-
 tainly tho small-pox, and a fexv other diseases, are first
 distinctly described  by Rhazes.  He was author also
 of the first treatise on the diseases of children.  The
 use of chemical preparations in medicine appears like-
 wise to have originated xvith him, or at least with some
 of the Arabians.  He died  in the year 932.  Besides
 the ten books above mentioned, and the tract on small-
 pox, there are extant by him  a sort of commonplace
 book, entitled "Continens;" and six books of. Apho-
 risms, under the title of "De Secretis."
  RHE'UM.  (From Rha, a river in Russia, now called
 the Wolga, from the banks of which  it  was  first
 brought.)   I. The name of n genus of plants in the
 Linnaean system.  Class, Enneandria;  Order, Tri
gynia.  Rhubarb.
  2.  The pharmacopceial name  of  the officinal rhu
 barb.  See Rheum palmatvm.
  Rheum palmatum.  The systematic name ofthe
 officinal  rhubarb.  Rhabarbarum;  Rheon;  Rhaum;
 Barbaria; Lapathum orientate; Lapathum chinense;
 Rhabarbarum verum : P.l.abarbarumtartaricum. Rhu-
 barb. It was not until  the year 1732 that naturaliis 
RHE
RHE
■ecatne acquainted with any plant which seemed to
afford  the rhabarbarum officinale; xvhen some plant*
received from Russia by Jussieu  at Paris, and  Rliaud
at Chelsea, were said to supply this important desidera-
tum, aud as such xveie adopted by Linnaeus, in his first
edition of the Species Plantarum, under the name of
Rheum rkibarbarum. This,  however, xvas not gene-
rally received as the genuine rhubarb plant; and with a
view to ascertain this matter more completely Kaxv Boer-
haave procured from a Tartarian rhubarb merchant tne
seeds of those plants whose roots he annually sold, and
xvhich were admitted at Petersburg!! to be the true rhu-
barb.  These seeds were soon  propagated, and were
discovered by De Gorter to produce txvo distinct spe-
cies, viz. the Rheum rhabarbarum of Linnaeus, or as it
has since been called, the Rheum undulatum, and an-
other species, a specimen of which was presented lo
Linna-us, xvfio declared  it to be a nexv one; and it xvas
first  mentioned in the second edition  of the Species
Plantarum, in 1762, by the nauie of Rheum palmatum.
Previous to this time, De Gorter had repeatedly sent  its
seeds to Linnaeus, but  tlie young  plants xvhich they
produced constantly  perished; at length he obtained
the fresh  root,  wliich succeeded very well at Upsal,
and afterivardenabled the younger Linneus to describe
this plant, ann. 17ti~.   But two years antecedent to
this, Dr. Hope's account of the Rheum palmatum, as it
grew in the Botanic Garden near Edinburgh, had been
read before the  Royal Society at London; and of the
great estimation in which this plant was held by him,
we hax-e the following proof:—*' From the perfect simi-
larity of this root with the best foreign rhubarb,  in
taste, smell, colour, and  purgative qualities, we cannot
Joubl of our being at last possessed of ihe plant which
produces the true rhubarb, aud  may reasonably enter-
tain the agreeable expectation of its proving a very im-
portant acquisition to Britain."
   But from the relation we have given, it appears lhat
both the seeds ofthe R. palmatum, and the R. undula-
tum, were transmitted to Petersburg!!, as those of the
true rhubarb; we  are therefore  to conclude, that the
former species  has an equal  claim to this importance
with the latter; and  from further inquiries made  in
Russia, there is the best  authority for  believing that the
R. compactum  also affords this very useful drug.  The
seeds of the R. palmatum were first introduced into
Britain in 176eJ, by Dr.  Hounsy (who sent them from
Russia), and were supposed to be a part of that already
mentioned; and since llieir prosperous cultivation  by
the late professor of botany at Edinburgh, the propa-
gation of this  plant  has been gradually extended  to
most of our English gardens, and wilh a degree of suc-
cess which promises, in time, to supersede the importa-
tion of the foreign root.  Two  sorts  of rhubarb roots
are usually imported into this country for mr iical use  ;
viz. the Chinese aud the Tartary rhubarl.;  the first is
in oblong pieces, flatlish  oa one side, and convex on the
other;  compact, hard, heavy, interrudly of a dull-red
colour, variegated  with  yelloxv and white, aud when
recently powdered, appears yellow, but on being kept
becomes gradually redder.  The second  is the most
valuable, and is brought to us in roundish pieces, xvilh
a large hole through  the middle of each;  it is more
soft and friable  than the former sort,and exhibits, when
broken, many  streaks of a bright red colour.  " The
marks ofthe goodness of rhubarb are, the liveliness of
its colour when cut; its being firm and solid, but not
flinty or hard;  its being easily pulverable, and appear-
ing when powdered of a fine bright yellow colour; its
imparting to the spittle when chexved a deep saffron
tinge, and  not  proving  slimy or mucilaginous iu the
mouth; its taste is subacrid, bitterish, and  somexvhat
styptic; the smell lightly aromatic."
   The purgative qualities of rhubarb  arc extracted
more  perfectly by water than by rectified  spirit: the
part remaining after tbe action of water is almost, if
not wholly, inactive; xvhereas after repeated digestion
in spirit, it  proves  still very considerably purgative.
The virtue off a watery infusion, on being inspissated
by a gentle  beat, is so much diminished, that a drachm
of the extract is said to have scarcely any greater effect
than a scruple ofthe root in substance.  The spirituous
tincture loses less; half a drachm of this extract proving
moderately purgative.  The qualities of this root, says
Dr. Cullen, are that of a gentle purgative, and so gentle
that it is often inconvenient or. account ofthe bulk of
tbe dose required, which ir. adults, must be from 3ss.
to 3 j.  When given in a large dose it will <><x*n(m
some  griping, as other purgatives do; but it is hardly
ever heating to the system, or shows the other effects
of the more drastic purgatives.  The purgative quality
is accompanied xvith a bitterness, which is often useful
in restoring the tone of the stomach xvhen it has betn
lost;  and, for the most part, its bitterness makes it sit
better on the stomach than many other purgatives do
lis operation joins well  with neutral laxatives; and
both  together operate in a less dose than either  of
them  xvould singly. Some degree of stypticity is alxvays
evident in this medicine; and as Ibis  quality acts
xvhen that of the purgative has ceased, so in  cases r.l
diarrhoea, xvhen any evacuation is proper, rhubarb lit."
been considered as the most proper remedy to be em-
ployed.   It must, hoxvcver, be remarked here, that, in
many cases of diarrhoea, no  further evacuation Ihan
what is occasioned  by ihe disease, is necessary oi
proper.   The use of rhubarb, iu substance, for keeping
the belly regular, for which il is frequently employed,
is by no means proper, as the astringent quality is ready
to undo xvhat the purgative has done; bul it  is found
that the purpose  mentioned may be obtained  by ii,  if
the rhubarb is chexved in the mouth, and no mote  is
swallowed than what the saliva has dissolved.   And il
must  be remarked, lhat in this xvay employed it is very
useful to dyspeptic persons.  Analogous lo this, is the
use of rhubarb in solulion, in which it appears lo me,
that the astringent quality is not so largely extracted as
to operate so powerfully as xvhen the rhubarb  xvas em-
ployed in substance.
  The officinal preparations of this drug arc, a watery
and a vinous infusion, a simple and a compound tinc-
ture.  It is also an ingredient iu different compositions.
  Rheum rhaponticum.  The systematic name of ihe
rhaponlic rhubaib. Rhaponticum; Rhabarbarum dios-
corides ;  Rhabarbarum  antiquorum.   The  root ol
this species appears  to have been the true rhubarb cf
the ancients.  By some il is confounded with  the mo-
dern  rhubarb, though considerably different from that
root in  appearauce, as well as in quality.  The rha-
pontic is of a dusky colour on ils surface, and a loose
spongy texture ; is more adstringent than rhubarb, and
less purgative;  in this last intention, two or three
drachms are required for a dose.
  Rheum undulatum.  The systematic name of the
Siberian rhubarb.  The Rheum—foliis subvillosis un-
dulatis petiolis aqualibus, of Linnaeus.  Il possesses
similar virtues to those of ihe  palmate spee'es, and  is
in common use in Russia.
  RHE  UMA.  (From ptu, to flow.)  The discharge
from the nostrils or lungs arising from cold ; hence tlie
following lines of ihe school ofSalernum :
  Sifiuit ad pectus, dicatur rheuma catarrhus,
  Ad fauces bronchus, ad nares esto coryza!
  RHEUMATI'SMUS.   (From  ptvpanlu, to be  af-
flicted with defluxions.)   Dolores rheumalici el art hi i-
tici, of Hoffman.  Myositis, of Sagar.  This is a genus
of disease in the Class Pyrexia, and Order Plegmasia,
of Cullen; characterized by pyrexia, pains in the joints,
increased by the action of the muscles belonging to the
joint,  and heat of the part. The blood, after venesec-
tion, exhibits an inflammatory crust.  Rheumatism  it
distinguished into acute and chronic.  The acute is pie-
ceded by shivering, heat,  thirst, and frequent pulse;
after.xvliich the pain commences, and soon fixes on  tht
joints.  The chronic rheumatism is distinguished ley
pain in the joints, without pyrexia, and is divided into
three  species; lumbago, affecting the loins; sciatica,
affecting the hip; and  arthrodynia, or pains in the
joints.  The acute rheumatism mostly terminates in
one of these species.
  Rheumatism may arise at all times of tlie year, when
there  are  frequent vicissitudes of the weather, from
heat to cold, but the spring and autumn are the seasons
in which it is most prevalent; and it attacks persons
of all  ages; but very young people are less subject to  it
than adults.
  Obstructed perspiration, occasioned either by weal-
ing wet clothes, lying in damp linen, or damp rooms, oi
by bein« exposed to cool  air when the  body has been
much heated by exercise, is the cause which  usually
produces rheumatism.  Those who are much  afflicted
with this complaint, are very  apt to be sensible of the
approach of wet xveather, by Trading wandering pains
about them at that period.
  Acute rheumatism usually comes on with lassitude
                                        245 
RH1
RHO
and rigours., succeeded by heat, thirst, anxiety, restless-
ness, and a hard pulse; soon after xvhich, excruciating
pains are felt in different parts of the body, but more
particularly in the joints ofthe shoulder, xvrist, knees,
and ankles, or  perhaps  in the hip; and these keep
shifting from one joint to another, leaving a redness
and swelling in every part they have occupied, as like-
wise a great tenderness to the touch.  Toxvards eve-
ning there  is usually an exacerbation, or increase of
fever;  and  during the night, the pains become more
severe, and shift from one joint to another.
  Early in  the course of the disease, some degree of
sweat ng usually occurs; but it is seldom so copious as
either to remove the pains or to prove critical.  In the
beginning, tlie urine is without sediment; but as the
disease advances in  its progress, nnd the fever admits
of considerable remissions, a lateritious sediment is de-
posited ; but this by no means proves critical.
  Chronic rheumatism is attended xvitii pains in  the
head, shoulders, knees, and other large joints, which,
at times, are confined to one particular  part, and at
others  shift from one joint to another, without  occa-
sioning any fever; and in this manner the complaint
continues often for a considerable time, and at length
goes off.
  No danger is attendant on chronic rheumatism; but
a person having been once attacked with it, is ever
afterward more or less liable to returns of it; and an
incurable anchylosis is sometimes formed, in conse-
quence of very frequent relapses.  Neither is the acute
rheumatism frequently accompanied with much dan-
ger ; but, in a few instances, the  patient has been de-
stroyed  by general inflammation, and now and then by
a metastasis to some vital part, such as the head and
lungs.  Acute rheumatism, although accompanied with
a considerable degree of inflammation  in particular
parts, has seldom been knoxvn lo terminate in suppu-
ration ; but a serous or gelatinous effusion  takes place.
  Rheumatism seldom proving fatal, very few oppor-
tunities have offered for dissections of the disease.   In
the fexv xvhich  have occurred, the same  appearances
have been observed as in inflammatory fever, effusion
within tlie cranium, and noxv and then affections of
some ofthe viscera.
  In the acute rheumatism the general antiphlogistic
plan of treatment is to  be  pursued, so long as the fe-
brile and inflammatory symptoms are severe.  It may
be sometimes proper to beg.in by a moderate abstraction
of blood, where the  patient is young and plethoric;
and if the  disease  attacks any  important part, this
measure must be more actively pursued; but in general
it does not appear necessary.  Even the I ocal abstrac-
tion of blood is  hardly advisable, unless Ihe affection
be  very much  fixed to one part, and tlie symptoms
urgent: and it may be said, that most local applica-
tions are ralher likely to drive the disease from one
part to another, than to afford permanent relief.  After
freely opening the bowels, the chief object is to  en-
deavour to procure a general and mild diaphoresis by
antimonial and mercurial preparations, assisted by
opium, or other narcotic, which may also alleviate the
pain, and occasionally by the xvarm bath, xvhere  the
skin is  particularly harsh and dry.   Digitalis, by mo-
derating the circulation, xvill  sometimes be usefully
conjoined xvith these medicines.  As tlie fever abates,
and the strength appears impaired, tonics should  be
given tu promote the convalescence of the patient, and
obviate a relapse:  and xvhere the inflammation re-
mains  fixed iu a particular joint, after the pyrexia has
ceased, fomentations and other  local measures, ac-
cording to  the  state of the part, may be employed for
its  removal.   In the arthrodynia, or chronic rheuma-
tism, as it  is commonly called, the  remedies of chief
efficacy are stimulant diaphoretics  in moderate  doses
regularly persevered  iu,  assisted  by  various  local
means of promoting the circulation through the affected
part.   Anodynes may be also used xvith advantage
I-  'h internally and locally:  nnd attention should be
paid to support the strength, and correct any observa-
ble deficiency in Ihe several functions.
  RHEUME    (From ptu. to floxv.)  A defluxion, a
common cold or catarrh.
  RHEUMIC  ACID.  An acid said to be peculiar to
rhubarb, but not yet sufficiently examined.
  Rhibk'sia.  (From ribes, a currant.;  See Ribes.
  RHINiE'US.   (Rhinaus, sc musculus; from ptv
the nose.;   See Compressor nirul-
      246
   Rhinenchy'tes.  (From ptv, the  nose, and ryx"*i
to pour iu.)   A syringe for the nose.
  RHINOPHO'NIA.  (From pjv, the nose, and qjuvn,
the voice.)  A nasal xtoice.
  Rhiza'gra.  (Frompjga, the  root, and ayptvu, to
seize.)   An  instrument  for taking out  the  roots 01
stumps of teeth.
  RHODIA.  See Rhodiola.
  RHODIOLA.   (A diminutive  of Rhodia;  from
ooiov, a rose; so called because its root smeUslike the
damaskrnsei The name oi" a genus of plants.  Class,
Diacia; Order, Octandria.
  Rhodiola  rosea.   The  radix  rhodiae  of some
pharmacopoeias is the produce of tiie Rhodiola rosea,
of Linnaeus, called rosexvort.  When  dry, it has a very
pleasant  smell, resembling that  of the damask rose.
In this odorous matter the medical virtue of the root
resides.  Poultices iu which this root enters as a chief
ingredient are said to allay violent pains of the head.
  RHODIUM.  (From poiov, arose; a xvood xvliich
smells like roses.)  1.  Rhodium, or rosewood.
  2. Anew metal discovered among the grains of crude
platina, by Dr. Wollaston.  The mode of" obtaining it
in the state of a triple salt combined xvitii muriatic acid
and soda, has been given under the article Palladium.
This may be dissolved in xvater, and the metal preci-
pitated from it in a black poxvder by zinc.
  This powder, exposed to heat, continues black; but
with borax it acquires a white metallic lustre, though
it remains infusible.  Sulphur, or arsenic, hoxvever,
renders it fusible, and may afterward be expelled by
continuing the  heat.  Tlie button, however,  is not
malleable.   Its specific gravity  appears  not to ex-
ceed 11.
  Rhodium  unites easily xvith every metal that has
been tried except  mercury.  With gold or silver it
forms a very malleable alloy, not oxidated by a high
degree of heat, bul becoming iucrusted with a  black
oxide xvhen sloxvly cooled.  One-sixth of it does not
perceptibly alter the colourof gold, but renders it much
less fusible.   Neither nitric nor  nitro-muriatic acid
acts on it in  either of these alloys; but if it be fused
xvitii three parts of bismuth, lead, or copper, the alloy
is entirely soluble in a mixture of nitric acid wilh txvo
parts of muriatic.
  The oxide was soluble in every acid Dr. Wollaston
tried.   The solution in muriatic acid did not crystal
lize by evaporation.   Its residuum formed a rose-
coloured solution xvith alkohol.   Muriate  of ammonia
and of soda, and nitrate of potassa, occasioned no pre-
cipitate in the murialic solution, but  formed xvith the
oxide triple  salts,  xvhich  xvere insoluble  in alkohol.
Its  solution  in  nitric acid likexvise did not crystallize,
but silver, copper, and other metals precipitated it.
  The solution  of the triple salt with muriate of soda
was not  precipitated by muriate, carbonate, or hydro-
sulphuret of ammonia, by carbonate or ferroprussiate
of potassa, or  by carbonate of soda.  The caustie
alkalies however throw doxvn a yelloxv oxide, soluble
in excess of alkali; and a solulion of platina occasions
in it a yellow precipitate.
  The title of this product to be considered us a dis-
tinct metal xvas  at  first questioned;  but  the experi-
ments of Dr.  Wollaston have since been confirmed  by
Descotils.
  Rhodium  lignum.  See Aspulathus canariensis.
  RHODODENDRON.   (From poiov,  a rose, and
ievlpov, a tree:  so called because its floxvers resemble
the rose.)  1. The name  of a genus of plants in the
Linnaean system.   Class, Decandria; Order, Mono
gynia.
  2. The pharniacopoeial  name of the oleander. See
Rhododendron chrysanthemum.
  Rhododendron chrysanthemum.  The systema
tic  name of the oleander, rosebay, or yelloxv rhodo-
dendron.  This species of rhododendron, foliis oblon
gis impunctis supra seabris venosissimis, corolla ro-
tata irregulari gemma florifera ferrtigincortomentosa
hns not yet been introduced in Britain;  it is a native
of Siberia, affecting mountainous situations, and flow
ering  iu June and July.
  This plant and  its medical virtues xvere first de-
scribed in 1747, by Gmelin and* Haller.   Little attcn
lion, hoxvever, was paid to it, till the year 1779,  xvhen
it xvas strongly recommended  by Koelpin as an effica-
cious medicine, not only in rheumatism and gout, but
even  in veneteal cases; and it is now very generally 
RHU
RHU
 employe* in chronic rheumatisms, in various paifsof
 Europe.  The leaves, xvhich are the part directed for
 medicina.  use, have  a  bitterish subadstringent laste.
 Taken in a large dose, they prove a narcotic poison;
 and, in moderate doses  they are said to occasion heat,
 thirst, a degree of delirium, anil a  peculiar sensation
 of the parts affected.
   Asa powerful  and active medicine, this shrub,says
 Dr.  Woodville, may probably be found an addition to
 the  materia medica.  Dr. Home, xvho tried il unsuc-
 cessfully in some cases of acute  rheumatism, says,
 " It  appeais to be one of the most poxverful sedatives
 which we  have, as, in most of the  trials, it made the
 pulse remarkably sloxv,  and in one patient reduced it to
 thirty-eight beats.  And in other cases, in xvhicli the
 rhododendron has been  used at Edinburgh, it has been
 firoductivc of  good  effects, and accordingly it is  now
 ntroduced into the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia.  The
 manner of using  this plant by tlie  Siberians, xvas hy
 putting two drachms of the dried leaves in an earthen
 pot,  with about ten ounces of boiling  xvater, keeping
 it near a boiling heat for a night; and this they took in
 tlie morninc, and  by repealing it three  or four times,
 generally effected a cure.
  Rhodo'meli.   (From poiov, the rose,  and ptXi,
 honey.)  Honey of roses.
  RHtHADE^E.  (From rhaas, the red poppy.)   The
 name of an order in Linnaeus's Fragments of a Natu-
 ral Method, consisting of  poppy  and similar plants,
 the calyx of xvhich is caducous, and the  fruit a capsule
 or selyna.
  RHCE'AS.   (Rhaas, ados. in.; from ptu, to flow.)
 The  wild poppy is sometimes so called.  See Papaver
 rhaas.
  RHfJETlZITE.   A glistening  and  pearly  white
 mineral, xvhich  is  found  in  primitive  rocks, with
 quartz Psitzsci, in the Tyrol.
  RHOMBOIDE'US.   (From popSos,  a geometrical
 figure, whose sides are equal but not right-angled, and
 tiios, resemblance.)   Rhomboidcus major and  minor.
 R/iomboides, of Douglas, Winsloxv, and Coxvper; and
 Cervici dorso  scapulaire, of Dumas.  This muscle,
 which is so named from its shape, is situated imme-
 diately under the trapezius.  We find it usually, though
 not  always, divided into two portions,  which Albinus
 describes as txvo distinct muscles.  The uppermost of
 these, or rhomboidcus minor, arises tendinous from the
 spinous processes of the three inferior vertebra of the
 neck, and from the ligamentum colli;  the lowermost,
 or rhomboidcus  major, arisvs tendinous  from  the
 spinous processes of the back: the  former is inserted
 into  the basis of the scapula, opposite to its spine; the
 latter into all the basi3 of the scapula, below its spine.
 Its use is to draw the  scapula obliquely upwaids, and
 directly backwards.
  RHOMBSPAR.  See  Bitterspar.
  RHOMBUS.  Diamond-shaped, approaching to a
 square: applied to leaves, &c.; as those of the Cheno-
 podium olidum, and to the pod of Cicer arientinum.
  RHONCHUS. (toyxos, rhonchus, stertor.) Snoring.
  RHOPALOSIS.  (From poiraXov, a club.) A disor-
 der in which the hair cleaves together, and hangs down
 In clusters resembling clubs.  The plaited hair.  See
 Plica.
  RHUBARB. See Rheum.
  Rhubarb, monk's.   See Rumex paticntia.
  Rhubarb, rhapontic.   See Rheum rhaponticum.
  RHUS.  (From ptu, to flo-.x  : so  called because it
 stops fluxes.)   The  name of a genus of plants in the
 Linnaean system.  Class, Pentandria;  Order, Trigy-
 nia.   The sumach-tree.
  Rhus beloica.  The Dutch myrtle is sometimes so
 termed.  See Myrica gale.
  Rhus  coriaria.    Sumach.   Elm-leaved sumach.
 This plant, Rhus—foliis pinnatis obtusiuscule serratus
 ovalibus sublus villosis, of Linnaeus, is a small tree, a
 native of the south of Europe.  It is singular that this
 ia the only species of the genus rhus which is per-
 fectly innocent; the others being active poisons.  Both
 the leaves and berries of this plant are used medici-
nally, as astringents  and  tonics; the  former are the
most poxverful, and have  been long in common use,
wh.3re they may be easily obtained in various com-
plaints indicating this class of remedies. The berries,
wliich  are  red, and of a roundish compressed  figure,
sontain  a pulpy matter, in xvhich is lodged  a broxvn,
hard, ox-al seed, manifesting a  considerable  degree of
adstringency.  The pulp, even xvhen dry, is grateful.
aud has been discovered to contain an essential salt,
similar to that of wood-sorrel.   An  infusion of the
dried fruit is not rendered black by a solution of iron,
hence  it appears to be destitute of adstringency.  But
its  acidity is extremely grateful;  therefore, like many
other fruits,  these berries may be advantageously taken
to allay febrile heat, and to correct bilious putrescency.
  [Rms olabrum.   Tlie berries of this, and sexeial
other American species of sumach, have a strong, acid
taste, aud at  times exhibit crystallized or saline parti
cles on their surface.  Dr  Hnrsefield supposes the acid
they contain l> be  tartaric; bul it is,  not improbably,
an  acid sui gen iris.  The acidulous infusion of these
berries is used aj a  refrigerant in fcveis, and agaigle
in sore throats. The bark and leaves of the shrub die
highly  astringent, and  are  used  in tanning leather.—
Big. Mat. Med.  A.J
  Rhus radicans.  See Rhus vcrnix.
  Rhus tipiiinum.  The systematic name of the Vir
ginian  sumach, Ihe seeds of xvhich are said to be useful
iu stopping haemorrhages.
  Rhcs toxicodendron.  Poison oak, or sumach.
This plant is a native  of North America. The stems,
if cut,  exude a milky juice, which inflames the skin.
The leaves, noxv inserted in the pharmacopoeia, are in-
odorous, and have a mawkish, subacrid  taste.  Their
virtues are extracted more perfectly by xxater than by
alkohol.   They prove stimulant  and  narcotic, xxlien
taken internally.  Dr. Alderson,  of Hull, found Ihem
successful in several cases of paralysis.  They excite
a sense of heat and pricking, and inegular twitches in
the affected limbs.  They have been sometimes useful,
also, in  herpetic eruptions.  The dose may be from
half a  grain, gradually increased, to four grains, twe
or three times a-day.  •.
  Rhus vernix.   Rhus radicans.   The  systematic
name of a poisonous  plant, ihe efficacy of xvhicli Dr.
Fresnoi has endeavouied to prove, in me disease called
paralysis, and herpetic affections.  He,  in order that
others  should  not  suffer by his experiments, began by
taking an infusion of one of the tlnec  foliola of which
each leaf of this plant consists; aud, as  this dose pro-
duced  no sensible effect,  he increased the number to
txvelve.  His urine and perspiration weie increased  in
quantity, and he had some pains in his belly.  He re-
lates seven cases, in which he thinks  he can remove
ail  doubt of the efficacy of this  infusion, in herpetic
affections.  From these, the following are selected:
  " A  countryivoman," says Dr. Fresnoi,  " came  to
me  in the month of July, 1780, to consult me about the
herpes  farinosa, wilh which her face had been covered
for  more than a year.  She was ordered to take au in-
fusion  of this  plant; and, in six weeks, was entirely
free from the disease."
  He likewise relates five cases of paralysis, which
were cured by the use of this plant.
  Tbe  leaves of this plant are to be cut when in the
greatest vigour, about the month of June.  " Those
xvho cut this  plant,"  says  Dr. F., "wear leathern
gloves,  on account  of its  poisonous qualities." Tlie
same gentleman observes, he saw one case  in which
inflammation of the eyelids xvas  produced  by the va-
pour from (he plant.   Four pounds ofthe leaves, being
distilled  with  thirty-two pounds of xvater, give it a
slight odour, although  the plant is entirely free from  it.
Its  taste is pungent, and inflames the mouth.  The de-
coction which remains in the still is brown, nnd  is
generally covered with a light brown pellicle.  When
strained and evaporated, il gives a shining  black ex-
Iract.  The  leaves inflame and swell  the  hands and
anus of those who take  them out of  the  still, and
bring on an  itching, xvhich remains for  several days.
Forty-two pounds of the leaves afford twenty ounces
of extract, of a proper consistence for pills.
  "A girl, in  Flanders," says Dr. Fresnoi, "already
subject to fits, laid down some flowers in her bedroom.
Next day she told me  that she had undergone a great
change:  that she had had no fits,  and  slept much bet-
ter.  It occurred to me," says Dr. F. " that the flowers
occasioned this change.  Next day, the  flowers being
removed, and the windoxv opened, the  convulsions re-
appeared ; on their being again introduced, the fits dis-
appeared ; which proved  plainly it xvas  the  effect of
the  flowers.  The success of the extract, in tussii
convulsiva, exceeded  my  hopes; forty-two children
being cured  of this disorder in Valenciennes, durini
                                        247 
RlB
R1C
Ihe and of the year 1786.  Four grains of extract ««>
to be dissolved in four ounces of syrup, of xvhich one
table-spoonful, given to the child every third hour, ge-
nerally abates the cough, and  mostly leaves them."
  RHY'AS.  ('Vvas, a disease of the eye.)  A decrease
or defect of the  lachrymal caruncle.  The proximate
cause is a native defect; or it may originate from exci-
sion, erosion, or acrimony.  This disorder is commonly
incurable, and it induces an  incurable epiphora, or a
continual weeping.
  RHYPIA.   (From  'Pvpos, sordes.)   Foul,  sordid,
ill-cond'.ioned.
  Rhytido'sis.  See Rutidosis.
  RIB.  Costa.  The ribs are the  long curved bones
which are placed in an oblique direction at the sides of
the chest.   Their number  is generally twelve on each
■ide ;  but, iu some subjects, it  has been found  to be
thirteen, and in others, though more rarely, only ele-
ven.  They are distinguished into true and false ribs.
The seven upper ribs, which are articulated to the ster-
num,  are called true ribs; and the five lower ones,
xvliich are not immediately attached to that bone, are
called false ribs.  AI the posterior extremity of each
rib, we observe a small  head, divided by  a  middle
ridge  into txvo articulating surfaces, covered with car-
tilage, which are received into two cavities, contiguous
to each other, and formed  in the upper and loxver part
nf each dorsal vertebra, as we  have observed  in our
descripiion of the  spine.   This articulation, xvhich is
secured by a capsular ligament, is a species of gingly-
mus, and allows only of motion upxvards  and down-
wards.  The head of each rib is supported by a short
neck, and immediate'y beyond this xve find a flattened
tubercle, affording an oblong  nnd slightly convex sur-
face, which is articulated  xvith the transverse process
of the loxvest of the txvo dorsal Vertebrae, with xvhich
its head is  articulated.  At some  little distance from
this tuberosity, the rib makes a considerable curve,
which is usually called its angle.  From the  tubercle to
the angle, the ribs  are of considerable thickness, and
approaching to a cylindrical  shape; but, from  the an-
gle to their anterior extremity, they become thinner and
flatter.  To this anterior extremity is  fixed a  long,
broad, nnd  strong cartilage, which, in each of the true
ribs, readies to the sternum, where its articulation is
secured by a capsular ligament, and by otlier ligamen-
tous fibres.  The cartilages of the sixth and seventh
ribs being longer than the rest, arc extended upxvards,
in order to reach the  sternum,  the inferior  portion of
wliich is about on a level with the fifth rib.   The carti-
lages  of these txvo ribs are usually united into  one, so
as to  leax-e no space between them.  The false ribs are
supported in a different manner;  their cartilages ter-
minate in an acute point before they reach the sternum,
the eighth rib being attached by its cartilage to the
lower edge of the cartilage of the seventh, or  last of
the true ribs; the ninth in the same manner to the
eighth; and Ihe tenth to the ninth ; the cartilages of
each  rib being shorter than that  of the rib above it.
The eleventh and twelfth, which  are the txvo lower-
most  ribs, are not fixed at their anterior extremities
like the other ribs, but  hang loose, and are supported
iiuly by their ligamentous fibres, and by muscles and
other  soft parts.
   The external surface of each rib is somewhat con-
vex, and its internal surface slightly concave.  On the
Inferior and interior surface of these bones xve observe
a long fossa, for  the lodgment of the intercostal vessels
and nerves.  This channel, however, does not extend
through the whole length of the rib, being observable
neither at the posterior extremity, where the  vessels
have  not yet reached the bone, nor at the fore-end,
where they are distributed to the parts betxveen the
ribs.  We seldom see any  marks of it in the short ribs,
as in  the first, second, eleventh, and twelfth.
   Thus far we  have given  a description which is ap-
plicable to  the  ribs in general; but, as we find them
differing from each other in shape, length, situation,
and other respects, it xvill be right to speak of each rib
in particular.
   Tho first rib, xvhich is  the shortest of any,  is like-
wise  the most curved.  It is broader than the other
ribs,  and,  instead of being  placed, as they are, ob-
liquely, and xvith ils ,.dges upxvards nnd doxvnxvards.
It is  situated nearly in a transverse direction, one of
 its edges being placed inxvards, or nearly so. Of these
 edges,  the inner one  is sharp, and the outer one
  miex /iat rounded.  Its inner surface is smooth, ana*
 its superior  surface  is sometimes slightly depressed
 anterior y by the  clavicle.  The bead of this rib, in-
 stead of being angular, is  flattened, and  slightly eon
 .vex, being  received  into  a cavity, which is formed
 xvholly in the first vertebra, and not by txvo vertebra,
 as in the case with the other ribs.
   The  second rib is  longer than the first, but shorter
 than the ribs below  it.  Its angle is placed at a small
 distance  rom its tuberosity, and its head is articulated
 xvith txvo vertebrae, like the other ribs.  The other ten
 ribs, the last two only excepted, differ from the general
 description we have  given, chiefly in the  difference of
 their length, which goes on gradually increasing, from
 the first or uppermost, lothe seventh or last of the true
 ribs, and as gradually diminishing from that to  the
 twelfth.  Their obliquity,  in respect40 the spine, like-
 wise increases as  they descend, as does  the  distance
 between the head and angle of each rib, from the first
 rib to the ninth.  The two loxvest ribsdiffer from all tho
 rest in  the following particulars:—Their heads,  like
 that of the first rib, are rounded, and received into a
 cavity formed entirely in  the body of one vertebra ;
 they have no tubercle for  their articulation  with  the
 transverse processes,  to  which they are  only loosely
 fixed by ligaments, and, iu  this respect, the tenth rib is
 sometimes found  to agree  with them: they are much
 shorter than the rest of the false ribs, and the twelfth
 is still shorter than the eleventh.  The length of the
 latter, however, is different in different subjects, and is
 not always found to be the  same on both sides.   Ante-
 riorly, as we have already observed, their cartilages
 are short and loose, not being attached to the cartilages
 of the other ribs;  and this seems  to  be, because the
 most considerable  motions of the trunk  are not per-
 formed on the lumbar vertebrae alone, hut likewise on
 the lower vertebrae of the  back ; so that  if these two
 ribs had been confined anteriorly, like the rest, and
 likewise united to the bodies of  two verteBrae, and to
 the transverse process, this disposition xvould have im-
 peded the motion of the txvo last vertebra? of tbe back,
 and consequently would have affected the motion of
 the trunk in general.
   The use of the ribs is to give  form to the thorax,
 and to cover and  defend  the lungs;  also to assist in
 breathing; for they are joined to the vertebrae by regu-
 lar hinges, which alloxv of short motions, and to  the
 sternum by cartilages, which yield to the motion ofthe
 ribs, nnd return again when the muscles cease to act.
   Ribbed-leaf.  SeeJVercosus.
   RI'BES.   The  name of a genus of plants in  the
 Linnaean system.  Class,  Pentandria; Order, Mono-
 gynia.   The currant-tree.
   Ribes  nigrum.   Black currant.  This indigenous
 plant,  Ribes—racemis pilosis, fioribus  oblongis, of
 Linnaeus, affords  larger berries than those of the red,
 which are said to be peculiarly useful in sore throats,
 and to  possess a diuretic poxver in a very  considerable
 degree.  The leaves ofthe  black currant are extremely
 fragiant, and have been  likexvise  recommended  for
 their medicinal virtue, xvhich Bcrgius  states  to be
 muudifienns, pellens,  diuretica.  The officinal prepara-
 tions of the berries are the syrupus ribis nigri, and the
 succus rtbis nigri inspissatus.
   Ribes  rubrum.   Grossularia non  spinosa.  The
 red currant.   Ribes—inerme; racemis glabris pendu-
 lis, fioribus  planiusculis,  of  Linnaeus.   The xvhite
 currant-tree  is merely a variety of the red, the fruit
 of hoth is perfectly analogous; therefore, xvhat is said
 of the one applies to the other. Tlie red currant is abun-
 dantly cultivated in gardens, and, from its grateful aci-
 dity*', is universally acceptable, either as nature presents
 it, or variously prepared by  art, with  the addition of
 sugar.   Considered medicinally, it is esteemed to be
 moderately refrigerant, antiseptic, attenuant, and ape-
 rient.   It may be used xvith considerable udtantage to
 allay thirst, in most febrile complaints, to Jessen an in-
 creased secretion of  bile, and to correct  a p itrid and
 scorbutic state of the fluids, especially in sanguine
 temperaments; but,  in  constitutions of a  contrary
 kind, it is apt to occasion flatulency and indigestion
   RIBWORT.  See Plantago lanceolata,
   RICE.  See  Oryia.
   RICINUS.  (Quasi, ptv xvvos, a  dog's nose:  !*■
 cause they stick to the noses of dogs.)  1.  The nanieof
1 a genus of plants in  the Linnaean system.  Class,  Mo
I nacia;  Order, Monadelphia. 
RIM
ROC
  9. Tho pliarmacopoeial nam. of tlie plant that affords
the seed from which the castor-oil is prepared.
  Ricinus communis.   The  systematic name of the
castor-oil  plant.  Cataputia major; Kerva;  Ricinus
vulgaris; Palma christi Ricinus—foliis peltatis  sub-
palmatis serratis, of Linnaeus.  This plant appears to
be the Kiiti, or Kporuv, of Dioscorides, xvho observes,
that the seeds are powerfully cathartic ; it is also men-
tioned by AOtius, Paulus ^Egineta, and Pliny.   The
ricinus xvas first cultivated in England, in the time of
Turner, and is  now annually reared in many gardens
in the neighbourhood of London;  and in that of Dr.
Saunders, at Highbury,  the plant grew lo  a state of
great perfection.  An oil extracted from the seeds of
this plant, and knoxvn  by the name of oleum ricini,
palma christi, or castor-oil, is the drug to xvhich the
pharmacopoeias  refer, and xvhicli has lately come into
frequent use, as a quick  but gentle purgative.   The
London College directs this oil to be expressed from the
seeds in the same xvay  as that of the oil of almonds,
and without the assistance of heat, by wliich the oil
xvould seem to  be obtained in the purest state.  How-
ever, xve have some reason to believe that this method
is seldom  practised, and that Ihe oil usually employed
here is  imported from  the West Indies, xvhere  it is
comnionly prepared in the folloxviiig manner:—" The
seeds being freed from the husks, or pods, xvhich are
gathered upon their turning broxvn, and xvhen begin-
ning to burst open, are first bruised in a mortar, after-
xvard tied up iu a linen  bag, and then throxvn into n
large  pot, xvith a sufficient quantity of xvater (about
eight gallons, to one gallon ofthe seeds), and boiled till
the oil is risen  to the  surface, xvhen  it is carefully
skimmed off, strained, and kept for use.  Thus pre-
pared, the oil is  entirely free from acrimony, and xvill
stay upon the stomach xvhen it rejects all other medi-
cines."  Mr.  Long remarks, that the oil intendod for
medicinal use, is more frequently cold drawn, or ex-
tracted  from the bruised seeds by means of a hand-
press. But this is thought more acrimonious than that
prepared by  coction.   Dr. Broxvn  is also of this opi-
nion, and prefers the oil prepared by coction to that by
expression; he attributes its  greater mildness to the
action of the fire, observing that the expressed oil, as
xvell as the mixed juices of the seeds, are far more ac-
tive and violent in their  operation.
  Dr.Cullen  observes, that "this  oil, when the sto-
mach can be reconciled to it, is one of the most agree-
able purgatives xve can employ.   It has this particular
advantage, that it operates sooner after its  exhibition
than  any  other  purgative I know of, as it commonly
operates in two or three hours.   It seldom gives any
griping, and its  operation is generally moderate, pro-
ducing one, two, or three stools only.  It is particularly
suited to cures  of costix-eness, and even to cases of
spasmodic colic.
  In the West Indies, it  is found to be one of the most
certain remedies in the dry belly-ache, or colica picto-
num.  It is seldom found heating or irritating to the
rectum; and, therefore,  is sufficiently xvell suited to
haemorrhoidal persons.
  The only inconvenience attending the use of this
medicine is, that as an oil it is nauseous to some  per-
sons ; and that,  when the dose is  large, it  occasions
sickness at the stomach  for some time after it is taken.
To obviate these inconveniences, several means have
been tried; and it is found that the most effectual means
is the addition of a little ardent  spirit.  In tlie West
Indies, they employ rum; but that I might not with-
draw any part of the purgative, I employed the Tine.
senna comp.  This, added in the proportion of one to
three parts of the oil, and very intimately  mixed, by
being shaken together in a phial, both  makes the oil
less nauseous to the taste, and makes it sit more  easy
on the stomach.  The common dose of this oil is a
table spoonful, or half an ounce;  but many persons re-
quire a double quantity."
  Ricinus major.  Sec Jatropha curcas.
  Ricinus vulgaris.   See Ricinus.
  RICKETS.  See Rachitis.
  RICTUS.  This term is applied by botanists to the
grinning mouth or opening between the two lips of a
ringent or personate flower.
  RI'GOR.   A sudden coldness, attended by a shiver-
iBtf, more or less perfect
  RI'MA.  A fissure,or opening; as the rima laryngis,
rima vulva.
  Rima qlottidis.   The opening  of the  larynx,
through which the air passes in and out of the lungs.
  RI MULA.   (Diminutive of rima, a fissure.)  A
small fissure.
  RIN.rE'US.  (From piv, the nose.)  See Compressor
nans.
  RING-WORM.  A species of herpes.  Bee Herpes
  RINGENS.   Ringent:  a term applied to flowers or
their corolla, xvhich are irregular and gaping,  like the
mouth of an animal; as those of Ihe nettle, Sec
  A ringent flower is also  called a lipped or labiate by
some botanists.
  Ri'saoon.  See Cassumuniar.
  Risioallum.   The auripigmentum was so called.
See Arsenious acid.
  RI'SCS.  Laughter; laughing.
  Risus caninus.  A kind of laughter in  wliich the
lips are contracted, so as to show all the teeth.  a
  Rises sardonicus.  See Sardonic laugh.
  RIVERIUS, Lazarus,  xvas born  at  Montpelier, m
1589.   Being naturally sloxv in  his attainments, he
failed in his first examinations for a degree; but this
only stimulated him to redoubled exertions, so that in
the following spring he accomplished his object at ihe
age of 22.   His attachment to study became then very
great, and eleven years after that period he  xvas ap-
pointed to  the professorship of medicine in  the univer-
sity ; xvhich office he  filled xvith great honour till his
death in  1655.   Riveriiis  published  some  valuable
works,  especially one,  entitled " Praxis  Medica;"
xvhich appeared at first in a concise form, as  n sort of
text-book; but finding it  very favourably  received by
the public, he enlarged and improved it considerably :
and it added greatly to his reputation, having passed
through numerous  editions, as well in the  original, as
translated  into French and English.
  RIVINUS, Augustus  Quirinus, was son of  a
le'arned physician  and  critic,   Andrew  Bnchmann,
xvhose name xvas Latinized  inlo Rivinus, and born at
Leipsic, in 1652.  He graduated nt the age of 24, and
fifteen years after obtained the professorships of physi-
ology and  botany in his native university;  he was alto
associated  xvith many learned  bodies; and he filled
these appointments xvith  honour to himself till his
death, in 1723.  Rivinus distinguished himself chiefly
as a systematic botanist; but his arrangement was very
defective,  being founded on the number of the petals,
and their being regular, or irregular.   Though by no
means eminent as a practical anatomist, he is said to
have discovered  a  nexv salivary duct.   As a medical
writer, he  has the merit  of faithful  observation and
description in his treatise " De Peste Lipsiensi," pub-
lished in 1660.  He wrote also on dyspepsia, on inter
mittents, and various other subjects.   His " Censura
Medicamentorum officinalium,"  ranks very high, on
account of the freedom wilh which he  attacked opi-
nions, hoxvever  generally received, which he believed
erroneous; and to the prevalence of ihis spirit xve owe
the great simplification, and other  improvements, xvliich
the Materia Medica exhibits at present.
  ROASTING.  A chemical process, generally per-
formed in  crucibles, by xvhich mineral  substances are
divided, some of tbeir principles being volatilized, and
others changed, so as to prepare them for other opera
lions.
  ROB.   (Rob, dense, Arabian.)   An old  term for an
inspissated juice.
  HOBORANT. (Roborans; from roboro, to strength-
en.) That xvhich is strengthening.  See Tonic.
  ROCCE'LUA.  See Lichen roccella.
  Rochelle-snlt.  See Ssda tartarisata.
  ROCKAMBOLE.   The Allium scorodoprasum, of
Linnaeus.   The  root is used for pickles and  high-sea

  ROCK-BUTTER.  A  greasy mineral which  oozes
out of rocks that contain alum, at the  Hurlet alum-
work, near Paisley.
  Rock cork.  See Asbestos.
  ROCK-CRYSTAL. A white and brown-coloured
crystallized silicious mineral, found of great size and
beauty in some parts of Scotland, and Dauphiny affords
most magnificent groupes.
  Rock-oil. See Petroleum.
  ROCK-SALT.  Of this  tliere are  two kinds, ths
foliated and the fibrous.  The principal deposite of this
salt in Great Britain is in Cheshire.  In 1000 parts are
contained, according to Henry, 083 of muriate of soda,
                                          949 
ROS
ROS
64 sulphate of lime, a little muriate of lime and mu-
riate of magnesia, and 10 parts insoluble matter.
  Rock-samphire.   See Crithmum maritimum.
  Rock, wood.  The ligniform abestos.
  ROCKET.  See Brassica eruca.
  Rocket, Roman.  See Brassica eruca.
  Rocket, wild.  See Brassica erucastrum.
  [ROMAYNE, Nicholas, M. D. was born in the city
of Nexv-York in September, 1756,  and obtained his
elementary education at llackensack  in New-Jetsey,
under the instruction of Dr. Peter Wilson, the late pro-
fessor of languages in  Columbia College.  About the
commencement  of the revolutionary  war  he went
abroad, and  completed his medical studies at Edin-
burgh.  He also visited the continent, aud  spent txvo
 ears in Paris.  Upon his return to Nexv-York he coin
menced his  professional career.  He was advantage-
ously Jcnoxvn as an  able  private  lecturer  on many
branches of medical science, and it  is  xvith pleasure I
bear witness  to his efficient instrumentality, in  the
foundation of the College of Physicians and Surgeons.
He was ils first president, and gave instructions in that
institution on Anatomy and the Institutes of Medicine.
His address  as president, delivered at the first opening
of the college in  November, 1807, is  ah honourable
specimen  of  his diversified attainments and talent.
He died in Nexv  York in 1817.
  " Dr. Romayne," says Dr. M'Leod, " xvas a man of
strong mind, xvell  cultivated and much  improved by
reading, by the sooiefy of learned men, and by  travel-
ling. I knexv him in health and in the midst of disease;
in affluence and iu adversity.  He had much self-com-
mand, though naturally of poxverful passions, and very
tender sensibilities.  Bereaved of all his children in
their infancy, he could not endure the  recollection of
their endearment.  On the  last evening of his  life he
gave testimony to  a dear friend, of  his respect fot the
Scriptures.  He  departed too suddenly for  me to see
him on his death bed."—Thach. Med. Biog.   A.]
  Rore'lea.   See Drosera rotundifolia.
  ROS.  Dew.
  Ros calabrinus.  The official manna is sonietimes
so termed.
  Ros solis.  See Drosera rotundifolia.
  RO'SA.  1. The name of a genus of plants in  the
Linnaean system.   Class,  Icosandria; Order, Poly-
gynia.  The rose.
  2.  A name sometimes gix'en to the erysipelas, be-
cause it begins xvith a redness like that of a rose.
  Rosa alba.  The xvhite rose.  The  floxvers  of this
species  possess similar but  inferior virtues to those of
the damask.
  Rosa canina.   Rosa sylvestris ; Cynorrhodon; Cy-
nosbatos.  Tlie  dog rose,  or wild-brier,  or hip-tree.
Rosa—germinibus ovatis pedunculisque glabris, caule
petiolisque aculeatis, of Linnaeus.   The fruit  of this
tree, called heps, or liips, has a sourish taste, and ob-
tains  a  place in the  London  pharmacopoeia, in the
form of conserve.  It is seldom  employed but to give
form to more active remedies, in pills, boluses, linc-
tuses, &c.
  Rosa centifolia.  The  pharniacopoeial and syste-
matic name  of the damask rose.  Rosa damasccda ;
Rosa pallida.   The damask rose.  The pharmaco-
poeias direct a syrup to be prepared  from the petals of
this rose, Rosa—germinibus ovatis pedunculisque his-
pidis, caule hispido aculcato petiolis inermibus, of Lin-
naeus ; whicli is found to be a pleasant and useful laxa-
tive  for children, or to obviate costiveness  in  adults.
Most of the roses, though much cultivated in ourgar-
dens, are far from  being distinctly characterized.
Those denominated varieties are  extremely numerous,
and often permanently uniform ;  and the specific dif-
ferences, ns hitherto pointed out, are in many respects
so inadequate to the purpose of  satisfactory discrimi-
nation, that it becomes a difficult matter lo distinguish
xvliich are species and xvhich are varieties only.  The
damask rose  seems to be  another  species xvideiy dif-
ferent from the centifolia, as appears ftrom the descrip-
tion given of it by Du Roi and Miller.
  The petals are directed for medical use; they are of
a pale red colour, and of a very fragrant odour, xvhich,
to most people, is extremely agreeable; and therefore
this and  most of the other roses nre  much  used as
nosegays.  We  may  remark, hoxvever,  that in some
instances, they  have, under certain  circumstances,
produced alarming symptoms.   The  petals "impart
theii odorous matter to watery liquors, be th by allusion
and distillation.  Six pounds of fresh roses impregnate,
by distillation, a gallon, or more, of xvater, strongly with
their fine flavour.   On distilling large quantities, there
separates from the watery  fluid a small portion of a
fragrant butyraceous oil, which liquefies by heat, and
appears yellow, but concretes in the cold into a white
mass.   A hundred pounds  of the flowers, according
to the experiments of Tachenius and  Hoffman,  af-
forded scarcely half an ounce of oil."  The smell of
tlie oil exactly resembles that of roses, and is therefore
much used as a perfume.  It possesses very little pun-
gency, and has been highly recommended for its cordial
and analeptic qualities.   These flowers also contain a
bitterish substance, which is extracted by water along
with the odorous principle, and  remains  entire in the
decoction after the latter has been separated by distil
lation, or evaporation.
  This fixed sapid matter of the petals manifests a pur
gative quality; and it is on this account that the flowers
are received in the Materia Medica.
  Rosa damascena.  See Rosa centifolia.
  Rosa gallica.   The pharmacopceial and systematic
name of the red rose.  Rosa i-ubra.  The flowers of
this species, Rosa—germinibus ovatis pedunculisque
hispidis, caule petiolisque hispido aculeatis, of Lin-
naeus, are valued for their adstringent qualities, xvhich
are most considerable before the petals  expand; and
therefore in this state they are chosen for medicinal use,
and ordered  by the pharmacopoeias in different prepa-
rations,  as those of a conserve, or confection, a  honey
an infusion, and a syrup.  The infusion of roses is a
grateful cooling subadstringent, and useful in haemop-
tysis, and other hemorrhagic complaints : its efficacy,
hoxvever, depends chiefly on the sulphuric acid  added
  Rosa  pallida.  See Rosa  centifolia.
  Rosa  rubra.  See Rosa gallica.
  Rosa  sylvestris.  See Rosa canina.
  ROSA'CEUS.   Rose-like.  1. Applied to corolla
which spread like a rose, as tliose of the Dryas.
  2. The term gutta rosacea is applied to little rosy-
coloured spots upon the face and nose.
  ROS ACIC ACID.  There is deposited from the urine
of persons, labouring under gout and inflammatory fe-
vers, a sediment of a rose colour, occasionally  in red-
dish crystals.  This xvas first discovered to be a peculiar
acid by  M.  Proust, and  afterxvard examined  by M.
Vauquelin.  This  acid is solid, of a lively cinnabar
hue, xvithout smell, with a faint laste, but reddening
litmus very sensibly.  On burning coal it isdecomposcd
into a pungent vapour, which has not the odour of
burning animal matter.  It  is very soluble in  water,
and il even softens in the air.  It is soluble in alkohol
It forms soluble salts xvith potassa, soda, ammonia, ba-
rytes, strontites, and lime.  It gives a slight rose-co-
loured precipitate xvith acetate of lead.   It also com-
bines with lithic acid, forming so intimate a union, that
the lithic acid in precipitating from urine, carries the
other, though a deliquescent substance,  down along
xvitii it.   It is obtained pure by acting on the sediment
of urine xvith alkohol.
  ROSALIA.  A name in some authors for the mea-
sles, or a disease very like the measles.
  ROSE.  See Rosa.
  Rose, damask.  See Rosa centifolia.
  Rose, dog.  See Rosa canina.
  Rosea radix.  See Rhodiola.
  Rose, red.  See Rosa gallica.
  ROSE ROOT.  See Rhodiola.
  Rose, white.  See Rosa alba.
  Rosebay willow herb.  See Epilobium angustifolium.
  ROSEMARY.  See Rosmarinus.
  ROSEOLA.  (From rosa, a rose: socalledfrora the
colour of the  rash.",   A rose-coloured  efflorescence,
variously figured, xvithout xvheals, or papulae, and  nol
contagious.  It is  mostly symptomatic,  occurring in
connexion xvilh different febrile complaints, and re-
quiring  no deviation from the treatment respectively
adapted to them.
  Its principal varieties are comprised under the seven
following heads:
  1. The Roseola astiva appears first on the face and
neck, and in the course of a day or two is distributed
over the whole body, producing a considerable degree
of itching and tingling.  It is distributed  into separate
small patches, of various figure, but larger and more
irregular forms than in the measles. 11 is at first red, 
ROS                                              RUB
 hut soon assumes its deep roseate hue.  The fauces
 are tinged xvith the same colour,  and a slight rough-
 ness of the tonsils is felt in swallowing.
   The rash continues vivid through the second day ;
 after xvhich it declines in brightness, slight specks only
 remaining of a dark  hue, on tlie  fourth day; which,
 with the constitutional  affection, wholly disappear on
 the fifth.
   Tiie efflorescence sometimes  is partial, extending
 only over portions of the face, neck, and upper part of
 the breast and shoulders, in  patches, slightly elevated,
 and itching considerably, but in this form  the  disease
 continues a xveekor longer, the rash appearing and dis-
 appearing several times; sometimes from taking xvarm
 liquors, and sometimes xvithout any apparent cause.
 Tlie retrocession is usually accompanied xvith disorder
 of the  stomach, headache, and faintness ; which are
 immediately relieved on its appearance.  It commonly
 occurs in females of irritable constitution  in summer.
 Light diets and acidulated drinks, xvith occasional  lax-
 atives,  palliate the symptoms.
   2. The Roseola autumnalis occurs in children, in the
 autumn, in distinct circular or oval  patches, xvhich
 gradually increase to the size of a shilling,  and arc of
 a dark  damask rose hue.  It appears chietly  on  the
 arms, sometimes desquamating, and its decline seems
 to be expedited by tlie internal use of sulphuric acid.
  3. The  Roseola annulata occurs on  almost every
 part of the  body, in rose-coloured  rings, xvith central
 areas ofthe usual colour of  the skin.   When accom-
 panied with fever ils duration is short: at otlier times,
 without any constitutional disorder, it  continues for a
 considerable and uncertain period.   The rings are, at
 first, from a line to txvo lines in diameter, but gradually
 dilating leave a larger central space, sometimes of the
 diameter of half an  inch.   The efflorescence is  less
 vivid (and in the chronic form  usually  fades) in  the
 morning, but increases in the evening  or night,  and
 produces a heat and itching in the  skin.  When it be-
 comes  very faint in colour for several days, the  sto-
 mach is disordered, and languor, giddiness, and pains
 of the limbs ensue, which are relieved  by the use of
 the warm bath.
  Sea-bathing and tlie mineral acids afford much relief
 in the chronic forms of this rash.
  4. Roseola infantilis is a closer rash occurring in in-
 fants during the irritation of dentition,  of disordered
 bowels, and iu fevers.  It is very  irregular in its ap-
 pearances, sometimes continuing  only for  a night,
 sometimes appearing and disappearing for several suc-
 cessive  days with  violent  disorder, and  sonietimes
 arising in single patches in different parts of the body
 successively.   It is alleviated by the remedies adapted
 to relieve bowel  complaints,  painful dentition  and
 other febrile affections xvilh which it is connected.
  5.  Roseola variolosa occurs previously to tlie erup-
tion both of the natural and inoculated small-pox,  but
 seldom before the former.  It appears in the inoculated
 disease, on the second day of the eruptive fever, which
 is generally the ninth ur  tenth after inoculation. It is
 first seen on the arms, breast, and face; and on the fol-
 lowing day it extends over the trunk, and extremities.
  Sometimes  it is distributed  in  oblong irregular
 patches, sometimes diffused xvith numerous interstices,
 and sometimes it forms an almost continuous redness
 over the whole body, being in some parts slightly ele-
 vated.   It continues aboul three days, on the second or
 last of  which, the variolous pustules  may be  distin-
 guished, in the general redness, by their rounded eleva-
 tion, hardness, and whiteness of their tops.
  6. Roseola vacdna appears generally in a congeries
 of dots  and small  patches, but sonietimes  diffuse like
 the former;  takes place on the ninth or tenth day after
 vaccination, al the place of inoculation,  and  at  tbe
 same time xvith the areola that is formed round the  ve-
 sicle, from whence it spreads irregularly over the whole
 surface ofthe body.
  It is usually  attended with a very  quick pulse, white
 tongue, and great restlessness.
  7.  Rot cola miliaris often accompanies an eruption of
miliary xesiclesafter fever.  It is sometimes connected
with attacks of the gout and ofthe febrile rheumatism,
accompanied xvith considerable fever, extreme languor
and depression of spirits, total loss of appetite, and tor-
pid bowels, and terminates on the seventh  day by des-
quamation.
  ROSEWOOD.  See Rhodium lignum.
   ROSEWORT.  See Rhodiola
   ROSIN.  See Resina.
   ROSMARINUS.   (Quasi rosa, opvova,because It
 smells like myrrh.)   1. The name of a genus of plants
 in the  Linna-an system.  Class, Diandria;  Order,
 Monognyia.
   2. The pharmacopoeia! name ofthe common rote-
 mary.
   Rosmarinus hortensis.  See Rosmarinus offici-
 nalis.
   Rosmarinus officinalis.  The systematic  name
 of the  coinnion  rosemary.  Rosmarinus hortensis;
 Libanotis coronaria; Dcndrolibanus; Rosmarinus,ot
 Linnaeus.  The leaves and tops of this plant have a
 fragrant aromatic smell, and a bitterish pungent taste.
 Rosomary is reckoned one of the most poxverful of
 those plants xvliich  stimulate  and  corroborate  the
 nervous system; it has ihercfore been recommended in
 various affectionssupposed to proceed from debility, or
 defective excitement of tho brain and nerves, as in
 certain headaches,  deafness, giddiness, and in some
 hysterical and dyspeptic symptoms.  Tlie ollicinal pre-
 parations of rosemary are, an essential oil  from their
 leaves, or from the herb in flower, n conserve of the
 flowers,  and a spirit formerly called Hungary xvater,
 from the floxvery tops.  The tops are also used in  the
 compound spirit of Lavender, and snap liniment.
   Rosmarinus sylvestris.  See Ledum palustre.
   ROSTELLUM.   A little  beak.   Applied to that
 part of the seed xvhich is pointed, penetrates the earth,
 and becomes the root.  See Corculum.
   ROSTRATUS.  Rostrate.  Applied to the pod of
 tlie Sinapis  alba.
   ROSTRUM.  (From rodo, to gnaw; because birds
 use it to tear their food with.)  1. A beak.
   2. The piece of flesh xvhich hangs  between the di
 vision of the hare-lip is called rostrum leporinum.
   3. Applied in botany ti some elongation of a seed-
 vessel, originating from  tiie permanent style;  as in
 Geranium: though it is also used for naked seeds; as
 Scandix.
   ROTACEjE.  (From rota, a wheel.)   The name of
 an order of plants in Linnaeus's Fragments of a Natural
 Method, consisting of those which haveonc- flat xvheel-
 shaped petal.
   ROTACISMUS.  The harsh or asperated vibration
 of the letter r or po, whicli is  very  common  in the
 northern parts of England.
   ROTANG.  See Calamus rotang.
   ROTATOR.  (From  rota, to lurn.)  A muscle the
 office of which is to wheel about the thigh.
  ROTATUS.  Rotate,  or wheel-like; salver-shaped
 Applied to the corolls, nectary, &c;  as the nectary of
 the Cyssampelos, the corolla of the Borago officinalis.
  RO'TULA..  (Diminutive of rota, a xvheel: so called
 from its shape.)  See Patella.
  ROTUNDUS.  See Round.
  ROUGE.  See Carthamus tinctorius.
  ROUND.  Rotundus.   Many parts of animals and
 vegetables receive this trivial name from iheir shape ;
 as round ligaments, round  foramen, &c; and leaves,
stems, seeds, &c. as Ihe seed of the Pisum Brassica, Sec
  Hound-leaved sorrel.   See Rumex scutatus.
  Round ligaments.  Ligamenla rotunda.  A bun-
dle of vessels nnd fibres  contained in a duplicature of
 the peritonaeum, that proceed from the sides  of the
 uterus, through the abdominal rings, and disappear in
 the pudenda.
  RUBE'DO.  (From ruber, red.)  A diffused, but not
 spoiled, redness in any part of the skin; such as that
 xvhich arises from blushing.
  RUBEFACIENT.   (Rubefaciens;  from rubefado,
 to make  red.)   That substance  xvhich, when applied
 a certain time  to tbe skin, induces a redness without
 blistering.
  RUBELITE.  Red tourmalin.
  RUBE'OLA.  (From  ruAer, red ; or from rubeo, to
 become  red.)  Morbili.   The measles.  A genus  of
 disease in the Class Pyrexia, and Order Exanthemata,
 of Cullen; knoxvn by synocha, hoarseness,  dry cough,
 sneezing, droxvsiness; about the  fourth day, eruption
 or small  red points,  discernible by the touch, which,
 after three days, ends iu mealy desquamation.  The
 blood, after venaesection, exhibits an  inflammatory
 crust.  In addition to the symptoms already related, it
 is remarkable,  that the eyes and eyelids alxvays show
 the presence of this disease, being somexvhat inflamed
                                        251 
KUJB
RUB
and suffused xvith tears  The synocha continues dur-
ing the whole progress of the disease.  In systems of
nosology, several varieties  of measles are mentioned,
but ihey may be all comprehended under txvo heads;
tlie one attended with more or less of the symptoms
of general inflammation ; the other accompanied by a
putrid diathesis.
  The  measles may prevail at  all seasons of the year
as an epidemic, but the middle of xvinter is the lime
Ihey are usually most prevalent; and they attack per-
sons of all ages, but children are most liable to them.
They  prux-e most unfavourable  to  such  as are of a
plethoric or scrofulous habit.  Like the small-pox, they
never affect persons but once in their  life;  their con-
tagion appears to be of a specific nature. The eruption
is usually preceded by a general uneasiness, chilliness,
and shivering, pain  in the head,  in groxvn persons;
but in children a heaviness and soreness in the throat;
sickness and vomiting, with other affections, such aa
nappen  in most fevers;  but the chief characteristic
symptoms are,  a heaviness about  the  eyes,  with
swelling, inflammation, and a defluxion of sharp tears,
and greal  acuteness of sensation, so that they cannot
bear the light xvitiiout  pain, together with  a discharge
of such serous  humour from  the nostrils, which pro-
duce sneezing.  The heat and other febrile symptoms,
increase very rapidly; to which succeeds a frequent
and dry cough, a stuffing, great oppression, and often-
times retching to vomit, with violent pains in the loins,
and sometimes a looseness; at otlier limes there is
great sxvealing, tlie  tongue foul  and white, the thirst
very great, and, in general, the fever runs much higher
than iu the  milder sort of the regular small-pox.  The
eruptions  appear about the fourth or fifth  day, and
sometimes about the end of the tliird.  On the  third or
fourth  day from their first appearance, the redness di-
minishes, the spots,  or very small papulae, dry up, the
cuticle peels off, and is replaced by a  new one.  The
symptoms do not gooff on the eruption, as in the small-
pox,  except tl>e vomiting; the cough and  headache
continue,  xvith the xxeakness  and defluxion  on  the
eyes, and a considerable  degree of fever.   On the
nintii or eleventh day, no  trace of redness is to be
found,  but the skin  assumes its wonted appearance;
yet, xvitiiout tliere have been some considerable eva-
cuations either by the skin, or by vomiting, the patient
xvill hardly recover strength, but the cough xvill con-
tinue, the fever return with new violence, and bring
sn great distress and danger.
  In the more alarming cases, spasms of the limbs,
subsultus, tendinum, delirium, or what more frequently
happens, coma, supervene.  This last symptom so fre-
quently attends the eruptive fever of measles,  that by
some practitioners it is  regarded  as one of its diag-
nostics.
  In measles, as in other febrile diseases, the symp-
toms generally suffer  some remission towards  the
morning, returning however towards the evening with
increased severity.
  The measles, even when violent, are  not  usually
attended xvitii a  putrid tendency;  but it sometimes
happens, that  such  a disposition  prevails both in the
course of the disease and at its termination.  In such
cases, petechiae are to  be observed interspersed among
the eruptions, and these last become livid, or  assume
almost a black colour.  Haemorrhages  break out from
different parts of the body, the pulse becomes frequent,
feeble, and  perhaps irregular, universal  debility en-
sues, and the patient is destroyed.
  In those cases where there is much fever,  xvith great
difficulty of breathing, and oilier symptoms of pneu-
monic inflammation, or where  there is great debility,
with a tendency to putrescency, there will  alxvays be
considerable danger ;  but the consequences attendant
on the measles are in  general more to be dreaded than
Ihe immediate diser.se ; for although a person may get
through it, and appear for a time to be recovered, still
hectic  symptoms and pulmonary consumption shall
afterward arise,  and  destroy him, or an ophthalmia
■hall ensue.
  Measles, as well as  small-pox, not unfrequently call
into action  a disposition to scrofula, where such hap-
pens to exist in the habit.  Another bad consequence
ofthe measles is, thnt tlie boxvels nre often left by them
in a very weak state; a chronic  diarrhoea remaining,
whicli has sonietimes proved  fatal.   Dropsy has also
been knoxvn as a consequence of measles.
      252
  The morbid appearances to be observed en dissec-
tions of those who die of measles are pretty much
confined  to  the lungs and intestines:  the former of
which always shoxv strong marks of inflammation, and
sometimes a  tendency  to sphacelus.   Where the pa-
tient dies under the eruption, the trachea and larger
branches of  the bronchia, as in the small-pox, are often
covered with it, which  may account for the increase ol
the cough after tbe appearance of the eruption.
  In the treatment of this disorder, as it usually ap-
pears,  the object is  to moderate the  accompanying
synocha  fever, and attend to the state of certain 01-
gans, particularly the  lungs  and the boxvels.  When
there are no urgent local symptoms,  it will  be com-
monly suflicient to pursue the  general antiphlogistic
plan, (avoiding, however, too free or sudden  exposure
to cold,)  keeping the boxvels open,  and encouraging
diaphoresis  by mild  antimonials, Sec   Sometimes,
however, in plethoric habits, especially where  tbe lungs
are weak, it will be proper  to  begin  by  a  moderate
abstraction of blood.  Where the eruption has  been
imprudently checked, much  distress  usually follows,
and it will be advisable to endeavour  to bring  it out
again by the warm bath, with other means of increas-
ing the action of the cutaneous vessels.  Should an
inflammatory determination of the lungs occur, more
active evacuations must be   practised, as explained
under the head of Pneumonia.  The cough may be pal-
liated by opium, joined  with expectorants, demulcents,
&c.: and an occasional emetic will be proper, xvhen
there is much  wheezing.   Where diarrhoea  lakes
place, it is better nol to  attempt to suppress it at once;
but if troublesome, model ale il by small doses of opium,
assisted perhaps by astringents.  At the decline  of the
disorder, much attention  is often required to prevent
phthisis pulmonalis supervening.  Should the disorder
ever put on a putrid character, the general plan pointed
out under Typhus must be pursued.
  RU'BIA.   (From ruber, red:  so called from  its red
roots.)   1. The name of a genus of plants in the Lin-
naean system.  Class, Tetrandria; Order, Monogynia.
  2. The pharniacopoeial name of the madder  plant,
Rubia tinctorum.
  Rubia  tinctorum.  The  systematic name of the
madder plant Erylhrodanum ; Rubia major ; Radix
rubra.   Dyers'  madder.  Rubia—foliis annuis, caule
aculeato, of  Linnaeus.  The roots of this plant have a
bitterish, somexvhat  austere laste, and  a slight smell.
not of the agreeable kind.  It was formerly considered
as a deobstruent, detergent, and diuretic, but  it is now
very seldom  used.
  RUBIGO.  (Rubigo, inis. f.; d- colore rubra, from
its red colour.)  Rust.
  Rubigo cupri.  Sea  Verdigris.
  Rubigo ferri.   Sec Ferri subcarbonas.
  Rubi'nus.  (From ruber,  red:  so named  from its
colour.)  A  carbuncle.   See Anthrax,
  Rubinus verus.  See Anthrax.
  RUBULI.  (From rubus, a blackberry or raspberry.)
The specific  name in Good's Nosology of ihe yaws.
  RU'BUS.   (From riiier, red: so called  from its red
fruit.)  The name of a genus of plants in the  Linnxan
system.  Class, Icosandria; Order, Polygynia.
  Rubus arcticus.   The systematic  name  of the
shrubby straxvberry.   Rubus—foliis alternatis, cauls
inermi uniflora.  The  berries, Bacca norlandica, are
recommended by Linna-us as possessing antiseptic, re
frigcrant, and antiscorbutic qualities.
   Hvbus c/esius.  The systematic name of the dew
berry plant,  the fruit of which resembles the blackberry
in appearance and qualities.
   Rubus cham.cmorue.  The systematic name ofthe
cloudberry-tree. Cliamamorus; Chamarubusfoliis ribis
Angltca; Rubus palustris humilis; Vaccinium Lancas-
trense;Rubus alpinushumilis Anglicus. Cloudberries
and knotberries.   The ripe fruit of this plant, Rubus
—foliis simplicibus lobatis, caule  interns unifloro, of
Linnaeus, is  prepared into a jam; and is recommended
to allay thirst, &c. in  fevers, phthisical diseases, lue-
mnptysis, Sec  As an  antiscorbutic, it is said to excel
the scurvy-grnss and other vegetables of that  tribe io
common use.
   Rubus fruticosus. The systematic name of the
common bramble, xvhich affords blackberries.  The
berries are  eaten in abundance by children, and are
wholesome  and gently  aperient.  Too large quantities,
hoxvever, xvhen the stomach is xveak, produce vomit 
RUM
RUB
ing and great distention of the belly, from flatus.  See
Fruits, summer
  Rubus idjEus.  The systematic name of the rasp-
berry.  Batman; Moron.  Rubus—foliis quinato-pin-
natu ternatisque, caule aculeata, petiolis cunalieulatit,
of Liniiaeus.  The fruil of this plant has  a pleasant
sweet taste, accompanied with a peculiar grateful fla-
vour, on account of xvhich  it is chiefly valued.   Its
virtues consist in allaying heat and thirst, and promot-
ing the natural excretions.  A grateful syrup prepared
from the juice is directed for officinal use.
  IRubus triviai.is.  See Blackberry. A.]
  [Rubus villosus.  See  Blackberry.  A.J
  RU B Y.  See Sapphire.
  RU'CTUS.  An eructation.
  RUE.  See Ruta graveoleits.
  Rue, goats.  See Galega.
  Rui pilul.i.   Rufus's  pills.   A  compound very
similar to  the alogtic  pills with myrrh.  See  Pilula
aloes cum myrrha.
  RUFUS, the Ephcsian  a  physician and  anatomist
of considerable eminence in the reign of Trajan, es-
teemed by  Galen one of Ihe most able of his  prede-
cessors.  He  traced the origin  of ihe nerves  in  the
brain by dissecting brutes, and considered some of them
as contributing to motion, others to sensation.  Heeven
observed the capsule of the crystalline lens in the eye.
He consideied the heart as the seat of life, and of  the
animal heat, and as the origin of the pulse, which be
ascribed to the spirit of its left ventricle  and of the
arteries.  There is a very respectable treatise by him
on the Diseases of the Urinary Organs, and the Method
of curing them.  He also xvrote  a good work on Pur-
gative  Medicines; and a little treatise on  the Names
given by the Greeks to the different Parts of the Body.
Galen affirms also, that Rufus xvas  the author of an
Essay on the Materia  Medica,  iu verse; and Suidas
mentions others on the Atra bilis,  Sec, but these are
all lost.
  R U G O S U S.  Rugged.   A  term  applied to  a
leaf, xvhen the veins are tighter than the surface be-
tween them, causing the latter to swell into little  ine-
qualities, as the various species of sage.  The seeds of
the Litliospermum arx-ense are rugose.
  RUM.   A spirituous liquor,  well  known, the pro-
duce of the sugar-cane.
   RUMEX. (Rumex, ids. in.; a sort of pike, spear, or
halberd, xvhich the  shape of the leaves in various spe-
cies much  resembles.)  The name of a genus of plants
in  the Linmean system.  Clxss,  Hexandria; Order,
 Trigynia.  The dock.
   Rumex  acetosa.   The  systematic  name  of the
common sorrel. Acetosa; Acetosa vulgaris; Acetosa
pratensis; Acetosa arvensis.  Sorrel; sour-dock.  Ru-
mex—foliis oblongis  sagittatis, fioribus diaeiis, ot
Linnaeus.  Tlie leaves of this plant are sour, but not
the  root, xvhich is bitter.  It grows in tlie meadoxvsand
common fields.
  Rumex acutus.  The systematic name of the sharp-
pointed xvild-dock.   Oxylapathum;   Lapathum.   Ru-
mex—,fioribus hermaphroditis; valvulis dentatis  gra-
niferis, foliis cerdalo oblongis acuminatis, of Lin-
naeus.  The decoction of the root of this plant is used
in Germany to cure the itch; and it appears to  have
 been used in the time of Dioscorides, in the cure of
 leprous and impetiginous affections, both  alone  and
 boiled with vinegar.
   Ruuex  alpinus.  The systematic name ofthe plant
 xvhich affords the  monk's rhubarb.  See Rumex pa-
 tientia.
   Rumex  aquaticcs.  See Rumex hydrolapathum.
   ["Rumex BRiTANNic.x.    The  common  American
 water-dock, which  grows  in  xvet, boggy soils,  and
 upon the margin of ditches, is a moderately stimulating
 and astringent plant.  It  is esteemed by many coun-
 try  practitioners as a  local application to indolent and
 ill-conditioned ulcers.  A strong decoction of the root is
 usually  employed as a wash in these ca-rs.  Some-
 times an  ointment, formed by simmering the root  in
 hog's lard, is beneficially applied in  herpes. The use
 of this plant, according to Colden, was learned from the
 I.idians."—Big. Mat, Med.  A.]
   Rumex  crispcs.  The systematic name ofthe crisp-
 leaved dock.
   Rumex  hydrolapathum. The systematic name of
 the wat?1  dock.  Hydrolapathum;  Rumex aqnaticus;
 Herba hriiannica; Lupathnm aquaticum.  The xva-
ter-dock.  Rumex—-fioribus hermaphroditis, Vtuttut
integris graniferis,  foliis lanceolatis, of Linnaeus.
The leaves of this plant manifest considerable acidity,
and are said to possess a laxative quality.  The root is
strongly adstringent,  nnd  has  been  much employed,
both externally and  internally, for the cure  of some
diseases of the skin, as scurvy,  lepra, lichen, & c.  The
root poxvdered is said to be an excellent dentifrice.
  [" Rumex obtciikohus. This species of dock Is a
foreign plant, naturalized  as a  xveed in the cultivated
grounds in this country.   The root ia bitterish and as-
tringent.  A decoction, taken  internally,  is laxative
Externally it is applied for the cure of ulcers and cuta-
neous diseases, and sometimes with very good effect.
The Rumex crispus, or curled dock, another important
weed, resembles this in its qualities, and, in  the form
of ointment or decoction, is found to cure mild cases of
psora and other eruptions."—Big. Mat. Med.  A.]
  Rumex patientia.  The systematic name  ol the
garden  patience.   Rhabarbarum monachorum;  Hip
polapathum;  Patientia.  Monk's  rhubarb.  The  root
of this plant, and that of  the Rumex alpinus, accord-
ing to Professor  Murray, Is supposed  to possess the
virtues of rhubarb, but in an inferior degree.  It is ob-
viously more adstringent  than rhubarb, but comes very
far  6hort of its purgative virtue.
  Rumex sanguineus.   The systematic name  or the
bloody dock, the root of which  has an austere and ad-
stringent taste, and is sometimes  given by the vulgar
in the cure of dysentery.
  Rumex scutatus.  The systematic name of the
French sorrel, sometimes called  acetosa rotundifolia,
in the shops.  Acetosa romana; Acetosa  rotundifolia
hortensis.  Roman, or garden  sorrel.   Rumex—foliis
cordato-hastatis,  ramis  aivergentibus,  fioribus  her-
maphroditis, of Linnaeus.  It is coinnion iu  our gar
dens, and in many  places is  known by  the culinary
name of Green-sauce.  Its virtues are similar to those
of  common sorrel.  See Rumix acetosa.
  RUNCINATUS.   Runcinate:  atiplied to  leaves
xvliich are shaped like the tooth of a lion: that is, cut
into several transverse, acute segments, pointing back-
wards ; as in Leontodon taraxacum, called  from the
shape of ils leaf, dens de  iion, and hence Dandelion.
  Rdpellensis sal.  (From Rupella, Rochella, whera
it was first made.)   Rochelle salt.  See Soda tartari-
zata.
  RUPTURA.  See Hcmia.
  RUPTURE.  See Hernia.
  RUPTURE-WORT.   See Herniaria.
  RU'SCUS.   (A russo colore, from the carnation co
lour of its berries.)  1.  Tlie name of a genus of plants
in the Linnaean system.  Class, Diacia; Order,  Syn
genesia.
  2. Thepharmaeopoeial  name of the butcher's broom
Ruscus aculeatus.
  Rustus aculeatus.   The systematic  name  of
butcher's broom, or  knee holly.  Bruscus;  Oxymyr-
rhine;  Oxymyrsine ; Myrtacantha; Myacantha ; Sco-
pa  regia.  Wild  myrtle.  A  small evergreen shrub,
the Rucns foliis  supra fioriferis nudis  of  Linnaeus.
 It groxvs in xvoods and thickets in this country.  The
 root, which is somewhat thick, knotty, and  furnished
 with long fibres,  externally brown, internally white,
 and of u bitterish taste, has been recommended as  an
aperient and diuretic in dropsies, urinary obstructions,
 and nephritic cases.   It is seldom used in this country.
 See Ruscus.
   Ruscus hypoolossum. The  systematic  name  of
 he uvuTaria.  This  plant xvas formerly used against
 relaxation of  the uvula, but is  now laid aside for more
 adstringent remedies.
   RUSH.  See Arundo.
   [" RUSH, Benjamin, M. D., was born in December,
 1745, near the cify of Philadelphia, in Pennsylvania,
 and he died in that city in April, 1813, aged 68 years.
 Dr. Rush xvas a man of  small stature, but of a strong
 and vigorous mind.  During the eventful period of his
 lite, he occupied the distinguished consideration of his
 countrymen, as one ofthe patriots of the American Re-
 volution, as an able physician,  as a professor in the me-
 dical school of Philadelphia, ns a philanthropist, and aa
 an exemplary Christian.  His writings, on subjects con-
 nected with his  professional  pursuits, are numerous,
 and worthy the atiention of members ofthe profession.
 Such as xvere printed durjng his life-time, treat on the
 folloxving subjects, viz. —" An Inquiry into the Natu-
                                         953 
RUS
RUT
■■al illetoiy of Medicine iinong the Indians of North
America, and  a comparative View of their Diseases
and Remedies, with those of civilized Nations."—"An
Account ofthe Climate of Pennsylvania, and its Influ-
ence upon the Human Body."—" An Account of the
Bilious Remitting Fever, as it appeared in Philadelphia
'it the Summer and Autumn oi i I'CfO."—" An Account
 if the  Scarlatina Anginosa, as it  appeared in Phila-
delphia in  1783 and  1784."—" An Inquiry into  the
Cause and Cure of the Cholera Infantum."—"Obsert
cations on the Cynanche Trachealis."—" An Accoun-
of the Efficacy of Blisters and Bleeding in the Cure of
obstinate Intermitting Fevers."—" An Account of the
Disease occasioned by drinking Cold Water in Warm
Weather, and tlie Method of curing it."—" An Account
3f the Efficacy of common Salt in tlie cure oi" Haemop-
tysis."—"Thoughts  on the Cause and Cure of Pul-
monary Consumption."—"Observations upon Worms
in the alimentary Canal, and upon anthelmintic Medi-
cines."—"An  Account of the external use of Arsenic
in the cure of Cancers."—"Observations on the Te-
tanus."—" The Result of Observations made upon the
Diseases which occurred in the Military Hospitals of
the United States, during the  Revolutionary War."—
" An Account of the Influence of military and political
Ex'cntsof the American Revolution upon the Human
Body."—" An Inquiry into the Relations of Tastes and
Aliments on each other, and  upon the Influence of this
Relation upon Health and Pleasure."—"Tlie new Meth-
od of inoculating for the Small-pox."—" An Inquiry into
the Effects of ardent Spirits upon the Human Mind aud
Body, with an Account of the Means  of preventing,
and the Remedies for curing them."—"Observations on
the Duties of Physicians, and the Methods of improving
Medicines;  accommodated to the present  State of So-
ciety and Manners in the United  States."—"An  In-
quiry into the Causes and Cure of sore Legs."—"An
Accountofthe State of the Body and Mind in Old Age,
xvitii Observations on  its Diseases and  their  Reme-
dies."—"An Inquiry  into the  Influence  of Physical
Causes upon the Moral Faculty."—"Observations upon
tne Cause and Cure  of Pulmonary Consumption."—
" Observations upon the Symptoms and Cure of Drop-
sies."—" Inquiry into tlie Cause and Cure of Gout."—
"Observations on the  Nature and Cure  of  Hydro-
phobia."—" An Account of the Measles  as they  ap-
peared in Philadelphia in the Spring of 1789."—"An
Account of tlie Influenza, as it appeared in Philadel-
phia in the years 1790 and 1791."—"An Inquiry into the
Cause of Animal Life."—" Outlines of a Theory of
Fever."—" An Account of the  Bilious Yelloxv Fever,
as it appeared in Philadelphia in 1793, and of each suc-
cessive year till 1805."—"An Inquiry into the various
Sources of the usual  Forms of the Summer and Au-
tumnal  Diseases  in the United States, and the Means
of preventing them."—"Facts intended to prove  the
Yellow  Fever  not contagious."—" Defence of Blood-
letting, as a Remedy in certain Diseases.—" An Inquiry
into the comparative States of Medicine in Philadel-
phia, betxveen  the years 1760 and 1766 and 1805."—
"A Volume of Essays: Literary, Moral, and Philo-
sophical, in xvhich the following  Subjects are  dis-
cussed:—A Plan  for establishing  Public Schools  in
Philadelphia, and for conducting Education agreeably
to a Republican Form of Government.  Addressed to
the Legislature and Citizens of Pennsylvania, in  the
year 1786—Of the Mode of  Education proper in a Re-
public.—Observations upon the Study of the Latin and
Greek Languages, as a Branch of liberal Education;
xvilh Hints of a Plan of liberal Instruction' xvilhout
them, accommodated to tlie present State of Society,
Manners, and  Government,  in the  United States.—
Thoughts  upon  the  Amusements and Punishments
xvhich are proper for Schools.—Thoughts upon Female
Education, accommodated to the present State of So-
ciety, Manners, and Government, in the Uniled States
of America.—A Defence of the Bible as a School-book.—
An Address to  the Ministers of the  Gospel of every de-
nomination in the United States, upon Subjects interest-
ing to Morals—An Inquiry into the Consistency of the
Punishment of Murder by  Death, with  Reason and
Revelation.—A Plan of a Peace Office for the  United
States.—Information to Europeans who are disposed to
emigrate tothe United States of America.— An Account
of (lie  Progress of Population, Agriculture, Manners,
and Government, in  Pennsylvania.—An Account of
the Manners of the German Inhabitants of Pennsyl-
      •2S4
 vnnia.—Thoughts on Common Sense.—An Account of
 the Vices peculiar to the Indians of North America.—
 Observations upon the Influence of the Habitual Use of
 Tobacco, upon Health, Morals, and Property.—An Ac-
 count ofthe Sugar Maple-tree ofthe United States.—An
 Account of the Life and Death of Edward Drinker, who
 died on the 17th of November, 1782, in the one hundred
 and third year of his age.—Remarkable Circumstances
 in the Constitution  and  Life of Ann Woods, an old
 Woman of ninety-six  years  of age.—Biographical
 Anecdotes  of Benjamin Lay.—Biographical Anec-
 dotes of Anthony Benezet.—Paradise of Negro Slaves,
 a Dream.—Eulogium upon Dr. William Cullen.—En-
 logium  upon David Rittenhouse."—"A  Volume of
 Lectures,"  most of which xvere introductory lo his
 annual Course of Lectures on the Institutes and Prac-
 tice of  Medicine.—"Medical Inquiries and Observa
 tions on the Diseases of the  Mind."— Thach. Med.
 Biog.  A.]
   Rush-nut.  See Cyperus csculcntus.
   Rush, sweet.  See Andropogon sckananthus, and
 Acorus calamy.
   RUSSELL, Alexander, was a native of Edinburgh,
 xvhere he received his medical education, and after
 ward  became physician to  the English  factory at
 Aleppo, where he resided several years.   He soon ob-
 tained a proud pre-eminence above all the practitioners
 there, and xvas consulted by persons of every descrip-
 tion.  The pacha particularly distinguished him by his
 friendship, and sought his advice on every act of im-
 portance.  In 1755, he published his " Natural  History
 of Aleppo," a valuable and interesting xvork, contain-
 ing especially some important observations  relative
 to the Plague.  On his return  to  England four years
 after, he settled in London, and was elected physician
 to St. Thomas's hospital, which office he retained till
 his death in 1770.  He presented several valuable com-
 munications to the Royal Society, as also to the Medi-
 cal Society.
   RUSSELL, Patrick, xvas brother of the preceding,
 and his successor as physician to the English factory
 al Aleppo.   He  published a copious treatise on the
 Plague, having had ample opportunities of treating lhat
 disease  during 1760, and the two following years  In
 this xvork he has fully discussed Ihe important subject
 of Quarantine, Lazarettocs,  and the Police to be
 adopted in limes of Pestilence.  He likexvise  gave  to
 the public a nexv edition of his brother's xvork on  a
 very enlarged scale.
   Russia ashes.  The impure potassa,  as imported
 from Russia.
   Rust.  A carbonate of iron.
   RU'TA.   (From pvu, to preserx'e,  because it pre-
 serves health.)  1. The name of a genus of plants in
 tlie Linnaean system.  Class, Decandria;  Order, Mo-
 nogynia.
   2. The pharmacopceial name of the common rue.
 See Ruta gravcolens.
   Ruta graveolbns.  The  systematic name of the
 coinnion rue.  Ruta—foliis decompositis, fioribus la-
 teratibus quadrifidis, of Linnaeus.  Rue  lias a strong
 ungrateful smell, and a bitter, hot, penetrating taste,
1 the leaves are so acrid, that by much handling  they
 have been knoxvn to irritate and inflame the skin; and
 the plant, iu its natural or uncultivated state, is said to
 possess  these sensible qualities still more powerfully.
 The imaginary quality of the rue. in resisting and ex-
 pelling contagion, is now disregarded.  It is doubtless a
 poxverful stimulant, and is considered, like other me-
 dicines of the foetid kind, as possessing attenuating, de-
 obstruent, and antispasmodic  p nvers.  In the former
 London Pharmacopoeia it xvas directed in  the form of
 an extract; and was also an ingredient in the pulvis t
 myrrha  comp., but these are noxv omitted.  The doss
 of the leaves is from fifteen grains to txvo scruples.
   Ruta muraria.   See Asplenium ruta muraria,
   RUTIDOSIS.  A corrugation and subsiding of the
 cornea of the eye.  The species are,
   1. Rutidosis, from a wound or puncture penetrating
 the cornea.
   2. Rutidosis, from a fistula penetrating tbe cornea.
   3. Rutidosis, from a deficiency of tbe aqueous hu-
 mour, which happens from old age, fevers, great and
 continued evacuations, and in extreme dryness of the
 air.
   4. Rutidosis, of dead  persons, when  the aqueous
 humour exhales through  the cornea, and no fresh hit- 
SAC
SAC
■flour is secreted ; so lhat the cornea becomes obscure
and collapsed:  this is a most certain sign of death.
   RUTILE.  An ore of titanium.
   Ruiula.   (From ruta,  rue.)  A small species of
rue
   RUYSCH, Frederick, xvas born at the Hague, in
1638.  After going through Ihe preliminary studies with
great zeal, he graduated at Leyden in 161*4, and then
settled in his native  city.  In the following year he
published his treatise on the  lacteal and lymphatic
vessels;  in  consequence  of xvliich he xvas invited  to
the chair of anatomy at Amsterdam.   From that pe-
riod his  attention xvas chiefly  devoted to  anatomical
researches, both human and comparative; and hecon-
tributed materially to the improvement of ihe art of in-
jecting, for the purpose of demonstrating minute struc-
ture, and preserving the natural appearance of parts.
His museum became ultimately the most magnificent
that any private  individual had exer accumulated;
and  being at length purchased  by ihe rzar Peter  for
thirty thousand  floiins, he immediately set about a new
collection.  He  appears not io have paid sufficient at-
tention to inform himself of the writings of others,
whence he sometimes arrogated to  himself xvhat xvas
 really before knoxvn, xvhich led him Into several eon
 troversies ; but his indefatigable researches! in anatomy
 xvere certainly rexvarded with many discoveries.  In
 1685, he xvas  appointed professor of physic, and re-
 ceived subsequently several marks of distinction, as
 xvell in his own as from  foreign countries.  In 1728, ho
 had the misfortune to break his thigh by a fall in his
 chamber, and the remainder of his life, lor about three
 years, xvas chiefly occupied in proceeding with his new
 museum, in xvhich his youngest daughter assisted him.
 Besides his controversial tracts, he  published several
 other works, chiefly  anatomical  ;  " Observiilionuin
 Anal.  Chlrurg.   Ccnturia;" twelve essays under the
 title of "Thesaurus  Anatomicus,"at different periods,
 the last containing Remarks on ihe Anatomy of Vege-
 tables ;  a " Thesaurus Animallum,"  with  plates,
three decades of " Adversaria Anat.  Chirurg.  Me-
dica," &c.
  1U ysciiiana tunica.  The internal surface of the
choroid membrane ofthe human eye, xvhich this cele-
brated anatomist imagined xvas a distinct lumina Irom
the (external surface.
  Ryxs.  See Rhaas.
  RYE.  See Sccale cereals.
8
fal   A. The contraction of secundum artem.
*'•  S,orss.   Immediately following any quantify,
imports semis, or half.
  Sabadilla.  See Cevadilla.
  S ABI'NA.  Named from ihe Sabines, whose priests
used it in their  religious ceremonies.  See Juniperus
sabina.
  SABULOUS. (Sabulosis; from sabulum, fine gravel)
Gritty, sandy.  Applied to tiie  calcareous matter  iu
urine.
  SABURRA.   Dirt, sordes, filth.   Foulness of the
stomach, of xvhich authors mention several kinds, as
the acid, the bitter, the empyreuinatic, the insipid, the
putrid.
  SACCATED.   (Saccatus, encysted.)  Encysted or
contained in a buy-like membrane, applied to tumours,
tc.  See Ascites saccatus.
  Saoi iiari acidum.   See Mucic acid.
  SA'CCHARUM.   (z]axxapov, from  sachar,  Ara-
bian.)   1. The name of a genus of plants in the Lin-
na-an system.  Class,  Triandria;  Order, Digynia.
The sugar-cane.
  2. The siveel  substance called sugar.  See Saccha-
rum officinale.
  Saccharum acernum.   See Acer saccharinum.
  Saccharum album.  Refined sugar.
  s.n charum aluminis.   Alum mixed with dragon's
blood and dried.
  Saccharum canadense. See Acer pseudo platanus.
  Saccharum candidum.  Sugar-candy.
  Saccharum non purificatum.  Broxvn sugar.
  Saccharum officinale.  (Arundo saccharifera of
Sloane.  Tlie systematic name of the cane from which
sugar  is obiained.  Suchar;  Succhar;  Suiter;  Zu-
char;  Zucaro;  Zozar of the Arabians.  Xax\ap ij
oaxxapov, of the Greeks.)  Sugar is  prepared in the
West and East Indies from the expressed juice of ihis
plant boiled xvitii the addition of quick-lime or common
vegetable alkali.   It  may be extracted also  from a
number of plants, as the  maple, birch, wheat, corn,
beet-root, skirret,  parsnips, and dried grapes, &c. by
digesting in alkohol.  The alkohol dissolves the sugar,
and  leaves the extractive matter untouched, which
falls to the bottom.  It may be taken into the stomach
in very large quantities,  without producing any bad
consequences, although proofs are not wanting of its
mischievous effects, by relaxing the stomach, and thus
inducing disease.   It  is much used in pharmacy, as it
forms the basis of syrups, lozenges, and  other prepara-
tions.  Il is very useful as a medicine, althnuzh  it
cannot be considered to possess much poxver, to favour
the solution or suspension of resins, oils, Sec iu water,
and  is given  as  a purgative for infants.  Dr. Cullen
classes it with the attemiantia, and Bergius states it to
be saponacea, edulcorans, iclaxans, pectoralis.  vulnc
raria,  antiseptica, nutriens.  In catarrhal affections,
both sugar and honey are frequently employed:  it has
also been advantageously used in calculous complaints;
and from  its knoxvn  power in preserving nnimul and
vegetable substances from  putrefaction, it has been
Ijiven  xvitii a view  to  its  antiseptic  effects.   Sugar
candy, by dissolving slowly in the mouth, is well suited
Io  relieve tickling coughs and  hoarseness.  Sugar is
every xvhere the basis of that whicli is called sweetness.
Its  presence  is previously  necessary in cider  to the
taking  place  of vinous  fermentation.   Its extraction
from plants, xvhicli afford il  in the greatest abundance,
and its refinement for the common uses of life, iu a pure
state, are among the  most important  of the chemical
manufactures.
  The  folloxving is ihe mode of its manufacture in the
West Indies: The plants are cultivated in roivs, on
fields enriched by such manures as can most easily be
procured,  aud tilled xvitii the plough.   They nre an-
nually cut. The cuttings are carried to the mill.  They
nre cut into short pieces, and arranged in small bundles.
The mill is wrought  by xvater, xvind, or caule.  The
parts xvhich act on tlie canes are upright cylinders.
Between these the canes are inserted,  compressed till
all their juice is obtained from them, and themselves,
sometimes, even reduced to powder.   One of  Ihese
mills, ofthe best construction, bruises canes to such a
quantity as to afloid, in one day, 10,000  gallons of
'•lice, when xvrought xvith  only ten mules.  Tlie ex-
pressed juice is received into a leaden bed.  Ij is thence
conveyed into a vessel called the receiver.  The juice
is found to consist of eight parts of pure water, one part
nf sugar, one part of oil and gummy mucilage.   From
the greener parts of the canes there is apt to be at times
derived an acid juice, which tends to bring the whole
unseasonably into a slate of acid fermentation.  Frag-
ments ofthe ligneous part of the cane, some portions of
mud or dirt which unavoidably remain on the  canes.
and a blackish substance called the crust, which coated
the canes at the joints, nre also apt to enter into conta-
minating mixture xvilh the juice.  From the receiver
the juice is conducted along a xvooden gutter lined with
lead, to the boiling-house.  In the boiling-house il is
received into copper pans or caldrons, which have tbe
name of clarifiers.  Of these clarifiers the number and
the capacity must be in proportion to the quantity of
canes,  and the extent of the sugar plantation on which
the xvork is carried on.   Each clarificr has a syphon or
cock, by which the liquor is to be drawn off.   Each
hangs  over a  separate lire; and this fire must  be so
confined, that hy the drawing of an iron slider titled to
ihe chiairicy,  the fire may be at any time put out.  Ir
•he proeress of the operations the stream of juice from
                                        255 
SAC
SAC
the receiver fills the clarifiers with fresh liquor.  Lime
in powder is added  in order to take up the oxalic acid,
and the carbonaceous matters which are mingled with
the juice.  The lime also in  the nexv salts, into the
composition of Which it now enters, adds itself to the
sugar, as a part of  that xvliich is to be obtained from
the process. The lime is to be put in the proportion of
somewhat less than  a pint of lime to every hundred gal-
lons of liquor.   When it is in toogreatquanlities, how-
evci,  it is apt to destroy a part of the pure saccharine
matter.   Some persons employ alkaline ashes,  as pre-
ferable to lime, for the purpose of extracting the extra-
neous matter;  but it is highly probable that lime, judi-
ciously used, might  answer belter than any other sub-
stance whatsoever.   The liquor is now to be healed
almost to ebullition.  The heat dissolves the  mecha-
nical  union, and thus favours the chemical changes in
.ts different parts.  When the proper heat appears from
a rising scum on the surface of the liquor to have been
produced, the fire is then extinguished by the applica-
tion of the damper.  In  this state of the  liquor, the
greater part of the  impurities, being different  in spe-
cific gravity from the pure  saccharine  solution, and
being also of such a nature as to yield more readily to
the chemical action  of heat, are brought up to the sur-
face in a scum.  After this scum has been sufficiently
formed on  the cooling liquor, this liquor is  carefully
drawn off, eitlier by a syphon,  xvliich raises  a pure
stream through the scum, or  by a cock drawing the
liquor at the bottom from under the scum.  The scum,
in either case, sinks doxvn  unbroken, as the  liquor
flows; and is noxv, by cooling, of such tenacity, as not
lo tend toany Intermixture xvith the liquor.  The liquor
drawn, after this purification  from the boiler, is re-
ceived into a gutter  or channel, by which it is convey-
ed to the grand copper, or evaporating boiler.  If made
from good canes, and properly clarified, it will now ap-
pear almost transparent.   In this copper the liquor is
heated to actual ebullition.  The scum raised to the
surface by the  boiling is skimmed off as il rises.  The
ebullition is continued till there be  a considerable di-
minution in the quantity of the liquor. The liquor now
appears nearly ofthe colour of Madeira xvine.  It is at
last transferred into a secuud and smaller copper.  An
addition of lime-water is  here made, both to dilute the
inickening  liquor, to detach the super-abundant acid,
and to favour the formation of the sugar.   If the liquor
be now in its proper state, the scum rises in large bub-
bles, with very little discoloration.  Tlie skimmingand
the evaporation together  produce a considerable dimi-
nution in the quantity of the liquor.  It is then trans-
ferred into another smaller boiler.  In this last boiler,
the evaporation is renewed, and continued till the li-
quor is brought to thai degree of thickness at which it
appears fit to be finally cooled.  In the cooler, (a shal-
low xvooden vessel of considerable length and xvideness,
commonly of such a size  as to contain a hogshead of
sugar,) the sugar, as it cools, granulates, or runs!  into an
imperfect crystallization, by xvhich it is separated from
the molasses, a mixed saccharine matter too impure to
he capable  even of this ini|>erfect crystallization.  To
determine whether  the liquor be fit to be  taken from
the last  boiler to be finally  cooled, it is necessary to
take out.a portion from the  boiler, and try separately,
whether it does not separate  into granulated sugar nnd
melasses.  From the cooler, the sugar is removed  to
the curing-house.  This  is a spacious, airy  building.
It is provided with a capaciouscistern for the reception
of melasses, nnd over the cistern is erected a frame of
strong joist-work,  unfilled  and  uncovered.    Empty
hogsheads open at the head, bored at the bottom with
a few holes, and having n stalk of plantain leaf thrust
through each  of the holes, while it rises at the same
time through the inside of the hogshead, are disposed
upon  the frames.   The moss of Ihe saccharine matter
from the coolers is put into these hogsheads.  The me-
lasses drip into the cistern through the spongy plantain
stalks in the holes.   Within the space of three weeks
the melasses are sufficiently drained off, and the sugar
remains dry.  By this process it is at last brought Into
the state of what is called muscovado or raxv sugar.
This It the general process in the British West  Indies.
In  this  state our West  India  sugar is imported into
Britain.  The  formation  of loaves of white sugar is a
subsequent process.  In  the Fiench West India isles
It has long  been customary to»perform the latt part of
this train of processes in a manner somexvhat different,
      256
and which affords the sugar in a state of greater purity
This preparation, taking the  sugar from the code*
then puts it, not into hogsheads with holes in the bot
torn as above, but into conical pots, each of which has
at its bottom a hole half an inch in diameter, that is, ir.
the commencement of the process, stopped xvith a plug
After remaining sometime in the pot, the sugar be-
comes perfectly cool and fixed.  The plug is then re
moved out of the hole; the pot is placed over a large
jar, and the melasses are suffered to drip axvay from it.
After as much of the  melasses as will easily run off
has been thus drained  away,  the surface of the sugar
iu the jar is covered with a stratum of fine clay, and
xvater  is  poured  upon the clay.  The water oozing
gently through  Ihe  pores  of  the clay, pervBdes  tlie
whole mass of sugar redissolves the melasses, still re-
maining in it, with some parts of the sugar itself, and
carrying these off by the holes  in the bottom of tlie pot,
renders that which  resists the solution  much purer
than the muscovado sugar made iu the English way.
The sugar  prepared in this manner is called clayed
sugar.   It is sold for a higher price in the European
market than the muscovado sugar; but there is a lost
of sugar in the process by claying, which deters the
British planters from adopting this practice so gene-
rally as do the French.
  The raxv sugars are still contaminated  and debased
by a mixture of acid, carbonaceous matter, oil,  and
colouring resin.  To free them from these is the basi-
ness of the European sugar-bakers.  A new solution;
clarification with alkaline substances fitted to attract
axvay the  oil, acid, and  other contaminating matters;
slow evaporation; and a final  coojing  in  suitable
moulds, are the processes xvhich at last  produce loaves
of white sugar.
  The melasses being nothing  else but  a very impure
refuse ofthe sugar from which Ihey drip, are suscepti-
ble of being employed in a nexv ebullition, by which a
second quantity of sugar may  be  obtained from them
The remainder of the melasses is employed to y ield rum
by distillation. In rum, alkohol  is mixed xvith oil, xvater,
oxalic  acid, and a mixture of empyreumatic matter.
The French prepare, from the mixture of melasses xvith
xvater, a species of wine of good quality.  In its pre-
paration, the solution is brought into fermentation, then
passed through strainers to purify  it, then put in casks;
after clearing itself in these,  transferred  into others,
in xvhich it is to be preserved for use.  The ratio  of
these processes is extremely beautiful;  they are all di-
rected to purify the sugar from contaminating mixtures,
and  to reduce it into that state of dryness or crystalli-
zation, in  which it is susceptible of being the most con-
veniently  preserved  for agreeable use.  The heat In
general acts both mechanically lo effect  a sufficient dis-
solution ofthe aggregation of the parts of the cane juice,
and chemically tn produce in it nexv combinations into
xvhich caloric must enter as an ingredient.  The first
gentle heat  is intended chiefly lo  operate xvitii  the
mechanical influence, raising to the surface impurities,
xvhich are more easily removed by skimming, than by
nuy other means; a gentle, not  a violent heat, is in this
instance employed, because a violent heat would pro-
duce empyreumatic salts, the production of which is to
be carefully avoided.  A boiling  heat is, in the conti-
nuation of the processes, made use of, because, after
the fiist impurities have been  skimmed  off, contami-
nating  empyreumatic salts  are less readily formed,
because a boiling heat is necessary to effect the com-
plete developement of the saccharine matter, and be-
cause the gradual concentration of the sugar is, by such
a heat, to be best accomplished.  Lime is employed, be-
cause it has a stronger affinity than sugar xvith all the
contaminating matters, and particularly because it  at-
tracts into a neutral  combination  that excess of oxalic
acids wliich is apt to exist in the saccharine solulion.
Skimming removes the nexv salts, which the most easily
assume a solid form.  The drippings carries axvay a mix-
ture of xvater, oil, earth, and sugar, from the crystallized
sugar: for, in all our crystallizations, we can never per-
form the process in the great way, with such nicety as
to preserve it free from an inequality of proportions that
must necessarily occasion a residue.  Repeated solu-
tion, clarification, evaporation, me requisite to produce
pure white sugar from the brown and  raw sugars;
because the complete  purification of this matter from
ncid and  colouring matter, is an  operation of great
diflicully, and not to be finally  completed xvithout pre- 
&AC
SAC
Besses  xvhich are longer than can be conveniently per-
formed, at the first, upon the sugar plantation.  From
vegetables of European  growth, sugar is not to be
easily obtained, unless tiie process  of germination be
first produced in them ; or unless they have been pene-
trated  by intense frost.   Germination,  or thorough
freezing, devclopes sugar into all vegetables in xvhicli
its principles of hydrogen aud carbon, with a small pro-
portion of oxygen, exist in any considerable plenty. It
is uot improbable, but that if penetration by a freezing
cold could be  commanded at pleasure with sufficient
cheapness, it would enable us to obtain saccharine mat-
ter  in a large proportion, from a  variety of substances,
from xvhicli cen generation does not yield n sufficient
quantity. Iu (he beet, and some oilier European vege-
tables, sugar is naturally formed by the  functions of
vegetation to  perfect combination.  From  these the
sugar is obtaiued by rasping down tlie vegetable, ex-
tracting by xvater its saccharine  juice, evaporating the
xvater  charged xvith the juice  to  the  consistency of
syrup,  clarifying, purifying, and crystallizing it, Justin
the same manner as sugar  from  the sugar-cane.   It is
afforded  by the maple, the  birch, xx heat,  and Turkey
corn.   Margraaf obtained it from the roots of beet, red
beet, skirrit, parsnips, and dried grapes.
  In Canada, the inhabitants extract sugar from the
maple.   At tin  commencement  of spring, they heap
snoxv in the evening at the foot  of the tree, iu xvhich
they previously make apertures for the passage of the
returning sap.  Two  hundred pounds of this juice
afford,  by evaporation, fifteen of a brownish sugar.
Tbe quantity prepared annually amouuts to  fifteen
thousand xveight.
  The Indians likewise extract sugar from tbe pith of
the bamboo.
  The beet has lately been much cultivated in Germany,
for the purpose of extracting sugar from its root.  For
this the  roots are taken up in autumn, washed clean,
wiped,  sliced  lengthwise,  strung  on  threads,  and
bung up to dry. From these ihe sugar is extracted by
maceration in a small quantity of water;  drawing off
this upon fresh roots, and adding fresh  water to the
fresh roots, which is again to  be employed the same
way, so as to get out all their sugar, and saturate the
water as much as possible with it.  This water is to be
strained and boiled doxvn for the  sugar.
  Some merely express the juice from the fresh roots,
and boil this down; others boil the roots;  but the sugar
extracted in eitiier of these  ways is not equal in quality
to the first.
  Professor  Lampadius obtained from 119 lbs. nf the
roots, 4 lbs. of well-grained xvhite powder sugar;  and
the residuums afforded 7 pint? of a spirit resembling
rum.   Achard says, that aboul a  ton of  roots produced
him 100 lbs. of raw sugar, which gave 55 lbs. of refined
sugar, and 25 lbs. of treacle.
  Sugar is very soluble in xvater, and is a good medium
for  uniting lhat fluid with oily  matters.   It is much
used for domestic purposes, and appears on the whole
to be  a valuable and wholesome article of food, the
uses of xvhich arc most probably restricted by its high
price.
  It appears that sugar has the property of rendering
some of the earths soluble in xvater.
  The union of sugar with the alkalies has been long
known ;  but this is rendered more strikingly evident,
by carbonated potassa or soda,  for instance, decom-
posing the solutions of lime and  sirontia  in sugar, by
double affinity.
  In making solutions of unrefined sugar for culinary
purposes, a gray-coloured substance  is  found  fre-
quently precipitated.  It is probable lhat this proceeds
from a superabundance of lime  xvhich has been used
in clarifying the juice of ihe sugar-cane at the  planta-
tions abroad.  Sugar with this imperfection is  known
among tbe refiners of this article by the name of weak.
And it fs justly termed so, the precipitated  matter
"Being nothing but lime which has  attracted carbonic
acid from the sugar (of which tliere Is a great proba-
bility), or from tlie air of tbe atmosphere.  A bottle, in
which  Dr. Ure kept a solution of lime in sugar for at
least four years, closely corked, was entirely incrusted
with a yellowish-colouied matter, xvhich on examina-
tion was found to be entirely carbonate of lime.
  Kirertofi* an ingenious Russian chemist, accidentally
discovered, that starch is  convertible into sugar, by
being boiled for some time xvith a very dilute sulphuric
                                        Aaa
 acid.  Saussurc showed, that 100 parts of march yield
 110  of sucar.
   Braconnot has recently extended our views coneetr1
 ing the artificial production of sugar and gum.  Sul
 phuric acid (sp. gr. 1.827) mixed with well-dried eln
 dust,  became  very  hot,  aud on  bein«j diluted, witn
 water, and  neutralized with chalk, atlorded a liquoi
 which became gummy on  evaporation.   Shreds of
 linen, triturated in a glass mortar, with sulphuric acid,
 yield a similar gum.  Nitric acid has a similar powei.
 If the gummy  matter from linen  be  boiled for some
 time xvitii dilute sulphuric ncid, xve obtain a  crystal-
 lizable sugar, and an acid, xvhicli  Braconnot calls the
 vegeto-siilphuric acid.  The conversion of xvood  hImi
 into  sugar, xvill no dnubi appear remarkable  and
 when persons nol familiarized with chemical specula-
 tions are told, that a pound xveight of rags can be con-
 verted into more than a pound  xveight of sugar, ihey
 may  regard the statement as a piece of pleasantry
 though nothing, says Braconnot, can be more real.
   Silk is  also convertible into gum by sulphuric acid
 Twelve  grammes of glue, reduced to poxvder, ww
 digested  with  a  double xveight of concentrated sul
 phuric acid xvithout artificial heat.  In twenty hours
 tbe liquid xvas not  more coloured ihan if mere xvater
 had  been employed.   A decilitre of water was then
 added, and tlie xvhole xvas boiled for  five hours, xvith
 renewal of the xvater, from lime to time, as it wasted
 It xvas next ('jliited, saturated with chalk, filtered, and
 evaporated to a syrupy consistence, and left in repose
 for a month.  In this  period a number of granular
 crystals had separated, xvhich adhered pretty strongly
 to the bottom  of tb» vessel,  and had  a very deemed
 saccharine tasle.  a his sugar crystallizes  much more
 easily than cane sugar.  The crystals are gritty under
 the teeth, like sugarcandy; and in the form  of flat-
 tened prisms  or tabular groupes.  Its taste is nearly
 as saccharine  as grape sugar; its solubility in water
 scarcely exceeds that of sugar of milk.  Boiling alko-
 hol, even when diluted, has no action on this sugar
 By distillation  it yiekls ammonia, indicating the pre-
 sence of azole. This sugar combines intimately xvitii
 nitric acid, xvithout sensibly decomposing it, even with
 the  assistance of heat, and  there results a peculiar
 crystallized 4Cid, to xvhich the name nilro-saccharinc
 has  been given.  Annates de Clamie, xit., or Tillock't
 Magazine, vols. Iv. and Ivi.
   The varieties of sugar are; cane sugar, maple sugar,
 liquid sugar of fruits, sugar of  figs, sugar of giapes,
 starch sugar, the mushroom sugar of Braconnot, man
 na,  sugar of gelatin, sugar of honey, and  sugar of
 diabetes.
   Sugar of grapes does  not affect a peculiar form.  It
 is deposited, from its alkoholic solution, in small grains,
 which have  little consistence, are  grouped together,
 and  xvhich  constitute  tubercles, similar to  those of
 cauliflowers.  When put in the  mouth, it produces at
 first a sensation of coolness, to whicli  succeeds  a sac-
 charine taste, not very strong.   Hence to sweeten to
 an equal degree the same quantity of water, we must
 employ two and a half times as much sugar of grapes
 as of that of the cane.  In other respects, it possesses
 all the properties of cane sugar.  Its extraction is very
 easy.   The expressed juice of the grapes is composed
 of water,  sugar, mucilage, bitartratc  of potassa,  tar-
trate of lime, and a small quantity of other saline mat
 ters.   We pour into  it an excess of chalk in powder,
 or rather of pounded marble.  There results, especially
 on agitation, an effervescence, due to the unsaturated
 tartaiic acid.  The liquor is then clarified with whites
 of eggs or blood.  It is next evaporated in copper pans,
 till it marks a density of 1.32 at the boiling  tempera
 ture.   It  is noxv allowed to cool.  At the end of some
 days, it concretes into a crystalline mass, which, when
 drained, washed xvilh a little cold xvater, and strongly
 compressed, constitutes sugar.
  In the  south of France, where this  operation was
 some years back carried on on the great scale, to pre-
 vent  fermentation of the must, there was  added lo
 this a little sulphate of lime, or it was placed in tuns
 in which  sulphur matches  had been previously mad*
 lo burn.   The oxygen of the small quantity of air lef.
 in the tuns being thus abstracted  by the  sulphurous
 acid,  fermentation did not lake place.   By this means
 the must can be preserved a considerable time;  where.
 as, in the ordinary way, it would lose its saccharine
 taste  at tlie end of a fexv days aud become vinous
                                         257 
SAC
SAC
Jlfust thus treated, is said to be muted. The syrup was
evaporated to the density of only 1.285.—Proust. Ann.
de Ckimie,  Ivii. 131.; and  the Collection of Memoirs
published by Parmentier in 1813.
  It  is this species of sugar  which is obtained from
starch  and  woody fibre  by the action of dilute sul
phuric acid.
  Sugar of diabetes  has  sometimes the  sweetening
force of sugar of grapes;  occasionally much less.
  Braconnot's mushroom sugar is much less  sxveet
than that of the cane.  It crystallizes xvith remarkable
facility, forming long quadrilateral prisms xvith square
bases.  It yields alkohol by fermentation.
  All honeys contain two species of sugar-, one simi-
lar to sugar of the grape, another like the uncrystal-
lizable sugar ofthe cane (melasses).  These combined
and mingled in different  proportions xx ith an odorant
matter, constitute the honeys of good quality.  Those
of inferior quality contain, besides, a certain quantity
of wax and acid : the honeys of Britaniiy contain even
an animal secretion (ctuvain) lo which they owe their
putrescent quality.   A  slight washing  with a little
alkohol separates the uncryslallizable sugar, and leaves
the other, which may be purified  by xvashing xvith a
very little more alkohol.
  "The relation " says Di. Prout,  "which  exists be
txvecn  urea  and sugar, seems to explain in a satisfar
lory manner the phenomena of diabetes, which may be
considered  as a depraved secretion of sugar.  The
weight of the atom of sugar, is just half that of tho
weight of the atom of urea; the absolute quantity of
hydrogen in a given xveight of both is equal;  xvhile the
absolute  quantities of carbon and oxygen in a given
weight of sugar, are precisely twice those of urea."
  The constituents of these two bodies and lithic acid,
arc thus expressed by that ingenious philosopher'
Elements	Urea.			Sugar.			Lithic Acid.		
	No.	Per. Atom.	Per Cent.	No.	Per Atom.	Per Cent.	No.	Per Atom.	Per Cent.
Hydrogen Carbon . . Oxygen . . Azote . .	2 1 1 1	2.5 7.5 10.0 17.5	6.66 19.99 26.66 46.66	1 1 1	1.25 7.50 10.00	6.66 39.99 5:>'.33	1 2 1 1	1.25 15.00 10.00 17.50	2.85 34.28 22.85 40.00
	5	37.5	100.10	3 j 18.75		100.10	5	43.75 llOO.lO	
  The above compounds appear to  be  formed by the
union of more simple compounds ; as sugar, of carbon
and water;  urea, of carburetted hydrogen  and ni-
trous oxide; lithic acid, of cyanogen and xvater, &c.;
whence it is inferred, that their artificial  formation
falls within the limits of chemical operations.
  Saccharum officinarum.   The systematic  name
In some pharmacopoeias of the sugar-cane.   See Sac-
charum.
  Saccharum purificatum.   Double refined, or loaf-
sugar.   See Saccharum.
  Saccharum saturni.  See Plumbi acetas.
  SACCHOLACTIC. So called, because  it is sugar
prepared from milk.
  Saccho-lactic  acid.  Acidum  saccholacticum.   See
Mucic acid.
  SACCHOLATE.   Saccholas.  A  salt formed by
the combination of the saccholactic acid xvith salifia-
ble bases, as saccholate of iron, saccholate of ammo-
nia, &c. &c.
  SACCULUS.   (Dim. of saccus, a bag.)  A little
bag.
  Sacculus adiposus.  The bursa; mucosae of the
joints.
  Sacculus cnyLirr.Rus.  See Receptaculum chyli.
  Sacculus cordis.  The pericardium.
  Sacculus lachrymalis.  Sec Saccus lachrymalis.
  SA'CCUS.  A bag.
  Saccus lachrymalis.   The lachrymal sac is situ-
ated in the internal canthus of the eye, behind the
•achrymal caruncle,  in a cavily  formed by the os
u'Jguis.   It receives  the teats  from the puncta lach-^
rymalia, and conveys them  into the ductus lachry-
malis.
  SA'CER.   (From  sagur,  secret, Heb.)   Sacred.
Applied to some diseases xvhich were supposed to be
immediately inflicted from heaven ; as sacer  morbus,
the epilepsy, sacer ignis, erysipelas, Sec  A bone is
called the os sacrum, because it was once offered in
sacrifices.  Sacer  also means  belonging  to the os
lacrum.
  SACK.  A wine used by our ancestors, whicli some
have taken  to be Rhenish, and others Canary wine.
Probably it was xvhat is called  dry mountain, or some
Spanish wine of that sort.  Howel, in his French and
English Dictionary, 1650, translates sack by the words
vin d'Espagnc.   Viti. sec.
  8ACLACTATE.   A combinaiion of saccholactic
acid with a salifiable basis.
   SACLACTIC ACID.  See Mucic acid.
   Sacra  herba.  Coinnion vervain.
  Sacra  tinctura. Made of aloes canella, alba, nnd
mountain wine
      258
  SACRAL.  Of or belonging to the sacrum; assacra
arteries, veins, nerves, &c.
  SA'CRO.   Words compounded of this belong to the
sacrum.
  Sacro-coccygjeus.   A muscle  arising from the
sacrum, and inserted into the os coccygis.
  Sacro-lumbalis.    Sacro-lumbaris,  of  authors.
Lumbo-costo trachclien of Dumas.  A  long muscle,
thicker and broader beloxv than above, and extending
from the os sacrum to ihe lower part of the neck, under
tlie serrati postici rhomboideus, trapezius, and latissi-
mus dorsi.  It arises in common xvith the longissimus
dorsi, tendinous xvithout,-aiid fleshy within, from the
posterior part of  the os  sacrum; from  the posterior
edge of  the spine  of the ilium  ; from all the spinous
process; and  from near the roots of the transverse
processes of the lumbar vertebra.   At the bottom  of
the back it separates from the  longissimus dorsi, witi
which it had before formed, as it were, only one mus
cle, and ascending obliquely outwards, gradually di
minishes in  thickness, and terminates above in a very
narrow  point.  From  the place where  it quits the
longissimus dorsi, to that of its termination, xve find it
fleshy at its posterior, and tendinous at its  anterior
edge.  This tendinous side sends off as many long and
thin tendons as there are ribs.  The lowermost of these
tendons are broader, thicker, and shorter than those
above;  they are inserted into the inferior edge of each
rib, where it begins to be curved forwards towards the
sternum, excepting only the uppermost and last tendon
xvhich ends  in the posterior and inferior part of the
transverse process of the last  vertebra of the neck
From the upper part of the five, six, seven, eight, nine
feu, or eleven loxver ribs, (for the number, though most
commonly seven or eight, varies in different subjects )
arise  as many  thin bundles of fleshy fibres, which
after a very short progress, terminate iu the inner side'
of this muscle, and have been named by Steno, musculi
ad sacru lumbalem acccssorii.  Besides these we find
the muscle sending off a fleshy slip from ils upper part
xvhich is inserted into the posterior and  inferior part
ofthe transverse processes of the live inferior vertebra
of the neck, by as many distinct  tendons.  This  is
generally  described as a  distinct  muscle.   Diemet-
broeck,  and Douglas,  and Albinus after him, call  it
cervicalis descendens.  Winslow names it transver-
salis  collateralis  colli   Morgngni  considers  it as an
nppendage to the sacro  lumbalis.   The uses of this
muscle  are to assist in erecting the  trunk of the body,
in turning it upon its axis or to one  side, and in draw-
ing the ribs doxvnxvards.   By means of Its upper slip,
it servus to turn the neck  obliquely backwards or to
one 
SAG
SAL
  Sacro-scIaTic ligaments.  The  ligaments which
connect the ossa iuuouiitiata xvith the os sacrum.
  SACRUM.  (So called from sorer, sacred; because
it xvas formerly ottered  nt sacrifices.)  Os sacrum;
Os basilare.  The 06 sacrum derives  ils name from its
being offered in sacrifice by the  indents, or perhaps
from its supporting the  organs > f generation,  xvhich
they considered as sacred.   In young  subjects  il is
composed of five or six pieces, united by cartilage;
but in more  advanced age it becomes  one bone, in
which,  hoxvever, xve may still easily distinguish tlie
marks of the former separation.  Ils shape has been
sometimes  compared to an  irregular triangle;  and
sometimes, and perhaps more properly, to a pyramid,
flattened before and  behind,  xvilh  its  basis  placed
towards the lumbar vertebra-,  and its point terminating
in the coccyx.  We find it convex behind, and slightly
concave  before, xvitii its inferior portion bent a little
forxvards.  Its anterior surfuce is smooth, and affords
four,  and sometimes five transverse lines, of a colour
different from the rest of the bone.  These are  the re-
mains of the intermediate  cartilages  by  xvhich its
several  pieces were  united in infancy.  Its posterior
convex  surface has sex-eral prominences, tlie most re-
markable of which are ils spinous processes; these are
usually three in number, and gradually become shorter,
so that the third is not so long as  tlie second, nor the
second as the first.  This arrangement enables us to
sit xvilh ease.  Its trausversttjirocesses are formed inlo
one oblong process, which becomes gradually smaller
as it  descends.  At the superior  part of the bone we
observe two oblique processes, of a cylindrical  shape,
and somewhat concave, which are articulated with the
last of the  lumbar vertebrae.   At tlie base of each of
these oblique processes  is a notch, which, xvilh such
another in the vertebra  above it, forms  a passage for
(he twenty-fourth spinal nerve.  In viexving this bone,
either before or behind, xx-e observe four, and some-
times five holes on each side, situate at each extremity,
of the transverse lines which mark the divisions of the
bone.  Of  these holes, the anterior ones, and of these
again the uppermost, are the largest, and afford a pas-
sage to tbe nerx-es.  The posterior holes are smaller,
covered with membranes, and destined for the same
purpose as the former.   Sometimes at the bottom of
tbe bone there is only a notch, and sometimes there is
a hole common to it and the os coccygis. The cavity
between the body of this bone and its  processes, for
the lodgment of the spinal marrow, is triangular, and
becomes smaller as it descends, till at length it termi-
nates obliquely on each  side at the lower part of the
bone.  Below the third division of the bone, however,
the cavity  is no longer completely bony, as in the rest
nf the spine, but is defended posteriorly only by  a
very strong membrane; hence a  xvound in this part
*joay be  attended  with  the  most dangerous  conse-
quences. This bono is articulated above, with the last
tumbar  vertebra:  laterally it is  firmly united, by a
broad irregular surface, to the ossa innominata, or hip-
bones :  and below il is joined to the  os  coccygis.  In
women the os  sacrum is usually shorter, broader and
more curved than in men, by which means the cavity
of the pelvis is more enlarged.
  SAFFLOWER.  See  Carthamus.
  SAFFRON.   See Crocus.
   Saffron, bastard.  See Carthamus.
   Saffron,meadow.  See Colchicum.
   Saffron of steel. . A red oxide of iron.
  SAGAPENUM.  (The name is derived from some
eastern dialect.)  Serapinum.   It is  conjectured that
this   concrete gummi-resinous juice  is the produc-
tion of an oriental umbelliferous plant. Sagapenum
is brought from Persia and Alexandria in large masses,
externally yelloxvish, internally paler, and of a horny
clearness.  Its taste is hot and biting, its smell  of tbe
alliaceous  and  foetid kind, and its virtues are similar
lo those which  have  been ascribed to asafoetida. but
weaker, and consequently it is less powerful in its effects.
  SAGE.  See Salvia.
  Sage of Bethlehem.  See Pulmonaria.
  Sage of Jerusalem.  See Pulmonaria officinalis.
  Saae of virtue.  See Salvia hortensis minor.
  SAGENITE.  Acicular rutile.
  SAGITTAL.  (Sagittalis; from sagitta, an arrow.)
Shaped like an arrow.
  Sagittal  suture.   Satura  sagittalis, virgata,
sbeltea, rhabdoides   The suture which unites the two
                                      Aaa2
parietal bones.  It has been named sagittal, from its
lying  between the coronal and lambdoidal sutures, as
an arrow between tbe string and the bow.
  SAGITTARIA.  (So culled from sagitta, an arroxv,
in allusion to the  shape  of the leaves in the original
species and some  others.)   The name of a genus of
plants  in Ihe  Linnuean system.   Class, Monacia
Order, Polyandria.
  Saqittauia  alemi-harmica.   Malacca; Canna
indica;  Arundo indita.  The systematic name of the
plant cultivated xvilh great care in  the West Indies, for
i's root, whicli Is supposed to  be n remedy for the
xvounds of poisonous nrroxvs.  The root of this species,
called radix malacca, is sometimes used medicinally.
  Saoittaria sagittifolia.  The systematic name
of the common arrow-head, the roots of xvhich are c*
culent, but not very nutritious.
  SAGITTATUS.  (From sagittas, an  arroxv.)  Ar-
roxv-shaped : applied to leaves, Sec xvliich are triangular
and holluxved out very much at the base; as the leaves
of the Sagittaria sagittifolia.
  SAGO.  See Cycas circinalis.
  Sagu.  See Cycas circinalis.
  SAHLITE.   Malacholite. A sub-species of oblique-
edged augite, of a greenish colour, and found in Unit
in Shetland, in Tiree, and Gfcenlilt.
  Saint Antliony's fire.  See Erysipelas.
  Saint Ignatius's bean.  See Ignatia amara
  Saint James's wort.  See Senecio jacobaa.
  Saint John's wort.   See Hypericum.
  Saint Vitus's dance.  See Chorea sancti viti.
  SAL.  (Sal,  satis, m. and, rarely,  neut. from the
Greek, uX$, salt.)   Salt,  See Saline.
  Sal absinthh.  See Potassa subcarbonas.
  Sal acetoskllx.  See Oxalis acetocella.
  Sal alembroth.   A compound muriate of mercury
and ammonia.
  Sal alkalinus  fixus.  See Alkali fixum.
  Sal alkalinus volatilis.  See Ammonia.
  Sal ammoniac  (So called because it xvas found in
Egypt, near tiie temple of Jupiter Ammon.)  Murias
ammonia.  A saline  concrete formed by the combina
tion of  the muriatic acid xvilh ammonia.  This salt is
obtained from several sources.
   1. It  is found in places  adjacent to volcanoes.  Il
appears in the form of an efflorescence, or groupes of
needles, separate or compacted together, generally of a
yellow  or red  colour,  and  mixed with  arsenic  and
orpiment; but no use is made of that which is procured
in this  way.   This  native sal ammoniac  is distin-
guished by mineralogists,  into,  1. Volcanic,  xvhich
occurs in  efflorescences, imitative shapes, and crystal-
lized in the vicinity of burning beds of coal, both  in
Scotland and England, at Solfaterra, Vesuvius, iEtna,
Sec.  2. Conchoidai, which occurs  in angular pieces,
it is said, along with sulphur, in beds of Indurated clay,
or clay-slate, iu the country of Bucharia.
  2. In  Egypt it is made in great quantities  from  the
soot of camel's dung, which is burned at Cairo instead
of xvood.  This soot is put into large round  bottles, a
fooland a half in  diameter, and terminating in a neck
two inches long.   The  bottles are filled up  xvilh this
matter to within four inches of the neck.  Each bottle
holds  about forty pounds  of soot,  and affords nearly
six pounds of salt. The vessels are put into a furnace
in the form of an oven, so that only the necks appear
above.  A fire of camel's dung is  kindled beneath  it,
and continued  for three days and three nights.   On
the second and the third day« the  salt is sublimated.
The bottles are then broken, and the salt  is taken out
in cakes.  These cakes, xvhich are sent  just as they
have been taken out of the bottles in Egypt, are coo
vex, and unequal on the one side; on the middle of
this side they exhibit each a turbercle corresponding
to the neck of the bottle in which it was prepared.
The lower side is concave, and both are sooty.
  3. In  this country, sal  ammoniac is likewise  pre-
pared  in great quantities.   The volatile alkali is ob-
tained from soot, bones, and other substances known to
contain  it.  To this  the sulphuric  acid is added, and
the sulphate of  ammonia so foimed, is decomposed by
muriate of soda,  or  common salt, through  a double
affinity.  The liquor obtained in consequence of this
decomposition contains sulphate of soda and muriate
of ammonia.  The first is  crysatllized, and the second
sublimated so as to form eikes, which are then exposed
to sale
                                        239 
SAM
SAN
   <alt of sorrel.  Superoxylate of potassa.
  Salt, Rochelle.  See Soda tartariiata.
  Salt, tea.  See Soda murias.
  Salt of steel.  See Ferri sulphas.
  Salt,polyehrest.   Sulphate of potassa.
  Sail, secondary.   See Neutral salt.
  Salt, sedative.  Boracic acid.
  Salt, spirit of.  Muriatic acid.
  Salt of vitriol.  Purified sulphate of zinc.
  Salt of wisdom.   Sal alembroth.
  Salt, primitive.  Simple salt.  Under Ihis order is
:ompreheiidcd those salts wiiich were formerly thought
to be simple or primitive, and xvhich are occasionally
called simple salts.  The accurate experiments of tiie
modems  have proved that these are for the most part
compounded;  but the term is retained wilh greater
propriety when it is observed, that Ihese salts coin-
posed,  xvhen united, salts which are termed secondary.
These salts are  never met with perfectly pure in na-
ture, but require artificial processes to render them so.
This ordtr is divided into lines genera, comprehending
saline tenestrial substances, alkalies, and acids.
  SALTWORT.  See Salsola kali.
  SALVATE'LLA.  (From salus,  health, because
the opening of this vein xvas formerly thought to be of
singular use in melancholy.)  This vein runs along the
little finger, unites upon the back of the hand xvith the
cephalic of the thumb, and empties its blood into  the
internal and external cubical veins.
  SA'LVIA.  (A salveudo.)  1. The name of a genus
of plants iu the Linnaean system.  Class, Diandria;
Order, Monogynia.  Sage.
  2. The pharniacopoeial name of the common sage.
See Salvia  officinalis.
  Salvia hortensis minor  The small sage, or sage
nf virtue.   A variety of the officinal sage, possessing
similar virtues.
  Salvia officinalis.  The systematic name of the
garden sage.  Elelisphacos.  Salvia—foliis lanceolate
Ovatis  integris  crenulatis, fioribus spicatis, calycibus
acutis, of Linnaeus.   In ancient limes sage xvas cele-
brated as a remedy of great efficacy, as  xvould appear
from the folloxving lines of the school of Salernum :

  * Cur moriatur homo, cui salvia crescit in horto?
  Contra vim mortis, noncst medicamcn in hortisl
  Salvia saloatrix, natura conciliatrix.
  Salvia cum ruta facittnt tibi pocula tula."

But at present  it is not considered  as an  article of
much im portance.   It has a fVagrant, sti ong smell; and
a xvarm, bitterish, aromatic taste, like other plants con-
taining an essential oil.  It has a remarkable pro|Herty
in resisting  the putrefaction of animal substances, and
is in frequent use among tlie Chinese as a tonic, in tlie
form of tea, in debility of the stomach and nervous
system.
  Salvia sclarea.  The systematic name of the gar-
den clary,  called horminum  in  tlie  pharmacopoeias.
Sclarea hispanica.  The leaves and seeds are recom-
mended ns  corroborants  and antispasmodics, particu-
larly in leucorrhoeas and hysterical xveaknesses.  They
have a bitterish, warm taste, and a strong smell of the
aromatic kind.  Tlie seeds are infused in xvhite wine,
and imitate muscadcl.
  SAMARA.  (The name, according to Pliny, of the
fruit of the elm.)  1. The name  of a genus of plants
in the Linnaean system. Class, 'Tetrandria; Order, Mo-
tiogynia.
  2.  A species of capsule of a compressed form, and
dry coriaceous  texture,  with one or txvo cells never
buistiug, but falling  off entire, and dilated into  a kind
Of wiii;!; at  the summit or sides.   Iu Fraxinus,  it goes
from the summit of the seed: in Acer and Batula,
from the side: in  Ulmus campestris, it goes all  round.
  SAMBUCUS.  (From sabucca, tleb. a musical in-
strument formerly made  of this tree.)  Elder.
  1. The name of a genus of plants  in the Linnaean
system.  Class, Pentandria; Order, Trigynia.
  2. The pharmacoprjBial name of the elder-tree.  See
Sambucus nigra.
  Sambucus ebulus.   The systematic name  of the
rtxvarf-elder.  Ebulus; Chamaacte; Sambucus humi-
lis ;  Sambucus herbacea.  Dwarf elder, or dane xvort.
The root, interior bark, leaves, flowers, berries, and
seeds of this herbaceous plant, Sambucus—cymis tri-
fidis, stipults foltacris,  caule herbaceo, of Linna-us,
nave  all  been adiuiiiwterod  medicinally, in moderate
      'JfW
doses, as resolvents and deobstruents, and, in larger
doses, as ."oydragogues.  The plant is chiefly employed
by the poor of this country, among xvhom it is in com-
mon use os a purgative, but Dr. Cullen speaks of it as
a violent remedy.
  Sambucus nigra.  The systematic name of the el-
der-tree.   Sambucus  vulgaris ;  Sambucus arborea,
Acte ;  Infclix  lignum.   Sambucus—cymis quinque-
parttlis, foliis  pinnatis, caule arborco,  of Linnaeus.
This  indigenous  plant has an unpleasant  narcotic
smell, and some authois have  reported its exhalations
to be so noxious, as lo render  it unsafe to sleep under
its shade.  The parts of this tree that are proposed lor
medicinal  use  in the  pharmacopoeias are  the inner
bark, the  flowers,  and the berries.   The first ha>
scarcely any smell, and very little taste ; on first chexv-
ing, it impresses  a  degree of siveetness. xvhicli is tbl
loxved by a very slight but durable acrimony, in which its
powers seem  to reside.   From  its cathartic  property it
is recommended as  an effectual hydragogue by Syden-
ham and Boerhaave: the former directs three handfuls
of it to be boiled in a quart of milk and xvater, till only
a pint remains, of which one half is to be taken night
and morning, and repeated for several days; it usually
operates both upxvards ai.l downwards, and upoti the
evacuation it  produces, its utility depends.   Boerhaave
gave its expressed juice in doses from a drachm to half
au ounce.  In smaller  doses it is said lo be a useful
aperient and  deobstruent in various  chronic disoiders.
The flowers have an agreeable  flavour; and  infusions
of them, when fresh, are gently laxative and aperient
When dry, they are said to promote  chiefly the cuticu
lar excretion, and to be particularly serviceable in ery
sipelatous and eruptive disorders.  Externally they are
used in  fomentations, &c. and in the London pharma-
copoeia are directed in the form  of an ointment.  The
berries in tasle are somewhat sxveetish, and not un-
plcasuni ■ on expression they yield a fine purple juice,
xvhich proves a useful aperient and  resolvent  in sun-
dry chronic diseases, gently loosening the belly, and
promoting the urine and perspiration.
  Samphire.  See Crithmum maritimum.
  Sampsuchcs.   See Thymus mastichina.
  Sampsychum.  (From oau, to preserve, and -|vv»)
the mind; because ol* its  cordial  qualities.)   Mar
joram.
  SANATI'VE.  (From sano, to  cure.)  That which
heals disc-uses.
  Sancti antomi ignis.  See  Erysipelas.
  SANCTOR1US, Sanctorius, xvas born in 1561, at
Capo d'Istria.  He studied  medicine at Padua, xvhere
he took his  degree, and then  settled at  Venice, and
practised  xvith  considerable success.  At the  age of
fifty, hoxvever, he xxas appointed professor of the the-
ory of medicine at Padua; in  xvhicli office he distin-
guished himself for thirteen years.  He xvas then  al-
loxved  to retire on his  salary,  finding his health im-
paired  by the fatigue of the visits, xvhich he was fre-
quently obliged to make in his professional capacity, to
Venice, xvhere  he passed the remainder of his life in
great  reputation.  On his death, iu 1636, a stalue of
marble xvas raised to his memory; and an annual ora-
tion xvas instituted  by the College  of Physicians, to
xvhom he had bequeathed an annuity, in commemora-
tion of his benevolence.   Sanctorius first called the
attention of physicians to the  cutaneous and  pulmo-
nary transpiration, wliich he proved to exceed the other
excretions considerably in xveight; and he maintained
lhat this function  must have a material  influence on
the  system, and xvas deserving of great consideration
in the treatment of diseases.  There is, no  dtubt, much
truth, in this general observation; but in hs applica-
tion to practice, he appears to  have gone to an extra-
vagant length, and  to have contributed much to pro?
loag the reputation of  the humoral pathology.   His
treatise, entitled " Ars de Statica Medicina," xvas tirsl
published  in  1614,  and  passed through  more  than
txventy  editions, including  translations,  with  various
commentaries:  it is ivritten in an elegant nnd per
spicuous Latin style. He vas also author of a Method
of avoiding Errors  in MeUcine, to which was after
ward  added an essay " De Inventione Reaiediorum ;*
and of Commentaries on smne of the ancient physi
cians.   Besides the  statical chair, by xvliich he  con
trived  to determine the weight of the  Ingesta and
Egesta, he invented an instrument  for measuring the
force of lire pulse, and several  ethers for surgical use - 
SAL
BAL.
   /•i.i.noiiiacal muriate has a poignant, acid, and urinous
  taste.   Its crystals are in the form of long hexahedral
  pyramids; a number of  them are  sometimes united
  together in an acute angular direction, so as to exhibit
  the form of feathers.  Rome de Lille thinks the crys-
  tals of ammoniacal muriate to be octahedrons bundled
  together.  This salt is sometimes, but not frequently,
  found in cubic crystals in the middle of the concave
  holloxv part ofthe sublimated cakes.  It  possesses one
  singular physical property, a kind of ductility or elas-
  ticity, xvhich causes  it to  yield under the hammer, or
  even the fingers, and makes  it difficult to reduce to a
  poxvder.  Muriate of ammonia is totally volatile, but
  « very strong fire is requisite to sublime it.  It is liable
  to no alteration from air; it may be kept for a long
  time without suffering any change; it dissolves very
  readily in water.  Six parts of cold xvater are suflicient
  to dissolve one ofthe salt.  A considerable cold is pro-
  duced as the solution takes place, and this cold is still
  keener when the salt is mixed xvith ice.   This ar-
 tificial cold is happily applied to produce several phe-
  nomena, such as the congelation of water on certain
 occasions,  the crystallization of certain salts, the fix-
  ation and preservation of certain liquids, naturally very
 subject to evaporation, &c.
   Sal ammoniacum agkto%wm.  See Ammonia acetatis
 liquor.
   Sal ammoniacum liquidum.  See Ammonia aceta-
  tis liquor.
   Sal ammoniacum  martiale.  See Ferrum ammo-
 matum.
   Sal ammoniacum  secretum glauderi.  See Sul-
 phas ammonia.
   Sal ammoniacum vegetabile.  See Ammonia ace-
 tatis liquor.
   Sal ammoniacus fixus.   Tho muriate of lime xvas
 formerly so termed.
   Sal ammoniacus nitrosus.  See Nitras ammonia.
   Sal antimonii.  Tartar emetic.
   Sal argenti.  See Argenti nitras.
   Sal catharticus  amarus.   See Magnesia sul-
 phas.
   Sal catharticus anglicanus.  See Magnesia sul-
 vhis.
   Sal catharticus glauberi.  See Soda sulphas.
   Sal communis.  See Soda murias.
   Sal cornu cervi volatile.  See Ammonia subcar-
 bonas.
   Sal culinaris.  See Soda murias.
   Sal de duobus.  See Potasea sulphas
   Sal diureticus.   See Potassa acetas.
   Sal diqkstivus sylvii.  See Murias potassa.
   Sal epsomensis.   See Magnesia sulphas.
   Sal febrifugus sylvii.  See Murias potassa.
  Sal fontium.   See Soda murias.
  Sal fossilis.  See Soda murias.
  Sal gkmmiE.   See Soda murias.
  Sal slauberii.  See Soda sulphas.
  Sal herbarum.  See Potassa subcarbonas.
  Sal marinus.  See Soda murias.
  Sal martis.  See Ferri sulphas.
  Sal  martis muriaticum sublimatum.  See Fer-
 rum ammoniatum.
  Sal microcosmicus. The compound saline matter
  tained  bv inspissating human urine.
  Pal mirabilis glauberi.  See Soda sulphas.
  Sal muriaticus.  See Soda murias.
  Sal pla'ntarum.  See Poiassa subcarbonas.
  Sal polychrkstus.  See Potassa sulphas.
  Sal  polychrkstus glaseri.   See Potassa sul-
phas.
  Sal polychrestus  seiqnetti.  See Soda tartari-
tata.
  Sal prunella.  Nitrate of potassa cast  into flat
  hes or round halls.
  Sal rupellensis.  See Soda tartarizala.
  Sal saturni.  See Plumbi acetas.
  Sal sedativus.  Sec Boracic acid.
  Sal seidlicensis.  See Magnesia sulphas.
  Sal seionetti.  See Soda tartarizala.
  Sal sulci mi.  See Succinic acid.
  Saltartari.  See Tartaric acid.
  Sal  thermarum carolinarum.  See Magnesia
 tulphas.
  Sal vegetabilis.  See Potassa tartras.
  *■_AL volatile.  See Spiritus ammonia  aromaticus,
 and Ammonia subcarbonas.
      2G0
    Sal voiatilis  salisj  ammoniaci.   See Atxmonm
  subcarbonas.
    SALEP.   Salap.  See Orchis morio.
    SALICARIA.   (From salix, a wtilow;  from the re
  semblance of its  leaves to those of th* willoxv.)  See
  Lythrum salicaria.
    SALICCRNIA. Thenameofagenusofplantsinthe
  Linnaean system. ClosSrMonandria; Order,Monogynia.
    Salicorma europ.ea.  The systematic nameoi ihe
  jointed glass-wort, which is gathered by the  country
  people and sold for samphire.   It forms a good pickle
  with vinegar, and is little inferior to the samphire.
    SALIFIABLE.  Having the property of forming d
  salt.  The alkalies, aud those earths, and metallic ox-
  ides, which have the poxver of neutralizing acidity, rn
  tirely or in part, and producing salts, are called salifi
  able bases.
   SALINE.  (Salimts; from  sal, salt.)   Of a sail
  nature.  The number of saline substances is very con-
 siderable; and they posses* peculiar characters by wliich
  they are  distinguished  from other substances.   These
 characters are founded on certain properties, xvliich, ii
 must be confessed, are not accurately distinctive of their
 true nature.  All such substances, however, as possess
 several ofthe four following properties, are  considered
 as saline:  1.  A strong  tendency to combination, or a
 very strong affinity of composition; 2. A  greater or
 less degree of sapidity; 3.  A  greater or  less degree
 of solubility in water; 4. Perfect incombustibility.
   SALINUS.  See Saline.
   Salinuca.  See Valeriana celtica.
   SALl'VA.  (So called, a salino sapors, from its salt
 taste, or from  ataXos,  spittle.)   The fluid which is
 secreted by the salivary glands  into the cavity of ihe
 mouth. The  secretory  organ  is comjiosed of three
 pair of salivary glands.   1. The parotid glands, xvhich
 evacuate their saliva by means of the Stenonian duct,
 behind the middle dens  molaris of the upper jaw.  2.
 The submaxillary glands, which pour out their saliva
 through the Warthonian ducts on each side of the fre-
 nulum ofthe tongue by a narrow osculum.  3.  The
 sublingual glands, situated betxveen the internal sur-
 face of the maxilla and the tongue, which pour out
 their saliva through numerous Hivinian ducts  at the
 apex of the tongue.
  The saliva in the cavity of the month has  mixed
 with it, 1. Tlie mucus of the mouth, which exhales from
 the labial  and genal glands.  2. The  rosdd vapour,
 from the xvhole surface of the  cavity of the mouth.
 The saliva is continually swallowed xvith or without
 masticated food, and some is also spit out.   It has no
 colour nor smell; it  is tasteless, although it contains a
 little salt, lo xvhich the nerves of the tongue are accus-
 tomed.  Its specific gravity is somexvhat greater than
 water.   Its consistence  is rather plastic*and spumous.
 from the entangled atmospheric air.   The quantity of
 twelve pounds  is supposed to be secreted in twelve
 hours.   During mastication and speaking, the secretion
 is augmented,  from  the  mechanical pressure of the
 muscles upon the salivary glands.  Those  who  are
hungry secrete  a great quantity, from the  sight of
agreeable food.  It is imperfectly dissolved by water
somexvhat coagulated by alkohol; and congealed xvitii
more difficulty than xvater.  It is inspissated by a small
dose, and dissolved in a large dose, of mineral acids-
It is also soluble in carbonated alkali.  Caustic alkali
and quick-lime extract volatile alkali from saliva. It cor
rodes copper and iron; and precipitates silver and lead
from containing muriatic acid.  It assists the spirituous
fermentation of farinaceous substances; hence, barbnr
ousnations prepare an inebriating drink from the chexved
roots of the Jatropha manVtot and Piper mcthisticum
It possesses an antiseptic virtue, according to thee--
penments of the celebrated Pringle.  It easily becomes
putrid in warm nir, and gives off volatile alkali.
  Constituent Principles.  Saliva appears to consist
in a healthy state of the body, of water, which const'
tutes at least four-fifths of its hulk, mucilage, albumei.
muriate of soda, phosphate of lime, and phospha e a
ammonia.                             r   v
•k Tr e "s? ofthft sa'iva is, 1. It augments the taste of the
the food, by evolution of sapid matter.  2.  During mas-
tication  u  fixes xvilh, dissolves, and resolves into  itt,
principles, the food;  and changes it into a pultaceous
mass, fit to be sxvullowed: hence it commences chy-
mification.  3. It moderates thirst, by uioisteniiie the
cavily of the mouth and fauces. 
SAL
SAL
  •SALTVAL.  (Salivalis; from iolioa,  the  spittle.)
Of or belonging to the saliva.
  Sauval ducts.  The excretory ducts of the salival
glands.  That of the parotid gland is called the Steno-
nian duct; those ofthe submaxillary glands, the liar-
thonian duels;  and those of the sublingual, the Rivi-
nian duels.
  Sauval glands.  Those glands wltich secrete the
saliva are so termed.   See Saliva.
  SALIVA'NS.  (From saliva, spittle)  That xvliich
excites salivation.
  SALIVA R1A.  (From saliva, tlie spittle  so called
because it excites a dischargeof saliva.) See Anthemis
pyrethrum.
  Sauvaris h'jrba.  See Anthemis pyrethrum.
  SALIVA Til).  Aa increased secretion of saliva.
See Ptyalisnuts.
  SALIX.   (From sola, Heb.)   1. The name  of a
gen us of plants iu the Linucan system. Class, Diacia;
Order, Diandria.  The willow.
  2.  The pharmacopceial name of Salix.  See Salix
fragilit.
  Salix alba.   See Saliz fragilis.
  Salix caprea.  The systematic name of a species
of willow, the  bark of the branches of xvhich possess
etlie same virtues xvith  lhat of tlie fragilis.  See Salix
fragUis.
  Salix pkagius.  The systematic name of the com-
mon crack willow.  Salix.  The bark of the In audits
of this species manifests a considerable degree of bit-
terness lo the taste, and is very adstringent  It is re-
comiueaded as  a good substitute  for  Peruvian bark,
and is said tn cure intermittents and oilier diseases re-
quiring tonic and .idstringeat remedies. Not  only tlie
bark of this species of  salix, but those also of several
others,  possess simitar qualities,  particularly of the
Saliz alia and Salix pentandria,  both of xvhich are
recommended in the foreign  pharmacopoeias.   But Dr.
Woodville is of opinion lhat the bark of the Salix tri-
andria is more effectual than lhat of any other of this
genus; at least  its sensible qualities give  it a decided
preference.  The trials Dr. Cullen mads were xvilh the
bark of the Salix peiilandna, taken from ils branches.
the third of au inch diameter, and of four or live years'
growth  Nevertheless, lie adds, in  interniillem levers,
Bergius always (ailed wilh this bark.
  Salix  mntandria   The bark of ihe brandies of
this species of willoxv possesses the same virtues  as
lhat of the fragilis.  S,e Salix fragilis.
  Salix  vitiuma.  The bark of the branches of litis
speciesof willow may  be substituted  for tlie fiagilis.
6ee Saliz fragilis
  SALMO.   The name of a genus of fishes of tlie or-
der Abdominales.  The salmon.
  Salmo alpinus.  The red  charr.  This beautiful
ted delicate  little fish, and  the Palmo carpio, or gill
charr,  are found in our lakes of  Westmoreland,  in
Wales, and Scotland.   They are very rich, and hard
of digestion.
  Salmo ErcRLANia.  Tlie  tn e It.   A beautiful little
fish, fuand in great abundance in the Thames and river
Dee, and io the European seas, between Nuvenilier and
February.
  Salm« fario.  Tlie common fresh- water trout, tlie
flesh of which is very delicate and rich.
  Salmo lacustris.   The I alee trout.
  Salmo salar.  The systematic  name of tlie com-
mon salmon.  This fish ia considered as one of the
greatest delicacies.  It is rich, and of difficult digestion
to xveak stomachs, and with some, whose stomachs are
not particularly feeble, it uniformly disagrees.   The
pickled, salted, and smoked, though much eaten, are
only fitted for the very strong and active.
  Salmo salmulus.   The  samlet: the least of the
British species of the salmo-genus.   It is found in tJie
river Wye, and up the Severn.
  Salmo thymalcis.   The graling salmon, wliich is
somewhat like  our trout.  It inhabits the rivers ot
Derbyshire, and same of the north, and near Christ-
church in Hampshire.   It is much esteemed for the de:
licacy of its fle«>b, which  is white,  firm, and of a fine
flavour; and  is considered as in tlie highest season  io
the depth of winter.
  Salmo trutta. The systematic name of tiie sal-
mon trout, or bill trout.
  SALMON.  See Salmo.
  SALPINGO   fFroin SaX.zuyl luc:in*,A trumpetA
Names compounded of this word belong to the palnte,
and are connected with the Eustachian tube.
  Salpinoo-pharynoeus.  This muaek la composed
of a fexv fibres of the palatopharyngeus, which  it as-
sists in dilating the mouth of the Eustachian tube.
  Salpinoo-staphilinus.  See Levator palati.
  Salpingo STAPiiii.ists  internus.   See  Lesntoi
palati.
  SAUSAFY.  See  Tragopogon pratense.
  SALSO'LA.  (So called from lis saline properties;
hence  the English word saltwort, most of the species
affording the fossile alkali.)  The name of a genus ol
plants in  the Linnaean system   Class, Pentandria,
Ordei, Digynia.
  Salsola kali   Kali  spinosum eochleatum; Tra-
gus,  sive  Tragum Malthioli.   Snail-seeded  glass-
wort or sail won.  The systematic name of u  plant
which affords tlie mineral alkali.  See Sudn.
  Salsola sativa.  The systematic name of a plant,
which afford- the mineral alkali.  Sec .Soda,
  Salsola soda.  The systematic name of a plant
which attends inincial alkali.  See Soda.
  SALT.  This lenn has been  usually employed tn
denote a compound, in definite proportions, of ncid
mailer, xvilh an alkali,  earth,or metallic oxide.  When
the pro|iortiuns of the constituents are so adjusted, thai
the resulting substance does not affect the colour ol
infusion of litmus, or red cabbage, it is then culled a
neutral salt.  When  the  predominance of acid is
evinced by the reddening irf these infusions, the salt is
said to be acidulous, and the prefix, super, or bi, is used
lo indicate ihis excess of acid.   If, on the contiary, the
acid matter  appears  to be  io  defect, or short of  the
quantity necessary for neutralizing the alkalinity of the
base, the salt is then said to be with excess of base, and
the prefix sub is attached to its name.  The discoveries
of  Sir H. Davy have, however,  taught  chemists to
modify llieir  opinions  concerning saline constitution.
Many bodies, such as  culinary sail, and  muriate o.'*
lime, to xvhich the appellation of  salt cannot be le
fused, have not been proved to contain eitlier acid .' r
alkaline matter;  but must, according to the stiict lo„'r
of  chemistry, be regarded  as  compounds of cluoriae
xvith metals.
  Salt, acid   This is distinguished by its sour ta?:e
iviien diluted xx ith water.  See Acid.
  Salt, alkaline.    Possesses a urinous, burning, and
caustic taste, turns the  syrup of violets to a green,  has
a strong affinity for acids, dissolves animal  substances,
unites readily with water, combines wilh oils and  fat,
and renders them miscible xvith  water, dissolves sul
phur, and is crystallizable.  See Alkali.
  Salt, ammoniacal, fixed.  Muriate of lime.
  Salt, bitter purging.  Sulphate of magnesia.
  Salt, cathartic.   See  Magnesia sulphas, and  Soda
sulphas.
  Salt, common.   See Soda murias.
  Salt, digestive   Acetate of potassa.
  Salt,  diuretic.   Acetate of potassa.
  Salt,  Epsom.  See Magnesia sulphas
  Salt, febrifuge, of Sylvius.  Muriate of potassa.
  Salt, fossil. A sail found in the earth.
  Salt, fusible. Phosphate of ammonia.
  Salt, fusible, of urine.  Triple phosphate of soda
and ammonia.
  Sedt,microcosmie.  Triple irhosphate of soda and
ammonia.
  salt, nitrous ammoniceal. Nitrate of ammonia.
  Salt, neutral.  Secondary salt.  Under the name of
neutral or secondary salts are comprehended such mat
tere as are composed of  two  primitive saline substances
combined together iu a certain proportion.  These set u
are called neutral, because ihey do not possess the c.'m-
racters of primitive salts; lhat  is to say, they me in. i
ther acid nor  alkaline:  such as Epsom salts, nitre, Sec.
But in  many secondary salts the qualities of one in-ie
dient predominate; as tartar, or supertartrate of po
tassa, has an excess of acid; borax, or subborate 01
soda, an excess of base.  The  former arc termed aci-
dulous, the latter sub-alkaline salts.
  SALT-PETRE.  See JVitre.
  Salt of amber.   Succinic acid.
  Salt of benzoin.  Benzoic acid.
  Halt of colcothar.  Sulphate of iron.
  Salt of lemons.   Superoxylate of potarea
  Salt of Saturn.   Acetate of lead.
  Salt of SeiiUHi.  Sulphate ot magnesia
                                        •an 
SAN                                              SAN
and he was tne first  who attempted to determine the
temperature of the body by a thermometer,  of which,
indeed, he is considered as the inventor.
   Sanctum  semen.   The  xvorm-seed,  or  santo-
uicuin.
  SA'NCTl'S    Holy.  A term formerly applied  to
diseases,  iierbs, &c.  See Chorea,  Carduus benedic-
tus. Sec
  SANDALIFOKMIS.  Sandal  or  slipper-like.  Ap
plied to tlie nectary of the Cypripedium calceolus.
  SANDARA'CHA.  (From saghad narak, Arabian.)
I. A gummy resin.
  2.  A sort of arsenic.
  Sandaracha aradum.  Arabian  sandarach.  This
resinous juice appears to have been the pioduce of a
large species ot juniper-tree.
  Sandbath.  See Bath.
  SANDERS.  See Pterocarpus sanlalinus.
  Sandrack.   (An  Arabian xvord.)  See Juniperus
communis.
  Sandyx.  (From a-ani duk, red, Arabian.)  Cerusse
burnt till it becomes red.
  SANGUIFICATION.  (Sanguificatio; from »an-
guis, blond, and faceo, to make.)  A natural function
of the body, by wliich the chyle is changed into blood.
The uses of sanguification are the generation of blood,
xvhich  serves to fill the blood-vessels, to irritate and
stimulate  tlie heart and arteries, to generate or cause
heat, to secrete  tlie  humours, and to excite the vital
actions.
  Sasguinalis.   (From sanguis, blood:  so named
from ils use in slopping bleedings.)  The Polygonum
avicnlare,  or knot-grass, is sometimes so called.
  Sanouinaria.  (From  sanguis, blood:  so named
from its use iu stopping bleedings.)  See Polygonum
avicvlare.
  [Sanguinaria canadensis.  See Blood-root.   A.]
  SANGUINEOUS.   Bloody.   Appertaining to the
blood.  Applied to certain conditions of the body and
diseases, and appearances of solids nnd fluids; as san-
guineous temperament, sanguineous apoplexy.
  Sanguineous apoplexy.  See Apoplexy.
  S-xngiipurgium.  (From sanguis, blood, and purge,
to purge.)   A gentle fever, or such a one as by its dis-
charges is supposed to pui ify the  blood.
  SA'NGUIS.   (Sanguis, guiuis. m.)   See  Blood.
  Sanguis draconis.  See Calamus rolang.
  Sanguis hercilis.  A name for the crocus.
  SANGUISO'RBA.  (Probably so  named  originally
from the  blood-red colour of its flowers, although the
juices of  this  plant,  being astringent, the medicinal
properties  it possesses of stopping haemorrhages may
be a better  xvarrant for ils name.)   Tlie name oi'a genus
of plants in the  Linna-an system. Class, Triandria;
Order, Monogynia.
  Sanguisorba  officinalis.  The  systematic name
of the Italian pimpinel, xvhich xvas formerly much es-
teemed as  an astringent, but is not noxv in use.
  SANGUISU'GA.  (From sanguis, blood, and sugo,
io suck.)   The leech or blood-sucker.  See Leech.
  SANICLE.  See Sanicula.
  Sanicle,   Yorkshire. See Pinguicula.
  SANICULA.  (From sano, to heal: so called from
its virtues in healing.)
  1. The  name of a genus of plants in the  Linnaean
system.  Class, Pentandria; Order, Digynia.
  2. The pharniacopoeial name of sanicle.
  Sanicula eboracensis.  See Pinguicula vulgaris.
  Sanicula europea.   The systematic name of the
sanicle.   Cucullata;  DodecaPieon;  Symphytum pe-
traum; Sanicula mas; Diapensia cortusa.   This
herb xvas formerly recommended as a mild adstringent,
and is supposed to have received ils name from its sa-
native power.   Its sensible qualities are a bitterish and
somexvhat austere  taste,  followed  by an  acrimony
xvtich chiefly affects the throat.  It is only in use  in
the present day among the country people.
  Sanicula mas.  See Sanicula europea.
  SA'NIES.   Ichor.   This term is sometimes applied
to a thin, limpid, and greenish discharge; and at other
times to a thick nnd bloody kind of pus.
  SA'NTALUM.  (From zandal,  Arabian.)  The
name of a genus of plants  in the  Linnaeai. system.
Class, Tetrandria; Order, Monogynia.  Saunders.
  Santalum  album.  The systematic  name  of the
yelloxv saunders.  Santalum citrinum; Santalum pal-
lidum.  Yelloxv  saunders.  White saunders wood  is
 of a pale white colour, often with a yelloxvish tinge.
 and, being destitute of tasle or odotr, It is superseded
 by the santalum ciirinum, xvhicli is of a brownish yel-
 loxv  colour,  of a bitterish  aromatic taste, and  of a
 pleasant smell, approaching to that of the rose.  Botli
 kinds are brought from the  East Indies in billets, con
. sistingof large thick pieces, wliich, according to Rum
| phius, are sometimes taken from the same, and sonie-
 times from different trees.  For though *he xvhite and
 yelloxv saunders are the wood of the same species of
 tree, yel the latter, xvliich forms ihe central part of the
 tree, is not alxx ays to be found in sufficient quantity to
 repay ihe  trouble ami  expense of procuring it,  espe-
 cially, unless tlie trees be old; xvhile the white, xvhich
 is the exterior pari of the xvood, is always mote abun
 dant, and is consequently much cheaper.
   Yelloxv saunders, distilled xvith xvater, yields a f
 grant essential oil, xvhich thickens  in the cold into the
 consistence of a  balsam, approaching in  smell to am-
 bergris,  or  a mixture of ambergris and roses;  the
 remainint; decoction,  inspissated  to  the consistence
 of an  extract, is  bitterish,  and  slightly   pungent.
 Rectified spirit extiacts, by dittcslion,  consideiably
 more than  xvater,  the colour of the  tincture is a
 rich  yelloxv.   The distilled spirit is slightly impreg-
 nated xvith the flavour of  Ihe  xvood;  the remaining
 broxvnish extract has a xveak smell, and a  moderate
 balsamic pungency.  The xvood is valued highly  on
 account  of  its  fragrance; hence the Chinese are said
 to fumigate their clothes xvith it, and to burn it in their
 temples in honour of their gods.   Though still retained
 in the Materia  Medica, it cannot be thought to possess
 any considerable share of medicinal power.  Hoffman
 considers ils virtues as similar to those  of ambergris;
 and some others have esteemed it in the character of a
 corroborant and restorative.
   ["The sandal-xvood, xvhich is found  on some ofthe
 islands of the South Sea, has been a great article of com-
 merce for the Chinese market. The following extract ol
 a letter from Cotes Fanning  & Co. to Dr. Mitchill gives
 an account of the trade and employment of this wood as
 a perfume.
   " In the month of August, 1806, xve despatched the
 ship Hope,  Capt. Bromley, from  Nexv-Vork,  on a
 voyAge to the Fejee islands,  lo procure a cargo of San-
 dal-wood, for Ihe Canton market.  The Hope having
 succeeded at the island of  Toconroba,  in procuring a
 full cargo for herself, and in part freighting an English
 brig  that she met xvith at said  island, arrived in No-
 vember 1807, at Canton, xvhere both caigoes xvere sold
 at  about 25 cents per pound.  While at the Fejee
 islands the Captain ofthe Hope contracted and paid in
 part to the chief of the Island for about  270 tons  more
 of sandal-wood, (this being  about the whole  quantity
 of  good  xvood  rema.iiing on the islands) to be taken
 axvay in a certain time.  In  order therefore to seize so
 profitable a speculation while there were so fexv to par-
 ticipate in it, we built and sent the ship Tonquin, com-
 manded by E. Fanning, in May, 1807, to meet the Hope
 at Canton; but the Hope not having arrived in time
 for Capt. Fanning to fulfil our original intentions, the
 season was so far wasted as to compel him to load Ihe
 Tonquin for New-Vork, and he  met the Hope in the
 mouth of the Tigris or (Canton  river).   Both vessels
 will, therefore, return to the United States under  ne
 expectations that the trespasses  of European nations
 would compel our government to  inhibit their depar-
 ture  again  on said  voyage. Being thus situated xve
 have taken  the liberty to address you for your advice,
 whether, under tlie embargo law, or the supplements,
 the Executive xvill  not have suflicient authority to
 permit us to proceed immediately xvitii a ship suflicient
 to  bring the  above quantify of xvood,  and by that
 means save to ourselves and  our country  at  least
 8130,000, which will probably, if such permission  is re-
 fused, fall into English  hands;  for you will please to
 observe, that there was in  the first place but a small
 patchof the xvood on one of the islands, that the Hope
 left four English vessels there, selecting from ihe refuse
 a little of very inferior quality, and in expectation too
 that  some  accident xvould  prevent our ship from re-
 turning within the limited time, wliich xvould releuse
 the chief from his engagement, aud leave him nt liberty
 to sell the good xvood  purchased by Capt. Brumley to
 their   From the knowledge Capt. Brumley hns of the
 chiefs conduct, we rely as  confidently on his kcepins
 his engagement for the time limited ns xve would on tne
                                         263 
SAF
SAP
 chief of the most civilized nation.  You will no douht
 recollect that the Chinese have long considered sandal-
 wood as possessing religious properties; they are ac-
 customed  to burn it on their altars  as incense;  theit
 god Josh is supposed alxvays out of humour, unless his
 nose is  regaled with its delightful  effluvia.  We have
 enclosed a small piece ofthe wood, that you may have
 an opportunity of judging how far a Pagan  god's laste
 may be  deemed exquisite.  Tlie Hope is the  first vessel,
 to the best of our knowledge, lhat ever proceeded from
 the United States on this voyage, and on her return, xve
 presume she will pay about $40,000 into tlie Treasury
 for duties  from tht proceeds ofthe wood, which origi-
 ginally cost  only about nine hundred  dollars.' "—Med.
 Repos.  A.]
  Santalum citrinum.  See Santalum album.
  Santalum pallidum.  See Santalum album.
  Santalum rubrum.  Red saunders.   See Ptcrocar-
pus santalinus.
  SANTOLl'NA.  (From santalum,  saunders; be-
cause it smells like the saunders-wood.)  See Artemisia
santonica.
  Santolina  cham.e-cyparissus.  The  systematic
 name ofthe lavender cotton.
  Santonk'UM.   (From  Santonio, its  native  place.)
See Artemisia santonica.
  SAPHE'NA. (From oacbqs, visible.)  Venasaphena.
The large vein ofthe leg, xvhich ascends along the little
toe over the  external ankle, and evacuates part of the
blood from the foot into the popliteal veins.
  Sapienti.e  dentes.   (Sapientia,  xvisdom,  discre-
tion :  so called because they appear xvhen the person is
supposed to  he at years of discietion.)   See  Teeth.
  SAPI'NDUS.  (That is,  Sapo Indus, Indian soap:
Ihe rind of the fruit serving instead of soap to cleanse
 linen, but not without hazard of injury to the  texture
ofthe cloth.)  The name of a genus of  plants.  Class,
 Oclandria; Order, Digynia.   The soap-tree.
  Sapindus saponaria.  The systematic.name of the
 plant  xvhich affords soap nuts.   Saponaria nucula;
 Bacca bcrmudensis.   Soap-berries. A spherical fruit,
 about the size of a cherry, the cortical part of which is
 yellow,  glossy, and so transparent as to  shoxv the sphe-
 rical black nut xvhich rattles within, and xvhich includes
 a white kernel.  The tree groxvs in Jamaica.  It iseaid
that the cortical part of ihis fruit has a bitter teste, and
 no smell;  lhat it raises a soapy froth with xvater, and
 has similar effects xvith soap in xvnshing ; that it is a
 medicine of singular and specific virtue in chlorosis.
 They are not knoxvn in the shops of tliis country.
  SA'PO.   (Sapo, nis. ni.)  Soap. A compound, in
 definite  proportions, of certain principles in oils, fats, or
 resin, xvitii a salifiable base.  When this base is potassa
 or soda, the  compound is used as a detergent in wash-
 ing clothes.   When an alkaline earth, or  oxide of a
 common metal, as litharge, is the salifiable base, the
 compound is insoluble in water.  The first of ihese
 combinations is scarcely applied to any use, if we ex-
 cept that of linseed oil xvitii lime-water,sometimes pie-
 scribed  as a liniment  against burns; and  tlie last is
 known  only in surgery as the basis of certain plasters.
 Concerning  the chemical constitution of  soaps  and
 saponification, no exact ideas xvere entertained prior to
 Chevreuil's  researches.
  Fats are compounds of a solid and a liquid  substance;
 the former called stearine, the latter resembling vegeta-
 ble oil, and therefore called elainc.  When fat is treated
 wilh a hot ley of potassa or soda, the constituents react
 on one another, so as to generate the solid pearly mat-
 ter margaric acid, and the fluid matter oleic arid, both
 of xvhich  enter into a species of saline combination
 with  the alkali;  while the third matter that  is pro-
 duced,  the  sweet principle, remains free.  We  must
 therefore regard our common soap as a mixture of an
 llkallue inargarate and  olente, in proportions deter-
 mine! by  the lelat'vc proportions ofthe two acids pro-
 ducible from the peculiar species of fat.  It is probable,
 on tlie other hand, that the soap formed from vegetable
 nil is chiefly an oleate.  No chemical researches have
 hitherto been made known, on the compounds of resin
 xvilh alkalies, though these constitute the brown soaps
 so extensively manufactured  in this country.   All oils
 or fats do not possess in an equal  degree the  property
 if saponification.  Tliose xvliich saponify best, are,
   1. Oil of olives, and of sweet almonds.
  3. Anima  oils; as hog's-lard.  (allow, butter, and
 horsr-oil.
        364
   3. Oi te colza, or rape-seed ail.
   4. Oil ol beech-mast  and poppy-seed, when* mixed
 with olive-oil or talloxv.
   5. The several fish-oils, mingled like the pteceding.
   6. Hempseed-oil.
   7. Nut-oil and linseed-oil.
   8. Palm oil.
   0 Rosin.
   In  general, the only soaps employed  in commerce,
 are tliose of olive-oil, tallow, lard, palm-oil, and rosin.
 A species of soap can also be formed by tlie union of
 beesxvax with alkali; but this has no detergent appli
 cation, being used only for painting in encausto.
   The specific gravity of soap is in general greater than
 that of water.  Its taste is laintly alkaline.  When sub
 jected to heat it speedily fuses, sxvells up, and is then
 decomposed.  Exposed to Ihe air in thin slices, it sooii
 becomes dry; but the whole  combined xxater does not
 leave it, even by careful  desiccation on a sand-bath.
   Soap is much more soluble in hot than in cold xvater.
 This solution  is instantly disturbed by ihe greater num
 ber of acids,  xvhich seizing the alkali, cither separate
 the fatty principles, or unite with them  inlo an acido
 soapy emulsion.  The solution is likexvise decompose!
 by almost all the earthy and metallic salts, which give
 birth to insoluble compounds of the oleic and margaric
 acids, with the salifiable  bases.
  Soap is soluble  in  alkohol, and in  large quantity by
 the aid of heat.  When boiling  alkohol is saturated
 xvilh soap, the liquid, on cooling, forms a consistent
 transparent mass of a yellow colour.   When this mass
 is dried, it still retains its transparency,  provided the
 soap be a compound of talloxv aud soda; and in this
 state it is sold by the perfumers in this country.
   Good soap possesses the property of removing from
 linen and cloth the greater  part of  fatly substances
 xvhich may have  been applied to ihem.
  The medicinal soap, sapo amygdolinus, is made with
 oil of sxveet almonds, and half its weight of caustic
 alkali.  Common or soft soap, sapo mollis, is made of
 potassa and oil, or  talloxv.  Spanish, or  Castile soap,
 sapo durus, of oil of olives and soda, or barilla.   Black
 soap is a composition of train oil and au alkali; and
 green soap of  hemp, linseed, or rape oil, xvith an alkali.
 The xvhile Spanish soap, being made of the finer kinds
 of olive oil, is the best, and therefore preferred for in-
 ternal use. Soap was  imperfectly knoxvn to  the an
 cients.   It is  mentioned by Pliny as  made of fat and
 ashes, and as  an invention ofthe Gauls.  Areta-us and
 others inform  us, that the Greeks obtained their know
 ledge of its medical use from the Romans.  Its virtues,
 according  to  Bergius, are detergent, resolvent, and
 aperient, and  its  use recommended in jaundice, gout,
 calculous complaints, and obstruction of the  viscera.
 The efficacy of soap, in the first of these diseases, was
 experienced by Sylvius, and since recommended very
 generally by various authors who have written on this
 complaint; and it has also been thought of use in sup-
 plying the place of bile in the primae viae. The utility
 of this medicine in icterical cases was inferred chiefly
 from its supposed power of dissolving biliary concre-
 tions ; but this medicine has lost much of its reputation
 in  jaundice, since it is  now known, that gall-stones
 have been found in many after death who had been
 daily taking soap for several  months, and even  years.
 Of its good effects in urinary calculous  affections, xve
 have the testimonies of several, especially xvhen dis-
 solved iu lime-xviiter, by which its efficacy is considera-
 bly increased ; for it thus becomes a powerful solvent
 of mucus, which an ingenious modern author supposes
 to be the chief agent in the formation of calculi; it is,
 hoxvever, only in tlie incipient 6tate of the disease that
 these remedies promise effectual  benefit, though they
 generally abate the more violent symptoms where lliey
 cannot remove the cause.  With Boerhaave, soap was
 a general medicine; for as  he attributed most com-
 plaints to viscidity of the fluids, he, and most of the
 Boerhaavian  school, prescribed it, in conjunction xvith
 different resinous and other sulistances, in gout, rheu-
 matism, nnd various viscernl complaints. Soap is also
 externally employed as a resolvent, and  gives name to
 several officinal preparations.
   t" The history of  personal cleanliness is very  impor-
 tant, and has been lamentably neglected.  Pliny, in  his
 Natural History, treating of strumous swellings, makes
 mention of Soup:  Pradct est sapo.  Galliarum hot
I mventum rulilandis capillis.  Fit  tx sebo ct  cmere 
SA1
SAR
  Optimum ex fagino et caprino : duobis modis, spissus
  «c liquidus : ulcrque apud Gcrmanus majure in usu
  viris quam faminis.  " Soap is good for them.   This
  teas  invented in Gaul, and used for reddening the
  hair.  It is made of fat aud ashes.   The best is pre-
 pared from the ashes of the beach-tree  and the suet of
  the goat.  There are two sorts, the thick and the liquid.
  Among the Germans, both kinds arc more used by the
  men than by the women."   Piiscian xvriies  of  "Sapo
  Gallicus,"  or  Gaulish soap; and Martial of "Spuma
  Batava," or Dutch lather, and " Spuma Causlica," or
  Caustic foam.   The German soap xvas  reckoned the
  best and cleanest  The Gaulish xvas next  in quality
  and  value.
   It  is clear, and  President  Goguct  is  of  tlie same
 opinion,  (in his history of the origin of laxvs, Sec) that
 the ancient Hebrexvs, Greeks, and Romans knew no-
 thing of  soap.  These nations used lo supply the xvant
 of it by various other  means.  From the  barbarous
 people of the north, the knowledge aud  employment
 of soap passed to the Romans; and  from the Romans
 xxas  made  knoxvn to the Greeks.  A very remarkable
 fact!
   When  the Romans  first became acquainted xvith
 soap, they called it " Unguentum Cineris," or Ointment
 of ashes.   So prevalent xvas the idea of its origin, thai
 several writers have treated of it under the denomina-
 tion of " Cinis," or ashes, itself.  And those-xvbo con-
 sumed soap xvere in tliose days called  " Cinerarii," or
 Ashes users.
   After a while, hoxvever, this detergent ointment was
 distinguished among the Romans by the word " Sapo."
 This term probably is of Gothic or Barbarian origin.
 Some of  the Parthian  and other nations bordering on
 the frontier proviuces of tlie  Roman  Empire, distin-
 guished llieir rulers or  chiefs by ihe name  -Sapor" or
 " Sapores."  The good they derived from tlie unguen-
 tum Ciiuris xvas so great mid excellent, and it xvas so
 powerful in overcoming bodily inconveniences, and so
 conducive to personal comfort, that they called this
 preserver of private health, by a name corresimndiiig
 to, and derived from the sovereigns xvho presided over
 their public safely.  From Sapor,  thus  xvas derived
 Sapo; txvo  terms significant of the poxvers which pro-
 tected the  political and the  individual bodies  of the
 people.  The Romans adopted Sapo, and naturalized
 it to their language.  From them the Greeks borroxx ed
 their oavuv. The French have derived their " savon"
 from the same source,  and  so  have the English their
 "soap."
   But if soap xvas so late an  invention, and learned
 from the rougher nations of the north of Europe at so
 advanced a period of  the history of  their  southern
 neighbours, how comes it to pass the Hebrexvs were ac-
 quainted with it, as we read in the English version of
 the Bible, translated under the auspices of king James 1
 The term " soap" does indeed occur there hi Jeremiah,
 chap, n v. -'-, and  in  Malacht,  chap.  iii.  v. 2.   Vet
 there can scarcely  be entertained a doubt, that the
 translators were mistaken. This opinion of ".heir having
 misinterpreted the text is supported  by  the Latin vul-
 gate version, which  expresses the former of these pas-
 sages by the words, " herbani  boritb,"  and the  latter
 by " herba fullonum."  What, noxv,  is  the plant Bo-
 rith,  and  what is the Fuller's herb ?  Calmet, in Ills
 Dictionary of the Bible, states, that it is tlie kali or sa-
 like vegetable, of whose ashes "ley and soap are made."
 Goguet thinks it was salt-wort, a plant very common
 In Syria, Judea, Egypt, and Arabia; which, if burned
 to ashes, and tbe ashes mingled with water, formed a
 strong ley fit for  cleansing  and xvhitening cloths, and
 doubtless  they were right.
   Notwithstanding  all this authority, Bcza evidently
  issed the true meaning of the original, which he ex-
  resses in both the before-mentioned texts, by the sub-
 stantive "smegma."  But John Jacob Schmidt, in his
 Biblischsr Medicos, mentions this cleansing article by
 the Hebrew name of " Bor."   This substantive  being
 derived from the root " ur"fire, plainly indicates tbat
 Ihe purifying material  in question xxas  obtained by ot
through fire.  Borith would ttius seem  to be the plant
which, by the action of the fire, yielded Bor, that is,
Ihe detergent article of the xvashers and fullers.  Or
the two words might be  used  indifferently to signify
the plant both before and after incineration.  Hence,
it may be inferred, the plant xvas a species of Salsola or
 Glass-wort, and lhat the saline residuum, after burn- J
  ing, xvas kelp or barilla ,  a materia! possessing quallt'ea
  similar to tlie oriental natron or  mineral alkali.  The
  same thing has been latterly called Soda, xvhence comes
  La  Soude of the French, and the Suds or Alkaline
  lixivium ofthe English."—New- York Mei. Repos. A.]
    Sapo tkrebinthin.£.   Starkcy'ssoap.
    "ft. kali preparati calidi, ?j.   Olei  terebinth, "JldJ.
  The hot kali  prcparatum is to have the oil of turpen-
  tine gradually blended xvith it, in a  heated  mortar.
  Indolent sxvelliiigs xvere formerly  rubbed with  this ap-
  plication, and  perhaps some chronic affections of the
  joints might still be benefited by it.
    SAPONARIA.  (From sapo,  soap: so  railed be
  cause its juice, like soap, cleans cloths.)  I.  Tiie name
  of a genus of plants in the Linnaean system.  Class,
  Decandria; Order, Digynia.
    2. The phannacopaeiul name of the soap-wort.  Set
  Saponaria officinalis.
    Saponaria nucula.  See Sapindus saponaria.
    Saponaria  officinalis. Tho systematic uame of
  the soap-xvort, called  also bruise-xvort.  Strutkium;
  Lanaria;  Lychnis sylvestris; Ibixuma.  The root
  of this plant,  Saponaria—calycibus cylindricis, foliis
  ovato-lanceolatis, of Linnaeus, is  employed  medicin-
  ally ; it has no peculiar  smell; its  tasle  is sxxeelish,
  glutinous, and  somexvhat bitter. On being chewed for
 some lime, it is said to discover a degree of acrimony,
  which continues to afltect the mouth for a considerable
 time.  According  to Neumnn, txvo ounces of the toot
 yielded eleven drachms of watery extract; but Cartheu-
 ser, from  a like quantity, only obtained six drachms,
 and twenty-four grains.   Tins extract manifested a
 sxveeiish taste, folloxved  by an acrid  quality.   The
 spirituous extract is less in quality, but of a more pene-
 trating acrid laste.  Decoctions of the root, on being
 sufficiently agitated, produces a saponaceous froth; a
 similar soapy quality is observable also in  the extract,
 and still more  manifestly in the leaves, insomuch  that
 they have been used by the mendicant monks as a  sub-
 stitute for soap in xvashing of their clothes;  and Ber-
 gius, who made several experiments xvith the saponaria,
 declares that it bad all tlie effects of soap itself.
   From these peculiar qualities of the saponaria, there
 can be little doubt of its possessing a considerable share
 of medical efficacy, xvhicli Dr. Woodx-ille says he could
 wisli to find faithfully ascertained.
   The diseases for which the saponaria is recommend-
 ed, as syphilis, gout, rheumatism, and  jaundice, are
 not, perhaps, the complaints in whicli its  use is most
 availing; for a fancied resemblance of the roots of sa-
 ponaria with those of sarsaparilla, seems to  hax-e led
 physicians to think them similar in their effects;  and
 hence they have both been administered witli the same
 intentions, particularly in fixed pains, and venereal af-
 fections.  Bergius  says, "in arthritide, cura mcrxuri-
 ale, &c. nullum aptioicm potum novi."  Hoxvever, ac-
 cording to several writers, the most inveterate cases ol
 syphilis xvere cured by a decoction  of this plant, xvith-
 out the use of mercury.
  Haller informs us that Boerhaave entertained a high
 opinion of ils efficacy in jaundice and other visceral
 obstructions.
  SAPONULE.  Saponulus.  A combination of a vo
 latile or essential oil with different bases; as  saponult
 of ammonia, Sec.
  Sapota.  (The West Indian name of several sorts
 of fruits ofthe plum kind.)  Sec Acras sapota.
  Sappan lignum.  See Hamatoxylon campechianum
  SAPPHIRE.   Telesie of IIa(iy.  Perfect corundum
 of  Bouillon.  The oriental ruby and topaz  arc sap
 phires.  Sapphire is a subspecies of rhomboidal corun-
 dum.  It is one of the esteemed precious  stones, a sap-
 phire of ten carats' weight being worth fifty guineas.
 Its  colours  are  blue, red, and  also  gray,  white, green,
 and yellow.    It is  found  in  blunt-edged pieces, in
 roundish pebbles, and crystallized after tho diamond
 It is the hardest substance in nature.
  Sapphirina aqua.  (So called from its sapphire oi
 blue colour.)  Aqua cupri ammoniati. Made by a ?o-
lution of sal ammoniac  in lime-water, standing in u
copper vessel.
  Saracens consound.  See Solidago virga aurea.
  SARATOGA.  The name of a county in the  State
of New-York, in America, celebrated for Its springs ot
mineral water, wliich are numerous throughout  a cir-
cuit of several  miles near the centre of that county
The ground throughout this circuit is, generally speak
                                        wis 
SAR                                             SAR
 ing, flat, and in two or three places is covered with ex-
 tensive sheets of limpid water,  xvhich  arc fed by
 streams that take their origin in the neighbouring moun-
 tains of granite and  gneiss.   The soil in wliich  the
 springs rise is sandy, and rests upon a Led of compact
 limestone, or  argillaceous slate, or gray xvacke;  and
 they are apparently more numerous where these spe-
 cimens of tiie transition and  secondary formation  are
 ascertained to meet.   There is more variety in the de-
 gree of mineral impregnation at  txvo points,  about
 seven miles distant from each other, xvlvre accommo-
 dation has been more liberally provided for visiters,
 and which have  taken the  names of Saratoga  and
 Ballston Spa.  The former of these seems to have been
 known to the Indians before the formation of European
 settlements, and xvas  pointed  out by them to Sir Wil-
 liam Johnson, in 1767.   It was called in their language
 the Spring of Life, and is in temperature about 50° of
 Fahrenheit.   Most of  the American  chemists have
 made the  analysis ofthe Saratoga xvater an object of
 inquiry and publication, and  though  one or txvo of
 them differ as  to the existence of some ofthe more tri-
 fling impregnations, they agree generally that it con-
 tains carbonic acid gas, muriate of soda, carbonate of
 soda, carbonate of lime, carbonate of iron, and carbo-
 nate of magnesia.
  Iu txvo or three of the springs, there is, besides, sul-
 phuretted  hydrogen gas, and in one at least  traces  of
 silica and alumina.  These incidental varieties give
 rise to slight differences in the medicinal effects of the
 Bprings; but, as a general rule for guiding strangers in
 their selection, it may he stated, that the more abun-
 dant the muriate of soda, and  carbonatesof soda, lime,
 and magnesia, the more aperient and  diuretic will  be
the water;. while the greater the quantity of carbonic
acid and of iron, in  proportion to the former ingre-
dients, the more poxverful xvill be its tonic effects.
  The  great superiority of these American mineral
ivaters over every thing of the kind  to be found  in
Europe, consists,
  1st, In their containing a greater quantity of carbo-
nic acid, or fixed air, by which they are capable of re-
taining in solution a much larger proportion of useful
saline matter, of a particular character, than any Euro-
pean mineral xvater.
  2dly, In their possessing more efficient purgative pro-
perties than any ofthe springs of Europe, with the ex-
ception of Harrowgate, and perhaps Cheltenham, which
ar" both not only destitute ofthe refreshing taste given
by the carbonic acid, but contain (Harrowgate in par-
ticular) matters which render them to the palate  in
some degree offensive.
  3dly, In containing such a combination of materials,
 in the most eligible form, as fit them to become at once
a most refreshing beverage to all, and to those suffering
from the diseases about to be mentioned in particular,
a more perfect union  of what is agreeable with that
 which is necessary and useful in the way of medicine,
than any that has hitherto been provided, cither by na-'
'.ure or art.
  The  diseases in  xvhich the  Saratoga waters have
been found to be productive  of the best effects, are,
dyspepsia, cutaneous  diseases,  scrofulous affections,
dropsy, chlorosis, and  other affections  peculiar to the
female sex, nephritic affections and gravel.
  SARCI'TES.  (From aap\,  flesh.) See Anasarca.
  SA'RCIUM. (Diminutive of aap\, flesh.)  A carun-
cle, or small fleshy  excrescence.
  SARCOCE'LE.  (From oat\, flesh, and xrfXq, a tu-
 mour.)  Hernia carnosa.  Tills is a  disease of the
 body of the testicle, and as the term implies, consists,
 in general, in such  an alteration made in the structure
of it, as produces a resemblance to a hard fleshy sub-
Btancc, instead of that fine, soft, vascular texture, of
 whicli  it is, in  a natural and heal'.hy state, composed.
  The  ancient xvriters have made a great number  of
 distinctions of the different kinds of this  disease, ac-
 cording to its different appearances, and according to
 the -mildness, or malignity of the symptoms xvith which
 It may chance to be attended.  Thus, the sarcocele, the
 hydro-sarcoccle, the scirrhus,  the cancer, the caro ad-
 nata ad tatem, and the caro  adnata ad vasa, which
 are really  little  more  than descriptions  of  different
 states  and circumstances  of the  same disease,  are
 reckoned as so many different complaints, requiring a
 variety of treatment, and deriving their origin from a
 variety of different humour*
      •260
 |   Every species of sarcocele consists primarily in an
  enlargement, induration, and obstruction of the vas
  cular part of the testicle;  but this alteration is, in di.**
  ferent people, attended with such  a variety of circuna
  stances, as to produce several different appearances,
  and  to  occasion the  many distinctions  which have
  been made.
    If the body ofthe testicle, though enlarged, and indu-
  rated to some degree, be perfectly  equal in its surface,
  viid of  pain, has no appearance of fluid in its turcica
  vaginalis, and produces very little uneasiness,  except
  xvhat is occasioned by its mere weight, it is usually
  called a simple sarcocele, or an indolent scirrhus; if,
  at the same time that the testis is eniarged and harden-
  ed, there be a palpable accumulation of fluid iu  the va-
  ginal coat,  the disease has by many  been named a
  hydrosarcocele; if the loxver part of the spermatic ves-
  sels,  and the epididymus xvere enlarged, hard,  and
  knotty, they supposed it to be a fungous, or morbid ac-
  cretion, and called it the caro adnata ad vasa; if the
  testicle itself xvas unequal iu ils  surface, but  at the
  same time not painful,  they distinguish it by the title of
  caro adnata ad testem; if it was tolerably equal, not
  very painful, nor frequently so, but at  the same time
  hard and large, they gave it the appellation of an occult
 or benign cancer; if it was ulcerated, subject  to fre-
 quent acute pain, to haemorrhage, Sec it xvas known by
 that of a malignant or confirmed cancer.   These dif-
 ferent appearances, though  distinguished  by differenl
 titles, are really no more than so  many stages (as it
 were) of the same kind of disease,  and depend a great
 deal on several accidental circrfmstances, such as age,
 habit, manner of living, &c.  It is true, that many peo-
 ple pass several years xvitii this disease, under its most
 favourable appearances, and xvithout encountering any
 of its xvorst;  but, on the other hand, there are many
 who, in a very short space  of time, run through all its
 rftages.  They xvho are most conversant with it, know
 hoxv very convertible its mildest symptoms are into its
 most dreadful ones, and how very short a space of time
 often  intervenes between the one and the other.
   There  is hardly any disease affecting the human
 body, xvhich is subject to more variety than this is, bolh
 ivith regard  to its first manner of appearance, and ths
 changes xvhich it may undergo.
   Sometimes the first appearance is a mere simple en
 largement and  induration of the body of the testicle;
 void of pain, without inequality of surface, and pro-
 ducing no uneasiness, or inconvenience, except whal
 is  occasioned by its mere xveight.  And some people
 are so fortunate to have it remain in this  state for a
 very considerable length of time xvithout visible or ma-
 terial  alteration.  On the other hand,  it  sometimes
 happens  that very soon  after its appearance iu this
 mild manner, it suddenly becomes unequal and knotty,
 and is attended xvith very acute pains darling up to the
 loins and back, but still remaining entire, that is, not
 bursting through the integuments. Sometimes the fury
 ofthe disease brooks no restraint, but making its way
 through all the membranes which envelope the testicle
 it either  produces a large, foul, stinking, phagedenic
 ulcer, xvitii hard edges, or il thrusts forth a painful
 gleeling fungus, subject to frequent  haemorrhage.
  Sometimes an accumulation of xvater is made  in the
 tunica vaginalis, producing that mixed appearance,
 called the hydro-sarcoeele.
  Sometimes there is no fluid at all  in the cavity  ofthe
 tunica vaginalis: but the body of the testicle itself is
 formed into  cells, containing either a turbid  kind  of
 water, a  bloody sanies, or a purulent  foetid  matter.
 Sometimes the disorder seems to be merely local, that
 is,  confined to the testicle, not proceeding from a taint-
 ed  habit, nor accompanied  with diseased viscera  the
 patient having all  the  general appearances and'cir-
 cumstances of health, and deriving his  local mischief
 from  an  external injury.  At other times, a pallid
 leaden countenance, indigestion, frequent nausea  co-
 licky pains, sudden purpings, &c. sufficiently  indicate
 a vitiated habit,.and diseased viscera,  which diseased
 viscera may also sometimes be discovered and felt.
   Tho progiess also xvhicli it makes from the testis up-
 ward, toxvard the process, is verv  uncertain; the dis
 ease occupying the testicle only, without affecting thf
 spermatic process, in some subjects, for a great length
 of time;  xvhile, in others, it totally spoils  the testicle
 very soon, and almost as soon seizes on tbe spermatic
1 chord. 
SAS                                             SAU
  SARCOCOLLA.   (From oap">, flesh, and  xoXXa,
(.hie; because of its supposed poxvei of gluing together
wounds.)  A  spontaneous exudalijm from  a tree of
ihe fur kind, xvhich groxvs in  Persia, supposed to be
similar to olibanum or frankincense.
  SARCOEPIPLOCE'LE.   Enlarged testicle, with
rupture, containing omentum.
  SA RCOL1TE.  A variety of analcime.
  SARCO'LOGY.  (Sarco'logia; from c-apl-,flesh,nnd
'•jyoc, adiscourse.)  The doctrine of  tlie muscles and
soft pari.-*
  SARCO MA.   (Sarcoma, atis. n.; from oapl, flesh.)
Sarcosis ;  Porrus ; Sarcophyia   Navus.   A fleshy
excrescence.   A genus of disease in the (lass Locales,
and Order  Tumores, of Cullen.
  SARCOMPIIALUS.   (From trap-;, flesh,  and opqia-
Xcs, the navel.)  A fleshy excrescence about the navel.
  Sarcophyia.  (From  cap\, flesh, andduim, to  groxv.)
A fleshy excrescence.
  SaRlopyodk.s.  (From eapl, flesh, and zzvov, pus.)
Applied  to  the  purulent, fleshy dischaige,  xvhicli is
thrown up in some stages of consumption.
  SARCOSIS.  (From  <rap\, flesh)   I. A  fleshy  tu-
mour.
  ii. The generation of flesh.
  SarcotIca.  (From <rap|, flesh.)  Medicines  xvliich
promote the generation of flesh in xvounds.
  S.ARDE.  Sardoin.    A variety of cornelian of a
deep blood-red colour.
  Sardiasis.  (From aapiuvtri, the sardonia, or herb,
which, being eaten, causes convulsive laughter.) Set-
Sardonic laugh.
  Sardonia.   (From  Sardonia,  its  native  soil.)  A
kind of  smallage.
  SARDONIC LAUGH.   (Risus   sardonicus:  so
called from the herb sardonia, which being eaten is
said to cause a deadly convulsive laughter.)  A kind
of convulsixe laugh, or spasmodic grin.  See Spasmus
cynic us.
  Sardonicus risus.  See Sardonic laugh.
  SARDONYX.  A variety of cornelian composed of
layers of xvhireand red.
  SAR.MENTACE.rE.   The name of a  natural order
sf Linnaeus's Fragmenta : embracing the plants xx ilh
txvining or trailing stems.
  SARMENTOSUS.  (From sarmentum, a txvig, or
trailing stalk.)  Trailing.  Applied to a creeping stem,
barren of floxvers, throxvn out  from  the root lor  the
 purpose of increase.
  SARMENTUM.  (Sarmen ; from  sarpio,  to  prune,
lop, or cut off.)  A txvig, a runner.
  SARSAPARI'LLA.   (This word  is of Spanish
origin, Signifying a red tree.)   See Smilax  sarsapa-
rilla.
  Sarsaparilla germanica.  Sec Carex arcnaria.
  SARTORIUS.   (From sartor, a tailor; because
tailors cross their legs xvith it.)   Sartorius seu longis-
simus femoris, of Coxvper ; Ilio crrsti tibial of Dumas.
This flat and slender muscle, xvhich  is the  longest of
the human body, and from an inch and a half  to txvo
inches in breadth, is situated immediately  under the
integuments, and extends obliquely  from the upper
and anterior part of tlie thigh, lo the upper, anterior,
and inner part of the tibia, being enclosed  by  a thin
membraneous  sheath, which is derived from tlie adja-
cent fascia lata. It arises, by a tendon of about half
an  inch in breadth, from the outer surface and inferior
edge of the anterior superior spinous process  of the
ilium, but soon becomes fleshy, and runs doxvn  a little
way obliquely inxvards,  nnd then for some space upon
the rectus, nearly in a straight direction, after which
it passes obliquely over  tlie vastus internus, and  the
loxver part of the adductor  longus, and  then running
down between the tendons of the adductor magnus,
and the  gracilis, is inserted, by a thin tendon, into  the
inner part ofthe tibia, near  the inferior part of its tu-
berosity, and for the space of an inch or txvo below it.
This tendon sends off  a thin aponeurosis, which is
spread  oxer the upper and  posterior part of the leg.
This muscle serves lo  bend the leg obliquely inwards,
nr to roll the  thigh outwards, and at the same lime
to brinz one leg across tlie otlier, on xvhich account
Bpigelius first gave it the name of  sartorius, or the
tailor's muscle.
  SA'SSAFRAS.   (Quasi saxifraga;  from saxum,
a stone,  and  frango,  to break; so  called because
i decoction of  its void xvas  supposed  good for tlie
stone;  oi, which is most probable, from the river Sas-
safras,  in America, on tlie banks of xvhich it grows in
abundance.)  See Laurus sassafras.
  SASSOLINE.  Native boracic  ac'.d, found on the
edges of hot springs near Sasso in Florence.   It con
sists of boracic  acid 815, ferruginous sulphate  of man
gancse 11, and sulphate of lime 3.
  SATELLITE.   The veins which  accompany the
brachial artery as far as tho bend of the cubit, are so
called.
  SATIN SPAR.  A species of fibrous limestone.
  Saturantia   Medicines xvhich neutralize the arid
in the stomach.
  SATURATION.   Saturatio.  A term employed in
pharmacy and chemistry to express the state of a body
xvhicli has a poxver of dissolving another, to a certain
extent only, iu xvhich it lias  effected lhat degree of so-
lulion.    Some  substances  unite  in  all  proportions.
Such, for example, are acids in general, and sonic other
salts wilh xvater;  and  many of the metals xvilh each
otlier.  But there are likexvise many substances xvliich
cannot be dissolved iu a fluid, at a certain temperature,
in any quantity beyond a certain  proportion.  Thus
xvater will dissolve only about one-third of ils weight
of coinnion salt, and, if more be added, it  xvill remain
solid.  A fluid, which holds  iu solution as much of any
substance as it can dissolve,  is said to be saturated xvith
it.  But saturation xvith one substance does not de-
prive the fluid of ils poxver of acting on and dissolving
some othet bodies, and in many cases it increases this
poxver.  For example, xvater saturated xvith  salt xvill
dissolve sugar; and xvater saturated xvitii carbonic acid
xvill dissolve iron, though xvithout this addition its ac-
tion on tliis metal is scarcely perceptible.
  The  xvord saturation  is likexvise used in  another
sense by chemists-. The union of txvo principles  pro-
duces a body, the properties of which differ from tliose
nf its component parts, but  resemble those of the pro
dominating  principle.   When  the principles arc in
such proportion that  neither predominates,  ihey are
said lo be saturated xvitii each otlier; bul if nthcrxvise,
the most predominant principle is said to be subsaturated
or uudersaturated, and the oilier supersaturated or over
saturated.
  SATUREI'A.  (From saiyri,the lustful satyrs; be-
cause it makes  those xvho eat  it lascivious.   Blanch.)
1. The name of a genus of  plants in the Linnaean sys-
tem.  Class, Didynamia ; Order, Gymnospcrmia.
  2. The pharniacopoeial name of the summer savory.
  Saturkia capitata.  The systematic name of the
ciliated  savory.   Thymus creticus. It possesses simi-
lar  virtues to our thyme, bul in a stronger degiee.
  Satureia hortensis.   The systematic name of
the summer savory.   Satureia sativa; Culina saliva
Plinii;  Thymbra.   This low shrub  is cultivated in
our gardens for culinary puiposes.  It lias a xvarm,
aromatic, penetrating taste, and smells like thyme, but
milder.  It is an ingredient in most of the xvarm stews
and made dishes.
  Satureia sativa.  See Satureia hortensis.
  SATU'RNUS.  (From the planet or heathen god, of
that name.)   The chemical name of lead.
  SATYRI'ASIS.  (From carupoc, a salyr; because
ihey are said lo be greatly addicted to venery.)  Saty
riasmus ;  Priapismus; Salacitas; Brachuna; Aras
con. Excessive and violent desiie for coition in men.
A genus of disease  in  the  Class Locales, and Order
Dysorexia, of Cullen.
  SATY'RION.  (From oarvpos, an  animal  given to
venery : so called because  it was supposed to excite
venery if only held in the liatul.)  Sec Orchis mascula
  SATYRIUM.  See Orchis mascula.
  Sauce alone.  See Erysimum alliaria.
  SAUNDERS.  See Santalum album.
  Saunders, red.  See Ptcrocarpus.
  Saur kravt   Cabbage preserved in brine.  An ar
licle of food common in Germany, like  our pickled
cabbage.
  SAUSSURITE. A hard mineral, placed by Jameson
near Andalusite, of while nnd gray or green colour
found at the foot of Mount Rosa.
  SAUVAGES, Francis Boissier db, was bom at
Ala's in Lower Lnngucdoc, in 1706.  He graduated
at Montpelier xvhen only 20, but still continued his
studies, and four  years after  went  for  farther im-
provement to Paris.  On his  return to Montpelier he
obtained a professorship iu i734; but his reputati m
                                       •ii-' 
SCA
SCA
 tor ingenuity of sieculation is said to have obstructed
 his success in practice.  In 1752 he was made professor
 of botany, having for twelve years before officiated as
 demonstrator of the plants in the botanic  garden.  His
 death occurred in 1767.   He was a member of several
 of the learned societies of Europe, and  obtained the
 prizes given  by many public bodies for the best essays
 on given subjects.  Among his earlier  publications
 was one, entitled  "Nouvelles Classes des Maladies,"
 tlie outline of the system of Nosology, which has ren-
 dered his name illustrious, but xvhich did not appear in
 its complete  form, till  alter  an  additional  labour of
 thirty years had been bestowed upon  it.  This xvork,
 consisting of five octavo volumes, contains an immense
 body of information, indeed,  almost every thing then
 knoxvn concerningthe species of disease; but the xvhole
 is very loosely arranged.  He had collected many new
 observations  and descriptions, with a view to incorpo-
 rate them in a second edition; which, hoxvever, he did
 not live to accomplish.   These materials xvere used by
 Dr. Cramer after  his death.  Besides this  valuable
 work, Sauvages was author of numerous others on
 different subjects relating to medicine.
   SAVIN. See Juniperus sabina.
   Savin ointment.  See  Ceratum sabina.
   Savina.  See Juniperus sabina.
   SAVOURY.  See Satureia.
   SAXI'FRAGA.  (From saxum, a stone,  and frango,
 to break : so called because it xvas supposed to be good
 Against the stone in the bladder.)  The name of a ge-
 nus of plants in the Linnaean system.   Class, Decan-
 dria ; Order, Digynia.
   Saxifraga alba.  See Saxifraga granulata.
   Saxifraga anglica.   See Peucedanum.
  Saxifraga ckassifolia.   The root of this species of
 saxifrage is extolled by professor Pallas as an antiseptic.
  Saxifraga granulata.  The  systematic name of
 the white saxifrage.  Saxifraga alba.   Called by Ori-
 basius Besto.  Sanicula  sedum.   Linnaeus describes
tlie taste  of this plant to be acrid and pungent, xvhich
we have not been able to discover; neither the tuber-
cles of the root nor the leaves manifest to the organs
of taste any quality likely lo be of medicinal use, and
tlierefoie, though  this species of saxifrage  has been
long employed  as a popular  remedy iu nephritic aud
gravelly disorders, yet xx-e do  not find  either from its
sensible  qualities, or  from any published  instances of
its efficacy, that it deserves a place in the Materia Me-
dica.  The superstitious doctrine  of signatures sug-
gested the use of the root, which is a good example of
what Linna-us has termed radix granulata.   The bulbs
or tubercles of such  roots answer  an  important  pur-
pose in vegetation,  by supplying the plants with nou-
rishment and moisture, and thereby enabling them to
resist the effects of that drought to xvhich  the dry soils
 they inhabit peculiarly expose them.
  Saxifraga rubra. See Spiraa filipendula.
  Saxifraga vulgaris.   See Peucedanum silaus.
  SAXIFRAGE.   See Saxifraga.
  Saxifrage,  burnct.  See Pimpinella saxifraga.
   Saxifrage,  English.  See Peucedanum silaus
  Saxifrage, meadow. Sere Peucedciium silaus
  Saxifrage,  while.  See  Saxifraga granulata.
  Saxon blue.   See Blue, saxon.
  SCAB.  A hard substance covering superficial ulcera-
tions,  and formed by a  concretion of the fluid  dis-
charged from them.
  SCA HER.  Rough lo the touch from any little rigid
 inequalities:  applied to several parts of plants.
  SCA'BIES.  (Scabies, ci. f.; from scat*, to scratch.)
See Psora.
  SCABIO'SA.  (From  scaber, rough:  so called from
its rough hairy  surface.)   1.  Tlie name of a genus of
plants in the Linnaean  system.  Class, Tetrandria;
 Order, Monogynia.
  2. The pharmacopoeia! name of tlie common scabi-
ous   See Scabiosa arvensis.
  Soabiosa arvensis.   The  systematic name  of the
common  field scabious.   This herb, Scabiosa—corollis
 quadrifidis radianlibus; foliis pinnatifibis, incisis;
caule  hispido, of Linnaeus, atid its floxvers are some-
times  used medicinally.  The whole plnnt possesses n
 bitter andsubadstringent taste, nnd xvas formerly mucn
employed in the cure of some leprous affections mid
diseases of the lungs.
  Scauiosa  succisa.  The systematic name of the
devil's bit scabious.
      '2oB
   SCABRIDEiE.  (From scaber, rough.)  The name
 of an order of plants in  Linureus's Fragments of a
 Natural Method, consisting of plants wilh rough leaves,
 incomplete and inelegant flowers.
   SCA'LA.  A ladder or staircase.
   Scala tympani.  The superior spiral cavity of the
 cochlea.
   Scala vestibuli.   The inferior spiral cavity of the
 cochlea.
   SCALD.  See Ambustio.
   Scald lie ad.  See Tinea capitis.
   SCALE.  Squama.  A lamina of morbid cuticle,
 hard,  thickened, whitish,  and  opake, of a very  small
 size, aud irregular, often incicasing into layers, deno-
 minated crusts.  Both scales and crusts  repeatedly fall
 off', and are reproduced in a short time.
   SCALENUS.  (Scalenus, sc. Musculus ; from ew
 Xr;vos, irregular or unequal.)  A  muscle aboul xvhich
 anatomical xvriters have  differed greatly in their de-
 scriptions.  It  is situated at tlie side of the neck, be-
 tween ihe transverse processes of the cervical veitebrae
 and the upper part of the thorax.  The ancients xvho
 gave it its name from its resemblance to an  irregular
 triangle, considered it as one  muscle.  Vesalius nnd
 Winslow divide it into txvo, Fallopius and Coxvper into
 three, Douglas into four, and Albinus into five portions,
 xvhich  they describe  as distinct muscles.   Without
 deviating in the least from anatomical accuracy, it may
 be considered as one muscle divided into tliree portions.
 The anterior portion arises commonly  from the trans-
 verse processes of the six inferior vetebra? of the  neck,
 by ns many short tendons, and descending obliquely
 outward, is inserted  tendinous and fleshy,  into tlie
 upper  side  of the first rib, near  its cartilage.  The
 axillary artery passes  through this portion, and some-
 times divides it into  txvo  slips, about an inch  and a
 half above its insertion.  Tlie middle portion anst sby
 distinct tendons, from the transverse processes of the
 four last vertebrae of the neck, nnd descending obliquely
 outwards and a little backxvards, is inserted tendinous
 into the outer and  upper pari of  the first rib, from its
 root to xvithin the distance of an inch from its cartilage.
 The space betxveen this and  the  anterior portion, af-
 fords a passage to the nerves going to the upper ex-
 tremities.  It is in part coveted by ihe third or posterior
 portion, xvhich is ihe thinnest and longest of the three.
 This arises from the  transverse  processes of the
 second, third, fourth,  and fifth  vertebra; of the neck,
 by distinct tendons, and is inserted into  the upper edge
 of the second rib, at the distance of  about an inch and
 a  half from ils articulation, by a  broad flat tendon.
 The use of the scalenus is to move the neck to one
 side, xvhen it acts singly, or to bend it forxvards, xvhen
 both muscles act; and xvhen the neck is fixed,  it serves
 to elevate the ribs, and dilate the chest.
   Scalenus primus  See Scalenus.
   Scalenus secundus.  See Scalenus.
   Scalenus tertius.  See Scalenus.
   SCALPE'LLUM.   A scalpel  or common  dissecting
 knife.
   Scalprum.   A  denticular  raspetory, used  in tre
 panning.
   Scali/.   See Squamosus.
   S( AMMONIUM.   (A corruption of the Arabian
 word chamoznh.)  See Convolvulus scammonia,
   SCAMMONY.  See Convolvulus scammonia.
  SCANDENS.  Climbing, either with spiral tendrils
 for ils support,or byadhesivefibres.  Applied tosteins,
 &c. as that of the Vitis vinifera, nnd Bryonia dioica.
  SCA'NDIX.  The name of a genus of"plants in the
 Linnaean system.  Class Pentandria; Order, Di/rynia.
  Scandix  cerefolium.   The systematic name  of
the officinal chervil.    Cerefolium; Charophyllum
 Charcfoliiim.  Chervil.  This  plant, Scandix-semi
 nibus nitidis, ovato subulatis ; umbellis sessilibus late ■
 ralibus, of Linnaeus,  is a salubrious culinary herb
sufficiently grateful both  to the palate and stomach
slightly aromatic, gently aperient, and diuretic.
  Si andix odorata.   The systematic  name of the
sxveet cicely, myrrhis,  xvhich possesses virtues similar
to the common chervil.  See Scan lix cerefolium.
  SCA'PHA.  (A skiff, or cock-loat;  from examo,
to make holloxv: because  formerly it  was made  by
excavating a large tree.)   1. The excavation or cavity
ot the auricula, or external ear, between the heliv and
antihelix.
  2.  The name of a double headed roller 
SCA
SCA
   BCAPHOlft.  See Scaphoidcs.
   SCAPHOl'DES.  (From axaifin, a little  vessel, or
 boat, and tiios, resemblance.)   Boat like.  See JVuui-
 culare os.
   SCAPOLITE.  Pyramidal felspar. Professor .lame-
 son divides this into tiiur subspecies :
   1 Radiated, of a gray colour, resinous, and pearly
 in distinct concretions, and crystallized, found in the
 neighbourhood of Arcndal, in Norway, associated xvilh
 magnetic ironstone, and felspar.
   2.  Foliated scapolite,  crystallized and  of a gray,
 green, and black colour, found in granular granite, or
 wiiitestoue, in the Saxon Erzegebirge.
   3. Compact scapolite, of a red  colour, found  with
 the former species.
   4. Etaolite.
   SCAPULA.  (From the  HebreiT schipha.)   Omo-
 plata;  Os homo pi at a ; Scoptula;  Epinotion.   The
 shoulder-blade.  This bone, which approaches  nearly
 to  a triangular figure, is fixed, not unlike a buckler, to
 the upper, posterior, and lateral  part of the thorax,
 extending from the first to aboul the seventh rib.  The
 anterior and  internal surface is irregularly  concave,
 from the impression, not of the  ribs, as the generality
 of anatomists have supposed, but of the subscapulars
 muscle.  Its posterior and external surface is convex
 and divided into txxo unequal fossae by a considerable
 spine, xvhich, rising small  from the posterior edge ot
 the scapula, becomes gradually higher and broader, as
 it approaches the anterior and superior  angle  of the
 bone, till at length it terminates in a broad  and flat
 process, at the top of the shoulder, called the processus
 acromion.   On  the anterior edge  of tiiis processus
 acromion, we observe an oblong, concave, articulating
 surface covered with cartilage, for tlie articulation of
 the scapula xvith the clavicle.  At its loxver  part, the
 acromion is hollowed^ to allow a passage to the supra
 and infra spiuati muscles.  The ridge of tlie spine af-
 fords txvo rough, flat surfaces, for the insertion of the
 trapezius and deltoid muscles.  Of the txvo fossae into
 xvhicli the external surface of the bone is divided by
 the spine, the superior one, xvhich is tlie smallest, serves
 to .lodge the supra spinatus muscle; and the inferior
 fossa, wliich is much larger than the other, gives origin
 to  the infra spinatus.  The triangular shape  of the
 Bcapula leads us to consider its angles and its sides.
 The upper posterior angle  is neither so thick, nor has
 so rough a surface, as tiie inferior one ; but the most
 remarkable of the three angles of this bone is the an-
 terior one, which  is of great thickness, and formed
 into a glenoid cavity of an oval shape, the greatest
 diameter  of which  is from beloxv  npwards.   This
 cavity, in the recent subject, isfurnished with cartilage,
 and receives the head of tbe os humeri.  The cartila-
 ginous crust, which surrounds its brims, makes it ap-
 pear deeper in the fresh subject than in the skeleton.
 A tittle beyond this glenoid cavity, the bone  becomes
 narrower, so as to give the appearance of a neck:  and
 above  this rises a considerable process, which, from
 being thick at its origin, becomes thinner, and, in some
 degree, flattened at its extremity.  This process projects
 considerably, and  is curved downwards.  From  its
 supposed resemblance to a beak  of a bird, it  is  called
 the coracoid process.  From the whole external side
 of this process, a strong and broad ligament is stretched
 to the processus acromion, becoming narroxver as it
 approaches the latter process, so as to be of a some-
 xvhat triangular shape.  This ligament, and  the  two
 processes with which it is  connected, are evidently in-
 tended for the protection of the joint, and to prevent a
 luxation of the os  humeri upwards.  Of the three
 sides of the scapula, the  posterior one, which  is the
 longest, is called the basis.   This side is turned towards
 the vertebra.  Its other two sides  are called  casta.
 The superior costa, xvhich is the upper and shortest
 side, is likewise  thinner than the other two, having a
 sharp edge.  It  is nearly horizontal, and parallel xvith
 the second rib; and is interrupted near the basis of the
 coracoid  process,  by a semicircular niche, which  is
 closed hy a ligament that extends from one end of it to
 the olher, and affords a passage to vessels and nerves.
Besides this passage,  there ure other niches in the
scapula for the transmission of vessels ; viz. one be-
 tween  he coracoid process and the head  of the bone,
and another betxveen its neck and the processus acro-
mion.  The third side of  the scapula, or the inferior
 costa, as it is called, is of considerable thickness,  and
 extends obliquely  from the neck of the  bofie to  its
 inferior angle,  reaching from about the third io the
 eighth  rib." Tlie scapula  has but very little cellular
 substance,  and is  of unequal  thickness, being very
 thin at its middle part, xvhere it is covered by a grzat
 number of muscles, mid having its neck, the acromion,
 and coracoid process, of considerable strength,  in the
 foetus, the basis and the neck of the  scapula, together
 with its  glenoid cavity, acromion,  coracoid process,
 and tlie ridge of the spiiie, are so many epiphyses xvilh
 respect lo the rest of the  bone, to xvhicli they are not
 completely united till a considerable time  niter  birth.
 Tlie scapula  is articulated to  the ciavlcle and os hu-
 meri,  I? xvhicli last il  serves  as a  fulcrum ; and, by
 altering ils position, it affords  a  greater scope lo the
 bones of the arm in their different motions.  It likewise
 affords attachment  to a great number of muscles, and
 posteriorly serves as a defence to Ihe thorax.
   SCAPULAR.   (Scapularis;  from  scapula,  tlie
 shoulder bone.)  Belonging to Ihe scapula ; ns the sca-
 pulary arteries and veins, xvliich are  branches of the
 subclavian and axillary.
   SCAPULA'RIA.   (From  scapula,  the shoulder-
 bone.)   A scapulary.   A bandage for the shoulder
 blade.
   SCAPUS.  (Scaptts,  i. m. ; from axatira, to lean or
 resluoou: because it rests us it xvere on the root or
 base.)   A stalk which springs from the root, and bears
 the flowers and fruit, but not the leaves.   The prim
 rose and cowslip are good examples of it.
   The following are the principal varieties.
   1. Teres; as in Plantago major.
   2. Angulosns; as in Plantago lanceolata.
   3. Vcntricosui, hollow at the bottom; as in Allium
 cepa.
   4. Flexuosus;  as in Orchis flexuosa.
   S. Anceps; as Ahum augulosum.
   6. Filiformis;  as Bellis bellidoides.
   7. Tnquetrus ; as Allium triquetruni.
   8. Spiralis;  as Anthericum spirale, and lhat  won-
 derful plant, Valisneria spiralis.
   9. Pentagonus;  ns Ophris paludosa.
   10. Articitlatus ;  as Statice echioides.
   11. Ereetus ; in Tulipa gesneriana.
   IS. Ascendens ; in Silymbrium vimineum
   13. Dechnatus; as Astragalus  incanus.
   14. Decumbens;  as Potentilla sabacaulis.
   15. Dichotomus;  as Statice tartarica.
   16. Nudus; as Convallaria majalis.
   17. Foliosus; as Ophris iiisectifera.
   18. Bracteatus, and most of the Ore-hides.
   19. Imbricatns; as Tussilago farfara.
  20. Selaceus ; as Schaenus bulbosus.
  21. Vaginalus; as Arcthusa bulbosa.
   W.hen several species  of the same plant have a sea
pus, and it is xvanting in one of the same species, il is
termed exscapus; as in Astragalus exscapus.
  SCARBOROUGH. l.The nanieof a town  in York-
shire, noted for its ferruginous spring.  There are two
species of chalybeate water found in this spot, nnd
they differ considerably in  their composition, though
they rise nearly contiguous to each other.  The one is
a simple carbonated chalybeate,  similar to the Tun-
bridge  water; the other, whicli is better  known and
more frequented, and more particularly distinguished
as Scarborough water, has, in conjunction with the
iron, a considerable  admixture of a purging salt, xvhich
adds much to its  value.  The diseases in xvhich it is
ordered are  similar to  those in  which Cheltenham
xvater is proscribed, only it is necessary to increase the
purgative effect of this water by  adding similar salts
It is, therefore, chiefly as an alterative that this xvater
can be employed in its natural state.
  Scarborough has an advantage belonging to its situ-
ation which Cheltenham does nol possess,  lhat of af-
fording  an  opportunity for sea-bathing,  the use of
which will, in many cases, much assist  in tlie plan of
cure for many of the disorders for which the mineral
xvater is resorted to.
  2. The name of a physician.   Sir Charles,  born
about the year 1610.  Intending to follow the medical
profession, he went to study at Cambridge, and applied
himself particularly  to the mathematics, iu which he
made great proficiency.  During the civil wars he was
obliged to remove to Oxford, xvhere he entered under
Ihe celebrated  Harvey, then xvarden of Merton Col-
lege, who, being employed in xvriting  his treatise " De
                                         269 
SLA
SCA
■Brncmrthirrp Animalium," gladly accepted the assist-
ance of Mr. Scarborough.  Upon taking the degree of
doctor of medicine, he settled in the metropolis, xvhere
he practised xvitii great reputation.  He became a fel-
low of the college of physicians, in which he xvas much
respected for his talents; and being appointed to intro-
duce the Marquis  of Dorchester, xvho  was  admitted
into that body in 1658, he made an elegant Latin speeeli
jo that occasion.   In the mean time he Degan to deli-
ver anatomical  lectures at Surgeons' Hall, which xvere
hishly approved, and continued for sixteen or seventeen
x ears.   In 1669 the order of knighthood was conferred
upon  him by Charles II., who also appointed him his
chief physician; and he enjoyed the same office under
the two succeeding monarchs.  He was likewise made
physician  to  the Toxver of London, wliich appoint-
ment  he retained till his death about the year 1702.
The xvorks left  by him werechieflv mathematical.
  •SCARF-SKIN.  See Cuticle and Skin.
  SCARIFICATION.  (Scarificatio;  from scarifico,
to scarify.)   A superficial incision made xvith a lancet,
or a chirurgical Instrument called a  scarificator, for the
purpose of taking away blood, or letting out fluids, &c.
  SCARIFICATOR.   An  instrument used  by sur-
seons and  cuppers to evacuate blood.  It is made In
form of  a box, in xvhich are fitted, ten, twelve, or more
lancets,  all perfectly in the same plane; xvhich being,
as it xvere, cocked, by means of a  spring are all dis-
charged  at the same time, by pulling a kind of trigger,
and driven equally within the skin.
  SCARI'OLA.  See Lactuca scariola.
  Scariola gallorum.  See Lactuca scariola.
  SCARLATINA.  (From scarlalto, the Italian for
a deep  red.)   The scarlet fever.  A genus of disease
in the Class Pyrexia, and Order Exanthemata, of
Cullen; characterized  by   contagious synocha; the
fourth day Ihe face swells;  a scarlet eruption appears
on the skin in patches; which, afler tliree or four days,
ends in  the desquamation of the cuticle, and is often
succeeded by anasarca.  It lias two species:
  1. Scarlatina simplex, the mild.
  2. Scarlatina cynanchica,or anginosa, xvith ulcerated
aore throat.
  Dr. Willan has added to these a third, called malig-
na, agreeing with the cynanche maligna, of Cullen.
  Some have asserted that scarlatina never attacks the
same  person a second time; more  extensive observa-
tion has confuted this opinion.  It seizes persons of all
ages, but children and young persons are most subject
to it, and it appears at all seasons of the year; but il is
moie  frequently me* xvilh towards the end nf autumn,
or beginning of winter, than at any other periods, at
which time It very  often becomes a  prevalent epi-
demic.  It is, beyond all doubt, a very contagious dis-
ease.
  Tlie one to which it bears the greatest resemblanc-
is tiie measles; but from this it is readily to be distin-
suished by the  absence of the cough, ivatery eye, run-
ning at  the nose and sneezing, xvhich arc tiie predo-
minant symptoms in the early stage of the measles, but
which do not usually attend on the  scarlatina, or at
least in  any high degree.
  It begins, like other fevers, with languor, lassitude,
confusion of ideas, chills, and shiverings, alternated by
fits of heat.  The thirst is considerable, the skin dry,
and  the patient is often incommoded  with anxiety,
nausea, and vomiting.  About the third day, the scar-
let efflorescence appears on the skin, which seldom pro-
duces, hoxvever, any remission of  the fever.  On the
departure of the efflorescence, which usually continues
out only for three or four days, a gentle sxveat comes
on, tlie  fever subsides, the  cuticle  or scarf-skin  then
falls off in small  scales, and the patient gradually re-
gains his former strength and health.
  On the disappearance of the efflorescence in scarla
tinn, it  is, hoxvever, no uncommon occurrence for an
auasnrcous swelling to affect the whole body, but this
is usually of a very short continuance.
   Scarlatina anginosa, in several instances, approaches
very near to the malitsnantform. The patient is seized
not only xvitii  a coldness and shivering, but likexvise
xvilh  great languor, debility, nnd sickness, succeeded
ay heat, nausea, vomiting of bilious matter, soreness
if the throat, Inflammation, and ulceration in the ton-
tils,  &.c, a frequent nnd Inbnrious breathing, and  a
 (uick and small depressed  pulse.   When the efflorcs-
sence appears, which  is usually on the third day, it
      270
brings no relief; on  the contrary, the symptom* aie
much aggravated, and fresh ones arise.
  In the progress of the disease, one universal redness
unattended, however, hy  any pustular eruption, per-
vades  the face, body, and  limbs, xvhich parts appear
somexvhat  swollen.  The  eyes and nostrils partake
likewise more or less of the redness, and, in proportion
as the former have an inflamed appearance, so does the
tendency to delirium prevail.
  On the first attack, the  fauces are often much in-
flamed ; but this is usually soon succe'eded by grayish
sloughs, xvhich give the parts a speckled appearance,
and  render the breath more or less foetid.  The patient
is often cut off in  a fexv days : and even if he  reco-
vers, it will be by slow degrees; dropsical swellings, or
tumours of the parotid, and other glands, slowly sup-
purating, being very apt to folloxv.   In the malignant
form of the disease the symptoms at first  are pretty
much the  same; but some of the  following peculiar!
ties are afterward observable.  The pulse is small, in-
distinct, and  irregular; the  tongue,  teeth, and lips,
covered xvith  a broxvn or  black incrustation; a dull
redness of the eyes, with  a  dark-red flushing of the
cheeks, deafness, delirium, or coma; the  breath is ex-
tremely foetid ;  the respiration rattling and laborious,
partly from viscid phlegm clogging the fauces ; the de-
glutition is constricted and painful; and there is a ful-
ness and livid colour of the  neck, with retraction of
the head.  Ulcerations are observed on the tonsils and
adjoining parts, covered with  dark  sloughs, and sur-
rounded by a livid base; and the tongue is often so ten-
der as to be excoriated by the slightest touch.  An acrid
discharge  flows from the nostrils, causing soreness, or
chaps, nay, even blisters, about the nose and lips; the
fluid discharged being at first thin, but afterward thick
and yelloxvish.  The rash  is usually  faint, except in a
few irregular patches; and It presently changes to  a
dark, or livid red colour: it appears late, is very uncer-
tain in its duration, and often intermixed with  pete-
chia? ;  it sonietimes disappears suddenly a few hours
after it is formed, and comes out again at the  expira-
tion of txvo or three days.   In an advanced stage of
the disease, xvhere  petechia;, and other symptoms cha-
racteristic of putrescency,  nre present, haemorrhages
frequently break forth from the nose, mouth, and other
parts.
  When scarlatina  is  to  terminate in health, tbe
fiery redness abates gradually, and  is succeeded by a
broxvn colour, the skin becomes rough, and peels off in
small scales, the tumefaction subsides, and health  is
gradually restored.   On the contrary, when it is to ter-
minate fatally, the febrile symptoms run very high from
the first of its attack, the skin is intensely hot and dry,
the  pulse is very frequent  but small, great thirst pre-
vails, the breath is  very foetid, the efflorescence makes
its appearance on the second day, or sooner, and about
the thiid or fourth  is probably interspersed with  large
livid spots; and a  high degree of delirium ensuing, or
haemorrhages breaking out, the patient is cut off about
the sixth or eighth day.  In some cases a severe purging
arises, xvhich never fails to prove fatal.  Some, again,
xx here, the symptoms do not run so high, instead of re-
covering, as is usual, about the time the skin begins to
regain its natural colour, become dropsical, tall into  a
kind of lingering way, and arc carried off in the course
of a few weeks.
  Scarlatina, in its inflammatory form, is not usually
attended xvith danger, although a considerable desree
of delirium sometimes prevails for a day  or txvo  ; but
xvhen it partakes much of  the malignant character, or
degenerates into typhus putrida, xvhich it is apt to do,
it often prox-es fatal.   On dissection of those who die
of this disease, the fauces are inflamed, suppurated,
and gangrenous; and the trachea and larynx arc like-
xvise in a state ofinflammation, and lined xvitii a viscid
foetid matter.   In  many instances the  inflammatory
affection extends  to  the   lungs themselves.  Large
swellings of the lymphatic glands about the neck, oc-
casioned by an absorption of the acrid matter poured
out  in the fauces, are now and then to be found.  The
same morbid appearances xvhich are to be met with in
putrid fever, present themselves in otlier parts of th*
body.
  The plan to be pursued  xvill differ according to Ihe
form of the disease.  In  the scarlatina simplex little  is
required, except clearing the boxvels, and observing the
antiphlogistic  regimen  B  it  wheie  the  throat is af 
SCH
SCI
fectcd, and the fever runs higher, more active means
become necessary, varying  according to the type of
this, xvhetlier eynochal, or  typhoid.  In general, we
may begin by exhibiting a nauseating emetic, xvhich,
besides its effect on the fever, may be useful In check-
ing inflammation in  the  throat; and occasionally the
repetition, of sucli a remedy afler a time, may answer a
goixl purpose: but commonly it xvill be better to folloxv
up the first by some cathartic remedy of sufficient ac-
tivity.  Then, so long  as the strength xvill alloxv, xve
may endeavour to moderate the fever by mercurial and
auliiuonial preparations, or other medicines promoting
the several  secretions, by steadily pursuing the  anti-
phlogistic  regimen,  and occasionally applying  cold
water to the  skin, xvhen this  is very  hot  aud dry.
Sometimes  severe inflammation  in the throat at an
eaily period may render it advisable  to apply a fexv
 eeches externally, or blisters behind the ears;  and gar-
gles of nitrate of potassa, the mineral acids, Sec. should
be  used from time  to time. But xvhere ihe disorder
exhibits the typhoid character, xvilh ulcers in the throat,
tending pei haps to gangrene, it  is necessary to support
the system by a nutritious diet, xvitii a moderate quan-
tity of wine, and tonic or stimulant medicines, as the
cinchona, calumba,  ammonia,  capsicum,  Sec.;  the
acids xvill also be very proper from their antiseptic, as
well as tonic power; and stimulant antiseptic gargles
should be frequently employed, as the mineral acids suf-
ficiently diluted, xvilh the addition of tincture of myrrh,
or these mixed with  the decoction of bark, &c.   Be-
sides the general measures, thus varied according to
the character of the disease,  particular alarming symp-
toms may require  to be palliated ;  as vomiting by the
effervescing draught, and occasionally a blister to the
stomach, if tliere be  tenderness  on pressure; diarrhoea
by small doses of opium, &c.  The management of
 Ihese, hoxvever, as well as of the dropsical swellings,
 an8 other sequels of the disease, will  be understood
 from xvhat is said under those heads respectively.
   Scarlatina anginosa.  See Scarlatina.
   Scarlatina cvnanchica.  See Scarfarina.
   Scarlatina simplex.  See Scarlatina.
   Scarlet fever.  See Scarlatina.
   Scelotyrbk.   (From axtXos, the leg,  and rvpSn,
 not, intemperance.)  A debility  of the legs from scurvy,
 or an intemperate way of Jife.
   Schaalstein.  See Tabular spar.
   Schauta earth.  See Aphrite.
   SCHERO MA.  A drynessof the eye from the xvant
 of the lachrymal fluid.  The effects of this lachrymal
 fluid being deficient  are, the eyes become dry, and  in
 their motions produce a sensation as though sand,  or
 some gritty substances, were between the eye and the
 eyelid; tlie vision is obscured, the globe of  the eye ap-
 pears foulish and dull, which is a bad omen in  acute
 diseases.  The species are,
   1.  Scheroma febrile, or a dryness of the eyes, xvhich
 is observed  in fevers complicated xvith a phlogistic den-
 sity ofllie humours.
   2.  Scheroma exhaustorum, whicli happens after great
 evacuations, and in persons dying.
   3.  Scheroma infiammalorum,  xvhich is a symptom  of
 the ophthalmia sicca.
   4. Scheroma itinerantium,or  the dryness ofthe eyes,
 which happens in sandy places, to travellers, as In hot
 Syria, or from dry winds, whicli dry up the humidity
 necessary for the motion of the eyes.
   Schidace'don.  (From o\tial, a splinter.)  A lon-
 gitudinal fracture ofthe bone.
   SCHILLER SPAR.  This  mineral  contains two
 subspecies:
   1. See Bronzite.
   2. The common Schiller spar, xvhicli is of an olive
 green colour,  and occurs imbedded  in serpentine  in
 Shetland, Cornwall, &c.
   ScHiNEi.yEUM.  (From oxivos, mastich, and tXatov,
 oil.)  Oil of mastich.
   SCHNEIDER, Conrad Victor, xvas born at Bitter-
 feld, in Misnia.  He filled  the offices of professor  of
 anatomy, botany, and medicine, at Witteniberg, xvith
 great reputation ■ and xvas  father of the faculty when
 he died in  1680   He xvrote many treatises; those on
 anatomical subjects relating chiefly to the bones of the
 cranium, and to the pituitary membrane of the nostrils,
 to which his name is still  attached.   He refuted an
 ancient error, that the mucus in catarrh distilled through
 the cribriform bone  from tlie bruin, showing that it was
secreted by the pituitary membrane.  In other rcspecta,
his  xvritings,  except  in anatomy, are  difluse and ob-
scure, nnd full of ancient tiypothetical doctrines.
  Schneider's  membrane.  So called  from i's dis
coverer.  See Membrana Schneideriana.
  SCHCENA'NTHUS.  (From trxmi-os, a  rush, and
avOos, a floxver.)  Sec Andropogon schananthus.
  Scn<ENoi.Ai;unus.   (From o-yoii'oc, a rush, Xaywj, a
hare, and oupa, a tail: so called  from its resemblance
to a hure's-tail.)  Uarc's-tail.   The Trifolium  ar-
vense.
  SCIIOR L.  A sub-species of rhomboidal tourmaline,
of a velvet black colour, found  imbedded in granite,
gneiss, &c. in Scotland and Cornwall.
  Schorl, blue.   A variety of lluiiyne.
  Schorl, red  and titanic.  Rutile.
  SCIIORLITE. Schorlous topaz.  Pycnitc of Wer-
ner.  This mineral is of a straw-yelloxv colour, and
becomes electric by heating.  It is found at Altenberg
in Saxony, in a rock of quartz and mica  in porphyry.
  SCIATIC.   (Saaticus; from ischiaticus.)  Belong
ing to the ischium.
  Sciatic artery.  Arteria sciatica.  Ischiatic re-
tery.  A branch cf the internal iliac.
  Sciatic nerve.  Nervus sciatic.us.  Ischiatic  nerve.
A branch of a nerve of the loxver extremity, formed by
the union of the  lumbar  and  sacral  nerves.   It  is
divided near the popliteal cavity into the tibial and
peroneal, which are distributed to the leg and foot.
  Sciatic notcu.  Ischiatic notch.  See  Innomina-
tum os.
  Sciatic vein.  Vena sciatica.   The vein which ac-
companies the sciatic artery in the thigh.
  SCIATICA.  A rheumatic affection of  the hip-
joinL
  Sciatica cresses.  See Lepidium iberis.
  SCILLA.   (From trxiXXu, to dry : so called from
its property of drying up humours.)  1. The name of a
genus of plants in the Linnaean system.  Class, Hex-
andria ; Order Monogynia.
  2. The pharmacopceial name of the medicina'  squt'i
See Scilla maritima.
   Scilla hispanica.  The Spanish squill.
   Scilla maritk-a.  The systematic  name of u><
officinal squill.  Ornithogalum marilimum; Squill'1
Scilla—nudiflora,  bracteis ref/uctis, of Linnaeus,   f
native of Spain, Sicily, and Syria, groxving on the sea
coast.   The  red-rooted variety has been supposed to lie
more efficacious than the  white, and is,  therefore, still
preferred for medicinal use.  The root of the  squill,
xvliich appears to have been known  as  a medicine in
the early ages of Greece, and has so xvell  maintained its
character ever since, as to be deservedly in  great esti-
mation,  and of very frequent use at this lime, seems to
manifest a poisonous quality to several animals.  Iu
proof of this, we have the testimonies ofHillefield, Ber-
gius, Vogel, and others.  Its acrimony is so great, lhat
even if  much  handled, it exulcerates the skin,  and if
given  in laige doses, and frequently  repeated,  it not
only excites  nausea, tormina, and violent  vomiting,
but il  has been knoxvn to produce strangury, bloody
urine, hypercathams, cardialgia, ha'inorrhoids, con-
vulsions, xvitii  fatal inflammation, and gangrene of the
stomach and  bowels.  But as many of the active arti-
cles of the Materia Medica, by injudicious  administra-
tion,  become equally deleterious,  these  effects  of the
scilla do not derogate from its  medicinal virtues;  on
the contrary, we feel ourselves fully  xvarranted, says
Dr. Woodville, in  representing this drug, under  proper
management, and in certain cases and constitutions, to
be a medicine of great practical utility and real im-
portance in  the cine of many obstinate diseases.   Its
effects,  as stated by Bergius,  are incidens,  diuretica,
emetica, subpurgans, hydragoga, expectorans, cinme-
nagoea.   In  dropsical enses it  has long  been esteemed
the most certain and effectual diuretic xvith xvhich  xve
are acquainted ; and in asthmatic affections, or dysp-
noea, occasioned by the lodgement of tenacious phlegm,
it has been the expectorant usually employed.  The
squill, especially in large doses, is apt to stimulate the
stomach, and to prove emetic ; and it sometimes acts
on the  intestines, and becomes  purgative; but when
these operations take place, the medicine is prevented
from reaching  the blood vessels  and kidneys, and the
patient is deprived of ils diuretic effects, xvhich  are  to
be obtained  by civing Ihe squill in smaller doses,  re-
peated at more distant intervals, or by the 'oining of t:rj 
SCj                                                 SCI
epiatetothis medicine, wliich xvas found by Dr. Cullen
to ansiver the same purpose.  The Doctor further ob-
serves, that from aconlinued repetition of the squill, the
dose may be gradually increased, and the interval of
its exhibitions shortened; and when  in this  xvay the
dose becomes  to be tolerably large, the opiate may be
most  conveniently employed to direct  the operation of
the squill more certainly in the kidneys.   " In casesof
dropsy, that is, xvhen there is an effusion of water into
the cavities, and therefore less xvater  goes  to the kid-
neys,  xve are of opinion that neutral salt, accompany-
ing tlie squill, may be of use  in determining this fluid
more certainly to the kidneys ; and whenever it can be
perceived that it takes this course, xve are  persuaded
lliat it xvill be alxvays useful, and generally safe, during
the exhibition of the squills, to increase  the usual quan-
tity of drink."
  The diuretic effects of squills have been supposed to
be promoted by the addition of some  mercurial; and
the less purgative preparations of mercury,  in the opi-
nion of Dr. Cullen, are best adapted to this purpose;
he therefore recommends a solutioii of corrosive subli-
mate, as  being more  proper than any other,  because
most  diuretic.  Where  the prima;  viae abound  xvith
mucous matter, nnd tlie lungs are oppressed with viscid
phlegm, this medicine is likewise in  general estima-
tion.
  As  an  expectorant, the squill may be supposed not
only to attenuate the mucus in tiie follicles, but also to
excite a more  copious secretion of it  from  the lungs,
and thereby lessen the congestion, upon which the
difficulty of respiration very generally depends.  There-
fore in all pulmonic affections, excepting only those of
actual or violent inflammation, ulcer, and spasm, the
squill has been experienced to be a useful  medicine.
The officinal preparations of squills are, a conserve,
dried  squills, a syrup, aud vinegar, an  oxymel, and
pills.  Practitioners have nol, hoxvever, confined them-
selves to  these.  When this root was intended as a
diuretic, it has most commonly been used in poxvder,
ns heiug,  in this state, less disposed to nauseate the sto-
mach  ; and to the powder it has been the practice to
add neutral salts, as nitre, or crystals  of tartar, espe-
cially  if the patient complained of much thirst; others
recommend calomel;  and  with a view to render the
squills less offensive lo the stomach, it has been usual
to conjoin an  aromatic.   The dose of dried squills is
from  one to four or six grains once a day, or half this
quantity twice a day; afterward to be regulated ac-
cording to its effects.  The dose of the other prepara-
tions of this drug, when  fresh, should be five times this
weight; for this root  loses in the process of  drying
four-fifths of its original weight, and this loss is merely
a watery exhalation.
  Solutes.   (From axiXXa, the squill.)   A  xvine
impregnated with squills.
  SCILLITIN. A white transparent, acrid substance,
extracted by Vosel  from squills.
  SCI'NCUS.   (From shcquc, Hebrew.)  The skink.
This  amphibious animal  is of the lizard kind,  and
caught about the Nile, and thence brought dried into
this country, remarkably smooth and glossy, as if  var-
nished.   The flesii of the animal, particularly of the
belly,  has been said to be diuretic, alexipharmic, aphro-
disiac, and useful in leprous disorders.
  SCIRRHOMA.   (From axtppou,  to harden.)  See
ScirrAii*.
  SCIRRHUS.  (From aicippotu,  to harden.)  Scir-
rhoma; Scirrhosis.  A  genus of disease in the Class
Locales,  and Order Tumores, of Cullen;  known  by a
hard  tumour of a glandular part,  indolent, and not
readily suppurating.   The following observations of
Peurson  are deserving of attention.  A scirrhus, he
says, is usually defined to be a hard, and almost insen-
sible tumour, commonly situated  in  a  glandular part,
and accompanied with little or no discoloration of the
surface of tlie skin.  This description  agrees xvith the
true or exquisite scirrhus: but xvhen it has proceeded
from  the indolent to the  malignant slate, the tumour is
then unequal in its figure,  it becomes painful, the  skin
acquires a purple or livid hue, and the  cutaneous veins
are often varicose.   Let us noxv examine xvliether this
enumeration of symptoms be sufficiently ace mate for
practical purposes.
  Il is probable, that any gland in Ihe living  body  may
be the seat of a cancerous disease, but it appears more
frequently as an idiopathic affection in  those  glands
      272
 that form the several secretions than in the absorcei <
 glands; and of the secreting organs, those wliich sepa
 rate fluids that are to be employed in the animal eco
 nomy, suffer much oftener than the  glands xvhich
 secrete the  excrementitious  parts of the blood.  In-
 deed, it may be doubted xvliether  an absorbent gland
 be ever the primary seat of a true  scirrhus.  Daily
 experience evinces, lliat these glands may suffer con-
 tamination  from  their  connexion xvith a cancerous
 part; but under such circumstances, this morbid altera-
 tion being the effect of a disease in that neighbouring
 part, it ought to  be regarded as a secondary or conse-
 quent  affection.  I never yet met with an unequivocal
 proof of a primary scirrhus in an absorbent gland ; and
 if a larger experience shall confirm  this  observation,
 and establish itas a general rule, it xvill afford material
 assistance  in  forming the diagnosis  of this  disease.
 The genera! term scirrhus hath been applied,  xvith  too
 little discrimination, to indurated tumours of lymphatic
 glands.  When these appendages of the absoi bent sys-
 tem enlarge in the early part of life, the disease is com-
 nionly treated as strumous; but as a similar alteration
 of these parts  may, and often does, occur at a more
 advanced period,  there ought  lo  be  some very gooi*
 reasons for ascribing malignity to one rather than tit •
 otlier.   In oU people the tumour is indeed often larger
 more indurated, and less tractable than  iu children,
 but when the alteration  originated in the lymphytic
 glands, it xvill very rarely be found to possess any thing
 cancerous in ils nature.
   If every other morbid alteration in a  part were  at
 tended xvitii pain  and softness, then  induration and
 defective sensibility might point out the presence of a
 scirrhus.  But this is so far from being the case, tha*
 even encysted tumours, at their commencement, fre-
 quently excite the sensation of impenetrable hardness.
   All glands are contained in capsula-, uot veiy elas-
 tic, so lhat  almost every species of  chronic  enlarge-
 ment of these bodies must be hard ; hence this indura-
 tion is rather oxving to the  structure of the part, than
 to the  peculiar nature of the disease;  and as glands in
 their healthy state are endowed with much sensibility,
 every disease that gradually produces induration, will
 rather  diminish than  increase their perceptive poxvers.
 Induration and insensibility may, therefore, prove that
 the affected part does not  labour under an acute dis-
 ease; but these symptoms alone can  yield no certain
 information concerning the true nature of the morbid
 alteration.   Those indolent affections of the glands
 that so frequently appear  after the meridian of life,
 commonly manifest a hardness and want of sensation,
 nol inferior to thai whicli accompanies a true scirrhus ;
 and yet these tumours will often admit of a cure by the
 same mode of treatment xvhich xve find to be success-
 ful in scrofula; and xvhen  they prove unconquerable
 by the  poxvers of medicine,  xve generally see them con-
 tinue stationary and  innocent to the latest period  of
 life.  Writers  have indeed said much about  certain
tumours changing their nature, nnd assuming a new
character; but I strongly suspect thai the doctrine  of
the imitation of diseases into each other, stands upon a
very uncertain foundation.  Improper tiealment may,
xvithout doubt, exasperate diseases, and render a com-
plaint,  wliich appeared to be mild and tractable, dan
gerous, or destructive; but to aggravate tlie symptoms,
and to  change the form of the disease, are things that
ought not to be confounded.   I do not affirm, that a
breast xvhich has been the seat of a mammary abscess
or a  gland that has been affected xvith scrofula, may
not become  cancerous: for they might  have suffered
from this disease had  no previous complaint  existed;
but these  morbid alterations generate no grenter ten-
dency to cancer than if Ihe  parts had always retained
 their natural condition.   There is no necessary con-
 nexion betxveen  tlie cancer and any other disease, nor
 has it  been  proved that one is convertible into the
 other.
  Chirurgicnl xvriters  have generally  enumerated  tu
 mour as an essential symptom of the  scirrhus; and it
 is very true, that  this disease is  often  accompanied
 xvith an increase of bulk  in the part affected.  From
 long and careful observation, I am however induced to
 think,  that  an addition  to  the  quantity of matter is
 rather  an accidental than a necessary consequence of
 the presence of this affection.
  When the breast is the seat of a scirrhus, the altered
 part is hard, perhaps unequal iu  its figure, and definite 
SCO
SCO
 hut these symptoms are lot always connected xvith an
 actual increase in the dimensions of the breast. On
 the contrary, the true scirrhus is frequently accompa-
 nied xvitii a contraction and diminution of bulk, a re-
 traction of the nipple, and  a puckered state of Ihe
 skin.
  Tiie irritation produced by an indurated substance
 lying in the breast, will very often cause a determina-
 tion of blood to that organ, and a consequent enlarge-
 ment of it; but I consider this as an inflammatory state
 of the surrounding parts, excited by the scirrhus, act-
 ing as a remote cause, and by no means essential to the
 original complaint.   From theevident utility of topical
 blood-letting  under these circumstances, a notion has
 prevailed that the scirrhus is an inflammatory disease ;
 but  the strongly-marked dissimilarity of a phlegmon
 and  an exquisite scirrhus, in their appearances, pro-
 gress, and mode of termination, obliges me to dissent
 from that opinion. That one portion of the breast may
 be in a scirrhous state, xvhile the other parts are in a
 state of inflammation, is agreeable to reason and ex-
 perience ; but that an inflammation, xvhich is an acute
 disease, and a scirrhus, xvhose essential characters are
 almost directly  the reverse of inflammation, shall  be
coexistent in the same part, is  not a very intelligible
 proposition.  Tumourand inflammation nre commonly
 met wilh on a variety of other occasions, and in this
 particular instance they may be Ihe effects of the dis-
ease, but are not essentially connected with its presence.
  An incipient scirrhus is seldom accompanied with a
discoloration ofthe skin; and a dusky  redness, purple,
or even livid appearance of the surface, is commonly
 seen xvhen there is a malignant scirrhus.  The pre-
 sence or  absence of  colour can, however, at the best,
 afford us but a very precarious criterion of the true
 nature of ihe complainL  When the disease  is clearly
 known, an altered state of the skin may assist  us  in
 judging of the progress  it has made; but as the skin
 may suffer similar variations in  a number of very dis-
 similar diseases, it xvould be improper  to found an opi-
 nion upon so delusix-e a phenomenon.
  SCITAMINE^E.   (From scitamentum, a dainty.)
 The name of an order of plants in Linnaeus's  Frag-
 ments of a Natural Method, consisting of those xvhicli
 have an  herbaceous  stalk, broad leaves, and Ihe ger-
 men  obtusely angled under an  irregular corolla;  as
 amomum, canna, musa, &c.
  SCLA'REA.   (From oxXnpos, hard;  because  its
 ■talks are hard  and dry, Blanch.)  See Salvia sclarea.
  Sclarea hispanica.   See Salvia sclarea,
  SCLEKl'ASIS.  (From oxXnpou, to harden )  Scle-
 roma; Sclerosis.  A hard tumour  or induration; a
scirrhus.
  SCLEROPHTIIA'LMIA.  (From  oxXripos,  hard,
and oqjdaXpos, the eye.)   A protrusion of the eyeball.
An  inflammation of  the eye, attended with  hardness
of the parts.
  Sclkrosarcoka.   (From exXripos,  and trapxupa, a
 fleshy tumour.)   A  hard  fleshy excrescence on the
 gums.
  Sclerosis.  See Scleria.'is.
  SCLERO'TIC.  (Scleroticus;  from  oxXnpou,  to
 harden.)  The  name of one of the coats of Ihe eye.
 See Sclerotic acid.
  Sclerotic coat.  Tunica sclerotica; Membrana
 sclerotica; Sclerotis.  The outermost coat of the eye,
 of a white colour, dense, and tenacious.  Ils anterior
 part, xvhich is transparent, is termed the cornea trans-
 parens.  It is into tiiis coat of the eye that the muscles
 ofthe bulb are inserted.
  SCLEROTIS.  See Sclerotic coat.
  Sclopetaria aqua.   (From sclopelum, a gum:  so
 called  from its supposed virtues in healing gun-shot
 wounds.)  Arquehusade.  It  is made of sage,  mug-
 wort, and mint, distilled in wine.
  SCLOPETOPLA'GA.    (From sclopelum, a gun,
 and plaga, a xvound.) A gun-shot wound.
  SCOLI'ASIS.  (From  axoXtou, to  twist.)  A dis-
 tortion of the spine.
  SCOLOPE NDRIA.  See Asplenium cetcrach.
  SCOLOPENDRIUM.  (From axoXotrcvipa, the ear-
 wig:  so called because its leaves resemble the earwig.)
 See Asplenium ceterach.
  ScoLopoMACH.eERl".M.  (From axoXuiral, the wood-
 cock, and paxatpa, a  knife:  so called because it is bent
 a little at tne end like a woodcock's bill.) An incision-
 knife.
                                       B bb
  SCO'LYMUS.   ,From oxoXos, a thorn: ao named
from its prickly leaves.)  See Cinara scolymus.
  SCOMBER.  The name of a genus of Ashe* of th*
order Thoracici.
  Scomber scomber.  The systematic name of tho
common mackarel, a  beautiful fish, of easy digestion,
xxihich frequents our shore in vast shoals, betxveen the
months of April and July.
  Scomber thynnus. The systematic name ofthe
tunny-fish, xvhich  frequents ihe shore of the Mediteira-
nean, and,  though a  coarse fish, was  much esteemed
by the Greeks and Romans, and is still considered a de-
licacy by some.
  Scopa reuia.  Sec Ruscus aculeatus.
  Scorbu'tia.  (From scorbutus,  the scurvy.)  Me
dicines for the scurvy.
  SCORBUTUS. (From schorboet, Germ.)  Gingi
brackium, xvhen the gums and arms, and gingipedium,
xvhen the gums and legs, are affected by it. The scurvy.
A genus of disease in the Class Cachexia, and Order
Impeligincs, of Cullen ; characterized  by extreme de-
bility; complexion pile and  bloated;  spongy gums;
livid spots on the skin; breath offensive; uedematous
sxvelliiigs in the legs; haemorrhages; foul ulcers; foetid
urine; and extrenfely offensive stools.  The scurvy is
a disease of a putrid nature,  much  more prevalent in
cold climates than in xvarm  ones, and which chiefly
affects sailors,  and such ns are shut  up iu besieged
places, owing, as  is supposed, to their being deprived
nf fresh provisions, and a due quantity  of acescent
food, assisted by the prevalence of cold and moisture,
and by such other causes  as depress  the   nervous
energy, as  indolence,  confinement, want of exercise,
neglect of cleanliness, much labour and  fatigue,  sad-
ness,  despondency, &c.   These  several debilitating
causes, with the concurrence of a diet consisting prin-
cipally of salted or putrescent food, will be sure lo pro-
duce this disease.   It seems, however, lo depend more
on a defect of  nourishment, than on a vitiated state;
and the reason that salted provisions are so productive
of  the scurvy, is, most  probably, because they  are
drained of their nutritious juices, which are extracted
and run off in brine.  As the disease is apt to become
pretty general among the crew of a ship when it  has
once  made its  appearance,  it has been supposed by
many to be of a contagious nature; but the conjecture
seems by no means xvell founded
  A preternatural saline state of the blood  has been
assigned as its proximate cause.   It  has  been con-
tended, by some  physicians, that  the piimary morbid
affection in this disease is a debilitated state of the
solids, arising principally  from the want of aliment.
The scurvy comes on  gradually, xvith heaviness, wea-
riness, and unxvillingness to move about, together with
dejection of spirits, considerable loss of strength, and
debility.  As it advances in its progress, the  counte-
nance  becomes salloxv and bloated, respiration is hur-
ried in the least  motion, the teeth become loose,  the
gums are spongy, the breath is very  offensive, livid
spots appear on different parts of the body, old  wounds
xvhich have heen  long healed up break out afresh, se-
vere xvandcring pains are felt, particularly by night, the
skin is dry, the urine small in  quantity, turning  blue
vegetable infusions of a green colour: and the pulse is
small,  frequent, and,  toxvards the  last,  intermitting
but the intellects are, for the most part, clear, and dis-
tinct.   By an aggravation of the symptoms, the disease,
in iu last stage, exhibits a most wretched appearance.
The joints  become sxvelled and stiff, the tendons of the
legs are rigid and contracted, general  emaciation  en
sues,  hxmorrliages break  forth from  different parts,
foetid  evacuations arc discharged by stool, and a diar
rhoea  or dysentery arises, which soon terminates tho
tragic scene.
  Scurvy, as usually met with on shore, or where  tht
person has not been exposed to the influence of the re-
mote causes before enumerated, is unattended by any
violent symptoms, as slight  blotches, with scaly erup-
tions on different parts of the body, and a  sponginess
of the gums, are the chief ones to be observed.
  In forming our judgment as to the event of the dis
ease, xve are to be  directed by the violence of the symp-
toms, by the situation of the patient with respect to a
vegetable diet, or other proper substitutes, by  his for-
mer state of health and by his constitution, not having
been impaired by previous diseases.
  Dissections of scurvy  have alxvays  discovered the
                                        273 
SCR
SCR
Wood to be in a very dissolved state*   The thorax
usually contains more or less of a watery fluid, which,
in many cases, possesses so high a degree of acrimony,
as to excoriate the hands by coming in contact with it;
the cavity  of the abdomen contains the same kind of
fluid ; the lungs are  black and putrid; and the heart
itself has been found in a similar state, with its cavity
filled with a corrupted fluid.   Iu many instances, the
epiphyses have been found divided from the bones, the
cartilages separated from the ribs, and several of the
bones themselves dissolved by caries.  The brain sel-
dom shows any disease.
  In the cure, as well  as the prevention of scurvy, much
more is to be done by regimen, than by medicines, ob-
viating as far as possible the several remote causes of
the disease, but particularly providing the patient with
a more xvholesomediet, and a large proportion of fresh
vegetables; and it has been found that those articles
are especially useful, which contain a native acid, as
oranges, lemons, &c.  Where these cannot be procured,
various substitutes have been proposed, of which the
best appear to be the inspissated juices of (he same
fruits, or the crystallized citric acid.   Vinegar, sour
crout, and farinaceous substances made to undergo the
acetous fermentation, have likewise been used xvith
much advantage: also brisk fermenting liquors, asspruce
beer, cider,  and the like  Formerly many plants ofthe
Class  Tetradynamia, as mustard,  horse-raddish, &c.
likewise garlic, and others of a stimulant quality, pro-
moting the  secretions, were much relied upon, and, no
doubt, proved useful to a certain extent.  The spongy
state of the gums may be remedied by washing the
mouth with some of  the mineral acids sufficiently di-
luted, or perhaps mixed with decoction of cinchona.
The stiffness of tlie limbs by fomentations, cataplasms,
nnd friction; and sometimes in hot climates, the earth-
hath has afforded speedy relief to this symptom.
  SCO'RDIUM.   (From axopoiov,  garlic: so  called
because it smells like  garlic.)  See Teucrium scor-
dium.
  SCO'RLE.  (Scoria; fromoxu,excrement.) Dross.
The refuse or useless parts of any substance.
  Scorodoprasum. (From axopoiov, garlic, andirpaffov,
the leek.)  The wild garlic, or leek shalot.
  SCO'RODUM.  (Airo rou erxup o\ttv, from its filthy
smell.)  Garlic.
  Scorpiaca.  (From oxopirios, a  scorpion.)   Medi-
cines against the bite of serpents.
  SCORPIOIDES.   (From exopmos, a scorpion, and
ttios, a likeness:  so called because its leaves resemble
the tail of a scorpion.)   Scorpiurus.  The Myosurus
scorpioides.
  SCORPIU'RUS. See Scorpioides.
  SCORZA.  A variety of epidote.
  SCORZONE'RA.  (From escorza, a serpent,
Spanish: so  called because it is said to  be effectual
against the bite of all  venomous  animals.)  1. The
name of a  genus of plants in the Linnaean system.
Class, Syngenesia ; Order, Polygamia aqualis.
  2. The pharmacopoeial name of the viper grass. See
Scorzonera humilis.
  Scorzonera hispanica.  The systematic name of
the esculent  vipers' grass.   Serpentaria hispanica.
The root of this plant  is mostly sold  for that of the
humilis.
  Scorzonera humilis.  The systematic name ofthe
officinal vipers' grass.  Eseorzonera ; Viper aria; Ser-
pentaria hispanica.   Goats' grass;  Vipers' grass.  The
roots  of this plant,  Scorzonera—caule subnudo, vni-
floro ; foliis lato-lanceolatis, nervosis, plants, of Lin-
naeus, have been sometimes employed  medicinally ns
alcxiphnrmics, and in hypochondriacal disorders and
obstructions of the viscera.  The Scorzonera hispanica
mostly supplies tlie shops, whose root is esculent, olera-
ceons, and against diseases inefficacious.
  SCOTODINE.  See Scotodinus.
  SOOTODFNUS.  (From oxoros, darkness, and iivos,
a giddiness.)  Scotodinia ; Scotodinos ;  Scotoma ; Sco-
lodine; Scotomia.  Giddiness, with impaired sight.
  SCOTOMA.  (From cicoroc, darkness.)   Blindness.
See Scotodinus.
  8CRIBONIUS, Larous, a Roman physician in the
reign of Claudius, who wrote n treatise, "De Compo-
sitione Medicamenloruin."    Many of these formulae
are perfectly triflinir and superstitious;  and the whole
xvork displays a great attachment to empiricism.  The
style is also very deficient in elegance for the tjmc in
      974
 xvhich he lived, whence he appears to have been a pet
 son of inferior education.
   SCROBICULATUS.  (Scrobiculus, a ditch, or fur
 row.)   Hollowed;  having a deep,  round foramina:
 applied to the receptacle of tlie Helianthus annuus.
   SCROBI'CULUS CO'RDIS.  (Diminutiveof scrobs,
 a ditch.)  The pit of the stomach.
   SCRO'FULA.  (From scrofa, a swine; because this
 animal is said to be much subject to a similar disorder.)
 Scrophula; Struma; Coir as; Chraas ; Ecruclles ; Ft.
 Scrofula.  The  king's  evil.  A genus of disease in the
 Class Cachexia, and Order Impetigines, of Cullen. Ho
 distinguishes four species.  1. Scrofula vulgaris, xvhen
 it is without other disorders external and  permanent.
 2. Scrofula mesenteriea, when internal, xvith loss of
 appetite, pale countenance, swelling of the belly, and
 an unusual  foetor of  the excrements.   3. Scrofula
 fugax.  This is of the  most simple  kind;  it is seated
 only about the neck, and for the most part is caused
 hy absorption from sores on the head.  4. Scrofula
 americana, when it is joined with the yaxvs.  Scrofula
 consists in hard  indolent tumours of  the conglobate
 glands  in various parts of the body; but particularly
 in the neck; behind the cars, and under the chin, which,
 after a time, suppurate and degenerate into ulcers, from
 which, instead of pus, a white curdled matter, some-
 xvhat resembling the coagulum of milk is discharged.
   The first appearance of the disease is most usually
 between the third and seventh year of the child's age:
 but it  may arise at any period between this and the
 age of puberty;  after which it seldom  makes its first
 attack.  It most commonly affects  children of a lax
 habit,  with smooth, fine skins, fair hair, and  rosy
 cheeks.  It likexvise is apt to attack such  children as
 show a disposition to rachitis, marked by a protuberant
 forehead, enlarged joints, and a tumid abdomen.   Like
 this disease, it seems to be peculiar to cold and variable
 climates, being rarely met with in warm ones.  Scro-
 fula is by no moans a  contagious disease,  but, beyond
%all doubt, is of an hereditary nature, and is often entailed
Nby parents on their children.  There are, indeed,  some
 practitioners who wholly deny lhat this, or any other
 disease, can be acquired  by an  hereditary right; but
 that a peculiar temperament of body, or predisposition
 in the  constitution of some diseases, may extend from
 both father and mother to their offspring, is, observes
 Dr. Thomas, very clearly proved.  For example, xve
 very frequently meet xvith gout  in  young persons of
 both sexes, who could  never have  brought it on by
 intemperance, sensuality, or improper diet, but  must
 have acquired the predisposition to it in this way.
   Where there is any predisposition  in the constitution
 to scrofula,  and the  person happens to  contract  a
 venereal taint, this frequently excites into action the
 causes of the former;  as  a venereal bubo not unfre-
 quently becomes scrofulous,  as soon as the virus is
 destroyed by mercury.   The late  Dr. Cullen supposed
 scrofula to depend upon a peculiar constitution of the
 lymphatic  system.  The attacks of the disease seem
 much effected or influenced by the periods of the sea-
 sons.   They begin usually some time in ihe winter and
 spring, and often disappear, or are greatly amended in
 summer and autumn.   The first appearance of the dis-
 order is commonly in lhat of small  oval, or spherical
 tumours under the  skin, unattended by any pain or
 discoloration.   These  appear, in general, upon the
 sides of the neck, below the car, or under the chin •
 but, in some cases, the joints of the clboxvs or ankles'
 or those of the fingers and toes, are  the parts first
 affected.  In these instances, we do not, however, find
 small  moveable  sxvellings; but,  on the contrary a
 tumour almost uniformly surrounding the joint and
 interrupting its motion.
   After some length of  time the tumours become larger
 and more fixed, the skin which covers them acquires
 a  purple or livid colour, and, beta? much inflamed
 they at last suppurate, and break into liltle holes, from
 which, at first, a matter somewhat puriform ooecs out-
 but this changes by degrees into a kind of viscid serous
 discharge, much intermixed with small pieces of a white
 substance, resembling the curd of milk.
   The tumours subside gradually, while the ulcers at
 the same time open more, and spread unequally in
 various directions.  After a time some of the ulcers
 heal; but olher tumours quickly form in different parts
 of the  body, and proceed on, in ihe same slow manner
 as ihe former ones, to suppuration.  In this mannei 
SCR
SEA
ihft disease goes on for some years, ana appearing at
last to have exhausted  itself, all the  ulcers heal  up,
xvithout being succeeded by any fresh sxvelliiigs;  but
leaving behind  them an ugly puckeriog of tlie skin,
and a  scar of considerable  extent.   This is  tlie most
mild form  under wliich scrofula  ever  appears.   In
more virulent cases, the eyes arc particularly the sent
of the disease, and are affected xvith ophthalmia, giving
rise to ulcerations in the tarsi, and inflammation ofthe
tunica adnata,  terminating not  unfrequently in an
opacity of the transparent cornea.
  In similar cases, the joints become affected, they
swell and are incommoded by excruciating deep-seated
pain, which is much increased upon the slightest mo-
tion.  The sxvelling and pain continue to increase, the
muscles of the limb become at  length much wasted.
Matter is soon  afterward  formed, and this is dis-
charged at small openings made by the bursting of the
6kin.  Being,  however, of a peculiar acrimonious  na-
ture, it erodes the ligaments  and cartilages, and pro-
duces a caries of the neighbouring bones.  By an ab-
sorption of Ihe matter into  the system, hectic fever at
last arises, and, in Ihe end, often proves fatal.
  When  scrofula is confined to  the external surface,
it is by no means attended with danger, although on
leaving one part, it is apt to be renexx-ed in others ; but
when  the ulcers are imbued xvith a sharp acrimony.
spread, erode, and become deep, without  showing any
disposition to  heal;  when  deep-seated collections of
matter form among the  small bones of the hands and
feet, or in the joints, or tubercles in the lungs, xvith
hectic fever, arise, the consequences will  be fatal.
  On opening the bodies of  persons xvho  have died of
iHs disease, many of the viscera are usually found in
a diseased state, but more particularly the elands of the
mesentery, xvhich are not only much lumified, but often
ulcerated. The  lungs are frequently discovered beset
xvitii a number of tubercles or cysts,  wliich contain
matter of various kinds.  Scrofulous glands,on being
examined by dissection, feel  somewhat softer to  the
touch tflian in their natural  state, and when laid open,
they are usually found to contain a soft curdy matter,
mixed  with pus.  The treatment consists chiefly in the
use of  tliose means, which  are calculated to improve
the general health; a nutritious diet, easy of digestion,
a pure dry nir, gentle exercise, friction, cold bathing,
especially in the sea, and strengthening  medicines, as
the  preparations of iron, myrrh,  Sec;  but, particu-
larly the Peruvian bark, with soda.  Various mineral
waters, and  other  remedies  xvhich  moderately pro-
mote the  secretions, appear also to have been  often
useful.  In irritable states of Ihe system, hemlock has
been employed  with much advantage.   Mercury is
generally injurious to scrofulous persons, xvhen carried
so far as to affect the mouth: yet  they have sometimes
improved  under  the use of the milder preparations of
that metal, determined principally toxvards the  skin.
Moderate antimonials also, decoctions of sarsaparilla,
mezereon, guaiacum, &c,  burnt sponge, muriate  of
lime, and  other such remedies, have been serviceable
ia many cases, perhaps chiefly in  the same way.  The
application to scrofulous tumours  and ulcers must vary
according to the state of the parts, whether indolent or
irritable:  where the tumours shoxv no disposition  to
enlarge, or become inflamed, it is, perhaps, best to in-
terfere little xvith them; but their inflammation must
be  checked  by leeches, &c, and xvhen  ulcers exist,
stimulant lotions or dressings must be  used to give
them a disposition to heal; but if they are in an irrita-
ble state, a cataplasm, made,  perhaps, xvith hemlock,
or other narcotic
  SCROPHULA. See Scrofula.
  SCROPHULARIA.  (From  scrofula, the king's
evil: so called from the unequal tubercles  upon  its
roots, like scrofulous tumours.)  The name of a genus
of plants iu the Linnaean system.   Class, Didynamia ;
Order, Angiospermia. The fig-wort.
 Scrophularia aquatica.  Betonica aquatica. Great-
er water fig-wort.  Water-betony.  The leaves of this
plant, Scrophularia—foliis cordatis obtusis, pctiolatis,
lecurrentibus;  caule  membranis angulato ;  racemis
ierminalibus, of  Linnaeus, are celebrated as correctors
ofthe ill-flavour of senna.  They were, also, formerly
In high estimation against piles, tumours of a scrofu-
lous nature, inflammations, Sec.
 Scrophularia minor.  The pile-wort is sometimes
io called.  See Ranunculus ficaria.                 i
   Scrophularia  nodosa.  The systematic name ot
 the fig-wort.   Scrophularia vulgaris; MUXemorbia ;
 Scrophularia.  Common fig-wort or kernel-wort.  The
 root and leaves of this plant, Scrophularia—foliis cor-
 datis, trinervatis; caule obtusangnlo, of Linnaeus,
 have been celebrated  both as an internal and external
 remedy against inflammations,  the piles, scrofulous
 tumours and old ulcers; but they are noxv only used in
 this country by the country people.
   Scrophularia vulgaris. See Scrophularia nodosa.
   SCROTAL.  Belonging to the scrotum.
   Scrotal hernia.  Scrotocele. A protrusion of any
 part of an abdominal viscus or viscera into the scrotum.
 See Hernia.
   SCROTIFORMIS. Bag-like: applied to the nectary
 ofthe genus Satyrium.
   SCROTOCELE.  (From  scrotum, and xrjXn, a tu-
 mour.)  A rupture or hernia in the scrotum.
   SCROTUM.   (Quasi scrotum,  a skin or hide.)
 Bursa testium; Oseheus ; Oscheon; Orchea, of Galen
 The common integuments xvhich cover the testicles.
   SCRU'PULUS.  (Dim. of scrupus, a small stone.)
 A scruple or weight of 20 grains.
   SCULTETUS,  John, ixns bornat Ulm, in 1595,and,
 after the requisite studies, graduated at Padua.  He
 then  practised with  considerable reputation  In his
 native city, as xvell in surgery as in physic, and he ap-
 pears to have been very bold in his operations.  He
 was carried off by an apoplectic stroke, in 1645.   His
 principal x\-ork is  entitled, "Armamentarium Chirur-
 gicum," xvith plates of the instruments;  which was
 published  after his death,  and has  passed through
 many editions, and been translated into most European
 languages.
   SCURF.  Furfura.  Small exfoliations of the cuti-
 cle, xvhich take place  afler some eruptions on the
 skin, a nexv cuticle being formed underneath  during
 the exfoliation.
   SCURVY.   See Scorbutus.
   Scurvy-grass.   See Cochlearia officinalis.
   Scurvy-grass, lemon.  See Cochlearia officinalis.
   Scurvy-grass, Scotch. See Convolvulus soldanella.
   SCUTlFORM.  (Scutiformis; from c/turoc, a shield,
 and tifJoc, resemblance.)   Shield-like.  See Thyroid
 cartilage.
   Scutiform cartilage.  See  Thyroid cartilage.
   SCUTELLA.   A little dish or cup.   Applied to the
 round, flat, or shallow  fruit, of the calyculate algx,
 seen in Lichen stcllaris.
   SCUTELLARIA.  (From scutella, a small dish ol
 saucer, apparently in allusion to the little concave ap-
 pendage xvhich crowns the calyx. Some have though)
 it to be more directly derived from  scutellum, a  little
 shield, to xvhich they have compared the shield.)  Th]
 name of a genus  of  plants in  the  Linnaean system
 Class, Didynamia ; Order, Gymnospermia.
   Scutellaria galericulata.  The systematic nam)
 of the skull-cap.  Tertianaria.  The Scutellaria, folut
 eordato lanceolatis, crenatis ; fioribus axillaribus, of
 Linnaeus, which is common in Ihe hedges and ditchei
 of this country.   It  has a bitter taste and a garlic
 smell, and is said to be serviceable against that species
 of ague which attacks the patient every other day.
   SCYBALUM.   'ZxvGaXa   Dry hard  excrement,
 rounded like nuts or marbles.
   Scythicus.  (From Scythia,  its native soil.)   An
 epithet of the liquorice root, or any thing brought from
 Scythia.
   SEA.  Mare. The air of the sea, the motion of the
 vessels, the exhalation  from the tar  as well as the
 water of the ocean, and its contents all come under ihe
 attention of therphysician.
   I. Sea-air is  prescribed in a variety of complaints,
 being considered as more medicinal and  salubrious than
 that on land, though not known to possess  in its com-
 position a greater quantity of oxygen.  This is a most
 powerful and valuable remedy.  It is resorted to with
 the happiest success against most cases ol debility, and
 particularly against scrofulous diseases affecting tin
 external parts ofthe body. See Bath, cold.
  2. Sea-sickness.  A nausea or tendency to vomit
 which varies, in respect of duration, in different per
sons upon their first going to sea.  With some it cou
tlnues only for a day or two; while with others it r«
mains throughout the voyage.  The diseases in whic|
sea-sickness  is  principally recommended are asthmj
and consumption.
                                        275 
SEE
SEC
   3. Sea-water.  This is  arranged among  the simple
 naime waters.  Its chemical  analysis gives a propor-
 tion of one of saline contents to  about twenty-three
 and one-fourth of water; but on our shores it is not
 •jeater than one of salt to about thirty of water.  Sea-
 nater on the British  coast may therefore be calculated
 to contain  in  the wine pint  of  muriated  soda 186.5
 grains, of muriated magnesia fifty-one, of selenite six
 grains; total 243 one-half grains; or half an  ounce and
 ihree and one-half grains of saline contents  The dis-
 orders for  xvhich  the  internal use of sea-xvater has
 been and  may be resorted to, are in general the same
 for which  all the simple saline xvaters may be used.
 The peculiar power of sea-water and sea-salt as a dis-
 cutient, employed either internally or externally  in
 scrofulous  habits, is  well knoxvn, and is attended with
 considerable advantage when judiciously applied.
  Sea-holly.  See Eryngium.
  Sea-moss.  See Fucus hclminthocorton.
  Sea-oak.  See Fucus vcsiculosus.
  Sea-onion.   See Scilla.
  SEA-SALT.  Muriate of Soda.  See Soda murias.
  SEA-WAX.  Maltha.   A w!>'.'.e,  solid, talloxvy-
 leoking fusible substance, soluble in alkohol, found on
 the Baikal lake, in Siberia.
  Sea-wrack.  See Fucus vcsiculosus.
  Sealed earths.  See Sigillata terra.
  SEARCHING.  The operation  of introducing a
 metallic instrument through the urethra into the blad-
 der for the purpose of ascertaining xvliether the patient
has the stone or not.
  SEBACEOUS.  (Sebaceus ; from sebum, suet,)  A
term applied  to glands, wliich secrete a  suelty hu-
mour.
  SEBACIC ACID.  Subject to a considerable heat, 7
or 8 pounds of hog's  lard, in a slonexvare retort capa-
ble  of  holding  double  the quantity, and connect its
oeak by an adopter with a  cooled receiver.  The con-
densible products are chiefly  fat, altered by the fire,
mixed with a little acetic and sebacic acids.  Treat
this product xvith boiling water several times, agitating
 tiie liquor, alloiving  il  to cool,  and decanting each
 time.  Pour at  last into the watery liquid, solution of
 3cetate of lead in excess.  A xvhite  flocculent precipi-
 tate of sebate of lead xvill instantly fall, xvhich must be
 collected on a filter, xvashed, and dried.  Put  the sebate
 of lead into a phial, and pour  upon it its own weight
 of sulphuric acid, diluted  with  five or six times its
 weight of waler.  Expose this phial to a heat of about
212°.   The sulphuric acid  combines with the oxide of
 lead, and sets the sebacic  acid at liberty.   Filter the
 whole  xvhile hot.  As the liquid cools, the sebacic acid
 crystallizes, wliich must be washed to free il  com-
 pletely from the adhering  sulphuric acid.   Let it be
 then dried  at a gentle heat.
  The sebacic acid is inodorous;  its taste is slight, but
 it'perceptibly reddens litmus paper ; its specific gravity
 is above that of water, and ils crystals are small xvhile
 needles of little coherence.   Exposed to heat, it melts
 like fat, is decomposed, and partially evaporated.  The
 air  has no effect upon it.  It is much more soluble in
 hot than in cold xvater; hence boiling xvater  saturated
 with it, assumes a nearly solid consistence on cooling.
 Alkohol dissolves it abundantly at the ordinary tempe-
 ature.
  With the alkalies it forms soluble neutral salts; but
 if we pour into their  concentrated solutions, sulphuric,
 nitric, or muriatic acids, Ihe sebacic is immediately de-
 posited in  large quantity.  It affoids precipitates xvith
 Ihe acetates and nitrates of lead, mercury, and silver.
  Such is ihe account given by Thenard of this ncid,
 in the third volume of his Trnite de Chimie,  published
 in 1*15. Berzelius, in 1806, published an elaborate dis-
 sertation, to prove that Thenard's new sebacic acid
 was only the benzoic contaminated by the  fat, from
 which  however it may be freed, and brought to the
 slate of common benzoic acid. Thenard takes no no-
 tice of Berzelius whatever, but concludes his account
 bv stating lhat it has  been  knoxvn only for txvelve or
 thirteen years, and that it must not be confounded
 xvitii the acid formerly called sebacic, xvhich  possesses
 a strong disgusting odour, and xvas merely  acetic or
 muriatic acid: or fat  xvhich had been changed in some
 xvay or other according to the process u*cd in tlie pre-
 paration.
  Sebadilla   Sec Cevadilla.
  SEBATE.   (Scbas;  from sebum, suet.)  The name
      27b*
 in the neutral compound of the acid of fat, with a sail
 liable base
   Sebesten.  (An Egyptian word.) See Cordiamyxa
   SECA'LE.   (Secale, i. neut.    A name in Pliny
 xvhich some etymologists, among xvhom is De Theis.de
 rive from the Celtic segal.  This, says he, comes from
 seira, a sickle in the same  language, and thence seges,
 the Latin appellation of all grain that is cut wilh a si-
 milar instrument.  Those  xvho have looked no farthei
 for an etymology than the Latin seco, to cut or moxv,
 have come to tlie same conclusion.) 1. The name of
 a genus of plants in the Linniean system.   Class, Tri
 andria ;  Order, Digynia.   Rye.
   2. The common  name of the seed of the Secale ce-
 realc, of Linnaeus.
   Secale cereale.   The systematic name  of  the
 rye-plant.   Rye-corn is principally used as  in  ar-
 ticle of diet, and in the northern countries of Europe is
 employed for affording an  at dent spirit.   Rye-bread ia
 common among the northern  parts of Europe;  it ia
 less nourishing than xvheat, but a sufficiently nutritive
 and wholesome grain.  Il is more than any other grain
 strongly disposed to acescency; hence it is liable to fer-
 ment  in  the stomach, and to produce  purging, which
 people on the first using it  commonly experience.
   Secale cornutu.m.  Secale corniculatum ; Clavius
 secatinus.  Mutterkom kornzapfeu, of the Germans.
 Ergot;  Srigle ergote of the French. A black, curved,
 morbid excrescence, like the spur of a fowl, which is
 found in the spike ofthe Secale cereale of Linnaeus, es-
 pecially  in hot climates, when a great heat suddenly
 succeeds to much moisture. The seed, xvhich has this
 diseased growth,  gives off, when  powdered, an odour
 xvhich excites sneezing, and tldlales the nose, like to-
 bacco.   It has a  mealy, and then  a rancid, nauseous,
 and biting taste, wliich remains  a long time,  and
 causes the mouth aud  fauces lo become  dry.; xvliich
 sensation is not removed by xvatery fluids, but is soon
 relieved by milk.  The cause of this excrescential dis-
 ease in rye appears to  be  an insect xvhich penetrates
 Ihe grain, feeds on  its amylaceous part, and leaves  its
 poison in the parenchyma; hence it is full of small
 foramina or perforations made by the insect.
   The secale cornutum has a singular  effect on  the
 animal economy.  The  meal or flour sprinkled on a
 wound coagulates the blood, excites a heat and then a
 numbness in the pan, and soon after in the extremities.
 Bread xvhich contains  some of it, does  not ferment
 well, nor bake well,  and is glutinous and nauseous
 The bread when  eaten produces intoxication, lassitude,
 a sense of something creeping on  the skin, weakness
 of the joints, xvith convulsive movements occuriing pe-
 riodically. This state is what is called raphanio, and
 conoulsiones cerealia.   Of those so affected, some can
 only breathe in an  upright posture, some  become ma-
 niacal, others epileptic, or tabid, and some have a thirst
 not to be  quenched;  and livid eruptions and cutaneous
 ulcers are not uncommon.   The disease continues
 from ten  days to two or  three months  and  lunger.
 Those who have formication, pain, and numbness of
 the  extremities in the commencement, generally lose
 the feeling in these parts, and the skin, from the lin-
 gers to the fore-arm, or from the toes to the middle of
 the tibia, becomes dry, hard, and black, as if covered
 with soot.  This species  of  mortification is  called
 Necrosis cerealis.
  As a medicine, thesecale cornutum is given internally
 to excite the action of the uterus in an atonic state of
 thai organ, producing amenorrhea, Sec.  and dutinej
 parturition. Given iu the  dose of ten  grains, it soon
 produces a desire to make xvater, and the labour paint
 quickly follow; but it is a dangerous medicine, tht
 effect not being controllable.
  The antidote to the ill effects produced in the mouth
 and fauces by eating bread xvhich  has this poison,  in
 milk.  Against the convulsions, vomits, saline purga-
 tives, clysters, submuriate of mercury as a purgative,
 are first to be given, and after the prima; viae have been
 duly cleaned, stimulants of camphire, ammonia, anj
 tether xvith opium.   To  the necrosis, rectified  oil of
 turpentine is very beneficial in  stopping its progress,
 and then warm stimulating fomentations and poultices
 [Seepulvis parturiens.  A.]
  SECONDARY.  This term denotes something that
acts ns second or  in subordination to another.  Thus,
in diseases, we have secondary  symptrms   Sec Fri.
mary. 
SEC
SEC
   Seconaary fever.   That  febrile affection  which
 arises after a crisis, or the discharge of some morbid
 matter, as after the declension of the small-pox or the
 measles.
   SECRETION.   Secrctw.  "The generic name of
 secretion is given to a function, by xvhich a part of the
 blood escapes from the  organs  of circulation, and dif-
 fuses itself without or xvithin ; cither preserving its
 chemical properties, or dispersing  after its elements
 have undergone another order of combinations.
   Tlie secretions are generally divided into three sorts;
 the  exhalations, the follicular  secretions,  and the
 glandular secretions.
   Exhalations.— Tlie exhalations take place  as  well
 within the body as at the skin, or in the mucous mem-
 branes; thence  their divisions  into external and in-
 tcrnal.
   Internal exhalations.—Wherever large or small sur-
 face are in contact,  au  exhalation takes  place;
 wherever fluids are accumulated in a cavity without
 any apparent opening, they are deposited there  by ex-
 halations : the phenomenon of exhalation is also mani-
 fested in almost every |iart of the animal economy. It
 exists in tlie  serous, the synovial, the  mucous mem-
 branes ; in the  cellular  tissue, tlie interior of vessels,
 the adipose cells, the interior of the eye, of the ear, the
 parenchyinaof many of the organs, such as the thymus,
 thyroid glands, the capsula suprarenales, Sec Sec.  It is
 by exhalation that  tlie watery  humour, the  vitreous
 numour, the liquid  ofthe labyrinth, arc formed  and
 renewed.  The fluids exhaled in these  different parts
 have not  all  been  analyzed ; among those that have
 been, sex-eral approach more or less to the elements of
 the blood, and particularly to the serum; such are the
 fluids of the serous membranes of the cellular tissue,
 of the chambers of the eye; others differ more from it,
 as tlie synovia, tiie fat, tec.
   Serous exhalation.—All the viscera of the head, of
 the chest, and the abdomen, are covered with a serous
 membrane, which also lines the sides of these cavities,
 so that the viscera are not in contact xvilh the sides, or
 with Ihe adjoining  viscera, except  by the  intermedia-
 tion of tlie same membrane; and ns its surface is very
 smooth,  the viscera can easily change  their relation
 with each other, and xvitii the sides.  The principal
 circumstance which keeps up the polish of their  sur-
 face is  the exhalation of which they are the seal;  a
 very thin fluid constantly passes  out of every point of
 the membrane, and mixing with that of tiie adjoining
 parts, forms xvith  it a humid layer that  favours the
 frictions of the organs.
  It appears that" this facility of  sliding upon  each
 other is x-ery favourable to the action of the organs,
for as soon as they are deprived  of it by any malady
of the serous membrane, their functions are disordered,
 and Wiey sometimes cease entirely.
  In the state of health, the fluid secreted by the serous
membranes appears to be the serum of the  blood, a
certain quantity of albumen excepted.
  Serous  exhalation of  the  cellular  tissue.—This
tissue, which is called cellular, is generally distributed
through animal bodies; it is useful at once to separate
 and  unite the different organs, and the parts of the
 organs.   The tissue is every xvhere  formed of a great
 number of small thin plates, which,  crossing  iu a
 thousand different  ways, form  a  sort of felt.   The
 size and arrangement of the plates vaiy according to
 the different parts of the body.  In one place they are
 larger, thicker, and constitute large cells;  in another,
 they are very narrow and thin,  and form extremely
 small cells; in some points the tissue is  capable of
 extension ; in others, it is liltle  susceptible of it,  and
 presents a considerable resistance.   But whatever is
 the disposition of the cellular tissue, its plates, by their
 txvo  surfaces, exhale a  fluid which has the greatest
 analogy with that of the serous membranes, and which
 tppcars to have the same uses;  these are to render the
 frictions of the plates easy upon each other, and there-
 fore to  favour the  reciprocal motions of the organs,
 aud even the relative changes of the different parts of
 which they are composed.
  Fatty exhalation.—Independently of the serosity, a
 fluid is found in many parts of the cellular tissue of a
 very different nature, xvliich is the fat.
  Under the relation of the irescnce  of the fat, the
cellular  tissue may be divided  into  tliree sorts; thnt
 which contains it always, that w<vHi contains it some-
 times, ai(d that which never contains It.  The orbit,
 the sole of the foot, the pulp of ihe  fingers, that of the
 toes, always  present  fat; the subcutaneous cellulai
 tissue,  and that  which covers the heart, veins,  be-.,
 present it often; lastly, that of the scrotum, of the evi
 lids, of the interior of the skull, never contain it.
   The flit is contained in distinct cells thai never com
 municatc xvith the adjoining ones.   Il has been  sup
 posed, from  this circumstance, that the  (issue  that
 contains,  and that forms the fat, xvas not the same as
 that by which Ihe serosity is formed; but ns these fatty
 cells have never  been shown, except xvhen full of fat
 "his anatomical distinction seems doubtful.  The sizi ,
 the  form, the disposition of these  cells, are not less
 variable than the quantity of fat xvhich Ihey contain
 In some individuals scarcely a few ounces  exist, xx hiie
 iu others  there are several hundred pounds.
   According to the last researches, the human fat  is
 composed of txvo parts, the one  fluid, the olher  con-
 crete, which  are  themselves  compounded, but iu dif-
 ferent proportions, of txvo nexv proximate principle?.
   Synovial exhalations.—Round the moveable  anion
 latinos a  thin  membrane is found, xvhich has  much
 analogy xvitii the serous membranes ; but xvhich, hoxv-
 ever, differs  from mem  by having  small reddi-h
 prolongations  that contain numerous blood-visi-el:;.
 These  are called synovial fringes;  they  are  very
 visible in the great articulations of the limbs.
   Internal exhalation of the eye.—The different  hu-
 mours of  the eye  are also  formed by exhalation ,  they
 are each of llieiu  separately enveloped iu a memhr;  >
 thai appears intended  for exhalation and absorption.
  The humours of the eye are, the aqueous humour,
 the formation of xvhicli is al present attributed to t.i
 ciliary processes;  the vitreous humour, secured l ■
 the hyaloid; the  crystalline, the black matter of tu.
 choroid;  and that of the  posterior surface of the iris
   Bloody exhalations.—III all the exhalations of xviiic'
 xxe have spoken, it is only a part of the principle ot'
 the blood that passes out ofthe vessels;  the bloc.
 itself appears to spread in several of the organs, and I..I
 in them the sort of cellular tissue which  forms their
 parenchyma;  such arc the cavernous bodies  of the
 penis and of  the clitoris, tlie urethra and the glans.
 the spleen, the mantilla, &c.  The anatomical cxami
 nation of Ihese different  issues seems to show  tha'
 tliev  are habitually  filled  xvitii venous  blood,  the
 quantity of xvhich is variable  according to different
 circumslances, particularly according to the slate of
 action or inaction of the organs.
  Many other interior exhalations exist also, among
 those of the cavities of the internal ear, of the pare;.-
chyma, of the thymus, of the thyroid gland ; lliat of
the cavity of the capsula  suprarenales, Sec: but liie
 fluids formed  in these different parts are scarcely u:i
dcrstood ;  they have never heen analyzed, and their
uses are unknoxvn.
  External exhalations.—These are  composed  t »■
tirely of the exhalations nf the mucous membranes,  a;-;|
of that of the skin, or cutaneous transpiration.
  Exhalation of the mucous  membranes.—There aee
two  mucous membranes;  the  one coveis  ihe surface
of the eye, the lachrymal  ducts, Ihe  nasal cavities, tin-
sinuses, the middle ear, tlie mouth, all tlie intestinal
canal, the excretory  canals which terminate in :r,,
lastly, the larynx,  the trachea, and the bronchia.
  The  other mucous membrane covers the organs of
generation and of the  urinary apparatus.
  Cutaneous transpiration.—A transparent liquid, of
an odour more or  less strong, sail, acid, usually passes
through the innumerable openings  of  the epidermis
See  Perspiration.  This  liquid is  generally cvapu
rated as soon as it is  in contact xvitii  the air, and at
otlier times it floxvs upon the surface of the skin.   \t.
the first case it is  imperceptible, and bears  the nan.
of insensible transpiration; in the second it is call < .1
sweat,
  FMieular secretions.—The follicles are small holloex
organs lodged in the skin  or mucous membranes,  ai.u
xvhicli on  that  account arc divided  into mucous  a.l
cutaneous.
  The  follicles are, besides, divided into simple  a.id
compound.  The simple  mucous follicles  are sou,
upon  nearly the  whole extent of the  mucous mem
braties, where  ihey are more  or less abundant; how
ever, there are points  of  considernble extent of these
membranes where they are not  seen.
                                         377
> 
SEC                                              SEC
   The bodies that bear the name of fungous papilla
 .if the tongue  the amygdalae, the glands of the cardia,
 the prostate, &c. are  considered  by anatomists  as
 collections of simple follicles.  Perhaps this opinion is
 not sufficiently supported.
   The fluid that they secrete is little known ; it appears
 analogous to the mucous, and  to have the same uses.
 In almost all the points of  the skin, liltle openings
 exist, xvhich are  the  orifices of small hollow organs,
 xvith membranous sides, generally filled  xvith  an al-
 biiininou', and fatty matter, the consistence, the colour,
 the odour, and even the savour of which  are variable,
 according to the diff<rent parts of the body, and xvhich
 is continually spread upon the surface of the skin.
   These small organs are called the follicles of the
 skin;  one of them at least exists at the  base of each
 hair, and generally the hairs traverse the cavity of a
 follicle in their direction outxvards.
   The follicles form  that  mucous and  fatty matter
 xvhich is seen upon the skin of the cranium, and on that
 of the pavillion nf the ear;  the follicles  also secrete
 the cerumen in  the auditory canal; that xvhitish mai-
 ler, of considerable consistence, that is pressed out of
 the skin of ihe face, in the  form of small  worms, is
 also contained in follicles; it is the same matter which,
 by its surface being in contact xvith the air, becomes
 black,  and produces the numerous spots that are seen
 upon some persons' faces, particularly on the sides of
 the nose and cheeks.
  The follicles also  appear to  secrete tliat odorous,
 xvhitish matter, wliich  is alxvays renexved at the ex-
 ternal surface of tlie genital parts.
  By spreading on the surface of the epidermis, of the
 hair of the head, of the skin, Sec, tlie matter of the
 follicles supports the suppleness and elasticity of those
 pans, renders their surface smooth and poiislied, favours
 their frictions upon one another.  On account  of its
 unctuous  nature, it renders them less penetrable by
 humidity, &c.
   Glandular Secretions.—The nanieof gland is given
 to a secreting organ which sheds the fluid that it forms
 upon the surface of a mucous  membrane,  or of the
skin, by one or more excretory glands.
  The number of glands is considerable, the action of
 each bears the name of glandular  secretion.  There
 are six secretions of this sort, that of the tears, of the
 saliva, of the bile, of the pancreatic fluid, ofthe urine,
of the  semen, and lastly, that of the milk.  We may
 add tlie action of the mucous  glands, and ofthe glands
of Cowper.
  Secretion of Tears.—The gland that forms the tears
is very small; it  is situated  in  the orbit of the eye,
above  and a little outward; it  is composed of  small
grains, united by cellular tissues; its excretory canals,
small and numerous, open behind the external angle of
the uppeT eyelid:  it receives  a  small artery, a branch
of tlie  ophthalmic, and a nerve, a division of the fifth
pair.
  In a  state of health, the tears are in small quantity;
the liquid that forms them is limpid, without odour, of
 a salt  savour.  Fourcroy and Vauquelin, xvho ana-
 lyzed it, found it composed of much water, of some cen-
 tcsimals  of  mucus, muriate  and phosphate of soda,
and a little pure soda and lime.  What are called tears,
are not, however, the fluid secreted entiiely by the
lachrymal gland;  it is a mixture of this fluid with the
matter secreted  by the conjunctiva, and probably xx ith
thnt of the glands of Meibomius.
  The  tears  form a layer before the conjunctiva of the
eye, and defend it from the contact of air;  they facili-
tate the frictions of the eyelids upon the  eye, favour
the expulsion of foreign bodies, and prevent the action
nf irritating bodies upon the conjunctiva;  in this case
Me! quantity rapidly augments. They are also a means
ol expressing tlie  passions: the tears floxv from  vex-
ation,  pain,  joy, and pleasure.   The nervous system
has therefore n particular influence  upon their secre-
tion.  This influence probably takes place by means
of the nerve that the fifth pair of cerebral nerves sends
to the larhrymal gland.
  ■Secretion of the Saliva.—The salivary  glands are
1st, the txvo parotids, situated  before the ear and behind
the neck, and the branch of the jaxv ; 2d, the submax
diaries, situated below and on the front of the body of
this bono; 3d, lastly, the sublinguals, plnced lnimedl-
ately below  the tongue.  The parotids and the  sub.
maillxaries have onlv one excretory canal: the sublm-
     278
 guals have sexeral.  AH these glands aie formed bj
 the union of the granulations of different forms and
 dimensions; they receive a considerable  quantity of
 arteries relatively to their  mass.   Several nerves are
 distributed to them, which proceed from the brain or
 the spinal marrow.
   The saliva  which these glands secrete flows  con
 stantly into the mouth, and occupies the loxver part of
 it;  it is at first placed between the anterior and lateral
 part of the tongue and the jaxv ; and xvhen the space is
 filled, it passes into the space between the loxver lip, the
 check, and the external side of the jaw.  Being thus
 deposited  in the  mouth, it mixes  with the fluids se-
 creted by the membranes and the mucous follicles.
   Secretion of the Pancreatic Juice.—The pancreas is
 situated transversely in the abdomen,  behind the sto-
 mach. It has an excretory canal, which opens into the
 duodenum, beside that  of  the liver.  The granuious
 structure of this gland has made  it be considered  a
 salivary gland; but it  is different from them by the
 sniallness of the arteries  that it receives, and  by not
 appearing to receive any cerebral nerve.
   It is impossible to explain the use of the pancreatic
 juice.
   Secretion of  the Bile.—The liver is the largest of all
 the glands; it is also distinguished by the singular cir-
 cumstance among the secretory organs, that it is con-
 stantly traversed by a great  quantity of venous blood,
 besides the arterial blood, xvhich it receives as well as
 every other part.   Its parenchyma does not resemble,
 in any respect, that of the  other glands, and the fluid
 formed by it is not less different from that of the otbci
 glandular fluids.
  The excretory canal of the liver goes  to the duode-
 num ; before entering it, it communicates xvith a small
 membianous bag,  called vesicula fellis, and on  this
 account, that it is almost alxvays filled with  bile.
  Few fluids aie so compound, and so different from
 the blood, as  the bile.   Its colour is greenish, its tasle
 very bitter; it is viscous, thready, sometimes limpid,
 and  sometimes  muddy.  It contains water,  albumen, a
 matter called resinous by some chemists, a yellow co-
 louring principle, soda, and some salts, viz. muriate,
 phosphate, and sulphate of soda, phosphate of lime
 and oxide of iron.   These properties belong to the biie
 contained in the gall bladder.  That which goes  out
 directly from the  liver, called hepatic bile, has never
 been analyzed: it  appears to be of a less deep colour,
 less viscous, and less bitter than the cystic bile.  The
 formation of the bile appears constant.
  The liver receiving venous blood at the some time by
 the vena porta, and arterial blood by the hepatic artery
 physiologists have been very eager to know which of
 the two  it is that forms the bile.   Several have said
 that  the blood of the vena porta, having more carbon
 and  hydrogen than that of the hepatic artery, is more
 proper for furnishing the elements of the bile.  Bithat
 lias successfully contested this opinion; he has shoxvn,
 that the quantity of arterial  blood xvhich arrives at the
 liver is more in  relation with  the quantity of  bile
 formed that that of the venous blood; that the volume
of the hepatic canal is not in proportion with the vena
 porta;  that the fat, a fluid much hydrogenated, is secre-
ted by the arteiial blood, &c.  He might have added,
lhat there is nothing to prove that the blood of the vena
porta has more  analogy xvith tlie bile than the arterial
 blood.  We shall lake no part in this discussion ; both
opinions  are equally destitute of proof.   Besides, no-
thing repels the idea, that both sorts of blood serve iu
Ihe secretion.   This seems  even to be indicated by
anatomy; for injections show that all the vessels of the
 liver, arterial, venous, lymphatic, and excretory, com
 municate wilh each other.
  The bile contributes very usefully in digestion, but
 the manner is unknown.  In our  present Ignorance
 relative to the causes of diseases, we attribute noxious
 properties to  the bile, xvhich  it is  probably far from
 possessing.
  Secretion of the  Urine.—This secretion  is  different
 in several  respects from the  preceding.  The liquid
 which results from it is much more abundant than that
 of any other gland ; in place of serx ing in any internal
 uses, it is expelled ; its retention would be attended by
 tine most dangerous consequences.  We are ndvertiscd
 of the neiessity of its expulsion by a particular feel
 ing,  xvhich, like  the instinctive phenomena of  ihii
 sort  beco.    very paiuful if not quickly attended ta 
SED
SEL
   In explaining the glandular secretions, physiologists
 have given full scope to their imagination.  The glands
 have been successively considered as sieves, filters, as
 a focus of fermentation.  Bordeu, and, more recently,
 Bichat, have attributed a peculiar motion and sensibi-
 lity  to their particles, by xvhicli they choose, in  the
 biood which traverses them, the paitic.es that are fit fo
 enter  into the fluids that they secrete.  Atmospheres
 and compartments have been allotted lo lliem; they
 have been supposed susceptible of election, of sleep,
 tc   Notxvitlistanding the efforts  of many learned
 men, the truth is, that xvhat passes in a gland when it
 acts,  is entirely unknown.  Chemical  phenomena  ne-
 cessarily take place.
   Several secreted fluids are acid, xvhile Ihe blood is
 alkaline.  The most of  them contain  proximate prin-
 ciples whicli do not exist in the  blood, and which are
 formed in the glands, but the particular mode of these
 combinations is unknoxvu.
   We must not, hoxvever, confound among  these sup-
 positions upon the action of the  glands, au ingenious
 conjecture of Dr. Wollaston.  This learned man sup-
 poses that very  xveak  electricity  may have a marked
 influence  upon the secretions.  He rests his opinion
 upon  a curious experiment, of xvhich xve xvill heie give
 an account.
  Dr. Wollaston look aglass lube, two inches long, and
 three  quarters of an inch diameter: he closed one of
 its extremities xvith a bit of bladder.  He poured a lit-
 tle water  into the tube, xvith 1-240 parts of its xveight
 of muriate of soda.  He  wet the  bladder on the out-
 side, and placed it on a piece of silver.  He  then bent
 a zinc wire, so thai one of ils ends touched  the silver,
 and the olher entered the tube the length of an inch.
 In the same instant tiie external face of the bladder
 gave  indications of the presence of pure soda; so that,
 under the influence of this very weak electricity, there
 was  a decomposition of muriate of soda, and  a pas-
 sage of the soda, separated from the acid, through  the
 bladder.   Dr. Wollaston thinks it is not impossible that
 something analogous may happen in the  secretions;
 but, before admitting this idea, many other proofs  are
 necessary.
   Several organs, such as the thyroid  and thymus bo-
 dies,  the spleen, the supra-renal capsules, have been
 called glands by  many anatomists.  Professor Chaus- j
 sier has substituted for this denomination  that of the
 glandiform ganglions.  The use of these parts is en-
 tirely unknown.  As they ate generally more nume-
 rous  in the foetus, they are supposed to have important
 functions, but tliere exists no proof of it.  Works of
 physiology contain a great many  hypotheses intended
 to explain  theii  functions."—Magendie's Physiology.
  Sectio  cesarea.  See Casarian operation.
  Sectio  franconia.   See Lithotomy.
  SECUNDINES.  The after-birth, and membranes
 which are expanded from its edge, and which form a
 complete involucrum of the foetus and its waters, go
 under the term of secundines.  See Placenta.
  SECUNDUM  ARTEM.   According to art. A term
 frequently used in prescription, and denoted by the  let-
 ters S. A., which are usually affixed, when the making
 up of  the. recipe in perfection requires some uncommon
 care and dexterity.
   SECUNDUS.  Applied by botanists to  leaves and
 parts  of the  fructification  which  are unilateral,  all
 leaning towards one side; as the leaves and flowers of
 the Convallaria majalis.
  Securidaca.  (From securis, an axe: so called  be-
 cause its  leaves resemble a small axe.)  SeeHyoscy-
 amus niger.
  SEDATIVE.  (Sedativus; from sedo, to ease or
 nssuage.)  Scdantia.  Medicines xvhich  have the poxver
 Df diminishing tbe animal energy, without destroying
 life.   They are  divided  into sedativa soporifica, as
 op um, papaver, hyoscyamus; and  sedativa refrige-
 rantia, as neutral salts, acids, &c.
  Sedative salt.  See Boracic acid.
  Sedentaria ossa. The bones  on  which we  sit.
The os coccygis and ischia.
  SEDGE.  See Iris pseudacorus.
  SEDIMENT.  The heavy parts of liquids which fall
to the  bottom.
  Sediment, lateritions.   See Lateritious sediment.
  SEDLITZ.  Seydschulz.  The  name of  a village
Df Bohemia, in the circle of Saartz, where Hoffman
discovered a simple mineral xvater, Aqua Sedlilziana.
 From  chemical  analysis it appears, that it Is strongly
 impregnated wilh sulphate of magnesia or Epsom salt,
 and it  is to this, along with, probably, the small quan-
 tity of muriate of magnesia, that  it owes its bitter and
 saline  taste, and its purgative properties.  The diseases
 in xvhicli this xvater is recommended are, crudities of
 th« stomach, hypochondriasis, aiiienorrhcea, and tnc
 ntiwinmous complaints succeeding the cessation of the
 catamenia, (edematous tumours of the legs in  litetary
 men,  hemorrhoidal  affections,  and  scorbutic  erup-
 tions.
  SE'DUM.  (From sedo, to assuage: so called because
 it allays inflammation.)   Tlie name of a genus ot
 plants  in  the Limiaaii system,   (lass, Decandria;
 Order, Pentagynia.
  Sedum acre.  ITlccebra;  Vermieularis; Piper nu-
 rale ;  Sedum minus.   Wall-pepper; Stone crop.  The
 plant thus called is, in ils lecent state, extremely acrid,
 like the hydropiper; hence, if taken in large doses, il
 acts powerfully on the piinui' via-, proving both emetic
 and cathartic; applied to the skin as a cataplasm, il
 frequently  produces  vesications and  erosions.   Boer-
 haave therefore imagines, that its  internal employment
 must be unsafe ;  but experience has discovered, lhat a
 decoction of this plant is not only  safe, but of great effi-
 cacy iu scorbutic complaints.  For xvhich purpose, a
 handful of the herb is directed, by Below, to be boiled
 in eight pints of beer, till they aie reduced to four, of
 wliich  three or four  ounces are to be laken every, or
 every other morning.  Milk has been lound to answer
 this purpose better than  beer.  Nol only ulcers sim;-!~
 scorbutic, but those of a scrofulous or  even cancerous
 tendency, have been cured by the use of this plant; of
 xvhich  Marquel relates several instances.   He likexvise
 found it useful as an external application in destroying
 fungous flesh, and in promoting  a discharge  in gan-
 grenes and carbuncles.  Another  effect for which this
 plant  is esteemed, is  that  of stopping  intermittent
 fevers.
  Sedum luteum murale.   Navel-wort.
  Sedum majus.  See Sempervivum tecturum.
  jsi;dum minus.  See Sedum acre.
  Sedum telephium.  The systematic name of the
 orpine. Fabacrassa; Telephium; Fabaria crassula;
 Anacampseros.  The plant whicli bears these names in
 various pharmacopoeias, is the Sedum—foliis planius-
 culis serratis,  corymbo folioso, caule credo,  of Lin
 naeus.   It was formerly ranked as an antiphlogistic, but
 noxv forgotten.
  SEED.   See Semen.
  Seed vessel.  See Pericarpium.
  SEEING.  See  Vision.
  Seionette's salt.  A neutral salt: first prepared
 and made  known by Peter  Seignette, xvho lived at
 Rochelle, in France, toxvards the end of tlie seventeenth
 century. See Soda tartarizala.
  SELENITES.  (From ocXnvq, the moon.) 1. Sparry
 gypsum, a sulphate of lime.
  2. A white stone having a figure on it resembling a
 moon.
  SELENIUM.   (From otXrivq,  the moon, so called
 from its usefulness in lunacy.)  1. A kind of peony.
  2. A  nexv elementary  body extracted  by Berzelius
 from the pyrites of Fahlun, which, from  its chemical
 properties,  he places betxveen sulphur and tellurium.
 though it has more properties in common wilh the for-
 mer, than with the lalter substance.
  SELF-HEAL.  See Prunella.
  SELINE.  (From eriXrfvn, the  moon ; because they
 are opake,  and look  like liltle moons.)  A disease of
 the nails, in which white spots are occasionally seen in
 their substance.
  SELINIC ACID.  Acidum sclinicum.  If selinium
 be heated to dryness it forms with nitric acid, a vola-
 tile  and crystallizable compound, railed selinic acid,
 which unites to some of the metallic oxides producing
Baits, called seleniates.
  SELI'NUM.   (The ancient generic name of The-
ophrastus and Dioscorides, whose ZtXtov is said to be
derived from irapa to tv tXtt qjvtatlat, on account of its
groxving in mud; xvhence Homer's tXeoBptif]ov otXtvov-
De  Theis says, that selinvm is derived from ctXrrvti
the  moon, because of Ihe shape of its groxving seeds
and that it is the foundation of many olher compound
names  of umbelliferous  plants among the Greeks, as
optoatXtvov, -rtrpoatXtvov, Sec.)  The name of a genus
ofolants.  Class, Pentandria; Order, Digynia. 
SEM
SEM
   SELLA.  (Sella, quasi sedda; from scdeo, to sit.)
 A saddle.
   Sella turcica.  (So called from its supposed  re-
 lemblnncc to a Turkish saddle.) Ephippium. A cavity
 in the sphenoid bone,  containing ihe pituitary gland,
 mirrounded by the four clinoid processes.
   SELTZER. The name  of a  place  in Germany,
 Neider Seltzer, about ten  miles from Frankfort on the
 Mayne, where a saline mineral xvater rises, xvhich  is
 lightly alkaline, highly acidulated xvith carbonic acid,
 :ontaining more  of this volatile  principle than is suf-
 ficient to saturate the  alkali, and the earths wliich it
 holds in  solution.  It is particularly serviceable in re-
 lieving some of the symptoms that indicate  a  morbid
 affection of the lungs; in  slow hectic fever, exanthe-
 inatous eruptions of the skin, foulness of the stomach,
 bilious vomiting,  acidity,  and  heartburn, spasmodic
 pains in any  part of the alimentary canal, and  bloody
 ar highly offensive stools.  On account of its property
 lu relieving spasmodic pains, and  from its rapid deter-
 mination to the kidneys, and perhaps its alkaline con-
 tents, it has been sometimes employed xvitii great advan-
 tage in diseases of the urinary organs, especially those
 that are attended with the formation of calculus. A large
 proportion of the Seltzer xvater, eitlier genuine or arti-
 ticial, that is consumed  in this country, is for the relief
 uf these disorders. Even  in gonorrhoea, either simple
 fir venereal,  Hoffmann asserts, that advantage is  to
 be derived from this medicine.  The usual dose  is from
 half a pint to a pint.
  SEM ECA'RPUS.  (From ernpttu, to mark, and xap-
 iroc,  a fruit:  a name evidently derived from the use
 that is made of its nut in the East  Indies to mark table
 linen and articles of apparel.)  The name of a genus
 of plants, Class Pentandria; Order, Trigynia,
  Semecarpus anacardium.  The marking nut-tree.
 The systematic name,  according  to some, of the tree
 which is supposed to afford the Malacca bean.  See
 Avicenna tomentosa.
  Semeio'sis.  (From onptiou, to notify.)  See Se-
 mioticc.
  SE'MEN.  (Semen, inis. n.; sero, to sow.) A. The
 seed or prolific liquor of animals secreted in the testi-
cles, and carried through the epididymis and vas defe-
rens into the vesiculae) seminales,  to  be emitted  sub
eoitu hito the female vagina, and there, by its aura, to
 penetrate and  impregnate the ovuluin in the ovarium.
  In castrated animals, and in eunuchs, the  vesiculae
 seminales are small, and contracted; and  a little lym-
 phatic liquor, but  no semen, is  found  iu  them. The
semen is detained for sometime in the vesiculae semi-
nales, and rendered thicker from the continual absorp-
tion of its  very thin  part, by the oscula of the lym-
 phatic vessels.  In lascivious men, the semen is some-
 times, though rarely,  propelled by nocturnal pollution
from the vesiculae seminales, through the ejaculatory
ducts (which arise from the vesiculae seminales, per-
 forate the urethra transversely, and open themselves
 by narrow and very nervous mouths at the sides of the
caput gallinaginis), into the urethra, and from it to
some distance.  But in chaste men, the greatest  part is
 again gradually absorbed from tlie vesicate seminales
 through the lymphatic vessels, nnd conciliates strength
 to the body.   The smell of  semen is specific, heavy,
 affecting the nostrils,  yet not disagreeable.  The same
 odour is observed  in the roots of the orchis, the iuli of
 chesnuts, and ihe  antherae of many plants.  The smell
 of the semen of quadrupeds, xvhen at heat, i'^o pene-
 trating, as to render their flesh fomid and useless, unless
 eastrated.  Thus  the flesh of the stag, tempore coitus,
 is  unfit to  eat. The taste of  semen is fatuous, and
 somewhat acrid.  In the testes, its consistence is thin
 nnd diluted ;  but  in  the  vesiculae seininnles, viscid,
 dense, and rather  pellucid; and by venery and debility
 it is lendered thinner.
  Specific gravity.  The greatest part of the semen
 sinks to the bottom in xvater, yet  some part swims on
 its surface, xvhich it covers like very fine  threads mu-
 tually connected together in tlie form of a cobxveb.
  Colour.  Iu the testicles it is somewhat yellow, and
 In the vesiculte seminales it acquires  a  deeper hue.
 Tha  emitted  by  pollution  or  coition,  becomes xvhite
 from its mixture xvith the xvhitish liquor ofthe prostate
 gland during its passage through the urethra.  Iu those
 people xvho labour under jaundice, and from the abuse
 of saffron, the aemen has been seen yelloxv and, in an
 atrabilary young man black.
      2m
   Quality.  Semen, exposed to the atmospheric air.
 loses iu pellucidily, and becomes thick, but after a fexv
 hours it is again rendered more fluid and pellucid than
 it was immediately after its emission.  This phenome-
 non cannot arise from water or oxygen attracted  from
 the air.   At length it deposites phosphate of lime, and
 forms a corneous crust.
   Experiments with semen prove, that it turns the syrup
 of violets green, and dissolves earthy, neutral, and me-
 tallic salts.   Fresh semen is insoluble in water, until it
 has undergone the above changes In atmospheric air.
 It is dissolved  by alkaline salts.  By aethereat  oil it is
 dried into a pellucid pellicle, like the cortex of the brain.
   It is dissolved by all acids, except the oxymuriatie,
 by xvhich it is coagulated in  the form of white flakes.
 It is also acted upon by alkohol of wine.
   Vauquelin, xvho analyzed it, found it composed of
         1. Waler......................  900
         2. Animal, mucilage............  60
         3. Soda......................  10
         4. Phosphate of lime...........  30
   5. Examined  by the microscope, a multitude of ani-
 maleula are observed in it, which appear to  have a
 round head  and a long tail; these animaleula move
 xvilh considerable rapidity; they seem to  fly the light,
 and to seek the shade.  6.  The odorous principle,
 xvhich flies off immediately from  fresh semen.  It ap-
 pears to consist of a peculiar vital principle, and by the
 ancients xvas called aura seminis.
   Use.  1. Emitted into the female vagina, sub eoitu,
 it possesses the wonderful and stupendous poxver of
 impicgnating the ovulum in the female ovarium.  The
 odorous principle, or aura spermalica only, appears lo
 penetrate through the cavily ofthe uterus and Fallopian
 tubes to  the female ovarium, and there to impregnate
 the albuminous latex ofthe mature ovuluin by its vital
 poxver.  The otlier principles of the semen appear to
 be only a vehicle of the seminal aura. 2. lu chaste
 men,  tne  semen reluming through the lymphatic ves-
 sels into the mass of  the blood, gives strength to  the
 body and mind; hence the bull is so fierce and brave,
 the castrated ox so  gentle and  xveak; hence  every
 animal languishes post coitum ; and  hence tabes  dor-
 salis from onanism.  3. Il is by the stimulus  of the
 semen absorbed, at the age of puberty, into the mass
 of the humours, that the beard and hair of tbe pubes,
 but in animals, the horns, are produced; and the weep
 ing voice of the boy changed into lliat of a man.
  B. The seed of plants or nucleus formed in the ger
 men of a plant, for the  purpose of propagating  its spe
 cies, tlie sole " end and aim" of all the organs of fruc
 lification.  Every other part is in some manner  subser-
 vient to tlie forming, perfecting, or dispersing of these.
  A seed consists of several parts, some of which are
 more essential than others, viz.
  1. The hilum, or scar.
  2. The funiculus umbilicalis, or filament, by which
 the immature seed  is connected to the receptacle.
  3. The testa, or tunica seminis.
  4. The seed lobes, or cotyledons.   These parts are
 beautifully seen by macerating the seeds of a kidney
 or other bean, or gourd, in xvater.
  The less essential parts are,
  1. The arillus.     4. The capsula.
  2. The pappus.   5.  The ala.
  3. The cauda.
  From the difference  In the form, surface, situation,
and number, rise the following distinctions of seeds.
  1. Semina arillata ; as in Jasminum.
  2 Paposn ; as in Leontodon taraxacum.
  3 Caudata ; as in Clematis vitalba.
  4. Calyculatu, covered with a bony calyx; as in Con
lachryma.
  5. Alata; asin Bignonia.
  6. Hamosa, furnished with one or three hooks; as
in Daucus muricatus.
  1. Lanata, covered xvith wool; as in Bombaz (7 30
sipium, and Anemone hortensis.
  8. Rotiida; as in Pisum, and Brassica
  D. Rotunda-compressa ; as Ervum lens.
  10.  Oblonga ;  as in Boerhavia diffusa.
  11.  Conica; as in Bcllium
  12.  Ovata; as in Quercus robur.
  13.  Triquetra ; asm Rheum, and /"turner.
  14.  Lanccolata; as in Fraxinus.
  15. Acuminata ;  as Cucumis sativus.
  111.  Reniformia ; as in Phaseolus. 
SEM
SEM
   17. Aculeata; as Ranunculus arvensis.
   18. Cochlcata; as in Sal sola.
   19. Cymbiformia ; as in Calendula officinalis.
   20. Lincaria ; as in Crucianella.
   21. Aristata ; as in Holcus saccharatns.
   2*2. EcAmata; asin Verbena lapulacca.
   23. Hispida ;  as Daucus carota.
   24. Hirsuta ;  as in Scandix trichospcrma.
   ¥>. Muricata; as Ranunculus parvifiorus.
   26. Glabra; as in Galium montanum.
   27. Rugosa; as iu Lithospermum urvense.
   28. CaUosa ; as ill Otru* medica.
   29. Lap idea ;  asin Lithospermum.
   30. Colorata ; as in Charophyllum aurcum.
   31. Striata; asin Conium maculatum.
   32. Sulcata ; as in .Scandix odorata.
   33. Transvirsim sulcata ; as Picns.
   34. Nuda; as in the Gyinuosperminl plants.
   35. Tecta; as in Angiospeimial plants.
   36. Nidulantia, adhering to the external surface ; as
 In Fragaria vesca.
   37. Pendula, suspended by a filament external to the
 seed vessel;  as in Magnolia grandifiora,
   38. Pauca, when fexv iu number.
   39.  Plurima, many ; as in Papaver.
   The parts of a seed xvhen germinating are,
   1.  Cotyledoncs.
   2.  Corculum.
   The variety of forms of seeds are not xvithout their
uses, and  the various  modes by xvhich seeds are dis-
persed, cannot fail to  strike an observing mind  xvith
admiration.   " Who has not listened,"  says Sir James
Smith, "in a calm  and sunny day, to the crackling of
furze bushes, caused  by the explosion of  their little
elastic pods; nor xvatched the doxvn of innumerable
seeds floating on the summer breeze, till they are over-
taken by  a  shower, which, moistening their wings,
stops their further flight, and at Ihe same time accom-
plishes its final purpose, by immediately promoting the
germination of each seed in the moist earth 1 Hoxv little
arc children  axvare, as they blow away the seeds of
dandelion, or stick burs, iu sport, on each  other's
clothes, that they are fulfilling one of the greatest ends
of nature.  Sonietimes the calyx,  beset xvitii hooks,
forms the bur; sometimes hooks encompass the fruit
itself.   Pulpy fruits serve quadrupeds and birds as
food, while their seeds, often small, hard, and indigesti-
ble, pass uninjured by them through the intestines, and
are deposited far from their original place of growth,
in a condition peculiarly fit for vegetation.  Even such
seeds as are themselves eaten, like the various sorts of
nuts, are hoarded up in the cracked ground, and occa-
sionally forgotten, or  the earth  swells and encloses
them.  The ocean itself  serves to waft the larger
kinds of seeds from their native soil to  far  distant
shores."
  Semen adjowaen.  A seed imported from the East,
of a  pleasant smell, a grateful aromatic taste, some-
what like  savory.  It  possesses exciting, stimulating,
and carminative  virtues, and  is given  in the East in
nervous weakness, dyspepsia, flatulency, and heartburn.
  Semen agave.   An East  Indian seed, exhibited
there in atonic gout.
  Semen contra.  See Artemisia santonica.
  Semen sanctum. See Artemisia santonica.
   SEMI.  (From ijptcrv, half.)  Semi, in composition,
universally signifies half;  as  semicupium, a half-bath,
or bath up to the navel; semilunaris, iu the shape of a
half-moon.
   SEMICIRCULAR.   Scmicircularis.  Of the shape
of half a circle.
  Semicircular canals.  These canals are three in
number, and take their name from their figure.  They
belong to the organ of hearing, and are situated in the
petrous  portion of the temporal  bone, and open into
Ihe vestibulum.
  SEMICUPIUM.  A half-bath, or such  as receives
only the hips, or extremities.
  SEMICYUINDRACEUS. Semicylindrical; flat on
tne side, round on the other, as the leaves of the  Con-
 lium gibbosum.
  Semi  interosseus  indicis.  See Abductor indicis
 tonus.
  SEMILUNAR.  Semilunaris.  Half-moon shaped.
  Semilunar valves.  The three valves at the be-
ginning  of the  pulmonary artery and aorta  are so
termed, from their half-moon shape.
   SEMI-MEMBRANO'SUS.   Ischio-popliti femoral
 of Dumas.  This muscle arises from the outer sui facs
 of the tuberosity of" the ischium, by a broad flat ten-
 don whicli is three inches in length.  From this tendon
 it has gotten the name of senii-membrano»us.  It then
 begins to grow fleshy, and runs nt first under the long
 head of the biceps, and afterward between lhat mus-
 cle and the semi-tendinosus.   At the loxver part of the
 thigh it becomes narroxver again, and  terminates in h
 short tendon, xvhich is  inserted chiefly into the upper
 nnd back part nf tbe head of the tibia, but some of
 its fibres are spread over ihe posterior surface of the
 capsular ligament of the knee.  Betxveen this cupsular
 ligament and the lendon of the muscle, xve find a small
 bursa mucosa.  The tendons of this and  the last-
 described muscle  form the inner ham-string.  This
 muscle bends the leg, and seems likewise to prevent the
 capsular ligament from being pinched.
   Semi-nervosus.  Sec Scmitendinosus.
   Seminis cauda.  See Cauda seminis.
   Seminis ejaculator.  Bee Accelerator urina.
   Semiopal.  See Opal.
   Semi-ordicularis  oris.  See Orbicularis oris.
   SEMIO'TICE.  (From or.pttov, a sign.)  Cemeiosis
 That part of pathology xvhicli treats on the signs of
 diseases.
   Semi-spinalis  coldi.   Scmi-spinalis sive trans-
 verso-spinalis colli, of Winslow ; Spinalis ccrvieis, of
 Albinus;  Spinalis colli, of Douglas;  Transversalis
 colli,  of Coxvper; and Transversospinal, of Dumas.
 A muscle situated on the posterior  part of the neck,
 xvhich turns the neck obliquely backwards, and a little
 to one side.  It arises  from the transverse processes of
 the uppermost six  vertebra; of the back by as many
 distinct tendons, ascending obliquely under the  com-
 plexus, a.,d is inserted inlo the spinous  processes of all
 the vertebrae of the neck, except the first and last.
   Semi-spinalis dorsi.  Semi-spinalis externus seu
 transverso-spinalis dorsi, of Winsloxv.  Semi-spina
 tus, of  Cowper; and Transversospinal, of Dumas.
 A muscle situated on the back, xvhich extends the
 spine obliquely backwards.  It arises from the trans-
 verse processes  of the  seventh, eighth, ninth,  and
 tenth vertebra of the back, by as many distinct ten-
 dons, which soon grow fleshy, and then become tendi-
 nous  again, and are inserted into the spinous pro-
 cesses of all the vertebra of the back above the eighth,
 and  into the lowermost of the neck, by as many ten-
 dons.
   Semi-spinalis externus.  See Semi-spinalis doni
   Semi-spinatus.  See Semi-spinalis dorsi.
   Semi-tendinosus.  This muscle, which is the semi-
nervosus, of Douglas and Winslow;  and Ischio-crcti
tibial, of Dumas, is situated obliquely along the  back
nan of the thigh.  It arises tendinous and fleshy  from
(he inferior, posterior,  and outer part of the tuberosity
nf the ischium, in common with the long head of the
biceps cruris, to  the posterior  edge of which it conti-
nues to adhere, by a great number of oblique fibres, for
the space of txvo or three inches.  Towards the loxver
part of the os  femoris, it terminates in a round ten-
don, wliich passes behind the inner condyle of the thigh
bone,  and, becoming flat, is inserted into the upper and
inner  part of the ridge of the tibia,  a  little below its
tuberosity.   This tendon sends off an  aponeurosis,
which helps to form the tendinous fascia that covers
the muscles of the leg.  This muscle assists in bend-
ing the leg, nnd at  Ihe same time draws it  a little in-
wards.
  SEMPERVIRENS.  Evergreen.   Applied to leaves
which are permanent  through one, two, or  more  win-
ters, so that  the  branches are never stripped ; as the
ivy, fir, laurel, bay, &c.
  SEMPERVl'VUM.   (From  semper, always,  nnd
vivo, to live: so called because it is always green.)
1.  The name of a genus of  plants  in  the Linnaean
system.   Class, Dodecandria; Order, Polygynia.
  2. The pharniacopoeial name of some plants.
  Scmpervivum  acre- The stone-crop is occasionally
so termed.  See Cedum acre.
  Skmpkrvivum tectorum.   The systematic name
of the houseleck.  Cedum majus; JEouion; Aizoum;
Aizoon; Barba jovis.  Houseleek, or sengreen.  The
leaves of this plant have  no remarkable smell, but dis-
cover to the taste a mild subacid austerity; they are
frequently applied  by  the vulgar to bruises and old
ulcers.
                                        2d I 
SEN
SEN
  SEN AC, Jonif, was born in Gascony,  about  the
Close of the seventeenth century.  He is stated to have
received the degree of doctor  at Rheims, and that of
bachelor of physic at  Paris.  He xvas a man of pro-
found erudition, united xvith great modesty; and by
his industry acquired  much  experience.   His merits
procured him the favour of Louis XV. xvho appointed
him his consulting, and afterward his chief physician,
xvhich office lie retained till his death in 1770.  He was
also a member of the  Royal Academy of Sciences at
Paris,  and of the Royal  Society of Nancy.  He  left
some works, xvhich will probably maintain a lasting
reputation, particularly his treatise on  the  Structure,
Function,  and Diseases of the  Heart.  An edition of
Heister's Anatomy, xvitii  some  interesting  Observa-
tions, xvas published by him  xvhen young.   A  paper
on  Drowning, in the  Memoirs  of the  Academy of
Sciences, refuting certain erroneous opinions respecting
the Cause of Death, and the Treatmen founded upon
them, is also due to him; as xvell as some other minor
publications.
  SENE'CIO.  (Senecio ;  from  senesco, to grow old :
so called because it has a grayisli down upon it, like
the beard of old men.)
  1. The name of a genus of plants in the  Linnaean
system.  Class, Syngenesia; Order, Polygamia  su-
perflua.
  2. The pharmacopceial name  also of the groundsel.
See Senecio vulgaris.
  Senecio jacob.-ea.   The systematic  name of  the
Jacobaa, of old xvriters. St. James's wort.  Ragwort.
The leaves of this common  plant have  a roughish,
bitter, sub-acrid taste, extremely nauseous.   A decoc-
tion is said to have been of infinite service iu the cure
of epidemic camp dysentery.  A poultice made of  the
fresh leaves is said to have  a  surprising effect in re-
moving pains of the joints, and to remove the sciatica,
or hip gout, iu txvo or three applications xvhen ever so
violent. The root is of an adstringent nature.   A  de-
coction  of it  was  formerly Bo0ll f°r  wounds and
bruises.
  Senecio madraspatancs.   See Senecio pseudo-
china.
  Senecio pseudo-china.   Cltina supposita;  Sene-
cio  madraspatanus.    Bastard  China.   Il  groxx-s in
Malabar.  The root greatly resembles the China root
in appearance and qualities.
  Senecio vuloaris.   Erigcrum; Senecio; Erigc-
ron.  Groundsel.   This very common plant is fre-
quently applied bruised to inflammations and ulcers, as
a refrigerant and antiscorbutic.
  Senecta anouium.   The cast skin of a serpent; its
decoction is said to cure deafness.
  SENECTUS.  See Age.
  [Seneca oil. See Genessce oil.]
  SE'NEGA.  (So called because the Seneca or Sene-
gaxv Indians use it against the bite of the rattlesnake.)
See Polygala senega.
  Senegal gum.  See Mimosa Senegal.
  Senegaw milkwort.  Seo Polygala senega.
  SE'NEKA.  See Senega.
  SENGREEN.  See  Scmpervivum tectorum.
  SE'NNA.   (From senna, an Arabian, xvord, signi-
fying acute: so called  from its sharp-pointed leaves.)
See Cassia senna.
  Senna alexandrina. See Cassia senna.
  Senna italica.  Pee Cassia senna
  Senna pauperum.  Bastard senna, or milk-vetch.
  Senna scorpium.  The scorpion senna.
  Senns extractum.  Extract of senna.
  SENNERTUS, Daniel, was born  at Breslaw in
1J72.  He xvas sent to Wiltemberg at the age of txven-
ty-one, and exhibited such  inaiks of talent, that every
opportunity xvas afforded him of visiting the oilier  ce-
lebrated universities of Germany.  On  his  return in
1001, he received the degree of doctor, and  ihe next
year was appointed to a professorship of medicine.  He
distinguished himself  greatly by his  eloquence and
Bound  knowledge, and his publications concurred in
raising his fame, insomuch that he was consulted by
patients from all  parts of tlie world; toxvards whom
he  evinced great  disinterestedness.  The plague pre-
vuilod  seven times at  Wittcmberg, while he  was pro-
fessor there, yet he never quitted his post, nor declined
his services, even to the poorest sick : hoxvever, he xvas
at last a victim to that disease in 1637.  Senncrtus xvas
a voluminous xvriter,  and has  been represented  by
      282
 some as a mere compiler; but his works are valuable
 as containing a full and clear epitome ol" ancient learn-
 ing; and  besides, display  much judgment, and free
 doni, in criticising their doctrines, xvhicli indeed in-
 volved him in many controversies. He first introduced
 the study of  chemistry  at Wittemberg;  and  in  his
 writings he maintained the propriety of admitting die
 mical as well  as  Galenical theories and remedies into
 medicine.
   SENSATION.  Sensatio.  Sensation, or feeling, ii
 Ihe consciousness of a change taking  place in any part,
 from tlie  contact of a foreign body with the  extremi-
 ties of our nerves.  The seat of sensation is in the pulp
 of the nerves.
   The impression produced on any organ by the action
 of an external body constitutes  sensation. This sen
 sation, transmitted by nerves to the brain, is perceived,
 that is, felt by the organ : the sensation  then  becomes
 perception ; and this first modification implies, as must
 be evident, the existence of a central organ, to which
 impressions produced  on the senses are conveyed. The
 cerebral fibres are acted on xvith greater or less force
 by the sensations propagated by al!  the senses influ-
 enced at  the same time; and we could  only acquire
 confused  notions of all bodies lhat produce  them, if
 one  particular and stronger  perception did not oblite-
 rate the others, and fix our attention.  In this collective
 state ofthe mind on tiie same subject, the brain is xveakly
 affected,  by several sensations which leave no trace
 behind.  It is on this principle that, having read a book
 with great attention, we forget the different sensations
 produced by the paper and character.
   When a sensation is of short duration, the knoxvledge
 we have  of it is so xveak, that  soon afterward there
 does not remain any knowledge of having experienced
 it.  In proportion as a sensation, or an idea, which is
 only a sensation transformed or perceived by the cere-
 bral organ, has produced in the  fibres of this  organ a
 stronger or xveaker impression, the remembrance of it
 becomes more or less lively and permanent.  Thus xve
 have a reminiscence of it, that is, call to mind that we
 have already  been affected in the same manner; a
 memory, or the act of recalling tlie object of the sensa-
 tion xvith  some of its attributes, as colour, volume, Sec.
   When the brain is easily  excitable, and, at the same
 time, accurately preserves impressions received, il pos-
 sesses the power of representing to itself ideas with
 all their connexions,  and  all the accessory  circum-
 stances by xvhich they  are accompanied, of reproducing
 them in a certain degree, and of recalling an entire ob-
ject, xvhile the memory only gives us an idea of its
qualities.  This creative faculty is called imagination.
When two ideas are brought together, compared, and
their analogy considered, we are  said to  form  a judg-
ment;  several judgments connected  together consti-
tute reasoning.  Besides the sensations that are carried
from the organs of sense to the brain,  tliere are others,
internal, that seem to be transmitted to it by a kind of
sympathetic reaction.   It is xvell  knoxvn what uneasi-
ness  the  affection of  certain organs conveys to the
mind, hoxv much an habitual obstruction of the liver is
connected  with a certain order of ideas; these internal
sensations are the origin of our moral faculties, in the
same manner as impressions that are conveyed by the
organs of sense are the source of  intellectual faculties.
We are  not on that account to place tlie seat of the
passions of the mind  in  the viscera; it is only neces
sary to remember that the appetites, xvhence arise the
passions, reside in their respective organs, and  are a
phenomenon purely physical, while passion consists
at the same time, in the intellectual exertion.  Thus
an accumulation of semen in the cavities that are em-
ployed  as  a reservoir for it, excites the appetite foi
venery, very distinct from the passion of love, although
it may be frequently the determinate cause of it.
  The senses may be enumerated under the following
heads,  viz. the  sense of  vision,  hearing, smelling,
tasting, touching.
  SENSIBILITY.  Sensibilitas. That action of the
brain by which xve receive impressions, either from
within, or from xvithout
  " What  is said of sensation generally, is applicable
to sensibility;  for this  reason, we only mention here
that  this faculty  exerts itself in txvo xvays very dif
ferent.  In the first, the phenomena happens, unknoxx-n
tons; in the second, xve are axvare of it, xve perceive
the sensation.  It is not  enough that a body  may ict 
SEP
SER
upon  one of our senses, that a nerve transmits to the
brain the  impression  which is  produced—it is not
enough  that this organ receive the impression: in order
that there may be really  a sensation, the brain must
perceive the impression received.   An impression thus
perceived is called, in Ideology, a Percepiion, or an
Idea.
  These txvo modes of sensibility may be easily verified
upon  ourselves.  For  example, it is easy to see that a
number of bodies  have a continual action  upon our
senses without our being axvare of it: this depends in
a great measure upon habit.
  Sensibility is infinitely variable:  in certain persons
it is very obtuse; in olliers it is  very elevated: gene-
rally a good organization keeps between tlie extremes.
  Sensibility is vivid  in infancy and youth; it con-
tinues in a degree something loss marked until past the
age of manhood ; in old age it suffers an evident dimi-
nution ; and very old  persons appeal quite insensible
to all  the ordinary causes of sensations."
  All parts possessed of a power of producing a change,
so as to excite a sensation, are called sensible; tliose
xvhich are not possessed of this property, insensible.
To the insensible parts by nature  belong all our fluids,
the blood, bile, saliva, Sec and many of the solids, tlie
hair, epidermis, nails, dec.;  but the sensible parts are
the skin, eyes, tongue,  car,  nose, muscles, stomach, in-
testines, &c.
  SCNSO'RIUM.  The orgau of any ofthe senses.
See Cerebrum.
  Sknsorii-.m commune.  See Cerebrum.
  SENSUS.  tScnsus, Us. m.;  d  sentiendo.)   The
senses are distinguished into external  and  internal.
The external senses are seeing, hearing, tasting,  smell-
ing, and feeling.  The internal, imagination, memory,
judgment, attention, and the passions.
  SENTlCOSiE.  (Fromseutis,  a brier.) The name
of an order of plants in  Linnaeus's Fragments of a
Natural Method, consisting of such as resemble the
bramble, rose, Sec.
  SENTIENT.  This term is applied to those parts
xvhich are more susceptible of feeling than others, as
the sentient extremities of Ihe nerves, Sec.
  Sentis caninus.  (Sentis, a thorn; from  its being
prickly  like a thorn.)  See Rosa canina.
  Separato'rium.  (From separo, to separate.)  An
instrument for separating  the pericranium  from the
skull, and a chemical vessel for separating  essential
parts of liquids.
  SE PIA.  The name of a genus offish, ofthe Class,
Femes  , Order, Molusca.   The cutlle-fish.
  Sepia officinalis.  Sepium; Pracipituns  magnum.
Tbe cuitle-fish.  The systematic  name of the fish, the
shell  of xvhich  is a phosphate of lime,  and is often
mixed into tooth-powders.
  Sepi.e os.  See Sepia officinalis.
  SEPIARI^E.  (From sepes, a hedge.)   The name of
an order of plants in Linnaeus's Fragmentsof a Natural
Method, consisting of woody plants, xvhich form  a
hedge-like appearance ;  the floxvers are mostly a thy-
mus or panicle.
  SEPIUM. See Sepia officinalis.
  SEPTARIA.  Ludi helmontii.  Spheroidal concre-
tions that vary from a few inches to a foot in diameter.
When broken in a longitudinal direction, the interior
ofthe mass is observed intersected by a number of fis-
sures, sometimes empty, sometimes filled xvith calcare-
ous spar.  The body of the concretion is ferruginous
marie.  From these septaria is manufactured that ex-
cellent material for building under water, called Parke's
cement, or Roman cement.
  Septenary years.  Climacteric  years.   A period, or
succession of years in human life, at which, important
constitutional changes arc supposed to take place;  and
the end  of this period is therefore judged critical.   This
period is fixed  at every seventh year.  The grand cli-
macteric is fixed at 63, and, passing that time, age, it is
considered, may be protracted to 90.  So general is this
belief, that the passing  of 60 generally gives  much
anxiety to most people.
  SEPTFOIL.  See Tormentilla.
  SEPTIC.  (Septicus; from oniru, to putrefy.)   Re-
lating to putrefaction.
  SEPTIFO'LIA.   (From  scptem, seven, and folium,
ti leaf: so named from the number of ils leaves.)   Co-
ralwort, orseplfoil toothwort.
  SEPTINE'RVIA (From septcm, seven, and nervus,
 a string: so called from the seven strings upon its leaf.
 A species of plantain.
  SE'PTUM.  A partition.
  Septum cerebelli.  A  process of the dura mater,
 dividing the cerebellum perpendicularly into two prin
 cipal parts.
  Septum cerebri. The falcifoim process of the dura
 mater is sometimes so called.  See Falciform process.
  Septum cordis.  (Septum; from sepio, to separate.)
 The partition between the txvo ventricles ofllie heart
  Septum i.ucidum.  Septum pcllucidum.  The  till.
 and tender portion  of the  bruin, dividing Ihe  latera
 ventricles from each oilier.
  Septum narium.  Intcrseptum.  The partition be-
 tween the nostrils.
  Septum palati.  The partition ofthe palate.
  Septum pellucidum.  See Septum lucidum.
  Septum thoracis.  See Mediastinum.
  Septum transversum.  See Diaphragm.
  SERA'PIAS.  (From Serapis, a lascivious idol: so
 called bectiuse  it xxas thought tc promote venery ; or
 from the testiculatcd shape of its roots.)  The name of
 a genus of plants in the Linnaean system.   Class,  Gy-
 nandria ; Order, Diandria.
  Serapi'num.   The gum-resin sagapenum is some-
 times so called.   See Sagapenum.
  SERAPION, of Alexandria, lived about 2S0 yenrs
 before Christ, aud is affirmed by Celsus to havie been
 the founder of the empiric sect of physicians; though
 others have attributed  the  origin  of this sect to  Phi-
 linus.
  SERAPION, John, an Arabian physician xvho lived
 between tlie time of Mesue and Rhazes, towards the
 middle of the ninth century, and is supposed to have
 been the first writer on physic iu the Arabic language.
 Ilaly Abcas describes his xvritings as containing  only
 the cure of diseases, xvithout any precepts concerniue
 the preservation of health, or relating lo surgery :  aiul
 they are frequently quoted by Rhazes.   He often tran-
 scribes the remarks of Alexander Trallian, xvilh xvhom
 the  otlier Arabians appear to be little  acquainted.
 Some confusion appears lo exist respecting another Se-
 rapion, xvho is supposed to  have lived 180 years later,
 and to have been the author of a xvork on the Materia
 Medica, entitled  "De  Medicamentistam  simplicibus,
 quam compositis;"  in xvhicli authors are quoted, much
 posterior to  Rhazes, Avenzoar for instance, so  that it
 must have been written toxvards the latter part of tiie
 elex-enth century.
  SERICUM.  Silk.  A species of hairy pubescence
 nf plants, whicli consists of a xvhite shining silkiness:
 hence the leaves of the Potentilla  anserina, Alche-
 milla nlpina, &c. are called  Folia sericea.
  SERI'PHIUM.  (Seems to have been applied  to this
 genus on account of the analogy in its habit and foliage
 xvith the Artemisia ponlica  of Pliny, called by Ihe
 Greeks  ttptqjiov.  The  origin of this  name may be
 traced to Seriphion,  or, as it is noxv called, Serpko, an
 island in the iEgean sea, the soil of which is of so dry
 and sterile a nature, as only to abound in plants of this
 rough kind.)  The name of a genus of plants.  Class
 Syngenesia; Order, Poly gamia segr eg ata.)  Flix-weed.
  SE'RIS.   Y.tpts-   Endive.
  SERMOUNTAIN.  See Laserpitium siler.
  SEROUS.  (Serosus; from serum.)  Relating to
serum.
  Serous apoplexy.  See Apoplexia.
  SERPENTARIA.  (Serpentaria, e. f.:  so  called
 from the resemblance of the roots of the plant which
first bore this name to the tail of the rattle-snake.)  See
Aristolochia serpentaria.
  Serpentaria oallorum.  See Arum dracunculus.
  Serpentaria  hispanica.  The viper's  grass.  See
 Scorzonera hispanica.             1
  Serpentaria virginiana.  See Aristolochia  ser-
pentaria.
  SERPENTINE.  A hard mineral, of xvliich there
are txvo kinds, the common and precious.  Tlie com
mon is of a green colour, and is found in various moun-
tains in Scotland and Ireland.  Of the precious, tliere
are two  species; the splintery, found in Corsica,  nnd
is cut into snuff boxes; and the conchoidai, wliich is ol
a leek green  colour.
  Serpentum lionum.   See Ophioxylum serpenti-
num.
  Serpentum radix. See  Ophiorrhiza mungos.
  SERPIGO.   (From serpo, to  creep;   because il
                                        283 
SER
SES
 rreeps on the surface of the skin by degrees.)  A ring-
 worm, or tetter.  Sec Herpes.
   SERPV'LLUM.  (From  epiru,  to creep, or a scr-
 pendo, by reason of its creeping nature.)  See Thymus
 serpyllum.
   Seiipyllum citratum.  See Thymus serpyllum.
   Serpyllum vulgare minus.   See  Thymus ser-
 pyllum.
   SERRATA.  (From  serra, a saw: so called from
 its serrated leaves.) See Serratula.
   SERRA'TULA. (From  serra,  a saxv: so called
 from its serrated  leaves.;  Tlie name of  a genus of
 plants iu the  Linmean  system. Class,  Syngenesia ;
 Order, Polygamia aqualis.
   Serratula amara.  The systematic name of a spe-
 cies of saxv-wort, xvhich  is said to cure agues.
   Serratula arvensis. The common creeping way-
 thistle.  Carduus arvensis; Carduus hamorrhoidalis;
 Circium arvense.  This  plant xvas formerly used in an
 application to  resolve scirrhous tumours, and is noxv
 considered useful against piles.
   SERRATUS.   (From serra, a saw.)  Serrated ; a
 botanical  term applied to leaves xvhen  the teeth are
 sharp, and resemble those of a saw, pointing towards
 the extremity ofthe leaf,  as in Urtica ; and (he petals
 ofthe Dianthus arboreus, and Cystus poly folios.
   Some leaves are called duplicato-serrale; these are
 doubly serrate, having  a series of smaller serratures in-
 termixed wilh the larger; a? in Campanula trachelium.
   Serratus anticus.  See  Pectoralis minor.
   Serratus magnus.  (So called  from  its saxv-like
 appearance.)  Serratus major anticus, of Douglas anil
 Coxvper.   Serratus major, of Winsloxv ; aud  Coslo
 basi-scapulaire, of Dumas.  This muscle is so named
 by Albinus.  Douglas calls it Serratus major anticus,
 but improperly, as it is  seated at the side, and not at the
 anterior part of the thorax.  It is n broad fleshy muscle,
 of a very irregular shape, and is in part covered by the
 subscapulars,  pectoralis, and  latissimus  dorsi.   It
 arises, by  fleshy digitations,  from the eight superior
 ribs,  and is inserted fleshy into the whole basis ofthe
 scapula internally, between the insertion of the rhom-
 boides, and the origin ofthe sub-scapularis, being fold
 ed, as it xvere, about the two  angles  of the scapula.
 This muscle may easily be divided  into txvo and even
 three portions.  The latter division has been adopted
 by Winsloxv.  The first of these portions is the thick
 and short  part of the muscle that arises from the first
 and second ribs, and is inserted into the upper angle of
 the scapula,  its fibres ascending obliquely backwards.
 The second  portion arises from the  second rib, behind
 the origin of the first portion, and likewise from the
 third  and  fourth ribs;  this portion  is  thin  and short,
 and its fibres run nearly in a horizontal direction,  to be
 inserted into the basis of the scapula.  The third, and
 most  considerable  portion, is that which arises from
 the fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth ribs, and is inserted
 inlo the loxver angle of the scapula.  The serratus mag-
 nus serves to  move the  scapula forwards, and  it is
 chiefly by the contraction of this muscle that the shoul-
 der is'supported, xvhen loaded xvith any heavy weight.
 The  ancients, and even many ofthe moderns, particu-
 larly Douglas and Coxvper, supposed its chief use to be
 to dilate the thorax, by elevating the ribs;  but it can
 only  do this xvhen the scapula is forcibly raised.
  Serratus major anticus.  See  Serratus magnus.
  Serratus minor anticus.  See Pectoralis minor.
  Serratus posticus  inferior. Dorso-lumbo-costal,
of Dumas.  This is  a  thin  muscle of  considerable
 breadth, situated nt the bottom of the back, under the
 middle part of the latissimus dorsi.  It arises by a
 broad thin tendon, in common xvith that of the  last-
 mentioned muscle from  the spinous processes  of the
 txvo, and sometimes of the three inferior dorsal verte-
 brae,  and from three, and sometimes four of those of the
 lumbar vertebrae.   It then becomes fleshy, and, ascend-
 ing a little obliquely outxvards and forxvards, divides
 into three, and sometimes four fleshy slips, xvliich arc
Inserted into Ihe lower edges  of the three or four infe-
rior ribs, at a little distance from llieir cartilages.  Its
use seems to  he to pull the ribs downwards, backwards,
and outwards.                         , .
  Serratus superior posticus.   Cervici-darso-cos
 tat, of Dumas.  This is a small, lint, and thin muscle,
situated  at the upper part of the back, immediately
under the rhomboideus.  It  wises, bv a broad  thin
lendon, from the loxver part of the  ligamentum colli,
      2ttl
 from the spinous process of the last vertebra;  of the
 neck, and the two or three uppermost of the back, and
 is inserted into the second, third, fourth, and some-
 times fifth ribs, by as many distinct slips.. Its use is to
 expand the thorax, by pulling  Ihe ribs  upwards and
 outwards.
   SERRULATUS.  Minutely serrate: applied to such
 saxv-like edged leaves which have their loeth very fine;
 as in Polygonumamphibium.
   Sbrtula campana.  See Trifolium melilotus.
   SE'RUM.  (From scrus, late; because it  is the re-
 mainder of the  milk, after  its better parts have  been
 taken from it.)
   1.  Whey.
   2. The yelloxv and somewhat greenish fluid, which
 separates from  the blood when cold and at rest.  See
 Blood.
   Serum aluminosum.  Alum xvhey.
   Serum lactis.  Whey.
   SERVETUS, Michael, xvas  born at Villanueva, In
 Arragon, in  1509.  He first studied  the law at Tou-
 louse; but his attention was drawn to theology hy the
 discussions  of the reformers; and as he xvas  disposed
 to carry his dissent from the church of Rome even to a
 greater* length, he judged it prudent to retire into Swit-
 zerland, where  he published his opinions concerning
 the Trinity.   He afterward went to study physic at
 Paris, where he  took his degree, and then gave mathe-
 matical  lectures, xvhile he followed the profession of a
 physician: but having quarrelled with the faculty, and
 his " Apology" being suppressed by the parliament, he
 removed to Charlieu, and soon afler to Vienna, al  the
 invitation of  the archbishop.   Here  he published  a
 more full account of his  religious opinions under  a
 feigned name; but Calvin, the reformer, in whom he
 had confided, betrayed him to the magistrates, so that
 he was thrown  into  prison, from xvliich, hoxvever, he
 escaped.  But as he xvas  passing through Geneva,
 Calvin, whose treachery he  did  not suspect, procured
 his arrest, and a  charge of  blasphemy and heresy to be
 brought against him; of xvhich, being found guilty, he
 xvas cruelly burnt alive in  1553.  Servetus  is num-
 bered among those anatomists who made the nearest
 approach to the doctrine of ihe circulation of the blood :
 in the xvork already mentioned, xvliich led to his death,
 the passage  of the blood through the lungs is clearly
 staled.   He xvas a man of great learning and unfeigned
 piety, and generally admired for his xvorth and talents,
 and the  discoveries which  he  made  in  medicine, as
 xvell as olher branches of knowledge.
   Service-tree.   See Sorbus aueuparia.
   SESAMOID.   (Os sesamoideum; from erncriiprj, nn
 Indian grain, and uios, likeness.)  This term is  ap
 plied to the  Utile bones, whicli,  from their supposed
 general resemblance  to the seeds of the sesamuin,  are
 called Ossa sesamoidea.  They are found at the articu-
 lation of the great toes, and sometimes at the joints of
 the thumbs; now and then  xve meet with them  upon
 the .condyles of the os femoris, at the  lower .extremity
of the fibula, under the os cuboides of the tauus, tec
They do not exist in the '"tetus ; but as we adva.ice in
life, begin first to appear . a cartilaginous state, and, at
length, in adult subjects, are completely ossified.  Age
and hard labour seem to add to the number and size of
these bones, and being most commonly found wherever
the tendons and ligaments are mosi exposed lo pressure
from the  action of the muscles, they are noxv generally
considered by anatomists as the ossified  parts of ten-
dons nnd ligaments.  These  bones a>e usually smooth
and flat on  the side of the  bone on xvhich ihey are
placed:  their upper surface is convex, and, in general
adheres to the tendon that covers it, and  of which it
may, in some measure, be  considered as a part.  Al-
though their formation seems to be owing to accidental
circumstances; yet, ns the txvo at the first joint ofthe
great toe are much larger than the rest, and nre seldom
wanting in an adult, it would seem as if these bones
xvere of some  utility;  perhaps by removing  the ten
dons farther from the centre of motion, and thus in
creasing  the  poxver of tlie  muscles.  The ossa sesa-
moidea of the great toe and thumb seem likewise lo be
of use, hy forming a groove  for lodging the flexor ten-
dons secure from compression.
  Sesamoidal bones.  See Sesamoid.
  SE'SAMUM.   (An Egyptian xvord.)
  1. The name of a genus  of plants Ir  the Linnaean
system. 
SET
SHA
  1. Tlie pharmacopceial name of ihe oriental sesa-
mum.  See Scsamum orientate.
  Sesamum  orientals.  Scsamum.  The seeds  of
this plant are in much esteem in Soutli Carolina, xvhere
Ihey are called  oily grain ; they are made into soups
and puddings, afler the manner of rice. Toasted over
the fire, they are mixed xvitii other ingredients, and
stexved into a delicious food.  The fresh seed affords
a considerable quantity of a warm pungent oil, other-
ivise not unpalatable.  In a year or two the pungency
leaves it xvhen the oil is used for salad,  Sec.  The seeds
ofthe Sesamum indicum are used  in the same manner.
The leaves are also used medicinally In some countries,
neing of a mucilaginous quality.  [See Benne seed and
Benne oil.  A.]
  SE'SELI.  (ITapa ra oaucat tXXov; because It Is
salutary for young fawns.)
  1. The name of a genus of plants.  Class, Pentan-
dria ; Order, Digynia.
  2. An old  name of the hart-wort.  See Laserpitium
tiler.
  Seseli creticum.  There is great confusion among
the species of the seseli. The plant which  bears this
epithet in the pharmacopoeias is the Tordylium offici-
nale, of Linnaeus.  The seeds are said  to  be  diu-
retic.
  Seseli massiliensk. See Seseli tortuosum.
  Seseli tortuosum.   The systematic  name of the
hart-xvort of  Marseilles.  Seseli masiliense.  The seeds
nf this plant are directed for medicinal use, and  have
a warm biting taste, and a greater degree of pungency
than those of the Laserpitium.
  SESQUI.   This  xvord. joined  wilh any  number,
weight, measure, &c. signifies one integer and a  half;
as srscini granum, a grain and a half.
  SESSILIS.   (Scss'ili.t, that sitteth, as il were.)  Ses-
sile.  This term is applied to many parts of plants,  as
floxvers, leaves, and parts of the fructification, and im-
plies that they are  xvithout footstalk, flowerstalk,  or
xvhat often supports them:  hence,stores sessilis, as in
Centaurea calciptrapa; folia scssilia, as in Pinguicula
vulgaris; stigma sessile, Tulipa gesneriana, &c.
  SETA.   (Seta, a. f.; from xaira, a bristle.)  A. The
fruitstalk of mosses, xvhich is either solitary, aggregate,
terminal, axillary, or lateral.
  B. A bristle,  as applied  in  botanical language to a
holloxv, rigid, sharp-pointed pubescence, which either
xvounds the  finger when it is pressed upon it, or gives
a very harsh scabrous, or prickly character to the sur-
face of the  stem, or of the  leaves when  tbe finger is
ru hbed over them.
  Bristles are often arranged into aculei in elementary
xvorks, but  they have more affinity to  hairs. They
are simple and compound.
  1. Seta simplices are of two kinds,  awl-shaped and
spindle-shaped.
  a. The subulate is the most common of the simple
bristles; it is slightly curx-ed, and gradually tapering
from the base to  the apex, which is  rigid  and very
sharp.  These  bristles, when they  all incline in the
same direction,  produce the scabrous character of some
leaves, as in aymphitum orientalc.  A variety of the
awl-shaped bristle, found on the stem and branches of
the sensitive plant, is barbed on its sides; and another
variety,  as  exemplified  on the  leaves of  the  Bo-
rago officinalis, is seated on a vesicular tubercle con-
taining  a fluid, Which is ejected  through the bristle
xvhen it is compressed, so as to wound the finger, and
which being left  in the wound excites inflammation
in the part.   But the sting of the nettle is the best ex-
ample of this form of bristle.
   4. The fusiform is, as its name implies, thickest  in
the centre, and accumulated at each end.  It  lies  pa-
rallel to the  surface ofthe leaf, to xvhich it is affixed  by
a very small footstalk, is hollow, and contains  a  co-
loured liquid, which apparently enters it through  the
footstalk.  This form of bristle is peculiar to the genus
Malp'mgia,
  2. Seta composita.  These are  almost always solid.
The term comprehends txvo species of  bristles, furcala
and fasciculata.
  a. The forked are, in some instances,  merely rigid
hair-like bodies terminating in two or three diverging
points, as in Thrincia hispida: but In other instances,
as the stems and leaves of the hop plant, the stalk of
thcbristle, xvliich is supported on a firm  cellulartubercle,
Se verv short, and its forking extiemities resemble two
flattlxh, awl-shaped bristles, pointing In opposite dlree.
tions.                                    , ■   ,
  b. 'The fasciculated consist of a  number of simple,
straight bristles, diverging from a papillary Mlob;  asin
Cactus fiagilliformis.
  There is still another species of pubescence which
cannot properly be arranged with the pilus or seta: il
is found on a species of house-leek, extending like a
very fine thread, stretching from the lip of one leaf to
that of another, and  resembling so exactly a  spider's
xveb, that the plant has been named Arachnoideum.—
Thompson.
  Bristles are also distinguished into erect, as in Leon-
todon hirtum ;  hamose, as in the pericarp of the Arcll
cum lappa; stellate and plumose.   The bristles of
plants have received other denominations.
  1.  Striga, that variety of the subulate xvhich is seen
in Borago officinalis.
  2." Hamus, that which Is hooked at lis extremity ; as
In Galium aperinc, Caucalis daucoldes.&c.
  3.  Glochis xvlien several sharp tooth-like proccssef
are turned back from the apex of the bristle.
  5. Arista, a long brislie proceeding from the husk of
grasses; as in Hordcum vulgare.
  SETACEUM.  (From seta, a bristle; becausehorse
hairs were first used to keep open the xvound.)  A se
ton.  See Scton.
  SETACEUS.   Bristly.   Applied to  the petals ol
Tranatolum mains.
  SETIFORMIS.  Setiform :  bristly. Applied to the
nectary, as that of the Periploca graca.
  SETON.  Setaceum.  An artificial ulcer made un-
der the skin by means of  au instrument cal'ed tlie
seton needle, which carries with it a portion of thread
or silk, that is moved backwards or forwards, and thus
keeps up a constant irritation.
  SETOSUS.   Setose: bnrtly ; applied to the recepta-
cleof the Echynops sphneroccohalus, and of Centaurea
  SETTERWORT.  See Htfleborousfatidus.
  SEVERINUS,  Marcus  Aurelius,   was  bom in
Calabria, in lSteO.  He graduated at  Naples, xvhere he
became one of the most celebrated professors in anato-
my and surgery.  He was, however, somewhat harsh
in his practice; and  m his xvork, "De Efficaci Medi-
cina," condemned his contemporaries for neglecting the
use of the cautery, and of the knife, as  practised by
the ancients.  He  died  in  1G56.  Many publications
were xvritlen hy him, evincing much boldness and ori-
ginality of thought, but too great attachment to  para-
dox.  His treatise on abscesses, in eight  books, pasr-ii
through many  editions.  He paid considerable atten-
tion  to comparative  anatomy, on which subject son-- :
of his works are composed.
  SE'VUM.  Suet.  See Fat.
  Sevum ceti.  See Physeter macrocephalus.
  Se\tm ovile.  Sevum ovillum.   Mutton suet.
  SEXUAL.  Appertaining to the sexes.
  Sexual actions.  Sexual functions.   Those  fun
tions proper to each sex, by which  the species is pr«
pagated, as the excretion of semen  in men; menstrs
ation, conception, the evolution of the foetus,  partur
tion, &c in xvomen.
  Sexual organs.  See Generation, organs  of, Sta
men, and Pistillum.
  Sexual system.  See Plants.
  SEYDSCHUTZ.  See Scdlitz.
  [SHAD.  See Clupea alosa.  A.]
  SHADDOCK.  A variety of orange
  SHALLOT.  A species of allium.
  SHARP.  1.  Sec Acutus.
  2.  Samuel, an able and distinguished surgeon In tnc
middle of the last-century, was a pupil of Cheseldcn,
and afterward studied with great zeal al  Paris.  He ia
said to have commenced his profession rather late in
life; nevertheless, after settling in London, and becom-
ing surgeon to Guy's hospital, his genius  and assiduity
soon procured him great celebrity and extensive prac-
tice.  He was  elected a Fellow of the Royal  Society
and a Member of the Academy of Surgery  at Paris
He contributed to the improvement of his art by twr
valuable publications, xvhich passed through manyedi
tions, and xvere translated  into several foreign Ian
guages.  The  first of these was a "Treatise on the
Operations of Surgery," with an Introduction on the
Nature and Treatment of  Wounds, &.c.  The  othei
work was entitled "A  Critical Inquiry  into the pre
sent "State of Surgery," first printed in 17C0.
                                        285 
SIG                                                 StL
  Sh&rp-pomlcd dock.  See Rumex aculus.
  SH AYV, Peter, a physician of considerable reputa-
tion in  the  early  part of the last century.  His first
publication xvas entitled "New Practice of Physic," in
two volumes, 172ti,  containing a brief Description of
Diseases, and their Treatment.   He then published an
* Inquiry into  the  Virtues of the  Scarborough Spa
Waters;" and about the same  time his  "Chemical
Lectures,"  xvhich was  deemed a scientific work, and
translated into French.   He also  edited the Edinburgh
Dispensatory ; and gave to the world some other minor
publications.
  SHEATH.  See Vagina ; and Spatlia.
  Sheathing leaves.  See Vaginans
  Shedding-teeth.   The primary or  milk-teeth.  See
TcefA.
  SHELL.  See  Testa preparala.
  SHERBET.  A compound liquor prepared for punch
treforc the spirit is added.
  SHINGLES.  See Erysipelas.
  Shistus, argillaceous.  Clay-slate.
  SHRUB.  1. A low bushy tree.
  2. A spirituous liquor composed  of the juice of
oranges, mixed xvith brandy and rum.
  SI'AGON.  "Ztayuv.  The jaxv.
  Siaoona'ora.  (From atayuv,  the jaw, and  aypa, a
seizure.)   The gout in the jaxv.
  SIALAGOGUE.  (Sialagogus; from crtaXov,  sali-
'•a, andayu, to expel.)  Those medicines are so called,
vhich  excite an  uncommon flow of saliva: such are
tiercurial  preparations, pyrethrum,  &c.   They arc
iivided into sialagoga topica, as scilla, nicotiana, pi-
per, &c.; and  sialagoga interna, as the various pre-
parations of mercury.
  SIBBENS.  A  disease resembling syphilis.
  SIBERITE.  Red tourmaline.
  Sicca'ntia. (From sicco, to dry.) Drying medicines.
  Siccha'sia.  (From otxxos, weak,  weary.)  An un-
pleasant lassitude and debility peculiar to women xvitii
child.
  Si'cula.   (Dim. of sica, a  short sxvord  : so called
from its dagger-like root.)  The beet.
  Sicve'don.   (From atxvos,  a cucumber.)  A trans-
verse fracture like a cucumber broken in txvo parts.
  Sicyo'ne.  (From otxvos, a cucumber or gourd:  so
named from its resemblance to a gourd.)  A cucurbit.
  SIDERA'TIO.   (From sidus, a  planet; because
it was thought to be produced by the influence of the
planets.)   An apoplexy ; a blast; a slight erysipelas.
  SIDE'RIUM.   (From atir/pos,  iron.)  An herb  so
called from its supposed virtues in  healing xvounds
made by iron instruments.
  SIDERUM.  Phosphuret of iron.
  SIENITE.  Syenite.  A compound granular aggre-
gated rock, composed of felspar  aud hornblende, and
sometimes quartz and black mica.  The hornblende Is
the characteristic ingredient, and distinguishes it per-
fectly from granite, with which it is often confounded ;
but the felspar, whicli  is almost  alxvays red, and sel-
dom inclines to green,  forms the most abundant and
essential ingredient  of the rock.   Some varieties con-
tain a very considerable portion  of quartz and mica,
but little hornblende.  This is particularly the case
xvith tlie Egyptian varieties, and  hence these arc often
confounded witli  real granite.
  SIGESBE'CKIA.  (So named by Linnaeus himself,
In memory of his antagonist, Dr.  J. G. Siegesbeck,
Superintendent of the Physic Garden at Petersburgh,
who  raised "arious objections  against the sexes of
plants.)  The name of a genus  of plants,  Class, Syn-
kinesia ; Order,  Polygamia superflua.
° StGKSBKciUA orientals.   The  systematic name
of a plant  which is said to be useful in removing
strangury,  and in calculous  diseases, gout, and fluor
albus.
  SlfJHT.  See Vision.
  Sioilla'ta terra.  Sealed earth; a species of bo-
lar earth made Into cakes.
  SIGl'LLUM.  (Diminutive of signum, a sign.)
  Siuillum beat.1!  MARIS.  Black briony, or Tamus
communis.
  Sioillum hurmeticum.  An  hermetic  seal, made
by closing the end of a glass lube by melting it.
  Sioulum solomonis.  (Called Solomon's seal, be
eause it has upon its root the resemblance of an im-
pression  made by a seal.)   See Convallaria  polygo
aaturn.
       Q86
   SIGMOID.  (Sigmoides; from the  Gictk  lettel
 ctypa, anciently written C, and ttios, a liktuess.)  Re-
 sembling the Greek  letter sigma.  Applied to several
 parts, as the valves of the heart, the cartilages of the
 trachea, the semilunar apophysis of the bones, and the
 flexure or turn of the colon.
   Sigmoidk'a flexura.  The sigmoid flexure, or turn
 of the colon.
   Siomoi'des processus,   valves of the heart.
   Signa critica.  Signs of tlie crisis of disease.
   Signa diaonostica.   Diagnostic or distinguishing
 signs.
   SI'GNUM.   A sign:  applied to symptoms.   See
 Semiotice.
   Si'lkr  montanum.  Common hartivoet.  See  La
 serpitium siler.
   [Silkx, resinite.  See Halb-opal.   A.]
   SI'LICA.  (Selag, Hebrexv.)   Silex.  One of tbe
 primitive earths is the principal constituent  part of a
 very great number of the compound earths and stones
 forming the immense mass of the solid nucleus of the
 globe.  It is the  basis of almost all the scintillating
 stones, such as flint, rock crystal, quartz,  agate, calee-
 dony, jasper, Sec.   The sand of rivers, and of the sea-
 shore, chiefly consist of it.  It is deposited iu vegetable
 substances forming petrified xvood, &c.  It is likexvise
 precipitated  from  certain  springs in a stalaclical form.
 It has been discovered in several xvaters in a state of
 solution, and is  found in  many plants,  particularly
 grasses and  equisetums.  Professor Davy has  proved
 lhat  it forms a part of the epidermis of these vegeta-
 bles.  It is never met with absolutely pure in nature.
   Properties.—Silica, xvhen perfectly pure, exists in
 the form of a white poxvder.  It is insipid and inodo-
 rous.   It is rough lo the touch, cuts glass, and scratches
 or wears axvay metals.   Its  specific gravity is about
 2.C6. It is unallerab'e by the simple combustible bodies.
 When mixed with xvater it does  not form a  cohesive
 mass.  Its moleculae, xvhen diffused in xvater, are pre-
 cipitated xvith the utmost facility.  It is not acted on
 by any acid, except the fluoric.   When in a stale of
 extreme division  it is soluble in alkalies; fused xvith
 them it forms glass.  It melts xvith the phosphoric and
 boracic acids.  It  is unchangeable in the air, and unal-
 terable by oxygen and the rest of the gaseous fluids. Il
 has been' considered as insoluble in waler, but it  ap-
 pears when  in a state of extreme division to be soluble
 in a minute  quantity.
   Method of obtaining Silex.—Silex may  be obtained,
 tolerably pure, from  flints, by the folloxving  process:
 Procure some common gun-flints; expose them in a
 crucible to a red heat, and then  plunge  them into cold
 xvater; by this treatment  they xvill become brittle, nnd
 easily reducible to powder.  Mix them, when  pulve-
 rized, xvith three or four times their xveight of carbo-
 nate of potassa, and let the mixture be fused, in a dull
red heat, in a silver crucible.  We shall thus obtain a
compound of alkali and silex, called silicious potassa.
Dissolve this compound in xvater, filter  the solulion,
nnd add to it dilute sulphuric or muriatic acid.   Ar.
immediate precipitation noxv ensues, nnd as long as
this continues, add fresh portions of acid.  Let the pre-
cipitate subside ; pour oft* the fluid that floats above it;
and xvash the precipitate  with hot xvater till it comes
off tasteless.  This poxvder when dry is silica.
  In this process the acid added  to the:solution of flint
 unites to the potassa, and forms sulphate or muriate of
 potassa ; the silicious earth is therefore precipitated.
  It is necessary to add an excess of acid, in order thai
 all the foreign earths xvhich are present may be seiia-
 rated.                                          ^
  If the solution of flints be diluted xvith a great quan-
 tity of water, as for  instance, in the proportion of 24
 parts to one, and in this state an acid be  poured upon
 it, no  perceptible precipitation will ensue; the silex
 continues suspended in the fluid, and  is invisible on
 account of its transparency; but it may be made x
 appear by evaporating part of the water.
  The solution of flint, on  account of iu affinity xvith
 the carbonic acid, is also in course of time decomposed
 by mere contact with air.
   Another method of obtaining silica exceedingly pure
 is to separate it from fluoric acid.  In consequence of
 Sir H. Davy's researches on the metallic bases of the
 alkalies and earths, this  earth has  been recently re-
 garded as a  compound of a  peculiar combustible prin
 ciple xvith oxygen.  If xve ignite poxvdered quortz with 
SIL
SIL
 three partsof pure potassa in a silver crucible, dissolve
 the  fused  compound in xvater, add to the solution n
 quantity of acid, equivalent to saturate the alkali, and
 evaporate to dryness, we shall obtain a flue gritty poxv-
 der, which being well  washed  xvith hot water, and
 ignited, xvill leave pure silica.  By  passing the vapour
 of potassium over silica iu au ignited tube, Sir H. Davy
 obtained a dark-coloured powder, xvhich apparency
 contained silicon, or siliciuin, the basis of the earth.
 Like boron and  carbon, it is capable of sustaining a
 high temperature xvithout suffering any change.
  SILICON.  The base of silica.
  SILICULA.   A  pouch,  or pod, that is  scarcely
 longer than it is broad.  It is,
  1. Orbiculatc, in Tklaspi arvense.
  2. Cordate, in Isatis armena.
  3. Obcordate, iu Tklaspi bursa partoris,  alpeslre,
 and Myagrum perfoliatum.
  4. Lanceolate,  in  Lepcdium  alpinum, and  Isatis
 tinctoria.
  5. Angulate, in .Milligram agyptiacum.
  C Emarginate, iu Alyssum, and Cochlearia.
  7. Drupaceous, if tlie  membrane  is  double,  soft
externally,  and  hard xx ilhin; as  in  Erucago  and
Bum as.
  SILIGO.  ZiAiyi-ic.  Fine wheat or rye.
  SI'LIUU A.  (From silo, a nose turned up, a hooked
nose.)  A long, dry, membranaceous pericarpium, or
seed-vessel, of two valves, separated by a linear rece|i-
tacle, along the edges of each of xvhich, the seeds are
arranged alternately. The dissepiment is a partition
dividing a siliqua and silicula into txvo loculaments, or
cells.  Botanists distinguish,
  1. The round pod in  Fumaria lutea, and CAeiran-
 llius tricus pidatus.
  2  The compressed, with level valves, in Cheiranthus
 annuus.
  3. The four-edged,, in Erysimum; C/teiranthusery-
 timoides, and Brassica  ortentalis.
  4. Articulate, in Raphanus raphanistrum.
  5. The tortulose, wliich has elevated nodes here and
 there, in Raphanus sativus-
  6. Rostr- ze, having the partition very prominent at
 the apex; .s in Sinapis alba.
  Siliqua  dulcis.  See  Ceratonia siliquc.
  Siliqua  iiirsuta.  See Dolichos pruriens.
  Sili<ii:a'strum.   (From siliqua,  a pod:  named
 from its pods.)  Judas-tree  Tiie Capsicum,orGuinea-
 pepper, was so termed by Pliny  See Capsicum.
  SILKIUO'S^E.  (From siliqua, a pod.)  Crucifor-
mis.  The  name  of an  order of plants in Linnaeus's
Fragments  of a Natural Method, consisting of such as
have a siliqua or silicula, the flower  tetradynamous
and cruciate.
  Soliq,uosa indica. An American plant;  its juice
Isalexipharmic.
  SILK-WORM.  See Bombyx.
  Silk-worm, acid of. See Blimbic acid.
  Si'lphu m.  (Zalapk, Arabian.)   Asafoetida, or the
 plant xvhich affords it.
  SILVER.  Argrntum.  This  metal  is  found  both
native  and mineralized,  and combined xvitii lead, cop-
per, mercury,  cobalt, sulphur,  arsenic,  Sec.   The
principal ores of this metal are the following. Native
silver; antimoniated silver; sulphuret  of  silver;
sulphuretted oxide of silver and antimony ; muriate of
silver; native oxide of silver, Sec  It is  found in dif-
 ferent  parts of the earth.  The mines of the Erzge-
 biirge or the metalliferous rocks of Mexico and Potosi,
 Bohemia, Norway, Transylvania, &.C. are the richest.
  Native silver possesses all the properties of  this
metal, and  it appears in  series of octaliedra inserted in
one another;  in  small  capillary flexible  threads  in-
twined together;  in plates; or iu masses.   The colour
 of native silver is white,  often tarnished.  Silver al-
,oyed with  gold forms the auriferous native silver ore.
The colour, of this ore is a yellowish xvhite.  It has
much  metallic lustre.  The  antimoniated silver  ore
belongs to  this class. Silver, combined with sulphur,
forms  the  sulphuretted oxide of  silver,  or  vitreous
silver ore.  This  ore occurs in masses, sometimes in
threads, and sometimes crystallized in cubes or regular
rctahedra.   Ils colour is dark  bluish gray, inclined to
 ■lack.  Its  fracture is uneven, and its lustre metallic.
 t is soft enough io be cut xvith a knife.   It is sometimes
 "bund alloyed with antimony  (gray silver ore;.  Silver
nnited  with muriatic acid foimsthe corneous silver ore '
[ (muriate  of silver),  xvliich  appears undet different
| colours and  shapes.   Silver united  to oxygen consti-
I tutes theealr/orm silver ore, of xvliich there ure several
 varieties.  The colour of these ores is a lend gray, of
 grayish black. They occur massive, disseminated, and
 crystallized.
   Germany, and other countries of Europe, but  more
 especially Peru and Mexico in Soutli America, contain
 the principal silver mines.  There are, however, silver
 mines in  Ireland,  Noiway, France, and many  other
 parts in tlie world.
   Method of obtaining silver.—Different methods nre
 employed in different countries to extract silver  from
 its oies.  Iu Mexico, Peru, Sec. the mineral is pounded,
 roasted, xvashed, and then  triturated xvith mercury
 in vessels filled  xvilh water.  A mill is employed to
 keep the xvhole in agitation.  The silver combines by
 that means xvilh the mercury.  The alloy thusobtaiued
 is afterward washed,  to separate any foreign matters
 from it, and  then strained and pressed through leather
 This being done, heat  is applied to  drive off the  mcr<
 cuiy from the silver, whicli  is then melted andcaslinto
 bars or ingots.
   In order to extract silver  from sulphuretted or vit-
 reous silver ore, Ihe mineral is roasted, and then melted
 Willi lead and borax, or some other flux to assist the
 fusion.   By the first operation the sulphur is volatilized,
 and by the second  the silver is obtained, though for
 the most part  alloyed wilh other metals, from xvhich
 it is separated by cupellation,  or fusion xvitii bead or
 bismuth.
   " Silver is the whitest  of all  metals, considerably
 harder Ihan  gold, x cry ductile and malleable, but less
 malleable  than gold,  for the  continuity of its  parts
 begins to break xvhen  it is hammered out into leaves
 of about the hundren and sixty thousandth of an  inch
 thick, wliich is more than one-third  thicker than gold
 leaf; in this slate it does not transmit the  light. Its
 specific  gravity is  from 10.4 to  10.5.   It ignites be
 fore melting, and requires a  strong heat to fuse it.  Tlu
 heat of common  furnaces is insufficient  to oxidize it:
 but the heat  of tlie  most  powerful burning lensei
 vitrifies a portion of it, and causes it to emit fumes-
 which xvhen received  on a  plate of gold, aie found tc
 be silver in  the metallic state.  It  has likexvise  been
 partly oxidized by twenty successive exposures to tho
 heat of the porcelain furnace at Sevres.  By passing a
 strong electric  shock through a silver wire, it may be
 converted into a black  oxide; and by a powerful ga.-
 vanic battery, silver leaf may be made to bum  with a
 beautiful green light.   Lavoisier oxidized  il  by ihe
 blow-pipe  and oxygen gas; and  a  fine silver  wire
 burns in  the kindled  united stream of oxygen and
 hydrogen gases.  The  air alters it very liltle, though it
 is disposed to obtain  a thin purple or black coating
 from the sulphureous vapours which are emitted from
 animal  substances, drains, or  putrifying  matters
 This coating, aftei a long series of years, has been ob-
served to scale off from images of silver exposed in
churches;  and was found, on examination, to consist
of silver united xvilh sulphur.
  Theic seems to be only one oxide of silver, which is
formed  either  by intense ignition in  an  open  vessel,
when an olive-coloured glass is obtained ; or by  adding
 a solulion of caustic barytes to one  of the nitrnte of
silver, and heating the precipitate to dull  redness.   Sir
 H. Davy found that 100 of silver combined with 7.3 of
oxygen  in the above oxide; and if xve  suppose  it to
consist of a prime equivalent of each constituent, we
shall  have 13.7 for the prime of silver.   Silver  leaf
 burned with  a voltaic battery, affords the same olive-
coloured oxide.
  Silver  combines  with chlorine, xvhen the metal is
 heated in contact xvith the gas.   This chloride is, how-
 ever,  usually prepared by  adding muriatic ncid or
 a min fate,  lo nitrate of silver.  It has been long known
 by Ihe name of tuna-cornea, or Aorn silver, because
 though  a xvhile  poxvder, as it  falls down fiom the
 nitrate solution, it fuses at a moderate heat, and forms
 a homy-looking substance when  it cools.  It consists
 of 13.875 silver + 4.5 chlorine.
   The sulphuret  of silver is a brittle substance, of o
 black colour  and metallic lustre.  It is formed by hea -
 ing lo redness  thin  plates  of silver stratified with su -
 phur.  It consists of 13.875 silver + 2 sulphur.
   Silx-er is soluble in the sulphuric acid xvhen concen-
 trated and  boiling, and the metal in a state of division
                                         287 
SIL
SIN
   The muriatic acid does not act upon it, but the nitric
 acid, if somexvhat diluted, dissolves  it with great ra-
 pidity, and with a plentiful disengagement of nitrous
 gas •  which, during its extrication, gives a blue or green
 colour to the acid, and entirely disappears if the silver
 made use of be pure; if it contain copper, the solu-
 tion remains greenish ; and if the acid contain either
 sulphuric or muriatic acid, these combine with a por-
 tion of the silver, and form scarcely soluble compounds,
 xvhich fall to the bottom.  If the silver contain gold,
 this metal separates in blackish-coloured flocks.
  The niitic acid dissolves more than half its xveight
 of silver; nnd the solution is very caustic, that is to
 say, it destroys and corrodes animal  substances very
 powerfully.
  The solution of silver, when fully saturated, deposites
 '.hiu   crystals as  it  cools,  and also  by  evaporation.
 These are called lunar nitre, or nitrate of silver.  A
 gentle heat is sufficient to fuse them, and drive off their
 xvaferof crystallization.  In this situation the nitrate,
 or rather subnitrate, for Ihe heat drives off part of the
 ncid, is of a black colour, may  be cast  into small sticks
 in a  mould,  and then forms  the lapis infernahs, or
 lunar caustic used in surgery.  A stronger heat decom-
 poses nitrate of silver, the acid flying off, and the silver
 remaining pure.  It is obvious that, for the purpose of
 forming the  lunar caustic, it is  not necessary to suffer
 the salt to crystallize, but that it may be made by eva-
 porating the solution of silver at once to dryness; and
 as soon as the salt is fused, and  ceases to boil, it may be
 poured out.  The nitric acid driven off from nitrate of
silver is decomposed, the products being oxygen and
 nitrogen.
  The sulphate of silver, which is formed by pouring
 sulphuric acid  inlo  the  nitric solution of silver, is
 sparingly soluble in water:  and on this account forms
 crystals, which are so small, thai they compose a white
 powder.  The muriatic acid precipitates from nitric
acid  the saline compound called tuna-cornea, or horn-
silver ;  whicli  has been so  distinguished, because,
 xvhen melted and cooled, it  forms a  scmitransparent
 and partly flexible mass, resembling  horn.  It is sup-
 posed that a preparation of this kind has given rise to
 the accounts of malleable glass. This effect takes place
 xvith  aqua regia, xvliich acts  strongly on silver, but
 precipitates  it in the  form of  muriate, as fast as it is
 dissolved.
  If any salt with base of alkali, containing the muriatic
 acid, be added to the nitric solulion of  silver, the same
 effect takes place by double affinity; the alkaline base
 uniting wilh the nitric acid, and the silver falling doxvn
 in combination with the muriatic ncid.
  Sulphur combines  very easily xvith silver,  if thin
 plates imbedded in it, be exposed to a heat suflicient to
 melt the sulphur.  The sulphuret is of a deep violet
 colour, approaching to black, with a degree nf metallic
 lustre, opake, brittle, aud soft.  It is more fusible than
 silver, and this in proportion to the quantity of sulphur
 combined  with it.   A strong heat expels part of the
 sulphur.
  Sulphuretted hydrogen soon tarnishes the surface of
 polished silver, and  forms  on it a thin layer  of sul-
 phuret.
  The alkaline sulphurets combine with it by heat, and
 form  n compound, soluble in water.  Acids precipitate
 sulphuret of silver from this solution.
  Pliosphorus left in a nitric solution of silver, becomes
 covered xvilh the metal in a dendritic  form.  By boil-
 ing this becomes first  xvhite, then a light  black mass,
 and is ultimately convened into n light broxvn phos-
 phuret.  The best method of forming a phosphuret of
 silver is Pelletier's,  which consists in mixing phos-
 phoric acid and charcoal with the metal, and exposing
 the mixture to heat.
  Most  metallic substances  precipitate silver  in  the
 metallic state from its solution.
  Silver unites xvith gold hy fusion, and  forms a pale
 allov, as lias been already mentioned in treating of that
 metal.  With platina it forms a hard mixture, rather
 yellower thnn silver Itself, and of difficult fusion.
  Silver very readily combines xvith mercury.   A very
 sensible degree of  heat is produced, xvhen silver leaf
 and  mercury are kneaded together in the  pa'in of the
 hand.  With lead it forms a soft mass, less sonorous
 Ihan pure silver.  With copper it becomes iiarder and
 more sonorous, at  the same time that  it remains suf.
 fluently ductile: this mixture  is used in the British
 coinage.  12J parts of silver, alloyed with one or cop
 per, form the compound called standard silver.  The
 mixture of silver and iron has been little examined.
 With tin it forms a compound, wliich, like that of gold
 xvith the same metal, has been said to be brittle, how
 ever small the proportion; though there is probably as
 little foundalion for the assertion in  the one rase as in
 the other.   With bismuth, arsenic, zinc, and antimony,
 it forms brittle compounds.  It  does not unite xvith
 nickel.  The compound  of silver and tungsten in  the
 proportion of two ofthe former to one ofthe latter, was
 extended under the hammer during a few strokes;  bid
 afterxvard split in pieces.
   The uses of silver are well knoxvn: it is chiefly  ap-
 plied to the forming of various utensils  for domestic
 use, and as  the  medium of exchange in money.   Its
 disposition to assume a black colour by tarnishing, and
 its softness, appear to be the chief objection to ils use
 in the construction of graduated instruments for astro-
 nomical and other  purposes, in  whicli a good  white
 metal xvould be  a  desirable acquisition.  The nitrate
 of silver, besides its great  use as a caustic, has been
 employed as a medicine."
  SILVER-WEED.  See Potentilla anserina.
  SIMAROU'BA.   (A patronymic name of America >
 See Quassia simarouba.
  Si'mi.c lapis.  See Bezoar simia.
  Simple affinity.  See Affinity simple.
  Simple attraction.  See Affinity simple.
  Simple leaf.  See  Leaf.
  Simple substance.  See Element.
  S'IMPLEX.   Simple: applied  very  generally  in
 every department of nature to designate thai which i»
 nol compound.
  Simplex oculus.  A bandage for the eye.
  SINAPE.  See Sinapis.
  SINAPELiE UM.  (From  otvairt, mist ard,  and
 tXaiov, oil.)   Oil of mus'ard.
  SINA'PI.  See Sinapis.
  SIN A PIS.  (On avn tovs uiras, because  it hurl*
 the eyes.)  1. The  name of a genus of plants in the
 Linnaean system.  Class, Tetradynamia; Order, Sili-
 quosa.   Mustard.
  2. The pharmacopceial name of the b!:t< k mustard
 See Sinapis nigra.
   Sinapis alda.   The systematic name of the whitt
 mustard plant, xvliich is directed for medicinal use in the
 Edinburgh pharmacopoeia.  It is somewhat less pun-
 gent than the black species.  See Sinapis nigra.
  Sinapis nigra.  The systematic  name of the com
 mon  black  mustard.  Napus; Eruca;  Sntape;  Si
 napi.  Common black  mustard.   Sinapis—siliquis
 glabris racemo appressis, of Linnaeus.  The seeds  of
 this species of mustard, xvhich are directed by the Lon-
 don College, and tliose ot the Sinupis alba, xvhich art
 preferred by lhat of Edinburgh, manifest no remark-
 able difference to the  taste, nor in their effects, and
 therefore, answer equally xvell for medicinal and culi
 nary  purposes.  They have an acrid pungent tasle
 and, when bruised, this pungency shows its volatiliti
 by poxverfully affecting Die organs of smell. Mustan'
 is considered as capable of promoting appetite, assist
 ing digestion, attenuating viscid juices, and, by stimu
 lining ihe fibres, it proves  a general remedy iu paralytic
 affections.  Joined  to  its stimulant qualities, it fre-
 quently,  if taken in considerable quantity, opens the
 body, and increases the urinary discharge, and hence ii
 has been found useful in dropsical complaints.  Exter
 nally, floxver of mustard is frequently used mixed with
 vinegar, us a stimulant or sinapism.
  SINAPISMUS.  Sinapismum;  Cataplasma sino>
pios.  A sinapism or mustard poultice.  A term given
 to a mixture of mustard and vinegar in form of poultice
 generally applied to ihe calves ofllie legs, or soles of the
 feet, as a stimulant, and employed  iu loxv states  of
 fevers and otlier diseases, and intended  to suoerceda
 the use of a blister.   See  Cataplasma sinapis.
  SINA'PIUM.   (From  otvairt,  mustard.)   An in
 fusion or decoction of mustard-seed.
  SINTIPUT.  The forepart of Ihe head. See Caput.
  SI NF PARI.   Several  muscles, veins,  arteries.
 &c. are so called xvhich are xvithout a  lelloxv.  Sea
 Azygos.
  Single elective attraction.   See Affinity simple.
  SINGULTUS.   Lygmos.  The hiccough.  A con-
 vuls-ive motion of the diaphragm and  parts adjacent
  S1NUATUS.   Sinunted:  applied  to leaves which 
SIU
SKI
are cut Into rounded or wide openings; as in Statice
fin hat a.                '
  SI'NUS.  1. A cavity or depression.
  2.  In surgery it means a long, narrow, holloxv track,
leading from some abscess, diseased bone, &c.
  3.  The vein« of the dura mater are termed sinuses.
They are several  in number, the principal of which are,
1.  The longitudinal sinus,  xvhich  rises   anteriorly
from the crista galli, ascends and  passes between the
two  laminae of the falciform process to xvhere this pro-
cess  ends.  It then opens into, 2. Two lateral sinuses,
distinguished into right and  left, which lie in the cru-
cial spine of the  os occipitis: 3. Tlie  i.%fcior longitu-
dinal, xvhich is a small sinus situated  at the acute in-
ferior margin ofthe falx.
  Sims cox.*:.  The acetabulum.
  Sinus gen^e PITuitarius.  See Antrum of High-
more.
  Sinus lateral.   See Lateral sinuses.
  Sinus longitudinalis.  See Longitudinal sinus.
  Sinus maxillaris.  See Antrum of Highmore.
  Sinus muliebris.  The vagina.
  Sinus ven.£ portarux.   The entrance into the
lix-er.
  Si'philis.  See Syphilis.
  SIPHONIA.  (From irioJuv, a pipe; alluding to the
uses  made of the exudation of the tree, called Indian
rubber.)  The name of a genus of plants in the Lin-
na-an system.  Class, Monacia ; Order,  Monadelphia.
  Siphonia  elastica. Tlie systematic name of the
elastic resin-tree.  See Caoutchouc.
  SIRI'ASIS.  (From oipos,  a cavity.) An inflamma-
tion  of the brain peculiar to children,  and attended
with a holloxv ness of the eyes and depression of the
fontanella.
  Si'rium myrtifolium.  The systematic  name of
the tree which is supposed by some to afford the yellow
saunders.   See Santalum album.
  SI'S A RUM.  (Sisa, Hebrexv.)  Siser or skirret. See
Sium sisarum.
  SISER.  See Sium sisarum.
  SI'SON.  CZtauv.  A name adopted by Dioscorides.)
The name if  a  genus of plants.  Class, Pentandria,
Order, Monogynia.
  Sison ammi.  The systematic name of  the  plant
which affords the ammi verum of the  shops.  The
seeds of this plant, Sison—foliis tripinnatis, radicali-
bus  linearibus. caulinis selaceis stiputaribus longio-
ribus, of Linnaeus,  have a grateful smell, somewhat
like  that of origanum, and xvere formerly administered
as a carminative.
  SISY.M3RIUM.   (Froma.-(ru&s,/rin£-e; so named
from its hinged roots.)  The name of a genus of plants
in the Linna-an system. Class, Tetradynamia; Order,
Siliquosa.
  Sisymbrium nasturtium.  The systematic name
of the xvater-cress.   Nasturtium aquaticum ; Laver
odoratum; Craleva sium; Cressi; Cardamines. Water-
cress.   This indigenous plant,  Sisymbrium—siliquis
declinatis,  foliis pinnatis, foliolis  subcordatis,  of
Linnaeus,  grows plentifully  in  brooks  and stagnant
waters. The leaves have a moderately pungent taste,
emit a quick penetrating smell, like that of mustard-
seed, but much weaker. Water-cresses obtain a place
in the Materia Medica, for  their antiscorbutic  quali-
ties, which have been long very generally acknowledged
by physicians.  The most pleasant way  of administer-
ing them is in  form of a salad.
  Sisymbrium sophia. The systematic name of the
herb Sophia.  Sophia chirurgorum.  This plant is noxv
almost banished from practice.  It was formerly in high
estimation in the cure of wounds.  It has been given
internally in hysterical affecfions and uterine haemor-
rhages, and  the seeds are said to be efficacious  in  de-
stroying intestinal worms.
  SITIOLOGY.   (Sitiolegia: from <ri7oc, aliment,
and  Xoyos, a discourse or treatise.)  A doctrine or trea-
tise on ailment.
  SI'UM.  (From ociiu, to move;  from its agitation in
water.  1. The name of a genus of plants in the Lin-
naean system.  Class, Pentandria; Order, Digynia.
  2.  The pharmacopoeia! name of tlie creeping water-
parsnip.,
  Sii*h aromaticum.  The amomum is sometimes so
called.
  Sium ninsi.  The systematic name of the plant, the
rooi t>f xvhich is called radix ninsi; Ninzin: Nindsin.
                                       (Ice
This root was long supposed to be the same ae ginseng
It noxv appears, hoxvever, lobe the produce of this plant
It possesses similar, though weaker properties, thai
ginseng.
  Sium nodiflorum.  The  systematic name  of  lh»
creeping xvater-parsnip.  This plant was admitted intt
the London pharmacopoeia in the character of an anil
scorbutic.  It is not nauseous, and children take it rea
dily if mixed xvitii milk.
  Sium sisarum.  Tlie siser or skirret.  The root ol
this plant is eatable, but noxv out of use, though colli
vated in tlie days of Gerarde and Parkinson. Its flavoui
is said to be aromatic, xvith a sweetness not acceptable
to every  palate,  and of a flatulent  and iudigestihii
quality.
  SKELETON.  (Sceletus,  from  cxeXXu, to dry..-
Sceleton.   When the bones of  the body are preserved
in their naiuial situation, and deprived ofthe flesh, I Ik
assemblage is called a skeleton.  See Bone.
  Skeleton, artificial.  The assemblage of all ihe
bones of ihe animal, xvhen  hung in their respeciix-i
situations by means of xvire.  See Bone.
  Skeleton, natural.  A  skeleton is so termed ir
opposition to an artificial  one, xvhen the bones  ure te
tained in their proper places by means of their natural
ligaments.
  SKIN.  Atppts-  Pellis; Cutis.   The skin, though
apparently a simple membrane, is in reality laminated,
consisting of several subdivisions; Ihe outermost lamina
is termed with us  scarf skin, or cuticle;  the second has
no English name, is knoxvn only to anatomists,  and is
called rete mucosum. After these txvo are removed, we
come to, as is commonly thought, the surface of the skin
itself.
  When  n blister  has been applied to the skin of a ne-
gro, if it has not been very stimulating, in txxclve hours
after a thin transparent  grayish meiubiaiie is  raised,
under  which xve  find a fluid.  This membiane is  the
cuticle or scarf skin.   When this, xvith the fluid, is ie-
moved, the surface under them appeals black;  but if
the  blister had  been very  stimulating, another mem-
brane, in xvhich ihis black colour resides, xvould also
have been raised with  the  cuticle.   This is the  rete
mucosum, which is itself double, consisting of another
gray transparent membrane,  and of a black xvcb, very
much resembling the nigrum pigmentum of the  eve
When this membrane is removed, the surface  of ihe
true skin (as has hitherto been believed) comes in view.
and is white, like  that of a European.   The rete  mu-
cosum gives the colour to the skin; is black in the Ne-
gro ; white, broxvn, or yelloxvish, in the European. The
reason xvhy this membrane is black  iu  the  Negro, is,
perhaps, that his body may be better able to defend itself
against the sun's rays, aud thai the heat may be pre-
vented from  penetrating.  The intention of a similar
membrane behind the retina in the eye, appears to be
not only lhat of absorbing the superfluous rays of light,
but,  like tbe amalgam behind the looking-glass,  it may
enable the retina lo reflect the rays, in order to perfect
vision.  Il is not very improbable that some such pur-
pose, as enabling the cuticle to reflect the sun's rays in
those warm climates, xvhere the inhabitants  originally
go naked, may be the intention of nature,  in  giving
them the black membrane.  Perhaps, too, the circum-
stance of the countenance becoming brown, xvhen  ex-
posed to the sun's  rays in summer, in our own climate,
may be a process of nature to  defend herself against the
access of external  heat into the body.
  Both cuticle and rete mucosum send innumerable pro-
cesses into the pores of the true skin.  The process of
the rete mucosum  is always within that  of the cuticle,
and  in contacl xvith the sides  of the pore, as formed by
the true skin.   These processes are remarkable in tbe
cuticle and rete mucosum of the elephant, some of them
are almost an inch long; the  cuticle, or rete mucosum
or a membrane  very similar,  having the same proper
ties  with these, appears to be also continued into  the
inside of the mouth, over  the tongue, internal surface
of the lungs, oesophagus, stomach, and intestinal tube
In most of the  last-named parts, the cuticle, however,
forms sheaths for villi,  and  not processes which line
pores.  On viewing tlie surface of the skin, even xvith
the naked eye, xve find it  porous; more so in some place*
than in others;  and tiie pores are also larger in some
parts than others.  Some of  these pores arc ducts of
sebaceous glands, and others  serve not only to transml
hairs, but, it is supposed, the greatest part of the  pel 
SLfc
SLE
■plrable matter itself.   Absorption  on the skin also, in
all probability, begins on the sides of these pores. They
are particularly remarkable about the mouth, nose,
palms  of the  hands, soles of the feet, external  ear,
scalp, mons veneris, and around the nipple iu xvomen.
  Tbe skin itself xvas given to man not only for feeling
in a general sense, but for perspiration, absorption, and
particularly for touch, in xvhicli he excels all otlier ani-
mals, and which resides principally in the tips of tlie
fingers.  He xvas intended for examining, reasoning,
forming a judgment, and acting accordingly; he  was
fitted by this sense to examine accurately the properties
of surrounding bodies, not capable  of being examined
by his oilier senses.   This, among other reasons,  was
one xvhy he was made erect, that the  point of his fin-
gers  should nol be made callous, or less sensible, by
walking on them.
  When carefully dissected off and separated from all
adventitious mutter  in  a middle-sized man, the skin
xveighs about four pounds and a half.
  The skin of human bodies is alxvays of a white colour,
in the dead body, let the colour of the rete mucosum be
what  it may ;  it  is extremely full of pores, and ex-
tremely vascular; a child in full vigour comes Into the
xvorld from this circumstance, scarlet; it is endoxved
with intense  sensibility.  Almost  all  the pain, in the
difl'erent  operations of surgery, is past xvhen xve have
divided the skin.  Some parts ofthe skin have more
feeling than others;  the lips, for example, as Haller
says, " ad basia destinala."  The glans clitoridis, and
the glans penis, witli a similar intention; there, though
the nerves are not so large as in some other parts, they
are longer, more numerous,  and  endoxved xvith more
exquisite feeling ;  but where the common offices of life
merely are intended, the marks of  superior feeling or
touch, in the skin, are the projections, above tlie com-
mon surface, of those packets  of  arteries, veins, and
absorbents, called villi.  The nerves are there not only
also longer, but larger, as in the points of the fingers and
toes.
  We are not certain thnt the skin is muscular, but it
has properties very like those of muscle; it contracts,
relaxes, and even vibrates in some places, on certain
occasions.  It is extremely distensible; the skin of the
vcrinaum lias stretched in labour from a quarter of an
inch to six inches.  It is also extremely elastic, and  in-
stantly after labour has returned again to the original
quarter of an inch ; il is thickest on those parts intend-
ed by nature to bear xveight or pressure ; of course it is
thickest on the back, on the soles of the feet, nnd palms
of tbe hands.   It is thinner on the forepart of the body,
on the insides of the arms and logs, and where its  sur-
faces touch opposite surfaces.  It is extremely thin on
the lips, and allows the colour of  the blood to shine
through it.  It is also extremely thin on the glans penis
in men, glans  rlitoridis in women, and on the inside
of the labia pudendi.  Skin dried  and dressed is ex-
tremely strong and durable, and therefore employed in
making harness for horses, clothing for men, and a va-
riety of other purposes.
  Skin, scarf.  See Cuticle, and Skin.
  SKINK.  Sec Scincus.
  SKORODITE.  An arsenate of iron, without cop-
per, of a green colour, found  in quartz and hornstone
In primitive rocks in Saxony.
  SKULL.   Cranium.  The skull, or that bony  box
which contains the brain.  It forms the forehead,  and
every part ofthe head, except the face.  It consists of
eight bones, namely, one os frontis, one os occipitis, one
os sphenoides, one os ethmoideum, two ossa tempora-
lis, and txvo ossa parietalin.
  [Skunk cabbage.  See Draeontium.  A.]
  Slaters.  See Oniscus asclltts.
  SLEEP.  Somnus.  That state of the body in which
the internal and external senses and voluntary motions
are not exercised.  The end and design of sleep Is both
to renexv, during the silence and darkness ofthe night,
the vital energy which has been exhausted through the
day, and to assist nutrition.
  " When the lime of being awake has continued for
■Ixteen or eighteen hours, we have  a general feeling of
fatigue and weakness"*'; our motions become more diffi-
cult, our senses lose their activity, tlie mind becomes
confused, receives sensations Indistinctly, and governs
muscular contraction  with difliculty.  We recognise,
by these signs, the necessity of sleep ; we choose sueh
a position as can be preserved with little effort; xve
      200
 seek obscurity and silence, and sink into the arms of
 oblivion.                             ...
   The man xvho slumbers loses successively the ustot
 his senses.  The  sight first ceases to act by the closing
 of the eyelids, the  smell  becomes dormant only 'iflei
 the taste, the hearing  after tbe smell, and  the  touch
 after  the hearing: the muscles of the limbs,  being
 relaxed,  cease  to act  before  those  that  support  the
 head, and these before those of  the spine.  In propor-
 tion as these phenomena  proceed, the respiration  be-
 comes sloiver and  more  deep;  the circulation  dimi-
 nishes; tlie blood proceeds  iu greater quantity to the
 head; animal heat sinks;  the  difl'erent secretions  be
 come less abundant. Man,  although  plunged in this
j sopor, has nol, however, lost the feeling of his existence;
' he is conscious of mosl of the changes that happen in
I him, and which are not xvithout llieir charms; ideas,
I more or less incoherent, succeed each other in his mind;
 he ceases, finally, to be sensible of existence:  he is
 asleep.
   During sleep, the circulation and respiration arc  re-
 tarded, as well as  the different secretions, and, in conse-
 quence, digestion  becomes less rapid.
   I knoxv  not on what foundation the most part of an
 thors say that absorption alone acquires more energy
 Since  the nutritive functions continue in sleep, it is evi-
 dent that the brain has ceased to  act, only xvitii regard
 to muscular contraction, and as an organ of intelligence;
 and that it continues to influence tlie muscles of respi
 ration, the heart, the arteries, tlie secretions, and nu
 trilion.
   Sleep is profound xvhen strong excitants are neces-
 sary to arrest it; it is light when it ceases easily.
   Sleep, such as it has been described, is perfect, thai
 is, it results from  the suspension of the action of the
 relative organs of life, and from  the diminution of the
 action of the nutritive functions; but it is not extraor-
 dinary for some of the relative organs of life lo preserve
 their activity during sleep, as  it happens xvhen one sleeps
 standing; it is also frequent for one or inoreof the senses
 to remaiu awake, and  transmit the impressions xvhich
 it perceives to the  brain  ; it is still more couiinon for the
 brain to take cognizance of different  internal sensations
 that are developed during sleep, as xvanls, desires, pain,
 &c.  The understanding itself may be iu exercise in
 man during sleep, either in an irregular and incoherent
 manner, as in most dreams, or in a consequent and re-
 gular manner, as  it happens in some  persons happily
 organized.
   The turn xvhich the ideas assume  during  sleep, oi
 the nature of dreams, depends much on the slate of the
 organs.   If the stomach is overcharged xvitii indigested
 food, tbe respiration difficult  on account of position, or
 other causes, dreams are painful, fatiguing; if hunger
 Is felt, the person  dreams of  eating agreeable food; it
 it is the venereal appetite, the dreams are erotic, tc.
 The character of  dreams is  no less influenced by ha-
 bitual occupations of the mind ;  the ambitious dream
 of success or disappointment, the poet makes verses,
 the lover sees his mistress, Sec.   It is because the judg-
 ment is sometimes correctly exercised in dreams, xvith
 regard to future events, that  iu times of ignorance the
 gift of divination xvas attributed to them.
   Nothing is more cui ious in the study of sleep than
 the history of sleep-walkers.
   Those individuals being first profoundly asleep, rise
 all at  once, dress  themselves, see, hear, speak, employ
 their hands xvith ease, perform certain exercises, write,
 compose,  then go to bed, and  preserve, xvhen they
 axvake, no recollection of what happened to them.
 What difference is there, then, between a sleep-xvalker
 of this kind, and  a man axvake ? A very evident dif-
 ference,—the one is conscious of  his existence, and the
 other is not.
   Many hypotheseshave been offered on the proximate
 cause of sleep, as  the depression of ihe laminae of the
 cerebrum, the afflux of blood to the brain, &c.  Sleep,
 which is the immediate effect ofthe laxvs of organiza-
 tion, cannot depend on any  physical cause of this
 kind.   Its regular return is one of the ciicumstances
 that contributes the most to the preservation of health;
 ils suppression, even for a short time, is often attended
 xvith serious inconvenience, and in no case can  it be
 carried beyond certain limits.
   The ordinary duration of sleep is variable; generally,
 it is from six to eight hours.  Fatigue of thn musculai
 system, strong exertions of the mind, lively and mulli 
SME
SME
pitted sensations, prolong it, as well as nanus or Idle-
ness, the immoderate use of wine, and of  too strong
aliments.   Infancy and youth, whose life of relation is
very active, have  need  of longer re|>oBe.  Riper age,
more frugal of time, and tortured with cares, devotes
to it but a small portion.  Very old people present two
opposite modifications;  eitlier they arc almost alxvays
slumbering, or their  sleep is very light; but the reason
of this  latter is not  lo be found in the foresight they
have of their approaching end.
   By uninterrupted  peaceable sleep, restrained within
proper limits, tlie poxvers are restored, and tlie organs
recover the facility of action; but if sleep is troubled
by disagreeable dreams, and  painful impressions, or
even prolonged beyond measure, very fur from repair-
ing, il  exhausts the  strength, fatigues the organs, and
sometimes becomes  the occasion of serious  diseases,
as idiotism and madness."
   SLICKENSIDES. The specular variety of galena
is so called in Derbyshire.
   SLOE.  See Prunus sylvestris.
   SMALLAGE.  See Apium graeeolcns
   SMALL POX.  See Variola.
.   SMALT.  See Za iTre.
   S.MARAGDITE.  "See Dialtage.
   SMARAGDUS. See Emerald.
   SMELLIE, William, was born in Scotland, where
he practised  midwifery for nineteen years, and then
settled iu  London.   He attained considerable reputa-
tion as a lecturer, xvhich he appears to hax-e merited by
his  assiduity  and talents.   He introduced  many im-
provements  in  tlie   instruments  employed  in that
branch  of the profession, and established some  useful
rules for  their  application.  He  was the first  writer
who, by accurately determining the shape and size of
the pelvis, and of the head of the foetus, and consider-
ing  its  true position in utero, clearly pointed out the
xvhole  progress of paturition:  and his opinions were
subsequently confirmed, especially by his pupil, the
celebrated Dr. W. Hunter.   He abolished many  super-
stitious notions, and  erroneous customs, that prevailed
in the  management  of parturient xvomen, and  of the
children ; and had the  satisfaction of seeing most of
these improvements  adopted, as well in this as in other
countries of Europe. In 1752, he published  the sub-
stance of his  lectures in an octavo volume; to  xvhich
he added, two years after, a second volume of  cases;
and a third  appeared about five years after his death,
in 1768. In  1754, he also published  a set of anatomi-
cal plates, of a large  folio size, to elucidate his doctrines
farther.
   SMELL.  "There escapes from almost every body
In nature  certain particles of an extreme tenuity,
which are carried by the air often to a great distance.
These particles constitute odours.  There  is one sense
destined to perceive  and appreciate them.  Thus an
important relation between animals and bodies is esta-
blished.
   All bodies of which the  atoms are fixed are called
inodorous.
   The difference of bodies is very great relative to the
manner in which odours are developed.  Some permit
them to escape only when they are heated ; others only
xvhen nibbed.  Some again produce very weak odours,
while others produce only those xvhich are highly pow-
erful.  Such is the extreme tenuity of odoriferous par-
ticles, that a  body may produce them for a very long
time without losing xveight in any sensible degree.
   Every odoriferous body has an odour' peculiar to
 itself.
   As these bodies are very numerous, there have been
attempts made to class them, xvhich have nevertheless
all failed.
   Odours can be distinguished only into weak  and
strong,  agreeable and disagreeable.  We can recognise
odours which are musky, aromatic, foetid, rancid, sper-
matic, pungent, muriatic, tec. Some are fugitive, others
tenacious. In most cases an odour cannot be distinguish-
ed but by comparing  it xvith some known body.  There
have been attributed to odours properties which are
nourishing, medical, and even venomous; but  in the
cases which have given rise  to these opinions, might
not the influence of odours have been confounded with
the effects of  absorption 1  A man who pounds jalap
for some time will be purged in the same manner as if
he had  actually swalloxve'd part of it.  This ought not
to be attributed  to the effects of odours, but rather to
the particles  xvhich, being spread around, float In tin
air, and are introduced either with the saliva or with
the breath.  We ought to attribute to the same cause
the drunkenness of persons who are exposed for some
time to the vapours of spirituous liquors.   The air Is
the only vehicle of odours;  It transports them  to a
distance ; they are also produced, however, tn vacuo,
and there are bodies which project odoriferous parti-
cles xvitii  a certain force.  This  matter has not yet
been carefully studied; it is not known If, in the pro-
pagation of odours, there be any thing analogous  to
the divergence, the convergence, to the reflection,  or
the refraction of the rays of  light.   Odours mix or
combine with many liquids, as well as solids.  This is
the means employed to fix or preserve them.  Liquids,
gases, vapours,  as xvell as many solid bodies reduced
to powder, possess the property of acting on the organs
of smell.
  Apparatus for smelling.—The  olfactory apparatus
ought to be represented as a sort of sieve, placed in the
passage of the  air, as it is introduced  into the chest,
and intended to stop every foreign body that may be
mixed  with the air,  particularly the odours.
  This apparatus is extremely simple; it differs essen-
tially from  that of the sight and the hearing ; since it
presents no part anterior to the nerve, destined for the
physical modification of  the  external  impulse, the
nerve Is to a  certain degree exposed.  The apparatus
is composed of  the pituitary membrane, which covers
the nasal cavities, of the membrane which covers the
sinuses, and of the olfactory nerve.
  The pituitary membrane covers the whole extent of
the nostrils, increases the thickness ofthe spongy bones
very much, is continued beyond their edges and their
extremities, so that the air cannot  traverse the nostrils
but in a  long  narrow direction.  This membrane is
thick, and adheres strongly to the bones and cartilages
that It covers.  Its surface presents an infinity of small
projections, which have been  considered by some  as
nervous papilla, by others as mucous follicles, but
which, according to all appearance, are vascular.
  These small projections give to the membrane  an
appearance of velvet.  The pituitary is agreeable and
soft to the touch, and it receives a great number  of
vessels and nerves.  The passages through xvhich the
air proceeds to arrive at the fauces deserve attention.
  These are three in number. They are distinguished in
anatomy by the names of inferior, middle, and superior
meitus.  The inferior is the broadest and the longest,
the least oblique and least crooked ; the middle one is
the narrowest,  almost ns long, but of Greater extent
from top to bottom.  The superior is  much  shorter,
more oblique, and narrower.  It is necessary to add to
these  the  interval, xvhicli is very narrow, and xvhich
separates the partition of the external side of the nos-
trils in its whole extent.   These canals are so narrow,
that the least swelling of the pituitary renders the pas-
sage of the air  in the nostrils difficult, and sometimes
impossible.
  The iwo superior meatus communicate with certain
cavities, nf dimensions  more  or less considerable,
which aro hollowed out of the bones of the head, and
are called sinuses.   These sinuses are the maxillary,
the palatine,  the sphenoidal, the  frontal;  and  those
which are hollowed out of the  ethmoid bone, belter
known by the name of ethmoidal cells.
  The sinuses  communicate only with the two  supe-
rior meatus.
  The frontal, the maxillary sinus, the anterior cells
of the ethmoid bone, open into the middle meatus; the
sphenoidal, the palatine  sinus, the posterior cells at
the ethmoid,  open  Into the superior  meatus.   The
sinuses are covered  by other soft membranes, very lit-
tle adherent to the sides, and which appear to be ofthe
mucous kind.  It secretes more or less abundantly a
matter called nasal mucus, which Is continually spread
over the pituitary, and seems very useful in smelling.
A more considerable extent of the  sinus appears to co
incide with a greater perfection of the smell.  This U
at least one of the most positive results of comparative
physiology.
  The olfactory nerve springs, by three distinct roots,
from the posterior,  inferior, and internal parts of the
anterior lobe of tbe brain.  Prismatic at first, it pro
ceeds toxvards the perforated plate of the ethmoid bone
It swells  all  at once, and then divides itself into s
great  number of smalt  threads, which spread thenv
                                         29' 
S3IB
SMI
Wftvea upon the pituitary membrane, principally on the
buperior part of it.
  It is important to remark, that the filaments of the ol-
factory nerves have never  been traced upon the infe-
rior spongy bones, upon the internal surface  of  the
middle meatus, nor in any of the sinuses.  Tlie pitui-
tary membrane receives not only the nerves of the first
pair, but also a great number of threads, which spring
from  the  internal aspect of the spheno-palatine gan-
glion.  These threads are  distributed in the meatus.
and in the inferior part of the  membrane.  It covers
also, for a considerable length, the ethmoidal thread of
ihe nasal  nerve, and receives from it a considerable
number of filaments.   The membrane which covers
the sinus receives also a number of nervous ramifi-
cations.
  The nasal fossa communicate outwardly by mean.?
ofthe nostrils, the form and size of which are very va-
riable.  The  nostrils are covered with hair on tbe in-
side, and  are capable  of being increased  in  sfee by
muscular  action.  The nasal fossae open into the pha-
rynx by the posterior nostrils.
  Mechanism  of Smelling.—-Smell is exerted  essen-
tially at the moment when the air traverses the nasal
fossae in proceeding towards the lungs.  We very rarely
perceive any odour when the air proceeds from  the
lungs  ; it happens sometimes, however, particularly in
organic diseases of the lungs.
  The mechanism of smell  is extremely simple.  It is
only necessary that the odoriferous particles should be
stopped  upon the pituitary membrane, particularly in
Ihe places xvhere it receives Ihe threads of the olfac-
tory nerves.
  As  it is exactly in the superior part of the nasal
fossae, xvhere the extremes are so narrow, that they are
covered with mucus, it is also natural that  the parti-
cles should stop there.
  We may conceive the utility of mucus.  Its physical
properties are such that it appears to have a much
greater affinity with the odoriferous particles than xvith
air; it is also extremely important to the olfactory
sense, that the nasal mucus should alxvays preserve the
same physical properties.  Whenever they are changed,
as it  is  observed  in  different degrees of coryza,  the
smell  is either not exerted at all, or in a very imperfect
manner.
  After xvhat has been said of the distribution of tbe ol-
factory nerves, it is evident that the odours that reach
the upper part of the nasal cavities will be perceived
with  greater  facility  and acuteness: for this reason,
xvhen xve wish to feel more acutely, and xvith greater
exactness, the odour of any body, xve modify tiie air in
such  a  manner that  it may be  directed towards this
point.  For the same reason, those who take snuff  en-
deavour also to make il reach  the upper part of  the
nasal  fossae.   The internal face  of the ossa spongiosa
appears xvell disposed to slop the odours p.t the instant
the air passes.  And, as there is an extreme sensibility
in this point, xve are inclined to believe that here the
smell  is everted, though the filaments ofthe first pair
have not been traced so far.
  Physiologists have not yet determined the use of  the
external nose in smelling; it appears intended to direct
the air charged xvitii odours toxvards the superior part
ofthe nasal cavities.
  Those persons who have their noses deformed, par-
ticularly if broken ; those who have small nostiils, di-
rected forward, have In geneial  almost no smell.  The
loss ofthe nose, either  by sickness or accident, causes
almost entirely the loss of smell.  Such people recover
the benefit of this sense by the  use  of an artificial
note.
  The only use of the  sinuses xvhich Is generally ad-
mitted,  is thai of furnishing the  greater part of  the
nasal  mucus.  The other uses whicli  are attributed to
them  are,  to serve ns  a depot to the air charged with
odoriferous particles, to auement the extent ofthe sur-
face which is sensible to odours, and to receive a por-
tion ofthe nir that we inspire for the purpose of putting
the power of smell in action, &c.  These are far from
being certain.
  Vapours and gases nppear to act in the same manner
upon the pituitary membrane as odours.  The mecha-
nism  of it oiicht, hoxvever, to be a little different.
Bodies reduced to a coarse poxvder have a very strong
action on this membrane;  even their first contact Is
painful; but habit changes the pain into pleasure, as Is
      202
seen in the case of taking snuff.  In medicine, this prtV
perty of the pituitary membrane is employed for the
purpose of exciting a sharp instantaneous pain.
  In the history of smell, the use of tliose hairs with
which the nostrils and  tlie nasal fossa? are provided,
must not be forgotten.  Perhaps they are intendtd to
prevent tlie entrance of foreign bodies along with the
air into the nasal fossae.  In this case, ihey would bear
a strong analogy to the  eyelashes, and the hairs xvith
xvhich the ear is provided.
  It is generally agreed  that the olfactory nerve  is es-
pecially employed in transmitting to the brain the im-
pressions produced by odoriferous bodies; but there is
nothing to prove that  the otlier  nerves,  whic'i are
placed upon thepituilary, as well as those near it) may
not coneur in tile same function-."—Magendie's  Phy-
siology.
  SMELT.   See Salmo eperlanus.
  SMI'LAX.  (From opiXtvu, to cut: so called from
the roughness of its leaves and stalk.)  The name of a
genus of plants in the Linnaean system. Class, Diada;
Order, Octandria. Rough bind-xveed.
  Smilax china. The systematic name of the China
root tree.  China ; China orientalis ; Sankira ; Gua-
quara; Smilax aspera Chinensis. China root. It was
formerly in esteem, as sarsaparilla now is, in the cure
ofthe venereal disease, and cutaneous disorders.
  Smilax, Chinese.  See Smilax china.
  Smilax sarsaparilla.  The systematic name of the
plant which affords  the sarsaparilla.  Sarsaparilla;
Smilax aspera Peruviana ;  Sarsa; Carivillandi ; Iva
pecanga ;  Macapatli;  Zarza; Zarzaparilla; Salsa-
parilla; Zarcaparilla,  The root of this plant, Smilax
—caule aculeato angulato, foliis inermibus ovatis re
tuzo macronatis tnnerviis, of Linnaeus, haes a farina
ceous, somexvhat bitter laste, and no smell.  About txvo
centuries ago it xvas introduced into  Spam, as an un
doubted specific in syphilitic  disorders; but oxving to
difference of climate, or other causes, it has not an-
sxvered the  character which it  had acquired in the
Spanish West Indies.  It is now considered as capable
of improving the general habit of body, after it has been
reduced by the continued use of mercury.
  To refute the opinion tiiat sarsaparilla possesses an-
tisyphilitic virtues, Mr. Pearson, ofthe Lock Hospital,
divides the subject into two distinct questions.  1. Is
the sarsaparilla root, when given alone, to be safely re-
lied on in the treatment of lues venerea 1 The late Mr.
Bloomfield, his predecessor, and during some years his
colleague at the Lock Hospital, has  given a very de-
cided answer  to this question: "I solemnly declare,"
says he, " I never saxv a simile instance in  my life
xvhere it cured that disorder without the assistance of
mercury, either at the same time xvith it, or xvhen ii
had been previously taken before the decoction xvas di-
rected."  Pearson's experience, during many years,co-
incides entirely with the observations of  Bloomfield.
He has employed the sarsaparilla, in powder and in de-
coctions, in  an almost infinite variety of cases, and
feels himself fully authorized  to assert, that this plant
has not the poxver of curing any one form of the lues
venerea.   The sarsaparilla, indeed, like the guaiacum,
is capable of alleviating symptoms derived from the
venereal virus; and it sometimes manifests the poxver
of suspending, for a  time, the destructive ravaaes of
that contagion; but where the poison  has not been pre-
viously subdued by mercury, the symptoms xvill quick-
ly return;  and, in addition  to them, we often see the
most indubitable proofs that the disease is making an
actual progress, during the  regular administration of
the vegetable remedy.
 _ 2. When the sarsaparilla root is given in conjunc-
tion xvith mercury, does it render the mercurial course
more certain and efficacious 1  In replying to this query,
it is necessary to observe thnt the phrase, " to Increase
the efficacy of mercury," mav imply, that a smaller
quantity of this  mineral  antidote xvill confeT security
on an infected person, when sarsaparilla is added to it,
or it may mean, that mercury would be sometimes un-
equal io the cure, without the  nid of sarsaparilla.  If a
decoction of ihis root did indeed  possess so admirable
a quality, that the quantity of mercury, necessary to
effect a cure, might be safely reduced, whenever it xvas
given during a mercurial course,  it xvould form a mow
valuable addition to  our Materia Medica.  This opi-
nion has been, however, unfortunately falsified by thi
most ample experience, and whoever shall lie so un 
SMI
BOD
 Warynsto act upon such a presumption, will besuroto
 (find his own and his patient's expectations egregiously
 disappointed.
   If the sarsaparilla root be a genuine antidote against
 the syphilitic virus, it ought to cure the disease ad-
 ministered alone; but, if no direct proof can be ad-
 duced of its being equal to this, any arguments founded
 on histories where mercury has been previously given,
 or where bath the medicines xvere  administered at the
 same time, must be ambiguous and undecisive.
   It appears probable, that Sir William Fordyce, arid
 some other persons, entertained a notion, that tliere
 xvere certain venereal symptoms xvhich commonly re-
 sisted the  potency of mercury, and that  the sarsapa-
 rilla xvas an appropriate remedy in these cases.   This
 opinion,  it is presumed, is not correct, for it militates
 against all Mr.  P.  has ever observed of the progress
 and treatment of lues venerea.  Indeed, those patients
 xvho have lately used a full course of mercury, often
 complain of nocturnal pains  in their limbs; they are
 sometimes afflicted xvith  painful enlargements of the
 elbow and  kuee-joinls;  or  they  have membranous
 nodes, cutaneous exulcerations, andcertainother symp-
 toms, resembling tliose xx-hich are the offspring of the
 venereal  virus.
  It may and does often happen, that appearances like
 these are mistaken for a true venereal  affection, aud, in
 consequence  of  this error, mercury is administered,
 xvhich never fails to exasperate the disease.  Now, if a
 strong decoction  of  sarsaparilla rool be given to  per-
 sons under these circumstances, it xvill seldom fail of
 producing the niostbeneficial effects; hence it has been
 contended, that symptoms derived from the contagion
 of lues venerea,  xvhich could not be cured by mercury,
 have finally yielded to this vegetable remedy.  It must
 be  acknowledged, that representations of this  kind
 have a specious and imposing air; nevertheless, Mr.
 Pearson eudeax-ours to prove,  that they are neither ex-
 act nor conclusive.  If any of the above-named symp-
 toms shauld appear near  the conclusion of a course of
 mercury,  xvhen  that medicine was operating poxver
 fully on the whole system, it xvouM be a  strange and
 inexplicable thing if they  could possibly be derived im-
 mediately from  the uncontrolled agency of the vene-
 real virus.
  This xvould imply something like a palpable contra-
 diction that the antidote should be operating with suffi-
 cient efficacy to cure the venereal symptoms, for which
 il was directed, while, at  tbe same  time the venereal
 virus was proceeding to contaminate new parts, and to
excite a new order of appearances.
  One source, and a very common one, to which some
 of the mistakes  committed upon this subject  may be
traced, is a persuasion lhat every morbid alteration
which arises  in an infected person  is actually tainted
with the venereal virus, and ought  to be ascribed to it
as its true cause.
  Every experienced surgeon must, however, be axvare,
lhat very little of truth and reality exists in a represen-
tation of this kind.   The contagious matter, and the
mineral specific may jointly produce,  in certain habits
of bedy,  a new  series of symptoms, xvhich,  strictly
speaking, are not venereal, wliich cannot  be cured by
mercury, and which are sometimes  more to be dreaded
 than the simple and natural effects of tbe venereal virus.
  Some of the most formidable of  these appearances
may be sometimes removed by sarsaparilla, the vene-
real virus still remaining in the system; and, when the
 force of that  poison has been completely subdued by
mercury, the same vegetable is also capable of freeing
 the patient from  what may be called the sequela;  of a
mercurial course.
  The root of the sarsaparilla is sometimes employed
In rheumatic affections, scrofula, and cutaneous com-
 plaints, where an acrimony of the fluids prevails.
  [" SMITH, Elhid H., M. D. Dr. Smith was one of
the first projectors of the New-York Medical  Reposi-
tory, uniting with Drs. Mitchill and Miller in establish-
ing one of the first Medical and Scientific Journals in
this country.  He, however, survived but a short lime
after its commencing, having died ofthe Yellow-Fever
in New-York, in 1796.   Dr. E. H. Smith was born in
Litchfield,  in Connecticut, in 1771,  and died ia the
87th year of his age.
  ' In announcing the death  of Dr.  Smith, the  sur-
vivins editors of the Medical Repository thus speak:
As a Physician his less is irreparable. He bad explored
 at his early age an extent of Medical learning, for whio«
 the longest  lives  are seldom found sufficient.  The
 love of science, and  the impulse of philanthropy, di-
 rected his xx hole professional career, and left little room
 for  the calculations of emolument.  He had formed
 vast designs of medical improvement, whicli embraced
 the whole family of mankind; was animated by the
 soul of benevolence, nnd aspired after every object of a
 liberal and a dignified ambition,   lie wus  ripe lor tin
 highest honours of his profession; his merits were every
 day becoming more conspicuous, nnd nothing but hi.-
 premature fate deprived him of that extraordinary de-
 gree of public confidence wliich awaited a longer con
 tiuuance of his life."—.V. 1'. Med. Repos. A.]
   Smy'rmon HORTONst.  SeeImperatoria ostruthimn
  SMV'R.MUM.  (So called from opvpva, myrrh, ihe
 smell of the seed resembling that of myrrh very much.)
 The name of a  genus of plants.  Class, Pentandria;
 Order, Digynia.
  Smvrniom olusatrum.  The systematic name of
 the  plant called Alexanders.   Hipposclinum ; Smyi-
 nium;  Macerona; Macedonisium;  Herba  alexan-
 drina;  Griclum;  Agriosclinum.   Common Alexan-
 ders. This plant xvas formerly cultivated in our  gar.
 dens, for culinary use, but is noxv superseded by scelery.
 The seeds are bitter and aromatic, cud the roots are
 more poxverfully bitter.  They stand recommended as
 resolvents, diuretics, and emmenagogues, though seldom
 used in medical prescriptions.
  Shvrnidm kotundifolium.  The blanched leaves
 of this species aresaid to be more agreeable than thos«
 of the olusatrum.
  SNAIL.   See Limax.
  Snail-seeded glassworl.  See Salsola kali.
  SNAKE.   Anguis.   The flesh  xvas formerly made
 into broth as a restorative.
  Snake, common.   The Coluber nalrix, of Linna'Us.
  Snake, rattle.  See  Coluber.
  SNAKEROOT.   See Aristolochia serpentaria, and
 Polygala senega.
  [Snake-root, black.  See Cimieifuga.  A.
  SNAKEWEED.  See Polygonum bistorta.
  SNAKEWOOD.  See Colubrinum lignum.
  Snake-killing birthwort.  See Aristolochia anguictda
  SNAP-DRAGON.  See Antirrhinum.
  SNEEZE WORT.  (So called,  because the dried
 flowers and toots, when powdered, cause sneezing xvhen
 applied to the nose.)  See Achillea ptarmica.
  SNEEZING.  Sueruutatio.  A convulsive action
 of the muscles of the  chest from irritation of the  nos-
 trils.
  SNUFF.  See Nicotiana.
  SOAP.  See Sapo.
  SOAP-BERRY.   See Saponaria officinalis
  SOAP, MOUNTAIN.  A pale broxvnish black mi-
 neral, which  has a  greasy feel; ivrit.es,  but does not
 soil: and occurs in trap rocks in tlie Isle of Skye.  It is
 used in crayon painting.
  SOAP-STONE.   See Steatite.
  SOAP-TREE.  See Saponaria.
  SOAP-WORT.  See Saponaria.
  Socotorine  aloes.   Alois brought from Socotora
 See Alot.
  SO'DA.   (An  Arabian word.)   The name noxv
 universally given by chemists and physicians to like
 mineral alkali.
  It  is obtained from Feveral sources, but  principally
 fiom plants growing on the sea coast.  It. occurs in the
 mineral kingdom, united with sulphuric, muriatic,  and
 boracic  acids; it is  also found in  large quantities in
 Egypt, combined  with carbonic acid.  It appears to be
 deposited in large impure masses, under the surface of
 the earth, in  various countries, from xvhich it is ex-
 tracted by running waters.  Thus it is found, after the
spontaneous evaporation ofthe xvater, mixed xvitii sand
 in the bottom of lakes in Hungary; in the neighbour-
 hood of Bilin in  Bohemia; and  in Switzerland.  h
occurs also in China, and near Tripoli; in Syria, Fgyj.i,
 Persia, and India.  Il frequently oozes out of walls and'
crystallizes on their surface.   Like potassa, it is pro-
cured by lixiviationfrom the ashes of burnt plants, bin
only from those which grow upon the sea-shores.  The
 variety of plants employed for this purpose is very
considerable.   In Spain, soda is procured from different
species of the Salsola  and  Salicornia,  and the Balis
 maritima. The Zostcra maritima is burnt in some
places oil the borders  of tbe Baltic. In tl is country 
SOI)
SOD
we burn tne various species of fuci; and in France
they burn  the  Chenopodium maritimum.   See Soda
impura.
  The alkali thus procured is more or less pure, ac-
cording to the nature of the particular plant from which
it  is obtained.  The greatest part, hoxvever, is  a sub-
carbonate of soda
  " To procure  pure soda, we must boil a solution of
the pure  carbonate with half its weight of quicklime,
and after subsidence decant the clear ley, and evapo-
rate in a clean iron or silver vessel, till the liquid floivs
quietly like oil.   It must then be poured out on a po-
lished iron plate.  It concretes into a hard white cake,
xvhich  is to be immediately broken iu pieces, and put
up, xvhile still  hot, in  a phial, which must be well
corked.  If  tiie carbonate of soda be somexvhat im-
pure, then,  after the action of lime, and subsequent
concentration of the ley, alkohol must be digested on
it, xvhich xvill dissolve only the caustic pure soda, and
leave the heterogeneous salts.   Uy distilling of the  al-
kohol in a silver alembic, the alkali may then  be  ob-
tained pure.
  This while solid substance is, however, not absolute
soda, but a hydrate, consisting of about 100 soda + 2d
xvater; or of nearly 77 -f- 23, in 100.  If a piece of this
soda be exposed lo  the air, it softens and  becomes
pasty;  bul it never deliquesces into an oily looking li-
quid, as poiassa does.  The soda in fact soon becomes
drier,  because by absorption of carbonic acid  from
the air it passes into an efflorescent  carbonate.   Soda
is  distinguishable from potassa by sulphuric  acid,
which forms a very soluble salt xvith the former, and a
sparingly soluble one xvitii  the  lalter; by muriate of
platina and tartaric acid, xvhich occasions precipitates
xvith poiassa salts, but not with those of soda.
  The  basis of soda is a peculiar metal, called sodium,
discovered by Sir 11. Davy in 1807, a few days after he
discoveied potassium.  It may be procured in exactly
the same manner as potassium, by electrical or chemi-
cal decomposition of the pure hydrate.  A rather higher
degree of heat, aud greater voltaic poxver, are required
to decompose soda than potassa.  Sodium  resembles
potassium in many of its characters.  It is as while as
silver, possesses great lustre, and is a  good  conductor
of electricity.  It enters into fusion at about280° Fahr.,
and rises in vapour at a strong red iieat.  Its sp. gr. is,
according to Gay Lussac and  Thenard, 0.972, at  the
temperature of 59°  Fahr.  In  the  cold, it exercises
scarcely any action on diy air, or oxygen.   But xvhen
healed strongly in oxygen or chlorine, it burns with
gr;-at  brilliancy.  When throxvn upon water, it effer-
vesces violently, but  does not inflame, swims on  the
surface, gradually diminishes xvitii great agitation, and
renders the water a solution  of soda.  It acts upon
mosl substances in a manner similar to potassium, but
xvith less energy.  It tarnishes in the air, but more
slowly; and, like potassium, it is best preserved under
naphtha.
  Sodium forms txvo distinct combinations with oxy-
gen ; one is pure  soda, whose hydrale  is above  de-
scribed ;  the olher is the orange oxide of sodium, ob-
s Jived, like tlie  preceding oxide, first by Sir H. Davy in
isr'7, but of xvhich the  true nature xvas pointed out, in
1810, by Gay Lussac and Thenard.
   Pure soda may be formed  by burning sodium in a
 ijuantity of air, containing no more oxygen than is
 ■ullicicnt for its conversion into  this alkali; i.e. the
 metal  must  be in excess: a strong degree of heat must
 lie employed.
   Pure soda is of a gray colour, it is a non-conductor of
 (electricity, of a vitreous fracture, and requires a strong
 red heat for its fusion.   When  a little water is added
 to it, there is a  violent  action betxveen tlie iwo bodies;
 the soda becomes white, crystalline in its appearance,
 and much  more fusible and volatile. It is then the
 tvibstance commonly called puie or caustic soda;  but
 properly styled the hydrate.
   Tlie other oxide or peroxideof sodium may be formed
 hy burning sodium in oxyeen, in excess.  It is of a deep
 orange colour, very fusible, and a non-conductor of
 Jlectricity.  When  acted on  by xvater,  it gives  off
 oxygen, and the water  becomes a solutioii of soda.  It
 deflagrates  xvhen  strongly heated  wilh combustible
 bodies
   The proportions of oxygen in soda, and in the orange
 peroxide-of .-odium, are easily learned by Ihe action of
 uui.iuui ■»» xv.-iter and om-xygeu. II a iiivtn xveisht of
sodium, in a little glass lube, be thrown by means ol
the finger under a graduated  inverted jar filled with
water, the quantity of hydrogen evolved will indicate
the quantity of oxygen  combined with  the metal to
form soda; and xvhen sodium  is slowly burned in a
ray of platina  (lined  with drv  common salt),  in
oxygen in great excess, from the saantity  of oxygen ab
sorbed the composition of the peroxide may be learned.
From Sir H. Davy's experiments, compared with those
of Gay Lussac and Thenard, it appears thai the prime
equivalent of sodium is 3.0, and that of dry soda, or
protoxide of sodium, 4.0;  xvhile the orange oxide or
deutoxide is 5.0.  The numbers given by  Thenard are,
for the first, 100 metal + 33.905 oxygen; and for the
second, 100 metal -f- 67.990 oxygen.
  Another oxide is described containing less oxygen
than soda; it is therefore a sub-oxide. When sodium
is kept for some time in a small quantity of moist air,
or when sodium in excess is heated with hydrate of
soda, a dark grayish substance is formed, more inflam-
mable than sodium, and xvhich affords hydrogen by its
action upon water.
  Only one combination  of sodium and chlorine is
knoxvn. This is the important substance, common salt.
It may be formed directly by  combustion, or by decom-
posing any compound of chlorine by sodium.  Sodium
has a  much stronger attraction  for chlorine than  for
oxygen: and soda, or its hydrate,  is decomposed by
chlorine, oxygen being expelled from the  first,  and
oxygen and water from the second.
  Potassium has a stronger attraction for chlorine than
sodium has; and one mode of procuring sodium easily,
is by heating together lo icdness coinnion salt and  po-
tassium.  The chloride  of sodium,  improperly called
the muriate, consists of 4.5 chlorine  + 3.0 sodium.
There  is no known action  betxveen sodium and hydro-
gen or azote.
  Sodium combines readily wilh  sulphur and with
phosphorus, presenting  similar phenomena to those
presented  by potassium.  The  sulphurets  and phos-
phurets of sodium agree  in their  general  properties
with those of potassium, except that they  are rather
less inflammable.  They form, by burning, acidulous
compounds of sulphuric and phosphoric acid and soda.
  Potassium aud sodium  combine xvilh great facility,
and form  peculiar compounds,  which differ  in their
properties, according to the proportions ofthe constitu-
ents.   By  a small quantity of sodium,  potassium  is
rendered fluid at common  temperatures,  and its sp. gr.
is considerably diminished.  Eight parts of potassium,
and one of sodium,  form  a  compound that sxvims in
naphtha, and that is fluid at  the common temperature
of the air.  Three parts of sodium, and one of potas-
sium,  make a compound  fluid at  common tempera-
tures.  A  little potassium destroys tlie ductility of so-
dium, and renders  it very  brittle and soft.  Since the
prime  of potassium  is to  that  of sodium as 5 to 3, it
xvill require the former quantity of potassium to elimi-
nate the latter quantity of sodium  from the chloride.
The attractions of potassium, for  all substances that
have been examined, are  stronger  than those of so-
dium.
  Soda is  the  basis  of common salt,  of  plate and
croxvu-glass, and of all hard soaps."
  The compounds of soda  used in  medicine  are the
tolloxving:
  1. Sodx acetas.         6. Sodae murias
  2. ----  boras.          7. ----  phosphas
  3. ----  carbonas.       8. ----  sulphas.
  4. ----  subcarbonas.    9.----  tartras.
  5.---------------ex-  10. Soda mrtarizata.
      siccata.           11. Sapo durus.
  Soda acetata.  A neutral salt formed of a combi
nation of acetic acid with  the mineral alkali.  Its vir-
tues are similar to  those of the acetate of potassa.
  Soda boraxata.  See Borax
  Soda, carbonate of. See Soda carbonas.
  Soda hispanica.  See Soda inpura.
  Soda hispanica pl-rivicata.   See  Soda subcai
bonas.
  Soda impura.  Impure  soda.  Soda ;  Barilla ; Ba~
riglia; Barillor;  Anatron;  Natron;  Auaton; Ni-
trum antiquorum ; Aphromtrum; Baurach; Sal alka-
linus fixus fossilus ; Carbonas soda impurus ;  Sub-
carbonas  soda impura.   Soda.  Barilla is the  terra
given, in commerce, to the impure  mineral alkali, oi
imperfect carbonate  of soda, imported from Spain and 
SOD
SOU
Hie Levant  It is made by burning to ashes different
plants that grow on the seashore, chiefly of the genus
Salsola.   Many have referred It to the Salsola kali, of
Linnaeus;  but  various otlier plains, on  being burned,
arc found to afford  this alkali, and  some in a greater
proportion than this:  these are,
  1. The  Salsola sativa, of Linnieus.  Salsola sonda,
of Lofling.  Kali hispunicum  supimim  annuum sedt-
foliis brevibus.  Kali d'alicantc.  This groxvs abun-
dantly on that part of  the Spanish const which is
xvashed by  the Mediterranean sea.  This plant is de-
servedly first enumerated by Professor Murray, ns It
supplies all the best  soda consumed in Europe, xvhich
by  us is called Spanish or Alicant  soda,  and by the
Spanish merchants Barilla de Alicante.
  2. Salsola soda, of Linnaeus.  Kali majus cochleato
semine; Le Salicor.  This species,  xvhich  groxvs on
the French Mediterranean coast, is much used iu Lan-
guedoc for the preparation of this salt, which is usually
exported to Sicily and Italy.
  3. Salsola tragus, of Linnaeus, affords an ordinary
kind of soda, xvith xvhich the French frequently mix
that made in   Languedoc.  This adulteration is also
practised by the Sicilians, xvho distinguish the plant by
the term saivaiigia.
  4. Salicnrnia hcrbacea, of Linnaeus, is common in
-alt marshes, and on the seashore  all  over Europe.
Linnaeus prefers the soda obtained from this plant to
that of all the  others; but though the quantity of al-
kali xvhich  it yields  is very considerable, it is mixed
xvitii much common salt.
  5. Salicornia arabica, of Linnaeus, and also the Me-
iembryanthemum ncdifiorum, and Plantago squarrosa.
 Ml these, according to Alpinus, afford this alkali.   It
nas also been procured from several of the fuci, espe-
cially F.  vesicolosus, and  distinguished  here by the
name kelp.  Various other marine plants might  also
be noticed as yielding an impure soda by combustion;
but the principal are confined to the genus salsola, and
lhat of salicornia. The salsola kali,'on the authority
of Rawolf, is the species from xvhich the salt is usually
obtained in eastern countries;  which is brought to us
in  hard porous masses, of a speckled broxvn  colour.
Kelp, a still more impure alkali, made in this country by
burning various sea-weeds, is sometimes called British
barilla. The marine  plants, collected for the purpose of
procuring barilla in  this country, are tlie Salsola kali,
Salicornia europa, Zostera maritima, Triglochcn ma-
ritimum,  Chenopodium maritimum, Atriplex portula-
coides el littoralis, Plantago  maritima,  Tamarix gal-
lica, Eryngium maritimum, Sedum telcphium, Dipsa-
cus fullonum, Sec Sec
  It is to be regretted, that the different kinds of soda
which are brought to European markets have not been
sufficiently analyzed  to enable us lo ascertain xvith tole-
rable certainty the respective value of each; and, in
deed, while the practice of adulterating this salt con-
tinues, any attempts of this kind are likely to prove
fruitless.  The  best information on this subject is to be
had from  Jessica, Mascorelle, Cadet, Bolare, and Ses-
fini.  In those  places where  the preparation of soda
forms a considerable branch of commerce, as on the
coast of the Mediterranean, seeds of the salsola are re-
gularly soxvn in a proper situation near the sea, w'lich
usually shoot above ground in the course of a fortnight.
About the time the seeds become ripe, the  plants are
pulled up by the roots, and exposed in a suitable place
to dry, xvhere  their seeds are collected;  this being
done, the  plan's are tied up in bundles, and burned in
an oven constructed  for the purpose, where  the ashes
are then, xvhile hot, continually stirred with long poles.
The saline  matter,  on  becoming cold,  forms  a  hard
solid  mass, xvhich is broken in pieces of a convenient
size for exportation.
  According to chemical analysis, the impure sodas of
commerce generally  contain a portion of vegetable al-
kali, and neutral salts, as muriate of soda and sulphate
of potassa, and not unfrequently some portion  of iron
is contained in the  mass;  they are, therefore, to be
considered as more or less a compound, and their good-
ness to be estimated  accordingly.  The  Spanish soda,
of the best sort, is in dark-coloured masses, of a bluish
tinge, very ponderous, sonorous,  dry to the touch, and
externally abounding with small  cavities, xvithout any
offensive smell, and very salt to the taste; if long ex-
posed to the air, it undergoes a dcare? of spontaneous i
calcination.  The best French  s<da is also dry, fn:,., ,
rous, brittle, and of a deep blue colour, approaching tt
black.  The soda wliich is mixed with small stones,
xvhich gives out a taeiid smell on solulion, nnd Is white
soft, and deliquescent,  is of tho xvorst kind.
  Soda miriata.  Sec Soda murias.
  Soda miriatica. See Soda murias.
  Soda phosphorata.  Phosphorated soda.  Alka.i
minrratc phosphoralum, of Bergman.  This prepara
tion is a compound of  phosphoric acid and sotia.   It t.'
cathartic in  tlie dose of hull' au ounce  to an ounce;
dissolved in gruel it is not unpleasant, and it is said tu
be  useful  in scrofula,  bronchocele, rachitis, and  gout,
iu small doses.
  Sua,i, subcarbonate of.  See Soda subcarbonas.
  Soda, subcarbonate  of, dried.  See Soda: subcarbo
nas exsiccata.
  Soda, sulphate  of. See Soda sitlphus.
  Soda  tartarizata.   Tartarized  soda,  formerly
knoxvn by the names of sal rupcllensis, sal polychres-
turn Scignetti,  and lately by that  of natron tartan-
zatum.   Take of subcarbonate of soda twenty ounces;
supenartrate of potassa, poxvdered, txvo pounds; burl-
ing xvater ten pints.  Dissolve the subcarbonate of soda
in the wa'er, and add gradually the supertartrate of po-
tassa; filter the solution through paper,  and evaporate
it until a pellicle  forms upon the surface;  then  set  if
by lhat crystals may form.   Having poured axvay the
waler, dry  these crystals upon bibulous paper.  Tins
salt consists of tartaric acid, soda, and potassa, the soda
only combining with  the superabundant  acid of the
super sail; it is therefore a triple salt, and it has been
judged by  tlie London College more convenient to ex
press this difference by the adjective tartarizata, than
to introduce  the three  words necessary  lo its descrip-
tion.   Il possesses mildly cathartic, diuretic, and deob
struent v rtucs, and is administered in doses from one
drachm to an ounce, as u cathartic, and in the dose of
twenty to  thirty grains in abdominal physconia, and
torpidity of the kidneys.
   Soda tartarized.  See Soda tartarizata.
  Sod.e boras.  See Borax.
  Sunt carbonas.   Carbonate of  soda.  Take ol
subcarbonate of soda,  a pound; subcarbonate of am-
monia, three ounces;  distilled water, a  pint.  Having
 previously dissolve) the soda in water, add the ammo-
nia, then by mean  of a sand  bath apply  a heat of
180° for three hoa »,  or until the ammonia be driven
off.  Lastly, set the solution by to crystallize.  There
maining solutioi- may  be evaporated and set by in the
same manner, lhat crystals may again form. This salt,
which is called also aerated soda, and natron, bears tu
the subcarbonate of soda the same relation  that the car
bonate of potassa does to iw subcarbonate.   It is pre-
pared in the same way, possesses the same compara-
tive advantages,  and contains,  in like manner, double
the quantity of carbonic acid.
  Sod/E murias.  Muriate of soda.   Alkali minerati
salinum ; Sal communis;  Sal culinaris ; Sal foutturn,
Sal gemma; Sal marinus ;  Natron muriatum; Soda
munata.  Common culinary sail.  This salt is  more
abundant in nature than any other.  Il is found in pro
digious masses  in the internal part of the earth, in Ca-
labria, in Hungary, in  Muscovy, and more especially
Weilicska, in Poland,  near Mount Capax, where  thi
mines are very large, and afford immense quantities of
salt.  It is  also obtained  by  several  artificial means
from sea-water.  It possesses antiseptic, diuretic,  and
resolvent qualities, and is frequently employed in foim
of clyster, fomentation, lotion, pediluvium, nnd bath,
in obstipation,  against worms, gangrene, scrofulous
tumours, herpetic eruptions, arthritis, &c.
  SoD.ec subdoras.  See Borax.
  Soda:  si-bcardonas.   Subcarbonate of soda,  for-
merly called natron praparatum and sal soda.  Take
of impure soda, powdered, a pound; boiling distilled
water, half a gallon.   Boil the soda in the xvater  for
half an hour, and strain the solution ; let the solution
evaporate to two pints, and be set by, that crystals may
form.  Throxv  axvay  the remaining  solulion.   The
pure crystals, thus formed of Alicant  barilla, are co-
lourless,  transparent,  lamellaied,  of a  rhomboidal
figure; and one hundred  parts are found to contain
twenty of alkali, sixteen of aSrial acid, and sixty-four
of water; but upon keeping the crystals for a length
of time, if ihe air be not excluded,  the water evapo-
rates',  and they  assume the form of a xvhite poxvder
According to Isliii, one  ounce of xvater, at  the temoe.
                                        295 
SOL                                             SOL
 raiure 62° of Fahr. dissolves five drachms and fifteen
 grains of the crystals.  This salt consists of soda im-
 perfectly saturated xvith carbonic acid, and is there-
 fore called soda subcarbonas.  It is given in doses of
 from ten grains  to half a drachm as an attenuaiit and
 antacid; and joined  with  bark and  aromatics,  it is
 highly praised by some iu tlie cure of scrofula.  It is
 likexvise a powerful solvent of mucus, a deobstruent
 and diuretic; and has been thought an antidote against
 oxide of arsenic and corrosive sublimate.  The other
 diseases  in which it is administered  are those arising
 from an  abundance of mucus in the primal viae, calcu-
 lous complaints, gout,  some affections of  the skin,
 rickets, tinea capitis, crusta lactea, and worms.  Exter-
 nally it is recommended by some in the form of lotion,
 to be applied to scrofulous ulcers.
  Soda:  subcarbonas icxsiccata.  Dried subcarbon-
 ate of soda.  Take of subcarbonate of soda, a pound.
 Apply a  boiling heat to the soda in a clean iron  vessel,
 until  it  becomes perfectly dry, and constantly stir it
 xvith an iron rod.  Lastly, reduce it into powder.  Its
 virtues are similar to those of the subcarbonate.
  Sod*  st'LniAS.  Sulphate of soda, commonly knoxvn
 iiy the name of natron vitriolatum, and formerly sal
 catharticus glauberi.  Take of the salt xvhich remains
 after the distillation of muriatic acid, two pounds.  Boil-
 ing xvater, two pints and a  half.  Dissolve the salt in
 the xvater, then add gradually as much subcarbonate
 nf soda  as  may be required to saturate the acid ; boil
 the solution  away until a pellicle forms upon the sur-
 face, and, after having strained  it, set it by, that crys-
 tals may form.  Having poured axvay the water, dry
 these crystals upon bibulous paper. It possesses cathar-
 tic and diuretic qualities, and is in high esteem as a mild
 cathartic.  It is  found in the mineral kingdom formed
 by nature, but that xvhich is used medicinally is pre-
 pared by art. The dose is from one drachm to one ounce.
  SODALITE.  A green-coloured mineral discovered
 in a bed of mica slate in West Greenland.
  SODIUM.  See Soda.
  SOL.  The sun.  Gold xvas so called by the older
 chemists.
  SOLA'MEN.   (From solor,  to comfort.)   Anise-
 seed is named solamen intestinorum, from the comfort
 it affords in disorders of the intestines.
  SOLANO'IDES. (From solanum, night-shade, and
 ttios, likeness.)  Bastard night-shade.
  SOLA'NUM.  (From solor, to comfort, because it
 (lives  ease  by its stupifying  qualities.)  1. The name
 nf n genus of plants in the  Linnaean system.  Class,
 Pentandria: Order, Monogynia.
  2. The pharmacopceial name of the solanum nigrum.
  Solanum  dulcamara.  The  systematic  name of
 the bitter-sweet.    Dulcamara;  Solanum  scandens;
 Glycypicros, sive  amaradulcis; Solanum lignosum.
 zZrpvxvos of Theophrastus.   Woody nightshade.  So-
 lanum—caule inermi frutescente fiexuosa; foliis snpe-
 rioribus hastatis ; racemis cymosis, of Linnaeus.  '1 he
 roots and stalks of this night-shade, upon being chexved,
 first cause a sensation  of bitterness, which is soon fol-
 loxved  by a considerable degree of sweetness;  and
 hence the plant obtained the name of bitter-sweet.  The
 berries have not yet been applied to medical use; they
 seem to  act powerfully upon the prime viae, exciting
 violent vomitins and purging.  Thirty of them were
 siven to a dog, which soon became mad, and died in
 the space of three hours; and, upon opening his  sto-
 mach, the berries were discovered to have undergone
 no change by the poxvers of digestion; there can, there-
 fore, be little doubt of the deleterious effects of these
 hemes ; and, as they arc very common in the hedges,
 and may be easily mistaken, by children, for  red cur-
 rants, xvhich they somexvhat resemble, thiscircumstance
 is the more worthy of notice.   The stipites, or younger
 branches, are directed  for use in the Pharm., and they
 may be employed either fresh or dried, making a pro-
portionate allowance in the dose  of the latter for some
diminution of its powers by drying.  In autumn, when
the leaves are fallen, the sensible qualities of the plant
are said to  be the  strongest; and, on this  account, it
 hould be gathered in autumn rather than spring.  Dul-
 amara does not manifest those strong narcotic qualj-
 ties which are common to many of the night-shndes; it
 s, hoxvever, very generally admitted to be a medicine
}f considerable efficacy.  Murray says it promotes all
Hie secretions ; Haller observes, "that it partakes of  the
■nilder powers of  the night shade joined to a resolvent
     206
  and saponaceous quality;  and the opinion of Bergius
  seems to coincide wilh that of Murray :—" Virtus: pel-
  lens urinam, sudorum, menses, lochia, sputa ; mundifi-
  cans."  The diseases in which we find it recommended
  by  different authors, are extremely various ; but Ber-
  gius confines its use to rheumatisms, retentio mensium,
  et lochiorum.  Dulcamara appears, also, by tlie experi-
  ments of Razoux and others, to have been  used with
  advantage in some obstinate cutaneous affections.  Dr.
  Cullen says, " We have employed only the stipites, or
  slender twigs of  this  shrub; but, as we have collected
  them, they come out very unequal, some parcels of
  them being very mild and inert, and others of them con-
  siderably acrid.  In the latter state, we have employed
  a decoction of them in the  cure of rheumatism, some-
  times with advantage, but  at other times without any
  effect.  Though  the dulcamara is here inserted in the
  catalogue of diuretics, it has  never appeared to us as
  powerful in this way ; for, in all the trials made here,
  it has hardly ever been observed to be in any measure
  diuretic." This plant is generally given in decoction,
  or infusion,  and, to prevent its exciting nausea, it is
  ordered to be diluted with milk, and to^hegin with small
  doses, as  large  doses have been found to produce very
  dangerous symptoms.  Razoux directs the following ■
  R.  Slipitum dulcam. rec. drac. ss in aquae font. unc.
  16 coquater ad unc. 8.  This was taken in the dose of
  ihree or four drachms, diluted  xvith an equal  quantity
 of  milk, every  four hours.   Linnaeus directs two
 drachms, or half an  ounce of the dried stipites, to be
 infused half an hour in  boiling water, and then to be
  boiled ten minutes; and of this decoction he gives txvo
 teacups full morning and evening.  For the formula of
 a decoction of this plant,  according to the  London
 Pharm. See Decoctum dulcamara.
   Solanum fq:tidum.   The thorn-apple plant. See
 Datura stramonium.
   Solanum lethale.  See Atropa belladonna.
   Solanum lignosum.  See Solanum dulcamara.
   Solanum  lycopersicum.  The love-apple  plant.
 The fruit of this, called Tomata and love-apple, is so
 much esteemed by the Portuguese  and  the Spaniards,
 lhat it is an ingredient in almost all their soups and
 sauces, and is by them considered  as cooling  and nu-
 tritive.
   Solanum melongena.  The systematic name of the
 mad-apple plant.  Its oblong egg-shaped fruit is often
 boiled in their native  places, in soups and sauces, the
 same as the love-apple;  is accounted very nutritive,
 and is much sought after by the votaries of Venus.
   Solanum nicrum.   The systematic  name of the
 garden night-shade, which is highly deleterious.
   Solanum sanctum.  The systematic name  of the
 Palestine  night-shade.  The fruit of which is globular,
 and in Egypt much eaten by the inhabitants.
   Solanum tuberosum.  Batatas; Solanum cscn-
 lentum ;  Kippa ;  Kelengu ; Papas Americanus ; Pap-
 pus  Americanus; Convolvulus  Indicus.   The  potato
 plant, a native  of Peru, first brought into Europe by
 Sir Francis Drake, 1486, and planted in London.  See
 Potato.
  Solanum xtsicarium.  The winter-cherry plant is
 so called by Caspar Bauhin.  See Physalis a'lkekengi.
  SOLDANELLA.  (A  solidando;  from its uses  in
 healing fresh wounds.)  The sea convolvulus. See
 Convolvulus soldanella.
  SO'LEN.   EuiXr/y.  A  tube  or channel.  A cradle
 for a broken limb.
  SOLENA'RIUM.  (Diminutive of cuXnv, a  tube *i
 A catheter.
  SO'LEUS.   (From  solea, a sole: from  its  shape
 being like tlie sole-fish.)  See Gastrocnemius internus.
  SOLIDA'GO.  (From solido, to make firm: so called
 from its uses in consolidating xvounds.)  The name of
 a genus of plants  iu the Linnaean system,  (lass, Syn
gcnesia;  Order,  Polygamia superflua.   The  herb
coinfrey.
  Solidago viroaurea.  The systematic name ofthe
golden  rod.  Virga aurea; Herbe. dorea; Conyza coma
aurca; Symphytum ; Petraum ; Elichrysum ; Conso-
lida saraccnica  and aurea.   Golden rod.  The leaves
and flowers of this plant are recommended as aperients
and corroborants  in urinary obstructions, ulcerations
ofthe kidneys and bladder, and it is said by some to be
particularly useful in stopping internal haemorrhages.
  SOLIDS.   In anatomy, are  the  bones, ligaments,
membranes, muscles, nerves, and vessels. 
SOM
SOP
    SOLITARIUS.  Solitary.   Applied to xvorms in the
  tody, and to leaves, stems, footstalk, &.c. when either
  single on a plant, or only one in the same place.
    SO'LIUM.  (From solus, alone: so called because it
  Infests the body singly.)  The tape-xvorm. See Toeiu'a.
    Solomon's seal.   See Convallaria  polygonatum.
    SDLSE'QUIUM.  (From sol, the sun, and sequor,
  to folloxv: so called because it turns  its flowers toxvard
  the sun.) Marigold or turnsole.  Sec Heliotropium.
    SOLVENT.  See Menstruum.
    SOLUTION.  Solutio.  An intimate commixture
  of solid bodies with fluids, into one seemingly homoge-
  neous liquor.  The dissolving fluid is called a men-
  struum or solvent.
    SOLIITI'VA.  (From solvo, to loosen.)  Laxative
  medicines, senile purgatives.
    SO.MMITE.  See Ncphcline.
    SOMNAMBULISM.  See Ondrodynia.
    SOMNIFEROUS.    (Somniferus;  from  somnus,
  sleep, andfero, to bring.) Having the power of inducing
  sleep.
   [Somnium.  This  is  a term  introduced  by Dr.
  Mitchill, to designate the state betxveen  sleeping and
  waking,  in which persons perform acts of xvliich they
  are unconscious.  It includes  all those  states of the
  system in xvhich persons xvalk, talk, sing, dream, ic.
  during which they  are neither  perfectly asleep nor
  awake.   This state of  Somnium  may be divided Into
  Symptomatic, and Idiopathic,
              /. Symptomatic Somnium.
   1. Somnium, from indigestion (a dyspepsia), xvhen
  from too much food, or too feeble a condition of the
  stomach, tliere is a fermentation with acidity, eructa-
  tions, and pain or uneasiness, followed by troublesome
 dreams.
   2. Somnium from the nightmare  (ab incuho), sup-
  posed to arise from some impediment to the free circu-
  lation ofthe blood through the heart and hings; always
  unpleasant and  sometimes frightful.  The memory
  here is active, but tlie will is suspended, and the efforts
  to exert it fails.  Persons are supposed to have died in
  fits of incubus.
   3.  Somnium from effusions of water in tlie chest (ab
  hydrothorace), believed to proceed from anxiety about
  the vital parts, caused by lymph in the pericardium or
  thorax. Terrifying dreams rousing the patient suddenly
 are the common consequences of this disorder.  This
 and the preceding are the Oneirodynia of Nosologisis.
   4. Somnium from a  feverish state of  the body  (a
 febre), caused by an undue and irregular excitement of
 tlie brain.  This is  knoxvn by the name of high deliri-
 um, or sometimes furor.
   5. Somnium from debility (cum debilitate), where
 there is  not excitement enough  to embody ideas in
 steady trains.  Memory and imagination act in a con-
 fused and irregular manner.  Loxv delirium.
  6. Somnium from fainting (cum asphyxia), where,
 though there is an exhaustion of vital power, and the
 individual  appears lo be dead, there is life enough in
 the body to prevent  putrefaction.  The animal func-
 tions do not seem to be so much depressed as the vital;
 for, on recovery, the individual relates what he xvilness-
 ed during the trance in which  lie lay, while in the
 very lowest ebb of life.
  7. Somnium from fresh and vivid occurrences (a re-
 centibus), as xvhen dreams can be traced to some con-
 versation or occurrence of the day, or to some actual
 condition ofthe body.  Common dreaming.
  8. Somnium from old and forgotten occurrences (ab
 obsoletis), when long-lost images are  renewed to the
 memory, and dead friends are brought before us.
  9. Somnium from an overloaded brain (a plethora),
 with symptoms bordering on epilepsy, apoplexy, and
 catalepsy.  Sometimes called typhomania.
  10.  Somnium of a  prospective character (a prophe-
 tia), when the dreamer is engaged in seeing funeral pro-
 cessions, and  foretelling events by a sort of second
 sight, as it is called.  This disease is symptomatic of a
 peculiar state  of body, running  in families like gout,
 consumption and insanity.
  11. Somnium, from vivid impressions on the inter-
 nal organ of sight (a visione), where visual images are
so strong, that the dreamers are called Seers, because
they see so much, and their sights are  termed Visions,
inasmuch as the eyes are so peculiarly concerned.
  12. Somnium from  the conditions of other corporeal
organs (a sexu velpruritu), causing dreams.
    13. Somnium  (a respiratione) from inhaling nitrous
  oxide gas, depriving  the person of consciousness and
  xvill, aud inspiring delightful sensations.
    14. Somnium (a toxico) from doses of opium, hyos-
  cyamus datura, and other narcotic plants, taken into
  the stomach, disturbing the xvill and exciting  strange
  fancies.
    15. Somnium from drunkenness (ab ebrietate), caused
  by drinking  spirituous liquors,  overcoming conscious-
  ness and spontaneity.
               //.  Idiophalhic Somnium.
    1.  Somnium, from abstraction, where the internal
  senses are so engaged  that there is no knowledge, or an
  imperfect one, of the passing events, constituting what
  is termed Reverie ; where fanciful trains of the thought
  arc indulged at considerable length.
    2.  Somnium, with partial or universal lunacy (cum
  insalivate), vitiating tlie mind with some fundamental
  error on a particular subject, or disturbing aud con-
  founding all the operations of the animal mind. This
  characterizes some forms of madness and melancholy.
    3.  Somnium, with talking (cum scrmone), where
  the ideas of the mind are uttered in audible words, as
  in a xx akeful state: called frequently, Somniloquism, or
  sleep talking on ordinnry subjects.
    4.  Somnium,  xvith xvalking  (cum  ambulatione),
  xvhere the person rises from bed, walks about, fre-
  quently gees abroad, without the smallest recollection
  that any volition  had been exerted on ihe occasion :
  tlie whole affair is forgotten, and not a trace left in the
  memory: this is called somnambulism.
   5. Somnium, with invention  (cum inventione), as
  when unbidden ideas rise in the  mind in a methodical
  series, and form a poetical sonnet, different from any
  thing knoxvn before, and unattainable by the waking
  poxvers.  These are sometimes  reduced to writing at
  the time and  found afterxvard, though the act of com-
  mitting them to paper is generally forgotten.  On other
  occasions the  memory  preserves the particulars ol'such
  dreams.
   6.  Somnium, (cum  hallucinatione) with mistaken
  impressions ol" sight,  and sometimes of  hearing,  so
  strong as to enforce a conviction of their reality.   Many
  visions, conversations, and mistaken representations
 gain currency in this way.   The patients being unwit-
 tingly deceived themselves, propagate with an honest
 zeal their delusions, and labour to gain the assent  of
 their friends and acquaintances.
   7. Somnium, with singing (cum niusica),  wherein
 the person, though uuable to raise a note xvhen awake,
 becomes  capable in the somnial  condition of uttering
 sounds in most melodious accents.
   8. Somnium, xvith ability to pray and preach (cum re-
 ligione), or to address the Supreme Being and human
 auditors in  an instructive and eloquent manner, xvith-
 out any recollection of  having been  so employed, and
 with utter incompetency to perform  such exercises of
 devotion and instruction xvhen awake.
   See  these states of Somnium, illustrated by  cases.
 published in New-York,  in 1815, under the  title of
 " Devotional Somnium," &c. containing the account
 of Rachel Baker, Sec.  Notes from Dr. M.'s lectures
 on Mat. Med.  A.]
  SONCHl'TES.  (From  ooyxos, the sow -thistle: so
 named from its resemblance  to the .sonchus.)  The
 herb hawkweed.
  SO'NCHUS. (Ilapa ro ouov, xtttv; from its whole-
 some juice.)  The  name of a genus of plants in the
 Linnean system.   Class, Syngenesia;  Order, Polyga-
 mia aqualis.  The sow-thistle.
  Sonchus oleracecs.  The systematic name of the
 sow-thistle.  Most  of the species of sonchus abound
 xvith a milky  juice, which  is very bitter, and said to
 possess diuretic virtues.  This is sonietimes employed
 with that intention.  Boiled it may be eaten as a sub
 stitute for cabbage.
  SOOT.  See Fuligo.
  SO'PHIA.  (From o-offloc, wise: bo named from its
 great virtues in stopping fluxes.)  Flix-weed or  flux-
 weed.  See Sisymbrium.
  Sophia chirurgorum.  See Sisymbrium Sophia.
  SOPHISTICATION.  A term employed in  phar
mar.y, to signify the counterfeiting or adulterating any
medicine.  This practice unhappily obtains with  mosl
dealers in drugs, Sec.; and the cheat  is carried on so
artificially by many as to prevent a discovery even by
persons of the most discerning faculties.
                                        391 
SOR                                            SPA
  SOPHO'RA.  (A name of most whimsical origin.
 Sophera is, according to Prosper Alpinus, the Egyptian
 denomination  of a  species of cassia,  the  Cassia so-
 Vhcra of Linnaeus, nearly related to this genus.  Lin-
 U2us, spelling  it  sophora, calls it a genus  sophorum,
 or of wise men ; as teaching that separate stamens, in
 the papilionaceous  family, if ever  the limits of that
 family can be determined, afford so decisive a mark of
 discrimination, as almost to exclude the plants furnish-
 ed with such,  from  the same natural  class, or order,
 with those the  filaments of which are combined.)  The
 name of a genus of plants.  Class, Decandria; Order,
 Monogynia.
  Sophora heptaphylla.  The systematic name of
 the shrub, tlie root and  seeds of xvhich are  sometimes
 called anticholerica ; they are  both  intensely bitter,
 and said to  he  useful in cholera, colic, and dysury.
  SOPHRONISTE'RES.  (From autppovttu, -lo  be-
 come wise: so called because they do not appear till
 after puberty.)   The last of the grinding-teeth.
  SOPIE'NTIA.  (From  sopio, to make sleep.)   Me-
 dicines xvhich procure sleep.
  SO'POR.  Profound  sleep.
  SOPORIFEROUS,    (Soporiferus;  from  sopor,
 sleep, and fero,  to  hear.)  A term given to xvhatever
 induces sleep.  See Anodyne.
  So'ra.  (Arabian.)   The nettle-rash.
  Sorbastre'lla.  (From  sorbeo,  lo suck up; be-
 cause it slops  haemorrhages.)  The herb burnet.  See
 Pimpinella saxifraga.
  SORBATE.   A  compound of sorbic or malic acid,
 with the salifiable basis.
  SORBIC ACID.   (Acidum sorbicum; from sorbus,
 the mountain  ash, from the  berries of which it is ob-
 tained.)  " Tlie  acid of apples called malic, may be
 obtainea most  conveniently and in greatest purity from
 the berries of the mountain ash, called sorbus, or pyrus
 aucuparia, and hence  the present  name, sorbic acid.
 This was supposed to be  a new and peculiar acid by
 Donovan and  Vauquelin, who xvrote  good  disserta-
 tions upon it.   But it now appears that tlie sorbic and
pure malic acids  ate identical.
  Bruise the ripe berries in a mortar, and then squeeze
 them  in a linen bag.  They yield nearly half their
 weight of juice, of the specific gravity of 1.077. This vis-
 cidjuice, by remaining for about a fortnight in a warm
 temperature, experiences the vinous fermentation, and
 xvould yield a  portion  of alkohol.  By this change, it
 has become bright, clear, and passes easily through the
 filter, xvhile the sorbic aci 1 itself is not altered.   Mix
 the clear juice  with filtered solution of acetate of lead.
 Separate the precipitate on  a filter, and xvash it with
 cold xvater.  A large quantity of boiling water is  then
 to be poured upon the filter, and allowed to drain into
 glass jars.  At the end of some hours, the solution de-
 posites crystals of great lustre and beauty. Wash these
 with cold water, dissolve  them in boiling water, filter,
 and crystallize.  Collect  the nexv  crystals, and  boil
 Ihem for half an hour in 2.3 times their weight of sul-
 phuric  acid, specific gravity 1.0U0, supplying xvater as
 fast as it evaporates, and stirring the mixture diligently
 wilh a glass tod.  The  clear liquor is to be decanted
 inlo a tall narrow glass jar, and while still hot, a stream
 of sulphuretted hydrogen  is to be passed through it.
 Wiien the lead has been  nil throxvn doxvn in a sulphu-
 ret, the  liquor is to be filtered, and then boiled  in an
 open vessel to  dissipate the adhering sulphuretted hy-
 drogen.  It is noxv a solution of sorbic acid.
  When it is evaporated to the consistence of a syrup,
 it forms manimelated masses of a crystalline structure.
 It still contains a considerable quantity of xvater, and
 deliquesces when exposed to  the air.  Its solution is
 transparent, colourless, void  of smell, but  powerfully
 acid lo tlie taste.  Lime  and barytes  waters  are not
 precipitated by solution of the sorbic acid, although the
 sorbate of lime is  nearly insoluble.   One of the  most
 characteristic properties of this acid, Is the precipitate
 which it gives with the acetate of lead, which is at first
 xvhite and  flocculent,  but afterward  assumes  a bril
 ."ant ciystalline appearance.  With potassa, soda, and
 ammonia,  it  forms crystallizable salts containing an
 excess of acid."
  SO'RBUS.  (From sorbeo, to suck  up; because its
 fruit stops  fluxes.)   The name of a genus of plants in
 the Linnaean system.   Class, Icosttndria; Order,  Tri-
 gynia.  The service-tree.
  Sorbus  aucuparia.  The wild seivice-trce.  The
      298
 berries of this  plant are adstringent, and, it Is said.
■have been  found serviceable in allaying the pain ot
 calculous affections in the kidneys.
  SO'RDES.   When the matter discharged from ul-
 cers is  rather  viscid, glutinous, of a broxvnish-rnd co-
 lour, somexvhat resembling the grounds of coffee, m
 grumous blood mixed  with water, it is thus named.
 Sordes, Saines, and Ichor, are all of them much more
 foetid than purulent matter, and none of them are alto
 gether free from acrimony; but that which is generally
 termed Ichor, is by  much the most acrid of them, being
 frequently so sharp and corrosive  as  to destroy large
 quantities of the neighbouring parts.
   Sore, bay. A disease which Dr. Mosely considers as
 a true cancer, commencing with an ulcer.  It is ende-
 mic at the Bay  of Honduras.
   SORE-THROAT.  See Cynanche.
   SORREL.  See Rumex acetosa.
   Sorrel, French.   See Rumex scutatus.
   Sorrel, round-leaved.  See Rumez scutatus.
   Sorrel, wood.  See Oxalis acetosella.
   SOUND.  1. An  instrument which  surgeons intro-
 duce through the urethra into the bladder, to discover
 whether there is a stone in this viscus or not
   2.  See Hearing.
   SOUR DOCK.   See Rumex acetosa.
   SOUTHERNWOOD.  See Artemioia abrotanum
   SOW-BREAD.  See Cyclamen.
   SPA.  A town in France, In  the department of the
 Ourte, famous for its mineral water, which appears to
 be a very  strongly acidulous chalybeate,  containing
 more iron and carbonic acid than  any other mineral
 spring.   What applies  to the use of chalybeates will
 apply to this water.
   SP ADIX. An elongated receptacle or flower-bearing
 column, which emerges, mostly, from a spaiheor sheath,
 as it does in Arum maculatum, Calla  alhiopica,  and
 palustris ;  but the  Acorus calamus has a spadix with-
 out  any sheath.
   Tbe inflorescence of palms, and some  other plants,
 is a branched spadix ; as the Chamarops humilis, Mu-
 sa, Sec.
   Spain, pellitory of.  See Anthemis pyrethrum.
   Spanishfiy.  See Cantharis.
   Spanish liquorice.  See Glycyrrhiza.
   Spar,fluor.  See Fluor.
   Spar, ponderous.  See Heavy-spar, and  Barytes.
   Spar, tabular.  See  Tabular spar.
   SPARGANO'SIS.  (From orrapyaw, to  swell.)   A
 milk abscess.
   Sparry anhydrite.  A sulphate of lime.  See Anhy-
 drite.
   SPARRY IRON.  A carbonate of  iron, of a pale
 yellowish gray colour, found  in  limestone in Eng-
 land, Scotland, and Ireland, and iu large quantities in
 Hessia.
   SPARSUS.  Dispersed, irregularly scattered.  Fre
 quently  used in  medicine,  anatomy, and  botany, to
 eruptions, glands, leaves, flower-stalks.
   SPA'RTIUM.  CLiraoitov of Dioscorides: so called
 from (7irap7f, n rope; Because of the use of Ihe long,
 slender, lough blanches, or bark, in making cordage.)
 The name of a genus of plants in the Linna-an system.
 Class, Diadelphia; Order,  Decandria.
   Spartium scoparium.  The systematic name of the
 common broom.  Genista. The tops and leaves of
 this indigenous plant, Spartium—foliis temctis solita-
 riisque,  ramis inermibus  angulatis, of Linnaeus, an
 the  pails thai are employed medicinally; they have a
 bilter taste, and arc recommended  for their purgative
 and diuretic qualities,  in hydropic cases.
   SPASM1 Spasmodic diseases.   The third order of
 the  Class  Neuroses,  of Cullen; characterized by a
 morbid contraction or  motion of muscular fibres.
   SPASMODIC.  Spusmodicus. Belonging to a spasm,
 or convulsion.
   Spasmodic colic.   See Colica.
   SPASMOLOGY.   (Spasmologia ;  from tnratrpos, a
 spasm, and Xoyos, a discourse.)  A treatise on convul
 sions.
   SPASMUS.   (Spasmus; from onaa,  to draw.)  A
 cramp, spasm, or  convulsion.   An involuntary  con-
 traction of  the muscular fibres, or that  state of the con
 traction of muscles which is not spontaneously dis
 posed to alternate wilh relaxation, is  properly termed
 spasm.  When the contractions  alternate  xvith relax-
| ation. and are frequently and pretematurally repeated 
SPE
SPH
they are called convulsions.  Spasms are distinguished
by  authors into clonic and tonic  spasms.  In clonic
spasms, xvhicli  are the true convulsions, the contrac
lions and relaxations are alternate, as in epilepsy ; but
in tonic spasms  the  member remains rigid, as  in
locked jaxv.  See Convulsion, Tonic spasm, and Te-
tanus.
  Spasmus cynicus.  Sardonic laugh.  A  convulsive
affection of the musclesof the face and lips  on both
sides, xvhich inx-oluntarily forces tlie muscles of those
parts into a species of grinning distortion.  If one side
only be  affected, the disorder is nominated tortura oris.
When the masseter, buccinator, temporal, nasal, and
labial muscles,  are involuntarily excited to action,  or
contorted by contraction or relaxation, they  form a
species of malignant sneer.   It sonietimes arises from
eating hemlock, or other acrid poisons, or succeeds to
an apoplectic stroke.
  SPATHA.   (From oxa0!z, a slice, or ladle.)   A bota-
nical term.  A  shealli, or covering of an immature
floxver xvhich bursts longitudinally,  and is more or less
remote  from  tlie floxver.  From the number of mem-
branes, which are  called valves, and  of the floxvers,
and their duration, it is named,
  1.  Spatha univalvis, having only one membranous
leaf; as in Arum maculatum, and Crocus sativus.
  2. Bn-dlris, in Stratiates alioides.
  3. Dimidiata, or  lacera, there being only one valve,
and that covering the floxver only partially; as in Izta
unifiora, and africana.
  4  Vaga, the common sheath enclosing several par-
tial ones ;  as in Iris germanica, and hclonica.
  5.  Unifiora, containing only one floxver; as the JVar-
dssus  poeticus,  Pseudo-narcissus,  and  Amaryllis
formosissima.
  6.  Bifiora,  with  txvo; as in Alpina racemosa, and
Mora a  vegeta.
  7.  Multiflora; as in Allium, Narcissus jonquilla,
and Pancreatium carabeum.
  8.  Spatha persistens, remaining with the fruit; as
in Heliconia bibai.
  9.  Marcescens, withering  before or soon after tlie
flowering; as in Allia and Leucojum vcrnum.
  SPATHOME'LE.    (From  oTrafln, a sword,  and
unAn, a  probe.)   An edged probe.
  SPA'TULA.  (Diminutive of spatha, a broud in-
strument.)  An instrunient for spreading salve.  Also
a name  of the herb spurgexvort, from its broad leaves.
  SPATULATUS.  Spatulate: applied to leaves, Sec
of a roundish figure, tapering into an oblong base; as
in Silene otites.
  SPEARMINT.  See Mentha viridis.
  Spearwort, water.   See Ranunculus flammula.
  SPECIFIC.   Specificus.  A remedy that  has  an in-
fallible efficacy in the  cure of disorders.  The exist-
snee of such remedies is doubted.
  Specific gravity.   See Gravity, specific.
  SPECTLLUM.  (From  specio,  to  examine.)  A
probe.
  SPECULUM.  (From specio, to view.)   An instru-
ment for opening or obtaining a view of parts within
each other; as Speculum oculi, Speculum oris, Specu-
lum am, Sec.
  Speculum  am.  An instrument  for distending the
anus, while an operation is performed upon the parts
within.
  Speculum  matricis.  An instrument to assist in
any manual operation belonging to the womb.
  Speculum  oculi.   An instrument  used by oculists
to keep the eyelids open and the eye fixed.
  Speculum  oris.  An instrument to force open the
mouth.
  Speculum  veneris.  See Achillea millefolium.
  SPEECH.  See Voice.
  SPEEDWELL.   See Veronica.
  Speedwell, female.   See Antirrhinum elatine.
  Speedwell, mountain.  See Veronica.
  SPERM A-CETI.  (From enrcpaa, seed, and cete, or
cetus, the whale.)  See Physeter macrocephalus.
  SPERMA'TIC.  (Spermaticus; from oirtppa,seed.)
Belonging to  the testicle and ovary; as the sperma-
tic artery, chord, and veins.
  SPERMATOCELE.  (From  inrrpua, seed, and
xyXn, a tumour.)  Epididymis distensa. A swelling
of the testicle or epididymis from an accumulation of
semen.  It is knoxvn  by a  sxvelling of those organs,
pain extending to the loins without  inflammation.
  Bpermatopoe'tica.   (From sirtpua, and neitu, 10
 make.)  Medicines xvhich increase the generation of
 seed.
  SPERMORRIKE'A.   (From  otrtppa,  semen, ana
 pew, fluo.)   The name of a genus of diseases in Good'*
 Nosology.  Class,  Gcnetica;  Order, Ccnotica.  Semi
 mil flux.  It has txvo species, viz. Spermorrhaa ento
 nica, and atonica.
  SPHACELI'SMUS.    (From  aipaxcXi^u,  to  gan
 grene.)  1. A gangrene.
  2. A phrenitis.
  SPHACELUS.    (From oipaxu,  to destroy.)  A
 mortification of nny part.  See Gangrene.
  SPHiE'NOIDES.  See Sphenoides.
  SPHjERI'TIS.   (From  oqjatpn, a globe: so cahed
 from its round head.)  Spharocephalia elutior.  Spha-
 rocephalus.  The globe-thistle.
  SPH/EROCE PllALUS.  See Spharilis.
  SPHiEKOMA.   (From oqjatpa, a globe.)  A fleshy,
 globular protuberance.
  SPH.rERULlTE.  A brown ond grny-colourcd  mi-
 neral,  found in imbedded roundish balls  and grains,
 iu pearlstone and pitchstone porphyries, near Schom-
 nitz.
  SPHE'NO.   Names compounded of this xvoid  be-
 long to the sphenoid bone.
  Spheno-maxillaris.  An artery, and a fissure of
 tlie orbit of ihe eye, is so called.
  Spheno-salpingo-staphylinus.  See Circumfirxus.
  Spiieno-staPhylinus.   See Levator palati.
  SPHENOIDAL.  Sphenoidale.  Belonging to  the
 sphenoid bone.
  Sphenoidal  suture.  Sutura sphenoidalis.   The
 sphenoidal and ethmoidal sutures aie tliose xvliich
 surround the many  irregular processes of these two
 bones,  and join them to each other and to  the rest.
  SPHENOIDES OS.   (From otbnv, a  wedge, and
 ci<5oj, a likeness;  because it is fixed  in tlie cranium
 like a xvedge.)   Os  cuneiforme;  Os multiforme;  Os
 azygos;  Papillare os ; Basilare os ; Os polymorphos.
 Pterygoid bone.  The os sphenoides, or cuneiforme, as
 it is called from  ils xvedge-like situation amidst  the
 other bones of the head, is of a more  irregular figure
 than any other bone. It has been compared to a  bat
 with its wings extended.   This resemblance  is bul
 faint, but it xvould be difficult perhaps lo find any thing
 it resembles more.
  We distinguish, in Ihis bone, its body or middle part,
 and its wings or sides, which are much  moie extensive
 than its body.
  Each of its xvings or lateral  processes is divided into
 txvo parts.  Of these, the uppermost and  most consi
derabie portion, helping to form the deepest part of the
temporal fossa on eacli side, is called the temporal pro-
cess.  The other portion makes a part of the orbit, and
is therefore named  the orbitar process.   The back
part of each xving, from its running out sharp to meet
the  os petrosum, has been called the spinous process;
and the two processes, which stand out almost perpen-
dicular to the basis of the skull, have been named pte-
rygoid or aliform  processes, though they ma> be said
raihcr to resemble the legs than the wings of the bat.
Each of these  processes has txvo plates and a  middle
fossa facing backwards; of these plates, the external
one is the broadest, and the internal one the  longest.
The loxver end  of the internal plate forms a kind of
hook, over which passes the round tendon of the mus-
culus circumflexus palati.  Besides these, we observe
a sharp middle ridge, xvhich stands out  from the mid-
dle of the bone. The forepart of it, where it joins the
nasal lamella of  the ethmoidal bone, is thin  and
straight;  the lower  part of it is thicker,  and  is  re
ceived  into the vomer.
  The  cavities, observable  on  the external surface of
the  bone, are where it helps lo  form the temporal,
nasal, and orbitar fossae.
  It has likexvise txvo fossa; in its pterygoid processes
Behind the edge, which separates these txvo fossae, we
observe a small groove, made by a branch of tlie supe-
rior maxillary  nerve, in its passage to the temporal
muscle.  Besides these, it has other depressions, whicli
serve chiefly for ihe origin of the muscles.
  Its foramina are four on each side.   Tlie three first
serve for the passage of the optic, superior maxillary,
and inferior  maxillary nerves •  the fourth transmits
the largest artery of the dura mater.  On each side we
obseivea considerable fissure, which, from its situa
                                        299 
SP1                                               SPI
lioo,  may be  called  the superior orbitar  fissure.
Through it pass the third and fourth pair of nerves, a
branch  of the fifth, and likexvise ihe sixth  pair.
Lastly, at the basis of each pterygoid process, we ob-
serve a foramen  which is named pterygoidean, and
sometimes Vidian, from Vidius, who first described it.
Through it passes a branch of the external carotid, to
be distributed to the nose.
  The os sphenoides, on its internal surface, affords
tliree fossae.  Two of  these  are considerable ones;
they arc  formed  by the  lateral processes, and make
part of the lesser fossae of the basis of the skull.  The
third, which is  smaller, is on  the top of the body of
the bone, and is called sella turcica, from its lesem-
blance to a Turkish saddie. In this the pituitary gland
:s  placed.  At each  of ils four angles  is a process.
They are  called the clinoid processes, and are distin-
guished by their situation into anterior and posterior
processes. The txvo latter are frequently united into one.
  Within the substance of the os  sphenoides, imme-
diately under the  sella turcica, xve find  txvo cavities,
separated  by a thin bony lamella.  These are ths sphe-
noidal sinuses.   They are lined with the pituitary
membrane, and, like the  frontal sinuses, separate  a
mucus which passes into the  nostrils.  In some sub-
jects, there is only one cavity;  in others, though more
rarely, xve find three.
  In infants, tlie os sphenoides is composed of three
pieces, one of which forms the body of the bone and
its  pterygoid processes, and the other txvo its lateral
processes.  The clinoid  processes may even then be
perceived in a cartilaginous state, though  some xvriters
have asserted the contrary; but we observe no appear-
ance of any sinus.
  This bone is connected with  all the  bones of the
cranium, and likexvise with  the ossa maxillaria, ossa
malarum, ossa palati, and vomer.  Its- uses may be
collected  from the description xve have given of it.
  SPHINCTER.   (From  oqtiylu, to shut up.)  The
name of several muscles, the office of which is to shut
or close the aperture around which they arc placed.
  Sphincter ani.  Sphincter externus, of Albinus and
Douglas.   Sphincter cutancus, of Winslow ; and coc-
cigio-ciitani-sphincter, of  Dumas.  A single  muscle
ot  the anus, which shuts the passage through tlie ami?
into the rectum, and  pulls down the bulb of the ure-
thra, by which it  assists  in ejecting the urine  and
semen.  It arises from the skin and fat that surrounds
Ihe verge of the anus on both sides, nearly as far as tho
tuberosity of the ischium;  the fibres arc gradually col-
lected into an oval form, and  surround the extremity
of the rectum.  It is  inserted by a narroxv point into
the perineum, accelerators urinae, and transversi pe-
rinei; and behind into the extremity ofthe os coccygis,
by an acute termination.
  Sphincter ani cutaneus.  See Sphincter ani.
  Sphincter ani externus.  See Sphincter ani.
  Sphincter ani internus.   Albinus and Douglas
eall the circular  fibres of the muscular coat  of the
rectum, which surround  its extremity, by  this name.
  Sphhicter cutaneus.  See Sphincter ani.
  Sphincter externus.  See Sphincter ani.
  Sphincter oul*.  The  muscle which contracts
the top of the throat.
  Sphincter labiorum.  See Orbicularis oris.
  Sphincter oris.  See Orbicularis oris.
  Sphincter vagin.*:.  Constrictor cunni, of Albinus.
Second muscle of the clitoris, of Douglas; and anulo-
syndesmo-clitoridien,  of Dumas.  This muscle arises
from the sphincter ani and from the posterior side of
the x-azina, near the perineum; from thence it runs up
the side of the vagina near its external orifice, opposite
to  the nympha-, covers the corpus cavernosum, and ii
inserted into the crus and body, or union of the crura
clitoridis.  Its use is tocontract the mouth ofthe vagina.
  Sphinqo'nta.  (From oqjiyfu, to hind.) Astringent
medicines.
  SPHONDY'LIUM.   (From cttovouXoc,  vertebra;
named from the shape of its root, or probably because
it was used against the bite of a serpent, called o-rtoviv-
Xts-)  This is supposed  to be the branckursine.  See
Acanthus mollis.
  SPHRAGIDE.  A species of Lemnian earth.
  SPHRONGIDIUM.  8ee Columnula.
  SPICA.  A spike.   I. A  species of inflorescence,
Mnsistingof one common stalk bearing numerous flow-
ers, all ranged along it without any, or  having  very
small partial stalks, is the  flower-stalk ofthe greater
plantain.  From its figure, the situation of the floxvers,
and its vesture, it is called,
   1. Cylindrica; as iu Plantago media, and albicans.
   2. Ovata, in Sanguisorba officinalis.
   3. Articulata, with joints; as in Salicornea herb*-
cea, and Polygonum articulatum.
   4. Conjugata, txvo spikes going from the  summit of
the peduncle; as in Heliotropium europaum and par
vifiorum.
   5. Ramosa,  divided  into  branches;  as  in Chenopo
dium bonus henricus, and Osmunda.
   6. Imbricata; as in Salvia hispanica.
   7. Sccunda,  tlie flowers leaning all to one side; as in
Anchusa officinalis.
   8. Interrupta, in separate groupes; as in Betomca
officinalis, and Gomphrena  interrupta.
   9. Disticha, two series of spikes; as in  Gladiolus
alopecuroides.
'   10. Tcrminalis; asin Lavendula.
   11. Axillares; asin Justitia spinosa.
   12. Foliosa, leaflets between the floxvers; as in Agri-
monia eupatoria.
   13. Comosa, having a leafy bundle at the apex; as in
Lavendula stachas, and Bromelia ananas.
   14. Ciliata, hairs between the flowers; as in Nardus
dliaris.
   II. An ear of corn.
   III. A bandage resembling an ear of corn.
   Spica brevis.  The Alopecuris pratensis
   Spica celtica.   See Valeriana celtica.
   Spica fjemina.  Common lavender.
   Spica indica.  See Nardus indica.
   Spica inguinalis.   A bandage for ruptures in  tins
groin.
   Spica  inguinalis  duplex.   Double bandage  for
ruptures.
   Spica mas.  Broad-leaved 'avender.
   Spica nardi.  See Nardus indica.
   Spica simplex.   A common roller or bandage.
   SPICULA.  Asplkelet.   A  term applied exclusix-ely
to grasses that have many  florets on one calyx, such
florets ranged on a little stalk, constituting the spikelet,
xvliich is therefore  a part of the  flower itself,  and nol
of the efflorescence; as iu Briza minor, and Poa aqua
tica.  Locusta means the same as spicula.
   SPIGELIA.  (So called  by Linnieus in commemo-
ration of an old botanist, Adrian Spigelius, who wrote
Isagoge in rem herbariam, in 1G06.)  1. The name of
a genus of plants in the Linnaean system.  Class, Pen-
tandria ; Order, Monogynia.
   2. The name in some pharmacopoeias  for the Spi-
gclia marilandica.
   Spicelia anthelmia.  The systematic name of the
spigelia of some pharmacopoeias. It is directed as an
anthelmintic;  its virtues are  very similar to those of
the Indian pink.  See Spige liamarilandica.
   Spigelia lonicera. See Spigelia marilandica.
  Spigelia  marilandica.    Spigelia lonicera.   Pe-
rennial xvorm-grass, or Indian pink.   Spigelia—caule
tetragono, foliis omnibus, opposilis, of Linnaeus. The
whole of this plant, but most commonly the root, is em
ployed as an anthelmintic by the  Indians, and inhabit
ants of America.  Dr. Hope has written in  favour of
this plant, in continued and remitting low worm fevers.
Besides its  property of destroying the worms  in  the
prima- viae, it acts as a purgative.
   Spigelion lobe.  See Liver.
  SPIGELIUS, Adrian, xvns born at Brussels, in 157S.
He studied  at Louvain, and afterward  at  Padua,
where  he took his degree.    He  became thoroughly
skilled  in every branch of his  profession, particularly
in anatomy and surgery;  and afler  travelling some
time to the different schools  in Germany, he settled in
Moravia, where he  was soon  appointed -ahysiclan to
the Stales of the Province.  In 1016 he xvas  invited to
occupy the principal professorship in anatomy and sur-
gery nt Padua, xvhere he acquitted himself xvith so
much success, that he was created  a kniaht of St.
Mark, and presented with a  collar of gold.   He died in
1625.   His xvrilings evince him to have possessed very
extensive medical  knoxvledge.   The first,  xvliich he
published, contains some interesting information con-
cerning the virtues of plants, respecting which  he  ap-
pears to have learned much from the Italian peasantry
He xvrote also  concerning some diseases and otlier mat-
ters.  But the  most valuable of  his works  are those 
SFl
SP1
 composed on anatomical subjects, published after his
 death, by his son-in-law, Creina.
   SP1GNEL.  See Aithusa meum.
   SPIKELET.  See Spicula.
   SPIKENARD. See Nardus indica,
   SPILA'NTHUS.   (From oitiXos, a spot, and avOos,
 a floxver; because of its dotu-d or speckled flowers.)
 The name of a genus of plants.  Class, Syngenesia;
 Order, Polygamia aqualis.
   Spilanthus acmella.  Achmella. Achamella.  The
 systematic name of the balm-leaved spilanthus, which
 possesses a glutinous  bitter taste, and a fragrant smell.
 The herb and  seed are said  to be diuretic and online
 nagoeue, aud useful  iu dropsies, jaundice, fluor albus,
 and calculous complaints, given in infusion.
   SPINA.   (Quasi spiculina, diminutive of spica.)
 \ thorn.
   A. The back-bone: so called  from the thorn-like
 irocesses ofthe vertebrae.  See Vertebra, and Spine.
   B. The shin-bone.
   C. A thorn of a plant.  A prickly armature of plants,
 lot easily removed by tbe finger, and proceeding from
 «je woody part ofthe plant.   It is either,
   1. Culine;  as in Prunus spinosa.
   2. Terminal, at the end of a branch: as in Rhamnus
 catharticus.
   3. Foliar, on the surface of the leaf;  asin Carduus
 marianus.
   4. Marginal, on tlie margin of the leaf; as in Ilex
 aquifolium.
   5. Axillary, going  from the axilla of the leaf; as in
 Glcditschia triacanthos.
   6. Calyrine, on tlie calyx; as in  Carduus marianus.
   7. Pericarpial, on the pod ; asin  Datura stramonium.
   8. Stipular, on the stipule; as in Mimosa nilotica,
 and horrida.
   9. Straight; as in Mimosa nigra.
   10. Recurve; as in Costus nobilis.
   11. Decussate; as in Genista lucitanica.
   12. Setaceous; as in Cactus opuntia.
   13. Subulate; as in Cactus tuna.
   14. Inerm,  covered xvith soft and  not prickly spines,
 also called muricate; as in Convolvulus muricatus, and
 Mimosa muricata.
   15. Simple, when not divided; as Genista anglica.
   16. Germinal; as in Limonia trifoliata.
   17.  Ternate; as in  Zanlhium spinosuin.
   18. Ramose ; as in Glcditschia horrida.
   Spina  acida.   See Berberis.
   Spina  acuta.  The hawthorn.
  Spina  jcovptiaca.  The Egyptian thorn orsloe-tree.
 See Acacia vera.
   Spina  alba.  The white-thorn tree.
  Spina  arabica. Tbe chardon, or Arabian thistle.
  Spina  bifida.  Hydrops medulla spinalis;  Hydro-
 cele spinalis ; Hydrorachytis spinosa.  A tumour upon
 the spine of new-born children, immediately about the
 lower vertcbrte of the loins,  and upper parts of the
 sacrum;  at first, it isof a dark blue colour; but in pro-
 portion as it increases in size, approaches nearer  and
 nearer  to the colour  of the skin,  becoming perfectly
 diaphanous.
   From the surface of this tumour a pellucid watery
 fluid sometimes exudes, and this circumstance has been
 noticed by different authors.   Il  is always attended
 xvith a weakness, or more properly speaking, a para-
 lysis of  the  loxver extremities.   The opening of it
 rashly has proved quickly fatal to the child. Tulpius,
 therefore, strongly dissuades  us from attempting  this
 operation.  Acrel mentions a case where a nurse rashly
 opened a tumour, which, as  he  described it, xvas a
 blood bag on the back of the child at the time of its
 birth, in bigness equal to a hen's eez, in two hours after
 xvliich, the child died.   From the dissection it  ap-
 peared, that  the  bladder lav  in the middle of the os
 sacrum, and consisted of a coat, and some strong mem-
 brane,  which proceeded  from a long fissure of the
 bones.  The  extremity of the spinal marrow lay bare,
 and the spinal duct, in the os sacrum, was uncommon-
 ly wide,  and  distended by the pressure of the xvaters.
 Upon tracing  it to the head, the brain was found nearly
in its natural state,  but  the  ventricles  contained so
much water,  that the infundibulum  was quite  dis-
tended  with it, and the passage between  the third and
fourth ventricle was greatly enlarged.
  He likewise takes notice of another case, xvhere a
child lived about eight years labouring under this com-
 plaint, during xvhich time it seemed to enjoy tolerafrk
 health, though pale.  Nothing seemed amiss In him,
 but sucli a degree of debility as rendered him incapable
 to stand on his legs.
   The tumour, as  in tlie former case, was in the mid-
j die of the os sacrum, of tlie  bigness of  a man's fist,
 xvith little discolouring;  and  upon pressing it bccann
 less.  When opened it was found full of water, and ihe
 coats were tho same as in the former, but the separa
 Hon of the  bones was very considerable.  The spinal
 marrow, under  the tumour, was as small as a pack-
 thread, and rigid ; but there  were no moibid appear-
 ances in the brain.
   Spina burohi monspeliensis.  Evergreen privet
   Spina cervina.   (So  called from its thorns resem-
 bling tliose of the stag.)  See Rhamnus catharticus.
   Spina hihci.  Tlie goal's-thorn of France, yielding
 gum-tragacnnih.
   Spina iniectoria.  See Rhamnus catharticus.
   Spina puroatrix.  The purging thorn.
   Spina  solstitialis.  The calcitrapa  officinalis
 Barnahy's thistle.
   Spina ventosa.   (The term of spina seems to have
 been applied by the Arabians to this disorder, because
 it occasions a prickling in the flesii like the puncture of
 thorns; and the epithet ventosa  is added, because,
 upon  touching the tumour, it seems to be tilled xvith
 wind, though this  is not the  cause of the distention.)
 Spina rentosilas ;  Teredo ;  Fungus  articuli;  Ar
 throcace : sideratio ossis ; Cancer ossis ; Gangrana
 ossis, and some  Fiench authors term  it exostosis
 When childien ure the subjects of this disease, Seve-
 rinus calls it Padarthrocacc.  A tumour  arising from
 an internal carieflof a bone.   It most frequently occurs
 in the carpus and tarsus, and is knoxvn by a continual
 pain in the bone, and a red swelling of the skin, wliich
 has a spongy feel.
   Spina'chia.   See Spinacia.
   SPINA'CIA.  (From loiravta, Spain, xvhence it ori
 ginally came; or irom its spinous seed.)   Thenameof
 a genus of plants.  Class, Diacia; Order, Pentandria.
 Spinage
   Spinacia oleracea.  The systematic  name of the
 Spinachia.  Spinach.  Spinage. This plant is  some-
 times directed for  medicinal  purposes  in  the cure of
 phthisical complaints;  made into a poultice, by boiling
 the leaves and adding some oil, it forms  an excellent
 emollient.   As an article of food it may be considered
 as similar to cabbage and other olernoeous plants.  See
 Brassica capitata.
   Spin.* crates.  The spine of Ihe back.
   Spin* ventositas.  A caries, or decay of a  bone.
 See Spina ventosa.
   SPINAL.  Spinalis.   Belonging to the  spine of the
 back.
   Spinal-marrow.   See Medulla spinalis.
   SPINA'LIS.   See Spinal.
   Spinalis cervicis.  This muscle, which is situated
 close to the vertebra; at the posterior part of the neck
 and upper part of ihe back, arises, by distinct tendons,
 from the transverse processes of the five or six upper-
 most vertebrae of the back, and ascending obliquely
 under tho complexus, is inserted, by small tendons, into
 the spinous processes of the  sixth, fifth, fourth,  third.
 and second vertebrae of the neck.  Its use is to extend
 the neck obliquely backwards.
   Spinalis colli.   See Semi-spinalis colli.
   Spinalis dorsi.   Transversalis dorsi, of Winslow;
 and inter-e'pineux, of Dumas.   This is the name given
 by Albinus to a tendinous and fleshy mass, which is
 situated along the spinous processes of the back and the
 inner side ofthe longissimus dorsi.
   It arises tendinous and fleshy from the spinous pro-
 cesses of the uppermost vertebra; of the loins, and the
 loxvermost  ones of the back,  and is inserted into  the
 spinous processes of the nine uppermost vertebrae ofthe
 back.
   Its use is lo extend the vertebra?, and  to assist in
 raising the spine.
   Spinales lumborum.  Muscles of the  oins.
   SPINE.  (Spina; from spina, thorn: so called from
 the spine-like processes of the vertebra;.)  1.  Spina
 dorsi ; Columna spinalis ; Columna verlebralis.  A
 bony column or pillar extending in the posterior part of
 the trunk from  ihe  great occipital foramen to the sa
 crum.   It is composed  of twenty-four bones  called
 vertebrae.   See Vertebra. 
SP1
SP1
  S. An afmature of plants.  See Spina.
  SPINEL.  A sub-species of octohedral corundum,of
 el red colour, and equal value with a diamond.  It
 romes from Pegu and Ceylon.
  SPINELLANE.  A  plumb, blue-coloured crystal-
 lised mineral, found on  the shores of the lake of Laach.
  SFINESCENS.  Spiuescent.  Becoming thorny, ap-
 plied to the leaf-stalk, when it hardens into a thorn,
 end the leaf falls, as is the case in Rhamnus catharti-
 cus, and Robinia spinosa, and to the stipulae ofthe Ro-
 binia pseudacacia, xvhich also become thorns.
  Spi'nosa. See Spina bifidi.
  Spino'sum syriac-um. The Syrian broom.
  SPINTHERE.  A greenish gray-coloured mineral,
 believed to be a variety of  prismatic titanium ore.
  SPIILE'A.  (From Spira, a pillar: so named  from
 its spiral  stalk.)  Meadow-sxveet.   The name  of a
genus of plants in the Linnaean system.  Class, Icosan-
dria ; Order, Pentagynia.
  Spiriea akricana. African meadoxv-sweet.
  Spir.ea filipendula. The systematic name of the
officinal dropwort.  Filipendula;  Saxifraga rubra.
 Dropwort.  The root of this plant, Spiraa—foliis pen-
natis, foliolis uniformibus serratis ;  caule herbaceo;
fioribus corymbesis, of Linnaeus, possesses adstringent,
and, it is said, lithontriptic virtues.  It is seldom used
in tne practice of the present day.
  Spir/ea ulmaria.  The systematic name of the
meadow-sxveet.   Ulmaria;  Regina   prati; Barba
atpra. Rlcadoxv-sweet. Uueen of the meadows.  This
is a beautiful and fragrant  plant.  The leaves are re-
commended as mild adstringents.  The floxvers have a
strong smell, resembling that of May; they  are sup-
posed to possess antispasmodic and diaphoretic virtues,
and as they are very rarely used in medicine, Linnaeus
suspects that the neglect of them  has arisen from the
plant being supposed to be possessed of some noxious
qualities, xvhich it seemed to bettay by its being left
untouched by cattle. It may be observed, hoxvever,
thai the cattle also refuse the Angelica and other herbs,
whose innocence is apparent from daily experience.
  [Spir.ka trifoliata.  See Gillenia. A.]
  SPIRITUS.  (Spirilus,us. m.; spirit.)  Thlsname
xvns Ibrmerly given to all volatile  substances collected
by  distillation.  Three  principal kinds were distin-
guished :  inflammable or ardent spirits,  acid spirits,
and alkaline spirits.  The  word spirit  is now almost
exclusively confined to alkohol.
  Spiritus atheris nitrici.  Spiritus atheris ni-
trosi:  Spiritus nitri dulcis.  Take  of rectified spirits,
txx-o pints; nitric acid,  by  xveight, tliree ounces; add
the  acid gradually to the spirit, and mix them, taking
care that the heat do not  exceed 120°;  then with a
gentle heat distil twenty-four fluid  ounces.   A febri-
fuge, diaphoretic, and diuretic compound mostly ad-
ministered in asthenia, nervous affections, dysuria, and
calculous complaints.
  Spiritus jetheris aromaticus.  Take of cinna-
mon bark, bruised, tliree drachms; cardamom seeds
powdered, a drachm and a half; long pepper  powder-
ed,  ginger-root  sliced, each a drachm; spirit of sul-
phuric aether, a pint; macerate for fourteen days, in a
closed glnss vessel, and strain.  An excellent stimu-
lating and stomachic compound, xvhich is administered
in debility ofthe stomach and nervous affections.
  Spiritus  .t.tueris sulphurici.   Spiritus vitrioli
dulcis;  Spiritus atheris vitriolici.   Take of sulphuric
tether, half a pint; rectified  spirit, a pint: mix them.
 \ diaphoretic, antispasmodic, and tonic  preparation,
mostly exhibited in nerx-ous  debility and weakness of
the  prima: viae.
  Spiritus jetheris sulphurici compositus. Take
of spirit of sulphuric aether a pint; aetherial oil, txvo
fluid drachms;  mix them.   A stimulating anodyne,
s-ttpposed to be similar to tlie celebrated liquor mine-
ralis anodynus, of Hoffman.  It is exhibited in fevers,
nervous affections, hysteria, Sec.;  and in most cases of
fever xvhere medicines are  rejected by the  stomach,
this is of infinite service.
  Spiritus ammoni.e.   Spirit of ammonia.  Formerly
called Spiritus salis ammoniaci dulcis; Spiritus salts
ammoniaci.  Take of proof spirit, three  pints ;  muriate
 :if ammonia, four ounces; subcarbonateof potassa, six
 mriccs; mix them, nnd, with a gentle  fire, let a pint
and a half be distilled into a cooled receiver.   A stimu-
lating antispasmodic, occasionally exhibited in casesof
asphyxia, asthenia, and in nerx'ous diseases, but mostly
      30U
 used as an external stimulant  against rheumatism,
 sprains, and bruises.
   Spiritus ammonis aromaticus.  Aromatic spirit
 of ammonia. Formerly knoxvn by the name of Spiritus
 ammonia compositus : Spiritus volatilis aromaticus:
 Spiritus salis volatilis  oleosus.   Take of cinnamon
 bark bruised, cloves bruised, each two drachms; lernon
 peel, four  ounces; subcarbonate of potassa, half a
 pound; muriate of ammonia, five ounces; rectified
 spirit, four pints;  water, a gallon ; mix and distil six
 pints.   A stimulating antispasmodic and sudorific in
 very general use, to smell  at in faintings and lowness
 of spirits.  It is exhibited internally in nervous affec-
 tions,  hysteria, and iveakness of the stomach.   The
 dose is from half a drachm lo a drachm.
   Spiritus ammonia fietidus.  Foetid spirit of am
 monia.  Formerly called spiritus volatilis fxlidus.
 Take of spirit of ammonia, txvo pints;  asafoetida, txvo
 ounces.  Macerate for twelve hours, then  by a gentle
 Are distil a pint and a half into a cooled receix'er. A
 stimulating  antispasmodic, often  exhibited to children
 against convulsions, and to gouty and asthmatic per-
 sons.  The dose is from  half to a whole fluid drachm
   Spiritus ammoni* succinatus.  Succinated  spiri1
 of ammonia.  Formerly known by the names of Eau
 de luce ; Spiritus salis ammoniaci succinatus ; Liquor
 cornu  cervi  succinatus.   Take  of mastich,  thro-:
 drachms;  rectified spirit, nine fluid drachms; oil of la-
 vender, fourteen minims;  oil of amber, four minims,
 solulion of ammonia, ten fluid ounces.  Macerate tlie
 mastich in the spirit that it may dissolve, and pour ofl
 the clear tincture; to this  add the remaining article-,
 aud  shake them together.  This preparation is much
 esteemed ns a stimulant  and nervine medicine, and is
 employed  internally  and  externally against spasms
 hysteria, syncope,  vertigo, and the slings  of insects
 The dose is from ten minims to half a fluid drachm.
  Spiritus anisi.  Spirit of aniseed.  Formerly called
 Spiritus anisi compositus ; Aqua seminum anisi com-
posita.  Take of aniseed, bruised, half a pound ; proof
 spirit, a gallon ;  xxater sufficient to preventenipyreunin.
 Macerate for twenty-four hours, and distil a gallon by
 a gentle fire.   A siinmlating carminative and stomachic
 calculated to relieve  flatulency, borborygmue, colic,
 and spasmodic affections of the boxvels.  The dose is
 from half to a xvhole fluid  drachm.
  Spiritus  armoraci.c  compositus.   Compound
 spirit of horse-radish, formerly called Spiritus raphani
 compositus; Aqua  raphani composita.  Take of horse
 radish  root, fresh and sliced, dried orange-peel, of eacl,
 a  pound; nutmegs,  bruised, half an ounce;  proof
spirit, a gallon ;  xvater sufficient to prevent empyreuma.
 Macerate for txventy-four hours, and distil a gallon by a
 gentle  fire.   A  very  xvarm  stimulating  compound,
 given in gouty, rheumatic, and spasmodic affect ions of
 the stomach, nnd in scorbutic disorders.  The dose is
 from half a fluid drachm to half a fluid ounce.
  Spiritus  camphorje.  Spirit of camphor.   For-
 merly known by the names of Spiritus camphoratus;
 Spiritus vinosus camphoratus ; Spiritus vini campho
 ratus.   Take of camphor, four ounces; rectified spii it,
 two  pints.  Mix, that the camphor may be dissolved.
 A stimulating medicine, used as an external application
 against chilblains,  rheumatism, palsy, numbness, and
 gangrene.
  Spiritus  carui.  Spirit of caraway.    Formerly
called Aqua seminum carui.   Take of caraxvay  seed,
 bruised, a pound and a half; proof spirit  a gallon ;
 xvater sufficient to prevent empyreuma.  Macerate for
24 hours, and disiil a gallon by a gentle fire.  The dose
 is from a fluid drachm to half a fluid ounce.
  Spiritus cinnamomi.   Spirit of cinnamon.   For
 merly called Aqua cinnamomi spirituora ; Aqua cin-
 namomi fortis.   Take of cinnamon-bark, bruised, a
 pound  ; proof spirit a gallon; xvater sufficient to pre
 vent empyreuma.  Macerate for 24 hours, and distil a
 ftallon  by a gentle fire.   Spirit of cinnamon is mostly
 used in conjunction with otlier carminatives to give a
 pleasant flavour; it may be exhibited alone as  a cs.-
 minative and  stimulant.  The dose is from a flutr"
 drachm to half a fluid ounce.
  Spiritus  cornu  cervi.   See Ammonia subcar
 bonus.
  Spiritus juniperi compositus.  Compound spirit
 of juniper.  Formerly called A qua juniperi composita.
 Take of juniper-berries, bruised, a pound; caraway-
seeds, bruised, fennel seeds, bruised, of each an ou-rcc 
SP1
SPL
 and a half; proof spirits, a gallon ;  xvater suflicient to
 prevent empyreuma.   Macerate for 24 hours, and distil
 a gallon by a gentle fire.
   Spiritus  lavendulje.   Spirit of lavender.  For-
 merly called  Spiritus lavendula  simplex.  Take of
 fresh lavender flowers, two pounds; rectified spirit, u
 gallon; xvater sufficient to prevent empyreuma.  Ma-
 cerate for 24 hours, and distil a gallon by a  gentle fire.
 Though mostly used as a perfume,  this spirit  may be
 given internally as a stiiiiulatir.g nervine and antispas-
 modic.  The dose is from ailuid drachm lo half a fluid
 ounce.
   Spiritus  lavendul.e compositus.   Compound
 syirit of lavender.   Formerly called Spiritus laven-
 dula compositus matthia. Take of spiritof lax-ender,
 ihreepinls; spiritof rosemary, n pint; cinnamon-bark,
 bruised, nutmegs, bruised, of each hull" an ounce; red
 saunders xvood, sliced, an  ounce. Macerate for fourteen
 days, and strain. An elegant and useful antispasmodic
 and stimulant in very general use against  nervous
 diseases, lowness of  spirits,  and xveakness  of the
 stomach, taken en a lump of sugar.
   Spiritus lumbricorum.   The spirit obtained by
 the distillation of the  earth-worm is similar to harts-
 born.
   Spiritus mkntii.i  piperita.    Spirit of pepper-
 mint.  Formerly called Spiritus meniha piperitidis;
 Aqua meniha piperitidis spirituosa.   Take of pepper-
 mint, dried, a pound and a half; proof spirit, a gallon ;
 water suflicient to prevent empyreuma.  Macerate for
 24 hours, and distil a gallon by a gentle fire.  This pos-
 sesses  all the properties of the peppermint,  xvith the
 stimulating virtues of the spirit. The dose from one
 fluid drachm to a fluid ounce.
   Spiritus menths  viridis.  Spirit of spearmint.
 Formerly called Spiritus meniha sativa; Aqua mentha
 vulgaris spirituosa.   Take of  spearmint, dried,  a
 pound and a half; proof  spirit, a gallon;  water suffi-
 cient to prevent empyreuma.  Macerate for 2i hours,
 and distil a gallon.  This is most commonly added to
 carminative or  antispasmodic draughts, and  seldom
 exhibited alone.  The dose from one fluid drachm to
 a fluid ounce.
   Spiritus millepedarcm.   A volatile  alkali, the
 virtues of which are similar  to hartshorn.
   Spiritus mindereri.  See Ammonia acetatis liquor.
   Spiritus myristice.  Spiritof nutmeg.  Formerly
 called  Aqua  nucis  moschata.   Take of  nutmegs,
 bruised, txvo ounces; proof spirit,  a gallon;  water suf-
 ficient to prex-ent empyreuma.  Macerate for twen'v-
 four hours, and distil  a  gallon by  a gentle fire.  \
 stimulating and agreeable spirit possessing  the virtues
 of the n'ltmeg.  The dose from one fluid drachm to a
 fluid ounce.
   Spiritus nitri dulcis.  See Spiritus atheris ni-
 trici.
   Spiritus nitri  duplex.  The nitious  acid.  Sec
 Acidum nitrosum, and Nitric acid.
   Spiritus  nitri pumans.   See Acidum  nitrosum,
 and Nitric add.
   Spiritus  nitri glauberi.  See Acidum  nitrosum,
 and Nitric acid.
   Spiritus  nitri simplex.  The dilute nitrous acid.
 See Acidum nitricum dilutum.
   Spiritus nitri vulgaris.  This is noxv called aci-
 dum nitricum dilutum.
   Spiritus pimknt*.  Spirit of pimento.   Formerly
 called Spiritus pimento.  Take allspice, bruised, txvo
 ounces; proof spirit, a gallon';  water sufficient to pre-
 vent empyreuma.  Macerate for 24 hours, and distil a
 gaHoii by a gentle fire.   A  stimulating aromatic tincture
 mostly employed xvith adstringent  and carminative
 medicines.   The dose is from half a fluid drachm to
 half a fluid ounce.
   Spiritus pulegu.  Spirit  of  pennyroyal.   For-
 merly called Aqua pulegit spirituosa.   Take of penny-
 royal, dried, a pound and  a half; proof spirit, a gallon;
 water  sufficient lo  prevent  empyreuma.   Macerate
 for 24 hours, and  distil  a  gallon  by a gentle  fire.
This is in very general use as an emmenngogue among
the loxverorders.  It possesses nervine and carminative
virtues.  The dose is from half a fluid drachm to half
a fluid ounce.
  Spiritus rector.  Boerhaave  and other chemists
rive this name to a very attenuated principle, in which
tiie smell of odorant  bodies peculiarly reside.  It is
now called aroma.
   Spiritus rosmarini.   Spirit of rosemary.   Tttftf
 of rosemary tops, fresh, txvo pounds;  proof spirit, a
 gallon; xvater sufficient lo prevent empyreuma.  Ma-
 cerate for 24 hours, and distil a gallon by a gentle lire
 A  very fragrant spirit,  mostly employed for externa!
 purposes in conjunction with other resolvents.
   Spiritus salis  ammoniaci  aquosus.  See Ammo
 nim subcarbonas.
   Spiritus salis ammomaci dulcis.   See Spiritus
 ammonia.
   Spiritus salis ammoniaci simplex.  See Ammo-
 nia subcarbonas.
   Spiritus salis glauheri.   See Murialic acid.
   Spiritus salis marini. See Murialic acid.
   Spiritus vini rectificatub.  See Alkohol.  Rec
 lifted spiritof xvine is in general use todissolve resinous
 aud other medicines.  It is seldom exhibited infernally,
 though it exists in the diluted state in  nil vinous and
 spirituous liquors.
   Spiritus vini  tenuior.   Proof spirit, xvhich in
 about half the strength  of rectified, is much employed
 for preparing  tinctures of  resinous  juices,   barks,
 roots, &c.
   Spiritus vitrioli.  See Sulphuric acid.
   Spiritus vitrioli dulcis.   See  Spiritus atheris
 sulphuriei.
   Spiritus volatilis  fietidus.  See Spiritus am-
 monia fatidus.
   SPISSAME'NTUM.   (From spisso,  to thicken.
 A substance put into oils and ointments to make then
 thick.
   Spitting of  blood.  See Hamatemesis and Hamop
 tysis.
   SPLANCHNIC.  (Splanchnicus;  from <T7rAayxvo»,
 an entrail.)  Belonging to the viscera.
   Splanchnic nerve.   The great intercostal nerve
 See Intercostal nerve.
   Spla'nchnica.   (From  cntXayxvov, an  intestine.)
 Remedies for diseased bowels.
   SPLANCHNOLOGY.   (Splanchnologia; from
 aitXayxvov, an entrail, and Xoyos,  a discouise.)  The
 doctrine of the viscera.
   SPLEEN   TirXnv.  Lien.   The spleen or milt is a
 spong riscus of a livid colour, nnd  so variable in form,
 situation, and macnitude, that it is hard to  determine
 either.  Nevertheless, in a healthy man  it is alxvays
 placed on the left side, in the left hypochondrium, be-
 tween the eleventh and txvelfth false ribs.  Its circum-
 ference is oblong and round, resembling an oval figure.
 It  is larger, lo speak generally,  when  the stomach fe
 empty, nnd smaller when it is compressed, or evacuated
 by a full stomach.
   It should particularly be remembered of this viscus,
 that it is convex towards the ribs,  and  concave inter
 nally: also, that it has an excavation, into which ves
 seis are inserted.
   It is connected xvilh the folloxving parts: 1. With the
 stomach by a ligament and short vessels.  2. With the
 omentum, and the left kidney.   3. With the diaphragm,
 by a portion of the peritonaeum.  4. Wilh the begin-
 ning of the pancreas, by vessels.  5. With a colon, by
 a ligament.
   In  man the spleen is covered  xvilh one simple, firm
 membrane, arising  from the peritonaeum, xvhich ad
 heres to the spleen, very firmly, by  Ihe intervention of
 cellular structure.
  The vessels of the spleen are, Ihe splenic artery com
 ing from the cocliac artery, xvhich, considering the size
 of the spleen, is much larger than is requisite for the
 mere nutrition of it. This goes  by serpentine  move
 inents, out of its course,  over the pancreas, and behind
 the stomach, and after having given off branches to the
 adjacent parts,  il is inserted into the concave surface of
 the  spleen.   It is  afterward  divided  into smaller
 branches,  xvhich  are again divided into other yel
 smaller, delivering their blood immediately to the veins,
 but emitting it  nowhere else.  The veins, at  length,
 come together  into one, called  the splenic  vein, and
 having received the larger  coronary vein of the sto-
 mach, besides  others, it constitutes the left principal
 branch of the vena portae.
  The nerves of the spleen are small; they surround
the arteries with fhoir branches; they come from a par-
ticular plexus, which is formed of the posterior branches
of the eighth pair, and the great intercostal nerve.
  Lymphatic vessels are almost  only seen creeping
along the surface of the human spleen.
                                        303 
SPL                                           SPO
   The use of tlie spleen has not hitherto been deter-
 mined ; yet if the situation and fabric be regarded,one
 xvould imagine its  use to consist chiefly in affording
 some assistance to the stomach during the progress of
 digestion.
   SPLEEN-WORT.   See Asplenium ceterach, and
 Asplenium trichomanes.
   SPLENA'LCIA.   (From  o-ttXijv, the spleen, and
 aXyos, pain.)  A pain in the spleen or its region.
   SPLENETIC.   (Spleneticus;  from anXrfv, the
 spleen.)  Belonging to the spleen.
   SPLENITIS.  (From r/irXijv, the  spleen.)  Inflam-
 mation of the spleen.  A genus of disease in the Class
 Pyrexia, and Order Phlegmasia,  of Cullen ; charac-
 terized by pyrexia, tension, heat, tumour, and pain in
 the left hypochondriuin, increased by pressure.   This
 disease, according to Juncker, comes  on xvith a re-
 markable shivering, succeeded by a most intense heat,
 and very great thirst; a pain and tumour are perceived
 in the left hypochondrium, and the paroxysms for tiie
 most  part assume a quartan form; xvhen the patients
 expose themselves for a little to the free air, their extre-
 mities immediately groiv very cold   If a haemorrhagy
 happen, the blood  flows out of the  left  nostril.   The
 other symptoms arc  the same xvith those of the  hepa-
 titis.   Like the liver, the spleen is also subject to a
 chronic inflammation, xvhich often happens after agues,
 and is called the ague cake, though  that name is also
 frequently given to a scirrhous tumour of the liver suc-
 ceeding intermittents.  The causes of this disease are
 in general the same xvith those of other inflammatory
 disorders; but those which determine the inflammation
 to that particular  part more than another, are very
 much unkuoxvn.  It attacks persons of a very plethoric
 and sanguine habit of body rather than others.
  During the acute stage of splenitis, xve  must folloxv
 the antiphlogistic plan, by general and topical bleedings,
 by purging frequently, and by the  application of blis-
 ters near the part affected.   If it should  terminate in
 suppuration, xve must endeavour to discharge the pus
 externally, by fomentations or  poultices.  When the
 organ is in an enlarged scirrhous slate, mercury may be
 successful in  preventing its farther  progress, or  even
 producing a diminution ofthe part:  but  proper cau-
 tion is required in the use of it, lest the remedy do
 more harm than the disease.
  Sple'.nium.   (From  oirXryv, the spleen:  so called
 from its efficacy in disorders of the spleen.)   1. Spleen-
 xvort.
  2. A compressed shape like the spleen.
  SPLE'NIUS.  (From dirXriv, the spleen: so named
 from its resemblance in shape to the spleen, or, accord-
 ing to  some, it derives its name from splenium, a ferula,
 or splint, xvhich surgeons apply to  the sides of a fiac-
 turcd  bone.)   Splenius  capitus,  and splenius colli, of
 Albinus; and cervico-dorsi-mastoidien et dorso-trache-
 licn, of  Dumas.   The splenius is a flat, broad, and
 oblong muscle, in part covered by the upper part ofthe
 trapezius, and obliquely situated betxveen the back of
 the ear, and the loxver and posterior part ofthe neck.
  It arises tendinous from  the  four or  five superior
spinous processes of the dorsal vertebrae; tendinous
 and fleshy from the  last of the  neck, and tendinous
from the ligamentum colli, or rather the tendons of the
 txvo splenii  unite here inseparably;  but about the
second or third vertebrae of the neck they recede from
each otlier, so that  part of the complexus may be
seen.
  It is inserted, by txvo  distinct tendons, into the trans-
verse  processes of the txvo first vertebra) of the neck,
Bending off some few fibres to  the  complexus and le-
vator scapu Ite ; tendinous and fleshy into the upper and
posterior part of the mastoid process, and into a  ridge
on tho occipital bone, xvhere it  joins with the root of
that process.
  This muscle may easily be separated into two parts.
 Eustachius and Fallopius xvere  axvare of this ; Win-
sloxv has distinguished them into the sw^crior and infe-
rior portions; and  Albinus has descried them as txvo
distinct muscles, calling  that part xvliich is inserted into
the mastoid process and os  occipitis, splenitis capitis,
and that which is Inserted into the  vertebra; of the
neck, splenius colli.  We have here folloxved Douglas,
and the genetality of xvriters, in describing these two
 portions as one muscle, especially as ihey are intimately
 united near their origin.
  When this muscle acts singly, it draws the head and
      304
  upper vertebra! of  the  neck  obliquely backwards
  when both act,  they pull  the  head  directly  back
  xvards.
   Splenius capitis.  See Splenius.
   Splenius colli.  See Splenius.
   Sl'LENOCE'LE.  (From aitXrp/, the spleen, and kijaii
  a tumour.)  A hernia of Ihe spleen.
   SPLINT.  A long piece of xvood, tin,  or  strong
  pasteboard employed tor preventing tlieendsof broken
  bones from moving, so as to interrupt the  process bj
  which fractures unite.
   SPO'DIUM.   Xssoitov-   The spodium of Diosco
  rides  and of Galen are  now not knoxvn in  the shops.
  It  is  said to have  heen  produced by burning cadinii
  alone in the furnace; for having thrown it in  small
  pieces into the fire, near the nozzle of the bellows, ihey
  blow  the most fine and subtle parts against the roof of
 the furnace: and xvhat xvas reflected from thence was
 called spodium.  It differed from the pompholyx in not
 being so pure, and in being more heavy.  Pliny distin-
 guishes several  kinds of it,  as that of copper, silver,
 gold, and lead.
  Spodium arabum.   Burnt ix'ory,  or ix-ory  black.
 See Abaisir.
  Spodium oemoewm.  The whitedungof dogs.
  SPODUMENE.  Prismatic triphane spar of Mohs
 A mineral of a  greenish xvhite colour,  first  found in
 the island  of Uton, in Sudermannland, and  lately in
 the  vicinity of  Dublin.   It  contains the new  alkali
 called lethia.
  Spolia'rium.  A private room at the baths.
  SPONDY'LIUM.   (From oirovivXos, a vertebra: so
 named from the shape of its  root, or probably because
 it xvas used against the bite of a serpent called otscv-
 ivXts-) See Heracleum spondylium.
  SPO'NDYLUS.  ZzzsovSvXos-  Some  have thought
 fit to call  the spine or backbone thus, from  the shape
 and fitness of the vertebrae, to move every xvay upon
 one another.
  SPONGE.  See Spongia.
  SPONGE-TENT.  See Spangiapraparala.
  SPO'NGIA.   Diroyyos;  Xiroyyta.   Sponge.   Jejee
 Spongia officinalis.
  Spongia officinalis.  The systematic name of tile
 sponge.  A sea-production ; the habitations of insects.
 A soft, light, very porous and compressible substance,
 readily imbibing water, and distending thereby.  It is
 found  adhering to rocks, particularly in tlie Medite.rra
 nean sea, about the islands of the Archipelago.  It xvas
 formerly supposed to be a vegetable production, but iu
 noxv classed among the zoophytes; and analyzed, i<
 yields  the same  principles with animal substances in
 general.  Burnt  sponge is said to cure effectually the
 bronchocele, and to be of infinite utility in scrofulouf
 complaints.  Sponge tents are employed by surgeons to
 dilate fistulous ulcers,  Sec
  Spongia pr.ioparata.   Prepared sponge.   Sponge
 tent.   This is formed by dipping pieces of sponge in
 hot melted emplastrum cerae compositum, and pressing
 them betxveen txvo  iton plates.  As soon as  cold, the
 substance thus formed may be cut into pieces of any
 shape.   It xvas formerly used for dilating small open
 ings, for xvhich it was  xvell adapted, as xvhen  the  xvax
 melted, the elasticity of the sponge made ii expand and
distend Ihe opening, in which it  had been  put.  Sir
 Ashley Cooper informs us that the best modern sur
genus seldom employ it.
  Spongiausta.  Burnt sponge.  Cut the sponge into
 pieces, nnd beat  it, that any extraneous matters  may
 be separated; then  burn it in a close iron vessel until it
 becomes black and friable; lastly, rub it to a  very fine
poxvder.  This preparation is exhibited  with bark in
the  cure of  scrofulous complaints,  and  forms  the
 basis of a  lozenge, xvhich has  been knoxvn to cure the
 bronchocele in many instances.  The  dose is from a
scruple to a drachm.
  Spongiosa ossa.   Ossa turbinata inferiora;  Ossa
 convoluta.  These bones are situated in the under part
of the side of the nose; they are of a triangular form
and spongy appearance, resembling the os spongiosum
superius ; externally they nre convex ; internally they
nre concave; the convexity is placed toxvards the sep
turn  nasi, and the  concavity  outxvards.  The under
edge of each bone is placed horizontally near  the outer
 part of the nose, and ending in a sharp point behind.
At the  upper part of the bone  are txvo processes, the
anterior of xvliich ascends and  forms part of the lachry 
STA
STA
 mal groove, and the posterior descends and forms a
 hook to make part of the maxillary sinus.
   The connexion of this bone is to the os maxillare, os
 palati, and os unguis, by a distinct suture in the young
 subject; but in the adult, by a concretion of substance.
   The ossa spongiosa afford a large surface for extend-
 ing the organ of smell by allowing the membrane of the
 nose to be expanded, on xvhich tlie olfactory nerves are
 dispersed.
   In the foetus, these bones are almost complete.
   Sponoio'sum os.   1.  The ethmoid bone.
   2. See Spongiosa ossa.
   SPONGIO'SUS.  Spongy.
   SPONGOI'DES.   CZzzoyyottins; from aztsoyyot,  a
 sponge, and ttfos, forma, shape: so called because it is
 holloxx and porous, like a sponge or sieve.)  See Eth-
 moid bone.
   SPORADIC.  (Sporadieus;  from oirttpu,  to soxv.)
 An epithet for such  infectious and otlier diseases as
 seize a few persons at any time or season
   Spotted lung-wort.  See Pulmonaria.
   SPRAIN.   See Subluxatio.
   SPRAT.   Tlie  Clupea sprattus, of  Linnaeus.  A
 small herring-like fish which conies to us between No-
 vember and March, and are eaten fried and  pickled.
 They are strong and hard of digestion.
   SPRONGIDIUM.   See Columnula,
   SPRUCE.  1. A particular species of fir.  See Pinus
 abies.
   2. A fermented  liquor called spruce beer prepared
 from the spruce fir.   From the quantity of  carbonic
 acid it contains, ii is found a useful antiscorbutic.
   Spurge flax. See Daphne gnidium.
   Spurge laurel.   See Daphne laureola.
   Spurge olive.  See Daphne mezereum.
   [Spurge, large fiowenng.  See Euphorbia corollata.
   Spurred rye. See Pulvis parturiens.  A.l
   SPUTA MEN.  See Sputum.
   SPUTUM.  (From spuo, to spit.)  Sputamen.  Sa
 liva.  Any kind of expectoration.
   Suuama'ria.   (From squama, a scale: so called
 from its  scaly roots.)   The  great tooth-wort, or Plum-
 bago europea.
   SUUAMATUS.  Scaly : applied to the nectary of
 the Ranunculus genus,  Sec.  See Nectarium.
   SQUAMOSE.   (Squamosus; from squama, a scale,
 because  the bones lie over  each  other like  scales.)
 Scaly.
   Squamose suture.  The suture which unites the
 squamose portion of the temporal none wilh the pa-
 rietal.
   SQUAMOSUS.  Squamose.   Scaled: applied to
 roots xvhich are covered with fleshy scales ; as in La-
 thraa squammria.
   SQ.UARROSUS.  (From s quart a; rough.)  Squar-
 rose.  Rough, scabby, scaly.  Applied to plants, Sec;
 as Juncus squarrosus.
  SQUILL.   See SctUa.
   Squi'lla.   See Scilla.
   Squills, vinegar of.  See Acetum scilla.
   Squina'nthus.   (From squinanthia, the quinsy: so
 named from its uses in the quinsy.)  See Andropogon
 schananthus.
   STA'CHYS.  CLravvs, a spike : so named from its
 spicated  stalk and seed.) 1. Tlie name of a genus of
 plants  in the Linnaean  system.  Class, Didynamia;
 Order, Gymnosptrmia.
  2. Some species of wild sage, and hoarhound, nettle,
 fcc. were formerly so called.
   Stachys  fittida.   Yellow archangel.  Hedge-net-
 tle, or Batiste nigra.
  Stachys  palustris.  Cloxvn's woundwort or all-
 heal.
  STA'CTE.  (Lraxrn  from  s-agio, to distil.)  This
 erm signifies that kind of myrrh wliich distils or falls
 in drops from the trees.  It is also used by some writers
for a more liquid kind of amber than what is commonly
met with in the shops;  whence in Scribonius Largus,
Paulus ^Egineta, and some others, xve meet with a col-
lyrium, and several other forms, wherein this  xvas the
the chief ingredient, distinguished by the name of
Stactica.
  Sta'cticon.  Instillation: also an eye-water.
  Sta'oka.   (From $-alu, to distil.)  1.  Any distilled
 iquor.
  2. The vitriolie acid.
  STAHL, Guorge  Ernest, xvas born at Anspacb,
                                      Ddd
I in 1660.  He graduated at Jena, at the age of twenty
 four, and immediately commenced a course of private
 lectures tliere; and about three years after he was made
 physician to the duke of Saxe-Weimar.  On the esta
 blishment of the university  of Halle, in 10U4, he was
 appointed to a medical professorship, at the solicitation
 of Hoffman : and he became tlie leader of a sect of
 physicians,  in opposition  to the mechanical theorists,
 in which he was followed by many eminent  persons
 as xvell in  Germany as in  other countries, notxvith-
 slanding (lie very fanciful nature of the hypothesis, on
 whicli his system xx as founded. It had been always ob-
 served, that there is a cerluiu~poxverin tlie animal body
 of resisting injuries, and correcting some of ils disor
 ders ; nnd van Helmont had ascribed some digiee of
 intelligence to this poxver:  bul  it was reserved for
 Stalil to refer it entirely lo the rational soul, xvhich, he
 affirmed, not only originally formed  the  body, but is
 the  sole cause of all ils motions, in  the constant ex
 citeme'nt of wliich  life consists.   Whence diseases
 xvere generally regarded as salutary efforts of the pre-
 siding soul,  to avert the destruction ofthe body.  This
 hypothesis,  besides its visionary character, was justly
 deprecated,  as leading to an  inert practice, and the ne-
 glect of the collateral branches of medical science, even
 of anatomical researches, which Stahl maintained, had
 little or no reference to the art of healing.  And in fact
 both he and his followers, trusting principally to hlie
 operations of nature, zealously opposed the use of some
 of the most efficacious remedies,  as opium, cinchona,
 and mercury; and xvere extremely reserved in the em-
 ployment of bleeding,  vomiting,  fcc, although their
 system  led  them  to refer most  diseases to plethora
 This hypothesis xvas maintained by Stalil xvitii much
 ingenuity in several publications, particularly in  his
 "Theoria Medica vera," printed  in 1708.  The merits
 nf Stahl, as a  chemical philosopher, are of a  much
 higher character; and the school, wliich lie founded in
 this science, has  only been superseded of late by far-
 ther discoveries.  He was the inventor of tlie cele-
 brated theory of phlogiston, xvhich appeared to account
 for the phenomenon of combustion, and xvas received
 every xvhere with high applause.   His chief chemical
 work xvas entitled " Fundamenta Chemise dogmaticae
 et Experimeiiialis," first printed iu IT'.'!):  but this had
 been preceded  more than thirty  years, by others, in
 which  his doctrine xvas  fully displayed.  Stahl xvas
 elected  a member of the Academy Naturae Curioso
 ruin: and he xvas called, in 1716, to  visit the  king  of
 Prussia at Berlin, whither he xvent also on several sub
 sequent occasions, and on one of these he xvas attacked
 with a disease, wliich proved fatal, in the 74th year of
 his age.
   STALACTITES. The calcareous substancesfoimd
suspended from vaults, being formed  by the oozing of
 xvater charged with calcareous particles gradually eva
 porating, and leaving these particles behind.
   STALAGMITIS.  (From $-aXaypos, a dropping  or
distillation, because tbe gum which it yields escapes iu
 that manner.)   The name of a genus of plants.  Class,
 Polygamia; Order, Monacia.
   Stalagmitis cambogioidks.  This is  now ascer-
 tained to be the  tree wliich affords gamboge.  This
drug, from its supposed virtues, is also called gummi ad
podagram;  gummi gutta; and, by corruption, gotta;:
gutta gamba; gamon; germandra ; catagemu;  gam
boidea, Sec.; and, from ils gold colour, chrysopus; and,
 from its purgative quality, succus taxations; succus
 Indicus purgans; and scammonium orientate.  Gam-
 boge is a concrete vegetable juice, which xvas supposed
 to be the produce of txvo trees, both called by the Indians,
 Caracaputli, and by Linna-us, Gambogia gutta; but
 KaewJ  ascertained its  true  source.  It is partly of a
gummy, and partly of a resinous nature.  It is brought
 lo us chiefly from Gambaja,  in the East Indies, either
 in form of orbicular masses, or of cylindrical  rolls of
 various sizes; and  is of a dense, compact, and firm
 texture  and of a beautiful  yellow colour.  In modi
cine it is chiefly used as a drastic purge; it operates
 powerfully both  upwards and downwards.   Some
condemn  it  as acting  with  too great violence, while
others are of a contrary opinion. The dose is from txvo
to four grains, as a cathartic; from four to eight grains
it proves emetic and purgative.  The roughness of its
operation is said  to be diminished, by giving it in a
liquid form sufficiently diluted.  Rubbed xvitii almonds
from its want of taste, it is a good laxative for children
                                        mi 
STA
STA
  It has been given in dropsy, with cream of tartar, to
correct its operation.  It has also been recommended
by .some, to the extent of fifteen grains, joined with an
equal quantity of vegetable alkali, to destroy the tape-
xvonn.  This dose is ordered in the morning, and if tlie
worm  is not expelled in two or three hours, it is re-
peated even to the third time, xvitii safety and efficacy.
It is asserted, that it has  been given to this extent even
in  delicate habits.  This is  said to be the remedy al-
luded to by Dr. Van Sxvieten, which was employed by
Dr. Herenchwand, and with him proved so successful
iu the removal of the taenia lata.  It is an ingredient,
and probably the active one, in  most of the nostrums
for expelling taeniae.
  Dr. Cullen says, that,  on account  of the quick pas-
sage of gamboge through the intestines, he was induced
to  give it in small, and frequently repeated doses, as
three or four grains,  rubbed with a  little sugar, every
three hours; and thus found it operate without griping
or sickness, and, in three or four exhibitions, evacuate
a great quantity of xvater, both by stool and urine.
  STALA'GMUS.   (From faXagu, to distil.)  Distil-
lation.
  Sta'ltica.   (From yeAXu, to contract.)  Healing
applications.
  STAMEN.   Tlie  male  genital  organ of plants,
found generally  xvithin  the corolla, near  the pistil.
Stamens  were formerly  called chives.  They are va-
rious"in number in different flowers,  from one to some
hundreds.  This organ  is essential to a plant, no one
having yet been  discovered, after the most careful re-
search, that is destitute of it, either in the same flower
xvith the pistils, or a separate one of the same species.
  A stamen consists of three parts.
  1. The filamentum, or filament, the part which sup-
ports the anther.
  2. The anther a, placed on the  filament, nnd the most
essential part of all.
  3. The pollen,  or powder adhering to the anther.   ,
  Stanni pulvis. Tin finely divided is exhibited in-
ternally as a vermifuge.  It acts  mechanically, and the
tine filings are more effectual than the powder.
  STANNIC ACID.  A name wliich  has been given
to the peroxide of tin, because it is soluble  in alkalies.
  STA'NNUM.   See Tin.
  Stapk'dis musculus.  See Stapedius.
  STAPE'DIUS.   (Stapedius, sc.  musculus;  from
stapes, one of the bones of the ear.)  Musculus stapes,
of Coxvper; and pyramidal-stapedicn, of Dumas.  A
muscle of the internal  ear, which  draxvs the stapes
obliquely upwards toxvards  the cavern, by which the
posterior part of its  base is moved  inxvards, and the
anterior part outwards.
  STATES.  (/» quo pes stat,  a stirrup.)  A bone of
the internal ear, so  called from its resemblance to a
stirrup.
  STAPHILI'NUS.   See Azygos uvula.
  Staphilinus bxtbrniis.  See Circumflexus.
  STA'PHIS.  "£ra0!c,  is strictly a grape, or a bunch
of grapes; whence, from their likeness thereunto, it is
applied to many other tilings, especially the glands of
the body, whether natural or diseased.
  STAPHISA'GRIA.  Xrafuc aypra, wild vine ; from
the resemblance of its leaves to  those of the vine.) Sec
Delphinium.
  STAPHYLE.  (DraqivXri.  A grape or raisin: so
called from its resemblance.)  The uvula.
  STAPHYLI'NUS.   (Stapliylinus; from  c-aqjvXri,
the uvula.)  See Azygos uvula.
  Staphyhnus  externus.  See Circumfiexus.
  Staphylinus  urjecorum.  Stapliylinus sylvestris.
The wild carrot.
  STAPHYLO'MA.   (From  q-aQvXn, a grape:  so
named from its being thought  to resemble a grape.)
Staphylosis.  A disease of  the eyeball in which the
cornea loses its natural transparency, rises above the
level of the  eye, and successively even projects beyond
the eyelids, in the form of an  elongated, whitish, or
pearl-coloured tumour,  which  is sometimes smooth,
Kimctirncs uneven, and  is attended wilh a total loss of
Sl«ht.  The proximate  cause is nn effusion of thick
humour between the lamellae of the cornea, so that the
internal  and external superfices of tlie cornea, very
much protuberales.   The  remote causes ate, an  ha-
bitual ophthalmia, great contusion, and  frequently a
deposition of the  variolous humour in the small-pox.'
The species are  •
       306
  1st.  Staphyloma totale, wliich  occupies  the  whole
 transparent cornea; this is the most frequent specie-
 The symptoms are, the opaque cornea  protuberateu,
 and if in  the form of a cone, increasing in  magnitude
 it pushes out and inverts the loxver eyelid ;  and some-
 times tlie morbid cornea Is so elongated, as to lie on tlie
 cheek, causing  friction and excoriation.  The bulb of
 the eye being exposed to the air, sordes  generate, th<
 inferior palpebra  is irritated by the cilia, ond ver;
 painful red and small papillae are observable.
  2d. Staphyloma racemosum, is a staphyloma formed
 by carnous  tubercles, about the size of a small pin's
 head.
  3d. Staphyloma parliale, xvhich  occupies some part
 of the cornea: it exhibits an opaque tumour prominent
 from the cornea, similar to a small  bluish grape.
  4th.  Staphyloma  sclerotica is a bluish tumour at
 tached to some part of the sclerotica, but arises from
 the tunica albuginea.
  5th.  Staphyloma pellucidum, in which the cornea is
 not thickened or incrassated, but very much extender1
 and pellucid.
  6th.  Staphyloma complicatum, which is complicated
 xvith an ulcer,  ectropium, caruncles, or any other dis
 order of the eye.
  7th. Staphyloma iridis.  For this species, see Ptosis
 iridis.
  Star thistle.  See Carlina acaulis.
  STARCH.  Amylum.  A xvhile, insipid,  combustl
 ble  substance,  insoluble  in cold xvater, but forming a
jelly with  boiling water.  It exists chiefly in the white
 and brittle parts of vegetables, particularly in tuberose
 roots, and the seeds of the gramineous plants.  It may
 be extracted by pounding these parts, and agitating
 them in cold water;  xvhen the parenchyma, or fibrous
 parts, will first subside ; and  these being removed, a
 fine, xvhite powder,  diffused  through tlie water, will
 gradually  subside,  xvliich  is  the starch.    Or  the
 pounded or grated substance,  as  the roots of arum,
 potatoes, acorns, or horse-chesnuts, for instance, may
 be put into a hair-sieve, and the starch washed through
 xvith cold xvater, leaving the grosser matters behind.
 Farinaceous seeds  may  be ground  and treated  in a
 similar manner.  Oily seeds require lo have the oil ex
 pressed from them before the farina is extracted.
  Starch is one of the constituent parts in all  mealy
 farinaceous seeds,  fruits,  roots,  and otlier parts of
 plants.  Our common starch is made from  xx heat. It
 is not necessary that the  grain be first bruised in mills.
 The entire corn, xvell cleansed, is soaked iu  cold waler
 until the husks separate; and the grains, having be-
 come quite soft, give out,  by pressure, a milky fluid.
 The grains are  then taken out of tlie water by  means
 of a sieve, put  into a coarse linen sack, and transfer-
 red into the treadingtub; xvhere they  arc trodden,
 after cold  water has been poured upon them.
  By this  operation  the  starchy part is  washed out,
 and, mingling with the xvaterj makes it  milky.  The
 xvater  is now drnxvn off, running through a sieve into
 the settling-tub.  Fresh xvater is  again effused  upon
 the grains, and  the same operation  is continued till the
 water in tlie treading-tub is no longer rendered milky.
 The starch here precipitates by repose from the xx ater
 that held it suspended; during xvliich, especially  in a
 xvarm season, the  mucilaginous saccharine matter of
 the flour,-thal was  dissolved by the xvater. goes into
 the acetous fermentation. From this cause the starch
 grows  still purer and whiter.  The xvater  is next let
 off  from  the statch, which  is several  times  more
 xvashed xvith clear fresh water; the remaining part of
 xvhich is  suffered to drip through linen cloths,  sup-
 ported by hurdles, upon which the xvet starch is placed.
 When the starch has fully subsided, it  is wrapped in,
 wrung between these cloths, or pressed, to  extort still
 more of the remaining liquid.
  It is afterxvard cut into pieces, which are laid in niry
 places, on slightly burnt bricks, to be completely dried,
 partly  by ihe free currency of air, and  partly by the
 bricks  imbibing their moisture.  Lastly, the  outer crust
 is  scraped  oft", and  they are broken  into  smaller
 pieces.
  If starch  be  subjected to distillation,  it  gives out
 water  impregnated xvith empyreumatic acetous acid, a
 little red or broxvn oil, a great deal  of carbonic acid,
 and carburetted hydrogen gns.  Its coal is bulky, easily
 burned, and leave? a very small quantity  of potassa
 and phosphate of lime   If xvhen diffused in xvater It 
STA
STE
1* exposed to a heat of 60° F., or upward, It will Itr-1
■lent, and turn sour; but much more so if it be not
freed  from the gluten, extract, and colouring matter.
Thus, in starch-making, the farina ferments and be-
comes sour, but the starch that does not undergo fer-
mentation is rendered the more pure by this process.
Some water, already soured, is mixed xvith the flour
and xvater, xvhich regulates the fermentation, and pre-
vents the mixture from  becoming putrid ; and in this
state it is left about ten days in summer, and fifteen in
winter,  before the scum  is removed, and the water
 oured off.  The starch is then xvashed out from the
 ran, and dried, first in the open air,  and  finally in an
oven.
  With boiling water, starch forms a nearly transpa-
rent mucilage, emitting a  peculiar smell, neither disa-
greeable nor very powerful.   This mucilage may be
dried, and will then be semitransparent, and  much
resembling gum, all the products of  which it affords.
When dissolved, it is much more easily digested and
nutritious than before  it  has undergone  this ope-
rations
  Both  acids and alkalies, combined xvitii water, dis-
solve it.  It separates the oxides of several metals from
their solutions, and takes oxygen from many of them.
It is found naturally combined with all the immediate
principles of vegetables, and may easily be uniled xvith
most of them by art.
  When starch is triturated with iodine, il forms com-
binations of various colours.  When the proportion of
iodine  is small,  these  compounds are violet;  xvhen
somewhat greater, blue ; and, xvhen still greater, black.
  We can always obtain the finest blue colour, by
treating starch xvith an excess of iodine, dissolving the
compourd in liquid potassa, and precipitating  by a
vegetable acid. The colour is manifested even at the
instant of pouring water of iodine into a liquid xvliich
contains starch diffused through it.   Hence iodine be-
comes an excellent test for detecting starch; and starch
for detecting iodine.  Besides these  combinations, it
appears that there is another of a  white colour,  in
which the iodine exists in very small quantity.  Ail of
them possess peculiar properties.
  Starch is  not affected in the cold, by xvater, alkohol,
or ether. But it  dissolves readily,  when triturated
xxith potassa water.
  Starch is  convertible into sugar by dilute sulphuric
acid.   To produce this change we must take 2000 parts
of starch, diffuse them in fOOO parts of waler,  con-
taining 40 parts of strong oil of vitriol; and boil the
mixture for 36 hours in a basin of silver or lead, taking
care to stir  the materials with a wooden rod, during
the first hour of ebullition. At the end of this time,
the mass having become liquid, dues  not requiie to be
stirred,  except  at intervals.  In proportion as the
water evaporates, it ought to be replaced.  When the
liquid has been sufficiently boiled, xve must add to it
chalk and animal charcoal, then clarify with white of
egg, filter tbe mixture through  a flock of wool, and
then concentrate tbe liquid till it has acquired a syrupy
consistence.   After this, the basin must  be removed
from tbe fire, in order that, by cooling, Ihe greater part
of the sulphate of lime may  fall doxvn.  The pure
syrup is now to be decanted off, and evaporated to the
proper dryness.  The greater the quantity of acid em-
ployed,  the  less ebullition  is required to convert tlie
starch into the saccharine matter.
  The discovery  of the preceding process  is due to
Kirchoff, of  St. Petersburgh.
  The presence of sulphuric acid is not indispensable
for obtaining sugar from  starch. It may also be ob-
tained by leaving the starch to itself, cither xvilh or
without contact of air, or by mixing it with  dried
gluten.   At  the same time, indeed, several other pro-
ducts are formed.  M. Theod.  de Saussurc's interest-
ing observations on this subject are  published in the
Annates de Chemie ct de Physique, xi. 379.  The starch,
brought to the state of a pulpy mass, must  be left to
spontaneous decomposition.  The products are,  1st, a
sugar;  like the sugar of grapes;  2d, Gum, like that
from roasted starch; 3d, Amidine, a  body whose pro-
perties are intermediate between those of starch and
gum:  and 4th, an insoluble substance, like ligneous
matter.   In  these experiments, the mass on which he
operated was made by pouring 12  parts of boiling
water on 1 of starch.   When  it was fermented by
dried gluten, he obtained—
                                    n a a o
                           Without contact  WMhwstia
                               of air.       of »ir
Sugar.......................47.4        49.7
Gum..........................23.0        9.7
Amadine......................  8.9        5.2
Amalaceous lignin............. 10,3        9.2
Lignin with charcoal  ........A trace        0.3
Undecomposed starch .........  4.0        3.8
  Potato starch differs perceptibly from that of wheat;
it is more friable; is composed of ovoid grains, about
txvice the size of the other.
  As starch forms the greatest part of flour, it cannot
be doubted but that it is the principal alimentary sub-
stance contained in our bread.  In a medical point of
view, it Is to be considered as a demulcent; and, ac-
cordingly, it forms the principal Ingredient of an ofli
cinal  lozenge in  catarrhs, and a mucilage prepared
from it often  produces excellent efl'ecis,  both taken by
the mnuth and in the form of clyster, in dysenteries
and diarrhaa, from irritation of the intestines.  Milk
and starch, with tlie addition of suet finely shred, and
incorporated by boiling, was the soup employed by Sir
John Pringle, in dysenteries, where the mucous uiem-
braiie of the intestine- had been abraded.  Externally,
surgeons apply it as an absorbent in erysipelas.
  STA'TICE.  (From s-ar^ui, to stop: so named from
its  supposed  property  of restraining haemorrhages.)
The name of a genus of plants in the  Linnaean sys-
tem.  Class,  Pentandria;  Order, Pentagynia.   The
herb sea-thrift.
  Statics limonium.  The systematic name of the
868-1)11111.   Sea-lavender, or rod behen.   Behen ru-
brum; Limonium:  Limonium majus; Behen.   The
roots  possess astringent aud strengthening qualities,
but not in a very remarkable degree.
  Stationa'ria febris.   A stationary fex'er.   So
Sydenham called those fevers which happen when
there are  certain general constitutions  of Ihe years,
which owe their origin neither  to heat, cold, dryness,
nor moisture;  but  rather depend on a certain secret
and inexplicable alteration in the boxvels of the earth,
whence the air becomes impregnated with such kinds
of effluvia as subject the body to particular distempers,
so long as that kind of constitution prevails, wliich,
after a certain course of years, declines and gives way
to anolher.
  STAUROLITE.  Grenatite, or prismatic garnet.
  STAUROTIDE.  Grenatite.   Prismatic garnet.  A
crystallized, dark, reddish-browngamet, found in Scot-
land, and Ireland.
  STAVESACRE.  See Delphinium staphisagria.
  STEARINE.  Sec Fat.
  STEATITE.  Soapstone.  A subspecies of rhom-
boidal mica.
  STEATOCE'LE.  (From j-eap, suet, and xnXri, a
tumour.)  A  collection of a suety substance in the
scrotum.
  STEATOMA.   (From c-tap, suet.)   An encysted
tumour, the  contents of which are of a suety  con-
sistence.
  STEEL.  Chalybs.   The best, hardest, finest, and
closest grained iron, combined with carbon by a parti-
cular process.
  STEINHEILITE.  The blue quarts of* Finland.
  STELOCHl'TES.  See Osteocolla.
  STE'LLA. (From $tXXu, to  arise.)  A star.  A
bandage xvith many crossings, like a star.
  STELLA'RIA.   (From stella, a star: so named
from the star-like appearance of its flowers.)   The
name of a genus of plants.  Class, Decandria; Or-
der, Trigynia.  Stitchwort.
  STELLATUS.   (From  stella, a star.)   Stellate.
Starlike.  Applied to the nectary of the Stopelia, Sec.
  STELLATiE.  The name of an order of plants In
Linnaeus's Fragments of a Natural Method, consisting
of such as have stellate leaves, and quadrified corolla
mostly tetrandrous;  as Galium, Asperula, Rubea tine
torum, &c
  STE'MA.  (From jthhi to stand.)  The penis.
  Stemless milkvetch.  See Astrgalus excapus.
  STENO, Nicholas, was born at Copenhagen, in
1638.  Having studied with great diligence, under the
celebrated  Bartholin, he passed several years in visiting
the best schools in different parts of Europe.  His re-
putation was  then increased, so that about the atje of
29 he was appointed Physician to Ferdinand II. Grant
Duke  of Tuscany,  xvith  a literal  salary.  He  s&
                                         07 
STE
Sit,
 afterward honoured xvith the esteem of Cosmo III. who
 s-locted him as preceptor to his son.  He had been led,
 b / the eloquence of Bossuet, to change from the Pro-
 b stant to the  Roman  Catholic persuasion;  which
 proved an obstacle to his accepting the invitation of
 Frederick III.  to return to Copenhagen ; but the suc-
 reeding King of Denmark, not imposing any religious
 K-straint, he xvas induced about the year 1672 to go to
 his native city, where he was appointed professor of
 anatomy.  But finding his situation less agreeable than
 he  had expected,  he resumed the education of the
 young prince at Florence.  Some time after  this he
 embraced the ecclesiastical profession, xvas speedily ap-
 pointed a bisiiop, and then vicar apostolical to all ihe
 states  of the north, in  which capacity he became a
 zealous preacher in  various parts of Germany, and
 died in the course of his labours in 1686.  The xvorks
 extant by him relate principally to medical subjects.
 He xvas a diligent cultivator of anatomy,  and made
 some discoveries relative to the minute structure of the
 eye, and  other parts;  xvhicli are detailed in papers
 communicated  to the  academy of Copenhagen, and in
 sume small  works published by himself.
  Stenothora'ces. (From $evos, narrow, and Oupai,
 the chest.) Those xvhohax-e narroxv chests are so called.
  STERILITY.  Sierilitas.  Barrenness.   In xvomen
 this sometimes  happens  from a miscarriage, or violent
 labour, injuring some of the genital parts;  but one of
 the most frequent causes is the suppression of tlie men-
 strual flux.  There are other causes, however, arising
 from various diseases incident to those  parts; by which
 the uterus may be unfit to receive or retain the  male
 seed;—from tiie tubae Fallopianae being too short, or
 having lost  their erective power; in  either of xvhich
 cases no conception can take place:—from universal
 debility and relaxation; or a local debility of* the ge-
 nital system ;  by xvhich means the parts having lost
 their tone, or contractile power, tlie semen is thrown
 off immediately post  coitum;—from iinperforation of
 the vagina,  of  the uterus, or tubae, or from diseased
 ova, &c.
  STERNO.   Names compounded of this  word be-
 long to muscles xvhich are attached to the sternum; as,
  Sterno-cleido-hyoideus.  See Sterno-hyoideus.
  Sterno-cleido  mastoideus.   Sterno-mastoideus,
 and cleidomastoideus, of Albinus.   Mastoideus, of
 Douglas and Cowper;  and slerno-claviomastoidicn,
 of Dumas.  A muscle, on the anterior  and lateral part
 of the  neck, xvhich turns the  head to one side,  and
 bends it forxvard.  It arises by txvo distinct origins; tlie
 anterior tendinous and fleshy, from the top of the ster-
 num near its junction xvith the clavicle; the posterior
 fleshy, from the'upper and anterior part of the clavicle.
 Both unite a little above the anterior articulation ofthe
 clavicle, to form one muscle, xvhich runs obliquely up-
 xvards  and outwards  to be inserted, by a thick strong
 tendon, into tiie mastoid process ofthe temporal bone,
 which  it surrounds; and gradually becoming thinner,
 is inserted as far back as the lainbdoidnl suture.
  Sterno-costales.   Vesalius  considered  these as
 forming a single muscle on each side of a triangular
 shape;  hence  xve find the  name of triangularis
 adopted by Douglas and Albinus; but  Verheyen,  who
 first taught that they ought to be described as four or
 five distinct muscles, gave them the  name of sterni
 rostales;  and  in this  he is very  properly followed by
 Winslow, Haller, and Lieutaud.
  These muscles are situated at each side of the under
 surface ofthe sternum, upon  the cartilages of the third,
 fourth, fifth, and sixth ribs.  Theii number varies in
 different subjects;  very often there are only three,
sometimes five, and even six, but most usually xve find
only four.
  The lowermost ofthe sterno-costales, or whatwould
he called the inferior portioit of the triangularis, arises
tendinous  and fleshy from the  edge and inner surface
of the lower par* of the cartilago ensiformis, xvhere its
fibres intermix with those of the diaphragm and trans-
xcrsalis abdominis.  Its fibres run nearly  in a trans-
verse direction, and are inserted, by a broad thin len-
don, into the inner surface of the  cartilage of the sixth
rib, and loxver edge of that of the fifth.
  The second and largest of the sterno-costales, arises
tendinous from  the cartilago ensifoniiis- and loxver part
ofthe sternum,  laterally, and, running a little obliquely
"lit  yards,  is inserted  into the  loxver edge of the car-
 tilage of the  fifth, and sometimes of the fourth rib.
     Jli8
   The third  arises tendinous from thj snics cf  tlie
 middle part of the sternum, near the cartilages of the
 fourth and fifth ribs, and ascending obliquely outwards,
 is inserted into the cartilage of the third rib.
   The fourth and uppermost, xvhich is the most fre-
 quently xvanting, arises tendinous from the beginning
 of tlie cartilage of the third rib and tlie adjacent part
 of the sternum,  and  running almost perpendicularly
 upwards, is inserted by a ihin tendon (which covers a
 part of the  second internal intercostal,)  into Die car
 lilage and beginning of tbe bony part of the second
 rib.
   All these muscles are more or less intermixed wilh
 one  another at tiieir origin, and  this  probably occa-
 sioned them to be considered as one muscle.   Fallo
 pius  informs us, that the plate Vesalius has given of
 them was taken from a dog, in which animal ihey are
 much larger than in man.   Douglas has endeavoured
 lo account for this difference, but his explanation is far
 from being satisfactory.
  Sterno-hyoideus.  As this muscle arises from the
 clavicle, as xvell as from the sternum, Winsioxvvcalls it
 sterno-cleido-hyoideus.   It is a long, flat, and thin mus-
 cle,  situated obliquely  betxveen the sternum and  os
 hyoides, behind the loxver part of the mastoideus, and
 covering the sterno-thyroideus and the hyo-thyroideus.
 It arises, by very short tendinous fibres, from the car-
 tilaginous part of the first rib, from  tlie upper and innei
 part of the sternum, from the capsular  ligament that
 connects that bone with the clavicle, and commonly
 from a small part of the clavicle itself;  from thence,
 ascending along the anterior  and lateral part of the
 neck, we see it united to its  fellow, opposite to the in-
 ferior part of the larynx, by  means of a  thin mem-
 brane, which  forms a kind  of linea alba.   After this
 the txvo muscles separate again, and each passing over
 the side of tlie thyroid cartilage, is  inserted into the
 basis of the os hyoides, immediately  behind the inser
 tion of the last described muscle.
  Its use is to draw the os hyoides doxvnxvards.
  Stkrno-mastoidkus. See Sterno-cleido-mastoideus.
  Sterno-thyroideus.   Sterno-thyroidien, of  Du
 mas.  This  is flat and thin, like  the sterno-hyoideus
 but longer and broader.   It is  situated at the forepart
 of the neck, betxveen the sternum and thyroid cani
 lage, and  behind the sterko-hyoideus. It arises broad
 and  fleshy from the upper and inner part of the  ster-
 num,  betxveen the cartilages  of the first and second
 ribs, from each of which it receives  some  fexv fibres,
 as xvell as from the clavicle, xvhere it  joins with the
 sternum.  From thence, growing somewhat narrower,
 it ascends, and, passing ox-er the thyroid gland and the
 cricoid cartilage, is inserted tendinous  into the lower
 and posterior edge of the rough line of tlie thyroid car
 tilage, immediately under the insertion  of the sterno-
 hyoideus.  Noxv and then a fexv of its  fibres pass on
 to the os hyoides.   Its use is to draw the thyroid car-
 tilage, and consequently the larynx, downxvards.
  STERNUM.  Pectoris os.  The breast-bone.   The
 sternum, os pectoris, or breast-bone, is  the oblong,
 flat bone,  placed at tbe forepart of the thorax.   The
 ossification of this bone in tlie foetus begins from many
 different points at the same time, xve find it, in  youn»
 subjects, composed of several bones united by cartih
 lages; but as xve advance in life,  most of these  car-
 tilages ossify, and the sternum, in the  adult state, is
 found  to consist of three, and sometimes only of two
 pieces, the two lower portions beine united into one-
and very often, in old subjects, ihe xvhole is formed into
 one bone.  But, even in the lalter case, we may still
 observe the marks of its former divisions; so that,  in
 describing tlie bone, xve may very properly divide il
 into its upper, middle, and inferior portions.
  The upper portion forms an irregular square, which,
 xvithout much reason, has, bv many writers, been com-
 pared to the figure of a heart as it is painted on cards.
 It is of considerable thickness, especially at its upper
 part.  Its anterior surface is irregular, and slightly con-
 vex ;  posteriorly, it is  somexvhat concave.  Itsuppef
 middle part is hollowed, to make way for ihe trachea.
 On each side, superiorly, xve observe mi  oblong articu-
 lating surface, covered xvitii cartilage in the recent sub
 ject, for receiving the ends of the clavicles.  Imme
diatcly below  this, on each side, ihe bone becomes
thinner, and xve observe a rough surface for receiving
 Ihe cartilage of the first rib, and, almost close to the in
 ferior edge of this, xve  find the half of such anothoi 
STl
ST1
e*ri+ace, wliich, combined xvith a similar surfaoe in the
middle portion of tlie sternum, serves for the articula-
tion of the cartilage of the second rib.
  The middle portion is much longer, narrower, and
thinner than the former; but is somewhat broader and
thinner below than above, where it is connected  with
the upper portion.  The whole of its anterior surface
is slightly convex, and within it is slightly concave. Its
edge, on  each side, affords four articulating surfaces,
for the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth ribs; and parts of
articulating surfaces at its upper and lower parts, for
the second aud seventh ribs.   About the middle of this
portion of tlie sternum we sometimes find a consider-
able-hole, largf enough  in some subjects to admit the
end  of the little  finger.  Sylvius seems to  have been
the first who described it.  Riolanus and some others
after him have, xvithout reason, supposed it  to be more
frequent  in women than in men.  In tlie recent subject
it is closed  by a  cartilaginous substance;  and,  as  it
does not  seem destiued for the transmission  of vessels,
as some xvriters have asserted, xve  may, perhaps very
properly, with Hunauld, consider  it as an  accidental
circumstance, occasioned by  an interruption of tlie os-
sification, before  tbe xvhole of this part of tlie bone  is
completely ossified.
  Tlie third and infertor portion of the sternum is sepa-
rated from the former by a line, which is seldom  alto-
gether obliterated, even in the oldest subjects*   It  is
smaller than the other parts of the bone, and descends
between  the  ribs, so as to have been considered as an
appendix to the rest of the sternum.  From its shape,
and its being constantly in a state of cartilage in young
subjects,  it has been commonly named cartilago xi-
phoidea,  ensiformis, or sxvord-like cartilage; though
many ofthe ancients gave tiie name of xiphoides to the
whole sternum;  comparing the first two bones to the
handle, and this  appendix to the bladeof  the sword.
1'he shape of this appendix varies in different subjects;
in some it is longer and more pointed, in others shorter
and more obtuse.  Veslingius has seen it reaching as
loxv as the navel, and incommoding the motion of the
trunk forxvards.   In general it terminates obtusely, or
in a single point; sometimes, however, it is  bifurcated,
and Euslachius and Haller have seen it trifid.   Very
often we find it perforated, for the transmission of
branches of tbe  mammary artery.   In  the  adult it  is
usually ossified and tipped with  cartilage, but it very
often continues  cartilaginous through  life,  and Haller
once found it iu this stale in  a woman xvho  died in her
hundredth year.
  The substance of the sternum,  internally, is of a
light, spongy texture,  covered externally with a thin
bony plate; hence  it happens that this bone is easily
fractured.  From the description we have given of it,
its uses may be easily understood.   We have seen  it
serving for the articulation of seven true ribs on each
side, and hence we shall  find it of considerable use in
respiration.   We likewise oLserved, that it is articu-
lated with each of the clavicles.  It serves for theorigin
and insertion of several muscles; it supports the medi-
asiinusa; and lastly, defends the heart and lungs ; and
it is observable,  that we find a similar bone in almost
all animals that  have lungs, and even in such as have
no ribs,  of which  latter we have  an instance  in the
frog.
   Sternltaxento ria.  So called because the  pow-
dered  floxx-ers and roots have the property  of exciting
sneezing.  See Achillea ptarmica,
   STE'RTOR.   A noisy kind of respiration, as is ob-
served in apoplexy. A snoring or snorting.
   STHE'NTA.  A term employed by the folloxversof
Dr.  Brown, to denote that state of  the body which dis-
poses to inflammatory  diseases, in  opposition to those
of debility, which arise from asthenia.
   STIBIA'LIS.  (From stibium, antimony.)  An anti-
monial er  medieine, the chief ingredient of xvhich  is
antimony.
  STIBIC ACID. Berzetius's name ofthe yellow oxide
of antimony.
  Stibii essentia. Antimonial wine.
  STIBIOUS ACID.   So  Berzelius calls the  xvhite
oxide of antimony.
  STI'BIUM.  (DrtBtov: from $-tX6u, to shine.)  An
ancient name of antimony.  See Antimony.
  STI'GMA.  (Zrtypa: from ftC/o, to inflict bloxvs.)
I. A small red speck in  the skin, occasioning no eleva-
■ion of the cuticle.  Stigmata are generally distinct,  ot
apart from each otlier. They sometimes assume a ivM
colour, and are then termed petechia.
  II. A natural mark or spot on the skin.  See .V« i-ui
mater nus.
  III. That part of the female organ •■ fa plant xvliich
is placed at the summit of the style.  1 is an indispen-
sable part of the fructification, and consists nf a vast
number of absorbing papillae, rarely observable by the
naked eye,  but best seen in tlie Mirabilis jalapa.  Bo-
tanists distinguish the following differences in tbe form
of stigmas:
  1.  Globose; as in Trachclium.
  2.  Capitate, round, but flat below; as in Sorbus and
Vinca.
  3.  Acute, ending in a point; as in Piscidia.
  4.  Obtuse; as inNigrina.
  5.  Clubbed; asin Gcnipi.
  6.  Emarginate, cut; as in Dentarit.
 ,7.  Peltate; asin Garcnng.
  8.  Uncinate, acute and refhscted ; as in Lantana
  9.  Triangular; asin  Lilium candidum.
  10. Trilobed;  as iu Tulipa gesneriana.
  11. Petalifurm ; lis in Iris germanica.
  12. Convolute; asin Crocus.
  13. Revolute;  as in Leontodon.
  14. Pennictlliform, resembling a pencil-brush ;  as In
Milium paspalium.
  15. Perforatum ; as in Sloanea
  16. Concave ,- as in Viola.
  17 Bifid; as in Menyanthes.
  Ite. 'Trifid; as in Amaryllis.
  19. Multifid; asin Castus.
  20. Striate ; as in Papaver.
  21. Plumose, on  each side, like a  hairy pen;  as  n
grasses.
  12. Four-sided; as in Amyris.
  23. Pubescent, covered with hair;  as in Vida.
  24. Simple, not differing from tlie stile at its summit;
as in Galanthus and Hippuris.
  25. Scsoile, on tlie germen; there being no stile.
  The stigma is always more or less nmist xvitii a pecu
liar viscid fluid, xvhich in some plants is  so conspicu
ous as to form a large drop, though never big enough m
fall to the ground.  This moisture is designed  for the
reception of the pollen, which explodes or. meeting xvitii
it; and hence Ihe seeds are  rendered capable of ripen-
ing,  which, though in many  plants fully  formed, they
would not oiherxvise be.
  STILBITE.  See Zeolite.
  STILBO'MA. (From e;iX6u, to polish.) A cosmetic
  STILLICI'DIUM.  (From stillo, to drop, and cadi,
to fall.)  A strangury, or discharge of the urine drop
by drop.  Also the pumping upon a part.
  STILPNOSIDERITE.  A broxvnish black-coloured
mineral, said to contain phosphoric acid.  It occur*
along with broxvn iron in Saxony and Bavaria.
  STI'MMI.  trippt.  Antimony.
  STIMULANT.   (Stimulans; from stimulo, to set-
up.)   That xvhich possesses a power of exciting l:ue
animal energy.  Stimulants are divided into,
  1.  Stimulantia tonica; as sinapi, cantharides, «j
drargyri praparationcs.
  2.  Stimulantia dtffasibilia ;  as alkali volatile, a; c
tricity, heat, Sec.
  3.  Stimulantia cardiaca ; as cinnamomum, nux m,
data, wine, Sec
  STIMULUS.  (Stimulus, i. in.; from $-rtvpos, sti-
mulus, per sync, stimulus, a sling or spur.) '1 hat whicu
rouses the action or energy of a part.
  Stinking lettuce.   See Lactuca virosa.
  STINKSTONE.   Sxvinestone.  A variety  of com
pact luculliie, a subspecies of limestone.
  STIPES.  (Stipes, itis.m.; from the Greek, stut,.
A stipe, or stem of a fungus, fern, or palm.
  STIPULA.  A leafy appendage to the proper leaven,
or to their  footstalks.   In  some instances they are si.
like  unto leaveSj that they  are believed to  be so, and
can only be distinguished from leaves by their situation
on the footstalk.  Stipulae are,
  1.  Solitary; as in Astragalus onobrychis.
  2.  In pairs ; asin Lathyrus annuus.
  3.  Lateral, on the side of the footstalk ; as in Lotus
tctraphylius.
  4.  Oppositifoliar, in the side of the opposite leaves-
asin Trifoliumpratense,
  5. Extra foliaceous, external xvitii resnect  to the leal'
or footstalk ; as in Astragalus onobrich'ts
                                         .103 
STO
STB
  6. Inttafohaccous. internal; as in Morus nigra and
 alba.
  7. Caducous, falling off before  the  leaves are ex-
 panded ;  as in Prunus avium.
  8. Persistent, remaining after the fall ofthe leaf; as
 in Trifolium pratense.
  9. Deciduous, falling xvith the  leaves; as in many
 stipulated plants.
  10. Spinescent, becomes thorns;  as in Robinia pseu-
 dacacia.
  11. Sessile ;  as in Pisum sativum.
  12. Adnate; as in Rosa canina.
  13. Decurrent; asin Crotullaria sagittalis.
  14. Sheathed; as in He.dysum vaginale.
  15. Lanceolate ; as in Cistus helianthemum.
  16. Subulate; as in Cassiaglandulosa.
  17. Sagittate; asin Pisum maritimum.
  18. Lunate ; as in Lathyrus tingitanus.
  19. Ovate ; in Ononis repens.
  20. Cordate ; in Ocymum sanctum.
  21. Filiform; in Ononis mauritanica.
  22. Foliaceous ; in Sambucus ebulus.
  23. Entire ;  in Ficia cracca.
  24. Serrate ; in Pisum sativum.
  25. Ciliatc;  in Passiflora fatida.
  26. Toothed; in Orobus lathyroides.
  27. Pinnatifid ;  in fiefa tricolor.
  STIPULARIS.  Stipular: belonging to  the  stipula
of plants; as the spina stipularis ofthe Mimosa nilotica
and horrida.
  STIZOLO'BIUM. The cowage.  See Dolichos.
  STOE'CHAS. (From ^-oexaits, the islands on which
It prexv.)   See Lavendula stachas.
  Stoechas arabica.  See Lavendula stachas.
  Stoechas citrina.  See Gnaphalium stachas.
  STOLO.  (Stolo,onis. in.; a shoot, branch, or twig.)
 -'t sucker or scyon.   A runner which proceeds from the
toots of some plants, aud takes root in the earth.  It is
distinguished into a  supratcrraneous,  which runs on
the  surface above ground; as in Fagaria vesca, and
Potentilla reptans ;  and  subterraneous, wliich runs
under the surface, as in  Triticum repens, tbe stolos of
which are erroneously taken for the roots.
  STOMACA'CE.   (Stomacace, es. f.;  from  $opa,
the  mouth, and xaxos, evil.) Canker.   A fetor in the
mouth, with a bloody discharge from the gums.  It is
generally a symptom of the scurvy.  It is also a name
for the scurvy.
  STOMACH.   (Stomackus, chi. m.; from <?opa, the
mouth, and %tu,  to pour.)  Ventriculus; called also
Anocalia; Gaster ; Nedys.  A membraneous  recep-
tacle, situated  in the epigastric region,  which receives
the  food from the  oesophagus; its figure is somewhat
oblong and round: it is largest  on the left  side, and
gradually diminishes toxvards its loxver orifice, xvhere
it is the least.   Its superior orifice, where the oesopha-
gus terminates, is called the cordia: the inferior orifice,
xvhere the intestine begins, the pylorus. The anterior
surface is turned towards the  abdominal muscles, and
the  posterior opposite the lumbar vertebrae.  It has two
curvatures. the first is called the great curvature ofthe
stomach, and extends doxvnwards from one  orifice to
the  other, having the omentum adhering to it; tlie
second is the small curvature, whicli is also betxveen
both orifices, but superiorly and posteriorly.   The sto-
mach, like the  intestinal canal, is  composed of three
coats, or membranes: 1. The outermost, which is very
firm,  and from the peritonaeum.  2. The muscular,
which is very thick,  and composed of various muscular
fibres ; and, 3. The  innermost, or  villous coat, which
is covered xvith exhaling and inhaling vessels, and mu-
cus.   These  coats are connected together by cellular
membrane   The glands of the stomach which sepa-
rate the mucus are situated between  tlie villous and
muscular coat, in the cellular structure. The arteries
of the stomach come chiefly from the coeliac artery,
and are distinguished into the coronary,  gastroepiploic,
and  short arteries;  they  are accompanied  by  veins
xvhich have similar names, and xvhich terminate in the
vena porta?.  The nei x es of Ihe stomach are very nu-
merous, and come from the eighth pair  nnd intercostal
nerves.  The lymphatic vesrcls are distributed through-
out  tlie whole substance, and proceed  immediately to
the  thoracic duct.  The use of the stomach is to excite
hunger nnd partly lliirst, 10 receix-c  the  food  from the
oesophagus, and to retain  it, till, by the motion of the
itomaeh,  the admixture of various fluids  aud  many
      am
 other changes, it is rendered fit to pass the right oribc*
 of the stomach, and afloid chyle to the intestine*
   Stomach, inflammation of.  See Gastritis.
   [Stomach pump.  This is an instrument introauceti
 of late for the purpose of emptying the stomach of iu
 contents, when poison has been swallowed.  It is a
 long catheter made of gum elastic, xvhich being intro-
 duced into the mouth, is passed into the oesophagus and
 pressed forwards, until the point reaches the  stomach
 A syringe adapted to the upper end  is then applied, and
 the stomach is emptied of ils fluid contents.   If poison
 be swallowed in a liquid state, it may thus be most ef-
 fectually removed, and rendered harmless.  A.]
   STOMACHIC.  i.Stomachicus ;  from $opaxos, -the
 stomach.)  That which excites and strengthens  the
 action of the stomach.
   Stoma'chica passio.  A disorder in which there
 is an aversion to food ; even the thought of it begets a
 nausea, anxiety, cardialgia, and effusion of saliva, and
 often a vomiting.  Fasting is more tolerable  than eat-
 ing ; if obliged to eat, a pain follows that is worse than
 huimer  itself.
   STO'MACHUS.  See Stomach.
   STONE.  See Calculus.
   STONE-CROP.  See Sedum acre
   STO' KAX. •Lropal-  See Styrax
   Storax, liquid.  See Liquidambra.
   StoAax liquida.   See Liquidambra.
   Storax  rubra officinalis. Cascarilla  bam was
 so called.
   Storax, while.  See Myroxylon peruiferum.
   STORCK,  Anthony, a  medical professor of con-
 siderable  note at Vienna,  who  succeeded the cele-
 brated Van Sivieten  as  president and director of the
 faculty of medicine in that university,  and  xvas also
 honoured xvith the appointment of principal consulting
 physician to the  Empress Maria Theresa.  He distin-
 guished himself chiefly by a long and assiduous course
 of experiments, xvith  various  narcotic vegetables,  as
 hemlock, henbane, stramonium, aconite, colchicum,
 &c.;  of which, though he appears to  have overrated
 the efficacy, yet  certainly he had the merit of calling
 the attention of practitioners to a class of active reme-
 dies, which may often be highly useful  under prudent
 management.  His various  tracts  on  these subjects
 xvere printed between 1760 and  1771, and they have
 since passed through several editions and translations.
 He xx as also author of a collection of cases, which oc-
 curred under his observation in the hospital at Vienna;
 and  this work xvas afterward continued by his suc-
 cessor, Dr. Collin.
   STRABALI'SMUS.  See Strabismus.
   STRABISMUS.  (From c-pa0i^u, to squint)  Stra
 balismns: Strabosilas.  Squinting. An affection of
 the eye by xvhich a person sees objects in an oblique
 manner,  from the axis of vision being distorted. Cul
 len arranges this disease in the Class  Locales, ond
 Order Dyscinesia. He distinguishes three species:—
   1.  Strabismus habitualis, when  from a custom of
 using only one eye.
  2. Strabismus commodis, when one eye in comparison
 xvith the olher, from  greater weakness, or mobility,
 cannot accommodate itself to the other.
  3.  Strabismus necessarius, when some change takes
 place in  the  situation or figure of the eye, or a part
 ot it.
  STRABO'SITAS.   See Strabismus.
  STRAHLSTEIN.   See Actinolite.
  Stra'men camelorum. Camel's hay.  See Andro-
pogon schananthus.
  Strammo'mum. See Stramonium.
  STRAMONIUM.   (From stramen, straw: so called
 from its fibrous roots.)  See Datura stramonium.
  Stramonium officinale.  See Datura stramonium.
  Stramonium spinosum.  See Datura stramonium.
  Stra'ngalis.   (From $-payytvu, to  torment.)   ft
 hard, painful tumour in the breast, from milk.
  STRANGURIA.  See Strangury.
  STRANGURY.  (Stranguria, a. f.; from  rpayl,
 a  drop, and  ovpov, urine.)   A difliculty in  making
 water, attended with pain and dripping. See Ischuria.
  STRATIO'TES. (From $paf]os, an army: so named
 from its virtues in healing fresh wounds, and its use-
 fulness to soldiers.)  See Achillea millefolium.
  Stratio'ticum. See  Achillea millefolium.
  STRAWBERRY.   See Fraga-ia.
  STREATHAM.  A village  in Surrey,, where is a 
STR
STR
 weak jurgtng water, drunk to Use amount of one, two,
 or more pints in a morning.
   STRE'MMA.  (Xrptppa: from rptiiu), to turn.)  A
 strain or sprain of the parts about a joint.
   STRIATI'S. Striate.  Applied to steins, seeds, Sec;
 as the stem of the CEnanlhe Istula, and seeds of the
 Conium maculatum.
   STRICTURE.   Strictura.   A diminution, or con-
 tracted state of" some tube, or duct, ofthe body, as tlie
 oesophagus, intestines, urethra, vagina, Sec   They are
 either organic or spasmodic.
  STRICTUS. In botanical language it means straight,
 as Caulis strictus.
   STRIDOR.  A noise of crashing.
   Stridor dkntium.   Grinding ofthe teeth.
  STRIGA.  A speciesof pubescence of plants, xvhite,
 bristle-like, xvith broad bases mostly decumbent; as in
 Borago officinalis.
   Stri'gil.   Strigilis.  An instrument to scrape off
 the  sweat  during the gymnastic  exercises of the
 ancients, and  in their baths: strigils were  made of
 metal, horn, or ivory, and xvere curved. Some were
 made of linen.
  Striomk'nium.   The strigment, filth,  or sordes,
 scraped from the skin, in baths and places of exercises.
  STROBILUS.   A cone.  A species of pericarpium,
 or seed-vessel.  A catkin hardened and enlarged into a
 seed-vessel; an example of xvhich is in the pinus, or
 fir.  It  is eitlier conic, cylindric, scats, globose, squa-
 mose, or spurious, consisting of membraneous and not
 xvoody scales; as in Origanum marjorana.
  STRONTIA.  (So called because it was  first found
 in a lead mine at Strontian, in Scotland.)  A grayish
 white-coloured earth, found in combination xvith car-
 bonic acid in the mineral called Strontianiie.
   Pure strontia is of a grayish- white  colour; a pungent,
 acrid taste; and when powdered in a mortar, the dust
 lhat rises irritates  the lungs and nostrils.  Its specific
 gravity approaches that of barytes.  It requires rattier
 more than 160 parts of water at 60° to dissolve it; but
 of boiling water much less.  On cooling, it crystallizes
 in  thin, transparent, quadrangular  plates,  generally
 parallelograms, seldom exceeding a quarter of an inch
 in length, and frequently adhering together.  The edges
 are  most frequently bevelled tram each side.  Some-
 limes they assume a cubic form.  These crystals con-
 tain about .68 of water; are soluble in 51.4 times their
 xveight of water at 60°, and in  little more than twice
 their weight of boiling water.  They give a blood-red
 colour to the flame of burning alkohol.  The solution
 of strontia changes vegetable blues to a green.  Stron-
 tia combines with sulphur either in the wet or dry xvay,
 and its sulphuret is soluble in water.
  In its properties, strontia has a considerable affinity
 to barytes.  It differs from it chiefly in being infusible,
 much less  soluble,  of a different form, weaker in its
 affinities, and not poisonous.   Its saline compounds
 afford differences more marked.
  The basis of strontia is strontium, a metal first pro-
 cured by Sir H. Davy, in 180d, precisely in tbe same
 manner as barium, to which it is very analogous, but
 has  less lustre.  It appeared  fixed,  difficultly fusible,
 and  not volatile.  It became converted into strontia by
 exposure lo air, and xvhen thrown into water, decom-
 posed it with great violence, producing hydrogen gas,
 and making the xvater a solution of strontia.  By ig-
 niting the mineral slrontianite intensely with charcoal
 powder, strontia is cheaply procured.
  Slrontianite.  See Heavy spar.
  STRONTIUM.   The metallic base of strotnia. See
 Strontia.
  STROPHIOLUM  A little curved gland-like part
 near the scar or base of some seeds; as that of Asorum,
 but  especially in several  papilionaceous genera,  as
 Ulex, Spartium, Sec
  Stro'phos.  (From $-pt<iu, to turn.)  A twisting of I
 the intestines.
  STRO'PHULUS. A papulous eruption peculiar to I
 infants, and exhibiting a variety of  forms, which aie J
 described by Dr. Willan, under  the titles of intertinc-
 ms,  albidus, confertus, volaticus, and Candidas.      j
  1.  Strophulus inte-tinctus, usually called  the  red <
gum, and, by the French, Effloresce- ce benigne.  The |
 papula: characterizing this affection, rise sensibly nbove
 Jie level of the cuticle, are of a vivid red colour, and
 commonly  distinct from each other.   Their number
 and  extent vary much in different  case.-.  They  ap- ;
 pear most constantly on the cheeks, forearir, and bacX
 ofthe hand, but are sometimes diffused over the whole
 body.  The papulie are, in  many places,  intermixed
 ivith  stigmata,  and often with red  patches of a larger
 size, which do not, hoxvever, occasion any elevation of
 the cuticle.  A child's skin thus variegated, somewhat
 resembles a piece of red printed linen;  and hence this
 eruption was formerly  called the red  gown,  a term
 which is still retained in several counties of England,
 and may be found in old dictionaries.   Medical writers
 have  changed  the original word for one of a similar
 sound, but  not more significant.  The strophulus inter
 tinctus  has not, In general, any tendency lo become pus
 tular; a fexv small pustules, containing a straw-coloured
 xvntery fluid, occasionally appear  on the  back of the
 hand, but  ""scarcely merit attention, as the fluid is al-
 ways reabsorbed in a short time, without breaking line
 cuticle.  The  eruption usually  terminates  in.scurf, or
 exfoliation of the cuticle; ils duration, however, is very
 uncertain; the papulae and spots sometimes remain for
 a length of time xvithout an obvious  alteration; sonie-
 times disappear and conic out again daily ;  but, for the
 most  part, one eruption of them succeeds  another, ai
 longer intervals, and xvitii more  regularity.   This com-
 plaint occurs chiefly within the first two  months of
 lactation.  It is not alxvays accompanied xvith, or pre-
 ceded by any disorders ofthe constitution,  but appears
 occasionally in the strongest and most healthy children.
 Some authors  connect  it with aphthous  ulcerations
 coinnion in children, supposing the latter to be a  pan
 ofthe same disease diffused along the internal surfaces
 ofthe mouth and intestines. The fact, hoxvever, seems
 to be, that the txvo  affections alternate  with  each
 other: for those infants  who have the papulous erup-
 tion on the skin are less liable to aphthae;  and xvhen
 the aphthae take place  to a considerable  degree, the
 skin is  generally pale and  free from eruption.  The
 strophulus intertinctus  is, by most  xvriters,  said to
 originate from  an acidity, or acrimonious quality of
 the milk taken  into a child's stomach, communicated
 afterward to the  blood,  and stimulating the cutaneous
 excretories. This opinion might, without difficulty, be
 proved  to  have little foundation.  The predisposition
 to the complaint may be deduced from the delicate and
 tender state of tlie skin, and from the strong determi-
 nation of blood to the surface, whicli  evidently takes
 place in infants.  The  papulous eruption is, in many
 cases, connected with a weak, irritable state  of the
 alimentary canal, and consequent indigestion.   For if
 it be by any means suddenly repelled  from the surface,
 diarrhoea, vomiting, spasmodic affections of th» bowels,
 and often general disturbance of the constitution suc-
 ceed ; but as soon as it  reappears, those internal com-
 plaints  are wholly suspended.   Dr. Armstrong  and
 others have particularly  noted this reciprocation, xvhich
 makes the red gum, at times, a disease of some import-
 ance,  though in its usual form it is not thought to be in
 any respect dangerous.  On their remarks a necessary
 caution is founded, not  to expose infants to a stream
 of very cold air, nor to plunge them unseasonably in a
 cold bath.  The  most violent, and even fatal symp-
 toms,  have often been the consequence  of such impru-
 dent conduct.
  2. The Strophulus  albidus,  by some termed  the
 while  gum, is merely a variety of strophulus intertinc-
 tus, but deserves  some notice on account of the difl'er
 ent appearance of its  papulae.   In place of those de
 scribed as characterizing the red gum, there is a num-
 ber of minute  whitish specks,  a little elevated,  and
 sometimes, though not  constantly, surrounded by  n
 slight redness.  These papulae,  when  their tops  arc
 removed, do not  discharge any fluid ;  it is, however,
 probable, that they are originally formed by the depo-
 sition  of a  fluid, which  afterward concretes under the
 cuticle.  They  appear chiefly on  the face, neck,  and
 breast, and are more permanent than the papulae of tho
 red gum.  In other respects, they have the same nature
 and tendency, and require a similar plan of treatment.
 Although a distinctive name has  been applied to this
eruption, when  occurring alone, yet it is proper to ob-
serve, that, in a  great number of cases, tliere  are led
papulae and spots intermixed wilh it, which prove its
connexion xvitii  the stropnulus imertincius.
  3. The Strophulus confertus.  An eruption of nu-
merous  papulae, varying in  their size, appears on  dif
ferent parts of the body in  infants, during dentition
and has thence  been denominated the  tooth-rash.  I
                                         •ill 
STR                                             STR
Is sometimes also termed the rank red gum.  About
the fourth or fifth  month  after  birth,  an eruption of
this kind usually takes place on the cheeks and sides
of the nose, extending sometimes to the forehead  and
arms, but rarely to the trunk or body.  The papulae on
the face are smaller, and set more closely together than
in the rod gum ; their  colour is  not so vivid, but they
are generally  more permanent.  They  terminate at
length with slight exfoliations of the cuticle, and often
appear again in the same places, a short time after-
ward.  Tiie papulae xvhich, in this complaint, occasion-
ally appear on the back or loins, arc much larger,  and
somexvhat more distant from each other, than tliose on
the  face.   They  are often surrounded by an extensive
circle of inflammation, and a few  of them contain  a
semi-pellucid watery fluid, which is reabsorbed xvhen
the  inflammation subsides.  In  the seventh or eighth
month, the strophulus confertus assumes a somewhat
different form ; one or two large irregular patches ap-
pear on tlie arms, shoulder, or neck ; in which the pa-
pulae are hard, of a considerable size, and set so close
together,  that the xvhole  surface  is of a high red co-
lour.  Most commonly tlie forearm is the seat of  this
eruption, the papulae rising  first on the  back  of the
hand, and gradually extending upwards along tlie arm.
Sonietimes,  hoxvever, the eruption commences at the
elbow, and proceeds a little upxvards and downwards
on the outside of the arm.  It arrives at its height in
about a fortnight; the papulie then begin to fade, and
become fiat at the top; afterward the cuticle exfo-
liates from the part affected, which remains  disco-
loured, rough, and irregular, for a week or two longer.
  An obstinate and very painful modification of  Ihis
disease takes  place,  thougli not often, on the lower
extremities.   The  papulae spread from the cajyes of
the legs to the thighs, nates, loins, and round the body,
as high as the navel: being very numerous and close
together,  they  produce a continuous redness over all
these parts.
  The cuticle, presently, however, shrivelled, cracks in
various places, and finally separates from the  skin in
large pieces.  During  this process a nexv cuticle  is
formed, notwithstanding  wliich the complaint recurs
in a short time, and goes through the  same course as
before. In this manntr successive eruptions take place,
during tiie course of three or four months, and perhaps
do not cease till the child is one  year old, or somewhat
more.   Children necessarily suffer great uneasiness
from the  heat and irritation occasioned by so extensive
an eruption, yet while they are affected  with it, they
often remain  free from  any  internal or febrile com-
plaint.  This appearance should be distinguished from
the intertrigo of infants, xvhicli  exhibits a  uniform,
red, smooth,  shining surface,  xvithout papulae;  and
xvhich affects oniy the lower part of the nates and in-
side of the thighs, being produced  by the stimulus of
the urine, &c. with which the child's clothes  are al-
most constantly wetted.   The  strophulus confertus,
where the child is otherwise healthy, is generally as-
cribed to a stato of indigestion, or some feverish com-
plaint of the mother or nurse.  Dr. Willan, hoxvever,
asserts, that he Itas more frequently seen the eruption
when no such cause was evident.  It may, with more
probability, be considered as one of the numerous symp-
toms of  irritation, arising from  the inflamed and pain-
ful state  of the gums in dentition; since  it always oc-
curs during that process, and disappeare soon after the
first teeth have cut the gums.
  4. The Strophulus  volaticus  is characterized by an
appearance of small circular patches, or clusters of
papulae,  arising successively on different parts of the
body.  The number of papula; in each cluster is from
six to twelve.  Both the papulae and  their interstices
are of a  high red colour.  These patches continue  red,
with a little heat, or itcliing, for about four days, when
they turn brown, and begin to exfoliate.  As one patch
declines, another appears at a small distance from it;
and in this manner the complnint often  spreads  gra-
dually over the face, body, and limDs, not terminating
in less than three or four weeks.   During that time the
child has sometimes a quick pulse, a white tongue, and
 Feems uneasy  and fretful.  In many cases, however,
 the eruption takes place  without any symptoms of in-
 ternal disorder.  The above complaint has been by
 some writers denominated ignis volaticus infantum ;
 under this title Astrttc nnd Loxvry have described one
 of the forms of crusta lactea, in  which a successive
       312
 eruption of pustules takes place on the same spot gene-
 rally about the mouth or eyes, in children of different
 ages, and sometimes in adults.  The macula volatica
 infantum  mentioned by  Wittichius, Sennertus, and
 Scbizeus, agree in some respects with the strophulus
 volaticus; but they are described by other German au-
 thors as a species of erysipelas, or as irregular efflores-
 cences affecting the genitals of infants, and often prov-
 ing fatal.   The strophulus volaticus is a complaint  by
 no" means frequent.  In  most cases wliich have come
 under Dr. Willan's observation, it appeared between
 the third and sixth month ; in one  instance, however,
 it occurred about ten days after birth, and  continued
 three weeks, being gradually diffused from  the cheeks
 and forehead to the scalp, afterward to tbe trunk of the
 body and to the extremities;  when  the patches ex foli
 ated, a ted surface xvas left, with a slight border of de-
 tached cuticle.
   5. Strophulus Candidas.  In this form of strophulus,
 the papulae are larger than in any of the foregoing spe-
 cies. They have no inflammation  round their base ;
 their surface is very smooth and shining, whence they
 appear to be of a lighter colour than the adjoining cuti-
 cle.  They ai e diffused, at a considerable distance from
 each other, over the loins,  shoulders, and upper part of     |
 the arms ; in any other situation they are seldom found.
   This eruption affects infants about a year old, and
 most commonly succeeds some of the acute diseases
 to which they are liable.   Dr. Willan has observed it
 on their recovery  from a  catairhal fever, and after in-
 flammation of the bowels, or lungs. The papula; con-
 tinue hard and elevated  for about a week, then gra-
 dually subside and disappear.
   STRU'MA.  (Struma,  a.  f.; from struo, to heap
 up, or d struendo, because tbey groxv insensibly.)  This
 term is generally applied to scrofula, and by some
 to bronchocele, or an induration of the thyroid gland.
   Stru'men.   (From struma, a scrofulous tumour.)
 An  herb so called from  its uses in healing strumous
 tumours.
   STRUMOUS.  (Strumosus; from struma, a xven or
 scrofula.)  Of the nature of  scrofula.
   Strumus.   An  obsolete name of tlie  berry beiring
 chickxveed, which was supposed  to be elficacicis  in
 the cure of scrofula.  Sec Cucubalas bacciferus.
   STRU'THIUM.   (From   s-fdos,  a  sparrow:  so
 named from the resemblance of its flowers to an un-
 fledged sparrow.)  The master-xvort.  See lmperatona
 ostruthium.
   STRYCHNIA.  Strychnine.  An alkaline substance
 obtained from the bean of the strychnos ignatia by the
 tolloxving  process :  The  bean  was rasped down  aa
 small as possible.  It was then exposed lo the action
 of nitric tether in a Fapin's digester.   Tlie  residue,
 thus deprived of a quantity  of fatty matter,  was  di-
 gested in alkohol as long as that reagent was capable
 of dissolving any thing.   The alkoholic solutions were
 evaporated to dryness, and the residue  redissolved in
 xvater.   Caustic potassa  being dropped  into tiie solu-
 tion, a  xvhite crystalline  precipitate  fell, wliich was
 strychnia.  It xvas purified by washing it in cold water,
 dissolving it in alkohol, nnd crystallizing it.   Strychnia
 was obtained likewise from tlie bean of tlie strychnos
 ignatia, by boiling the infusion of the bean wilh mag-
 nesia, in the  same manner as Robiquet had obtained
 morphia from the infusion of opium.
   The  properties of strychnia, when  in a state of pu
 rity, are as follows:
   It is crystallized in very small four-sided prisms, ter
 initiated by four-sided low  pyramids.  It has a white
 colour; its taste is intolerably bitter, leaving a metal-
 lic impression in the mouth.  It is destitute of smell.
 It is not altered by exposure  to  the air.  It is neither
 fusible nor volatile, except at temperatures at xvhich it
 undergoes decomposition. It is charred at the tempo
 rature at xvhich oil enters into ebullition (about 580°).
 When strongly heated, it swells up, blackens, gives out
 empyreumatic oil, a little water, and acetic acid; car
 bonic acid and  carburetted hydrogen gases are disen
 gaged, and a bulky charcoal remains behind.  When
 heated with peroxide of  copper, it gives out only car
I bonic acid gas and water.  It is very little soluble in
I cold xvater, 100,000 parts of that liquor dissolving only
I 15 parts of strychnia; but it dissolves in 2,500 limes Ita
| weight of boiling xvater.  A cold solution of strychnia
I in xvater may be  diluted  with 100 times its volume of
> tl at linuid, xvithout losing its bitter taste. 
STR
STR
  When strychnia is introduced  into the stomach, il
acts with prodigious energy.  A locked jaxv is induced
in a very short time, and the animal is speedily destroy-
ed.   Half a grain of strychnia blown into tlie throat
of a rabbit proved fatal in five minutes, and brought on
locked jaw in txvo minutes.
  Sulphate of strychnia is  a salt which crystallizes in
transparent cubes, soluble  in less than ten times its
xveight of cold xvater.  Its taste is intensely bitter, and
the strychnia is  precipitated from it by all the soluble
salifiable bases. It is nol altered by exposure lo the air.
  Muriate of  strychnia  crystallizes  in  very  small
needles, xvhich are grouped together, and before tlie
microscope exhibit the form  of quadrangular fiiisius.
When exposed to tlie air  it becomes opaque.   It is
more soluble  in water than tlie sulphate, has a similar
taste, mid acts xvith the same violence upon the annual
economy as all the other salts of strychnia.
  Phosphate  of  strychnia crystallizes  in  four-sided
prisms.   It can only be obtained neutral by double de-
composition.
  Nitrateof strychnia can be obtained only by dissolv-
ing strychnia in  nitric acid, diluted xvilh a great deal
of xvater.  The saturated  solution,  xvhen cautiously
evaporated, yields crystals of neutral nitrate in pearly
needles.  This salt  is much  more soluble in hot than
in cold xvater.  Its taste is exceedingly bitter, and it
acts with more violence upon the animal economy than
pure strychnia.  It seems capable of uniting  xvith an
excess of acid.  When heated, it becomes yelloxv, and
undergoes decomposition.  It is slightly soluble in alko-
hol, but is insoluble in aether.
  When concentrated  nitric acid  is  poured  upon
strychnia, it immediately strikes an amaranthine co-
lour, followed by  a shade similar to that of blood. To
this colour succeeds  a tint  of yellow,  xvhich passes
afterward  into green.  By this action  tlie strychnia
seems  to be  altered  in its properties, and to be con-
verted into a substance still capable of uniting witli
acids.
  Carbonate  of strychnia is  obtained in  the form of
white flocks,  little soluble in water, but soluble in car-
bonic acid.
  Acetic, oxalic, and tartaric acids form xvith strychnia
neutral salts, xvhich  are very  soluble in water, and
more or less capable of crystallizing.   They crystal-
lize best when they contain an excess of acid.   The
neutral acetate is very soluble, and crystallizes with
difliculty.
  Hydrocyanic acid  dissolves strychnia, and  forms
with it a crystallizable salt.
  Strychnia combines neither with sulphur nor carbon.
When boiled wilh iodine, a solution takes place, and
iodate and hydriodate of strychnia are formed.  Chlo-
rine acts upon it precisely in the same way.
  Strychnia,  when dissolved in alkohol, has the pro-
perty of precipitating the  greater number of metallic
oxides from their acid solutions.  It is precipitated by
the alkalies and alkaline earths; but the effect of the
earths proper has not been tried.
  STRYCHNINE.   See Strychnia.
  STRYCHNOMANIA.  (From e-pvxvos, nightshade,
and paita, madness.)   So lire ancients called tbe dis-
order produced by eating the deadly nightshade.
  STRYCHNOS.   (Strychnos,  i.  in.;  an ancient
name which occurs in Pliny and Dioscorides derived
from mpuvvvpt, to overthroxv, and applied most pro-
bably from the overpoxvering narcotic quality of the
plant to which it xvas assigned, crpuxvos of tlie Greeks
being a  kind of  nightshade. Linnaeus  adopted this
name for the  present genus, on account of the analogy
of its narcotic properties with tbe plant ofthe ancients.
Some derive it from ?pvxu, to torment: from its pro-
perties of producing  insanity.)  The name of a genus
uf plants in the Linnaean system.  Class, Pentandria;
Order, Monogynia.
  Strychnos nux vomica.  The systematic name of
the tree, the  seed of  wiiich  is called the poison-nut
Nux vomica; Nux metella.  The mix vomica, lignum
toiubrinum,  and  faba sancti Ignatii, have been long
knoxvn  in the Materia Medica as  narcotic poisons,
brought  from the East Indies, xvhile the vegetables
xvhicli produced  them were unknoxvn, or at least not
botanically ascertained.
  By the judicious discrimination of Linnaeus, the nux
vomica was found to be the fruit of the tree described
and figured in the Hortus malabaricus, under the name
of Caniram cucurbittfera malabanensis, of Plukenet,
noxv called Strychnos nux vomica.
■  To this genus also, but upon evidence less conclu-
sive, he likewise justly referred the colubriuum.  But
the fabi sancti Ignatii he  merely conjectured might
belong to this  family,  as  appears by the query,  An
Slrychni species f xvhicli subsequent discoveries have
enabled us to decide in the  negative; for in the Supp.
Plant,  it constitutes the noxv genus Ignalia, which
Lourciro  has  lately continued, changing the specific
name amara to that of philippimca.  The siryehnos
and iguana are, hoxvever, nearly allied, and both rank
under the Order Solanacea.
  Dr. Woodville has inquired thus far into the t.otanl
cal origin of these  productions, from finding that, by
medical writers, they are generally treated  of under
the same head,  and in a very confused and indiscrimi
nate manner.   The seed of the fruit, or berry of  this
tree, Strychnos  nux  vomica, is  tlie officinal nux vomi-
ca: it  is flat, round, about  an inch broad, aud near a
quarter of an inch  thick, xvitii a prominence in the
middle on  both sides, of a gray colour, covered xxith a
kind of xvooliy  matter; and internally hard and tough
like horn.  To  the tas:e it is extremely bitter, but has
no remarkable  smell.  It consists chiefly of a yummy
matter, xvhich is moderately bitter; the resinous part
is very inconsiderable in quantity, bul intensely bitter;
hence  rectified  spirit has been considered as its  best
menstruum.
  Nux vomica  is reckoned  among the most powerful
poisons of tlie  narcotic  kind, especially  to brute  ani-
mals ;  nor are  instances wanting of  its deleterious
effects upon the human species   It proves fatal to dogs
in a very short time, as appears by various authorities.
Hillefldd and others found that it also poisoned hares,
foxes, wolxes, cats,  rabbits, and even some  birds, as
crows  and ducks;  and Loureiro relates, that a horse
died in four hours after taking a drachm of the seed in
a half-roasted slate.
  The effects of this baneful drug upon difteient  ani-
mals, and even upon those of the same species, appear
to be rather uncertain, and not alxvays in proporlion to
tlie quantity ofthe poison given.  With some animals
il produces its  effects almost instantaneously;  with
others, not till  after several  hours, when  laborious
respiration, followed by torpor, tremblings, con.a, and
convulsions, usually precede the fatal spasms, or teta-
nus, with which this drug commonly  exiineuishes  life.
  From  four cases  related  of ils mortal effects upon
human subjects, we find the symptoms corresponded
nearly with tliose which we have here mentioned of
brutes; and these, as xvell  as the dissections of dogs
killed by this poison, not showing any injury done to
the stomach or intestines, prove that the nux vomica
acts immediately upon  the  nervous  system, and de-
stroys life by the virulence of its narcotic influence.
  The quantity of the seed  necessary to produce  this
effect upon a strong dog, as appears  by experiments,
need not to be more  than a scruple;  a rabbit  was
killed  by five,  and  a cat by four, grains: and of the
four persons  to xvhom we  have alluded, and who un-
fortunately perished by this deleterious drug, one was
a girl  ten  years of age, to whom fifteen grains were
exhibited ut twice for the cure of an ague.  Loss, how-
ever, tells us, that he took  one  or two grains of it in
substance, without  discovering  any  bad etlect;  and
that a friend of his swallowed a whole  seed without
injury.
  In Britain, where physicians  seem to observe the
rule Saltern non nocere, more strictly than  in many
other countries, the  nux vomica has been  rarely, if
ever, employed as   a medicine.  On the Continent,
however, and especially iu Germany, they  have cer
tainly been guided more by  the axiom, " What is inca-
pable of doing much harm, is equally unable to do
much good."  The  truth of this remark was very fully
exemplified by tlie   practice of Baton Stfirck, and is
farther illustrated by the medicinal character given of
nux vomica, xvhich,  from tlie  time of Gesner till  that
of a modem date, has been recommended by a succes
sion of authors as an antidote to the plague, as a febri
fuge, as a vermifuge, and as a remedy in mania, hypo-
chondriasis, hysteria, rheumatism,  gout, and canine
madness.   In  Sxveden, it has of late  years  been  suc-
cessfully used  in dysentery ; but Berguis, xvho  tried
its  effects in this disease, says, thnt  it suppressed the
flux for  twelve hours, which  afterward  returned
                                         313 
STY
STY
 again.  A xvoman who took  a scruple  of this  drug
 rujibt and morning, two successive days, is said to  have
 been seized With convulsions and vertigo,  notwith-
 standing whiv'e the dysenteric symptoms returned, nnd
 the disorder xvas cured by other medicines; but a pain
 In the stomach, the effect of the nux vomica, continued
 afterward for a long time.
  Bergius, therefore, thinks it should only be adminis-
 tered in the character of a tonic and anodyne, in small
 doses (from five to ten grains), and not till after proper
 laxatives have been employed.   Loureiro recommends
 it as a valuable internal medicine in fluor albus  ; for
 which purpose he rousts  it till il becomes  perfectly
 black and friable,  which renders its medicinal use safe,
 without impairing its efficacy.   It is said to have been
 used successfully in  the cure  of agues,  and  has  also
 been reckoned a specific in pyrosis, or water-brash.
  Strychnos volubilis.  The systematic name of
 tbe tree which was supposed to afford  the Jesuit's
 bean.  See Ignatia amara.
  STUPEFACIENT.  (Stupefacicns ; from  stupefa-
 cio, to stupify.)  Of a stupifying qualify.
  STU'PHA. (From cvqju, to  bind.)  Stupa; Sluppa.
 A stupe, or fomentation.
  STUPOR.  (From Stupeo, to be senseless.)  Insen-
 sibility.
  Stu'ppa.  See Stupha.
  STYE.   See Hordeolum.
  Sty'oia.  (From Styx, a name given by the poets to
 one of the rivers in hell.)   A water made from subli-
 mate, and directed in old dispensatories, xvas  so called
 from a supposition of its poisonous qualities.  A name
 of the Aqua regia also, from its corrosive qualities.
  STYLIFORM.  (Styliformis; from stylus, a bodkin,
 and forma, a likeness.)   Shaped like a bodkin, or
 Btyle.
  Stvliscus.  (From jtiXoc, a bodkin.)  A tent made
 in the form of a bodkin.
  STYLO.  Names compounded of this word belong
 to muscles which  are attached to the styloid process of
 the temporal bone; as,
  Stylo cerato-hyoideus. See Stylo-hyoidcus.
  Stylo-chondro-hyoidbus.  See Stylo-hyoideus.
  Stylo-qlossus. Stylo-glosse, of Dumas.  A mus-
 cle  situated between  the  loxver jaxv and os hyoides
 laterally, xvhich  draxvs  the tongue aside and back-
 xvards.  It arises tendinous and fleshy from the styloid
 process, and from the ligament which connects  that
 process to the angle of the  lower jaw, and is inserted
into the root of the tongue, runs along its rides, and  is
 insensibly lost near ils tip.
  Stylo-hyoideus.   Stylo-hyoidien, of Dumas.   A
muscle situated between the loxver jaw, and os hyoides
laterally, xvhicli pulls the os hyoides to one side and a
little upwards.  It is a small, thin, fleshy muscle, situ-
 ated between the styloid process and os hyoides, under
 the  posterior belly and middle tendon of the  digastri-
cus, near the upper edge of that muscle.  It arises by a
long thin tendon,  from the basis and posterior edge of
the styloid process, and, descending in an oblique direc-
 tion, is inserted into the lateral and anterior part of tlie
os hyoides,  near  its  horn. The  fleshy  belly of  this
 muscle is usually perforated on one or both sides, for
 the  passage of the middle  tendon of tlie digastricus.
 Sometimes, though not alxvays, we find another smaller
muscle placed before  the stylo-hyoideus, which, from
 its having  nearly the same origin and insertion,  nnd
the same use, is called stylo-hyoideus-altcr.   It seems
 to have been first knoxvn to Eustachius: so that Doug-
 las xvas not aware of this circumstance xvhen he placed
 it among the muscles discovered by himself.   It arises
 from the apex of the styloid process, and sometimes by
a broad and thin aponeurosis, from the inner and poste-
 rior part of tlie angle of the loxver jaxv, and is inserted
into the appendix, or little horn, of the  os hyoides.
The use of these  muscles  is to pull the os hyoides to
one side, and a little upxvards.         *
  Stylo- hyoideus-alter. See Stylo-hyoideus.
  Stylomastoid foramen.   Foramen stylo-mastoi-
dcum.  A hole between the styloid and mastoid pro-
cess of tlie  temporal  bone,  through xvliich the  porlio
dura of the auditory nerve passes to the temples.
  Stylo-pharyngkus.   Stylo-lhyro-pharyngien, of
Dumas.  A muscle situated between the loxver jaxv  and
os hyoides laterally, which dilates  and raises  the pha-
 rynx and thyroid cartilage  upwards.  It  arises fleshy
from the root of the sty loid process, and is inserted into
      311
 the side of the pharynx and back part of the thyroid
 cartilage.
   STYLUS.   The  style of a flower is the column
 whicli proceeds from the germen, and bears the stigma
 It is,
   I. Filiform, in Jasminum, and Zea mays.
   2. Linear, in Orobus.
   3. Subulate, thicker beloxv than towards apex ; asm
 Geranium.
   4. Clavate,  thicker at its summit  than towards its
 base; as in Leucojum veruum.
   5. Triangular, in Pisum.
   6. Bifid, in Polygonum persicaria.
   7. Trifid, in Bryonia and Momordica.
   8. Dichotomous, divided into two, xvhich again bi-
 furcate; a3 in Cordia.
   "J. Long,  much more so than  the stamina; as in
 Campanula and Dianthus.
   10. Persistent,  not going off after the fecundation ol
 the germen; as Synapis.
   STYMATO SIS.  (From j-eiD, to have a priapism.)
 A violent erection ofthe penis, with a bloody discharge.
   Stypte'ria.  (From ^vebu, to bind: so called from
 its astringent properties.)  Alum.
  STYPTIC.  (Stypticus; from svqiu, to adstringe.)
 A term  given  to  those  substances xvhich posse.-s  the
 poxver of stopping haemorrhages  such  as turpentine,
 alum, &c.
  Styraci'flua.  (From styrax,  storax, and fiuo, to
 flow.)   See Liquidambra.
  STY'RAX.   (Styrax,  ads. m. and f.;  from sypal.
 a reed iu xvhich it xvas used to be  preserved.)   1. The              j
 name of a genus of plants in tlie Linnaean system.
 Class, Decandria ; Order, Monogynia.                             ,
  2.  The  pharniacopoeial name  of  the  Styrax  ca-
 lamita.                                                          j
  Styrax alba.  See Myroxylon pcruiferum.
  Styrax benzoin.  The systematic name ofthe tree
 which affords  the gum benzoin. Benzoi; Benjoinum;
 Assa dulcis; Assa odorata ; Liquor cyrcniacus; Bal-
 zoinum;  Benzoin;  Benjui;   Benjuin.   Gum-benja
 min.  This substance is classed, by modern chemists,
 among tlie balsams.  There are txvo kinds of benzoin;
 benzoe amygdaloidcs, whicli is formed of white tears
 resembling almonds, united together  by a brown mat-
 ter;  and common benzoin, xvhich is brown and without
 tears.  The tree which affords this balsam,  formerly
 called Laurus benzoin ;  Benzoifera; Arbor  benici, if
 Ihe Styrax—foliis oblongis acuminatis, subtus tomen-
 tosis, racemis  compositis  longitudme foliorum, of
 Dry ander, from whicli it is obtained by incisions. The              j
 benzoin of the shops is  usually in very  large brittle
 masses.  When chewed it imparts very little taste, ex-
 cept that it impresses on the palate a slight sweetness ;
 its smell, especially  xvhen rubbed or  heated, is  ex-
 tremely fragrant and agreeable.  Gum-benjamin was
 analyzed by Brande.  The products obtained  by distil-
 lation xvere, from 100 grains,  benzoic acid, 9 grains;
 acidulated xvater, 5.5; butyraceous and empyreumatic
 oil, 60; brittle coal, 122;  and a mixture of carburetted
 hydrogen and carbonic acid gas, computed at 3.5.  On
 treating tlie empyreumatic oil  with water, however, 5
grains more of acid were extracted, making 14 in the
 xvhole.
  From 1500 grains of benzoin, Bucholz obtained 1250
of resin;  187  benzoic acid ; 25 of a substance similar
 to balsam of Peru; 8 of an anomatic substance soluble
in water and alkohol; and 30 of xvoody fibres  and im
 purities.
  jElher, sulphuric and acetic acids, dissolve benzoin,
so do solutions of poiassa and soda.  Nitric acid acts
violently on it, and  a portion  of artificial tannin Is
formed.    Ammonia  dissolves it  sparingly.   It hrs
rarely been used medicinally in a simple state, but its
preparations are  much  esteemed  against inveterate
coughs and  phthisical  complaints, unattended with
much fever;  it has also been used as a cosmetic, and in
the xvay of fumigation,  for Ike resolution of indolent
tumours.  The acid  of benzoin is employed in  the
tinctura camphora composita, and a tincture is directed
to be made of the  balsam.
  Styrax calamita. Storax in the  cane, because it
xvas formerly  brought to us in reeds, or  canes.  Set
Styrax officinalis.
  Styrax colata.   Strained storax.
  Styrax  liquida.    Liquid storax.   See Liquid
ambra. 
SUB                                              SUB
  Styrax officinalis.  The systematic name of the
tree xvhich affords tlie solid storax.  Officinal storax.
Styrax—foliis ooatis, subtus villosis, racemis simpli-
cibus folio brevioribus, of Linnaeus.  There aie txvo
kinds of storax lo be found in tlie shops;  the one is
usually in irregular compact masses, free from impuri-
ties, of a reddish-brown appearance, and interspersed
xvith whitish lears, somexvhat like gum ammoniac, or
benzoin ; it is extremely fragrant, and upon the appli-
cation of heat  readily "melts.  This has been  called
storax  in  lump,  red  storax,  and, when in separate
tears, storax  in tears.  Tlie other kind, which is called
the common storax, is ill large masses, very light, and
bears no external resemblance whatever to the former
storax,  as  it seems almost wholly composed of dirty
saxv-dust, caked  together  by resinous matter.  Storax
xvas formerly used in catarrhal complaints, coughs,
asthmas, obstructions, Sec.  Iu tlie present  practice it
is almost totally disregarded, notwithstanding  it is an
efficacious remedy in nervous diseases.
  Styrax rubra.  Red storax, or storax in the tear.
  SUB.  1. In  anatomy, it is applied  to  pans xvhich
lie  under the other word  or name, xvhich  sub pre-
cedes; ac subscapulars, under the scapula, Sec.
  2. In  pathology, it is used to express  an imperfect
disease, or a  feeble state of a disease; as subluxation,
subacute, Sec
  3. Iu  botany, when shape, or  any other  character,
cannot be precisely defined, sub is prefixed to tlie  term
used;  as subrotundus, roundish;  subsissiles, not
quite destitute of  a footstalk, 'sic.
  4. In  chemistry, this term Is applied, xvhen a salifi-
able base is predominant iu a compound, there being a
deficiency of the  acid;  as subcarbonate of potassa,
subcarbonate of soda.
  Slbace'tas cupri.   See Verdigris.
  SUBACETATE.  Subacetas.  An imperfect ace-
tate.
  Subacetate of copper.  See Verdigris.
  Subala'ris  vena.   The vein  of  the axilla  or
arm-pit.
  Subcarbo'nas potass.e. See Potassa subcarbonas.
  Subcarbonas ferri.  See Ferri subcarbonas.
  Subcarbonas plumbi.   See Plumbi subcarbonas.
  SUBCARBONATE.  Subcarbonas.  An imperfect
caibonate.
   SUBCARTILAGI'NOUS.    (Subcartilaginosus ;
from sub,  under,  and cartilago^ a cartilage.)   Of a
structure approaching to that of cartilage.
  SUBCLAVIAN.   (Subclaviculus;  from sub, be-
neath, and clavicula, the clavicle.)  That xvhich is, or
passes, under the clavicle.
  Subclavian  artery.   The right subclavian arises
from the arteria innominata, and proceeds under tlie
clavicle to the axilla.  The left subclavian arises from
the arch ofthe  aorta, and  ascends under the left cla-
vicle to the axilia.   The  subclavians in their course
give off the internal mammary,  the cervical, tbe ver-
tebral, and the superior intercostal arteries.
  Subclavian vein.   This receives the blood from the
veins ofthe arm, and runs  into the vena cava superior.
  SUBCLA'VIUS.  (From sub,  under, and clavicula,
the channel bone: as being situated under the clavicle,
or channel bone.)  Subclavianus.  Coslo-claviculaire,
of Dumas.  A muscle, situated on the anterior part of
tlie thorax, which pulls the clavicle downwards and
forwards.  It arises tendinous  from  the cartilage that
joins the first rib to the sternum, is inserted after be-
coming fleshy into  the  inferior  part of the clavicle,
which it occupies from within half an inch ofthe ster-
num as far outwards as to its connexion, by a ligament,
xvith the coracoid process of the scapula.
  SUBCRUR-iE'US.  A name of txvo little muscular
slips sometimes found under the cruraeus; they are in-
serted into the capsular ligament which they pull up.
  SUBCUTANEOUS.  (Subcutaneus ; from sub, un-
der, and  cutis, the  skin.)  Under the skin; a name
given to some  nerves, vessels, glands, &c. which arc
very superficial.
  Subcutaneous glands.   Glandula  subcutanca.
These are sebaceous glands lying under the skin, which
they perforate by  their excretory ducts.
  SUBCUTA'NEUS.  See Plutysma myoides.
  SUBER.  Cork.  See Quercus suber.
  SUBERIC  ACID.  Acidum suberienm.  This acid
was obtained by Brugnalelli from cork, and afterxvard
more fully examined bv Bouillon la Grange.  To pro-
cure it, pour on cork, grate* to powder, six tunes its
weight of nitric acid, of the specific gravity of 1.20
in a tubulated retort, and distil the mixture xvilh a gen-
tle heat as long as any red fumes arise.  As ihe distil-
lation advances, a yelloxv matter, like wax, appears on
the surface of the liquid in the retort.  While ils con-
tents continue hot, pour them into a glass vessel, placed
on a sand hent, and keep them ci uiiinually stirring with
a gloss rod;  by xvhich means the liquid will gradually
groxv thicker.  As soon  as while penetrating vapours
appear, let it be removed from the sand heat, anil kept
stirring till cold.   Thus  an orange-coloured mass xvill
be obtained, of the  consistence of honey, of a strong
sharp smell xvhile hot, and  a peculiar aromatic smell
xvhen cold.  On this, pour twice its weight of boiling
water, apply heat till it liquefies, aud filler.   As the
filleted liquor cools, it deposites a poxvdery sediment,
and acquires a thin pellicle.   Separate the sediment by
filtration, and  evaporate tlie  fluid  nearly lo dryness.
The mass thus  obtained is the  suberic acid, which
may be purified by saturating xxith an alkali,  and
precipitating by an acid, or by boiling it xvitii charcoal
poxvder.
  Chevreuil obtained tlie suberic ncid by mere digestion
of the  nitric acid on the grated cork, without distilla-
tion, and purified it by washing with cold water.  12
parts of cork may be made to yield one of acid.  When
pure, it is xvhite and pulverulent, having a feeble laste,
and liltle action on litmus.   It is soluble in 80 parts of
xvater at 55^° F. and in  38  parts at 140°.  It  is much
more soluble in alkohol, from xvhich xvater throxvs doxvn
a  portion of  the suberic acid.  It occasions a xvhile
precipitate when poured into acetate of lead,  nitrates
of lead, mercury, and silver, muriate of tin, and  pro-
losulphate of iron.  It affords no precipitate xvitii solu-
tions of copper  or  zinc.  The suberates of potassa,
soda, and ammonia are very soluble.  The txvo laitev
may be readily crystallized.  Those of baryies, lime,
magnesia, aud alumina,  are of sparing solubility.
   Sublimame'ntum. (From sublimo, tolifl up.) The
pendulous substance which  floats in tlie middle of the
urine.
   SUBLIMATE.  See Hydrargyri oxymurias.
   Sublimate, corrosive.   See Hydrargyri oxymurias.
   SUBLIMATION. (Sublimatio; Irom sublimo, to
raise or sublime.)   A process by xvhich  volatile sub-
stances are raised by heat, and again condensed  in a
solid form.  This chemical process differs from evapo-
ration only in being  confined to solid subslances.   It is
usually performed either for the  purpose of purifying
certain substances, and disengaging them from extra-
neous matters; or else to reduce into vapour, and com
bine, under that form, principles which xvould have
united  xvith greater difliculty if they had  not been
brougnt lo that state of extreme division.
  As all fluids are volatile  by heat, and  consequently
capable of being separated,  in must cases, from fixed
matters, so various solid  bodies are subjected to a simi-
lar treatment.  Fluids are said to distil, and solids to
sublime, though  sometimes both  are  obtained in one
and the same operation.  If the subliming matter con-
cretes into a solid, hard  mass, it is commonly  called a
sublimate; if into a poxvdery form, flowers.
  The  principal subjects of  this operation are, volatile
alkaline salts; neutral salts, composed of volatile alkali
and acids, as sal ammoniac; the salt of amber, aud
flowers ot benzoin, mercurial preparations,  and  sul-
phur.  Bodies of themselves not volatile are frequently
made to sublime by the mixture of volatile ones; thus
iron is carried over by sal ammoniac in the preparation
of the flores martiales, or ferrum ammoniatum.
  The  fumes of  solid bodies in close vessels rise but a
little way, and adhere to that part of  the vessel xvhere
they concrete.
  SUBLIMIS.  See Flexor  brevis digitorum pedis,
and Flexor sublimis perforatus.
  SUBLINGUAL.  (Sublingualis;  from raft, under,
and lingua, the tongue.)  A name given to parts im-
mediately under the tongue.
  Sublingual glands.   Glandula sublingualcs, vel
Bartholiniana, vel Riviniana.  The glands xvhich are
situated under the tongue, and secrete saliva. Theii
excretory ducts  are called  Riviman  from  their dis-
coverer.
   SUBLUXA'TIO.  A sprain
  SUBMERSION.   (Submersio;  from  sub, unaet
and merge,  to sink.)   Drowning.  A variety of the
                                        :ii5 
sue
SUF
apoplexia suffocata.  Sauvages terms it asphyxia im-
(iiersoruin.
  SUBMle'RSUS.  Plunged under water: applied to
leaves xvliich are naturally under water, while others
of the plants are above ;  as in Ranunculus aquatilis.
  Submurias hydraroyri.  See Hydrargyri sub-
murias.
  SUBMURIATE.   Submurias.  An imperfect mu-
riate.
  Si'borbita'rius.  The suborbilary nerve; a branch
of the filth pair.
  Subphosphuretted hydrogen.   See Phosphorus.
  SUBROTUNDUS.  Roundish: applied to  several
parts of plants.  The leaf of the Pyrola is subrotund.
  SUBSALT.  A salt having an excess of base beyond
what is requisite for saturating the acid, as supersalt
is unc witli  an excess of the acid.  Tlie sulphate of
potassa is the neutral compound of sulphuric acid and
potassa;  subsulphate of  potassa, a compound of the
same ingredients, in which there is an excess of base;
siipersulphate of potassa, a compound of  the same
acid  and  the same base, in xvhich there is au excess of
acid.
  SUBSCAPULARS.  (From  sub, under, and sca-
pula, the shoulder-blade.)   Sous-scapulo-trochinien,
of Dumas.  Infra-scapularis.  The nanieof this mus-
cle sufficiently indicates its situation.  It is composed
of manv fasciculi of tendinous and fletshy fibres, the
marks of which xve see imprinted on the under surface
of the scapula.   These fasciculi, which arise from all
the basins of that bone internally, and likewise from its
superior,  as well  as from  one-half of its inferior costa,
unite to form a considerable flat tendon xvhich adheres
to the capsular ligament,  and is inserted into the upper
part  of tiie less tuberosity al tho  head of the os
humeri.
  The principal  use of this muscle is to roll the arm
inxvards.  It likewise serves to bring it close to the
ribs; and, from its  adhesion to the capsular ligament,
it prevents that membrane from being pinched.
  SUBSU'LTUS.  (From  subsulto,  to leap.)  Sub-
sullus tendinum. Weak  convulsive motions or tivilch-
ings  of tlie tendons, mostly of the hands, generally ob-
served in the extreme stages of putrid fever.
  SUBU'BERES.  (From sub, under, and ubera, the
breasts.)   This term  hath been used by some writers
for those infants xvho yet suck, in distinction from those
who are weaned, and then are called exuberes.
  SUBULATUS.  Subulate.  Axvl-shaped:  applied
in botany to leaves, receptacles, &.c. which are tapering
from a thick base to a point like an awl; as the leaf of
the Salsola kali, and receptacle of the Scabiosa atro-
purpurea.
  Sccca go.  The  rob of any fruit.
  SUCCEDA'NEUM.   A medicine substituted for
another.
  Succenturia'ti  mi'scui.i. The pyramidal muscles
of the belly.
  Succenturiati rknks.  Txvo glands lying above
the kidneys.
  Su'cci scorbutici. The juice of English scurvy-
grass, &.C.
  SUCCINATE.  Succinas.  A salt formed  by the
combination of the acid of amber, or  succinic acid,
with a salifiable  base, succinate of potassa, succinate
of copper, Sec
  Succi'nqens membrana.  The diaphragm.
  SUCCINIC.  (Succinicus ; from Succinum, amber.)
Of or belonging to amber.
  Succinic  acid.  Acidum succinicum. Sal succini.
It lias long been knoxvn that amber, when exposed to
distillation, affords a crystallized substance, xvhich sub-
limes into the upper part  of the vessel.  Before its na-
ture  was understood  it was called salt of amber; but
it is  now knoxvn to be a peculiar acid, as Boyle first
discovered.  The crystals  are at first contaminated
with a little oil, which gives them a brownish colour;
but they may be purified by solution and crystalliza-
tion . tepeuted  as often as necessary, when  they xvill
become transparent and shining.  Pott recommends to
put on the filter,  through  which the solution is passed,
a little cotton previously wetted with  oil of  amber.
Their figure is that of a triangular prism.  T heir taste
is acid, and  they redden  the blue colour of litmus, but
not that of violets.   They are soluble iu loss than two
parts of boiling alkohol, In two parts of boiling water,
and  in txventy-five of cold xvater.
      3l(i
  Planche, of  Paris, observes,  that  a considerable
quantity might be collected in making amber varnish,
as it sublimes while the amber is melting for this pur-
pose, and is wasted.
  Several processes have been proposed for purifying
this acid: that of Richter appears to be the best.  The
acid being dissolved in hot xx ater, and filtered, is to be
saturated xvith  potassa or  soda, and boiled with char-
coal, which  absorbs the oily matter.   The solution
being filtered, nitrate of lead is added;  whence results
an  insoluble  succinate of  lead, from which, by diges-
tion in the equivalent quantity of sulphuric acid, pure
succinic acid  is separated.  Nitrate or muriate of ba-
rytes will show xvliether any sulphuric acid remains
mixed xvith the succinic solution; and if so, it  may be
xvithdrawn by digesting the liquid with a little more
succinate of lead.  Pure succinic acid may be obtained
by evaporation,  in white  transparent prismatic crys
tals.  Their taste is somexvhat sharp, aud they redden
poxverfully tincture of turnsole.  Heat melts, and par-
tially decomposes  succinic acid.  Air  has  no effect
upon it.  It is soluble in both water and alkohol, and
much moie so xvhen they are heated.      ,
  SU'CCINUM.   (Succinum, «'.  n.;   from succus,
juice: because it was thought to exude from a tree.)
See Amber.
  Succinum  cinereum.   Ambergris is so called  by
some authors.  See Ambergris.
  Succinum  oriseum.  Ambergris is  sometimes so
called.   See Ambergris.
  Succinum oleum.  See Oleum succini.
  Succinum preparatum.  Prepared  amber.  See
Amber.
  SUCCI'SA.  (From succido, to cut: so named from
its being indented, and, as it were, cut in pieces.)  Ap-
plied to a species of the genus Scabiosa.
  SUCCORY.   See Cichorium.
  Su'ccubus.  See Incubus.
  SUCCULENS.  Succulent, juicy, rich.  Applied to
fruits, pods, soils, Sec.
  SUCCULENTS.  The name of an  order of Lin
naeus's Fragments of a Natural Method, containing
those which have fleshy and succulent leaves; a Csac-
tus, Sedum, Sempervivuni, &c.
  SUCCULENTUS.  Juicy: full of juice.   Applied
to pods, leaves, &c               *-
  SUCCUS.  Juice.
  Succus cochlear!.*: compositub.  A  warm ape-
rient and diuretic, mostly exhibited in the cure of dis
eases of the skin, arising from scurvy.
  Succus cyrejoacus. Juice of laserwort.
  Succus oastricus.  See Gastric juice.
  Succus heliotroph.  See Croton tinctorium
  Succus indicus  puroa.ns.  Gamboge.
  Succus liquoriti*.  See Glycyrrhiza glabra.
  SUDA'MINA.   (Sudamen, inis.  n.; from sudor
sweat.)   Hidroa.  Boa.  Vesicles resembling  millet-
seeds, in form and magnitude, which appear suddenly,
xvithout  fever,  especially in the  summer-time, after
much labour  and sxveating.
  SUDA'TIO.  (From sudor,  sxveat.)  A sweating,
See Ephidrosis.
  SUDATORIUM.  (From sudo, to sxveat.)  A stew
or sxveating-housc.
  SUDOR. Sweat or perspiration.
  Sudor anolicus.  Hydrpnosus; Gargeatio.  The
sxveating sickness  of England; and endemic fexer.
Dr. Cullen thinks it a species of typhus.  This disor
der is  thus named from  its  first' appearing  in this
island, and acquires the title of sudor, from Uie patient
suddenly breaking  out into a  profuse sweat, which
forms the great character of the disease.
  SUDORI'FIC.   (Sudorificus: from  sudor,  sxveat,
and fvio, to make.)  A synouyme of diaphoretic. See
Diaphoretics.
  SUFFIME'NTUM.   (From suffimen, a perfume i
A perfume.
  SUFFl'TUS.  A perfume.
  SUFFOCA'TIO.  Suffocation.
  SUKFOCAT10 STRIDULA.  Tile CrOUp.
  Sukfrutices  plant*.   Under  shrubby  pla.iu
Such ligneous or somewhat xvoody vegetables that are
of a nature,  in some degree, between that of the
shrubby, und the herbaceous;  as thvuie, suge, hys-
sop, &c.
  SUFFUMIGATION.    (Suffumigatio;  from  sub
under, and fum:po, to snu-kc.)  Tlie burning odorous 
SUL
SUL
■ubstances to remove an  evil smell, or destroy mi-
asma.
  SUFFUSIO.   (From  suffundo, to pour  doxvn:  so
called because the ancients supposed the opacity pro-
tceded  from something  running under tlie crystalline
humour.)
  1. A cataract
  2. An extravasation of some humour, as  the blood:
thus xve say, a suffusion of blood in the eye, when it
is xvhat  is vulgarly called bloodshot.
  SuFusio auriqinosa.  A jaundice.
  SUGAR.  See Saccharum.
  Sugar of lead.  See Plumbi acetas.
  Sugar of milk.  A substance produced from xvhey,
xvhich,  if  not  sour,  contains a saline  substance, to
which this name has been given.
  SUGILLATION.   (Sugillatia;  from sugillo,  to
stain.)  A bruise.  A spot or mark made by a leech or
cupping-glass.
  SULOATU8.  Furroxved: applied to stems, leaves,
seeds,&c. of plants;  as the seeds of the Scandix odo-
rata, and australis.
  SU LCUS.  A groove or furroiv; generally applied
to the bones.
  SULPHAS.   (Sulphas,  atis.  m.; from sulphur,
brimstone.)  A sulphate or salt- formed  by  the union
of tbe sulphuric acid with a salifiable base.
  Sulphas aluminosub.  Alum.   See Alumen.
  Sulphas ammoni*.  Alkali volatile vitriolatum, of
Bergman.   Sal ammoniacum secretum, of Glauber.
Vitriolum  ammoniacale.  This salt  has  been found
native in the neighbourhood of some  volcanoes.   It is
esteemed  diuretic and deobstruent, and exhibited in
tlie same diseases as the muriate of ammonia.
  Sulpipas cupri. See  Cupri sulphas.
  Sulphas ferri. See  Ferri sulphas.
  Svlphas hydraroyri.   See Hydrargyrus vitrio-
latus.
  Sulphas magnesia.   See Magnesia sulphas.
  Sulphas  potass £.  See Poiassa  sulphas.
  Sulphas quininjE.   See Cinchonina.
  Sulphas  sod.e.  See Soda  sulphas.
  Sulphas zinci. See Zind sulphas.
  SULPHATE.  See Sulphas.
  SULPHITE.  Sulphis.  A salt formed by the com-
bination of a definite  quantity of the sulphurous acid
With a salifiable base; as sulphite of potassa, ammo-
niacal sulphite, Sec.
  SULPHOVINIC ACID.   Sulphovinous acid.  The
name given by Vogel to an acid, or a class of acids,
which may be obtained by digesting  alkohol and sul-
phuric acid together by heat.  It seems  probable that
this acid is merely the hyposulphuric, combined with
a peculiar oily matter.— Ore's Chem.  Diet.
  SU'LPIIUR.  (Sulphur, uris. n.; from sal or sul,
and imp, fire: so named from its great combustibility.)
Abric ;  Alcubrith; Anpater ; Appebrioc ;   Aquala;
Aquila; Chibur;  Chybur;  Cibur.  Sulphur, xvhich
is also known by the name of brimstone, is the only
simple combustible substance which nature offers pure
and in abundance. It was the first known  of all.  It
is found in tlie earth, and exists externally in deposi-
tions, in sublimed incrustations, and on the surface of
certain waters, principally near burning volcanoes   It
Is found combined with many metals.  It exists in ve-
getable substances, and has  lately been discovered in
the albumen of eggs.
  Sulphur, in the mineral kingdom, is either in a loose
powder,  or compact; and then either detached or in
veins.  It is found in  the greatest  plenty in the neigh-
bourhood of volcanoes, or pseudo-volcanoes, whether
modern or extinct, as at Solfatara, Sec.  and is depo-
sited  as a  crust on stones  contiguous to them, either
crystallized or amorphous.   It is frequently met with
in mineral waters, and in caverns adjacent to volca-
noes; sometimes also in coal-mines.  It is found in
lombination with most of the metals.  When united
o ison, it forms the mineral called martial pyrites, or
iron pyrites.   All the ores knoxvn  by the name of
pyrites, or which there are a vast variety, are combi-
nations  of sulphur witli  different metals; and hence
the  names of copper, tin,  arsenical, Sec. pyrites.  It
exists likewise in combination with alumine  and lime;
it then constitutes  d'fferent kinds of scbistus, or alum
ores.
  Method of obtaining Sulphur.—A prodigious quan-
tity  of sulphur  is  obtained from  Solfatara, in Italy.
 This volcanic country every where exhibits marks of
 the agency of  subterraneous fires;  almost  all  the
 ground is bare and white; and Is every where sensi-
 bly ivnnner than the atmosphere, in  the greatest hcut
 of summer; so  that the feet of persons walking thetu
 are burnt through their shoes.  It is  impossible not to
 observe the sulphur, for a sulphurous vapour which
 rises through different apertures Is every where perccp
 tible, and gives reason to believe lhat there is a subter-
 raneous  fire underneath, from xvhich that vapour pro-
 ceeds.
   From pyrites, sulphur is extracted in the large way
 by the tolloxving process:
   Pyrites is broken into small pieces, and put into large
 earthen tubes, which are exposed to tlie heat of a fur-
 nace.  A square vessel of cast iron, containing xvater,
 is connected as a receiver with Ihe tube in the furnace.
 The action of the fire proceeds, and the sulphur, being
 thus melted, is gradually accumulated on the water in
 the receiver.   It is then removed from this receiver.
 and melted in large  iron ladies;  in consequence ol
 xvhicli, the earthy parts with wliich it was contami-
 nated  are made to subside to the bottom of the ladle,
 leaving tho purified sulphur above.   It is then again
 melted, and suffered to cool gradually, in order to free
 it from the rest of the impurities.  Ii is then tolerably
 pure, and constitutes the sulphur xve meet with, in
 large masses or lumps, in the market.
   In order to form it  into rolls, it is again melted, and
 poured into cylindrical  wooden moulds;  in  these it
 takes the form in xvhich xve usually see it  in com
 inerce, as roll sulphur.
   Floxvers of sulphur, as they are called, are formed
 by subliming  purified sulphur with  a  gentle  heat, in
 close rooms, where the  sublimed sulphur is collected,
 though the article met  with  in  general,  under that
 name, is nothing but sulphur finely powdered.
   Method of purifying sulphur.—Take  one part  of
 flowers of sulphur, boil it in twenty parts of distilled
 water, in a  glass vessel, for  about a quarter  of an
 hour;  let the sulphur subside, decant the water, and
 then wash the sulphur repeatedly in distilled water.
 Having done  this, pour over it  three parts  of  pure
 iiitro-muriatic acid, diluted xvitii one part of distilled
 xvater, boil it again in a glass vessel  for about a quar
 ter of an  hour, decant the acid, and xvash the sulphur
 in distilled xvater till  the  fluid passes  tasteless, or till it
 does not  change the blue  colour of tirlcture of cab-
 bage or litmus.  The sulphur, thus carefully treated,
 is pure sulphur, fit for philosophical experiments.
  Physical properties.—" Sulphur is a combustible,
 dry, and exceedingly brittle body, of a pale lemon-yel-
 low colour.  Its specific gravity  is 1.990.   It is desti-
 tute of odour, except when rubbed or heated.  It is of
 a peculiar faint taste.  It frequently crystallizes in en-
 tire or truncated octahedra, or in needles.  If a piece
 of sulphur,  of a considerable size, be  very gently
 heated, as, for example,  by holding it in tlie hand and
 squeezing it firmly, it breaks to pieces xvith a crackling
 noise.  It is a non-conductor of electricity, and hence
 It becomes electric by friction.  When heated, it first
 softens before it melts, and  its fusion commences  at
 218° Fahr.; it is capable of subliming nt a loxver tem-
 perature;  and tak<»s fire  at 560°.   In the beginning of
 fusion  it is very fluid, but by continuing tlie heat it
 groxvs  tough, and its colour changes  to a reddish-
 broxvn.  If, in this condition, it be poured into water,
 it remains ns soft as xvax, and yields to any impression.
 In time,  hoxvever, il hardens again,  and  recovers its
 former consistence.
  When a roll of sulphur is suddenly seized in a warm
 hand, it crackles, and sometimes  falls in pieces.  This
 is oxving to the unequal action of heat on n body which
 conducts that power slowly, and which has little cohe-
 sion.  If a mass of sulphur be melted in a crucible,
 and after the surface  begins to concrete, if the liquid
 matter below be allowed to run out, fine ncicular crys-
 tals of sulphur will be obtained.
  Sulphur is insoluble In water; but in small quantity
 in alkohol aud ether, and more largely in oil.
  Sulphur combines with oxygen  in four definite pro
 portions,  constituting  an interesting  series  of acids
See Sulphuric acid.
  Sulphur combines readily xvith chlorine.  This com-
 pound  was first made by Dr. Thomson, who passed
chlorine gas through  flowers of  sulphur.  It may be
made  more expeditiously bv heating  sulphur in  a
                                        317 
SUL
SUL
 retort containing chlorine.  The sulphur and chlorine
 unite, and form a fluid substance, xvhich is volatile be-
 low 200° F., and distils into the cold part of the retort.
 This substance,  seen  by reflected light, appears of a
 red colour, but is yellowish-green when seen by trans-
 mitted light.  It Finokcs when exposed to air, and has
 an odour somexvhat resembling  that of seaweed, but
 much stronger; it affects the eyes like the smoke of
 peat.   Its  taste is  acid, hot, and  bitter. Its sp. gr
 is 1.7.
  It does  not redden perfectly dry paper tinged with
 litmus; when it is agitated  in contact with water, the
 water becomes cloudy from the appearance of sulphur,
 and strongly acid, and it is found to contain oil of
 vitriol.
  Iodide of sulphur is easily  formed by mixing the two
 ingredients in a glass tube, and exposing  them  lo such
 a heat as melts the sulphur.  It is grayish-black, and
 lias a radiated structure like that  of sulphuret of anti-
 mony.  When distilled with xvater, iodine is disen-
 gaged.
  Sulphur and  hydrogen combine.  Their union may
 be effected, by causing sulphur to sublime in dry hydro-
gen in a retort   There  is no change of volume; but
only a part ofthe hydrogen can be united xvith the sul-
 phur iu this mode of operating.
  The usual xvay of preparing sulphuretted hydrogen
 is lo pour a dilute sulphuric or muriatic acid on the
 black sulphuret of iron or antimony in a retort.   For
 accurate experiments it should be collected over mer-
 cury.  It takes Are xvhen a lighted taper is brought in
 contact with it, and burns xvith a  pale blue flame, de-
 positing sulphur  Its smell  is extremely foetid, resem-
 bling that of rotten eggs.  Its taste is sour.  It reddens
 vegetable blues.  It is absorbable by xvater, which takes
 up more than an equal volume of the gas. Its  sp. gr.,
according to Gay Lussac and Thenard, is to that of air
as 1.1912 to  1.0.
  Of all the gases, sulphuretted hydrogen is perhaps tbe
most deleterious to animal life.  A greenfinch,  plunged
into air, xvliich contains only  l-1500th of its volume, pe-
rishes instantly.   A dog of middle size is destroyed in
air that contains l-SOOth ; and a horse would fall a vic-
tim to an aunosphere containing l-250lh.
  Dr. Chaussier proves, that  to kill an animal, it is suf-
ficient to make  ihe sulphuretted hydrogen gas act on
the surface of its body, when it is absorbed by the inha-
 lants.  He toek a bladder hax-ing a  stop-cock  at one
end, and at  the other an opening, into xvhich he intro-
duced the body of a rabbit, leaving its head outside, and
securing the bladder air-tight round the neck by adhe-
sive plaster.   He then sucked the air out of the blad-
der, and replaced it by sulphuretted hydrogen gas.  A
young animal in these circumstances usually perishes
in 15 or 20 minutes.  Old rabbits resist the poison much
 longer.
  When potassium or  sodium is heated, merely to
 fusion, in contact with  sulphuretted hydrogen, it be-
 comes luminous, and burns xvith extrication of hydro-
 gen, while a metallic sulphuret remains, combined with
 sulphuretted hydrogen, or  a sulphuretted hydrosul-
 phuret.
  Sulphuretted hydrogen combines xvith  an equal vo-
 lume of ammonia; and unites to alkalies and oxides,
 bo that it has all the characters of an acid.  These com-
 pounds are called hydrosulphurcts.
  All  Ihe hydrosulphurcts, soluble in water, have nn
 acrid and bitter taste, and, when in the liquid state, the
 odour of rotten eggs.  All those  xvhich are insoluble
 are, on the contrary, Insipid, and without smell. There
 are only two coloured  hydrosulphurets,  that of iron,
 which is black, and of  antimony, xvhich Is chestnut-
 brown.
  All the hydrosulphurets are decomposed by the action
 of fire.  That of magnesia is transformed into sulphu-
 retted  hydrogen and oxide  of magnesium; those of
 potassa and soda, into sulphuretted  hydrogen, hydro-
 gen, and sulphuretted alkalies; those  of manganese,
 zinc, iron, tin, and antimony, into water and metallic
 sulphurets.
  When xve put in contact xvith the air, at the ordinary
 temperature, nn aqueous solution of a hydrosulphuret,
 there results, in the space of some  days, 1st, xvater, and
 a sulphuretted hydrosulphuret, xvhich is yelloxv  and
 soluble; 2d, xvater,  ami  a  colourless  hydrosulphite,
 which, if  its base be potassa, soda, or  ammonia, re-
 mains in Rotation ir. the xvater; but  wliich falls down
        318
 in acicular crystals, if its  base be barytes, strontia, oi
 lime.
   The acids in general combine with  the base of the
 hydrosulphurets, and disengage sulphuretted hydrogen
 with a lively effervescence, without any deposition of
 sulphur, unless the acid be in excess, and be capable,
 like the nitric and nitrous  acid,  of yielding  a portion
 of its oxygen to the hydrogen of the sulphuretted hy-
 drogen.
   The hydrosulphurets  of potassa, soda,  ammonia,
 lime, and magnesia, are prepared directly, by transmit-
 ting an excess of sulphuretted hydrogen gas through
 these bases, dissolved or diffused in water.
   The composition ofthe hydrosulphurets is such, that
 the  hydrogen of the sulphuretted  hydrogen is to the
 oxygen of the oxide in the same  ratio as in water.
 Hence, when xve calcine the hydrosulphurets of  iron,
 tin, &c. we convert them into water and sulphurets.
   Hydrosulphuret of potassa crystallizes in four-sided
 prisms, terminated by four-sided pyramids.   Its taste is
 acrid and  bitter.  Exposed to the  air, it attracts hu-
 midity, absorbs oxygen, passes to the state of a sulphu-
 retted hydrosulphuret, and finally to that of a hydro-
 sulphite.  It is extremely soluble in water. Its solution
 in this liquid occasions a perceptible refrigeration.  Sub-
jected to heat, it evolves much sulphuretted hydrogen,
 and  the  hydrosulphuret passes to the,state of a  sub-
 hydrosulphuret.
  Hydrosulphuret of soda  crystallizes with more  diffi-
culty than the preceding.
  Hydrosulphuret of ammonia is obtained by the direct
 union of the two gaseous constituents in a glass balloon.
 at a  loxv temperature.  As  soon as  the gases mingle,
 transparent white  or  yellowish crystals are formed.
 When a mere solution of this hydrosulphuret is wished
 for medicine or analysis, we pass a current  of sulphu-
 retted hydrogen through aqueous ammonia  till satu-
 ration.
  The pure hydrosulphuret is white, transparent, and
crystallized in  needles or fine plates.  It is very vola-
 tile.   Hence,  at  ordinary  temperatures, it  gradually
 sublimes into the upper part ofthe phials in xvhich we
 preserve it. We may also by the same  means separate
 it from  the yelloxv sulphuretted hydrosulphuret,  xvith
 xvhich it is occasionally mixed.   When exposed lo the
air,  it absorbs oxygen, passes to the state of a sulphu-
 retted hydrotulphuret, and  becomes yelloxv.   When it
contains an excess of ammonia, it dissolves speedily in
 xvater, xvith the production of a very considerable cold.
  Sub-hydrosulphuret of barytes is prepared by dissolv-
 ing, in five or six parts of boiling water, the sulphuret
of the earth obtained by  igniting the  sulphate  xvilh
charcoal.   The solution being filtered  while hot, xvill
deposite, on cooling, a multitude of crystals, which must
be drained, and speedily dried by pressure betxveen the
folds of blotting-paper.  It crystallizes in xvhite scaly
plates.  It  is much more soluble in hot than in  cold
water.  Its solution is colourless, and  capable of ab-
sorbing, at the ordinary temperature, a very large quan-
tity of sulphuretted hydrogen.
  Sub-hydrosulphuret of strontites  crystallizes in the
same manner as the preceding.  The crystals obtained
in the same way  must be dissolved in water; and the
solution being exposed to a  stream of sulphuretted  hy-
drogen, and then concentrated by evaporation in  a re-
tort,  will afford, on cooling, crystals of pure sub-hydro-
sulphuret.
  Hydrosulphurets of lime and  magnesia have  been
obtained only In aqueous solutions.  'The metallic hy-
drosulphurets of any practical importance are treated
of under their respective metals.
  When xve expose sulphur lo the action of a solution
of a hydrosulphuret, saturated xvith sulphuretted hydro
gen,  as much more sulphuretted hydrogen is evolved as
the temperature is more elevated.   But xvhen the  solu-
tion of hydrosulphuret, instead of being saturated, has
a sufficient excess of alkali, it evolves  no perceptible
quantity of sulphuretted hydrogen,  even at  a boiling
heat; ulthough it dissolves as much sulphur as  in its
state of saturation.  It hence folloxvs, 1st, That sulphu-
retted hydrogen,  sulphur,  and the alkalies,  have the
property of forming very variable triple combinations,
2d, That all these combinations contain less sulphuret-
ted hydrogen than the hydrosulphurets  ; nnd, 3d, That
 the quantity of sulphuretted hydrogen  Is inx ersely as
 the sulphur they  contain, and  reciprocally.  These
compounds have been called, in  general, sulphuretted 
SUL
SUL
hydrosulphurets; but the name of hydrogennted sulphu-
rets  is more particularly given to those combinations
which are saturated xvith sulphur at a high tempera-
ture, because, by treating them with acids, we precipi-
tate  a peculiar compound of sulphur und hydrogen, of
Which xve shall noxv treat.
  This compound of hydrogen and sulphur,  the  pro-
portions of the  elements of which have not yet been
accurately ascertained, is also cSJIed hydruret of sul-
phur.  It  is formed by putting  flowers of sulphur in
contact xvitii nascent  sulphuretted hydrogen.  With
this viexv, xve take an  aqueous solution of the hydro-
genated sulphuret of potassa, and pour it gradually into
liquid muriatic acid, xvhich seizes the potassa, and forms
a soluble salt, xvhile the sulphur and sulphuretted hydro-
gen unite, fall doxvn together, collecting  by degrees al
the bottom of the vessel, as a dense oil  does in water.
To preserve this hydruret of sulphur, we must fill with
it a phial  having a ground stopper, cork it, and keep it
inverted in a cool place.  We may consider this  sub-
stance either-as a combination of sulphur and hydro-
gen,  or of sulphur and sulphuretted hydrogen ; but ils
properties, and the mode of obtaining it, render the lat
ler the more probable opinion.  The proportion of the
constituents is not knoxvn.
  The most interesting ofthe hydrogennted sulphurets,
is  that of ammonia.   It was discovered by the Hon.
Robert Boyle, and called his fuming liquor.  To  pre-
pare  il, we take one part of muriate of ammonia  and
of pulverized quicklime, and half a part of floxvers of
sulphui.   After mixing them intimately, xve introduce
the mixture into an earthen or glass retort, taking care
that  none of it remains iu the neck.  A dry cooled re-
ceiver is connected to  the retort by means of a long
adopter-tube.  The heat must be urged sloxvly almost
to redness.  A yelloxvish liquor condenses in the re-
ceiver, which is to be put  into a phial  with its own
weight of flowers of sulphur,and agitated xvith it seven
or eight minutes.  The greater part of  the sulphur is
dissolved, the colour of the mixture deepens remarka-
bly,  and becomes thick, constituting the hydrogenated
sulphuret.
  The distilled liquor diffuses,  for a long time, dense
vapour in a jar full  of oxygen or common air, but
scarcely any in azote or hydrogen ; and the dryness or
humidity of the gases makes no difference in the effects.
It is  probably owing to the oxygen converting the liquor
into  a hydrogenated sulphuret, or  perhaps to the state
of sulphite, that th* vapours appear.
  Hydrogenated sulphurets are frequently  called hy-
droguretted sulphurets.
  Sulphur combines xvith carbon, forming an  interest-
ing compound, to  xvhich the name of sulphuret of car-
bon is sometimes given."
  Sulphur has been long an esteemed  article of the
Materia Medica ; it stimulates the system, loosens the
belly, and  promotes  the insensible perspiration.  It
pervades tlie xvhole habit, and  manifestly transpires
through the pores nf the skin, ns appears from the sul-
phurous smell of persons who have taken it, and from
silver being stained in their pockets  of a blackish
colour.  In the stomach it is probably combined xvith
hydrogen.   It is a celebrated remedy against cutaneous
diseases, particularly psora, both given  internally and
applied externally.  It  has likexvise been recommended
in rheumatic  pains,  flying gout,  rickets, atrophy, !
coughs, asthmas, and other disorders ofthe breast and
lungs,  and particularly catarrhs of the chronic kind,
also  in solica pictonum, worm  cases, and to lessen
Edivalion
  In haemorrhoidal affections it is almost specific; but
(n most of these cases it is advantageously combined
with some cooling purgative, especially supertartrate
if potassa.
  The preparations of sulphur directed  to be used by
the London  and Edinburgh Colleges, are the  Sulphur
lotum, Sulphur praecipitatum, and Sulphur sublimatum.
  Sulphur  antimonii pracipitatum.   Sulphur au-
ratum  antimonii.   This preparation of antimony ap-
pears to have  rendered that called kermes  mineral
unnecessary.  It is a  yelloxv  hydrosulphuret of anti-
mony,  and therefore  called  hydro-sulpkuretum stibii
tuteum.  As an alterative and sudorific it is in high es-
timation, and given in  diseases ofthe skin and glands ;
and joined xvith calomel, it  is one of the most poxver-
ful and penetrating   alteratives we  are  in posses-
lion of.
  Sulphur auratum antimonii.  See Sulphur unit
monii pracipitatum.
  Sulphur lotum.  Washed sulphur; Flores sul-
phuris  loti.   Take  of sublimed sulphur,  a pound
Pour on boiling xvater so that the acid, if there be any
may be entirely washed away; then dry it.   The dose
is from half a drachm to txvo drachms.
  Sulphur pracipitatum.   V..«e sulphuris.  Take
of sublimed sulphur, a pound; fresh lime, two pounds;
xvater, four gallons: boil the sulphur and lime togethe'
in the xvauer, then strain the solution through  papei,
and drop in it as much muriatic acid  as  may be neces-
sary to precipitate the sulphur; lastly, xvasii this by
repealed effusions  of water until it is tasteless.  This
preparation is mostly preferred to the flowers of sul-
phur, in consequence of its being freed from its im
purities.  The dose is from half a  drachm  to  three
drachms.
  Sulphur, precipitated.  See Sulphur pracipitatum.
  Sulphur sublimatum.   Sublimed sulphur.  See
Sulphur.
  Sulphur vivum.  Native sulphur.
  Sulphur, washed.  See Sulphur lotum.
  SULPHURWORT.  See /'eucedanKm.
  Sulphurated hydrogen gas.  See  Hydrogen gas
sulphuretted.
  SULPHURE. See Sulphuret.
  Sulphureous add.  See Sulphurous acid.
  Sulphuretted  chyazic  acid.   See  Sulphuroprussu
acid.
  SULPHURETTED HYDROGEN. See Hydrogen
sulphu-ettcd.
  SULPHURETUM.  Sulphuret. Sulphure. A com
bination of sulphur xvitii an alkali, earth, or metal.
  Sulphuretum ammoni.e.   Hepar sulphuris vola
tile.   Boyle's or Beguine's fuming spirit.  Sulphuret
of ammonia is obtained in the form of a yellow fuming
liquor, by the ammonia and sulphur uniting xvhile in a
state of gas during distillation.  It excites the action of
the absorbent system, and diminishes arterial action,
and is given internally in diseases arising from the use
of mercury, phthisis, diseases of the  skin, and  phleg-
masia : externally it is prescribed  in the form of bath
in paralysis, contractura, psora, and  other cutaneous
diseases.
  Sulphuretum antimonii pracipitatum.  See An
timonii sulphuretum pracipitatum.
  SuLrHURETUM calcis.   Hepar calcis.  Sulphuret
of lime.  It is principally used as a bath  in various dis-
eases of the skin.
  Sulphuretum hydrargyri nigrum. See Hydrar-
gyri sulphuretum nigrum.
  Set phuretum hydrargyri rubrum.   See  Hy-
drargyri sulphuretum rubrum.
  Sulphuretum potass*.  See Potassa  sulphure-
tum.                   0
  Sulphuretum sod*.  A combination of soda and
sulphur.
  Sulphuretum stibii nativum.  Sulphuretum stibii
nigrum; Antimonium crudum. Native sulphuret of
antimony.  It is from this ore that all our preparations
of antimony are made.  See Antimony.
  SULPHURIC.  Sulphuricus. Belonging to sulphur.
  Sulphuric acid.   Acidum  sulphuricum.   Oil ol
vitriol.  Vitriolic acid.  " When sulphur is  heated to
180° or 190° in an open vessel, it melts, and soon after-
ward emits  a  bluish flame, visible  in  the dark, but
which, in open daylight,  has the appearance of  a
white fume.  This flame has  a suffocating smell, and
lias so little heat that it xvill not set fire to flax, or even
gunpowder, so that in this way the sulphur may be en-
tirely consumed out of la. If the heat be still augmented
the  sulphur boils, and suddenly bursts  into  a  much
more luminous flame, the same suffocating vapour still
continuing to be emitted.
  The suffocating  vapour  of sulphur is imbibed by
water, with  which it forms the fluid formerly called
volatile, vitriolic, now sulphurous acid. If this fluid be
exposed for a time to the air, il loses the sulphurous
smell it had  at first, and the acid becomes more fixed.
It is then the fluid wliich was formerly called tht spirit
of vitriol.  Much of  the xvater may be driven off by
heat, and the dense acid xvhich remains is the sulphuric
acid  commonly called oil  of  vitriol; a name  which
xvas  probably given to it from the little noise it makes
xvhen poured out, and the unctuous  feel it has xvhen
rubbed between the fingers, produced by its corroding
                                        319 
SUL                                             SUL
 and destroying the skin, xvith which It forms a soapy
 Compound.
   The stone or mineral called martial  pyrites, which
 consists for the most part of sulphur and iron, is found
 to be converted into the salt vulgarly called green vi-
 triol, but more properly sulphate of iron, by exposure to
 air and moisture.   In  this natural process the pyrites
 breaks  and falls in pieces;  and if the change takes
 place rapidly, a considerable increase of  temperature
 follows, which  is sometimes sufficient to set the mass
 on fire.  By conducting this operation in  an accurate
 ivay, it is found that  oxygen is  absorbed.   The sul-
 phate is obtained by solution in xvater and subsequent
 evaporation; by which  the crystals of the salt are
 separated  from the earthy impurities, xvhich xvere not
 suspended in the xvater.
  The sulphuric acid  was formerly obtained in this
 country by distillation  from sulphate of iron, as it still
 is in many parts abroad: the common green vitriol is
 made use of for this purpose, as it  is to be met with at
 a low piice, and the acid is most easily to be extracted
 from it.  With  respect to the operation itself, the fol-
 lowing particulars should be attended to: First, the
 vitriol must be calcined in an iron or earthen vessel,
 till it appears of a yellowish-red colour:  by this opera-
 tion  it will lose half its xveight.  This is done in order
 lo deprive it of  the  greater part of the water xvhich it
 has attracted into its crystals during the crystallization,
 and xvhich xvould otherwise, in the ensuing distilliza-
 tion, greatly weaken the acid.  As soon as the calcina-
tion  is finished, the vitriol is  to be  put immediately,
 while it is warm, into a coated earthen retort, which
 is to  be filled two-thirds with It, so that the ingredients
 may have sufficient room upon being distended by the
 heat, and thus the bursting of the retort be prevented.
 It will be most advisable to have the retort immediately
enclosed in brick-work in a reverberatory furnace, and
 to stop up the neck  of it till the distillation begins, in
order to prevent the materials from attracting  fresh
 humidity from the air.  At the beginning of the distil-
 lation the retort mnst  be operifed, nnd a moderate fire
 is to be applied  to  it, in order to expel from the vitriol
 ail that part of the phlegm xvhich does not taste strongly
 of the acid, and wliich may be received  in an open
 vessel placed under the retort.  But as  soon as  there
 appear any acid drops, a receiver is to  be added, into
 Wliich has been previously pqured a quantity of the
acidulous fluid which has come over, in  the proportion
of half a pound of it to twelve pounds of the calcined
vitriol;  when the  receiver is  to  be secured  xvith a
proper luting. The fire is now to be raised by little and
little to the  most intense degree of heat,  and the  re-
ceiver carefully covered  with  wet  cloths, and,  ia
 winter time, with snow  or  ice, as the  acid rises in
 the form of a thick white vapour,  which towarda the
 end of the operation becomes hot, and heals the  re-
 ceiver to a great degree.  Tfle fire must be continued
 at this high pitch for several days, till no vapour issues
 from the retort, nor any drops are seen trickling doxvn
 its sides.  In the case of a great quantity of vitriol
 being distilled,  Bernhardt has observed  it  to continue
 emitting vapours in this manner for the space of ten
 days.  When the  vessels are  quite  cold, tlie receiver
 must be opened carefully, so that none of the luting
 may fall into it; after xvhich the fluid contained in it is
 to be poured in  a bottle, and the air carefully excluded.
 The fluid that is thus obtained is the German sulphuric
 acid, of wliich  Bernhardt got sixty-four pounds from
 Bix hundn dxveight of vitriol; and, on the other hand,
 when no  xvnter had been previously poured into tlie
 receiver, filly-two pounds only of  a dry  concrete acid.
 This acid  was  formerly called[glacial  oil of vitriol,
 nnd  ils consistence is owing to fTmixture of sulphurous
 acid, xvhicli occasions it to become solid  nl a moderate
 temperature.
   It has been lately stated by Vogcl, that xvhen this
 fuming acid is put into a glass retort, and distilled by a
 moderate  heat into a receiver cooled xvith ice, the fu-
 ming portion comes over first, and may be obtained in
 a solid state by stopping the distillation in time.   This
 has  been  nipposed to constitute  absolute sulphuric
 acid, or ncid entirely void of water.  It is in silky fila-
 ments, lough, difficult to cut, and somexvhat like asbes-
 tos.   Exposed to the nir, It fumes strongly, nnd gradu-
 ally  evaporates.  It does not act on the skm so rapidly
 as concentrated oil of vitriol.  Up to 6f>°  it  continues
 solid, but nt temperatures above  this It  becomes  a
       320
 colourless vapour, which whitens on contact with air,
 Dropped into xvater in small quantities, it excites a his-
 sing noise, as if it were red-hot iron ; in larger quan-
 tities it produces a species of explosion.  It is said tc
 be convertible into ordinary sulphuric acid,  by ihe
 addition of a fifth of water.  It dissolves sulphur, and
 assumes a blue, green, or broxvn  colour, according to
 the  proportion  of sulphur  dissolved.   The specific
 gravity of the black  fuming sulphuric acid, prepared
 in large quantities from  copperas, at Nordhausen, is
 1.89G.   Its constitution is not well ascertained.
   The  sulphuric acid made in Great Britain is pro-
 duced by the combustion of sulphur.  There are three
 conditions requisite in this operation.  Oxygen must
 be present to maintain the combustion; the vessel must
 be so close as to prevent the escape of the volatile mat-
 ter xvhich rises, and water must be present to imbibe it.
 For these purposes, a mixture of eight partsof sulphui
 with one  of nitre is placed in a proper vessel enclosed
 within  a chamber of considerable size, lined on all
 sides with lead, and covered  at bottom with a shallow
 stratum of water.   The mixture being set on fire, xvill
 burn  for a considerable lime by virtue of  the  supply
 of oxygen which nitre gives out when heated, and ihe
 xvater imbibing the sulphurous vapours, becomes gra-
 dually more and more acid after repeated combustions,
 and the acid is afterward concentrated by distillation.
  Such  was the account  usually given  of this  opera
 tion, till Clement  and Desormes showed,  in  a very
 interesting memoir, its total inadequacy to account for
 the result.  100 parts of  nitre, judiciously managed,
 will  produce, xvith the requisite quantity of sulphur,
 2000 partsof concentrated sulphuric acid.   Noxv these
 contain 1200 parts of  oxygen, while the hundred parts
 of nitre contain only 39J of oxygen ; being not  l-30th
 part of xvhat is afterward found in the resulting sul-
 phuric acid.  But after the combustion of the sulphur,
 the nitre is converted into sulphate and bisulphate ot
 potassa, which mingled residuary salts contain  nearly
 as much oxygen as the nitre originally did.  Hence the
 origin of the 1200 parts of the oxygen in the sulphuric
 acid is still to be sought for.  The  following ingenious
 theory was firsl given by  Clement  and  Desormes.
 The burning sulphur  or sulphurous acid, taking from
 the nitre a  portion  of  its oxygen, forms sulphuric
 acid, xvhich unites xvith  the  potassa, and displaces a
 little nitrous and nitric acids in vapour.  These vapours
 are decomposed by the sulphurous acid, into nitrous
 gas, or  deutoxide  of  azote.   This gas, naturally lit-
 tle denser than  air, and now expanded by the heat
 suddenly rises to the roof of the chamber:  and might
 be expected to escape at the aperture tliere,  which ma-
 nufacturers were alxvays  obliged to leave open, other-
 wise they found the  acidification  xvould nol proceed
 But the instant that nitrous pa? comes in contact with
 atmospherical oxygen, nitrous acid vapour is formed,
 xvhich  being a  very  heavy  aeriform  body,  immedi-
 ately precipitates on the sulphurous flame, and convei ts
 it into sulphuric acid; xvhile  itself resuming the state
of nitrous gas, reascends for a nexv charge  of oxygen,
 again to redescend, and transfer it  to the flaming sul-
 phur.   Thus we see,  that a  small volume of nitrous
 vapour, by its alternate metamorphoses into the states
of oxide and  acid, and  its consequent interchanges,
may be capable  of  acidifying a great quantity  of
sulphur.
  This  beautiful theory received a modification from
Sir H. Davy.  He found that  nitrous gas had no action
on sulphurous gas, to convert it  into sulphuric acid.
unless xx ater be present.  With a small proportion of
 water, four volumes of sulphurous acid gas, and three
of nitrous gas, are condensed into crystalline  solid,
 which is instantly decomposed by abundance of wa-
 ter ; oil  of vitriol is formed, and nitrous gas given  off,
 which xvith contact of air becomes nitrous acid gas, as
 above described.  The process continues, according to
 the same principle of  combination  and decomposition,
 till the xvater at the bottom of the chamber is  become
strongly acid.  It is first  concentrated in large leaden
 pans, and afterxvard in glass retorts heated in a sand-
 bath.   Platinum alembics, placed within pots of enst-
 iron of a corresponding shape and capacity, have been
 lately substituted in many manufactories for glass, and
 have been found to save fuel, and quicken the process
 of concentration.
  Tlie proper mode  of burning the sulphur with  the
 nitre, so  as to  produce the greatest quantity  of oH 
SUL
SUL
 at  vitriol, is a problem, concerning whicli chemists
 bold a variety  of opinions.   Thenard  describes  the
 following as the best.  Near one of the sides of the
 leaden chamber, about a fool above its bottom, an iron
 plate, furnished xvitii an upright border, is p'^ed bori-
 Eontally over a furnace, xvhose chimney passes across,
 under tlie bottom of the chamber, without having any
 connexion with it.  On this plate, which is enclosed in
 a little chamber, the mixture of sulphur and nitre is
 laid.  The whole being shut up, and tlie bottom ofthe
 latge  chamber  covered  with xvater, a  gentle fire is
 kindled  in the furnace.   The  sulphur soon takes (ire,
 and gives birth to the products described.  When  tlie
 combustion is finished, which is seen through a liltle
 pane adapted to the trap-door of the  chamber, this is
 opened, the sulphate of potassa is xvitlidrawn, and is
 replaced by a mixture of sulphur and nitre.  The nir
 in the great chamber is meanwhile renewed by opening
 its lateral door, and a valve in its opposite side.  Then,
 after closing  these  openings, the furnace  is lighted
 anew.   Successive mixtures are thus burned till  the
 acid acquires a specific gravity of about 1.390, taking
 care never to put at once on tbe plate  more  sulphur
 than the air of the chamber can acidify.  The acid is
 then withdraxvn by stop-cocks, and concentrated.
  The folk)xving details are extracted from a paper on
 sulphuric acid, wliich Dr. Ure published in the fourth
 volumeof the Journal of Science and the Arts.
  "The best commercial sulphuric acid that I  have
 been able to meet with," says he, " contains  from one-
 half to three quarters of a part in the hundred, of solid
 saline matter, foreign to its nature.   These  fractional
 parts consist of sulphate  of  potassa and lead, in the
  froportion of four of the former to one of  the lalter.
  t is, I believe, difficult to manufacture it directly, by the
 usual methods, of a  purer quality.  The ordinary acid
 sold in the shops contains often three or four per cent.
 of saline matter. Even more is occasionally introduced,
 by the employment of nitre, to remove the broxvn  co-
 lour given to the acid by carbonaceous matter.  The
 amount of these adulterations, whether  accidental or
 fraudulent, may he readily determined by evaporating,
 in a small capsule of porcelain, or rather platinum, a
 definite xveight of the acid.  Tlie platinum cup placed
 on the red cinders of a  common fire, xvill give an
 exact result  in five minutes.  Il* more than five grains
 of matter remain from five hundred of acid, we may
 pronounce it sophisticated.
   Distillation is the mode by xvliich pure oil  of vitriol
 <s obtained.   This  process is  described in  chemical
 treatises as both difficult and hazardous;  but  since
 adopting the following plan,  I have found it perfectly
 safe and convenient.  I take a plain glass retort, capa-
 ble of holding from txvo to four quarts of water, and
 put into it about a pint-measure of the sulphuric acid,
 (and a few fragments of glass,) connecting  the retort
 with a large globular receiver, by means of a  glass
 tube  four feet long, and  from one to two  inches  in
 diameter.  The tube fits very  loosely at both  ends.
 The retort is placed over a charcoal fire, and  Ihe flame
 is made to play gently on its bottom.  When the acid
 begins to boil  smartly, sudden explosions  of dense
 vapour rush forth from time to time, xvhich xvould in-
 fallibly break small vessels.  Here,  however,  these
 expansions are safely permitted, by the large capacity
 of the retort and receiver, as xvell as by tlie easy  com-
 munication with the air  at both ends of the  adopter
 tube.  Should the retort, indeed, be exposed to a gieat
 intensity of flamej the vapour will no doubt be gene-
 rated with incoercible rapidity, and break ihe apparatus.
 But  this accident can proceed only from  gross impru-
 dence.  It resembles in suddenness, the explosion of
 gunpowder, and illustrates admirably Dr. Black's ob-
 servation, that, but for the great latent heat  of steam,
 a mass of water, powerfully heated, xvould explode on
 reaching the boiling temperature.  I have ascertained,
 that the specific caloric of the vapour of  sulphuric
 acid is very small, and hence the danger to which rash
operators may  be  exposed   during  its  distillation.
Hence, also, it is unnecessary to sui round  the receiver
with cold  xvater,  as when alkohol  and most  other
liquids are distilled.  Indeed, the application of cold to
the bottom of the receiver generally causes it, in the
present operation, to  crack.  By the above method, I
have made the concentrated oil of vitriol  floxv over in
a continuous  slender stream, witho-.il the  globe be-
coming sensibly hot
                                        Eea
   I  have frequently boiled the distilled acid till only
 one-half remain in the retort; yet at the  temperature
 of 60°  Fahrenheit,  I  have  never found  the specific
 gravity of acid  so concentrated, to exceed 1.8453.  Il
 is, I believe, more exactly 1.8452.   Tlie  number 1.850,
 xvhich It has been ihe fashion to assign for Uie density
 of pure oil  of vitriol,  is undoubtedly very erroneous,
 and ought to be corrected.   Genuine commercial acid
 should never surpass 1 8435;  when it is densei xve may
 infer sophistication, or negligence, in  the  manufac-
 ture."
   The sulphuric acid strongly attracts xvater, which it
 takes from the atmosphere very rapidly, and in lurgei
 quantities, if sufiiered to remain in uu open vessel, im
 bibing one-third of its xveight iu twenty-four hours,
 and more than six times its xveight in a twelvemonth.
 If four parts by weight be mixed with one  of waler
 at 50°, they produce an instantaneous heat  of 300°
 F.;  and four  parts raise one of ice to 212°: on  the
 contrary, four parts  of ice,  mixed with one of acid,
 sink the thermometer  to 4 below 0.  When  pure  it is
 colourless, and  emits no fumes.   It requires a great
 degree of cold to freeze it; and if diluted wilh half a
 part or more of xvater, unless the dilution be carried
 very far, it becomes more and more difficult to congeal;
 yet at the specific gravity of 1.78, or a few hundredths
 above or below  this, it may be frozen by surrounding
 it with melting snow.   Its congelation forms regular
 prismatic  crystals with six  sides.  Its  boiling point,
 according to Bergman, is 540°; according to Dalton,
 590°.
  Pure sulphuric acid is without smell and colour, and
 of an oily consistence.   Its action  on litmus is so
 strong, that  a single  drop of acid will give to an im-
 mense quantity of water the power of reddening.  It
 is a most violent causiic ; and has sometimes  been ad-
 ministered xvith the most criminal  purposes.  The
 person who unfortunately sxvalloxvs it, speedily  dies
 in dreadful agonies and convulsions.  Chalk, or com
 mon  carbonate  of magnesia, is the  best antidote for
 this, as xvell as for the strong nitric and murialic acids
  When transmitted through an ignited porcelain tube
 of one fifth of an inch diameter, it is resolved  into two
 parts of sulphurous acid gas, and one of oxygen gas.
 with xxater.  Voltaic electricity causes an evolution of*
 sulphur at the negative pole; while a sulphate of the
 metallic wire is formed at the positive.  Sulphuric acid
 has no action on oxygen gas or air.  It merely abstracts
 their aqueous vapour.
  If the oxygenized muriatic acid of Thenard be put
 in contact with tlie sulphate  of silver, there  is imme-
 diately formed insoluble chloride  of  silver,  and oxy-
 genized sulphuric acid.  To obtain sulphuric  acid in
 the highest degree of oxygenation, it is  merely neces-
 sary to pour barytes water inlo tlie above  oxygenized
 acid, so as to precipitate oniy a part of it, leaving ihe
 rest  in  union xvitii the whole of the oxygen. Oxy-
 genized sulphuric acid  partially reduces the oxide of
 silver, occasioning a strong effervescence.
  All the simple combustibles decompose sulphuric
 acid, xvith the assistance of heat.  About  400° Fahr.
sulphur converts sulphuric into sulphurous acid.  Se-
 veral metals at  an elevated temperature  decompose
 this acid,  with evolutions of sulphuric acid  gas, oxi
dizement of the  metal, and combination of the oxide
 xvilh the undecomposed portion of the acid.
  The sulphuric acid is of very extensive use in the art
of chemistry, as well as in metallurgy, bleaching, and
 some of  the  processes for dying  ; iu  medicine, il is
given as a tonic and stimulant, and is sometimes used
externally as a caustic.
  The combinations of this acid xvith the various bases
 are called sulphates, and most of them have long been
 knoxvn by various names.  With  barytes  it  is found
 native  and nearly pure  in various forms, in coarse
 powder, rounded masses, stalactites, and  regular crys-
 tallizations,  wliich are in  some  lamellar, in others
 needly, in others prismatic or pyramidal.
  This salt, if at all deleterious, is less so than the car-
 bonate of barytes, and is more economical for preparing
 the muriate for medicinal purposes.  It requires43,00V
 parts of water to dissolve it al 60°.
  Sulphate of strontian  has a considerable resemblance
to  that of baryies in its properties. It is found native
 in considerable quantities at Aust Passage and othei
 places in the neighbourhood  of  Bristol.   It requires
3840 parts of boiling water lo dissolve it.
                                        331 
SUL
SUL
  Its composition is 5 acid + 6.5 base.
  The sulphate of potassa, vitriolated kali, formerly
 itriolated tartar, sal de duobus, and arcanum duplica-
tum, crystallizes in hexahedrai prisms, terminated by
hexagonal pyramids, but susceptible of variations.  Its
crystallization by quick cooling is confused.  Its taste
is bitter, acrid, and a little saline.   It is soluble in 5
parts of boiling water, and 16 parts at 60°.  Iu the fire
it decrepitates, and is fusible by a strong heat.   It is de-
composable by charcoal at a high temperature.  It may
be prepared by direct mixture  of its component parts;
but tlie usual and cheapest mode is to neutralize the
acidulous sulphate left  after distilling nitric acid, the
sal enixen of the old chemists, by the addition of car-
bonate of potassa.  The sal polychrest of old dispen-
satories, made by deflagrating sulphur and nitre  in a
crucible,  xvas a compound of the sulphate and sulphite
of potassa.  The acidulous  sulphate is sometimes em-
ployed as a  flux, and likewise in the manufacture of
alum.  In medicine, the neutral salt is sometimes used
as a deobstruent, and in large doses as a mild cathartic;
dissolved in a considerable portion of xvater, and taken
daily in such quantity as to be gently aperient, it has
been found serviceable in cutaneous  affections, and is
sold in London for this purpose as a nostrum;  and cer-
tainly it deserves to be distinguished from the generality
of quack medicines, very few indeed of which can be
taken without imminent hazard.
  It  consists of 5 acid + 6 base; but there is a com-
pound of the same constituents, in  the proportion of
10 acid + 6 potassa, called the bisulphate.
  The sulphate of soda is tlie vitriolated natron of the
college, the xvell knoxvn Glauber's salt, or sal mirabile.
It is commonly prepared from  the residuum left after
distilling muriatic acid, the superfluous acid of which
may be saturated by the addition of soda, or precipi-
tated by lime; and is likewise obtained iu  the manu-
facture of the muriate of ammonia.   Sclierer mentions
another mode by Funcke, whicli is,  making 8 parts of
calcined sulphate of lime, 5 of clay, and 5 of common
salt, into a paste with xvater; burning this in a kiln;
and  then poxvdering, lixiviating, and crystallizing,  it
exists in large quantities under the surface of the earth
in some countries, as Persia,  Bohemia, and  Switzer-
land; is found mixed with other-suhstances in mineral
springs and  sea-water; and sometimes effloresces on
wails.  Sulphate of soda isbitterandsalinetothe taste.
It is soluble in 2.85 parts of cold xvater, and 0.8 at a boil-
ing heat.  It crystallizes in hexagonal prisms bevelled at
ihe extremities, sometimes grooved longitudinally, and
of very large size, when the quantity is great  These
effloresce completely into a white poxvder if exposed to
a dry air, or even if kept wrapped up in a paper in a dry
place, yet they retain sufficient xvater of crystallization
to undergo the aqueous fusion on exposure to heat, but
by urging tne fire, melt.   Barytes and strontian take
Its acid from it entirely, and potassa partially; the nitric
and murialic acids, though they have a weaker affinity
for ils base, combine with a part of it when digested on
it.  Heated wilh charcoal, its acid is decomposed.  As
a purgative, its  use is very general; and it has been
employed to furnish soda.    Pujot des Charmes has
made some experiments on it in fabricating glass; with
■and alone it xvould not succeed, but equal ports of car-
bonate of lime, sand, and dried sulphate of soda, pro-
duced a clear, solid, pale yelloxv glass.
  It is composed of 5 ncid + 4 base + 1125 water in
crystals; xvhen dry, the former txvo primes are its con-
stituents.
  Sulphate of soda and sulphate of ammonia form to-
gether a triple salt.
  Sulphate of lime, setcnite, gypsum, plaster of Paris,
or sometimes alabaster, forms extensive strata in vari-
3U8 mountains.  The specular gypsum, or glacies Ma-
ria, is a species of this salt, and  affirmed  by some
French travellers  lo be employed in Russiai xx here it
abounds, as a substitute for  glnss  in windows.  Its
specific gravity is from 1.872 to 2.311.  It requires 500
parts of cold water, and 450 of hot, todissolve it. When
calcined, it decrepitates, becomes very friable and white,
and heats a little with  waler, with which it forms a
solid mass.   In this process it loses its water of crys-
tallization.   In  this state it is found native iu Tyrol,
crystallized in rectangular  parallelepipeds, or octahe
oral or hexahedrai prisms, and is called anhydrous sul-
phate of lime   Both the  natural and artificial nuhy
drous sulphate consists of 56.3 lime, and 43.6 acid, ac-
cording to Chenevix.  The calcined sulphate .s mucli
employed for making casts of anatomical  *r orna-
mental figures as one of the bases ol" stucco; as a line
cement for making close and strong joints betxveen stone,
and joining rims or tops of metal to glass;  for making
moulds  for  the  Staffordshire potteries;  for  cornices
mouldings, and other ornaments in building.  For thesa
purposes, and for being wrought into columns, chim-
ney-pieces, and various ornaments, abouteiglit hundred
tons are raised annually in Derbyshire, xvhere it is called
alabaster.  In America,  it is laid on grass land as a
manure.
  [Sulphate of lime, gypsum, or plaster of Paris, is
extensively and beneficially employed in some parts of
the United States as a manure.  It is reduced to a fine
poxvder,  and applied by the spoonful to a hill of Indian
corn (maize), or it is thinly scattered over grass land,
and it has a most poxverful nnd fertilizing effect. The
gypsum of Nova Scotia afforded the principal supply
for this and other purposes some  time since, but the
states of Nexv-York  and  Pennsylvania noxv turinse.
large quantities,  and of an excellent quality, fro.T. uieir
own quarries. Gypsum,as a manure, v.ili not answer
on the sea-coast, or xvithin the influence of a saline
atmosphere.   It begins to prodvee fertilizing  effects
about 40 or 50 miles from Ihe sea-shore.  A.J
  Ordinary crystallized gypsum consists of 5 sulphuric
acid + 3.5 lime + 2.25 xvater; the anhydrous variety
wants of course the last ingredient.
  Sulphate of magnesia, the vitriolated magnesia ot
the late, and sal  catharticus amarus of former London
Pharmacopoeias,  is commonly known by the name of
Epsom salt, as it was furnished in  considerable quan-
tity by the mineral xvater at that place, mixed hoxvever
xvith a considerable portion of sulphate of soda. It is
afforded, hoxvever, in  greater  abundance  and  more
pure from the biltern  left after the extraction of salt
from sea-water.   It has likewise been found efflores-
cing on brick ivalls, both old and recently erected, and
in small quantity in the ashes of coals.  The capillary
salt of Idria, found iu silvery crystals mixed xvith the
aluminous schist  in  the  mines of that  place,  and
hitherto considered as a feathery alum, has been ascer-
tained by Klaproth to consist of sulphate of magnesia,
mixed xvith  a small portion of sulphate of iron.   When
pure, it crystallizes in  small quadrangular prisms, ter
minated by quadrangular pyramids or dihedial summits
Its laste is cool and bitter.   Il is very soluble, requiring
only an equal xveisht of cold water, and three-fourths ita
weight of hot.  It effloresces in the  air, though but
sloxvly.  If it attract moisture itcontains muriateof mag-
nesia, or of"lime.   Exposed to heat it dissolves in its own
water of crystallization, and dries, but is not decom
posed nor fused, bul xvilh extreme  difficulty.  It con-
sists, according to  Bergman, of 33 ncid, 19 magnesia,
48 xvater.  A very pure sulphate is said lo be prepared
in the neighbourhood of Genoa,  by roasting a pyrites
found tliere; exposing it to the air in a covered place
for six months;  watering it occasionally,  and then
lixiviating.
  Sulphate of magnesia  is one of our most valuable
purgatives;  for xvhicli  purpose only it is used, and for
furnishing ihe carbonate of magnesia.
  It is  composed of 5 acid--f- 2 5  magnesia-J-7.875
xvater, in the stale nf crystals.
  Sulphate  of ammonia crystallizes in  slender, flat
lened, hexahedrai prisms, terminated  by  hexagonal
pyramids: it attracts a little moisture from  very damp
air, particularly if tlie acid be in excess; it dissolves in
txvo parts of cold and one of boiling xvater.   It is not
used, though Glauber, xvho called it his secret ammo-
niacal salt, vaunted its excellence in nssayinc.
  It consists of 5 acid -f- 2.125 ammonia -j-1.125 xvatti
in its most desiccated state; and in ils crystalline statu
of 5 acid + 2.125 ammonia + ? 375 xxater.
  If sulphate nf ammonia nnd sulphate of magnesia
be added together in  solution,  they  combine  into a
triple salt of un  octahedral figure, but varying much;
less soluble than either of its component parts; unal-
terable in the  air; undergoing on the fire the watery
fusion ;  after xvhich it is decomposed, part of the am-
monia flying off, nnd the remainder sulixiiiiiug xx ith an
excess of acid.  It contains, according to Fourcroy, 08
sulphate of magnesia, and 32 sulphate of ammonia.
  Sulphate of git. a mi  crystallizes xvilh difliculty, its
solution readily ncquiring'and containing a syrupy con-
sistence; its taste is oxveet, and sliglitly astringent; it 
SUL
SUP
  Is not alterable in the air; a strong heat expels its acid,
  and leaves  the earth pure; heated  xvilh charcoal, it
  forms a sulphuret;  infusion of galls forms a yellowish-
  white precipitate with its solution
    Yttria is readily dissolved by sulphuric acid ; and as
  tlie solution goes on, the sulphate crystallizes in small
  brilliant .grains, which have a sweetish laste, but less
  to than sulphate of glucina, and nre of a light ame-
  thyst-red colour.  They require 30 parts of cold waler
  to dissolve  them, aud to give up their acid xvhen ex-
  posed to a  high temperature.  They are decomposed
  3y oxalic  acid, prussiate of potassa,  infusion of galls,
  and phosphate of soda.
    Sulphate of alumina in its pure state is but recently
  knoxvn, and it was  first attentively examined by Vau
  quelin.  It may be made by dissolving pure alumina in
  pure sulphuric acid, heating them for some time, eva-
  porating the solution to dryness, drying  the residuum
  with a pretty strong beat, redissotving it, and crystal-
  lizing.   Its crystals are soft, foliaceous, shining, and
  pearly;  but  tiiese are not easily obtained xvithout cau-
  tious evaporation and refrigeration.   They have  au
  astringent taste;  are little alterable  in  the  air; arc
  pretty soluble, particularly iu hot xvater;  give out their
  acid on  exposure to a high temperature: are decom-
 posable by combustible substances, though not readily;
 and do not form a pyrophorus like alum.
   If the evaporation and desiccation directed above be
 omitted, the  alumina will remain supersaturated with
 acid, as may be knoxvn by its taste, and by ils  redden-
 ing vegetable blue.  This is still more difficult to crys-
 tallize than  the neutral salt, and frequently  thickens
 into a gelatinous mass.
   A compound of acidulous sulphate of alumina, with
  potassa or ammonia, has long been knoxvn by Uie name
 of alum.
   Sulphate of zircon may be prepared by adding sul-
  phuric acid to the earth recently precipitated, and not
  yel dry.  It is sometimes in small needles, but commonly
  pulverulent; very friable; insipid; insoluble in water,
  unless it contain some acid; and easily decomposed by
 heat."— Ure's Chem. Diet.
   Sulphuric  acid is a powerful antiseptic and tonic :
 it is given, properly diluted, in the dose of from one to
 three drops with cinchona and other medicines in the
 cure of fevers and debilities, and it is often applied ex-
 ternally, when very  much diluted, against psora and
 some chronic affections of the skin.
   Sulphuris flores.  See Sulphur sublimatum.
   SULPHUROPRUSSIC ACID.   The  sulphuretted
 cbyazic acid of Porrett,
   Dissolve in water one part of sulphuret of potassa,
 and boil it for a considerable time xvith  three or four
 parts of poxvdered  Prussian blue added  at intervals.
 Sulphuret of iron  is  formed, and  a colourless liquid
 containing the new acid combined with potassa, mixed
 with hyposulphate  and sulphate of potassa.   Render
 this liquid  sensibly sour, by the addition of sulphuric
 acid. Continue the boiling for n little, and  when  it
 cools, add a little peroxide of manganese in fine powder,
 which will give the liquor a fine crimson colour.  To
 the filtered liquid add a solution containing persulphate
 of copper, and protosulphate of iron, in the proportion
 of  two of the former salt  to three of the latter, until
 the crimson colour  disappears. Sulphuroprussiate of
 copper falls.  Boil  this with  a solution  of  potassa,
 which will separate  the copper.  Distil the  liquid
 mixed with sulphuric  acid iii a glass retort, and the
 peculiar  acid will come over.  By saturation with car-
 bonate of barytes, and then throwing down this by the
 equivalent quantity  of sulphuric acid, the sulphuro-
 prussic acid is obtained pure.
  It is a transparent and colourless liquid, possessing a
 strong colour, somewhat  resembling acetic acid.  Its
 specific gravity is only 1.022.  It dissolves a little sul-
 phur at a boiling heat.  It then blackens nitrate of sil-
 ver ; but the  pure acid throws doxvn the silver while.
 By repeated distillations sulphur is separated and the
 acid is decomposed.
  SULPHUROUS ACID.   « Sulphur burned at a low
 temperature aosorbs less oxygen than it does xvhen ex-
 posed to greater heat, and is consequently acidified in  a
slighter degree, so as to form sulphurous acid.  This in
the ordinary state of the atmosphere is a gas; but on
reducing  its  temperature  very loxv by artificial cold,
and exposing it to strong compression,  it becomes  a
liquid.  To obtain it in the liquid state, however  for
 practical purposes, it ij received into water, by which
 it is absorbed.
   As the acid obtained by burning sulphur in this xvay
 is commonly mixed with more or less sulphuric acid,
 when sulphurous acid is xvanled it is commonly made
 by abstracting part of the oxygen from sulphuric acid
 by means of some combustible substance.  Mercury
 or tin is usually preferred.  For the purposes of manu
 fat-lures, hoivevcr, chopped straxv or saw-dust may be
 employed.   If one part of mercury and two of conccn
 trated sulphuric acid be put into a glass  retort xvitii a
 long neck, and heat applied till an effervescence is pro-
 duced, the  sulphurous acid xvill arise in the form  of
 gas, and may be collected over quicksilver, or received
 into water, xvhicli, at the temperature of 61°, will absorb
 thirty-three times its bulk, or nearly an eleventh of its
 weight.
   Water thus saturated  is intensely acid  to the taste,
 and has the smell of  sulphur burning slowly.  It de-
 stroys most vegetable colours, but the blues are reddened
 by  it previous to their being discharged.  A pleasing
 instance of its effect on colours may be exhibited  by
 holding a red rose over the  blue flame of a common
 match, by xvhich the colour will be discharged xvherever
 the sulphurous acid  comes into  contact  with  it,  so
 as to render it beautifully  variegated, or entirely white.
 If it be Ihen dipped into xvater,the redness  altera time
 xvill be restored.
   Sulphurous acid is used in bleaching, particularly for
 silks.  It likexvise discharges vegetable stains, and iron-
 moulds from linen.
   In combination xvith the salifiable bases,  it forms
 sulphites whicli differ from the sulphates in their pro-
 perties.   Tlie alkaline sulphites  are more soluble than
 the sulphates, the  earthy less.   They are converted
 into sulphates by  an  addition of oxygen,  xvhich they
 acquire even by exposure to the air."
   Sullanfiower. The Centaurea moschata, of Linnaeus.
j   SUMACH.  (Sumak;  from  samak,  lo  be  red;  so
 called from its red berry.)  See Rhus coriaria.
   Sumach, elm-leaved.  See Rhus coriaria.
   Su'mbn.   (Arabian.)   The loxver or fat part of the
 belly.
   SUN-DEW.  See Drosera rotundifolia.
   SUPER.   1. This term is applied, in chemistry and
 pharmacy, to several saline substances, in which there
 is an excess of one of  its  constituents beyond  what is
 necessary  to form  the ordinary compound  ; as super-
 sulphate of potassa, supercarbonate of soda, Sec.
   2. In anatomy, it regards situation; as superscapula-
 ris, supergenualis.
   3. In physiology, it means an  additional'; as supet
 foetation.
   4. In medicine, it means excess; as superpurgation.
   Suferace'tas  plumbi.  See Plumbi acetas.
   Superarck'mas  potass*.  Superarseniate of po
 tassa.  A compound of potassa xvith excess of arsenic
 acid.  It  xvas called Macqucr's  Arsenical Salt, from
 its discoverer; and has been sometimes given  in medi
 cine, possessing similar properties to those of the white
 oxide of arsenic.
  SUPE'RBUS.  See Rectus superior oculi.
  SUPERCI'LIUM.  See Eyebrow.
  Supkrcilium veneris.   The milfoil.   See Achillea
 millefolium.
  SUPERFOITATION.  (Superfatatio ; from super,
 above or upon, and fatus, a fietus.)  The  impregna-
 tion of a xvoman already pregnant.
  Supkrokmina'lis. (From super, above, and gemini,
 the testicles.)  The epididymis, or body above the tes-
 ticles.
  SUPERGENUA'LIS.   (From  super, above, and
genu, the knee.) The patella, or knee-pan.
  SUPERIMPREGNA'TIO.  (Superimprcgna
 tio; from super,  above, and impregnatio,  a  concep-
 tion.)  Superfoetation.
  SUPE'RIOR.  Some muscles  xvere so named from
 their relative situation.
  Superior auris.  See Attollens aurem.
  SUPERLI'GULA.   (From super, above, and ligula,
 a little tongue, the glottis.)  The epiglottis.
  SUPERPUUGATIO.   (From super, beyond, and
purgo, to purge.)  An excessive evacuation  by stool.
  SUPERSALT.   See Subsalt.
  SUPERSCAPULA'RIS.  (From super,  upon, and
scapula, the  shoulder-blade.)  A muscle seated upon
the scapula.
                                         323 
SUP
SWA
  SCPERUS.   Above:  applied to the perianthium of
flowers when placed above the germen; as in roses,
and the genus Pyrus.
  SUPINATION.   (Supinalio; from supinus, placed
upxvard.)  The act of turning  the  palm of the hand
upwards, by rotating the radius upon the ulna.
  SUPINATOR.  (From supinus, upwards.) A name
given to those muscles which turn the hand upwards.
  Shpinator brevis.   See Supinator radii brevis.
  Supinator lonous.   See Supinator radii longus.
  Supinator radii brevis.  A supinator  muscle of
the hand, situated on the forearm.  Supinator brevis,
sive  minor,  of  Winsloxv; and epicondylo-radial, of
Dumas.  This small muscle, which is tendinous exter-
nally, is  situated at the upper part  of the forearm
under the supinator longus, the extensor carpi radialis
brevis, the extensor carpi ulnaris, the  extensor digito-
luni communis, and the extensor minimi digiti.
  It arises tendinous from the lower and anterior  part
of tlie outer  condyle of the os  humeri, and tendinous
and fleshy from the outer edge and posterior  surface
of the ulna, adhering firmly to  the ligament that joins
the radius lo that bone.   From these  origins its fibres
descend forwards and inwards, and are inserted  inio
the upper, inner, and anterior part of the radius around
the cartilaginous surface, upon  which  slides the  ten-
don of the biceps, and likexvise into a ridge that runs
downwards  and outxvards below this  surface.  It as-
sists in the supination of the hand by rolling the radius
outwards.
  Supinator radii lonous.   Supinator longus, of
Albinus.  Supinator longus sive major, of Winslow ;
and humerosus radial, ot Dumas.  A long flat muscle,
covered by a very thin tendinous fascia, and situated
immediately under  the  integuments aiong  the outer
convex surface of the  radius.  It arises, by very short
tendinous fibres, from the  anterior  surface and outer
ridge  of the os  humeri, about two  or three inches
above its external condyle, between the braehialis in-
ternus and the triceps  brachii;  and likewise  from the
anterior surface of the external intermuscular mem-
lirane, or ligament,  as it is called.  About the middle
of the radius, its fleshy fibres terminate in a flat tendon,
which is inserted into the inner side of the inferior extre-
mity of the radius, near the root of its styloid process.
  This muscle  not only assists in rolling the radius
outwards, and turning the palm of the hand upxvards,
on which account  Riolanus first gave it the name of*
supinator, but it likewise assists in pronation, and in
bending the forearm.
  SUPPOSITORIUM.  (From sub, under, and pono,
to put.)  A suppository, i. e. a substance to put into the
rectum, there to remain and dissolve gradually.
  Suppressed menses.   See Amcnorrhaa.
  SUPPURATION.  (Suppuratio; from suppuro,la
suppurate.)   That  morbid  action by xvhich pus is
deposited in Inflammatory tumours.  See Pus.
  SUPRA.  Above. This xvord  before  any other
name, implies its .rtuation being above it; as supra
spinatus, above the spine of the scapula, &c.
  Si'pra-costales.   A portion  of  the  intercostal
muscles.  See Intercostal muscles.
  Supra-dbcompositcs.  See  Decompositus.
  Supra-spina'tus.  Supra-spinatus seu super-sea-
pularis, of Coxvper; and sous-spino-scapulo-trochitc-
rien,  of Dumas.  A muscle of  the arm first so named
by Riolanus, from Its situation.  It is of considerable
thickness, wider behind than before, and fi-ils the xvhole
of the cavity or fossa that is above the spine of the
scapula.   It arises fleshy from the xvhole of the base
ofllie scapula  that is  nbo/e  its spine, and likexvise
from the spine Itself, and from  the superior costa.  Op-
posite to the basis of the coiacoid process, it is found
beginning to degenerate  into a tendon,  xvhicli is at first
covered  by  fleshy fibres, and then  passing under the
acromion, adheies  to  ihe capsular ligament of the os
humeri, and is  inserted into the upper part of the large
tuberosity at the head of the os humeri.  This muscle
is covered by a thin fascia, which adheres to the upper
edge and superior  part of the basis, as xvell as to the
upper edge of the spine  of the scapula.  The principal
 use of the supra spinatus seems to  be  to assist in rais-
 ing  the  arm upxvards ; at the same time, by draxving
 the  capsular ligament  upxvards, It prevents it  from
 being pinched betxveen  the head of ihe os humeri and
 that  of the  scapula.  It may likexvise serve to move
 the scapula upon the hunieru.-.
       354
  SURA. (An Arabian word.) 1 The calf of the leg
  2. The fibula.
  SURCULUS.  A  term applied by botanists to the
stem of mosses, or that part Which bears the leaves.
It is simple, in Polytricum ; branched, in Minium an-
drogy num ; with branches turned downward, in Sphag-
num palustre ; decumbent, creeping, or erect.-
  SURDITAS.  Deafness.   See Paracusis.
  SUHFEIT.   The consequence of excess in eating
or drinking, or of something unwholesome or improper
in the food.  It consists in a heavy load or oppression
of the  stomach, with nausea,  sickness, impeded per-
spiration, and al times eruptions on the skin.
  SURGERY.   Chirurgia.  A branch of the healing
art, having for its object the cure of external diseases.
  SURTURBRAND.  Fibrous brown coal, or bitumi-
nous wood, is so called in Iceland, xvhere it occurs  in
great quantities.
  SU8.  The  name of a genus of animals.  Class,
Mammalia; Order,  Bellua.  The  bog.   The flesh
called pork is considered a great delicacy, especially
the  young and well  fed, and  is much used  in most
countries. Salted, it affords a harder food, still very
nutritious to hard-working people, whose digestion  IS
good.
  Sus scropa.   The systematic name of the hog, the
fat of wliich is called lard.
  Suspended animation.  See Resuscitation.
  SUSPENSO'RIUM.   (From suspendeo, to hang.)
A suspensory; a bag, or bandage, to suspend any part.
  Suspbnsorium hepatis.   The broad ligament of the
liver.
  Suspensorius testis.  The eremaster muscle of
the  testicle.
  SUSU'RRUS.  (From  susurro, to murmur.)  An
imaginary sound in the ear.
  SUTURE.  (Su'.ura; from  suo, to join together.)
1. In surgery, this term signifies the uniting the lips of
a xvound by sexving.  Cluvala commissura.   A num-
ber of different kinds of sutures have  been recom-
mended by writers on surgery, but all of them are noxv
reduced to two; namely, the twisted, and the inter-
rupted, called  also the knotted suture.   The twisted
suture   is made in the following  manner:  having
brought the divided parts nearly into contact, a  pin is
to be introduced from the outside inwards, and carried
out through the opposite side to tlie  same  distance
from the edge that it entered at on the former side ; a
firm wax ligature is then to be passed around it,making
the figure of 8, by xvhich the wounded parts are drawn
gently into contact.  The number of pins is  to be de-
termined by the extent of tbe wound ; half an inch,  of
at most three quarters, is  the proper distance between
txvo pins.  The interrupted suture is practised where a
number of stitches is required,  and the interruption  is
the  only distance betxveen the stitches.
  2. In anatomy, the xvord suture is applied to the union
of  bones by means of dentiform  margins, as in the
hones of tlie cranium.  See  Temporal, sphenoidal, zy-
gomatic, transverse, coronal, lambdoidal, and sairittal
sutures.
  3. In botany, it is applied  to  lhat part of a capsule
which is a kind of furroxv on ihe external surface  in
which the valves are united. See Capsula.
  SWALLOW-WORT. See Asclepias vincetoxicum.
  SWAMMERDAM, John, xvas born at Amsterdam
in 1637, and displayed an early  predilection for natural
history, particularly  entomology.  At Leyden, where
he studied physic, he xx as distinguished by his skill and
assiduity in  anatomical experiments and  the art  of
making preparations;  nnd on taking his degree  there
in 1667, he published a thes'3 on Respiration.  At this
lime he began to practise his invention of injecting the
vessels with ceraceous matter, from which  anatomy
has derived very important advantages.  In the dissec
tion of insects, he xvas singularly dexterous by the aid
of  instrunienis of his own invention.   Tlie Grand
Duke of Tuscany invited  him about this period  to
Florence on very liberal ternis,  but he declined the offer
from aversion to a court-life, and to any religious re
straints.  In 1669 he published  in his native  language
" A General History of Insects,"  afterward  reprinted
and translated Into French  and Latin, the latter xvitii
sjilcndid figures.  In 1672 another xvork appeared, en-
titled " Miraculum Naturae," detailing ihe structure  of
the uterus;  of which there xvere  many  subsequent
editions.  By intense application he became hypochnn 
SYD
SYL
Macatl and infatuated mysticism, so as to abandon all
his scientific pursuits; and his constitution was worn
out by his mortifications, so that he died ia 1680.  Se-
veral of liis papers,  which came long after into the
hands of Boerhaave,  were published uader ihe title of
" Biblia Naturae;" iu xvhich the history of bees is par-
ticularly esteemed.
  SWEAT. See Perspiration.
  Sweet flag.  See Acorus calamus.
  Sweet marjoram.  See Origanum marjorana.
  Sweet navem.  See  Brassica rapa.
  Sweet rush.   See Andropogon scananthus, and Aco-
rus calamus.
  Sweet sultan.  Tlie Centaurea moschata,
  Sweet willow.  See Myrica gale.
  SWIETEN,  Gsrard Van, xvas  bom at Leyden, in
1700.  From the loss of both lus parents, his early edu-
cation is said to have been somewhat neglected; but
being sent at sixteen to tne university of Louvain, be
soon distinguished himself by his superior attainments.
He then returned to his native place, aud became a fa-
vourite pupil of the illustrious Boerhaave; and  after
studying seveu  years, took the degree of doctor in
17:25; and so much  had be profited by the instruction
of that great master, as well as by his own unwearied
researches, that he ix as immediately appointed  to a
medical professorship, xxbich  he occupied for many
years with great reputation.  At length, however, his
success excited envy, and there being a law, wliich pro-
hibited these not professing the religion of tiie State
from  holdiag auy public appointment, Van  Swieten,
being a Roman Catholic,  was  obliged to resign Ills
chair  He devoted the leisure  thus acquired to tlie
composition  of  his excellent  Commentaries  on  the
Aphorisms of Boerhaax-e: and while  engaged in  this
xvork, he was invited by the Empress Maria  Theresa
to settle at Vienna, which be accepted in  the  year
1745, afler stipulating, that he should be  allowed to
folloxv his usual mode of life,  xvhich was not  well
adapted for a court.  The intellectual and moral en-
dowments  of this physician qualified him  in every
respect for conducting tbe medical  school  at  Vienna;
and that science in Germany was ultimately essentially
benefitted by his exertions. He executed, during eight
•years, tlie office of professor xvith singular zeal;  and
having  obtained the  full confidence of his royal mis-
tress, he was enabled  to reform many abuses,  and pro-
cure great advantages for the study of medicine iu that
city.  His extensive erudition  gained  him the farther
honour of being intrusted wilh the interests of learn-
ing in general in the Austrian dominions;  lie was ap-
pointed Imperial Librarian, President of the Censor-
ship of Bonks,  tec.; and also created a Baron of the
Empire.  He was likewise voluntarily enrolled in the
list  of almost all the distinguished literary societies of
Europe.  The inflexibility of his character led him to
maintain a long opposition to small-pox inoculation.
He  died in 1772, and a statue xvas erected  to  his me-
mory by the Empress at Vienna.  His commentaries
will always maintain their reputation, from the  im-
mense number of facts, well selected and well arranged,
and the judicious summary of ancient and  modern
medical knowledge whicli they contain.  He also pub-
lished another useful work on tlie Diseases which pre-
vail in Armies.
  SWIETEMA.  (Named after Van Swieten.)  The
nanieof a genus of plants.  Class, Decandria; Order,
Monogynia.
  Swietenia mahagoni.  The systematic name ofthe
mahogany-tree.  The bark of tlie wood of this tree is
of a  red colour internally; has an astringent bitter
taste;  and yields its  active matter  to waler.  It  has
been prepared as a substitute for Peruvian bark, and
has been used as such with advantage.  Dose, half a
drachm.
  SWINE-POX. See Varicella.
  SWINESTONE.   A variety of compact lueullite, a
subspecies of limestone.
  SWINGING.  See^Eora.
  Sword-shaped.  See Lanceolatus.
  SYCO'MA.  (From otmj, a fig.)   Sycosis.  A wart
or excrescence resembling a fig on the eyelid, about the
anus, or any other part.
  SYDENHAM, Thomas, was born  at Winford-Ea-
gle, in Dorsetshire, about the year  lfrM.  He was en-
tered at Oxford ; but during the civil  war, when that
city was occupied by tiie royal party, he retired to
 London.  On this occasion, the illness of his brtilnet
 brought him acquainted with Dr. C'oxe, an ennnenl
 physician, xvho, finding Sydenham undecided as to the
 choice ol" his profession, persuaded him to study medl
 cine on his return to Oxford.   Accordingly, in 1648,
 he took the degree of bachelor of physic, and about the
 same period obtained a felloivship;  then pursuing hii
 studies a  few years longer,  he procured a  doctor's
 degree from Cambridge, and  settled as a physician in
 Westminster.   The extensive practice xvliich he is said
 to have enjoyed from 1660 to 1670, must be chiefly ns
 cribed to the superior success  of the means  employed
 by him, xvhich, being so different from those previously
 in use,  became mine readily a matter of notoriety;
I for, after the Restoration,  his connexions could have
[contributed little  to his advancement.  He appears,to
 have paid little  attention  lo the prevailing medical
 doctrines, being early persuaded tliat the only mode of
 acquiring a coriect knoxvledgeof his art xvas to observe
 diligently the progress of diseases, xvhence tlie natural
! mdicutions of cure might be derived; in xvhich opinion
I be had Ihe sanction of the celebrated Mr. Locke.  It
I xvas lo  febrile diseases  that  he first applied this in-
 ductive method, and it cost him several years of anx-
! ious attention to satisfy himself as to Ihe proper mode
 of treating them:  the result of which lie published iu
 1660, under  the title of " Methodus  curaudi  Febres,"
 and again, nine years after, with additional remarks,
 suggested by subsequent experience.   His writings are
 not  altogether  free from  hypothesis; bul  he seems to
 have been little influenced by these in his practice; and
 by closely  observinc the  operations of nature, and the
 effects of remedies,  he was enabled  to introduce very
 essential  improvements.  In  small-pox especially, by
 checking the eruptive fever by means of cool air, and
 other antiphlogistic  means, he ascertained  that  the
 eruption and  consequent danger xvere greatly dimi
 nislied; which plan applies likexvise lo other eruptive
 and febrile diseases, as has been since determined by ge-
 neral experience.   His sagacity xvas  also manifested in
 the correct histories which he has left of some diseases, as
 particularly small-pox, measles, gout, and hysteria.  lie
 xvas likexvise very attentive to the varieties occurring,
 especially  in febrile disorders at different seasons, or in
 different years; and xvas led to suppose ihese connected
 wilh a particular constitution  of the air.   lie  had been
 subject, for  above thirty  years, to gout, and  stone in
 the  kidney,  xvliich  impaired  his constitution,  and at
 last terminated his  life  in  1689.  After his  death, a
 manual of practice, composed for his son,  was  pub-
 lished under the title of " Processus Integti in Morbis
 fere  omnibus curandis."   Sydenham  ever maintained
 the  character of a generous aud public-spirited man;
 he conducted  himself without that arrogance which
 loo often accompanies original talent; and he has been
 universally acknowledged the first physician of his age.
 The numerous editions  of his works, both singly and
 collectively,  in almost every  country of Europe, tlie
 deference paid to his authority, and the commendations
 bestowed  upon him by almost  all  practical writers
 since, amply prove the solidity of his title to the high
 reputation attached to ids name.  The college of phy-
 sicians, though he  was  only late in life admitted  a
 licentiate,  have subsequently  placed his bust in their
 hall, near that of Harvey.
   Sv'lphium.   Assafieiida is so termed by some xvri-
 teti.  See  Ferula assnfalida.
   SYLVAN1TE.   Native tellurium.
   Sylvius, digestive salt of.   The muriate of pAtassa.
   SY'LVIUS, Francis db  lb Boe, xvas bom at Ha
 nau, in 1614.   He took his degree at Basle,  and then
 visited, for improvement, some  of the chief  universi-
 ties  in France and  Germany.  He settled first at ins
 native place, but removed to Amsterdam, ivliere he en-
 joyed a high reputation for several  years, fit he ivtue
 called lo Leyden, in 1658, to assume the office  of fnsl
 professor of  medicine.  He soon drew together, by In*
 genius and eloquence, a numerous audii-nce  from all
 parts of Europe.  He was one of the earliest advoeaie*
 for Harvey's doctrine of the circulation of ihe blood
 and chiefly effected its reception into that school.  But,
 on the oilier hand, lie materially retarded the progress
 of medicine  by a fanciful  hypothesis, wliich attracted
 much notice, referring all diseases to chemical changes
 producing an excess of acid, or  of alkali.  His works
 were chiefly controversial tracts, in which  he defended
 bis peculiar notions.  He died in 1672.
                                         32S 
SYM                                            SYM
   fciLvius Jambs du Bois,  was born  at Amiens, in
 1478.   Having chosen the  profession  of physic,  he
 slud'ed diligently the writings of the ancients, espe-
 cially Hippocrates and Galen, and was  no less assi-
 duous in  the pursuit of other branches of medicine,
 particularly anatomy, pharmacy, and botany.  Before
 taking a degiee, he undertook a private course of lec-
 tures at Paris, in which he  so distinguished himself,
 that in txvo years he collected a crowd of pupils from
 various parts of Europe; but the jealousy of the Pa-
 risian physicians obliged him to  go to  Montpelier,  in
 1520, for the purpose of graduation.   His extreme par-
 simony, however, would not permit the necessary ex-
 penses ; and lie was at last successful in compromising
 his differences xvith the  Parisian faculty.  He subse-
 quently continued his lectures with very great success;
 and in 1550 he was appointed professor of medicine at
 the royal  college; but his dealh occurred five  years
 afterward.  His xvorks were popular during the reign
 of the old  school, but are now obsolete.   As an anato-
 mist, he  merits great praise, having made various dis-
 coveries, notwithstanding the fexv opportunities he had
 of human  dissection.  He xvrote with  great violence
 against Vesalius, his pupil, because he had  presumed
 to correct Galen.
   SYMBLE'PHARUM.  (From ovv, with, and pXtcba-
 pov, the eyelid.)   A  concretion of  the eyelid to the
 globe of the eye.  This  chiefly happens in  the supe-
 rior,  but  very rarely  in tlie inferior palpebra.   The
 causes of this concretion are a bad conformation of
 the parts, or from ulcers of the cornea, the membrana
 conjunctiva, or internal superficies of the palpebrae,  or
 imprudent scarifications, or burns, especially if the eye
 remains long closed.   There are txvo species, the par-
 tial, or total; in the former, the adhesion is partial,  in
 the latter,  the membrana conjunctiva and cornea are
 concreted to the eyelid together.
   Sy'mbole.  (From avpSaXXu, to  knit together.)  It
 Is said cither of the fitness of parts xvitii one another,
 or of the consent betxveen them by the intermediation
 of nerves,  and the like.
   SYMBOLO'GIA.   (From  cvp6vXov, a sign, and
 Xoyos, a discourse.)  The  doctrine  of  the signs and
 symptoms  of disease.
   SYMMETRY.  The exact and beautiful proportion
 of parts to one another.
   SYMPATHETIC.   Sympathetica.
   1. Relating to sympathy.
   2. See Intercostal nerve.
   Sympathetic nerve.   See Intercostal nerve.
   SYMPATHY.   (Sympathia;  from  <riu«ra<rx(i>, to
 suffer together, to sympathize.)  All  the body is sym-
 pathetically connected together, and dependent, the
 one part upon the rest, constituting a general sympathy.
 But sometimes xve find particular parts more intimately
 dependent  upon each  otlier than  upon the rest of the
 body, constituting a particular sympathy.  Action can-
 not be greatly increased in any one organ, without be-
 ing diminished in some other;  but certain parts are
 more  apt to be affected by the derangement of particu-
 lar organs than others; and it was the observance of
 this fact xvhicli gave foundation  to  the old and well
 knoxvn doctrine of sympathy, xvhich  was said to pro-
 ceed "turn ob  communionem et similitudincm generis,
 turn ob viciniam."  It may be thought that tins  posi-
 tion of action being diminished in' one  organ, by its
 increase, either in the rest or  in some  otlier part,  is
contradicted by the  existence of general  diseases or
actions affecting the whole system.   But in them xve
find, iu the first place, that there is alxvays some part
more  affected  than the rest.  This  local  affection is
sometimes the first symptom, and affects the constitu-
tion in a secondary way, either by the irritation wiiich
it produces, or by an extension  of the specific action.
At olher  times  the local  affection is coeval xvilh the
general disease, and is called sympathetic.  It is ob-
served, in the second place, that as tliere is some part
xvhicli is always more affected than the reel, so also is
there some  organ which has its action, in consequence
of this, diminished lower than that of the  rest of the
system,  and most commonly lower  than  its natural
standard.   From  the  extensive sympathy  of the sto-
mach  xvith  almost every part of the body, xve find that
this most frequently suffers, and has its action  dimi-
nlslu i in every disease, xvhether general or local, pro-
vided  lhat the diseased action arises  to any consider-
able deeree. There are also other organs xvhich may, |
      320
 in like manner, suffer from their association or con
 nexion with others which become diseased.   Thus, foi
 instance, we see,  in the general disease called puerpe-
 ral fever, that the action of the breasts is diminished
 by the increased inflammatory action of the uterus.
   in consequence of this balance of action, or general
 connexion of the system, a sudden pain, consequent to
 violent action of any particular part, will so weaken
 the rest as to produce fainting, and occasionally death.
 But this dependence appears more evidently in wha-.
 may be called the smaller systems of the body, or those
 parts xvliich seem to be more intimately connected witl
 each other than they are xvith the general system.  Of
 this kind is the connexion of the breasts with the ute-
 rus of  the female; of the  urethra with  the testicles of
 the male ; of the stomacli xvith the liver; and of  ihe
 intestines wilh the stomacli, nnd of this again with  the
 brain; ofthe one extremity ofthe bone wilh the other;
 and of the body of the muscle with its insertion ; of
 the skin with the parts below it.
   These smaller systems, or circles, shall be  treated
 regularly; but first it may be proper to observe, that
 these  are not only intimately connected with them-
 selves, but also xvith the general system, a  universal
 sympathy being thus established.
   That there is a very intimate connexion betxveen the
 brc.-istsand uterus has been long knoxvn  ; but it has not
 been very satisfactqrily explained.  Fallopius, and  all
 the other authors, declare plainly  that the  sympathy
 is  produced by an anastomosis of vessels;  Bartholin
 adding lhat the child being born, the  blood  no longer
 goes  to the uterus, but is directed to the breasts and
 changed into milk.  But none of all those who talk of
 this derivation, assign any reasonable cause which may
 produce it.
   In pregnancy, and at the menstrual periods, the ute
 rus is active; but, xvhen the  child  is delivered, the  ac-
 tion of the uterus subsides, while the breasts in theii
 turn become active, and secrete milk.
   If, at this time, we should  again produce  action in
 the uterus, xve diminish that  of ihe breasts, and destroy
 the secretion of milk, as is xvell illustrated by the case
 of inflammation of the uterus, xvhich is incident to
 lying-in xvomen.   When the uterus, at tlie cessation 01
 the menses, ceases to be active, or to secrete, we often
 find that the breasts have  an  action excited  in them
 becoming slowly inflamed, and assuming a cuncero-ja
 disposition.  The uterus and breasts seem to be a  set
 of glands balancing each olher in the system, one only
 being naturally active, or secretin:; properly,  at a time;
 and accordingly we seldom, if ever, find that when the
 uterus  yields the menstrual discharge, the milk is  se-
 creted in perfection, during the continuance of this dis-
 charge, nor do xve ever find them both inflamed al tlie
 same time.
  The  uterus has not only  this connexion  xvith the
 breasts, but it has also a very  particular sympathy xvith
 the stomach, xvhich again  sympathizes xvith the brain;
 and thus xve see hoxv a disorder of the uterus mny in-
 duce an extensive series of affections, each dependent
 on  the other.
  The organs of generation in the male  form likewise
 a little system, iti xvhich all the parts exhibit this sym
 pathy xvith each other.  They likewise give us a very
 good instance of the association of action, or sympa
 thy, in  the common acceptation of that word.
  Sympathy is divided into,  first,  the  sympathy of
 equilibrium, in xvhich one part is xveakened by  the in
 creased action of another; and, secondly, the sympa-
 thy of association, in wliich two parts act together al
 the same time.
  The sympathy of association is produced sudden.?
 and for  n short time.   The sympathy of  equilibrium is
 produced more slowly, and continues to operate for a
 much longer time.
  It is curious enough, that most, or at least many, of
 those organs, xvhich seem to be connected by the sym
 pathy of equilibrium, exhibit  likexvise more or less ol
 the sympathy of nssociation, when under the circum-
stances  in which this can take place.
  The sympathy of equilibrium is seen in the effects
of inflammation of the end of the urethra on the tes-
ticle ;  xvliich often diminishes  its action, and produces
a very disagreeable sensation  of dulness, or, if this in
flammntion be suddenly diminished, the action of the
testicle  is as suddenly increased,  and swelling takes
plate.   The  same  is seen iu the cunnexiou of the 
                       SYM

 urethra with ilia bladder and prostate gland, as is men-
 tioned In all the  dissertations on gonorrhoea.  These
 parts likexvise affect the stomach greatly, increased ac-
 tion in them  weakening that  organ much.   This is
 seen in the effects of sxvelled testicle, or excessive ve-
 nery, or inflamed  bladder, and  in a stone; all xvhich
 xveaken  the  stomacli, and  pioduce dyspepsia.  The
 same remark applies to the kidney; vomiting and flatu-
 lence being produced by nephritis.
   The sympathy of association, or an instance of sym-
 pathy in the common acceptation of tlie word, is like-
 wise seen in the connexion betxveen  the glans and tes-
 ticles in coition; but for this purpose, the action in the
 glans must be sudden, and  of short duration; for, if
 continued long, xveakness of tlie testicles, or diminished
 action, is  induced.  In those parts wliich exhibit this
 natural association of action, if the action of one part
 be suddenly and for a short time increased, the action
 ofthe sympathizing part will  likexvise be increased;
 as xve see in the instance already given of coition, and
 likewise in paroxysms of the stone, iu xvhicli the glans
 penis, after making water, becomes very painful.
   But if the action be more  slowly induced, and con-
 tinued  for a  long  time, then  this association is set
 aside, by a stronger and more general principle of the
 equilibrium of action, and the sympathizing part is
 weakened. Hence violent inflammation ofthe end of
 the urethra produces a xveakness and irritability ofthe
 bladder, dulness of the testicle, &c.
   There is also an evident sympathy of equilibrium
 betxveen the stomach and  loxver tract of intestines;
 xvhich two portions may be said in general to balance
 each other in tbe abdomen.  When  the action of the
 intestines is increased in diarrhoea, the stomach is often
 weakened, and the patient  tormented with nausea.
 This will  be cured, not  so easily by medicines taken
 into  the stomach, as by anodyne clysters, xvhich xvill
 abate the  action of the  intestines.  When  the intes-
 tines are inflamed, as in strangulated  hernia, vomiting
 is a never-failing attendant.
   When again the stomach is inflamed, the intestines
 are affected,  and  obstinate  costiveness  takes  place;
 even in  hysterical affections of the stomach, the intes-
 tines arc often deranged.  Injections  of cold water fre-
 quently relieve these affections ofthe stomach, by their
 action on the intestines.
   The liver and stomach are also connected with one
 another.   When the liver is inflamed, or has its action
 increased, the  stomach  is weakened, and  dyspeptic
 symptoms take place.  When the stomach  is xveak-
 cned, as, for instance, by intoxication, then the action
 of the liver is  increased, and a greater quantity than
 usual of bile  is secreted.  The  same takes place in
 warm climates, where the stomach is  much debilitated.
  If the liver has its action thus frequently increased,
 it assumes a species of inflammation, or becomes, as
 it  is called, scirrhous.  This  is exemplified in the ha-
 bitual dram-drinkers, and in those xvho stay long in
 warm countries, and use freedoms with the  stomach.
 The liver  likexvise sympathizes xvith the brain;  for
 when this organ is injured, and  its action  much im-
 paired, as in compression, inflammation and suppura-
 tion have been often known to take place in  the liver.
  Besides this connexion of the stomach with the liver,
 it is also very intimately dependent on the brain, being
 weakened when the action of the brain is increased;
 as we sec in  an inflammation  of that orpan.  The
 brain again is affected with pain when the stomach is
 weakened by intoxication or other  causes;  and this
 pain will be often relieved by slowly renexving the ac-
 tion of the stomach by such stimuli as are natural to
 it, such as small quantities of soup frequently repeated.
 A  slight increase of action in the stomach, at least if
 not of a morbid kind, affects the brain so as to produce
 sleep, diminishing  its  action.   This xve see in the
 effects of a full meal, and even of a draught of xvarm
 water.  The stomach  likewise sympathizes xvith the
 throat, squeamishness and  anorexia  being often pro-
 duced by inflammation of the  tonsils.  This  inflam-
 mation is frequently abated by restoring or increasing
 the action of the stomach.  Hence the throat, in slight
 inflammation, is frequently easier after dinner; hence,
likexvise, the effects of emetics in cynanche.
 The extremities  of bones and muscles also sympa-
thize in the same manner.  When one end of a bone
is  inflamed, the action  of the  other is lessened, and
prin is produced; for a painful sensation may result
                     SYM

 both  from Increased and diminished action.  When
 the tendon of a muscle is inflamed, the body of that
 muscle often is pained, and vice versa.
   Lasily. the external skin sympathizes xvith the parts
 beloxv it.' If it be inflamed, as in erysipelas, the parts
 immediately beneath are xveakened, or have their na-
 tural action diminished.   If this  inflammation  aflcct
 the face, or scalp, then the brain is injured;  and head-
 ache,  stupor, or deliiium supeivene.  If it  attack
 the skin  of the abdomen, then the  abdominal viscera
 are affected, and xve have vomiting and purging, or ob-
 stinate costiveness, according to circumstances.  This
 is illustrated by the disease of children, xvhich is called
 by the xvomen'thc bnxvel-hive, in which the skin is in-
 flamed, as they suppose, from some morbid  mailer
 xvithin.
   If the  internal parts be inflamed, the action of the
 surface is diminished, and, by increasing this  action,
 xve can lessen or remove the disease beloxv ; as xve see
 daily proved by the good effects of blisters.  When
 the stomach, intestines, or kidney have been very irri-
 table, a sinapism has been knoxvn to. act like a charm;
 and in the deep-seated inflammations of the breasts,
 boxvels, or joints, no better remedy is known, after the
 use of the lancet, than blisters.
  The utility of issues in diseases  of the  lungs, the
 liver, and the joints, is to be explained on the same
 principle. In these  cases xve find that issues do liltle
 good  unless they he somewhat painful, or be iu  the
 state of healthy ulcers. An indolent flabby sote, lioxv-
 ever large the discharge (.xvliich  is alxvays thin, and
 accompanied xvitii  little action), does no good, hut only
 adds to the misery of the patient.  We may, however,
 err on the other hand, by making the issues too painful,
 or by  keeping them active too long; for after they
 have removed  the  inflammatory  disease beloxv, they
 will still  operate on  these parts, lessening their action
 and preventing the healing process from going on pro-
 perly.  This is seen in cases of curvature of the spine,
 where, at first, the inflammation of tlie vertebra is di
 minished by the issues; but if they be kept long open
 after this is removed, they do harm.  We often see the
 patient recover rapidly after his surgeonAas healed the
 issue in  despair, judging that  it could do no faiths:
 service, hut only increase the xveakness of his patient.
  It is a well-established  fact, that when any particu-
 lar action disappears suddenly from a part, it xvill often
 speedily  affect  that organ which sympathizes most
 xvith  the part that xvas  originally diseased.  This is
 best seen in the inflammatory action, xvhich, as practi-
 cal xvriters have xvell observed, occasionally disappears
 quickly from the part first affected, and  then  shows
 itself in some other.
  From the united  testimony  of  all these facts, Mr.
 Burns, of Glasgow,  maintains the doctrine just deli-
 vered, and proposes to introduce  it into  pathological
 reasonings.  In the whole of the animal economy, we
 discover marks of the xvisdom of the Creator, but per-
 haps in no part of it more than in this, of the existence
 of the sympathy of equilibrium;  for, if a laige  part
 of the system were to have its action much increased,
 and all the other parts to continue acting  in the same
 proportionate degree as formerly, the whole must be
soon exhausted;  (for increased actum would  require
 for its support an increased quantity of energy.)
  But  upon  this principle, xvhen  action is much in-
creased in one part, it is lo a certain degree diminished
 in some other, the general sum or degree of action iu
 the body  is thus less than it otherwise xvould be, and
 consequently the system suffers les3.
  SY'MPHYSIS.  (From cvv, together, and <bvu, lo
 grow.)  Mediate connexion.   A  genus of the con-
 nexion of bones, in xvhich they are united  by  means
 of an intervening body.   It comprehends four species.
 viz. synchondrosis,  syssarcosis, syneurosis, and syn'
 desmosis.
  SY'MPHYTUM.   (From  ovpcbvu, to unite:  so
called because it is supposed to unite and close the lips
of wounds together.)
  I. The name of a  genus of plants in the Linnaean
system.  Class,  Pentandria.; Order, Monogynia.
  2. The  pharniacopoeial name of the comfrey   See
Symphytum officinale.
  Symphytum maculosum.  See Pulmonaria offici
nalis.
  Symphytum minus.  See Prunella.
  Symphytum officinal*.  The systematic name of
                                        397 
SYN                                               SYS
the comfrey.   Consolida major.  This plant, Symphy
turn—foliis-ovatis lanceolatis decurrenlibus, is admi-
nistered where the althaea cannot be obtained, its roots
abounding with a viscid glutinous juice, whose virtues
are similar to tliose of the althaea.
  Symphytum fbtrccm.  See Coris monspeliensis.
  Syna'nche.  See Cynanchc.
  Syna'nchica.   (From  avvayxv,  the  quinsey:  so
called from its uses in that disease.)   liuinseyxvort.
  SYNARTHROSIS. (Fromcvv,together,andap0pov,
a joint)   Immoveable connexion.   A genus of con-
nexion of bones, in which they are united together  by
an immoveable union.  It has three species, viz. suture,
harmony, and gomphosis.
  S YNASTOMO'SIS.  This is used in the same sense
as Anastomosis.
  SYNCHONDROSIS. (From ovv, with, and xovipos,
a cartilage.)   A species of symphysis,  in which one
bone is united with another by means of an  interven-
ing cartilage;  as the vertebrae and  the  bones of the
pubes.
  SYNCHONDROTOMIA. (From ovvxovipuois,the
symphysis of the pubes, and repvu, to cut.) Tiie opera-
tion of dividing the symphysis ofthe pubes.
  SY'NCHYSUS.  (From avyxvu,  to confound.)   A
solution nf the vitreous humour into a fine attenuated
aqueous fluid. In Cullen's Nosology, it is a variety of
his  species caligo pupilla.
  Synci'pitis  ossa.  See Parietal bones.
  SY'NCIPUT.    (Synciput vel  sinciput,  itis.  n.)
The forepart ofthe head or cranium.
  SY'NCOPE.   (From any,  with, and xoir^u, to cut,
or strike doxvn.)  Animi deliquium; Lcipothymia;
Defeclio animi ;  Dissolulio ; Exanimatio; Asphyxia;
Virium  lapsus;   Apopsychia; Apsychia;  Eechysis.
Painting or sxvooning.  A genus of disease in tiie Class
Neuroses, and Order Adynamia, of  Cullen,  in  whicli
the respiration and action of  the heart either cease, or
become much weaker than  usual, with  paleness and
coldness, arising fiom diminished energy  of the brain,
or from organic aflections Of  the heart.  Species: 1.
Syncope cardiaca, the cardiac syncope, arising without
a visible cau^,  and with violent  palpitation of the
heart, duringwie intervals, ana depending generally on
some  organic  affection of the heart or  neighbouring
vessels.
  2. Syncope occasionalis, the exciting  cause  being
manifest.
  The disease is sometimes preceded  by anxiety about
the praecordia, a sense of fulness ascending  from the
stomach towards the head, vertigo or confusion of ideas,
dimness of sight, and coldness of ihe  extremities.  The
attacks are frequently attended with, or end  in, vomit-
ing, and sometimes in epileptic or other convulsions.
The causes  are  sudden and violent emotions of the
mind, pungent or disagreeable odours, derangement of
.the prima; viae, debility from preceding disorders, loss
of blood spontaneous or artificial, the operation of para-
centesis, &.c.   During the paroxysm the nostrils are to
be stimulated with seme of ihe preparations of ammo-
nia, or these may be  exhibited internally, if the patient
is capable of swallowing ; but when the disease has
originated from large loss of blood, such stimulants must
be used cautiously.  When it is connected with a dis-
ordered state ofthe stomach, if an emetic can be given,
or vomiting excited by irritating the fauces, it will pro-
>ably afford relief. Sometimes sprinkling the face xvith
cold water will  recover Ihe patient.   And when there
is reason for  supposing  an  accumulation about  the
heart, the disease not having  arisen from debilitating
causes, a moderate abstraction of blood  may be made
with propriety.  Between tbe fits we should endeavour
to strengthen  the constitution, where debility appears
concerned in producing them, and the several exciting
causes must be  carefully guarded   against.   When
organic affections of the heart, and parts connected
xvith  it, exist, all that can be done is, to palliate  the
attacks of fainting;  unless the primary disease can  be
removed, which  is extremely rare.
  Syncope anoinosa.  See  Angina  pectoris.
  SYNDESMOLO'GIA. (From ovvitapos, a ligament,
and Xoyos, a discourse.) The doctrine ofthe ligaments.
  Syndesmo-pharynokus.  See Constrictor pharyn-
gis medius.
  SYNDESMOSIS. (From ovvitapos, a ligament.)
That species of symphysis  or mediate connexion  of
      l!-io
bones in which they are united  by ligament, a.*, tin
radius with the ulna.
  SYNDE'SMUS.  (From cvvitu, to bind together.)
A ligament.
  SYNE'CHIA.  'Ztvtxta.  A concretion of the iris
xvith the cornea, or xvith the capsule of the crysulline
lens.  The proximate cause is adhesion of these parts,
the consequence of inflammation.  The remote causes
are, a collapse of the cornea, a prolapse of the iris, a
swelling or tumefied cataract, hypopium, or original
formation. The species of this disorder are,
  1.  Synechia anterior totalis, or a concretion of the
iris xvith the cornea.  This species  is known by in-
specting the parts. The pupil in this species is dilated
or coarctated, or it is found concreted; from whence
various lesions of vision.
  2.  Synechia anterior partialis, when only some part
of the iris is accreted.  This concretion is observed in
one or many  places;  from hence the pupil is variously
disfigured, and an inordinate motion ofthe pupil is per-
ceived.
  3.  Synechia anterior composita, when not only the
whole iris, but also a prolapse of the crystalline lens,
unites with the cornea.
  4.  Synechia posterior totalis, or a  concretion of the
whole uvea, with the ciliary processes and the capsule
ofthe crystalline lens.
  5.  Synechia posterior partialis, xvhen Oldy some part
ofthe capsule of the crystalline lens  is concreted with
the uvea  and cornea.  This accretion is simplex, du-
plex, triplex, or in many places.
  6.  Synechia complicata, xvitii au amaurosis, cataract
mydriasis, myosis, or synizesis.
  SYNEURO'SIS.   (From ovv,  wilh, and  vtvpov,  a
nerve, because the ancients included membranes, liga-
ments, and tendons under the head of nerves.)  A spe-
cies of symphysis, in which one bone is united to an-
other by means of an intervening membrane.
  SYNGENESIA.   (From ovv, together, and ytvton,
generation.)    The name of a class  of plants, in the
sexual system of Linnaeus, consisting of plants in xvhich
the antheis are united into a tube, the filaments on whicli
they are supported being mostly separate and distinct.
The flowers are compound.
  SYNIZE'SIS.  A  perfect concretion and coarctation
of the pupil.   It is knoxvn by the absence of the pupil,
and a total loss of vision.  The species are,
  1.  Synizesis nativa, with xvhich infants arc  some-
times bom.   In this case, by an error of the  first con-
formation of the pupil, there Is no  perforation; it  in
very rarely found.
  2.  Synizesis accidentalis, a concretion of the pupil,
from an inflammation or exulceration of the uvea or
iris, or  from  a defect of the aqueous or vitreous hu
mour.
  3.  Synizesis, from a secession of ihe iris or cornea.
From whatever cause it may happen, the effect is oer-
tain, for the  pupil contracts its diameter; the Iongitu
dinal fibres,  separated fiom the circle of the cornea,
cannot resist  the orbicular fibres:  from hence the pupil
is xvholly or partially contracted.
  4.  Synizesis complicata, or lhat xvhich is complicated
with an amaurosis, synechia, or other occular disease.
Tlie  amaurosis, or gutta serena. is knoxvn hy the tola
absence of light to the retina.  We can distinguish this
not only by the pupil being closed, but likexvise the eye-
lids ;  for whether the eyelids be open or  shut, all  is
darkness to the patient.  The otlier complicated cases
are knoxvn by viewing tlie eye,  and considering tie*
parts anatomically.
  5.  Synizesis spuria, is a closing of the pupil by mil
cus, pus, or grumous blood.
  SYNOCHA.   (From  ovvtxu, to continue.)  Febris
synocha.  Inflammatory fever. A species of continued
fever, characterized by increased heat; pulse frequent
strong, hard;  urine high-coloured; senses not impaired!
This fever is so named from  its being attended with
symptoms denoting general inflammation in the system
by which we shall alxvays be able readily to distinguish
it from either the nervous or putrid.  It makes its at
tack at all seasons ofthe year, but is most prevalent in
the spring ; and it seizes persons of all ages and habits!
but more particularly those in the vigour  of life, .with
strong elastic  fibres, and of a plethoric constitution.   Ii
is a species of fever almost peculiar to cold and lempe
rate  climates, being  rarely, f ever, met with iu \-erv 
SYN
SYN
 /arm  ones, except among Europeans lately arrived;
and even then, the inflammatory stage is of very short
(Juration, as it very soon assumes either the nervous or
putrid type.
  The exciting causes are sudden transitions Horn heat
to cold, swallowing cold liquors, xvhen the body is much
heated by exercise, too free a use of vinous and spirit-
uous liquors, great intemperance, violent passions of the
mind,  the sudden suppression of habitual evacuations,
and the sudden repulsion of eruptions. It may be doubt-
ed if this fever ever originates from personal infection;
but it is possible for it to appear as an epidemic among
such as are of a robust  habit,  from a peculiar state of
the atmosphere.  It comes on xvith a sense of lassitude
and inactivity, succeeded by vertigo, rigors,  and pains
over the whole body, but more particularly in the head
and back; which symptoms are  shortly folloxved by
redness ofthe face and eyes, great restlessness, intense
heat, and unquenchable thirst, oppression of breathing,
and nausea.  The skin is dry and parched;  the tongue
is of a scarlet colour at  the sides, and furred with xvhite
in the centre; the urine is red nnd scanty; the body is
costive;  and there is a quickness, xvith a fulness  and
hardness in the pulse, not much affected by any pres-
sure made on the artery.  If the febrde symptoms run
very high, and proper means are not  used at an early
period, stupor und delirium  come on, the imagination
becomes much disturbed and  hurried, and the patient
raves violently.  The disease  usually goes through its
course in about fourteen days, and terminates in a crisis,
either by diaphoresis, diarrhoea, haemorrhage from the
nose, or the deposite of a copious sediment in the urine;
which  crisis is usually  preceded by some variation in
the  pulse.
  Our  judgment as to  the termination of the  disease
must lie formed from  the violence of the attack,  ami
the nature ofthe symptoms.   If the  fever runs high, or
continues many days with stupor or delirium, the event
may be doubtful; but if to these are added,  picking  at
the bed-clothes, starlings of  the tendons, involuntary
discharges by stool and urine, and hiccups, it xvill then
certainly be fatal.  On the contrary,  if the febrile heat
abates, tlie  other symptoms  moderate, and there is a
tendency to a crisis, we may then expect a recovery.
In a few instances, this fever has been  known to ter-
minate in mania.
  On opening those who die of an inflammatory fever,
an effusion is often  perceived within the cranium, and
now and then,  topical affections of some of the viscera
are to  be observed.
  The chief indication in synocha  is to lessen the ex-
cessive vascular  action by  evacuations, and the anti-
phlogistic regimen.   Ofthe former, by far the most im-
portant is blood-letting, xvhich  should be freely prac-
tised in  this disease, making a large orifice into the
vein,  and taking from ten to twenty-four ounces of
blood,  according to the  violence of the symptoms, and
the  strength of the patient.  The disorder may some-
times be cut short at once by this active treatment  in
the beginning; but if it should continue urgent, and the
strength ofthe pulse keep up, the repetition of it  xvithin
more moderate limits will be from time to lime advisa-
ble. Purging is next in efficacy, especially xvith those
articles which produce  copious  serous discharges, and
thoroughly clear out the intestines, as the saline cathar-
tics, with infusion of senna, jalap with supertartrate of
potassa, fcc.   As the disease advances, however, we
must act less on this part, and attempt to promote the
other  discharges, particularly  that  by the  skin: for
which  purpose calomel, antimonials, and the saline
diaphoretics are to be exhibited.   The antiphlogistic
regimen consists  in obviating stimuli of every kind,  so
far  as this can be  done safely;  impressions on the
senses, particularly the sight and  hearing, bodily and
mental exertion, &c. must be guarded against as much
as  possible.  The diet should be of the most sparing
kind;  barley-water,  or other mild liquid,  with some
icid, perhaps, added, or a little nitrate of potassa dis-
solved in it, taken in  small quantities from  time  to
time, chiefly to quench the thirst,  and cool the body,
will be the most proper; strictly interdicting animal
food, fermented liquors, and the like.  The stimulus of
seat must be especially  obviated by light clothing,  or
even exposing the body to the air, ventilating tlie apart-
ment, sprinkling  the floor xvith vinegar and water, Sec.
When the head is much affected, besides the general
.reatment, it will be proper to take  blood locally, have
 the head snaved and cooled by sumo evaporating lotion,
 apply a blister to the neck, and,  perhaps, stimulate tha
 lower extremities.  In like manner, any other organ
 being particularly piessed upon, may require additional
 means, xvhich xx ill be sufficiently understood by advert-
 ing to the several phlegmasia:.
   SY NOCHUS.   (From avvtxu, to continue.)   A
 mixed fever.  A species of  continued  fever,  com
 menciug xvith symplomsof synocha, and terminating in
 typhus; so that synocha and typhus, blended  tngethet
 in a  slight degree, seem to constitute this species oi
 fever, Hue former being apt to preponderate at its com-
 mencement, nnd the latter toxvards its termination.
I   Every thing xvhich lias a tendency to enervate ihe
| body, may be looked upon ns a remote cause of  this
: fever: and accordingly xve find it often arising from
1 great bodily fatigue, too great an indulgence in sensual
 pleasures,  violent exertion, intemperance in drinking,
 and errors in diet, and noxv and then likewise from the
 suppression of some long-accustomed discharge.   Cer-
 tain  passions of Hie mind (such as grief, fear, anxiety,
 and joy,) have  been enumerated among the causes of
 fever, and in a fexv instances, it  is probable, they may
 have given  rise to it;  but  the concurrence of some
 otiicr powers seems generally necessary  to produce this
 effect  The most usual  and universal cause of  tiiis
 fever is the application of cold lo the  body; and its
 morbid effect sseom to depend partly upon certain  cir-
 cumstances of the cold itself, and  partly upon certain
 circumstances ofthe person lo whom it  is applied.
   The circumstances wiiich seem  to give Ihe applica-
 tion of cold  due effect, are its degree of intensity, the
 length of time xvhich it is  applied;  its being applied
 generally, or only iu a current of air, its having a degree
 of moisture accompanying it, and its being a consider-
 able  or sudden change from heat to cold.   The circum-
 stances of persons rendering them more liable  to be
 affected by cold, seem to be debility, induced eitlier by
I great fatigue, or  vio'ent exertions, by long fasting, by
! the xvant  of natural rest, by severe evacuations, by
 preceding  disease, by errors in  diet, by intemperance
 in drinking, by  great sensuality, by too  close an appli-
 cation to study, or giving xvay to grief, fear,  or great
 anxiety, by depriving the body of part of ils accustomed
 clothing, by exposing any one  particular part of It,
 while the rest is kept  of its usual warmth, or by ex-
 posing it generally or suddenly  to cold when heated
 much beyond its usual temperature; these we may,
 therefore, look upon as so many causes giving an effect
 to cold xvhich il otherwise  might not have produced.
 Another frequent cause of fever seems to be breathing
 air contaminated by the vapours arising either directly
 or originally from the body of a person labouring under
 the disease.  A  peculiar matter is supposed to generate
 in the body of a person affected with fever, and  this
 floating in the  atmosphere, and being  applied to  one
 in health, xvill no doubt often cause fever to take place
 in him, which has induced many to suppose, that  this
 infectious  matter is produced in all fevers  whatever,
 and that they are all, more or less, contagious.
   The effluvia  arising from the human body, if long
 confined to one place  xvithout  being diffused in  the
 atmosphere, xvill, it is  xvell knoxvn, acquire  a singulai
 virulence,  and xvill, if  applied to  the bodies  of men
 become the cause of fever.  Exhalations, arising fiom
 animal or vegetable substances in a state of putrefac
 tion, have been looked upon ns another general cause
 of fever: marshy or moist grounds, acted upon by heat
 for any length of time, usually send forth exhalations
 which prove a  never-failing source of fever, but more
 particularly in  warm  climates.   Various hypotheses
 have been'maintained, with respect  to  the  proximate
 cause of fever; some  supposing it  to be a  lentor or
 viscidity prevailing in the mass of blood, and stagnating
 in the extreme vessels ; others, that it is a noxious mat-
 ter introduced into, or generated in, the body, and that
 the increased action  of tlie heart and arteries is an
 effort of nature to expel the morbific matter; others.
 lhat  it consisted in an increased secretion of bile;  am!
 others again, that it is to be attributed to a spasmodic
. constriction ofthe extreme vessels on the surface ofthe
I body; which last was tlie doctrine taught by the  lale
 Dr. Cullen.
   An attack of this fever is generally  marked by tht
 patient's being  seized  with  a considerable degree of
 languor, or sense of debility, together xvith a sluggish-
 ness in motion, and frequent yawning and stretching
                                         32S 
SYN
SYP
 du face and extremities at the same time become pale,
 and the skin over the whole surface of the body ap-
 pears constricted;  he then  perceives a  sensation  of
 cold in  his back, passing from thence over his whole
 frame; and this sense of cold continuing to increase,
 tremors in the limbs and rigors of the body succeed.
   With these there is a loss of appetite, want of taste
. in the mouth, slight pains in the head, back, and loins,
 small  and frequent  respirations.  The sense  of cold
 and its effects after  a  little time becomes less violent,
 and are alternated with flushings, and at last, going off
 altogether, they are  succeeded by great heat diffused
 generally over the whole body; the face looks flushed,
 the skin is dry, as likexvise the tongue , universal rest-
 lessness prevails, with a violent pain in the head, op-
 pression at the chest, sickness at the stomach, and an
 Inclination to vomit.  There is likexvise a great thirst
 and costiveness, and  the pulse is full  and frequent,
 beating, perhaps, DO or 100 strokes in a minute.   When
 the  symptoms run very high, and there is a consider-
 able determination of blood to the  head,  a delirium
 will arise.  In this fever, us xvell as most others, there
 is generally an increase of symptoms towards evening.
   If the disease  is likely to  prove fatal, either by its
 continuing a long time, or by tlie severity of its symp-
 toms, then a starting of the tendons, picking at the bed-
 clothes,  involuntary discharges by urine  and  stool,
 coldness of the  extremities, and hiccoughs, xvill  be
 observed; where no  such appearances take  place, the
 disease xvill go through its course.
   As a fever once produced will go on, although its
 cause  be entirely removed, and as  the continued or
 fresh  application of a  cause of fever neither will in-
 crease that xvhich is already produced, nor occasion  a
 new one, there can be no certainty as to the duration
 of fever; and it is only by attending to certain appear-
 ances  or changes, which usually take place  on the
 approach of a crisis, that xve can form any opinion or
 decision.  The  symptoms pointing out Die approach
 of a crisis are, the pulse becoming soft, moderate, and
 near its natural speed; the tongue losing its fur and
 becoming clean, with an abatement of thirst; the skin
 being covered with a gentle moisture, and feeling soft
 to the touch; the secretory organs  performing their
 several offices; and the urine depositing flaky crystals
 of a dirty red colour, and becoming turbid on being
 allowed to stand any time.
   Many physicians have been of opinion,  that there
 is something in the nature of all acute diseases,  except
 those of a putrid kind, which  usually determines them
 to be of a certain duration, and, therefore,  that these
 terminations, when salutary, happen at certain periods
 of the disease rather than at others, unless disturbed in
 their progress by an improper mode of treatment, or
 the  arising of some  accidental circumstance.   These
 periods are knoxvn by the appellation of critical days ;
 and from the time of Hippocrates down to the present,
 have  been pretty generally admitted.  The truth of
 them,  Dr. Thomas thinks,  can hardly  be disputed,
 hoxvever they may be  interrupted by various  causes.
 A great number of phenomena show us, that both in
 the  sound state and the diseased, nature  has  a ten-
 dency to observe certain periods;  for instance, the
 vicissitudes of sleeping and watching occurring with
 such regularity to every one; the accurate periods that
 the  menstrual flux observes, and the exact time of
 pregnancy in all viviparous animals, and many other
 Buch instances  that might be adduced, oil  prove this
 law.
   With respect lo  diseases, every  ono  must have
 observed  the definite  periods which tako place  in
 regular intermittents, as well those universal as topical;
 in ihe course of true inflammation, xvhich at the fourth,
 or at the farthest the seventh day, is resolved, or after
 this period changes into either abscess, gangrene, or
 scirrhus; in cxanthemutous eruptions, which, If they
 nre favourable and regular, appear  on a certain and
 definite day;  for example, the smallpox about the
 fourth day.  All these appear to be founded  on im-
 mutable laws, according to which the motions  of the
 body in health and in disease are governed.
   The days on xvhich it is supposed the termination of
 continued  fevers principally happens,  are  the third,
 fifth, seventh, ninth, eleventh, fourteenth, seventeenth,
 and txventieti..
   A simple  continued  fever  terminates alxvays by a
 regular crisis in the manner before mentioned, or from
       330
the febrile matter falling on some  particular parts, it
excites inflammation, abscess, eruption, or destroys the
patient.
  Great anxiety, loss of strength, intense heat, stupor,
delirium, irregularity in the pulse, twitchings in the
fingers and hands, picking at the bed-clothes, starlings
of the  tendons,  hiccoughs, involuntary evacuations
by urine and stool, and  such like symptoms, point out
the certain approach of  death.
  On the contrary, when the senses remain clear and
distinct, the  febrile heat abates, the skin  is soft and
moist, the pulse becomes moderate and is regular, a,nd
the urine deposites flaky crystals, we may then expect
a speedy and happy termination of the disease.
  The usual appearances which are to be observed  on
dissection of tliose who die of this fever, are an effusion
within the cranium, and topical affections perhaps of
some viscera.
  This disease being of  a mixed nature, the treatment
must be modified accordingly.  In the  beginning, the
same plan is to bo pursued as in synocha, except that
xve must be  more sparing in the use of Ihe lancet, in
proportion as there is less poxver in the system, to main-
tain  the increased  action of the heart and arteries  ;
although if any important part should be much af-
fected, we must act more  vigorously,  to  prevent  its
disorganization, and the consequent destruction of life.
When the  character of the disease is changed, the
means proper xvill be such as are pointed out under the
head of  Typhus.
  S Y N O' VI A.  (A  term of no radical meaning,
coined by Paracelsus.)   An unctuous fluid secreted
from certain glands in the joint in which it is contained.
Its use is to lubricate the cartilaginous surfaces of the
artk ulatory bones, and to facilitate their motions.
  SYNOVIAL.  Synovialis.  Of or belonging lo the
synovia, or fluid of tlie joints.
  Synovial  glands.   Glandula synoviales.   The
assemblage of a fatty fimbriated structure within the
cavities of some joints.
  SYNTENO'SIS.   (From ovv, with, and rtvuv, a
tendon.)  A species of  articulation xvhere the bones
are connected together by tendons.
  Synte'xis.  (From ovvrrixu, to dissolve.)   A ma-
rasmus or wasting of the body.
  SY'NTHESIS.   (From  ovvrtOnpt,  to  compose.)
Combination.  See Analysis.
  Syntheti'smus.  (From awOtu, to concur.)  The
reduction of a fracture.
  Synulo'tica.  (From ovvovXou, to cicatrize.)  Me-
dicines which heal wounds.
  SYPHILIS.  (The name of a  shepherd, who fed
the flocks of king Alcithous, xvho, proud of their num-
ber and beauty, insulted the sun ; as a punishment for
xvhich, fable  relates,  that  this disease  was  sent  on
earth ; or from atfXos, filthy.)  Lues venerea ; Morbus
gallicus;  Aphrodisius  morbus;  Morbus  indicus;
Morbus neapolitanus ;  Patursa.  A genus of disease
iu the Class  Cachexia, and  Order Impetigines,  of
Cullen.  Toxvards the i lose of the memorable fifteenth
century, about the year 1494 or 1495, the  inhabitants
of Europe were greatly alarmed by the  sudden ud
pearanceof thisdisease.  The novelty of its symptom's,
and the wonderful rapidity xvith xvhich it  xvas propa
gated throughout every part of the knoxvn  xvorld, soon
made it an important object of medical inquiry.
  In  common language,  it is said a person has syphilis
or is  poxed,  when  the  venereal poison has been re-
ceived into, or is diffused through the system, and  there
produces its peculiar effects, as ulcers of the mouth or
fauces, spots,  tellers,  and ulcers of the skin, pains,
swelling, and caries of the bones, tec.  But as long as
ihe effects of the poison are local and confined  to or
near  the genitals, the disorder is  not called syphilis,
lues venerea, nor pox; but distinguished by some par-
ticular name, according  to its different seat or appear-
ance ; such as gonorrhoea venerea, chancre, or bubo.
  The venereal disease is always produced by a poison.
Concerning  the nature  of this poison, we knoxv no
more than we do about that  of ihe smallpox or anv
other contagion; xve knoxv only that it  produces  pen;"
liar  effects.    The smallest  particle  of this poison is
sufficient to bring on the most violent disorder over fht
whole body.   It seems to spread and diffuse itself bx
a kind of fermentation and assimilation of matter; and,
like other contagions, it requires some time after being
applied to the human  body,  before it produces thai 
SYP                                              SYP
•fleet.  It is  not known whether it has different de-
grees of acrimony and volatility, or xvhetiier it is
always tlie same in its nature, varying only with regaid
to the  particular part to xvhich Jt xs applied, or ac-
cording to the difl'erent habit and constitution or par-
ticular  idiosyncrasy of the person who receives the
infection.  We  knoxv that mercury possesses a certain
and specific power ol destroying the venereal  virus;
Dut we a e quite uncertain whether it acts by a sedative,
adstringent, or evacuant quality ; or, which is nol un-
likely, by a chemical elective attraction xvhereby both
lubstances uniting with one another arc  changed to a
third, xvhich is no more  hurtful, but has some new
properties entirely  distinct from  those xvhich any of
them had  before they  xvere united.   The variolous
miasma, xve knoxv, produces its effects in about txventy
or twenty-four days after tlie infection is received from
the atmosphere, and eight or ten days if by inoculation,
but  the venereal virus seems  to keep no particular
period.   At  some  times, and, perhaps,  iu particular
persons, Dr. Swediaur has seen chancres arise in the
space of twelve hours,  nay, in  a still shorter lime,
indeed he mentions in a few minutes, after an impure
coition;  xvhereas iu most cases, they make their ap-
pearance only in so many days.  Tlie generality  of
men  feel the  first symptoms of  a clap  betxveen the
second and fifth  days after an impure coitus; but there
are instances xvhere they do not appear till after as many
weeks or months.  Dr.  S. xvas consulted by  a young
man, who was seized xvitii a violent discharge from tlie
glans along with a phimosis, but xvithout any chancres,
four weeks after coition ; and during nil  the interval,
he fell nol the  least symptom  of the disease.  Some
years ago, a  gentleman went  out from London,  in
seemingly perfect health, to the East Indies; but  on
his arrival in thai hot climate,  after a voyage of four
months, a violent clap  broke out before be xvent  on
shore, though   he could have received  no infection
during the voyage, as there xvas not a woman on board.
There are instances wliich render it probable that tbe
virus may lie four, five, or six weeks, and perhaps longer,
on  tlie  surface  of the genitals before it is absorbed ;
and xvere it not then to produce a chancre, might pro-
bably not lie absorbed at all.  We see daily examples,
where common  women communicate the infection to
different men iu the space of several xveeks, xvhile they
themselves have not the least symptom of  syphilis
local of universal, the poison lying all that time in the
vagina harmless, and generally xvithout being absorbed.
How long the venereal virus may lurk in the body ilself,
after it has  been absorbed  into  the mass of* blood,
before it produces any  sensible effect, is a matter of
equal uncertainty.  There is scarcely a practitioner
who has not observed instances of its remaining harm-
less for xveeks or even months in the body. Dr. Sxve-
diaur had a case, xvhere, after lying dormant for half a
year, it  broke out with  unequivocal symptoms.  Bul
the  following instance, if it be depended  upon, is still
more extraordinary:
  Some years ago, says the  above writer, I xvas con-
sulted by a  gentleman  about a sore throat, which 1
declared to be venereal.  My patient was astonished ;
and assured me that for nine years past he had not had
the least venereal complaint, nor had he any reason to
believe  he had since received any infection ; but lhat
be had been in the East Indies,  xvhere he was  affected
with a violent clap.  On his return to Europe, being
to appearance in good health, he married, and  conti-
nued perfectly free of any such complaint ever  since.
By  a mercurial course, however, the complaint for
which  he  applied  to me was completely removed.
With regard to its effects, the venereal poison follows no
constant rule; for though, in general, it affects first the
throat,  xvhere  it produces  ulcerations,  in others it
exerts ils virulence on the skin or bones.  While the
greatest part of mankind are thus easily affected  by
this  poison,  there  are  some  few who seem  to  be
altogether unsusceptible of tbe  infection : as happens
equally  with  the variolous contagion, though they go
into  infected places, and expose themselves to inocula-
tion  or every hazard by  which the disease is generally
Communicated.
  Some persous are more liable  than others to be in-
fected who are seemingly of the same habit; nay, ihe
Pery same person seems to be morelinble to be  infected
at one time than another, and those xvho have been
once infected  seem to be more liable to catch the infec
tion a second time, than tliose who never were mfectod
before xvith the disease.   The climate, season, age,
state of health, idiosyncrasy,  nre, perhaps, as in other
diseases, the  necessary predisposing causes.    The
same difference is observable in the progress made by
the disease after the patient is infected.  In some the
progress is slow, and the disease appears scarcely to gain
any ground ; xvhile  in others  it advances xvith the
utmost rapidity, and  speedily produces the mosl ter-
rible symptoms.   Whether the venereal poison can be
abso.bed inlo ihe system, xvithout n previous excoria-
tion, or ulceration of the genitals, or some  other  parts
of the  surface of the body, is si ill a matter of doubt.
Several cases, hoxvever, have occurred xvhich render it
highly probable, if not certain, lhat the poison really in
now and then absorbed, xvithout any previous excori
ntion or ulceration  xvhatsoever,  and thus  produces
buboes and other venereal symptoms in the body.
  It has been asserted by the earliest and even by some
late writers, that il may be caught by  lying in the same
bed or living in the same room xvith or  after an in-
fected  person.  What may have  been the case at the
commencement of ihe disease, < nnnot be snid, but the
most  accurate  observations  and  experiments xvhicli
have  been  made upon the  subject, do  not confirm
this to  be the case in our times.  Nor are nurses in-
fected in the Lock-Hospitnl, xvhere they live night and
day xvitii patients in all stages of the  distemper.  The
fact seems to be, that patients in our  times ate apt to
impose upon themselves, or upon physicians nnd sur-
geons,  xvilh regard to this matter;   and  the   above
opinion easily gains  ground among the vulgar, espe-
cially in countries xvhere people are more influenced
by prejudices,  superstition, servile situation in life, oi
other circumstances.   Hence, xve  sometimes hear the
most ridiculous accounts given  in those countries  by
friars and common soldiers, of the manner by xvhich
they came to this disorder;  such as piles, gravel, colics,
contusions,  fevers,  little-houses,  lying  in suspected
beds, or lying in bed xvilh a suspected person, retention
of the semen, coition xvith a woman  in menstruation,
the use of cider, bad wine, or beer, &c.
  Another question undecided  is, xvhether the vene-
real poison ever infects any fluid of our body, besides
tliose of the mucous and lymphatic system.  Does the
venereal poison in an  infected woman ei'cr affect the
milk, and consequently can the infection be conveyed
to the infant by the  milk alone, without  any venereal
ulcer on or about the  nipples ?  Il is equally a matter
of uncertainty whether the venereal  disease is  ever
conveyed from an infected father or mother, hy coition
to the foetus, provided  their  genitals are  sound ;  01
whether n child is ever affected xvith venereal  symp-
toms in the uterus of an infected mother.  Such in-
fected infants  as came under the observation of Dr.
Swediaur, or of his friends,  whose practice afforded
them frequent opportunities of seeing new-born infants,
seemed rather to militate against the opinion. Neither
he nor  any of them, have ever been able to observe
ulcerations or other symptoms of a venereal kind upon
nexvborn children ; and such as make their appearance
four, six, or eight, or  mote days afterward, on the
genitals, anus, lips, mouth. Sec.  may rather be sup
posed to arise by infection during the passage from
ulcers in the vagina  of the  mother, the skin  of the
infant being then nearly in as tender a slate as the glans
penis,or the labia; and this perhaps at the time when
an absorption of the venereal poison might more easily
take place without a previous excoriation, or ulceration
of the skin.  All  the xvays,  therefore, by xvliich we
Bee, in our  days, tlie venereal poison communicated
from an unhealthy to a healthy person .may be reduced
to the following heads:
  1. By the coition of a healthy person with another
who is infected xvith venereal disease of the genitals.
  2. By the coition of a healthy person xvitii another,
apparently  healthy, in whose genitals the poison lies
concealed,  xvithout having yet  produced any bad
symptom.  Thus, a xvoman xvho has perhaps received
the infection from a man txvo or three days before, may
daring that time infect, and often does infect, the  man
or men who have to do xvith her afterward, without
having any symptoms of the disease visible upon her-
self; and vice versa, a man may infect a woman in line
same manner.   Such instances occur  in practice every
day.
  3. By sucking;  in  this case the nipples of the we<
                                        331 
SYP
SYP
 nurse may be infected by venereal ulcers in the mouth
 nf the child:  or, vice versd, the  nipples of the nurse
 being infected,  will occasion venereal  ulcers in the
 child's  nose,  mouth, or lips.  It is uncertain,  as men-
 tioned above, whether the venereal poison was ever
 propagated by means ofthe milk from the breast.
   4.  By exposing to the  contact of venereal poison any
 part of the surface of the body,  by kissing, touching,
 &c. especially if the parts so exposed have been previ-
 ously excoriated, wounded, or ulcerated  by  any cause
 whatever.  In this manner xve frequently see venereal
 ulcers arise in the scrotum and thighs;  and there are
 some xvell-attested instances where  tiie infection took
 place in the fingers of midwives or surgeons.  Several
 instances are recorded  of venereal  ulcers in  the nos-
 trils, eyelids, and lips of persons who had touched their
 own genitals, or those of others,  affected at the time
 xvith  local venereal complaints, and then rubbed their
 nostrils, Sec. with the fingers, without previously xvash-
 ing the hands.  There was, a few years, ago in London,
 a  melancholy example  of a  young lady, who, after
 having  draxvn a decayed tooth, and replaced it with
 one taken immediately  from  a young  woman appa-
 rently in perfect  health, was  soon after affected with
 an ulcer in the mouth.  The sore manifested  symptoms
 of a venereal nature;  but such was  its obstinacy, that
 it  resisted the  mosl powerful  mercurial  remedies, ter-
 minating at last in a caries of the maxilla, with a most
 shocking erosion of the  mouth and face, by  which the
 unhappy patient was destroyed.  During all  this, how-
 ever, we are informed that not the  smallest venereal
 symptom was perceived in the woman from  whom the
 sound tooth  was procured.
   5. By wounding any part of the body  with  a lancet
 or knife infected  xvith the venereal virus. In  this in-
 stance there  is a similarity between the venereal poison
 and that of the small-pox.  There are several exam-
 ples of the latter being  produced by bleeding with a
 lancet which  had been  previously  employed  for  tbe
 purpose of inoculation, or of opening variolous pustules,
 without being properly  cleaned afterxvard.    In  Mo-
 ravia, in the year 1577, a number of persons who ns-
 sei/'bled in a  house  for bathing,  had themselves, ac-
 cording  to the custom of  that time, scarified by  tbe
 barber,  were all of them  infected xvith  the venereal
 disease, and treated accordingly.  Krato, the physi-
 cian,  and Jordan, who gave  a description of this dis-
 temper, are boih of opinion that it xvas communicated
 by means of  the scarifying  instrument.  And Van
 Sxvieten relates several  instances where the lues was
 communicated by a similar carelessness in cleaning
 the instrument used in bleeding or scarification.
   The venereal poison applied to the urethra  and va-
 gina produce a clap.  See Gonorrhaa.   Coming  into
 contact  with other parts, it produces  a chancre or bubo
 and constitutional symptoms.  Chancre is the primary
 and immediate consequence of inoculation  with true
 venereal matter in any of the ways  xvhich have been
 mentioned, and may arise in  any part of the  human
 body: but it generally shows itself in the  pudenda,
 because the infecting medium is there first laken up in
 the one sex, and communicated by contact to  the other.
 It  is not, however, peculiar to these parts, for xvhenever
 tlie same kind of fluid is applied to a scratch on the
 hand, finger, lip, or nipple, the same consequence xvill
 follow.  There can be no doubt but  that the slightest
 abiasion possible, or breach of the cuticle, is sufficient
 to  give a speedy admission to this destructive  poison.
 A  chancre makes its appearance xvith a slight  inflam-
 mation wiiich afterward ulcerates,  or there arises a
 small pimple or pustule filled with a transparent fluid,
 whicli soon  breaks and forms into  a spreading ulcer.
 The period at which it makes its appearance after in-
 fection is very various, being most commonly in five or
 six days, but in some cases not till after the expiration
of as  many weeks.  There is  both a local and general
 predisposition  to chancres; Jews and Mahommedans,
 from tlie constant exposure of the glans and loss of the
prepuce, have  the cuticle of the glans penis  of much
firmer texture  than those who have not been circum-
cised ; and they are, from this circumstance, much less
subject to chancres than  the rest of mankind.   For tiie
same  reason they who, from the shortness of the pre-
puce,  generally keep the glans uncox-ered, are not so
liable to the diseases as  tliose who have  long nnrroxv
preputia; for persons thus formed  constantly keep the
 surface  of the glans and  prepuce moist and  tender,
      .132
 and almost at every cohabitation are liable to abrasions
 and io excoriations.
   There is an intermediate state  of the venereal dis-
 ease between a local and constitutional affection, whicb
 arises  from  the  absorption of venereal matter  from
 some surface to which it lias been applied.  TTie glands
 situated nearest  the parts thus affected are apt to be
 come swelled and inflamed, so as to give rise lo  what
 is termed bubo;  and the pans of generation usually
 corning first in contact wilh  the matter, so  the glands
 in the groin generally afford this particular symptom.
 In most cases the venereal virus  is absorbed from a
 chancre or an ulcer in the urethra; but instances  have
 occurred where a bubo  has  arisen without either go
 norrhoea or any kind of ulceration, and xvhere the mat -
 ter appears to have been absorbed, without any erosion
 of the skin or mucous membrane.
   A bubo  comes on with pain in  the  groin accompa-
 nied xvith  some degree of hardness and sxvelling, and
 is at first about the size of a kidney bean, but continu-
 ing to increase, it at length becomes as large as an egg,
 occasions  the person to experience some difficulty in
 walking, and is  attended wilh a pulsation and throb-
 bing in the  tumour, and a great redness  of the skin.
 In some cases the suppuration is quickly completed, in
 others it goes on  very slow, and in others again the in-
 flammatory appearances go off without any  formation
 of pus.  In a few instances the glans have been known
 to become scirrhous.   The following are  the charac-
 teristics of a venereal bubo.  The swelling  is usually
 confined to one gland, the colour of tbe skin  where in
 flammation prevails is of a florid red. the pain is  very
 acute, the  progress from  inflammation  to suppuration
 and ulceration is generally very rapid, the suppuration is
 large in proportion to tlie size of the gland,  and tliere
 is only one abscess.
   A bubo is never attended with danger, xvhere the in-
 flamed gland proceeds on regularly to suppuration, but
 in particular cases it acquires an indolence after coming
 to a certain length, arising  from a scrofulous taint, or
 by being combined  xvith erysipelas it terminates in
 gangrene,  and occasions a great loss of substance.
 This termination  is, hoxvever, more  frequently met with
 in hospitals than  in private practice, and may partly be
 attributed to tbe contaminated state of the air of the
 xvards xvherein venereal oatients are lodged.
   A constitutional taint is the third form under which
 it has been mentioned, that the venereal poison,is apt
 to shoxv itself, and xvhich always arises in consequence
 of the matter being absorbed and carried into the circu-
 lating mass of fluids.   The absorption of it may, how-
 ever, take  place in three ways :
   1st, Il may be  carried  into the circulation, xvithout
 producing any evident local effect on the part to whict
 it xvas first applied
   Sdly, It may take place in consequence of some local
 affection, such as either gonorrhoea, chancre, or bubo.
 And,
   Sdly, It may ensue from an application ofthe matter
 lo a common sore or wound, simiiar to what happens in
 inoculating for tlie small-pox.
   The most general xvay, however, in xvhich  a consti-
 tutional taint  is produced, is by an absorption of the
 matter, either from a chancre or a bubo.
   When venereal matter gets into the system, some
symptoms of  it may often be observed in the course of
six or eight xveeks, or probably sooner; but in some
cases, ii xvill continue in the circulating mass of fluids
for many months  before any visible signs of its effects
are produced. The systembeing completely contami-
nated, it then occasions many local effects in different
parts of the body, and shows itself under a variety of
forms, many of xvliich put on the appearance of a  dis-
tinct disease.   We may presume that this variety de-
pends ivholly on  the difference ol"  constitution,  the
different kind of ps.is affected, and the different state
these parts xvere in at the time thematteror poison was
applied.
  The first  symptoms usually shoxv themselves on the
skin and in the mouth or throat.   When on the skin,
reddish and brownish spots  appear  here and tliere on
the surface, and eruptions of a copper  colour arc  dis-
persed oxer difl'erent parts of the body, on the tap of
xvhich tliere soon  forms a thick scurf or ;;cale.  This
scurf falls off after a short time, and  is succeeded by
another, and the same happening several limes, and at
length casting off deep scabs, an ulcer is formed xvhich 
SYR
SYR
discharges an tcrid foetid matter.  When the matter is I
Becrcted in tie glands of the throat and mouth, the
tongue will often be affected so  as to occasion a thick-
nessof speech, and the  tonsils,  palate, and uvula xvill
become ulcerated so as to produce a soreness mid diffi-
culty of sxvallowing, and likexvise a hoarseness in the
voice.  In a venereal ulcer of the tonsil, a portion of it
seems as if it xvas dug out; it is, moreover, very foul,
and has a thick, white  matter  adhering to it,  which
cannot be washed off   By these characteristic  marks
it may, in general, readily be distinguished from any
Jtlier speciesof ulceration in these parts.
  If the  disease affects the eyes, obstinate inflamma-
tion, and sometimes ulceiation,  xvill also attack these
organs.
  Tlie matter sometimes falls  on deep-seated parts,
such as  the tendons,  ligaments, and periosteum, and
occasions hard, painful  sxvellings to arise, known by
the name of nodes.
  When the disease is suffered to take its oxvn course,
and not  counteracted by proper remedies, the patient
will, in the course of time, be  afflicted with  severe
pains,  but  more particularly in the night-time;  his
countenance xvill become sallow, his hair xvill fall off,
be will  lose bis appetite, strength, and flesh, his rest
will be much disturbed by night, and a small fever of
the hectic kind xvill arise. The ulcers in the mouth aud
throat  being likewise suffered to spiead, and to occa-
sion a caries of the bones of the palate, au opening will
be made from the moulh of the nose ; and  the carti-
 ages and bones of the  nose befog  at  length corroded
away, litis will sink on  a level  with the face.  Some
constitutions will bear  up for a  considerable  time
against the disease, xvhile others again xvill soon sink
under a general weakness and  irritation produced by
it  If the disorder is  recent, and  the  constitution not
impaired by other diseases, a perfect cure  may easily
be affected ; but where  it is of long standing, and ac-
companied with the symptoms of irritation which have
been mentioned, the cure will  prove tedious, and  in
many cases uncertain, as the constitution and strength
of the patient may not admit of his going through a
course of medicine sufficient to  destroy the poison ;  or
his health may be in such a state, as that only a  very
small quantity of mercury can be administered even at
considerable intervals.
  The general appearances to be observed on dissec-
tion of those who die of lues, are, caries of the bones,
but more particularly  those ofthe cranium, often com-
municating ulceration to the brain itself, together  with
enlargements and indurations of the lymphatic glands,
scirrhus of several of the  organs,  particularly  the
liver and lungs, and exostoses of many of the hardest
bones.
  Syphilis indica.  The yaws.
  Syphilis  polomca.  A variety of venereal disease.
  SYRiiE oleum.  A  fragrant  essential oil, obtained
by distilling the canary balsam-plant, or moldavica.
  Syrian herb mastich.  See Teucrium marum.
  SYRI'GMUS.  See Paracusis.
  SYRl'NGA.  (From  ovptyl,  a  pipe: so  called be-
cause from  its branches pipes were made after tlie
removal of the pith.)   The pipe-tree.
  SYRI'NGMOS.  See  Paracusis.
  Syrinoo'tohuji.    (From  ovpty\,  a fistula,  and
rtpvu, to cut)  An instrument to cut fistulas.
  SYRINX.  (A Hebrew xvord.)  A pipe.  A syringe.
A fistula.
  Svrmai'smus.  (From ovppaiX/o, to evacuate.)  A
gentle evacuation by vomit or stool.
  SYRUP.  See Syrupus.
  Syrup of ginger.  See Syrupus zingiberis.
  Syrup of lemon.  See Syrupus limonum.
  Syrup of marsh-mallows.  See Syrupus althea.
  Syrup of mulberry.  See Syrupus mori.
  Syrup of orange.  See Syrupus aurantii.
  Syrup of poppy.  See Syrupus papaveris.
  Syrup of red poppy.   See Syrupus rhaados.
  Syrup of roses.  See  Syrupus rosa.
  Syrup of saffron.   See Syrupus  croci.
  Syrup of senna.  See Syrupus senna.
  Syrup of Tolu.  See Syrupus tolutanus.
  SYRUPUS.  (Serab, a potion, Arabian.)  The name
syrup is given to sugar dissolved in xvater; and  in the
present pharmacopoeia this is termed simplesyrup. See
Syrupus simplex.
  Svruns are generally made with the juice of vegeta-
i bles or fruits, or by adding vegetable extracts or othet
 substances.  To keep syrups without fermenting, il la
 necessary that their temperature sliould  be attended
 to, and kept as near 55° ns possible.  A good cellar will
 answer this  purpose, for tliere are fexv  summers In
 xvhich the temperature of such a place rises to 60°.
   Syrupus acmti.   Sugar and  vinegar.  A  refrige-
 rating syiup.  See Oxymel.
   Syrupcs althk.i:.  Syrup  of marsli-mallow.   Sy-
 rupus ex  allhaa.   Syrupus  de althaa.   Take of  the
 fresh  root of marsli-malloxv,  bruised, half a pound;
 refined sugar, txvo pounds; water, a gallon.  Boil doxvn
 the xvater with the  marsh-malloxv-root to half, nnd
 press out die liquor when cold.  Set it by for 24 hours,
 that the feculencies may subside; then pour  off  the
 liquor, and having added the  sugar, boil ii down to a
 proper consistence.  An emollient  and  demulcent;
 mostly given to allay tickling coughs, hoarseness, &c.
 in conjunction wilh otlier remedies.
   Syrupus aurantii.   Syrup of orange.   Syrupus
 corticis aurantii.   Syrupus e corticibu.i aurantiorum.
 Syrupus de or tic c aurantiorum. Take of fresh orange-
 peel, two ounces; boiling water, a pint; refined sugar,
 three pounds.  Maceiate the orange-peel  in the water
 for 12 hours in a covered vessel;  then pour off  the
 liquor, and add tbe sugar.  A pleasant Inner and sto-
 machic.
   Syrupus caryophylli rubri. A xvarm  and  sti-
 mulating syrup.
   Syrupus colchici.   An  acrid  and diuretic com-
 pound given in dropsies.
   Syrupus  corticis aurantii.  See Syrupus  au-
 rantii.
   Syrupus  croci.   Syrup of saffron.   Take of saf-
 fron, an ounce ; boiling xvater, a pound ; refined sugar,
 two pounds and a half   Macerate the saffron iu  the
 water for 12 hours in a  covered vessel, then strain the
 liquor, and add tlie sugar.  This imparts  a  beautiful
 colour to liquids,  and is sometimes employed as a cor-
 dial.   Among the vulgar, syrup of saffron is in high
 esteem in measles, small-pox, &c.
    Syrupus  limonum.  Syrup of  lemon.  Syrupus
 sued limonis.  Syrupus e sneco limonum. Syrupus e.
 succo citrorum.  Take of lemon-juice, strained, a pint;
 refined sugar, txvo pounds.  Dissolve the sugar in  the
 lemon-juice in the manner directed  for simple syrup.
 A very pleasant, cooling. and*acid syrup xvhicli may be
 exhibited with advantage, in  febrile and  bilious affec-
 tions.
   Syrupus  mori.   Syrup  of mulberry.   Syrupus
 morornm.   Take of mulberry-juice, strained, a pint;
 refined sugar, txvo pounds.  Dissolve the sugar in Ihe
 mulberry-juice in the  manner  directed  for  simple
 syrup.  Syrup of  mulberries is very grateful  and ape-
 rient, and may be given xvith such intentions to chil-
 dren.
   Syrupus papaveris.  Syrupus papaveris albi.   Sy-
 rupus e mectnio.   Syrupus de meconio, sive diacodium.
 Take of capsules of xvhile poppy, dried and  bruised,
 the seeds being  separated, 14 ounces; refined sugar,
 two pounds; boiling water,  two gallons and  a half.
 Macerate the capsules in the water  for 24 hours, then
 boil it down by means of a  water-bath  to one gallon,
 and press out the liquor strongly.  Boil down the liquor
 again, after being strained, to two pints, and strain it
 while hot.  Set It by for 12 hours, that the feculencies
 may subside: then boil down the clear liquor to n pint,
 and add  the sugar in the manner directed for simple
 syrup.  It should  be kept in stone bottles, and in a  cel-
 lar.  A useful  anodyne preparation, which  may be
 added with advantage to a vast variety of medicines
 against diseases of the boxvels, coughs, Sec.
   Syrupus  papaveris  erratic!.   See Syrupus rha-
 ados.
   Syrupus  riiamki.  Syrup of buckthorn.  Take of
 the fresh juice of buckthorn-berries, four pints;  ginger-
 root, sliced, allspice, poxvdered, of e*ach half an ounce
 refined  sugar, tliree  pounds  and a half.  Set by  the
 juice for three days, that the  feculencies may subside,
 and strain.  To a pint of the clear juice add ihe gingei
 and allspice; then macerate in a gentle heat four hours,
 and strain; boil dow n what remains to one pint and a
 half, mii? the liquors and add the sugar in the manner
 directed for simple sxrup.
   This preparation, in doses of Ihree or four spoonfuls,
 operates as a brisk cathartic.   The  principal inconve-
 nience attending  it is, that it  is ve-y unpleasant,  and
                                         333 
TAB
TAL
occasions n thirst and dryness of thg mouth and fauces,
and sometimes violent gripes.  These  effects may be
prevented by drinking liberally of water-gruel, or other
xvarm liquids,  during the operation.
  Syrupus rhosados.   Syrupus papaveris  erratici.
Syrupus de  papavere erratico.   Syrup of red-poppy.
Take of red-poppy  petals,  fresh, a pound;  boiling
xvater, a pint and two fluid ounces; refined sugar, two
pounds  and a half.  Having heated the water in a
water-bath,  add  gradually the red-poppy petals, fre-
quently  stirring them ; then having removed the vessel,
macerate for txvelve hours;  next press out the liquor,
and set it by to settle; lastly, add the sugar as directed
for  simple syrup. This is a very mild anodyne, and
used more for the colour, than for  its medical  pro-
perties.
  Syrupus ribis niori.   Syrup of black currants.
Aperient and  diuretic qualities aie  attributed to this
preparation.
  Syrupus ros*.  Syrup of roses. Syrupus rosarum
solulivus. Syrupus erosissiccis.  Take of damask-rose
petals, dried, seven ounces ; refined sugar, six pounds;
boiling xvater, four pints. Macerate the rose-petals in the
water for twelve  hours, and strain ; then evaporate the
strained liquor, by means of a water-bath, to txvo pints
and a half; then add  the sugarin the manner described
for  simple  syrup.   A  useful laxative for children.
From 3j. to ?ss.
  Syrupus rubi idjei.  Syrup of raspberry.  A-plea-
sant aperient syrup for children.
  Syrupus scilliticus.   Expectorant nnd diuretic.
See Oxymel scilla.
 •Syrupus sennje.   Syrupof senna.  Take of senna-
leaves, two ounces; fennel-seed,  bruised, an ounce;
manna, three ounces; refined sugar, a pound ; xvater,
boiling, a pint.  Macerate the senna-leaves and fennel-
seeds  in the xvater for an hour, wilh a gentle heat;
strain the liquor, and  mix xvith it  the manna and su-
gar  ; then boil  to the proper consistence.  A  useful
purgative for children.
  Syrupus simplex.   Syrupus.  Simple syrup. Take
of refined sugar,  two pounds and a half*; water, a pint.
Dissolve the sugar in the water in a  water-bath, then
set  it aside for twenty-four hours; takeoff the scum;
 and if there be  any feculencies,  pour  off  the cleit
 liquor from them.
   Syrupus toluntanus.   Syrup of Tolu.  Take of
 balsam of Tolu, an ounce ;  water, boiling, a pint; re-
 fined sugar, two pounds.  Boil the balsam In the water
 half an hour in a covered vessel, occasionally stirring
 it;  strain the liquor when it is cold, and then add the
 sugar in the manner directed for simple syrup.  A use-
 ful  balsamic  syrup, calculated to allay tickling coughs
 and hoarsenesses.
   Syrupus viol*.   A pleasant laxative  for young
 children.                  /
   Syrupus zingiberis.  Syrup of ginger.  Take of
 ginger-root, sliced, two ounces ; water, boiling, a pint;
 refined sugar, two pounds.  Macerate the ginger-root
 in the water for  twenty-four hours, and strain;  then
 add the sugar in the manner directed for simple syrup
 A carminative  and stomachic syrup.  Dose  from one
 to three drachms.
   SYSPASIA.   (From ovoirau, contraho, convello.i
 The name of a  genus of diseases in Good's Nosology
 Class, Neurotica; Order, Systatica. Comatose spasm.
 It has three species, viz. Syspasia convulsio,  hysteria,
 epilepsia.
   SYSSARCO'SIS.   (From ovv, and oap\, flesh.) A
 species of union of bones, in xvhich one bone is united
 lo another by means of an intervening  muscle.  In
 this manner the os hyoides is connected with thester
i num and other parts.
   SYSTATICA.   (From crvvitmjpt, congredior, con
 socio.)  The  name of an order of diseases  in Class
 Neurotica, of Good's  Nosology.   Diseases  affecting
 several, or all the sensorial poxvers simultaneously.   Ita
 genera are, Agrypnia, Dysphonia, Antipathia,  Ce-
 phalaa, Dinus, Syncope, Syspasia, Caries.
   System, absorbent. See Absorbents and Lymphatics
   System, genital. The parts of generation.
   System, nervous.  See ATcrree.
   System of plants.  See Plants.
   System, vascular.  The arteries and veins.
   SYSTOLE.  (From  trus-cXXoi,  to contract.)   The
 contraction ofthe heart.
   SYSTREMMA.  (From cvorptqiu, contorqueo, to
 xvind about, or twist.)  The cramp.
T
T-,
  '-BANDAGE.   A  bandage so named  from  its
    figure. It is principally used for supporting the dress-
ings, after the operation for fistula in ano, in diseases
of the perimeum, and those of the groins, anus, &.c.
  TABA'CUM.   (From  Tobago,  the  island from
whence it was fir6t brought.)   Tobacco. See Nico-
tiana.
  TABASHEER.   The silica  found  in  the  hollow
stem of the bamboo cane is so called.   Its optical pro-
perties are peculiar.
  TABELLA.  (Diminutive of tabula, a table.)  A
lozenge.
  TA'BES.  (Tabes, is, f.;  from tabesco, to consume
or pine axvay.)  A wasting of the body.  A genus of
disease in the Class, Cachexia; and Order, Marcores,
of Cullen ; characterized by emaciation and xveakness,
attended with hectic fever,  but xvithout any cough or
spitting,  wliich last symptoms distinguish it from
phthisis.   It  has three species: 1. Tabes jiuruienta,
from an ulcerous discharge:  2.  Tabes  scrofulosa,
from a scrofulous habit:   3.  Tabes  venenata, from
poison.   See Atrophy.
  Tabes coxaria.  A xvasting of the thigh and leg
from un abscess, oruther cause iu the hip.
  Tabes dorsalis.   Lordosis.  A  xvasting  of the
body, attended  at first xvith pain ir, the back or loins,
and afterward also in the neck and head, caused by a
too  early or a too  frequent use of venery.  Dr. Cullen
makes it a vurieiy of atrophia inanitorum. Hippocrates
rails it  tabes ossis.
  Tares ossis sacri.  See  Tabes dorsalis.
  Tasks tulmonalis.  See  Phthisis.
  Tabes renalis.  A xvasting away ol the boay from
in abscess of the kidney.                     .
  TABULAR SPAR.   Table spar.   Schaalstein of
      334
Werner.  Prismatic  augite of Jameson.   A  mineral
of a grayish white colour, found in primitive rocks at
Oraxvicza.
  TACAMAHACCA.   (Indian.)   See  Fcgara  oc-
tandra.
  TA'CTUS.  See Touch.
  TjE'DA.  (Aaiia; from iau, to burn )  A torch.  A
species of pine which burns like a torch   A medicated
torch for fumigations.
  TiE'NIA.  (Tuivia,  a Hebrexv xvord,  signifying a
fillet: the name of a  worm, from its resemblance to a
fillet or tape.)  The tapeworm.  A genus of intestinal
xvorms; characterized by a long, flat, and jointed body.
See  IVorms.
  TAIL.  See Cauda.
  TALC.   See Talcum.
  TA'LCUM.  (From talk, German.)   Talc.  Of tint
mineral, which is Jameson's sixth subspecies of rhom-
boidal mica, there are two kinds.  1. Common talc, of
a greenish-while colour, greasy feel, breaks into curved
plates or leaves, occurs in beds of mica slate, and  clay
slate, in several parts of Scotland.  2.  Indurated talc,
or talc slate, of a greenish-gray colour, found in Scot-
land, and abundantly on ihe Continent.  Ii is used by
carpenters,  tailors, hat makers, and glaziers for draw-
ing lines.
  Talc is composed of pure magnesia mixed with neai
twice its xveight of silex and less ihan lu weight of
alumine. The greenish foliaceous Venice talc was for-
merly used medicinally, as possessing antacid and ape-
rient qualities.
  Tallow.  See Fat.
  TA'LPA.  (From rvtAXoc,  blind.)   Talparia.   A
mole.  Also, a tumour resembling a mole in eating, and
creeping under the skm. 
TAN
TAR
  TA'LUS.  See Astragalus
  TALC1TE.  Nacrite of Jameson.   Earthly talc of
 Werner.  A  greenish-xvhite, scaly mineral found in
 the mining district of Freyberg.
  Tamalapa'tra.  The  Indian  leaf Is so termed by
 tome authors.  See Laurus cassia.
  TAMARIND.  See Tamarindus.
  TAMARINDUS.  (Tamarindus, i, m.\ from tamar,
 or tamarindi, xvhich is, in the Arabian language, a *y-
 nonymeof the dactylus or  date.)  1. The name of a
 Semis of plants.  Class, Monadelphia; Order, Trian-
 dria.  The tamarind-tree.
  2. The  pharm acopoteial name of the tamarind.  See
 Tamarindus indica.
  Tamarindus indica.  The systematic name of the
 tamarind-tree.  Oxyphanicon;  Siliqua arabica ;  Ba-
 lampulli;  Tamaraa  zecla: oxyphanicia; Acacia in-
 dica.  The pulp of the tamarind, xvitii the seeds, con-
 nected together by numerous tough  strings or fibres,
 are  brought to  us freed from the outer shell, and com-
 monly preserved in syrup.  According to Long, taina-
 linds are  prepared for exportation at Jamaica, in the
 following  manner: " The  fruit or pods are gathered in
 lune, July, and  August, xvhen full ri|ie, xvhich is knoxvn
 Dy llieir fragility or easy breaking on small  pressure
 Between the finger and thumb.  The fruit taken nut of
 the pod, and cleared from  the  shelly fragments, is
 Disced in layers  in a cask, nnd boiling syrup, just before
  begins to granulate, is poured in, till  the cask is filled :
 the syrup  pervades every part quite  doxvn to the bot-
 tom, and, xvhen cool, the cask is headed for sale." The
 tamarind  is employed as a laxative, and for abating
 durst or heat  in various inflammatory complaints, and
 for correcting putriddisorders especially of a bilious kind,
 in which the cathartic, antiseptic, and refrigerant qua-
 itiesof the fruit  have been found equally useful. When
 intended merely as a laxative, it may be of advantage
 (Dr. Woodville observes,)  to join  il with manna or
 purgatives of a sxveet kind, by xvhich its use is rendered
 safer and  more  effectual.  Three  drachms of the pulp
 are usually sufficient to open the body, hut to prove mo-
 derately cathartic, one or txvo ounces  are required.  It
 is an ingredient in the confectio cassia, and confectio
 ?cnna.
  TA.MARI'SCUS.  See Tamarix gallica.
  TA'MARIX.   (Tamarix, icis,f.;  from  Tamarik,
 abstersion, ileb.:  named from its properties of cleans-
 ing and purifying  the blood.)  The name of a genus
 of plants.   Class, Pentandria ; Order, Digynia.   The
 tamarisk-tree.
  Tamarix gallica.  The systematic  name of the
 tamarisk-tree.  Tamariscus.  Tamarisk.   The baik,
 wood, and leaves of this tree, were formerly employed
 medicinally, though seldom  used at present. The for-
 mer for its aperient and corroborant virtues in obstruc-
 tions of the liver;  the latter in icterus* ha-moptysis,
 and some  affections of the skin.
  TA ME-POISON.  See Asclepias vincetoxicum.
  TANACETUM.  (Tanacetum, i, n.; corrupted from
 tanasia, athanasia, the old  name for tansy.)  1. The
 name of a genus of  plants in the Linnaean system.
 Class, Syngenesia ;  Order,  Polygamia  superflua.
 Tansy.
  2.  The pharmacopceial name of the tansy.  See Ta-
 taeetum vulgare.
  Tanacetum balsamita.  The systematic name of
 he officinal alccost.  Balsamita mas ; Balsamita ma-
 jor;  Tanacetum  kortense;  Costus hortorum,  Cost-
 mary, or alecost.  The plant which  bears this name in
 the  pharmacopoeias, is the  Tanacetum  balsamita;
 foliis ovatis, integris, serratis, of Linnaeus.  A fra-
 grant smelling herb, somewhat like thntof mint;  for-
 merly esteemed as a corroborant, carminative,  and
 emmenagogue.
  Tanacetum  hortknse.  See Balsamita mas.
  Tanacetum  vulgare.   The systematic name of
 the common  tansy.   Tanasia;  Athanasia; Parthe
 nium mas. Tanacetum—foliis bipinnatis incicis  ser
 raits, nf Linnaeus.  The  leaves and  flowers of tansy
 have a strong, not very disagreeable smell, and a bitter
somexvhat aromatic taste.  The virtues of tansy are tonic,
stomachic, anthelmintic, emmenagogue, and resolvent.
It has been much used as a vermifuge;  and testimo-
nies of its efficacy are given by many respectable phy-
sicians. Not only the leaves, but the  seeds have been
employed xvith this intention, and substituted for those
of santonicuin.  We  are told  by Dr. Clark,  that in
Scotland tansy was found to  be  of great service fa
various cases of gout; und Dr.  Cullen,  xvho afterward
was informed of the effect il had produced upon those
who had used the herb for this purpose, says,  " I have
known several who have laken itivithoul any advan-
tage, and some others who reported that they had been
relieved from the frequency of their gout." Tansy is
also recommended  iu  tlie  hysteria, especially xvhen
this disease is supposed to proceed from menstrual ob-
structions.
  This  plant may be given In  powder to the quantity
of a drachm or more for a dose; but it has been more
commonly taken in  infusion, or drank in  tea.
  TANA" SI A.   See Tanacetum.
  TANNIN.  This, xvhich is one of the immediate
principles of vegetables, was first distinguished  by  Se-
guin from tlie gallic  acid, xvith which it had been, con-
founded under the  name of the astringent principle.
He gave it the name of tannin, from its use iu the tan
nine of leather; xvhicli it effects  by its  characteristic
property, that of forming xvith gelatin a tough insolublt
matter.
  It may be obtained from vegetables by macerating
them iu cold xx ater;  nnd precipitated from this solution,
which contains likexvise gallic acid and extractive mat-
ter, by liyperoxysenized muriate of tin.  From this pre-
cipitate, immediately diffused  iu a  large quantity of
xxater, the oxide of tin may be separated  hy sulphuret-
ted hydrogen gas, leaving the tannin in solution.
  Professor Proust has since recommended another me-
thod,'the precipitation of a decoction of galls by pow-
dered carbonate of potassa, washing well ihe greenish-
gray flakes that fall  down xvith cold water, and  drying
lliem iu a stove.  Tiie precipitate  grows brown in the
air, becomes brittle  and shining like a resin, and  yet
remains soluble in hot xvater.  The tannin in this state,
lie says, is very pure.
  Sir II. Davy, after making  several  experiments on
different methods of ascertaining the quantity of tannin
in astringent infusions, prefers for this purpose the com
mon process of precipitating the tannin by gelatin;  but
he  remarks, that the  tannin of different vegetables
requires different proportions of gelatin  for its  satura-
tion ; and that  the  quantity of precipitate obtained is
influenced by the degree in xvhich the solutions are con
centraled.
  Chenevix observed, that coffee-berries acquired by
roasting  the property  of  precipitating  gelatin;  and
Hatchett has made  a number of experiments, which
show that an artificial tannin, or substance having its
chief property, may he formed, by treating xvith nitric
acid matters containing charcoal. It is remarkable that
this tannin, xvhen prepared  from vegetable substances,
ns dry charcoal of xvood, yields, on combustion,  pro-
ducts nualagous to those of animal matters.  From his
experiments it xvould seem, that tannin  is. in realitv,
carbonaceous mailer combined wilh oxygen; nnd  the
difference in ihe proportion of oxygen may occasion the
differences  in the tannin procured from different sut>
stances, that from catechu appearing to contain most
  Bouillon Lagrange asserts, lhat tannin, by absorbiv^
oxygen, is converted into gallic  acid.
  It is not an unfrequent practice, to administer medi-
cines containing tannin iu cases of debility, aud  at the
same time  to prescribe gelatinous food as nutritious,
But this is  evidently improper, as  the  tannin, from
its chemical properties, must render the gelatin indi
gestible.
  TANSY.   See Tanacetum.
  Tansy, wild.   See Potentilla.
  TANTALUM. The metal,  an account of whicli is
given under the article  columbic acid.   See Columbia
acid and Culumbium.
  TAPE WORM.   See Tania.
  TAPIOCA.  See  Jatropha manihot.
  TAPPING.  See Paracentesis.
  Ta'psus barbatus.  Sec Verbascum.
  TAR.  See Pinus sylvestris.
  Tar, Barbadoes.  See Petroleum barbadense.
  Tar-water.   A once celebrated  remedy, but now
neglected more than  it deserves.  It is made by infusing
tar  lu water, stirring it from time to lime, and lasUy
pouring  off the clear liquor now'iinpregiiaiod with  the
colour and  virtues of the  tar.   It is drunk in many
chronic affections, particularly ofthe luugs.
  TARANTI'SMUS.   (From  tarantula, the animal.
the bite of whicli is supposed to be cured only by music '
                                        333 
TAR
TAIl
 The desire of dancing which is produced by the bite of
 •he tarantula.
   TARA'NTULA.  (From Taranta, a city in Naples,
 where they abound.) A kind of venomous spider, whose
 bite is said to be cured by music.
   T AR A'X ACUM.  (From raoaoou, to alter or change:
 because  it alters the state of the blood.)  Sec Leon-
 todon.
   TARA'XIS.  (From  rapaoau, to disturb.)  A slight
 -nflamtnation of the eye.
   Ta'rchon sylvestris.  See Achillea ptarmica.
   TARE.  See Ervum.
   TARRAS.  Terras.   A volcanic earth, used  as  a
 vement.
   Tarsi extensor  minor.  See Plantaris.
   TA'RSUS.  Tapaos-   1-  The iriatep, or that part of
the foot whicli is betxveen the leg and metatarsus:  it is
composed of seven bones, viz. the astragalus, os calcis,
os naviculare, os cuboides, and three ossa cuneiformia.
  2. The thin cartilage situated at the edges of the  eye-
lids to preserve their firmness and shape.
   TARTAR.  See Tartarum.
   Tartar cream of.   The popular  name of  the  pulve-
rized  supertartrate of potassa.
   Tartar, emetic.  See Antimonium tartarizatum.
   Tartar, oil of.  See Potassa subcarbonatis liquor.
   Tartar, regenerated.  See Potassa acetas.
   Tartar, salt of.  See  Potassa subcarbonas.
   Tartar, soluble.  See  Potassa tartras.
   Tartar, spirit of.  If  the crystals of tartar  be  dis-
tilled  by  a strong heat,  without any additional body,
they furnish an empyreumatic acid, called the pyrotar-
tareous acid, or spirit of tartar, and a very foetid empy-
reumatic oil.
   Tartar, vitriolated.  See Poiassa sulphas.
  TARTARIC ACID. Acidum tartaricum; Sal essen-
tiate tartari ; Acidum tartari essentiate. Tartareous
acid.  " The casks in which some  kinds of wine are
kept become incrusted with a  hard substance, tinged
xvith the colouring matter of the xvine, and otherwise
impure, which has long  been  knoxvn by the name of
argal, or tartar, and distinguished  into  red and white
according to its colour.  This being purified by solution,
filtration, and crystallization, xvas termed cream,or crys-
tals of tartar.  It xvas afterward discovered, that it con-
sisted of a peculiar acid combined with potassa; and the
supposition that it was formed during the fomentation of
the wine, was disproved by Boerhaave, Neuman, and
others, xvho showed that it existed ready formed in the
juice ofthe grape.  It has likewise been  found in other
fruits, particularly before they are too ripe ;  and in the
tamarind, sumac, balm,  carduus benedictus,  and the
roots  of restharrow, germander, and sage.   The sepa-
ration of tartaric acid from this acidulous  salt, is the
first discovery of Scheele that is knoxvn.   He saturated
the superfluous acid, by adding chalk to a solulion of
the supertartrate in boiling water as long as any effer-
vescence ensued, and expelled  the acid from the  pre-
cipitated tartrate of lime by means of  the  sulphuric.
Or four  parts of tartar  may be boiled in  twenty or
twenty-four of xvater, and one part of sulphuric acid
 added gradually.  By continuing the boiling,  the  sul-
 phate of potassa will fall down.   When the liquor is
 reduced to one-half, it is to be filtered;  and if any more
sulphate be deposited by continuing the boiling, the fil-
 tering must be repeated. When no  more is thrown
down, the liquor is to be evaporated to the consistence
of a syrup ; and thus crystals of tartaric acid, equal to
 half the xveight of the tartar  employed, will be ob-
tained.
   The tartaric acid may be procured in needly or lami-
 nated crystals, bv evaporating a solution of it.  Its taste
 is very acid and" agreeable, so that it may  supply the
 place of lemon-juice. It  is very soluble In xvater.  Burnt
 in an open fire, it leaves a coaly  residuum; in close
 vessels it gives out cnrbonlc ncid and carburetted hy-
drogen gas.  By distilling nitric ncid  off the crystals,
 they may be converted Into oxalic  acid, and the nitric
 ncid passes to the stale of nitrous.
   To extract the whole  acid from  tartar, Thenard re-
 commends, after saturating the redundant  acid with
 chalk, to add muriate of lime to the supernatant neutral
tartrate, by which means It is completely decomposed.
The Insoluble tartrate of lime being washed with abun-
 dance of water, is then  to be treated xvith three-fifths
 ofits xveight of strong sulphuric acid, diluted  previously
 With  five parts of xvater.  Hut Fourcroy's  process, as
      330
 improved  by Vauquelin, seems still better.  Tartar i»
 treated with quicklime and boiling  water in the pro
 portion, by the theory of equivalents, of 100 of tartar to
 30 of dry lime,  or  40 of the slaked.  A caustic magma
 is obtained, which must  be evaporated to dryness, and
 gently heated.  On digesting this  in water, a solution
 of caustic  potassa is obtained, while  tartrate of lime
 remains; from xvhich the acid may be separated by the
 equivalent quantity of oil of vitriol.
  According to Berzelius, tartaric acid is a compound
 of 3.807 hydrogen +  35.980 carbon  -4- 60.213 oxygen
 = 100; to  xvliich result he shows that of Gay Lussac
 and Thenard to correspond, when allowance is made
 for a certain portion of water, which they had omitted
 to estimate.  Tlie analysis of tartrate of lead,  give?
 8.384 for the acid  prime equivalent;  and it may  be
 made up of 3 hydrogen = 0.375     4.48
            4 carbon   == 3.000    35.8-2
            5 oxygen   = 5.000    5'J.70

                         8.375   100.00

 The crystallized acid  is a compound of 8.375 acid  -f-
 1.125 water =  9.5; or, in 100 pr,rts, 86.15 acid -f 1L85
 water.
  The tartrates, in their decomposition  by fire, comport
themselves like all the other  vegetable  salts, excep',
that those xvitii excess of acid  yield tlie smell of caro
met  when heated, and afford a certain quantity of the
pyrotartaric acid.   All the  soluble  neutral  tartrates
form, xvith  tartaric acid, bitartrates of sparing solubili-
ty ;  xvhile all the insoluble tartrates may be dissolved
in an excess of llieir acid.  Hence, by pouring gradually
an excess of acid into  barytes,  strontites, and  lime-wa
ters, the precipitates formed at first cannot fail to dis-
appear ; while those obtained by an excess ofthe same
acid, added to concentrated solutions of potassa, soda,
or ammonia, and the neutral tartrates of these bases, as
well asof magnesia and copper, must be permanent. Tlie
first are alxvays flocculent; the second  alxvays crystal-
line; that of copper alone is in a greenish-white pow-
der.  It likexvise follows, that  the  greater number of
acids ought to disturb  the solutions of the alkaline neu-
tral  tartrates, because they transform these sails into
bitartrates; and, on the contrary, Ihey  ought to affect
the solution of the neutral insoluble tartrates, which
indeed always happens, unless the acid  cannot dissolve
Ihe base ofthe  tartrate.  The oider of apparent affini-
ties of tartaric acid aie, lime, barytes, strontites, potassa,
soda, ammonia, and macnesia.
  The tartrates of potassa,  soda,  and ammonia are
 not only susceptible of combining together,  but  also
 xvith the other tartrates, so as to form double, or triple
salts.   We may thus  easily conceive why the tartrates
of potassa, soda, and  ammonia do not disturb the so-
lutions  of  iron and manganese;  and, on the other
hand, disturb the solutions of the salts  of  barytes,
strontites, lime, and lead.   In the first case, double salts
are formed, hoxvever small a quantity of" tartrate shall
have been employed;  in the second,  no double salt  is
formed, unless  the tartrate  be added in very great
excess.
  The tartrates of lime and barytes are white, pulve-
rulent, and insoluble.
  Tartrate  of strontian, formed by the double decom-
position of muriate of strontian and  tartrate of po-
tassa, according to Vauquelin, is soluble, crystalliza-
ble, and consists of 5-J.88 strontian, and 47.12 acid.
  That of  magnesia  forms a gelatinous or eummv
mass.                                            '
  Tartrate of potassa, tartarized kali, and  vegetable
salt, of some, formerly called  soluble tartar, because
much more so than the  supertartrate, crystallizes  iu
oblong squares, bevelled  at the extremities.  Ii has a
bitterish taste, and is decomposed by heat, as its  solu-
tion  is even by standing some time.   It is used  as a
mild purgative.
  The supertartrate of potassa is much used as a cool
ing and gently opening medicine, ns xvell as in several
chemical and pharmaceutical preparations. Dissolved
in xvater,  xvith the addition of a  liltle sugar, nnd a
slice or txvo or lemon-peel, it forms an  agreeable cool-
ing drink, by the name of imperial: and if an infusion
ot green balm be used, instead of water, It makes one
of.the pleasantest  liquors of the kind xvith whicli we
are acquainted.  Mixed xvith nn equal xveight of nitre,
and  projected into a red hot crucible, it detonates, and 
TAK
TAS
forms the white fiux,- treated in the same xvay, with
half its weight of nilre, it forms the black fiux; and
simply mixed xvith nitre in various proportions, it is
called raw flux.  It is likewise used in dying, in hat-
making, in gilding, and in other arts.
  The blanching of the crude tartar is aided by boiling
its solutioii with one-twentieth of pipe-clay.
  According to the analysis of Berzelius, it consists of
70.45 acid + 24.8 potassa + 4.75 xvater = 100; or,
        2 primes acid,    = 1G.75    70.30
        1        potassa, =  5.95    24.95
        1        xvater,  =  1.125   4.7o

                            23.8-25 100.01)

60 parts of xvater dissolve 4 of bitartrate, at a boiling
heat; and only 1 at 60° Fahr.  It is quite insoluble in
alkohol.
  By saturating the superfluous acid, in this  supertar-
trate, with soda, a triple salt is formed, which crystal-
lizes in larger regular prisms of  eight nearly  equal
sides, of a  bitter  taste,  efflorescent,  and soluble in
about fix-e parts  of xvater.  It consists, according to
Vauquelin, of 54 parts tartrate of potassa  and 40  tar-
trate of soda; and xvas once in much repute  as a pur-
gative, by the name of Rochelle salt, or Sel de Seignette.
  The tartrate of soda is much less soluble than  this
triple salt, and crystallizes  iu slender needles or thin
plates.
  The  tartrate of ammonia is a very soluble,  bitter
salt, and  crystallizes  easily.  Its solulion is sponta-
neously decomposable.
  This too  forms, xvith tartrate of potassa, a  triple
■ah, the solution of which yields, by cooling, fine pyra-
aiidal or prismatic efflorescent crystals.  Though both
the neutral  salts that compose it are bitter, this  is not,
but has a cooling taste.
  Take of the supertartrate of  potassa, txvo pounds
ind a half; three gallons  of boiling-hot  water;  one
pound of prepared chalk; one pound of sulphuric acid.
Boil the cream of tartar in two  gallons of the water,
and gradually throw in  the chalk, until  all  efferves-
cence ceases; set the liquor aside,  that the tartrate of
lime may subside; pour off the  liquor, and  xxash the
tartrate of lime repeatedly with distilled water, until it
is tasteless.   The pour on it the sulphuric acid, di-
luted xvith the remaining  gallon of boiling water, and
set the whole aside for twenty-four hours, stirring it
xvell now and then.  Strain the liquor, and evaporate
in  a water-bath until crystals  form.  The virtues of
this acid are antiseptic, refrigerant, and diuretic.  It is
used in acute fevers, scurvy, and luemorrhage."—Ure's
Chem. Diet.
  TARTARINE. The name given by Kirwan to the
vegetable alkali.
  TA'RTARUM.   (Tartarum, i,  n.;  from  rapjaoos,
infernal: because it is the sediment or dregs.)  Tartar.
1. The concretion xvhich  fixes to  the  inside of hogs-
heads containing xvine.  It is alloyed xvilh much ex-
tractive and colouring matter, from xvhich it is purified
by decoction xvith  argillaceous earths and subsequent
crystallization.  By this means  il becomes  perfectly
white, and shoots out crystals of tartar, consisting of a
peculiar acid called acid of tartar, imperfectly satu-
rated with  poiassa; it is therefore a supertartrate of
lhat alkali, xvhich, xvhen  powdered, is the cream of
tartar of the shops.  Its virtues are eccoprotic, diuretic,
iu acid base.)   A tartrate, or salt, formed by the com
binatiun of tartaric acid xvilh salifiable  bases; as tar
Irate of soda, potassa, Sec.
  Tartras ammoni.e.  Alkali volatile tartarizatum,
of Bergman.   Sal ammoniacum tariureum; Tartarul
ammonia.  A  salt composed of tartaric acid and am
monia ; its virtues are diaphoretic, diuretic, and deob-
struent.   It is prescribed in fevers, atonic exanthe
mata, catarrh, arthritic and  rheumatic arthrodynia,
hysteric spasms, &c.
  Tartras potassae.  See Potassa tartras.
  Tartras  potass*  acidulus.  Cream  of tartar.
Sec Potassa supertartras.
  Tartras potass.e acidulus  fkrratus.   Globult
martialcs; Tartarus chalybeatus; Mars  solubilis;
Ferrum potabile.  Its virtues are adstringent.  It  is
principally used  externally in  the form of fomen-
tations or bath in contusions,  distortions, and lux
alinns.
  Tartras potassi acidulus stibiatus.  SeejJn-
timonium  turtarizatum.
  Tartras  sod*.   See Soda tartarizata.
  TASTE.  Gustus.  " Savours are only the impres-
sion of certain bodies upon the organ of taste.   Bodies
which produce it are called sapid.
  It has been supposed that the degree of sapidity of a
body could be  determined by that of its solubility;  but
certain bodies, xvhich are insoluble, have a very strong
taste,  while other bodies very soluble  have  scarcely
any.  The sapidity  appears to bear relation to the che-
mical nature  of bodies, and to the peculiar efforts
which they produce upon the animal economy.
  Tastes are very numerous, and very variable. There
have  been numerous endeavours made to class them,
though without complete success; they are better un-
derstood,  hoxvever, than the odours, nodoubtoxving to
the impiessions received by the sense of tasle being
less fugitive than those received by the smell.  Thus
xve are sufficiently  understood, xvhen we speak of a
body having a  taste that is bitter, acid, sour, sweet, Sec
  There is a distinction of tastes which is sufficiently
established, it  being  founded on the organization: that
of agreeable   and disagreeable.  Animals establish it
instinctively.   This is the most important distinction
for those  things  which have an agreeable taste an
generally  useful  for nutrition, while those whose  sa-
vour  is disagreeable, are, for the most part, hurtful.
  Apparatus  of  taste.—The tongue is the principal
organ of taste; hoxvever, the lips, the internal surface
of the cheeks,  the palate, the teeth, the velum pendu-
lum palati, the pharynx,  asophagus, and even the
stomach,  are  susceptible of receiving impressions by
the contact of  sapid bodies.
  The salivary glands,  of which the excretory ducts
open into  the  mouth; the follicles which pour into it
the mucus, xvhich they secrete,  have a  powerful effect
in forming the taste.  Independently  of the mucous
follicles that  the superior surface of the tongue  pre-
sents, and xvhich form upon il fungous papilla, there
are also little inequalities seen, one sort  of which, very
numerous, are called villous papilla;  the others, less
numerous, and disposed on two rows on the sides of
the tongue, are called conical papilla.
  All the  nerves  xvith xvhich those parts are provided
that are intended to receive the impressions of sapid
bodies may be considered as belonging to the apparatus
of taste.  Thus the inferior maxillary  nerves, many
and refrigerant, and it is exhibited in abdominal phys- j branches of the superior, among xvhich it is necessary
conia, dropsy, inflammatory and bilious fevers, dyspep-
sia from rancid or fat substances, bilious diarrhoea
and colic, haemorrhoids and obstipation.
  2.  A name heretofore given to many officinal prepa-
rations, containing the acid of tartar; but in conse-
quence of recent changes in the chemical nomencla-
ture, superseded by appellations more expressive of
tbe respective compositions.
  3.  The name of  the concretion which  so frequently
incrusts the teeth, and which is apparently phosphate
of lime.
  Tartarum emeticum.   See Antimonium  tartari-
tatum.
  Tartarum  reoeneratum.   See Potassa acetas.
  Tartarum solubile.  See Potassa tartras.
  Tartarus ammoni.e.  See Tartras ammonia.
  Tartarus chalybeatus.   See Ferrum  tartari-
zatum.
  TARTRAS.  (Tartras, alis, m • the tartaric being
                                       F f f
to notice the threads which proceed from the spheno-
palatine ganglion, particularly the naso-palatine nerve
of Scarpo, the nerve of the ninth pair, glosso pharyn-
geus, appear to be employed in the exercise of taste.
  The lingual nerveof the fifth pair is that which ana-
tomists consider the principal nerve of taste; and as n
reason they say that its threads are continued into the
villous and conical papilla of Ihe tongue
  Mechanism of taste.—For the full exercise of Uste,
the mucous membrane which covers  the  organs  of
it must be perfectly uninjured ;  it must be coveied with
mucous fluid, and the saliva  must flow freely in the
mouth.  When the mouth becomes dry, the poxvers of
taste cannot be excited.
  It is  also  necessary thai these liquids undergo  no
change: for if the mucous become thick, yellow, aud
the saliva acid, bitter, Sec, the laste will be exerted but
very imperfectly.
  Some authors have assured us lhat the papilla  cf
                                         337 
TEA
TEE
 tne tongue become really erect during the time that the
 taste is exerted.  This assertion I believe to be entirely
 xvithout foundation.
   It is quile enough that a body be in contact with the
 organs of tante, for us to appreciate its savour immedi-
 ately ; but if it is solid, in most cases it is necessary to
 dissolve in the suliva to be tasted ; this condition is not
 necessary for liquids and gases.
   Tliere appears to be  a certain chemical action of
 sapid bodies upon the epidermis of the mucous mem-
 brane of the  mouth;  it is seen evidently  at least  in
 some, as vinegar, the mineral acids, a great number of
 salts, &c.  In  these different cases the colour of the
 epidermis is changed,  and becomes white, yellow, &c.
 By the 6ame causes, like effects are  produced upon
 dead  bodies.  Perhaps to this sort of combination may
 be attributed the different kindr, of impressions made
 by sapid bodies, as xvell as the variable duration of
 tliose impressions.
  Hitherto no  one has accounted for the faculty  pos-
 sessed by the teeth of  being strongly influenced by cer-
 tain  sapid  bodies.  According to the researches of
 Miel, a distinguished dentist of Paris, this effect ought
 to be attributed to imbibition.  Tiie researches of Miel
 prove lhat  the teetli imbibe  very quickly liquids with
 which they are placed  in  contact.  Different parts of
 the mouth  appear to possess  different degrees of sensi-
 bility  for sapid bodies; for they act sometimes on  the
 tongue, on  the gums, on the teeth ; at other times they
 have an exclusive action on the palate, on the pharynx,
 fcc.   Some bodies  leave  their taste a long time in the
 mouth; these  are  particularly the  aromatic bodies.
This after-taste is sometimes felt in the whole mouth,
 sometimes  only in one part of it.  Bitter bodies, for
 example, leave an impression in the  pharynx: acids
 upon  the lips and teeth: peppermint leaves an impres-
sion xvhicli exists both in the mouth arte pharynx.
  Tasles, to be completely  knoxvn, ought to remain
 some  lime in the inouih ; when they traverse it rapidly,
 they leave scarcely any impression; for this  reason we
swalloxv quickly those  bodies xvhich  are disagreeable
to us; on the contrary, xve alloxv tliose that hax'e an
agreeable savour to remain a long time in the mouth.
  When xve taste a body  which has a very strong  and
 pertinacious taste, such as a vegetable acid, we become
 insensible to others which are feeble.   This observation
 has been found valuable in medicine, in administering
 disagreeable drugs to the sick.  We are capable of
 distinguishing  a number of tastes at  the same time,
as also their different degrees of intensity ; litis is used
by chemists, tasters of xvine, &c.   By this means xve
arrive sometimes at a tolerably exact knowledge of the
chemical nature of bodies; but such  delicacy of taste
 is not acquired until after long practice.
  Is the lingual nerve that which is essential to taste 1
 Nothing Is  knoxvn which  can make us attribute this
 property entirely to it.
  The choice of food  depends entirely on  the taste;
joined to smell, it  enables us  to distinguish between
substances that are hurtful and those that are useful.
It is this sense  xvhich gives us the most correct knoxv-
 ledge  of the composition of chemical bodies."
  TA'XIS.  An operation, by xvhich those parts xvhich
 have quitted their natural situation are replaced by  the
 hand  without the assistance of instruments, as iu re-
 ducing hernia, &c.
  TEA.  See  TAea.
  TEAR.  Lachryma   The limpid fluid secreted by
 the lachrymal  glands, and floxving on the surface of
 the eyes.
  The organ whicli secretes this liquid Is the lachrymal
 gland, one of xvhich is situated in the external caninus
 of each orbit, and emits six  or seven excretory ducts,
 which open on the internal surface of the upper eyelid
 nbove its tarsus, and pour forth the tears.   The tears
 have  mixed xvitii  them  an arterimm roscid vapour,
 which exhales from the internal surface of the eyelids,
 and external of the  tunica conjunctiva, into the eye.
 Perhaps the aqueous humour also transudes through
the pores of the cornea on the  surface of the eye.  A
certain part of this aqueous  fluid is dissipated in  the
air; but  the greatest pnrt, alter having performed  its
office, ia  propelled  by  the orbicular muscle,  which so
closely constringes  tl.e eyelid to ihe ball of the eye as
lo leave no spnee between, unless in the internal angle,
where the  tears are collected.  From this  collection
 .he tears arc  absorbed by the orifices of the puncta |
      XI8
  achrymalia; from thence they are propelled through
 the lachrymal canals, into the lachrymal sac, and flow
 through the ductus  nasalis into the cavity of the nos-
 trils, under the  inferior concha nasalis.   The lachry-
 mal  sac appears to  be  formed  of  longitudinal  and
 transverse muscular fibres: and its  tliree orifices fur-
 nished xvilh small sphincters, as the spasmodic contrio
 tion  of the  puncta lachrymalia proves,  if  examined
 with a probe.
   The tears have no«mell but a saltish taste, as people
 who cry perceive.  They  are of a transparent coloui
 and aqueous consistence.
   The quantity, in its natural state, is just sufficient tc
 moisten the surface  of the eye aud eyelids; but from
 sorrow, or any kind of stimulus applied to the surface
 of the  eye, so great  is the quantity of tears secreted
 lhat the puncta lachrymalia are unable to absorb them
 Thus the greatest part  runs doxvn from  the internal
 angle of the eyelids, in the form of great and copious
 drops upon  the cheeks.  A  great quantity also de-
 scends, through the lachrymal passages, into the nos-
 trils ; hence those who cry have au increased discharge
 from the nose.
   Use of the tears.—1. They  continually  moisten  the
 surface of the eye and eyelids, to prevent Ihe pellucid
 cornea from drying and  becoming  opaque, or the eye
 from concreting with the  eyelids.  2. They prevent
 that pain, which would otherwise arise from the fric-
 tion of the eyelids  against  the bulb  of the eye from
 continually winking.   3. They wash  and clean axvay
 Ihe dust of the atmosphere, or any thing acrid lhat has
 fallen  into the  eye.  4.  Crying unloads the head of
 congestions.
   TECTCS.  Covered:  applied as opposed to nudus
 or naked ; as to the seeds of the angiosperm plants.
   TEETH.  (Dens,  a tooth; quasi  edens, from edo,
 to eat.)   Small bones fixed in the alveoli of Ihe upper
 and under jaxv.   In  early  infancy  Nature designs  us
 for the softest aliment, so that the gums alone are then
 sufficient for the  purpose of manducatinn; but as  xve
 advance in life, and require a different food, she wisely
 provides us xvith teeth.  These are  the hardest and
 xvhitestof our bones, and, at full maturity, xve usually
 find thirly-txvo in both jaws; viz. sixteen  above, and
 as many below.  Their  number varies indeed in dif-
 ferent subjects; but it is  seldom seen  to exceed  thirty
 two, and it xvill very rarely be found to  be less than
 twenty eight
   Each tooth may be  divided into txvo parts; riz.  its
 body, or that part xvhich appears above the gums; and
 its fangs or root, which is fixed into Ihe socket.  The
 boundary  between  these txvo, close to the edge of the
 gum, xvhere there is usually a small circular depression,
 is called the neck of the tooth.  The teeth of each jaxv
 are commonly divided into three classes ;  but  before
 each of these is treated of in particular, it will be right
 to say something of their ceneral structure.
   Every loolh is composed of ils cortex or enamel, and
 its internal bony substances.  The enamel, or, as it is
 sometimes called, the vitreous pari of ihe  tooth, is a
 very hard  and  compact substance, of a while colour
 and  peculiar to  the  teeth.  It is found only upon the
 body of the tooth, covering  the outside of the bony or
 internal substance.  When broken it  appears fibrous
 or striated ; and ail the siriae are deeded from the cir-
 cumference lo the centre of the tooth.  This enamel
 is  thickest  on the grinding  surface, and on  the cutting
 edges or points ofthe teelh, becoming gradually thinner
 as it approaches the neck, where it terminates inscn
 sibly.   Some xvriters have described ii as being vascu-
 lar ; but it is certain that no injection will  ever reach
 this substance, lliat it receives no tinge from madder
 and lhat it  affords no appearance of a circulation of
 fluids.   The bony partof  a tooth resembles otlier bones
 in  its structure, but is much harder than the most com-
 pact part of hones in  general.   It composes the inner
 part of the body and  neck, and the xvhole of the root
of the tooth.  This pan of a tooth, when completely
 formed, does nol,  like  the olher bones, receive a tin"e
from mndder, nor do  the  minutest injections penetrale
into its substance, although many xvriters have asserted
the contrary.   Mr. Hunter has been, therefore, induced
to  deny its  being vascular, although he is nxvare that
the teeth, like other bones, are liable to sxvelliiigs, and
that Ihey are found auchylosed xvitii their sockets.  He
supposes, hoxvever, thai both  these may be original
foimalions; and, as Ihe most convincing proof of :h»»if 
TEE
TEE
sot being casciilar, he  reasons from the analogy be-
tween them  and other bones.   He observes,  for in-
Kance, that in a young animal thnt has  been fed with
madder, the parts of the teeth xvliich were formed be-
fore  it vis put on madder diet xvill  appear of their
natural "xiut, but that such pans as  xvere formed
while the animal  was taking the madder, xvill be of n
red colour; xvhereas, in other bones, the  hardest parts
are susceptible of the dye, though more slowly Ihan
the parts xvhich are growing.   Again he tells us, that
if you leave off feeding the animal with madder a con-
siderable time before you kill it, you will  find the above
appearances still subsisting, xvitii this addition, that all
the parts of the teeth xvhich xvere formed after leaving
off the madder xvill be xvhite. This experiment proves
lhat  a tooth  once tinged does  not  lose its colour;
whereas  otlier bones do  (tnough very slowly) return
again to their natural appearance: and,  as the dye in
Hi is cose must be taken into the habit by absorbents,
be is led to  suspect that  the teeth aie xvithout absor-
bents as well as  other vessels.   Those arguments nre
very ingenious, but they are far from being satisfac-
tory.  The facts  adduced by Mr. Hunter are capable
of a different explanation from  that xvhich  he  has
given them; and  xvhen olher facts are added  relative
to the same subject, it xvill appear that this bony part
of a  tooth has a circulation through its substance, and
even lymphatics,  although, from the  hardness of  its
structure, we are  unable  to demonstrate its  xt-ssels.
The facts which may be adduced are, 1st, We find that
a tooth recently draxvn and transplanted into another
socket, becomes as firmly fixed  after  a  certain time,
and preserx-es tire same colour as the rest of the set;
whereas a tooth that has been long draxvn  before it i<=
transplanted, will never become fixed.   Mr. Hunter,
indeed, is aware of this objection, and refers the suc-
cess of the transplantation, in the first instance, lo the
living principle possessed by tlie tooth, and which  he
thinks may  exist independent of a circulation. But
however applicable  such  a doctrine  may be  to zoo-
phytes, it is suspected that jt xvill  not hold good in man,
and others of the more perfect animals: and there does
not appear to be  any doubt but that, in  the case of a
transplanted  tooth, there is a real union hy vessels.
2dly, The swellings of tlie fangs of a tooth, xvhich in
many instances are knoxvn to be the effects of disease,
and which are analogous to the swelling of other bones,
are n clear proof of a similarity of structure, especially
as we find  them invested with a periosteum.  3dly, It
is a curious fact, thougli as yet perhaps  not generally
known, that, in cases of phthisis puhnonalis, tbe teeth
become of a  milky whiteness, and,  in  some  degree,
transparent.  Docs not this prove them to have absor-
bents!
  Each tooth has an inner cavity, xvhich, beginning by
a small opening at the point ofthe fang, becomes larger
and terminates in the body of the tooth.  This  cavily
is supplied with blood-vessels and nerves, xvhich pass
through the small hole  in the root.  In old people this
bole sometimes closes, and the tooth becomes then in-
sensible.
  The teeth  are  invested with periosteum from their
fangs to a little beyond their bony sockets, where it ia
attached to the gums.  This  membrane seems lo be
common to the tooth xvhich it encloses, and to the sockets
which it lines. The teeth are likewise secured in their
sockets by a red substance called  the  gums, which
every where  covers the alveolar processes, and has as
many perforations as there are  teeth.  The gums are
exceedingly vascular, and have  something like carti-
laginous hardness and elasticity, but  do not seem to
have much sensibility.  The gums of infants,  which
perform the offices of teeth, have a hard ridge extend-
ing through their  xvhole length; but in old people, who
have lost their teeth, this ridge is xvanting.  The three
classes into xvhich the teeth are commonly divided are,
incisores, canini, and molares or grinders.
   The incisores  are the four teeth in the forepart of
each jaw;  they derive their name from their use in di-
viding and cutting the food in the manner of a xvedge,
and have each of them two surfaces, which meet in a
sharp edge.  Of these surfaces, the anterior one is con-
vex, and the  posterior one somewhat concave.   In the
upper jaxv they are usually broader and thicker, espe-
cially the txvo middle  ones, than those  of the under
|aw, over which  they generally fall by being placed a
 ittie obliquely
                                      Fff2
  The canini or cuspidati arc the longest of all Of
teelh, deriving their name from their resemblance to a
dog's tusk.  There is one of these teeth on each side of
theincisores, so thnt there are two in each jaxv.  They
are the longest of all the teeth.  Their fangs differ from
that of the incisores only in being much larger, and
their shape may be easily described to be that of an in-
cisor with its edge worn  off, so as  to end  in a narrow
point  instead of a thin  edge.  The canini not  being
calculated for dividing like theincisores, or for grinding,
seem to be intended for laying hold of substances.  Mr.
Hunter remarks of these teeth, that xve  may trace in
them a similarity in shape, situation, and use, from the
most imperfect carnivorous animal, which xve believe
to be the human species, lo the lion, which is the must
perfectly carnivorous.
  The molares or grinders, of xvhich there are leu n
each  jaw, are so called, because from their size and
figure they are  calculated for grinding the food.   The
canini and incisores have only one fang, but the last
three  grinders in the under jaxv have constantly txvo
fangs, and the same teeth in the upper jaw three fangs.
Sometimes these fangs are divided into txvo points near
their base, and each of these points has, perhaps, been
sometimes considered as a distinct fang.  The grinders
likewise  differ  from each other  in their appearance.
The first two on each side, which  Mr. Hunter appears
to have distinguished very properly by the name of bi-
cuspides, seem to be  of a  middle  nature betxveen the
incisores and grinders;  they have in general  only one
root, and the body of the tooth terminates in txvo points,
of xvhich the anterior one is the  highest, so that the
tooth  has in some measure the appearance of one of
the canini. The two grinders beyond these, on each
side,  are much  larger.   Their body  forms  almost a
square xvitii rounded angles; and their grinding surface
has commonly  five points or  protuberances, txvo of
xvhich are on the inner, and three on the outer part of
the tooth.  The last grinder is shorter and smaller than
the rest, and, from its coming through the gums later
than the rest, and sometimes not  appearing till late in
life, is called den* sapientia.   The  variation in the
number of teeth usually depends on these dentes sapi-
ential.
   Having thus  described the appearance of the teeth
in the adult; the manner of their formation and groivih
in the foetus is  next  to be considered.  We shall find
that the alveolar process, wliich begins to be formed at
a very early period,  appears about the fourth  month
only as a shallow longitudinal groove, divided by sligli
ridges into  a number  of" intermediate  depressions
xvhich are to be the future alveoli or sockets.  These de
prcssions are at first filled with small pulpy substances
included in a vascular membrane; and these  pulpy
substances are  the rudiments of the teeth.  As these
advance in their growth, the alveolar processes become
gradually more completely formed. The surface of tile
pulp first begins to harden: the ossification proceeding
from one or more points, according to the kind of tooth
that is to be formed.  Thus in the incisores and canini,
it begins from one point; in the  bicuspides, from two
points, corresponding xvitii the future shape of those
teeth; and in the molares from four or five points.  As
the ossification advances, the whole of the pulp is gra-
dually covered  with bone, excepting its under surface,
and then the fang begins to be formed.   Soon after the
formation of this bony part, the tooth  begins  to be
incrusted with its enamel;  but in  what manner this ia
deposited xve areas yet unable to explain.—Perhaps the
vascular membrane which encloses the pulp, may serve
to secrete it.  It gradually crystallizes upon the surface
of the bony part, and continues to increase  in thick-
ness, especially at the points and basis of the tooth, till
some time before the tooth begins to pass through th<3
gum; and when this happens, the enamel seems to be
as hard as it is  afterxvard, so that the air does nut ap-
pear to have the least effect In hardening it, as has been
sonietimes supposed.  While the enamel is thus form-
ing, the lower part of the pulp is gradually lengthened
out and ossified, so as to form the fang.  In those teeth
which are to have more than one fang, the ossification
begins at different parts of the  pulp  at  one and the
same time.  In this manner nre formed  the incisores
the canini, and txvo molares on each side, making in the
xvhole twenty teeth, in both jaws, which are sufficient
for the purposes of manducaliou early >n  life  As the
fangs of the teeth ere formed, their upper part is gradu 
TEE                                             TEL
 ally pushed upxvards, till at length, about the seventh,
 eighth, or ninth month after birth, the incisores, which
 nre the fiist formed, begin to pass  through  the gum.
 The first that appears  is generally in the lower jaw.
 'Flic canini and molares nol being formed so soon as tiie
 incisores, do not appear  till  about the txventieth  or
 twenty-fourth month.  Sometimes one of the canini,
 but more frequently one of the molares, appears first.
  The danger to which children are exposed, during the
 time of dentition, arises from  the pressure of the teeth
 in the gum, so as to irritate it, and excite  pain and in-
 flammation.  The effect of this irritation is, that the
 gum wastes, and  becomes gradually thinner  at this
 part, liil at length the tooth protrudes.  In such cases,
 therefore, we may, xvilh great propriety, assist  nature
 hy cutting the  gum.  These  twenty teeth are called
 temporary or milk teeth, because they are all  shed  be-
 txveen  the age of seven and fourteen, and are supplied
 by others of a firmer texture, xvith large  fangs xvhich
 remain till they become  affected by disease, or fall out
 in old age, and are therefore called  the permanent  or
 adult teeth.   The rudiments of these adult teeth begin
 to be formed at different periods.  The pulp of the first
 adult  incisor, and of tlie first adult  grinder, may be
 perceived in  a foetus of seven or eight months^ and the
 ossification begins in them about six months after birth.
 Soon after birth the second incisor, and canine tooth
 3n each side, begin to be formed. About the fifth or
sixlh year the first bicuspis, and about the  seventh the
second bicuspi begin to ossify.  These bicuspides arc
destined to replace the  temporary grinders.   All these
 permanent teeth are formed in a distinct set of alveoli;
so that  it is not by the groxving of one  tooth under
another in the same socket, that the uppermost tooth is
gradually pushed out, as  is commonly imagined; but
the temporary teeth, and  those  xvhicli are to succeed
them, being placed in separate alveoli, the upper sockets
gradually disappear, as the under ones increase in size,
till at length  the teelh they contain, having no longer
 any support, consequently fall out.  But, besides these
 twenty teeth, whicli succeed the temporary ones, there
 are twelve others to be added to make up the number
thirty-two.   These twelve are three  grinders  on each
side in both jaws;  and  in order to make room for this
addition, we find the jaws groxv as tiie teeth  groxv, so
 that they appear as completely filled with twenty teelh,
 as they are  afterward  xvith  thirty-two.   Hence,  in
children the  face is flatter and rounder than in adults.
 The first adult grinder usually passes  through the gum
 about tlie twelfth year;  the second, xvhich begins to be
 formed in the sixth or seventh year, cuts the gum about
 the seventeenth or eighteenth; and the third, or dens
sapientiae, which begins to be formed about the twelfth
year, passes through the gum betxveen the age of twenty
and thirty.  The dentes sapientia:  have,  in some  in-
 stances, been cut at the age  of forty, fifty, sixty, and
 even eighty years; and it sometimes happens, that they
 do not appear at all.  Sonietimes likewise it  happens
 that a  third  set of teeth appear about the  age of sixty
 or seventy.  Diemerbroek tells us that he himself, at the
 age of fifty-six, had a fresh canine tooth in the place
 of one he had  lost several years before;  M. du Fay
 saxv two incisores and  wo canini cut the gum  in a man
 aged elghly-four; Mr. Hunter has seen txvo foreteeth
 shoot up In the loxver jaxv of a very old person; and an
 account xvas lately published of a man xvho had a com-
 plete set of teeth at the age of sixty.  Other instances
 of the same kind are lo be met xvilh in authors.  The
 circumstance is curious, and from  the  time of life at
 which il takes place, and the return of the catamenia,
 xvhich sometimes happens to xvomen at the same age,
 It has  been very ingeniously supposed, that  there  is
 some effort in nature" to renew the body  at that period.
  The tect'i  aie subject  to  a variety of accidents.
 Sometimes thn gums become so affected as to  occasion
 them to fall out, and the teeth themselves are frequently
 rendered carious by causes which  have not hitherto
 been satisfactorily explained.  Tlie disease usually be-
 gins on that side of the tooth which is not exposed to
 pressure, and gradually advances  till  an opening  is
 made into tnc cavity: as soon as the cavily is  exposed,
 Ihe tooth becomes liable to considerable pain,  from the
 air coming into contact with the nerve.  Besides these
 accidental means by which the teeth are occasionally
 affected, old nge seldom fails lo bring xvith it sure and
 natural causes for their removal. The alveoli fill up,
 and the teeth consequently fall out.  The gums then
      '14 U
 no longer meet in the forepart of the month the this
 projects forwatds, and the face  being rendered much
 shorter, the whole physiognomy appears considerably
 altered. Having thus described the formation, struc
 ture, growth, and decay of the teelh, it reniiins to speak
 of their uses; the thief of xvhich we know to be hi
 mastication. And here xve cannot help observing the
 great variety in the structure of the human teeth, wliich
 tits us for such a variety of food, and which, when com-
 pared  with ihe  teeth given to other animals,  may in
 some measure enable us to explain tbe  nature of the
 aliment for which man is  intended by Nature.  Thus,
 in ruminating animals, we find  incisores  only in the
 loxver jaw, for cutting the grass, and molares for grind-
 ing it;  in graminivorous animals, we see molares alone;
 and in carnivorous animals, canine teeth for catching
 at their prey, and incisores and molares for cutting and
 dividing it.  But, as  man  is not designed to catch and
 kill his prey xvith his teelh, we observe that our canini
 are shaped differently from tlie fangs of beasts of prey,
 in whom we find them cither  longer than the  rest of
 the  teeth,  or  curved.   The   incisores  likewise  arc
 sharper in those animals than in man.   Nor  are the
 molares in the human subject similar to the molares- of
 carnivorous animals; they are flatter in man than in
 these animals; and, in the latter, we likewise find iheni
 sharper at the edges,  more calculated to cut and tear
 the food, and by their  greater strength, capable of
 breaking Ihe bones of animals.  From these circum-
stances, therefore, we may consider man as partaking
 of the nature of these different classes; as approaching
 more to the carnivorous than  to the herbivorous tribe
 of animals; but upon the whole, formed for a mixed
 aliment, and fitted  equally to live upon flesii and upon
 vegetables.  Those philosophers, therefore, xvho would
 confine a  man  wholly lo vegetable food, do not seem
 to have studied nature.  As the molares are the  last
 teeth that are formed, so they  are usually the first thai
 fall out; this would seem to prove, that we require the
 same kind of aliment in old age as in infancy.  Besides
 the use ofthe teeth in mastication, Ihey likexvise serve
 a secondary purpose, by assisting iu the articulation ol
 the voice.
  TEETHING.  See Dentition and  Teeth.
  Te'oula  hibernica.  See Lapis hibernicus.
  TEGUMENTS.  Under the term  common  integu
 menu, anatomists comprehended the cuticle, rete mu-
 cosum, skin, and  adipose membrane, as  being  Ihe
 covering to every part of tlie  body except the nails.
 See Skin.
  TE'LA.   A web of cloth.  The  cellular membrane
 is so called from its likeness to a fine web.  See Cel
 lular membrane.
  Tela cellulosa.   See Cellular membrane.
  TELEPHIUM. (Because   it heals old ulcers, such
 as thnt of Telephus, made by Ulysses.)   See  Sedum
 telephium.
  TELESIA.  Sapphire.
  TELLURETTED  HYDROGEN.  A combination
 of tellurium and hydrogen.  To make this  compound,
 hydrate of potassa and oxide of tellurium are  ignited
 xvith charcoal, and the mixture acted on by dilute sul
 phuric  acid, in a retort connected xvitii  a mercurial
 pneumatic  apparatus.  Au elastic fluid  is generated,
consisting of hydrogen  holding tellurium in solution'
 It is possessed of very singular  properties.  It is so-
 luble in water, and forms a claret-coloured solution.
 It combines with the alkalies.  It bums with a bluish
 flame, depositing oxide of tellurium.  Its smell  is very
strong  and peculiar,  not unlike  that of sulphuretted
 hydrogen.    This elastic fluid  xxas discovered bv Sii
II. Davy, in 1S0U.                             J
  TELLURIC  ACID.   Acidum  tclluri-um.    The
oxide of tellurium combines xvith many of the metallic
oxides, acting the part of an acid, and producing a class
of compounds xvhicli have been called tellurates.
  TELI.U'IUUM   The name given by Klaproth to
 a metal extracted from scveial  Transylvanian ores.
  Pure tellurium is of a lin-xvhite colour, verging to
lead-gray,  with a high  metallic lustre; of a  foliated
fiacture; and very brittle, so as to be easily pulverized.
 Its sp.  gr. is 6.115.  It  melts before ignition, requiring
liltle higher  heat than  lead, and less than antimony;
and, according to Gnielin, is  ns  volatile  as arsenic.
 When  cooled xvithout agitation, us surface has  a crys-
tallized appearance.  Before the blowpipe on charcoal
it burns with a vivid  blue light, greenish on the edges 
TEM
TEM
ind is dissipated  in grayish-white vapours, of a pun-
gent smell, which condense into a white oxide.  This
oxide heated on charcoal is reduced xvith a kind of
explosion,  and soon  again volatilized.   Heated in a
glass retort, it fuses into" a straw-coloured striated mass,
It appears to contain about 16 per cent, of oxygen.
   Tellurium  is oxidized and dissolved by the principal
acids.  To sulphuric acid it gives a deep purple colour.
Waler separates it in black rtocculi, and heat throws
it doxvn in a white precipitate.
   With nitric acid it forms a colourless solution, xvhich
remains so when diluted, and affords slender denditric
crystals by evaporation.
   The muriatic acid with a small portion  of nitric,
forms a transparent solution, from wliich xvater throws
doxvn a white  submuriate.  This may bo rcdissolved
almost wholly by repeated affusions of water.  Alko-
hol likexvise precipitates it.
   Sulphuric  acid, diluted with  two or three parts of
water, to whicli a little nitric acid has been added,
dissolves a large portion of the metal, and the solution
is not decomposed by water.
   The alkalies throw down from its solutions a white
precipitate, which is soluble iu all the acids, and by au
excess of the alkalies or their carbonates.   They arc
not precipitated by prussiate of potassa.  Tincture of
galls gives a yellow flocculent  precipitate with them.
Tellurium is  precipitated from them in a metallic slate
by zinc, iron, tin, and antimony.
   Tellurium fused with an equal weight of sulphur, in
a gentle heat, forms a lead coloured striated sulphuret.
Alkaline sulphurets precipitate it from its solutions of
a  brown or black  colour.  In this precipitate, either
the metal or its oxide is combined with sulphur. Each
of these sulphurets bums with a pale blue  flame, and
xvhite smoke.  Heated in a retort, part of the  sulphur
is sublimated, carrying up a little of the metal xvitii it.
It does not easily amalgamate xvith quicksilver.
   TEMPERAME'NTUM.   (From tempers,  to  mix
together.)  The peculiar constitution of tlie humours.
 Temperaments have been variously distinguished : the
division most generally received is into the sanguineous,
phleimiatic, choleric, and melancholic.
   TEMPERATURE.   A definite degree of sensible
heat, as measured by the thermometer.   Thus xve say,
a  high temperature, and  a low temperature,  to denote
a  manifest intensity of heat or cold; the temperature
of boiling water, or 212° Fahr.; and a range  of tem-
perature, to designate the intermediate  points nf heat
betxveen two distant terms of thermometric indication.
   TEMPLE.   (Tempora, urn, n.; and tempus,oris, n.)
The lateral and flat parts of the head above the ears.
   TEMPORAL.  (Temporalis; from tempus.)  Be-
longing to the temple.
   Temporal artery. Arteria temporalis.  A branch
•f the external carotid, which runs on the temples, and
gives off the frontal artery.
  Tempobal bon*.  Os temporis.  Two bones situ-
ated one  on each side of the head, of a  very irregular
figure.  They are usually divided into two parts, one
of which, from the manner of its connexion with tbe
neighbouring bones, is called os squamosum, aud  the
olher os petroeum,  from its irregularity and hardness.
  In both these parts there are  processes and cavities
to be described.  Externally there are three processes;
one  anterior, called  zygomatic  process,  which  is
stretched forwards to join with  the os mate, and thus
forms the bony jugum under which the temporal mus-
cle passes; one posterior, called the mastoid or  mamil-
lary process, from its resemblance to a nipple; and one
inferior,  called the styloid  process, from its  shape,
which  is said to resemble that of the ancient stylus
scriptorius.  Ill young subjects, this process is united
with the bone by  an intermediate cartilage, which
sometimes, even in adults, is not completely ossified.
Three muscles have their origin from this process, and
borrow half of their names from it, viz. stylo-glossus,
rtylo-hyoideus, and stylo-pharyngeus.  Round the rout
of this process  there  is  a particular rising  of the os
petrosuni, which some writers describe  as a process,
and. from its  appearance with the styloid, have namei1
it vaginalis.   Others describe the semicircular ridge
nf the meatus auditorius externus a"* a fifth process, to
which  they give the name of auditory.   The depres-
sions and cavities  are, 1. A large fossa, which servos
<br the articulation of the lower jaw ;  it is situated
«etween tbe zygomatic auditory and vagina) process'*,
 and is separated in its middle by a  fissure, Into which
 the ligament that secures the articulation of the loxvei
 jaxv with  this bune  is fixed.   The forepart  of this
 cavity, xvhicli  receives the condyle of  Ihe jaw,  is
 covered with cartilage;  the back part  only xvitii tlie
 periosteum.  2. A long fossa behind  the mastoid pro-
 cess, xvhere the digastric muscle has its origin.  3. The
 meatus auditorius externus, the name given to  n large
 funnel-like canal lhat leads to the organ of hearing
 4. The stylo-mastoiil hole, so called from its situation
 betxveen  the  styloid  ind  mastoid processes.   It is
 likexvise called the aqueduct of Fallopius, aud  afford*
 a passage to the portio dura of tlie auditory, or seventh
 pair of nerves.  5. Below and on the forepart  of the
 last foramen, xve observe part of the  jugular fossa, u
 thimble-like  cavity, in which  the beginning  of the
 internal jugular vein  is lodged.  6.  Befoie and  a little
 above this fossa is the orifioe of a foramen, through
 which  pass the internal  carotid artery and two  fila-
 ments of  the  intercostal nerve.   This conduit runs
 fust upward and then  forward, forming a kind of
 elbow, and terminates at the end of the os  petrosuni.
 7. At  this part of the ossa  temporum xve observe ilia
 orifice of a canal xvhich runs outwards and backxvards
 in a horizontal direction, till it terminates in a  cavity
 of the ear called tympanum.  This  canal,  xvhich  in
 tlie  recent subject  is  continued from the ear  to the
 mouth, is called the Eustachian tube.  8. A small hole
 behind ihe mastoid process, which serves for the trans
 mission of a vein to  the lateral sinus.  But this, like
 other foramina in the skull that serves only  for the
 transmission of vessels, is neither uniform in its situa-
 tion, nor lo be met xvith in every subject.   The internal
 surface of these bones may easily be divided into three
 parts.   The first, uppermost, and largest is  the squa-
 mous part, which is slightly concave from the impres-
 sion of the brain.   Its semicircular edge is sloping,  so
 that the external lamella of the bone  advances  farther
 than the internal, and thus rests more securely on the
 parietal bones.  The second and middlemost, xvhich is
 the petrous part of the bone, forms a hard, craggy pro-
 tuberance, nearly of a triangular shape.  On its pos-
 terior side xve  observe a large foramen, xvhich  is tlie
 meatus auditorius  internus;  it receives  the  double
 nerve  of the seventh pair, viz. the  portio  dura  and
 portio mollis of that pair.  About tlie  middle of its
 anterior surface is a small foramen, wliich opens  into
 the aqueduct of Fallopius, and receives a txvig of the
 portio dura of the seventh pair of nerves.  This fora-
 men having been first described  by Fallopius, and by
 him named hiatus, is  sometimes called hialus Fallopit.
 Besides these,  we observe other smaller holes for the
 transmission of blood-vessels and nerves.  Below this
 craggy protuberance is the third part, wliich, from its
 shape aud connexion xvith the os occipitis by means of
 the lambdoidal suture, may be called the lamhdoidal
 angle of the  temporal bone.  It is  concave  from the
 impression of the brain; it helps to  form the posterior
 and inferior fossae nf  the skull, and  has a considerable
 furioxv, in which is  lodged part of the lateral  sinus.
 The temporal  bones  differ  a little  in their structure
 from the other  bones of the cranium.  At their upper
 parts Ihey  are very thin, and almost  without diplciS.
 but below they have great strength  and thickness.   In
 the foetus,  the  thin upper part, and the loxver cra^iy
 part, are separated by  a cartilaginous substance ; there
 is no appearance either of the mastoid or styloid pnv
 cesses, and, instead of a long funnel-like meatus audi
 torius externus, there is  only a smooth  bony rice,
 within  xvhicli  the  membrana  tympani is  fastened
 Within the petrous part of these bones there are several
 cavities, processes, and bones, which belong altogether
 to the ear, do not enter into the  formation of the era
 nium, and  are described under the article Ear.   The
 ossa temporum are connected  by suture wilh  the
 ossa parieialia,  the os occipitis, the  ossa malarum,ai:d
 the os  sphenoides, and are articulated with the  lower
jaw
  TEMPORA'LIS.   (From tempus, the temple.)   t
 Sec Temporal.
  2.  A muscle  of the loxver jaw, situated  in the tem-
 ple.  Arcardi-temporo-maxiltaire, of Dumas.  Crota-
phites, of Winsloxv.  It arises fleshy from the loxvei.,
lateral, and anterior part of the parietal bone: from all
 the squamous portion  of the temporal  hone;  from the
 lower and lateral part of the c.s frontis; from the pos-
teriorsurfaceof tueosinalae; from all the temporal pin.
                                        34' 
TLR
TER
 cess ofthe sphenoid bone ; and sometimes from a ridge
 at the lower part of this process.  This latter portion,
 however, is  often common to  this muscle and  the
 pterygoideus externus.  It is of a semicircular shape,
 and its radiated fibres converge, so as to form a strong
 middle tendon, xvliich passes under the jugum, and is
 inserted into ihe coronoid process of the lower jaw, to
 xvhich it  adheres on every side, but more particularly
 at its forepart, xvhere the insertion is continued doxvn
 ta the body ofthe bone.  This muscle is covered by a
 pretty strong fascia,  whicli  some writers  have erro-
 neously described as a part of the aponeurosis of  the
 nccipito-frontalis.   This fascia  adheres to the  bones,
 round the xvhole  circumference of  the origin  of  the
 muscle, and, descending over it, is fixed beloxv lo the
 ridge xvhere the zygomatic process  begins, just above
 ihe meatus auditorius, to the upper edge of the zygo-
 matic process itself,  and anteriorly to  the os inalae.
 This  fascia serves as a defence to  the  muscles, and
 likewise gives origin to some of its fleshy fibres. The
 principal  use of the temporal  muscle is to draxv  the,
 loxver jaxv upxvards, as in the action of biting;  and as
 it passes a little forxvaids to its insertion, it may at the
name time pull the condyle a little backwards, though
 not so much as it would-have  done if its fibres had
 passed in a direct line from their origin to tiieir inser-
 tion, because the posterior and loxver part of the muscle
 passes over the root of the zygomatic process, as over
 a pulley.
  TENDO.  See Muscle.
  Tendo  achillis.  See Achillis tendo.
  TENDON.  (From tendo, to stretch.)  The white
and glistening extremity of a muscle.  See Muscle.
  TENDRIL.  See Cirrus.
  TENE'SMUS.   (From rttvu, to constringe:  so
called from the perception of a  continual constriction
or bound state of the part.)  A continual inclination to
go to stool, xvithout adisoiiarge.
  TENNANT1TE.  A variety of  gray copper  ore
found in  Cornwall, in copper  veins, that  intersect
granite and clay slate, associated xvith copper pyriles.
It is of a lead-gray or iron  black colour, and consists
of copper, sulphur, arsenic, iron, and silica.
  TENSOR.  (From tendo, to stretch.)   A muscle,
 the office of xvhich is to extend the part to xvhich it is
 fixed.
  Tensor palati.  See Circumfiexus.
  Tensor tympani.   Internus  auris, of Douglas and
Coxvper.   Internus mallei, of Winsloxv ; and salpingo-
malleen, of Dumas.  A muscle of the ear, xvhich pulls
the malleus and the membrane of the tympanum to-
wards the petrous portion of the temporal bone,  by
 which the membrana tympani is made more concave
 and tense.
  Tensor  vagin*  femoris.   Faseialis.  Membra-
 nosus, of Douglas.   Membranus vel fascia lata,  of
 Cowper;   and  Ilio  aponeurosi-femoral,  of Dumas.
 Musculus aponeurosis, vel fascia lata, of Winsloxv.
 A muscle situated on the outside of the thigh,  which
 stretches the membranous fascia of the thigh, assists in
 the abduction of the  thigh, and  somexvhat in its rota-
 tion inxvards.   It arises by a narrow, tendinous, and
 fleshy beginning from Ihe external part ofthe anterior,
 superior, spinous  process of the ilium, and is inserted
 a little beloxv the great trochanter into the membranous
 fa«cia.
  TENT.  A roll of lint for dilating openings, sinuses,
 &c.   See Spongia praparata.
  TENTO'RIUM.   A process  of  the   dun mater,
 separating the  cerebrum from tlie cerebellum.  It ex-
 tends from the internal horizontal spine ofthe occipital
 hone, directly forxvards to the sella turcica ofthe sphe-
 noid bone.
  Terkde'^la.  (Diminutive of tcrcbra, a piercer or
 gimlet.)   A trepan or instrument for saxving out cir-
 cular portions ofthe skull.  A trephine.
  TEREBI'NTHINA.   (From rtptSivBos, the turpen-
 linc-tree.)  Turpentine, the produce of pine-trees. See
 Turpentine.
  TEREBINTHINA  AROENTOR ATENSIS. Strasblirg tur-
 pentine.   This  species is generally  more transparent
 nnd  less  tenacious than either the Venice or Chio tur-
 pentines.  It is of a yellowish-broxvn colour, and of a
 more agreeable smell than any of the turpentines,  ex-
 cept the Chio.  It is extracted in several pails of Ger-
 many, fiom the red and silver fir, by cutting out
 successively  unrrnw strips  of the bark   In   some
      119
| places  a resinous juice  is collected from under Am
 Ibark, called Lachryma abiegna, and Oleum abietinum.
   Terebinthina canadensis.  Canada turpentine.
 See Pinus balsamea.
   Terebinthina chia.   The resin obtained frcm the
 Pistacia terebinthus.
   Terebinthina communis.   Common turpentine.
 See Pinus sylvestris.
   Terebinthina cypria.  Cyprus  turpentine.   Sec
 Pistacia terebinthus.
   Terebinthina veneta.  Venice turpentine:  so
 called because we are supplied with it from the Vene
 lians.  See Pinus larix.
   Terebinthina vulgaris.   Common  turpentine.
 Tlie liquid resin of the  Pinus  sylvestris.  See  Tur
pentine.
   Terebinthina oleum. The oil  distilled from the
 liquid resin of the Pinus  sylvestris.
   TE'RES.  Round, cylindrical.
   1. The name of some muscles and ligaments.
   2. The name of the ascaris lumbricoides, or round
 xvorm, which infests the intestines.  See Worms.
   3.  Applied   to  roots,  stems,  leaves,  leafstalks,
seeds, &c.
   Teres  ligamentum.   The ligament at the  bottom
ofthe socket ofthe hip-joint.
   Teres  major.  Riolanus, who xvas the  first  thai
distinguished this and the other muscles ofthe scapula
by particular appellations, gave the name of teres to
this  and the following muscle, on account of their long
and  round shape.   Anguli-scapulo-humeral, of Dumas
This muscle, which is longer and thicker than the teres
minor,  is  situated along the   inferior costa of  the
scapula, and is in part covered by the deltoides.
   It arises fleshy from tlie outer surface of the inferior
angle ofthe scapula, (where it covers some part ofthe
infra-spinatus  and teres  minor, xvilh both which its
fibres intermix,) and likewise from tlie lower and pos-
terior half of the inferior costa of the scapula.  As-
cending obliquely toxvards the os humeri,  it passes
 under the long head of  the triceps brachii, and  then
 becomes thinner and flatter to  form  a  thin tendon of
 about an  inch in  breadth, and somewhat more  in
length,  xvhich  runs immediately behind  that  of the
 latissimus dorsi, and is inserted along xvith it into ihe
ridge nt the  inner side of the  groove that lodges the
long head  of the biceps.   These txvo tendons  are in-
cluded in the common  capsula, besides which the ten-
don  of this muscle adheres to  the os humeri  by two
oilier capsula:  which xve find  placed one  above Ihe
other.
   This muscle assists in the rotatory muscle of the arm,
and  likexvise  in  drawing it downwards  and  back-
xvards ;  so lhat xve may consider it as the congener of
the latissimus dorsi.
   Teres  minor.   Marginisus-scapulo-trochitenen,
of Dumas.  This  muscle seems to have been first de-
scribed  by Fallopius.  The teres minor is a thin fleshy
muscle, situated along Ihe inferior edge of the infra-
spinatus, and  is in part  covered by tlie posterioi part
of the deltoides.
   It  arises fleshy from all the convex edge of the inferioi
costa of the scapula; from thence it ascends obliquely
upwards and forxvards, and terminates in aflat tendon,
wliich adheres to the loxver and posterior part or the
capsular ligament ofthe joint, and  is inserted into the
loxver part of the great tuberosity of the os humeri, a
little below the termination of the infra-spinatus.
   The tendinous membrane, xvhich is continued  from
the  infraspinatus, and spread  over the  teres minor,
likexvise forms a thin septum betxveen the txvo mus-
cles.  In some subjects, however, they are so  closely
united,  as  to be with difliculty separated from  each
other.   Some of the fibres of the teres minor are inter
mixed xvith those of the teres major and subscapularis
   The uses of this muscle are similar to those of the
infra-spinatus.
   TE'RETRUM.  (From rcptu, to pierce.)  The tre-
pan.
   TERMINALIS.  Terminal:  applied to flower-stalk
when it terminates a stem or bianch ; as in Centaureo
scabiosa.
   TERMI'NTIIUS.  (From TtpptvOos,  the turpentine
tree: so called  from their resemblance to theioiuof
the turpentine-tree.)  .Ilbatis.   Black and arde.u p.tB
tules, mostly attacking the legs of femnles.
   TERN A It Y.  Consisting of the number thre»- »<iiue» 
TES
TET
some chemical and mistical writers have made strange
xvork with;  but the most remarkable distinction of this
kind, and Ihe only one xvorth notice, is that of Hippo-
crates, xvho divides the parts of a huma&body into con-
tinentes, conleula, and impctum fucieimes, though the
latter is resolvable into tlie mechanism of the txvo for-
mer, rather than any thing distinct in  itself.
  TERNATUS.  Ternate: applied in botany to a leaf
which consists of throe leaflets, as that of the trefoil.
  TERN US.  Ternate:  applied to leaves, xvhen  there
are three together; as in many of the plants ol" Chili
and Peru, xvhich seem particularly disposed to this ar-
rangement, and in Verbena triphylla.
  TE'RRA.  See Earth.
  Terra cariosa.   Rotten stone, a species  of non
effervescent chalk, of a broxvn colour.
  Terra catechu.  See Acacia catechu.
  Terra damnata. See Caput mortuun.
  Terra  foliata tartari.  The acetate of potassa.
  Terra japonica. Japan earth. See.elcaciacattc/iu.
  Terra lemma.  See Bole.
  Terra livonica.  See Bole.
  Terra marita.   The curcuma, or turmeric-root, is
sometimes so called.
  Terra mortua.  See Caput mortuum.
  Terra ponderosa.  The heavy spar.
  Terra ponderosa salita.  See Murias baryta.
  Terra sihnna.   A broxvn ochre found at Sienna, in
Italy, used in painting, both raxv and burnt.
  Terra sioillata.  See Bole.
  Terra verte.   An ore used in  painting, wliich
contains iron in some unknoxvn slate mixed xvilh clay,
and sometimes xvitii chalk and pyrites.
  Terrs oleum.   See  Petroleum.
  Terrea absorbentia.   Absorbent earths, distin-
guishable from other earthy and stony substances by
their solubility in acids;  as chalk, crabs' claxvs, oyster-
shells, egg-shells, pearl, coral, &c.
  TERRENUS.  Terrene,  earthy: applied to plants
whicli groxv  in the earth only, in opposition to those
which live only in water.
  Tk'rthra.  (From rtpOpov, a crane.)  The middle
and lateral part? of the neck.
  TERTIAN.  A tbird-day ague.  See  Febris  inter-
mittens.
  Tertian ague.  See Febris intermittens.
  TERTIANA.  See Febris  intermittens.
  Tertiana  duplex.   A tertian fever that returns
every day; but the paroxysms are unequal, every other
fit being alike.
  Tertiana duplicata.  A tertian fever returning
every other day; but there  are txvo paroxysms in one
day.
  Tertiana  febris.  See Febris intermittens.
  Tertiana  triplex.  A tertian fever returning every
day, every other day there are two paroxysms, and but
one in the intermediate one.
  TERTIANA'RIA.  (From tertiana, a species of in-
termittent fever, which is said to be cured by this plant.)
See Scutellaria galericulata.
  Ter'tium sal.  (From tertius, third.) A neutral salt,
as being the product of an acid and an alkali, making
a third body different from eitlier.
  Te'ssera.  (From rtaaapa, four.)   A foursquare
bone.  The cuboid bone.
  TEST.  Any reagent which, added to a substance,
teaches us to discover its chemical nature or composi-
tion.  See Reagent.
  TE'STA.   (Quasi tosta; from  torreo, to burn.)
1. A shell.  The oyster-shell.
  2. In  botany, it is the name of the skin which con-
tains all the parts of a seed,  as the embryo, the lobes,
the vitellus, and albumen, and which gives shape to
tlie seed, for the skin Is perfectly formed xvhile they are
but a homogeneous liquid.  The testa differs in  thick-
ness and texture in different  plants.  It is sometimes
single, but more frequently lined with a finer and very
delicate film, called  by Gaertner membrana, as may be
seen in  a ivalnut, and the kernel of a peach, almond, or
alum.—Smith.
  Testa probatrix.  A cupel or test.  A pat for sepa-
rating baser metals from gold and silver.
  TESTA'DO.   (From testa, a shell: because it is
covered with a shell.)
  1. A tortoise, also a snail.
  2. An ulcer, which, like a snail,  creeps under the
skin.
  Test* preparatji:.  Prepared oyster-shells.  Wuhi
the shells, piev iously cleared of dirt, wilh boiling water,
then prepare them as is diiectod xvith chalk.
  Testes cilrebri.  See Tubercula quadrigemina.
  TESTICLE.  See 7'esris.
  Testicle, swelled.   See Orchitis.
  TESTICULUS.  (Testiculus, diminutivcof testis.)
1.  A small testicle.
  2. The orcAi* plant: so named from the resemblance
of its roots to a testicle.
  Testiculus caninus.  See Orchis mascula.
  TE'STIS.   (Testis, is, in. ;  a witness, the testes
being ihe witnesses of our  manhood.)  The testicle.
Orchis.  They are also  called  didymi, and  by some
perin.  Txvo little oval bodies si-tualed within thescro-
tum, and covered by a strong, white, and  dense coat,
called tunica albuginea.   Each testicle is composed of
small vessels, bent  iu a  serpentine  direction, arising
from the spermatic artery, and  convoluted  into little
heaps, separated from one another by cellular partitions.
In each partition there is n duct  receiving  semen from
the small vessels; and all the ducts constitute a net
xvhich  is attached to the tunica albuginea.  From this
net-work txvenly or  more vessels arise, all of wliich are
variously contorted, and,  being reflected, ascend to the
posterior margin ofthe testis, xvhere they unite into one
common duct, bent into serpentine xviniiings, and form-
ing a hard body called the epididymis.  The spermatic
arteries are branches of the aorta.  The spermatic veins
empty  themselves into the vena  cava  and emulgent
vein.  The nerves of the testicle are branches  of the
lumbar and  great intercostal nerve.  The use  of the
testicle is to secrete the semen.
  TETANIC.   Tetanicus.   Appertaining to tetanus
or cramp.
  Tetano'.mata.  (From reravou, to smooth.)  Teta-
nothra.  Medicines xvliich smooth the skin, and remove
wrinkles.
  TETANUS. (Tetanus, i, m.; from rttvu, to stretch)
Spasm with rigidity.  Convulsio indica ; Hololonicos ;
Rigor nervosus.  A genus of disease in the Class JVea
roses, and Order Spasmi, of  Cullen ; characterized by
a spasmodic rigidity of almost the xvhole  body.  The
varieties  of tetanus are, 1.  Opisthotonos, where the
body is thrown back by spasmodic contractions of the
muscles.   2. Emprostholonos, the budy being bent for-
wards.  3. Tnsmus, the locked jaw.  Tetanus is often
symptomatic of syphilis and xvorms.
  These affections arise more frequently in warm cli-
mates than in cold ones, and are very apt to occur when
much rain or moisture quickly succeeds excessively dry
and sultry weather.   They attack persons of all ages,
sexes, temperaments,  and complexions, but the male
sex more  frequently than the female, and tliose of a
robust  and vigorous constitution than those of a weak
habit.  Au idea is  entertained by many, Dr. Thomas
observes, that negroes are more  predisposed to attacks
of tetanus than white people; they certainly  are more
frequently affected xvitii it, but this circumstance does
not arise  from any constitutional predisposition, bin
from their being more exposed lo punctures and wounds
in the feet, by nails, splinters of xvood, pieces of broken
glass, &c. from usually going bare-footed.
  Tetanic affections are occasioned either  by  exposure
to cold, or by some irritation of the  nerves, in  conse-
quence of local injury by puncture, incision, or lacera
tion.  Lacerated xvounds of tendinous  parts  prove, in
warm  climates,  a never-failing source of these com-
plaints.   In cold climates, as well  as in warm, the
locked jaxv frequently arises in  consequence  of tht
amputation of a limb.
  When  the disease has arisen  in  consequence of  u
puncture, or any other external injury, the s\ uiptonu
show themselves  generally about the eighth day; bu
when it proceeds  from exposure to cold, they general!}
make their appearance much sooner.
  In some instances it comes on suddenly, and xvith
great violence; but  it more usually makes its attack in
a gradual manner;  in which case, a slight stiffness is
at first perceived in the back part of the neck,  which.
after a short time, becomes considerably increased, and
at length  renders the motion of the  head both difficult
and painful.
  With the rigidity of the head there  is  likexvise a i
uneasy sensation at the root of the tongue, together xvith
some difficulty in sxvalloxviug, and a great tightness ii
perceived about tlie chest, with a pain at the extremity 
TET
TEU
Jf the sternum, shooting into the back.  A stitlness also
lakes place in the jaws, which soon increases to such
a height, that  the teeth become so closely set together,
as not to admit of the smallest opening.  This is xvhat
is termed the locked jaw, or trismus
  In some cases, the spasmodic affection extends no
further.  In others the spasms at this singe of tlie dis-
ease, returning xvitii great frequency become likewise
more general, and now affect not only the muscles of
the nctk  and  jaws,  but likpxvise those  of the xvhole
spine, so as to  bend the trunk of ihe body very forcibly
backxvards, and  this is what is named  opisthotonos.
Where the body  is bent forxvards the disease is called
emproslhotonos.
  During the xvhole course of the disorder, the abdomi-
nal muscles are  violently affected witli spasm, so lhat
fiie belly is strongly retracted, and feels very hard, most
obstinate costiveness prevails, and both the flexor and
extensor muscles of the lower extremities are commonly
affected at the  same time so as to keep the limbs rigidly
extended.
  The flexors of the head and trunk become at length
so strongly affected, as to balance the action of" the ex-
tensor, and to keep the head and  trunk  so rigidly ex-
tended and straight, as to render it incapable of being
moved in any direction.   The arms, xvhich were little
nffected before, are now likexvise rigidly extended, the
tongue also becomes affected xvith spasm, and, being
convulsively darted out, is  often much injured by the
teeth at that moment snapping  together.  It  is to this
state of the disease that the term tetanus  has been
strictly applied.
 Tho disorder continuing to advance, every organ of
voluntary motion becomes affected ; the eyes are rigid
and immoveable, the countenance is hideously dis-
torted, and expresses great distress; the strength is ex-
hausted, and the pulse becomes irregular, and one uni-
xersal spasm puts a period to a most miserable state of
existence.
  Attacks  of  tetanus are seldom attended with any
fever, but always xvith violent pain, and the spasms do
not continue for a constancy, but the muscles admit of
some remission in their contraction, xvhich is frequently
renewed,  especially  if the patient makes  the least
attempt to speak, drink, or alter his position.
  When tetanic  affections arise in consequence of a
wound, puncture, or laceration, in xvarm climates, Dr.
Thomas observes, they are almost sure to prove fatal.
The  locked jaw in consequence of an amputation,
likexvise proves usually fatal.   When these  affections
are produced by an exposure to cold, they may in most
cases  be removed by a timely use of proper remedies,
although a considerable space will probably elapse be-
fore the patient  will be  able  to recover his former
strength.
  On dissections of this disease, slight effusions within
the cranium have been observed  in a fexv instances:
but in by far the  greater number, nothing has been dis-
covered, either in the brain, or any otlier organ.
  The general indications are, 1. To remove any local
irritation,  wliich may appear to  have  excited the dis-
ease; 2. To lessen  the general  irritability, and  spas-
modic tendency; 3. To restore the lone of the system.
If  a thorn, or otlier extraneous substance, be lodged in
any part,  it must  be extracted; any spicula of  bone,
xvhich may have brought on Uie disease afler amputa-
tion, should be removed ; a punctured wound ought to
be dilated, tec.   Some have proposed  dix-iding the
nerve going to the part, or even amputating this, lo cut
off the irritation;  others  paralyzing the  nerves by
poxverful  sedatives,  or destroying them by caustics;
others again exciting a nexv action in the part by active
stimulants; but the efficacy, and even propriety of such
measures, Is doubtful. To fulfil the second indication,
various means have been proposed.  The abstraction
of blood,  recommended by Dr. Rush, might perhaps
appear  advisable in  a vigorous plethoric habit in the
beginning of the disease, but it has generally proved of
little utility, or even  hurtful, and is tather contra indi-
cated bv the state of the blood.  Purging is a less ques-
tionable measure, as costiveness generally attends the
disease, and in many cases it has appeared very  bene-
ficial, especially when calomel  xvas employed.  It has
been found also, that a salivation, induced by mercury,
.Sis  sometimes greatly relieved the disorder;  but in
 dher instances il has failed altogether.  The  remedy
which has been oftoncst employed, and xvitii the most
decided advantage, is opium, and sometimes prodigious
quantities of it  have been  exhibited;  indeed, small
doses are useless, and even large ones have only a tem-
porary effect, so  that they must be repeated, as the vio-
lence ofthe (ft-inptoms is rcnexved;  and  where tlie
patient cannot sxvalloxv, it may be tried in  glyster, or
freely rubbed  into the skin.   Other sedative and anti-
spasmodic  remedies, have been occasionally resorted
to, as hemlock, tobacco, musk, camphor  &c. but for
the most part xvith less satisfactory irsults.  Tlie xvarm-
bath has sometimes proved a useful auxiliary in cold
climates;  but the cold-bath is much more relied upon,
especially in the West  Indies, usually in conjunction
xvith the liberal  use of opium.  In Germany, alkaline
baths, and the internal use of the same remedies, are
stated  to  have  been  decidedly  serviceable.   Others
have advised  the large use  of bark and  wine, which
seem, however, rather calculated to be preventives, or
to fulfil the third indication;  yet xvine may be employed
rather as nourishment, since  in severe  cases of the dis
ease liltle else can  be  taken.  Electricity seems too
hazardous a remedy to be tried in a general affection,
especially in  the muscles of respiration; but if con-
fined to the jaxv, it may be useful in a mild form  At
the period of convalescence  the strength must be re-
stored  by  suitable diet and  medicines, the cold-bath,
regular exercise,  &c.; and removing the patient  from
the West Indies  to a colder  climate, till the health is
fully established, xvould be a  very proper precaution.
  Tetart.e'us.  (Trrapraioy, fourth.)  A quartan fever.
  TETRADYNAMIA.   (From  rtaoapts,  four, and
ivvapts, power.)   The name of a class of plants in the
sexual  system of Linnaeus, containing hermaphrodite
flowers, with six stamens, four of xvhich are long, and
two short.
  TETRAGONUS.   Quadrangular, square: applied
to several parts of plants, as  Caulis tetragonus, in that
of the Lamium album, and a multitude of plants; Fo-
lium letragonium, xvith four edges, or prominent angles,
as that of Iris tuberosa.
  TETRAGYNIA.  (From  rctroapts, four, and  yxvn,
a xvife.)  The name of an  order ol" plants in several
of the  classes of the sexual system of Linntrus, con
sisting of plants  xvhich, to the classic character, xvhat'
ever it is, add the circumstance of having four pistils.
  Tetramy'rum.  (From rtrpas, four, and pvpov, an
ointment.)  An ointment of  four ingredients.
  TETRANDRIA.  (From  rtaoapts, four, and  av.7p,
a husband.)  The name of a class of plants in the
sexual system of Linna-us.  To it belong those xvliich
have hermaphrodite flowers xvitii four stamina of equal
length.
  Tetranou'ria. (From rtrpas four,andoyyoc, acttp.
so called because its fruit resembles a cup divided into
four parts.)  The citrul.
  TETRAPETALOUS.  Four-petalled:  applied to
the flower that consists of four single petals or leaves
placed  around the pistil
  TETRAPIIA'RMACUM.   (From rtrpas, four, and
tfiappaxov, a drug.)  A medicine composed of four in-
gredients.
  TETRAPHYLLUS. (Fromro-pac,four, aiKtyuAW,
a leaf.)  Four-leaved.
  TETTER.   See Herpes.
  TEU'CRIUM.   (Teucrium, H,  n.; from  Teiieer,
xvho discovered  it.)  The name of a  genus of plants
in the  Linnaean system.  Class, Didynamia; Order,
Gymnospcrmia.  The herb speedwell.
  Teucrium  capitatum. The  systematic name of
the poley  mountain of Montpellier.   Poliu-n  monta-
num.  This plant bears the xvinter of our ell nate, and
is generally substituted for the candy-species.
  Teucrium chamjEdrv%.   The systematic name ol
Ihe common  germander.   Chamadrys;  Chamadrys
minor  repens,  vulgaris;   Quercula  calamandrina;
Trissago ; Chamadrops, of Paulus ^gincta, and Ori'
bnsius.  This  plant, called creeping germander, smal
germander, and English treacle ;  Teucrium—foliis cu-
neiformi-ovatis,  incisis, erenatis, petiolatis ; fioribus
ternis;  caulibus procumbentibus, subpilosis, of Lin
noeus, has a moderately bitter and somewhat aromatic
taste.  It was in high repute  among the ancients in in
termittent fevers, rheumatism, ant" gout;  and wherr
an aromatic bitter is xvanting, germander may lie ad-
ministered xvilh success.  The best time for gathering
this herb  is xvhen the  seeds are fanned, and the tops
are then preferable to the leaves.  When dry, the does 
THA
THE
  is from 3ss. to  ij.  Either water or spirit will extract
  Iheir virtue;  but the watery infusion is  more bitter.
  This plant is  an ingredient iu the once celebrated
  poxvder called from  the Duke of Portland,  Portland
  powder.
   Tbuirium champ.cpitys.  The systematic name of
  the grouiiJ-'vne. Chamapilys; Arlhetica; .irthretica ;
  Ajuga; Absfi,  Iva arthritica; Holocyron; Ionia;
  Sideritis.   Coinnion ground-pine.  This loxv hairy
  plant, Teucrium—foliis trifidis, linearibus, intcgcrri-
  mis ; fioribus sessilibus, lateralibus, solitariis ; caule
  diffuso,  of  Linnaeus,  has a moderately bitter taste, and
  a resinous,  not disagreeable smell, somewhat  like that
  of the pine.  The lops of leaves are recommendid as
  aperients and corroborants of the nervous system, and
  said to  be  particularly serviceable in female obstruc-
  tions and paralytic disorders.
   Tedcrium creticum.  The systematic name of the
 poley mountain of Candy.   Polium creticum.  The
 tops and xvhole  herb enter  the antiquated compounds
 mithridate  and  theriaca.  The plant is obtained  from
 the island of Candy ;  has a moderately aromatic smell,
 and  a nauseous bitter taste.  It is placed among the
 aperients and corroborants.
   Tedcrium  iva.  Chamapitys  moschata; Iva  mos-
 chatamonspclit nsium ; Chamapitys anthyllus.  French
 ground-pine.  It is xveaker, but of similar virtues to
 Chamaepitys.
   Teucrium  marum. Tlie systematic  name of the
 Marum  syriacum ,' Marum creticum; Majorana sy-
 riaca; Marum verum ; Marum cortusi;  Chamadrys
 incana maritima ; Marum germander, or Syrian herb
 mastich.  This shrub is the  Teucrium—foliis  integer-
 rimis oralis acutis petiolatis, subtus tomentosis ; fiori-
 bus racemosis sccundis, of Linna-us.   It grows plenti-
 fully in Greece, Egypt, Crete, and Syria.  The leaves
 and  younger branches, when  recent, on being rubbed
 between the fingers,  emit a volatile aromatic smell,
 which readily excites sneezing; to the taste they are
 bitterish, accompanied xvitii a sensation of heat and
 acrimony.   Judging from these sensible qualities of the
 plant, it may be supposed to possess very active poxvers.
 It is recommended as  a stimulant  aromatic, and deob-
 struent ;  and Linnxus, Rosenstein, and Bergius, speak
 highly of its utility. Dose, ten grains to half a drachm
 of the powdered leaves, given in xvine.  At  present,
 however, marum is chiefly used as an errbine.
   Teucrium montanum.  The systematic name ofthe
 common poley mountain.
  Teucrium polium.   The systematic  name of the
 golden poley mountain.
  Teucrium scordium.  The systematic name of the
 Scordium.   Trissago palustris;  Chamadrys palus-
 tris ;  Allium redolent. Water germander.  The leax-es
of this plant have a smell somewhat of the garlic kind
from  which circumstance it is supposed  to take its
name, to the taste they are bitterish and  slightly pun-
gent.  The plant xvas  formerly in high estimation, but
is now justly fallen into disuse, although recommended
by some in antiseptic cataplasms aud fomentations.
  TEU'THRUM.  TtvQpov.  The herb polium.   See
 Teucrium polium.
  THA'LAMCS.   (OaXapos; Thalamus, i, m. a bed.)
A bed: the term  applied to xvhat is supposed to be the
origin of the optic nerve, and to Ihe receptacle of parts
of fructification of plants.  See Receptaculum.
  Thalamus nervi optici.  Two bodies which form
in part the optic nerve, placed near to each other, in
appearance white, protruding at the base of the lateral
 ventricle?, and running in their direction inwards, a
  little doxvnwards, and upxvards, are called the Tk»
  lami nervorum opticorum.
    Tnalasso'meli.  (From OaXaoaa, the sea, andpiXi,
  honey ; A medicine composed of sea-water and honey.
    THALI'CTRUM. ( Thalictrum, ri, n.; from QaXXu,
  to flourish.)  1. The name of a genus of plants in the
  Linna-an  system.   Class, Polyandria; Order, Poly-
  gynia.
   2. The  pharmacopoeia! name of the poor  man's
  rhubarb.  See Thalictrum fiavum.
    Thalictrum  flavum.  The systematic name ol
  the poor man's rhubaib.   Tiie root of this plant  is
  said to be aperient and stomachic, and to come very
  near in its virtues lo rhubarb.   It is a common plant
  in this country, but seldom  used medicinally.
   THALLITE.   Epidote, or Pistacite.
   'PHALLUS.  (From SaXXos, an olive bud, or green
  bough; from §aXXu, lo be verdant, to shoot forth, or
  spread abroad.  A term  applied by  Acharius, for the
  frond or foliage of a  lichen, whether lhat part be of a
  leafy, fibrous, scaly, or crustaceous nature.
   THA'PSIA.  (From  Thapsus, the island where  It
  was found.)  The name  ot a genus of plants in tlie
  Linnaean system.  Class, Pentandria: Order, Digynia
   Thapsia asclepias.  The deadly carrot.  The root
 operates violently  both upxvards and downwards, and
 is not used in the present practice.
   THA PSUS.   (From  Ihe island Thapsus.)   The
 great white mullein, or cows' lungxvott.
   THE'A. Tea.  The dried leaves of the tea-tree, of
 which there are two species, viz. 1. The TAea nigra,
 bohea, or black tea; and 0. The viridis, or green tea;
 both of whicli are natives of China or Japan, where
 they attain the height of five or six feet.
   Great pains are taken in collecting the  leaves singly,
 at three difl'erent times, viz. about  the middle of Feb
 ruary, in  the beginning of March, and  in April.   Al-
 though some writers assert, that they are first exposed
 to the steam of boiling xvater, and then dried on copper
 plates; yet it is now understood that such leaves  arc
 simply dried on iron plates, suspended over a fire, till
 they become dry and shrivelled; when cool, they  are
 packed in  tin boxes to exclude the air, and in that state
 exported to Europe.
  Teas are divided in Britain into three kinds of green,
 and five of bohea.   The former class includes,
  1. Imperial or bloom tea, having a large leaf, a faint
 smell, and  being of a light green  colour.
  2. Hyson, xvhich has small curled leaves, of a green
 shade  inclining to blue.
  3. Singh tea,  thus  termed from  the place where il
 is cultivated.
  The boheas comprehend,
  1. Souchong, which, on infusion, imparts a yellowish
 green colour.
  2. Camho, a fine tea, emitting a fragrant violet smell
 and  yielding a pale shade; it receives its name from
 the province where it is reared.
  3.  Pekoe  tea is known by the small white flowers that
 are mixed xvitii it.
  4.  Congo has a larger leaf than the preceding variety
 and yields a deeper tint to  waler; and,
  5.  Common bohea, the  leax-es of which are of a
 uniform green colour.  There are besides other kinds
 of tea, sold under  the names of gunpowder tea, ic.
 which difl'er from the preceding only in the minuteness
of their leaves, and being dried with additional care.
  The folloxving interesting results of experiments on
 tea  by Brande, have  been published by him in  hii
Journal.
One hundred parts of Tea.
Green Hyson,.......... 14s. per lb.
Ditto,................. 12s.
Ditto,................. 10s.
Ditto,.................  8s.
Ditto,.................  7s.
Black Souchong,.......12s.
Ditto,................. 10s.
Ditto,.................  8s.
Ditto,.................  7s.
Ditto,.................  6s
Soluble
  in
Water.
 Soluble
   in
Alkohol.
44
43
43
42
41
36
37
35
35
31
Precipit
 with
 Jelly.
  Inert
Residue
341 
THE                                            TH1
   Much h:iB been said and written on the medicinal
 properties of tea;  in  its natural state it is a narcotic
 plant, on wliich account tlie Chinese refrain from  its
 use till it has been divested of this property by keeping
 It nt least for twelve months.  If, hoxvever, good tea be
 drunk in moderate quantities, xvith sufficient milk and
 sugar, it invigorates the system, and produces a tempo-
 rary exhilaration ; but when taken  too copiously, it is
 apt to occasion weakness, tremor, palsies, and various
 other symptoms arising from narcotic plants, while it
 contributes to aggravate hysterical and hypochondriacal
 complaints.  Tea has also been supposed to  possess
 considerable diuretic  and sudorific virtues,  which,
 however, depend more on tlie quantity of xvarm xvater
 employed as a vehicle, than the quantity of tea itself.
 Lastly, as  infusions  of those  leaves are tlie safest
 refreshment after  undergoing great bodily fatigue  or
 mental exertion, they afford an  agreeable beverage  to
 those who are exposed to cold weather; at the same
 time tending to support  and  promote perspiration,
 whicli is otherwise liable to be impeded.
  Thea oermanica.   Fluellin or  male speedwell.
 See Veronica officinalis.
  THEBA'ICA.   (A  Thcbaide  regione, from the
 country about the ancient  city of Thebes in Egypt,
 where it flourished )  The Egyptian poppy.
  Thebesh for> wina.  The orifices of veins  in the
 cavities of the heart.
  THE'CA.  (I ioiii TtOtnpt, to place.)  A case, sheath,
 or box.  1. The canal of the vertebral column.
  2. The  capsule or dry fructification adiiering  to the
 apex of a frondose stem.
  Theca  vertebralis. The  vertebral canal.  See
 Spine.
  THELY'P'I ERIS.   (From  0ijXuc,  female,  and
 sreptc, fern.) The female fern.
  THE'NAR  See Flexor brevis pollicis manus.
  THEOBRO MA.  (Theobroma, a, f.; from 6toi: the
 gods, and lipupa, food: so called from the deliciousness
 of its fruit)  The name of a genus of plants.   Class,
 Polyadelpbia; Order,  Decandria.
  Theobp.oma cacao.  The systematic  name of the
 tree which affords cocoa and chocolate.
  Theodo'ricijm.   (From Otot, the gods, and iupov, a
 Rift.)  The pompous nameof some antidotes.
  THERAPEI'A.   (From f9tpair£uo), to  heal.)   Tlte-
 lapia.  The art of healing  diseases.   See  Thera-
 pCuliea.
  THERAPEUTICA.  (From  Scpairtvu, to  cure.)
 Thcrapia.  Metlwdus  medendi.  Therapeutics.  That
 branch of medicine xvliich treats of the operation of
 the diffeient means employed for curing diseases, and
 of the application of these means.
  THERI'ACA.    (From Sijp, a  viper,  or  venomous
 wild beast.)   1.  Treacle, or molasses.
  2. A medicine  appropriated to the cure of the bites
 of venomous animals, or to resist poisons.
  Theriaca andromachi.  The Venice or Mithridate
 treacle; a composition of sixty-one ingredients, pre-
 pared, pulverized,  and with honey formed into an
 electuary.
  Theriaca cojlestis.  Liquid laudanum.
  Theriaca  communis.   Common treacle,  or mo-
 lasses.
  Theriaca damocratis.  The same preparation as
 mithridate.  Sec Milhridatium.
  Theriaca  edinensis.   Edinburgh theriaca.  The
 Confectio opii.
  Theriaca  oermanorum.  A rob of juniper-ber-
 ries.
  Theriaca londinensis.  A cataplasm of cummin-
 nce:l,  bay-berries, germander,  snake-root, cloves, and
 honey.
  Theriaca rusticorum.  The roots of the common
garlic xverj so called.  Sec Allium sativum.
  THERIO'MA.  (From Onptou, to rage like a xvild
beast.)  A malignant ulcer.
  TIIE'RMA.  %. warm-bath or spring.  See Jl/taeral
waters, nnd Bath.
  THERMOMETER.   (Thermometmm; from Qtppn,
heat, and ptrpov, a measure.)   An instrunient for mea-
S'ning the degrees of heat.  A thermometer is a hollow
tube of glass, hermetically sealed, and blown at one
end in the shape of a holloxv globe.  Tne bulb and
part of the tube  nre filled with mercury, which is the
only fluid that expands equally.   When xve immerse the
 »ulb of the thermometer in a  hot body, the  mercury
      316
 expands, and of course rises in the  tube; but when
 xve plunge it into a cold  body, the mercury contracts,
 and of course falls in the tube
   The rising of the mercury mdicates, therefore, an
 increase  of heat; its falling, a diminution of it; and
 the quantity xvhicli it rises or falls, denotes tlie propor-
 tion of increase or diminution.  To facilitate observa
 tion, the tube is divided into a number of equal parts,
 called degrees.
   Further, if xve plunge a thermometer  ever  so often
 into melting snow or ice, it xvill  alxvays stand at the
 same point.  Hence xve learn that snow or ice alxvays
 begins to melt at the same temperature.
   If we plunge a thermometer  repeatedly into water
 kept boiling, xve find that the mercury rises  up to a
 certain point.  This is therefore the point at which
 waler alxvays boils, provided the pressure of Ihe atmos-
 phere be the same.
   There are four different  thermometers used at present
 in Europe, differing from  each other in the number of
 degrees into which tlie space between the freezing and
 boiling points  is divided.  These are Fahrenheit's
 Reaumur's, Celsius's, and Delisle's.
   The thermometer uniformly used in Britain, is Fah-
 renheit's ; in this the freezing point is fixed at 32°—the
 boiling point, at 212° above 0°—or the part at xvhich
 both the ascending and descending series of numbers
 commence.
   bi the thermometer which was first constructed by
 Reaumur, the scale is divided into a smaller number of
 degrees upon the same length, and contains not more
 than 80° between the freezing  and the boiling points.
 The freezing point is  fixed in this thermometer  pre-
 cisely at 0°, the  term betxveen the ascending and the
 descending series of numbers.   Again, 100 is the num-
 ber of the degrees between the freezing and ihe boiling
 points in  the scale of Celsius ; xvhich has been intro-
 duced  into  France, since the  revolution, under  the
 name of the Centigrade thermometer  ; and the freez-
 ing point  is in this, as in the thermometer of Reaumur,
 fixed at 0°.  One  degree on the sc.ile of Fahrenheit
 appears, from this account, to be er, lal to 4-9ths  of a
 degree on that of Reaumur, and tu S-9ths of a degree
 on that of Celsius.
   The space in  Delisle's  thermometer  betxveen  the
 freezing and boiling points is divided into 150°, but the
 graduation begins at the  boiling point, and increases
 towards  Ihe freezing  point.   The boiling  point  is
 marked 0, the freezing point  150.  Hence 180 F. = 150
 D., or 6 F. = 5 D. To reduce the degrees of Delisle's
 thermometer under the boiling point to those  of Fah-
 renheit, we have F. = 212 — 6-5 D ;  to reduce those
 above the boiling, point F.  = 212 -*- 6-5 D.   Upon the
 knowledge of this proportion it is easy for the student
 to reduce the degrees of any of these thermometers into
 the degrees of any other of them.
   Thieves-vinegar.  See Acetum aromaticum.
   THIGH.  See Femur.
   THIGH-BONE.  See Femur.
   THIRST.  Sitis.  The  sensalion by xvhich  xve ex-
 perience a desire to drink.  It is variable according lo
 individuals, and  it is rarely uniform in the same per
 son.  Generally  speaking, it consists of  a feeling of
 dryness, of heat, and constriction, which reigns in the
 back part of the  mouth, the pharynx, oesophagus, and
 sonietimes the stomach.   Though thirst continue but
 for a short time, these parts swell and become red, the
 mucous secretion ceases almost entirely; that of the
 follicles changes, becomes thick and  tenacious; the
 flowing of the saliva  diminishes, and its viscosity i.<
 sensibly augmented.
  These phenomena are accompanied by a vague in
 quietude, by a general heat; the eyes become  red, the
 mind is troubled, the motion of the blood is accelerated.
 the respiration becomes laborious, the mouth is fre:
 quently opened xvide, in order to bring the external aii
 into contact with the irritated parts, and thus to  pro
 duce a momentary ease.
  For the most part, the  inclination to  drink is de
 veloped, when by some cause, for example, heat and
 dryness of the atmosphere, the body has lost  a greal
 deal of fluid ;  but it appears under a great many differ
ent circumstances, such as  having spoken long, having
 eaten  certain sorts of food, or  sxx alloxved a substance
 xvhich remains in the oesophagus, &c.  The  vicious
 habit of frequently drinking,  and the desire of tastinp
some liquids, such as brandy, xvine,  Sec, cause tin 
THO                                           THR
 acvelopement ol  a feeling  xvhich  his the gieatest
 analogy xvitii thirst.
   There are people xvho never felt thirst, xvho drink
 from a sort of sympathy, but xvho could live  a  long
 lime without thinking of it, or xvithout suffering from
 the xvant of it; tliere are other persons in xvhom thirst
 is often renexved,  and  becomes so  strong as to make
 them drink from forty to sixty pints of liquid intxvemy-
 four  hours; in this respect, greal  individual  differ-
 ences are remarked.
   Thirst is an internal  sensation, an instinctive  feel-
 ing; il belongs essentially to  the organization, and ad-
 mits of no explanation.
   THISTLE.  SeeCirduus.
   Thistle, carline.   See Carlina acaulis.
   Thistle, holy.   See Centaurea bencdicta.
   Thistle, pine.   See Carlina gummifera.
   THLA'SPI. (Thlaspi,n.; indeclinable: fiom 0\uu,
 to break; because its seed appears as if"it xvere broken
 or bruised.)  1. The name of a genus of plants in the
 Linnaean system.   Class, Tctradynamia; Order, Silt-
 culusa.
   2. The pharmaceutical name ofthe herb penny-cress.
 Txvo species of  ihlaspi are directed  in some phar-
 macoiweias for medicinal use:—Ihe  Tklaspi arvense,
 of Linnaeus, or treacle mustard ; and Tklaspi campes-
 tre,  of Liniiaeus,  or mithridate mustard.  The seeds
 of both  have an acrid biting taste, approaching to  that
 of common mustard, with which they agree nearly in
 their pharmaceutic qualities.  They have also an un-
 pleasant flavour, somexvhat of the gailic  or  onion
 kind.
   Thlaspi arvense.  The  systematic name of the
 treacle mustard.  See Thlaspi.
   Thlaspi campestre.  i h systematic name of the
 mithridate mustard.  See Thlaspi.
   THORACIC.  (Thoracicus; from thorax, the chest)
 Belonging to the thorax, or chest.
   Thoracic  duct.   Ductus thoracicus.   Ductus
 Pecquettii.   The trunk ofthe absorbents;  of a serpen-
 tine form, and about the diameter of a croxv-quill.  Il
 lies  upon the dorsal  vertebrae, betxveen the aorta and
 vena azygos, and extends from the  posterior opening
 ofthe diaphragm, to the  angle formed by ihe union oi*
 the left subclavian and jugular veins, into xvhich  it
 opens and evacuates its contents.   In this course, the
 tiioracic duct receives the absorbent vessels from al-
 most every part ofthe body.
   THORAX.  ( Thorax, ads, f; from Soptu, to leap:
 because in it the heart leaps.) The chest.'  That  part
 of the body  situated between the neck and the abdo-
 men. The external parts of  the thorax are, the com-
 mon integuments,  the breasts, various muscles,  and
 the bones ofthe thorax.   1 See Bone, and Respiration.)
 The parts within  ihe cavity of the thorax  are, the
 pleura and  its productions, the lungs, heart, thymus
gland,  oesophagus,  thoracic duct, arch  of the  aorta,
part of the  vena cava, the vena azygos, the eighth pair
of nerves, and part ofthe great intercostal nerve.
  THORINA.  An earth discovered in 1816 by  Ber-
zelius. He found it in small quantities in the gadolinitc
of Korarvet, and two nexv minerals which he calls the
deutofluate of cerium, and the double fluate of cerium
and yttria.   It resembles zirconia.
  To obtain  it from those minerals that contain prot-
oxide of cerium and yttria, xve must  first separate the
oxide of iron by succinate of ammonia.   The nexv
earth, indeed, may, when alone, be precipitated by the
succinates;  but in the analytical experiments in which
 he has obtained it,  it precipitated  in so small a quan-
tity along with iron, that he could not separate it from
 lhat oxide.   The deutoxide cf cerium is then precipi-
 tated by the sulphate of potassa; after xvhich the yttria
 and the nexv earth are precipitated together by caustic
 ammonia  Dissolve them in muriatic acid.  Evapo-
 rate the solution to dryness, and pour boiling water on
 the residue, xvhich  xvill dissolve the greatest part of
 the yttria;  but the undissolved residue still contains a
 portion  of  it. Dissolve il in muriatic or nitric acid,
and  evaporate it  till it becomes as exactly neutral as
 possible.  Then pour xvater upon it,  and boil it for nn
 instant.   The new earth  is precipitated, and the liquid
contains disengaged acid.  By saturating  this  liquid,
and  boiling it a second time, we obtain a nexv precipi-
tate of the nexv earth.
  This earth, w'ur.n separated by the  filter, has the np-
iKeRran-eeofiigelnliiiouSjScmitraiisparentmass. When
xvasned and dried, it becomes white, absorbs carlionte
acid, and dissolves with effervescence in acids.  Though
calcined, it retains its xvhite colour;  nnd xvhen tho
heat to xvhich it lias beenexposed xvas only moderate, it
dissolves readily in muriatic acid; but if the heat has
been violent, it xvill not dissolve till It be digested in
strong muriatic acid.  This solulion has  a yellowish
colour;  but it becomes colourless xvhen diluted xvith
water, as is tlie case xvitii glucina,yttria, and alumina.
If it be mixed xvitii yttria, it dissolves more readily aftei
having been exposed to heat.  The neutral solutions
of Ihis eanh have  a purely astringent taste,  xvliich is
neither  sweet, nor  saline, nor bitter, nor metallic.  In
this property it differs from all other species of earths,
excepx zirconia.
   When dissolved  in  sulphuric  acid with  a  slight
excess of acid, aud subjected to evaporation, it yields
transparent crystals, xvhicli nre nol altered by exposure
to the air, and xvliich have a strong styptic taste.
  This earth dissolves very easily in nitric acid; but
after being heated lo redness, it  does not dissolve in it
except by long boiling.  The solution does not crystal-
lize, but forms d mucilaginous mass, which  becomes
more liquid by exposure to the air, and xvhich,  xvhen
evaporated by a moderate heat,  leaves a xvhite, opaque
mass, simitar lo enamel, in a great measure insoluble
in xvater.
  It dissolx-es in muriatic acid, in  the same manner as
in nitric acid. The solution does not crystallize. When
evaporated by a moderate heat, it is converted into a
syrupy mass, which does not deliquesce in the air, but
dries, becomes xvhite like enamel, and afterxvard dis-
solves only in very small  quantity in water, leaving a
subsalt undissolved; so that by spontaneous evapora
lion it lets the portion of muriatic acid escape to xvhich
it owed its solubility.
  This earth combines xvith avidity  xvith carbonic
acid. The precipitates produced by caustic ammonia,
or by boiling the neutral solutions ofllie earth in acids,
absorb carbonic acid from the  air in drying.  The al-
kaline carbonates precipitate the earth combined with
tlie whole of their carbonic acid.
   The ferruginous prussiate of potassa poured into a
solution of this earth, throws down a xvhite  piecipi
tate, xvhich  is  completely  redissolved  by muriatic
acid.
  Caustic potassa and ammonia  have no action  un
this earth  newly precipitated,  not even at a boiling
temperature.
  The solution of carbonate  of potassa, or carbonate
of ammonia, dissolves a small  quantity of it, which
precipitates again when  the liquid  is supcisuturated
xvith an acid, and then  neutralized by caustic am
lunula;  but this earth is much less soluble in the al-
kaline  carbonates than any of the earths formerly
knoxvn that dissolve in them.
  Thorina  differs from the other earths by the folloxv
ing properties:—From alumina,  by its insolubility in
hydrate of potassa; from ulucina, by the same property,
from yttria, by its purely  astringent taste, xvitiiout any
sweetness,  and by the property xvhich its solutions pos-
sess of being precipitated by  boiling when they do not
contain too great an excess of acid.  It differs from zir-
conia by the following properties:—1. A fter being heated
to redness, il is still capable of being dissolved in acids
2 . Sulphate of potassa does not precipitate it from its
solutions, while it precipitates zirconia from solutions
containing  even a considerable excess of acid.  3. It is
precipitated by oxalate of ammonia, which is not the
case with  zirconia.  4. Sulphate of thorina crystal
lizes readily, xvhile sulphate of zirconia, supposing it
free from alkali, forms, xvhen dried, a gelatinous, trans
parent mass, without any trace  of crystallization.
  THORINUM.  The supposed metallic basis of tho
rina, not hitherto extracted.
  THORN. See Prunus spinosa.
  Thorn, Az^gyplian.  See Acacia vera.
  THORN-APPLE.  See Datura stnamonium.
  [THOUOUGHWORT.  See  Eupatorium perfoita
turn.  A.]
  THROMBOSIS.  (Thrombesis, is, f.; from Opoptos '
The same as thrombus.
  THRO'MBUS.  (Thrombus, i, in.; from Spotu, to dis
turb.)  A small tumour xvhich  sometimes arises  aftei
bleeding,  from the  blood escaping from  the vein inta
Ihe cellular structure surrounding  it.
  TH HIS II   See Aphtha.
                                         347 
THY
TIB
  Thry'ptica.  (From Bpvirru, to break.)  Medicines
 fwhich are said to have the power of destroying stones
 in the bladder.
  THULITE. A hard, peach-blossom coloured mineral,
 found at Souland, in Tellemark, in Norxvay.
  THl'MERSTONE.  See Axinite.
  Thu'ris cortex.   The cascarilla  and  clutheria
 earks xvere so called.  See Croton cascarilla.
  THUS.   (From §vu, to sacrifice: so called from its
 great use in  sacrifices.)   See  Juniperus lycia, and
 Pinus abies.
  Thus jud/eorum.   See Thymiama.
  Thus masculum.  See Juniperus lycia.
  THUY'A.   (From Ovov, odour: so named from its
fragrant smell.) Thuja. The name of a genus of plants.
Class, Monacia ; Order, Monadelphia.
  Thuya occidentalis.  The systematic name of the
tree of life.   Arbor vita.  Thuya—strobilit  lavibus ;
squamis obtusis, of Linnaeus.   The leaves and wood
were formerly in high estimation as resolvents, sudo-
rifics, and expectorants, and were given in phtiiisical
affections, intermittent fevers, and dropsies.
  Thylaci'tis.   (From  QvXaxos,  a  seed-vessel:  so
called from its large head.)   The xvhite garden poppy.
  THY'MBRA.  (A name borrowed from Dioscorides,
whose real BvpSpa,  however, is a species of Satureia.)
1. The name  of a genus of plants. Class, Didynamia;
Order, Gymnospermia.
  2. See Satureia hortensis.
  Thymi-.ra hispanica. The name given by Tourne-
fort to the coinnion herb mastich.  See Thymus mas-
tichina.
  THYME.   See Thymus.
  Thyme, lemon. See Thymus  serpyllum.
  Thyme, mother of.  See Thymus serpyllum.
  Thymel(e'a.   (From Ovpos,  thyme, and tXaia, an
alive; the first alluding to the  leaf, and the latter to
the  shape and oiliness of tlie  fruit.)   See  Daphne
gnidium.
  THYMIA'MA.  (From  0uua,  an odour:  so called
from its odoriferous smell.)   Muskxvood.  Thus juda-
orum.  A bark in  small brownish  gray pieces, inter-
mixed with hits of  leaves, seeming as if the  bark and
leaves had been bruised and' pressed together; brought
from Syria, Cilicia, &c. and supposed to be the produce
of the liquid  storax-tree.  This bark has an  agreeable
balsamic smell, approaching to that of liquid storax, and
a sub-acrid bitterish taste, accompanied  with some
slight adstringency.
  Thy'mium.   (From Ovpos, thyme; because it is of the
 tolour of thyme.)   A small xvart upon the skin.
  Thymoxa'lme.  (From dvpos, thyme, oi-iic, acid, and
aXs, salt.)  A composition of thyme, vinegar, and salt.
  THY'MUS.  (Thymus, i, m.  Airo  rov Svpu, be-
cause it was used in faintings; or from Svpa,  an odour,
because of its fragrant smell.)  1. Tlie name of a genus
of plants in the Linnaean system.  Class, Didynamia;
Order, Gymnospermia.   Thyme.
  2. The pharmacopceial name of the common thyme.
 See Thymus vulgaris.
  3. A small  indolent carnous tubercle like  a  xvart
 arising about  the anus, or tlie pudenda, resembling the
 floxvers of thyme, from xvhence it takes its name.
  Thymus citratus.  See Thymus serpyllum.
  Thymus creticus.  See Satureia  capitata.
  Thymus gland.  Ovpos.  A gland of considerable
 size in the foetus,  situated in the anterior duplicature
 or space of the mediastinum, under the superior part
 of tlie sternum.  An excretory duct has not yet been
 detected, hut lymphatic vessels have  been seen going
 from it to the thoracic duct.  Its use is unknown.
  Thymus mastichina.  The  systematic name of Ihe
 common herb mastich.  Marum vulgare; Sampsu-
 elms; Clinopodium mastichina gallorum;  Thymbra
 hyspaniea; Jaca indica. A low shrubby plant, a native
 of Spain, which is employed as an errhinc.   It has a
 strong lgreeable smell, like mastich.  Ils virtues are
 similar to  tliose of  tiie  Marum syriacum,  but less
 powerful.
  Thymus srrpyllum.  The systematic name of the
 Serpyllum; Serpillum; Gilamm ;  Serpyllum vulgare
 minus.  Wild or mother of thy me.  Thymus—fioribus
 capilatis, caulibus repentibus, foliis planis  obtusis
 basi  ciliatis, of Linnieus.  This plant has  the same
 sensible qualities ns those ofthe garden thyme, but has
 a milder  and rather moie grateful flavour.  Lemon
 thyme, the Serpyllum citratum, is merely a variety of
       .na
 this plant.  It is very pungent, and has  particularly
 grateful odour, approaching to that of lennns.
   Thymus vulgaris.  The systematic name of tlie
 common thyme.  This herb, the Thymus—ereetus foliis
 revolutis ovatis, fioribus vcrticillato spicalis, of Lin-
 nscus,  has an agreeable  aromatic smell,  and a xvarm
 pungent  taste.  Its virtues are said to be resolvent, em
 menagou'ue, tonic, and stomachic; yet there is no dis
 ease mentioned in whicli  its use is particularly recom
 mended by any writer on  the materia medica.
   THYRO.  Names compounded with this word be-
 long to muscles which  are attached to the thyroid car
 tilage; as,
   Thyro aryt^noideus.  A muscle  situated about
 the glottis, which pulls the arytenoid cartilage forxvard
 nearer to the middle of the thyroid,  and consequently
 shortens  and  relaxes the ligament^f the larynx.
   Thyro-hyoideus.  A  muscle situated between the
 os hyoides and trunk, which pulls the os hyoides doxvn
 ivards, and the thyroid cartilage upwards.
   Thyro-pharynoeus.  See Constrictor pharyngis
 inferior.
  Thyro-pharynoo-staphilinus.   See Potato pha-
 ryngeus.
  Thyro-staphilini-s.  See Potato pharyngeus.
  THYROID.  (Thyroideus; from  Svpeoc, a  shield
 and ttios, resemblance; from its supposed resemblance
 to a shield-)   Resembling  a shield.
  Thyroid cartilage.  Cartilago thyroidea;  Carti
 lago scutiformus.  Scutiform cartilage.  The cartilage
 xvhich is  placed perpendicular to the cricoid cartilages
 of the larynx, constituting the anteiior, superior,  and
 largest part of the larynx.  It is harder and more  pro-
 minent in men than in women, in xvhom it forms the
pomum adami.
  Thyroid oland.    Glandula thyroidea.   A large
 gland situated upon the cricoid cartilage, trachea, and
 horns ofthe thyroid cartilage. It is uncertain wbethei
 it be conglobate or conglomerate.  Its excretory  duel
 has never been detected, and its use is nol yet known.
  THYRSUS.  ( Thyrsus, i, m.: a young sprout.) In
 botany, a bunch, or dense and close  panuicle, mur" oi
 less of an ovate form,  ltis oblong in Tussilago hybi da,
 and ovate in Tussilago petasiles.
   TI'BIA.  (Tibia, the hautboy; qu. tubia, from tuba,
 a tube: so called from its pipe-like shape.)   Focile
 majus ; Arundo major; Fosilus ;  and, from its resem-
 blance to au old  musical instrument, Canna major;
 Canna-domestica cruris.   Tiie larstest  bone of the leg.
 It is of a long, thick, and  triangulaf shape, and  is situ
 ated on tiie internal part of the leg. Its upper extremity
 is large, and flattened at its summit, xvhere we observe
 two articulating surfaces, a little concave, and sepa
 rated from each  other by an intermediate  irregular
 protuberance. Of these txvo cavities, the internal one
 is deepest, and of an oblong shape, xvhile the external
 one  is rounded, and more superficial.   Each of these,
 in the recent subject, is covered by a cartilage, which
 extends to the intermediate protuberance, xvhere it ter
 minutes.   These txvo little cavities receive the condyles
 of the os femoris, and the eminence between them is
 admitted inlo the cavity xvhich is seen betxveen the txvo
 condyles  of that bone; so that this articulation affords
 a specimen of the complete ginglymus.   Behind the in
 termediate protuberance,  or tubercle, is a pretty  deep
 depression, whicli serves for the attachment of a liga-
 ment, and  likewise to separate the livo cavities  from
 each other.   Under tlie edge of the external cavity is a
 circular  flat  surface,  covered with cartilage, which
 serves for the articulation ofthe fibula; nnd at the  fore-
 part of the bone is a considerable tuberosity of an inch
 and a half in length, to xvhich the strong ligament of
 the rotula is fixed.
   The body of the tibia is smaller than its extremities,
 and, being of a triangular shape, affords three surfaces.
 Of these, the external one  is broad, and slightly hol-
 lowed by muscles nbove and beloxv ; the internal sur-
 face is broad and flat, and the posterior surface is nar-
 roxver than the other two, and neatly cylindrical.  This
 last has a sligtl ridge running obliquely across it,  from
 the outer side of ihe upper  end of the bone lo about
 one-third of its length downwards.   A little beloxv this
 xve obserx-e a passage for  Hie medullary ve«s< Is, xvhich
 is pretty  considerable, and slants obliquely doxvnwards.
 Of the three angles xvhich sepaintc Ihese surfaces, the
 anterior one, from its sharpness, is called  the spine or
 shin.  This ridge is not straight, hut Icseri'.xcs a figure 
til
TI1S
like an Italic j, turning first inwards, then outxvards,
and lastly in,yards again.  The external angle is more
rounded, and serves for the attachment of the interos-
seous ligament; and the internal one is more rounded
Btill by the pressure of muscles.
  The tibia enlarges again al Its loxver extremity, and
terminates in a prelty deep cavity, by wliich it is arti-
sulated  with  the uppermost bone of the foot.  This
cavity, in  the recent subject, is lined xvitii cartilage.
Its  internal side is formed into a considerable process,
called malleolus internus, which, in its situation, resem-
bles the styloid process of the radius.  This process is
broad, and of considerable thickness,  and from ils liga-
ments arc extended lo the foot.  At its back  part we
find a groox-e, lined with a thin layer of cartilage, in
xvhich slide   the  tendons   of the  flexor digitorum
longus, and of the tibialis posticus; and a little behind
this is a smaller grooxe,  for the lendon of the flexor
longus pollicis.  On the side opposite to the malleolus
internus, tlie cavity  is interrupted,  and  immediately
above it is a rough triangular depression, which is fur-
nished xvitii cartilage, and receives the loxver end of the
fibula.
  The xvhole of this loxver extremity ofthe bone seems
to be turned somexvhat outxvards, so that the malleolus
internus is situated more forxvards than the inner bor-
der of the upper extiemity of the bone.
  In the fietus, both ends ofthe tibia arc cartilaginous,
and become afterxvard epiphyses.
  TIBIAL.  ( Tibialis ; from tibia, the bone of the leg,
so called.)  Belonging to the tibia.
  Tibial artery.  Arteria tibialis.   The txvo princi-
pal branches of the popliteal artery: the one proceeds
forxvards,  and is called the  anterior  tibial; the olher
backwards, and is called the  posterior tibial; of which
 he external tibial, the fibular, the external and internal
Dlantar, and the plantal arch, are branches.
  TIBIALIS.  See Tibial.
  Tibialis anticus.  Tibio-sus-melatarsien, of Du-
mas.  A flexor muscle of the foot, situated on the leg,
which bends the foot by draxving it upxvards, and at the
-ame time  turns tbe toes inwards.
  Tibialis gracilis   See Plantaris.
  Tibialis posticus.  Tibia-tarsien, of Dumas.   A
flexor muscle of Ihe foot, situated on the leg, xvhich ex-
tends the foot, and turns the  toesinxvaids.
  TIC DOULOUREUX.    A  painful affection  of a
nerve, so called from  its sudden and momentary' excru-
ciating stroke. The more  appropriate name is neu-
ralgia.  It mostly attacks the face,  particularly that
branch of the fifth pair, which comes out of tbe infra-
orbital foramen,
  Ti'olia drama. See Croton tiglium,
  TILBURY.  A small town in Essex, celebrated for
Its fort.  A mineral xvater is found at West Tilbury.   It
is an aperient and chalybeate now seldom used medici-
nally
  TILE ORE.  A species of octahedral red copper ore.
  TILIA.  (Tilia, a, f.; flftXta, ulmus, the elm-tree.)
1. The name of a genus of plants in  the Linnaean sys-
tem.  Class, Polyandria ; Order, Monogynia.
  2. The pharmacopoeial name of the lime, or linden-
tree.  See  Tilia europaa.
  Tilia europ.ea  The systematic name ofthe lime-
tree.  The floxvers of ibis tree are supposed to possess
anodyne and antispasmodic virtues.   They have a mo-
derately strong smell, in xvhicli their virtue seems to
consist, and abound with a strong mucilage.  They ant
in high esteem in France.   See Tilia.
  Tilli grana.  See Croton tiglium.
  TI'LMUS.  (From nXXto, to pluck.) Floccitatio, or
picking of bed-clothes, observable in the last stages of
tome disorders.
  [TILTON, James, M.D. was born  in the county of
Kent, in  the  state of Delaware, in  June, 1745.   His
father, dying xvhen he xvas  very young, left him to the
care of his mother,  with very slender means.  Not-
withstanding this, he found means to study a profession,
and obtained his degree of doctor in medicine from
tlie University of Pennsylvania.  He then commenced
practice  in his  native State, and xvas successful  in
establishing himself, but the troubles of the revolution
soon commenced, and  in 1776 he  joined the army of
the United States as  a surgeon, and was afterward
promoted  to the grade of hospital surgeon.  After the
successful termination of the revolutionary contest,
when Dr. Tilton saw his country free and independent,
I he once  mote retired to his native state, and recent
 menced the practice of his profession, which he con-
I tinued for  many years xvith distinguished reputation
 and  abilities.  In 1812,  he had  retired lo his country-
 seat  in the neighbourhood  of  Wilmington, when he
 was  again  called to take on  active  pari  in a nexv
 contest xvith our old enemy.  After the declaration of
 war  against Great Britain, Dr. Tilton was  appointed
 Phxsiciuu and Surgeon General of the United  Stales
 Ariny, and continued to act in that capacity during ihe
 three years of the war.
   As a physician Dr. Tilton xvas bold and decided; he
 never temporized xvith disease.  His remedies were
 few  in number, bul generally of an active kind.  He
 died  in May, 1822, nearly 77 years old.  His publica-
 tions xvere  texv, but valuable and useful.  His friend,
 Dr. McLane, in a  eulogy to his memory, gives  the
 following summary of his character:
   '"In  xvhatever vioiv xve may consider the character
 of Dr. Tilton, we shall  find  many traits to  distinguish
 him  from other men.   He xvas in many respects an
 original; xvholly  unlike most  otlier  men  in person,
 countenance, manners, speech, gesture, and  habits.
 His height xvas about six feet and a half, and his struc-
 ture slender.  Whether he walked or sat still; whether
 in conversation  or  mute; whether he ate, drank, ot
 smoked;  xvliether in a grave mood or indulging in his
 loud  laugh, all was  in a style peculiar to himself, and
 most remarkable.  For honesty and frankness he was
 proverbial;  in  these  important  points  he  had fexv
 equals, certainly no superiors.  His xvhole life afforded
 a luminous example of the effects of deep-rooted prin-
 ciples and moral rectitude upon the conduct of men;
 and we have the fullest assurance to believe thnt he
 lias reached those realms of peace and happiness, from
 xvliich he can never  be separated ;  and has become the
 ■just man made perfect.'"—Thach. Med. Biog.  A.]
   Timac  The name of a root imported from the. East
 Indies, which is said to possess diuretic virtues, and
 therefore exhibited in dropsies. It is not known from
 what plant it is obtained.
   TIN.  Stannum.   Jupiter of the alchemists.  It has
 been much  doubted whether this metal is  found  native.
 In tlie opinion of Kirwan, there are suflicient authori
 ties to determine the question in the affirmative.  The
 native  oxide ef tin, or tin stone, occurs both massive
 andcrystallized.  Itscolour is a dark brown, sometimes
 yelloxvish-gray.   When crystallized, It  is somewhat
 transparent.  The wood tin ore is a variety of the  na
 live  oxide,  termed so from ils fibrous texture.  This
 variety has hitherto been found only in Cornwall.  It
 occurs in fragments which are generally round,  and its
 colour is broxvn, sometimes inclining to yelloxv.  Tin is
 also found  mineralized by sulphur, associated always
 witli a portion of copper, and often of iron.  This ore
 is called  tin pyrites. Its colour is yellowish-gray.  It
 has a metallic lustre, and a fibrous or lamella ted tex-
 ture ; sometimes it exhibits  prismatic colours.  Tin is
 comparatively a rare metal, as it is not found in great
 quantity  any xvhere but in Cornwall or Devonshire;
 though it is likewise met xvith in tho mines of Bohemia,
 Paxony,  the island  of Banca,  the peninsula of Ma-
 lacca, and in the East Indies.
   Tin is  a  metal  of a  yellowish-white colour, consi
 derably harder than lead, scarcely at all sonorous, very
 malleable, though not very tenacious.  Under the ham-
 mer  it is extended into leaves, called tin-foil, xvhich are
 about one thousandth of an inch thick, and might easily
 be beaten to less than hall* that thickness, if the pur-
 poses of trade required it.  Ils specific gravity is 7.29
 It melts at about the 442° of Fahrenheit's thermometer;
 and by a continuance ofthe heal it is slowly converted
 into  a white poxvder by oxidation.  Like lead, it is
 brittle when heated almost to  fusion, and exhibits a
 grained or  fibrous texture if broken by the blow of a
 hammer.   It may also be granulated by agitation at
 the time of its transition from the fluid fo the solid
 stale. The oxide of tin resists fusion more strongly than
 that  of any otlier metal; from which property it is
 useful to  form an opaque white enamel  xvhen  mixed
 xvith pure glass in fusion.  The hrightnessof itssurface,
 when scraped, soon  goes off by  exposure lo the air;  bul
 it is not subject to rust or corrosioirby exposure to the
 xveather.
   To obtain pure tin, the metal should be boiled in nitric
 acid, and the oxide xvhich falls down reduced by heat
 in contact xvith charcoal, tn a covered crucible.
                                         349 
TIN
TIN
   There  are  two definite combinations  of tin and
 oxygen.  The first or protoxide is gray : the second or
 beroxide is white.  The first is formed by heating tin in
 the air, or by dissolving tin in muriatic acid, and adding
 water of potassa to the solutioii  while  recent, and
 before  it has been exposed to air.  The precipitate,
 after being heated to xvluteness to expel the water of
 the hydrate, is the pure  protoxide.  It is convertible
 into the peroxide  by being boiled with dilute nitric acid,
 dried and ignited.
   There are also txvo chlorides of tin.  When  tin is
 burned in chlorine, a very volatile clear liquor is formed,
 a non-conductor of electricity, and xvhich, when mixed
 with a little xvater, becomes  a solid crystalline sub-
 stance, a true muriate of tin, containing the peroxide
 of the metal.  This, xvhich has been called the  liquor
 of Libavius, may be also procured  by  heating together
 tin-filings and corrosive sublimate,  or  an amalgam of
 lin and corrosive  sublimate. The other compound of
 tin and chlorine  is a gray scmitranspnrent crystalline
 rolid.  It may be procured  by heating together an
 amalgam  of tin  and calomel.  It  dissolves iu xvater,
 and  forms a solulion, xvliich rapidly absorbs oxygen
 ■*rnrn the air, with deposition of peroxide of tin.
  There are two sulphurets of tin   One may be made
 by fusing  tin and sulphur together.   It is  of a bluish
 colour, and lainellated texture.  It  consists of 7.35 tin
 + 2 sulphur.  The other sulphuret, or the bisulphuret,
 is made by heating together the peroxide  of tin and
 sulphur.   It is of  a beautiful gold colour, and appears
 in fine flakes.
  The salts of tin are characterized by the following
 general properties:—
  1.  Ferro-prussiate  of  potassa gives  n xvhite precipi-
 tate.
  2.  Hydrosulphuret of potassa, a broxvnish black with
 Ihe protoxide; and a golden yelloxv xvith tlui  peroxide.
  3.  Galls do not  affect the solutions of these salts.
  4.  Corrosive sublimate occasions a black precipitate
 Kith the protoxide salts; a xvhite xvitii the peroxide.
  5.  A plate of lead frequently throxvs down  metallic
 tin, or its oxide, from tlie saline solutions.
  6.  Muriate of gold gives, xvitii the protoxide solutions,
 the purple precipitate of Cassius.
  7.  Muriate of platinum  occasions an orange  preci-
 pitate xvitii the protoxide salts.
  Concentrated sulphuric acid, assisted by heat, dis-
solves half its weight of tin, at the same time lhat sul-
phurous gas escapes in great plenty.
  Nitric acid and tin combine  together very rapidly
 without the assistance of heat.
  The muriatic acid dissolves lin very readily, at the
same time that it becomes of a darker colour, and ceases
to emit fumes.
  Aqua regia, consisting of two parts nitric and one
 muriatic acid, combines xvilh tin with effervescence,
 and the developement of much heat.
  The acetic acid scarcely acts upon tin.  The opera-
 tion of other acids upon this metal has been little in-
quired into.   Phosphate, fluate, and borate of tin have
 been formed by precipitating the muriate with the re-
spective neutral salts.
  If  the crystals  of the saline combination of copper
 with the nitric acid  be  grossly  powdered, moistened,
 nd rolled up in  tinfoil, the salt deliquesces, nitrous
fumes aie emitted, the mass becomes hot, and suddenly
takes fire.  In this experiment, the  rapid transition of
 the nitric acid to  the tin is supposed to produce Or de-
 vclope heat enough to set fire to the nitric salts; bul by
 what particular   changes  of capacity, has not  been
shown.
  If  small pieces of phosphorus be throxvn on tin in
 fusion, it will take up from 15 to 20 per cent., and form
 a silvery white phosphuret of a foliated texture, and
 Boft enough to be cut with a knife, though  but  little
 malleable.  This  phosphuret may be formed likewise
 by fusing tin filings xvith concrete phosphoric acid.
  Tin  unites with bismuth by  fusion, and  becomes
 harder and more brittle in proportion to the quantity of
 lhat metal added.  With nickel it forms a xvhite bril-
 liant mass.   It cannot  easily be united in the direct
 way with arsenic, on account of the volatility of this
 metal; but by heating il with the combination of the
 arsenical acid and potassa, the salt is partly decom-
 posed; and the tin combining wilh the acid, becomes
 lonverted into a brilliant brittle compound, of a plnited
 texture.  It has been said, thai all tin contains arsenic:
      3SI
 and that the crackling noise which is heard uponbena
 ing pieces of  tin, is  produced by this impurity; ou
 from the experiment of Bayen, this appears not to be
 the fact.  Cobalt  unites with tin by fusion, and forms
 a grained mixlureof acolour slightly inclining to violet
 Zinc unites very well  wilh tin, increasing its hardness
 and diminishing its ductility, in proportion as the quan
 tity of zinc is greater.
   This is one of the principal additions used in making
 pewter, which  consists for the most part of tin.
   Antimony forms a very brittle, hard mixture with tin
 Tungsten fused xvith  txvice its xveight of tin, affords a
 brown spongy  mass, which is somewhat ductile.
   The uses  of tlu  are very  numerous, and so well
 knoxvn, that they scarcely need be pointed  out.  The
 tinning of iron and copper, the  silvering of looking-
 glasses, and  the fabrication of a  great variety of ves-
 sels and utensils for domestic and other uses, are among
 the advantages derived from this metal.
   TI'NCA.  (Tinea,  a, f.\ quasi tincta: so called, be
 cause it appears as  if  it were dyed.)  The name of a
 genus of fishes. The  tench.
   Tinc* os.   The mouth of the uterus is so called by
 some xvriters from  its resemblance  to a  tenche's mouth.
   TINCAL.  Crude borax, as  it is imported from  the
 East Indies in yelloxv greasy crystals.  See Borax.
   TINCTORIUS.  (Fromti«g-o,todye.)  An epithet
 of a  species of broom used by dyers.  The genista
 tinctoria of Linnaeus.
   TINCTU'RA.  (From  tingo, to dye.)  A tincture.
 A solution  of any  substance in  spirit of xvine.  Recti-
 fied spiiit of  wine  is the direct menstruum of the re
 sins, and essential oils of vegetables, and totally extiacts
 these active principles  from  sundry vegetable matters,
 xvhich yield them  to water not at  all, or only in part
 It dissolves likewise the  sxveet saccharine  matter of
 vegetables, and generally those parts of animal bodies
 in which their peculiar smell and taste reside.
   The virtues of many vegetables  are extracted almost
 equally by xvater and rectified spirit; but in the ivatery
 and spirituous  tinctures of them  there is this differ-
 ence, that the active parts in the watery extractions
 are blended  with  a large proportion of inert gummy
 matter, on  xvhich their solubility in this menstruum in
 a great measure depends, while rectified spirit extracts
 them almost pure  from gum.   Hence, when the spirit-
 uous  tinctures are mixed with xx-atery liquors, a part of
 xvhat the spirit had taken up from the subject generally
 separates and subsides, on account of its having beer
 freed from  that matter, xvhich, being blended with it in
 the original vegetable,  made it soluble in water.  This,
 hoxvever, is not universal, for the active parts of some
 vegetables, when extracted by rectified spirits, are  not
 precipitated by  xvater, being  almost soluble in both
 menstrua.
   Rectified spirit  may be tinged  by vegetables of all
 colours, except  blue. The leaves of plants, in general,
 xvill give out little of  their natural  colour to watery
 liquors, but communicate to spirit tlie whole of theii
 green tincture, which for the most  part proves elegant,
 though not very durable.
   Fixed alkaline salts deepen the colour of spirituous
 tinctures; aud  hence they have been supposed to pro-
 mote  the dissolving poxver of the  menstruum, though
 this does not appear from experience.  In the  trials
 wliich have been made, no more was found lo be  taken
 up in  the deep-coloured tinctures than in the pnler ones,
 nnd often not so much. If tlie alkali  be added after
the extraction of the tincture, it xvill heighten the  co-
 lour as much as when mixed xvith the ingredients ni
 first.  Tlie  addition of  these salts  in making tinctures
is not only  needless but prejudicial, as  they generally-
injure the flavour  of aromatics, and superadd a qua
lity sometimes  contrary to the intention of the medi
cine.
  Volatile alkaline salts, in many  cases, promote  the
action of the spirits.    Acids generally xx eaken it; un
less when the acid  has  been previously combined xvith
 the vinous  spirit into  a compound of new qualities,
called dulcified  spirit.
  Tinctura  aloks.  Tincture of  aloes.  Take of the
 extract  of spike aloe,  poxvdered,  half  an ounce:  ex-
 tract of liquorice, an ounce and a half; water, a pint;
 rectified spirit, four fluid ounces.  Macerate in a  sand-
 hath until  the  extracts are dissolved, and then strain
 This  preparation  possesses  stomachic and  purgatiye
qualities, but should never be given where  tliere is a 
TIN
TIN
Urndfticy to haemorrhoids.   In chlorotic  cases and
aineuorrhaia, it is preferred to other purges.  The dose
is from half to a whole fluid ounce.
  Tinctura  aloes composita.  Compound tincture
of aloes, formerly called Elixir aloes; Elixir propri-
ttatis.  Take of extract  of  spiked aloe,  poxvdered
saffron, of each three ounces; tincture of myrrh, ixvo
pints. Macerate for fourteen days, and strain.  A more
stimulating compound than the former.  It is a useful
application to old  indolent ulcers.   The dose is from
half a fluid drachm to txvo.
  Tinctura aloes vitriolata.  With the bitter in-
fusion, a drachm or txvo of this elegant tincture is ex-
iremely serviceable against gouty and rheumatic affec-
tions  of  the  stomacli and bowels,  and also in  the
xveaknesses of those organs xvhich frequently attend old
age.
  Tinctura assaf<etid.«.  Tincture of assafoetida,
formerly knoxvn  by ihe  name  of tinctura fatida.
Take of assafoetida, four ounces; rectified spirit, txvo
pints. Macerate for fourteen days, and strain. Diluted
with water, this is  mostly given in all kinds of fits, by
the vulgar.  It is a  useful preparation as  an antispas-
modic, especially in  conjunction xvitii  sulphate  of
zinc.  The dose is from half a fluid drachm to txvo.
  Tinctura  aurantii.   Tincture  of  orange-peel,
formerly  tinctura corticis aurantii.   Take  of fresh
orange-peel, three  ounces; proof spirit, txvo  pints.
Macerate for fourteen days, and strain.  A mild and
pleasant stomachic  bitter.
  Tinctura benzoim composita.   Compound tinc-
ture  of benzoin, formerly known by the  names  of
tinctura  bentoes composita, and balsamum traumati-
sm.  Take of benzoin,  three ounces; thorax balsam,
strained, two  ounces;  balsam of Tolu, an ounce; ex-
tract  of spiked aloe, half an ounce ; rectified  spirit,
txvo pints.  Macerate for fourteen  days, and  strain.
This  tincture is more generally applied  externally to
ulcers and  wounds than  given  internally, though |ios-
sessing  expectorant, antispasmodic, and stimulating
powers.  Against coughs, spasmodic affections of the
stomach and boxvels,  and diarrhoea, produced by ul-
cerations cf those  parts, it  is a very excellent medi-
cine.  The dose, xvhen given internally, is from half a
fluid drachm to two.
  Tinctura  calumbj:.   Tincture  of calumba,  for-
merly called tinctura columba.   Take  of calumba-
root, sliced, two ounces and  a half; proof spirit, txvo
pints.  Macerate for fourteen days,  and  strain.  This
tincture  contains tlie active part of the root, and  is
generally given wilh the infusion of it, as a s.omachic
ind adstringent.
  Tinctura   camphor*   composita.   Compound
tincture of camphor, formerly called  tinctura cpii cam-
phorata, and elixir paregoricum.  Take of camphor,
two scruples;  opium,  dried and poxvdered, benzoic
icid, of each a drachm ; proof spirit, txvo pints. Ma-
cerate for fourteen  days, and strain.  The London col-
lege has changed the nameof this preparation, because
ft xvas occasionally the source of mistakes under its
old one, nnd tincture of opium xvas  sometimes  substi-
tuted for iL  It differs also from the former preparation
iu the omission of the oil of aniseed,  xvhich was often
complained of as disagreeable to the palate, and to
wliich, as an addition, no  increase of poxver could be
affixed.   The dose is from half a fluid dinchm to half a
fluid ounce.
  Tinctura  cantharidis.  Tincture of blistering fly.
Formerly called Tinctura lytta;  Tinctura canlhari-
dum. Take of blistering flies, bruised, three drachms;
proof spirit, two pints.  Macerate  for fourteen days,
and strain.  In the last edition ofthe London  Pharma-
ropoeia, the colouring matter of the former prepara-
tion is omitted as useless, and the proportion of tiie fly
increased.  It is a very acrid, diuietic, and stimulating
preparation, which should alxvays be  administered xvitii
great caution from its knoxvn action on  the  parts of
generation.   In chronic eruptions  on the skin, and
dropsical diseases  of the aged, it is  often very useful
xvhen other medicines have been inert.  The dose is
from  half a fluid drachm to two.
  Tinctura  capkici.   Tincture of  capsicum.   Take
of capsicum-berries, an ounce ; proof spirit, two pints.
Macerate for fourteen days, and strain.
  Tinctura  cardamomi.  Tincture of cardamom.
Take of cardamom-seeds, bruised, tlnee ounces ; proof
spirit, two pints.  Macerate  for fourteen  days, and ;
strain.   A  poxverful  stimulating carminative.   I
spasm of tlie stomach, an ounce, xvith some oilier dl
luted stimulant, is given with advantage.  The dos€
may vary according to circumstances, from  hall  a
drachm lo an ounce and upwards.
  Tinctura cardamomi composita. Compound tine
turc of cardamom, formerly called tinctura stomuckica
Take of cardamom-seeds, ciirraw.iy -seeds,  cochineal
of  each, poxvdered,  two drachms;  cinnamon bark
bruised, half an ounce; raisins, stoned, four ounces
proof spirit, txvo pints.  Macerate jfor fourteen days,
and strain.  A useful and  elegant carminative anil
cordial.   The dose from half a fluid drachm to half a
fluid ounce and upwards.
  Tinctura  cascarilla.   Tincture of  cascarilla.
Take of cascarilla-bark, powdered, four ounces; proof
spirit, two pints.  Macerate for fourteen  days, and
strain.   A stimulating aromatic tonic, tiint may be ex-
hibited in debility of the  bowels and stomach, and in
those cases of fever iu xvhich the Peruvian bark proves
purgative.   The dose  from half a  drachm  to two
drachms.
  Tinctura cxstorei.   Tincture of castor.  Talie
of castor, poxvilcred, txvo  ounces;  rectified  spirit, two
pints. Macerate for sex-en days,  und strain.  A poxver-
ful  stimulant and antispasmodic,  mostly exhibited in
hysterical affections  in  a dilute form.  The  dose  is
from half a fluid drachm to txvo.
  Tinctura catechu.   Tincture of catechu, for
merly known by the name tinctura japonica.  Take
of extract of catechu, three ounces; cinnamon-bark,
bruised, txvo ounces; proof spirit, two pints.  Macerate
for fourteen days, and strain.   An aromatic adstrin
g> nt, mostly given in protracted diarrhoea.   The dose
is from half a fluid drachm to two.
  Tinctura cinchona:.  Tincture of cinchona.  For-
merly known by the name of tinctura corticis peruvi-
ani simplex.   Take of  lance-leaved  cinchona-bark,
poxvdered, seven ounces; proof spirit, txvo pints.  Ma-
cerate for fourteen days, and strain.  The dose is from
a fluid drachm to half a fluid  ounce.  For  its  virtues,
see Cinchona.
  Tinctura  cinchon/e  ammoniata.   Ammoniated
tincture of cinchona.  Volatile tincture of bark. Take
of lance-leaved cinchona-bark, powdered, four ounces;
aromatic  spirit of ammonia, two  pints ; macerate for
ten days, and strain.
  Tinctura cinchon.s composita.  Compound tine
ture of cinchona.   Take of lance-leaved  cinchona-
bark, poxvdered, two ounces; orange peel, dried,  an
ounce  and  a  half;  serpentary-root,  bruised, three
drachms; saffron, a drachm ; cochineal, poxvdered, twe
scruples;  proof spirit, twenty fluid ounces.   Macerate
for fourteen days, and strain.  The  dose is from one
fluid drachm to half a fluid ounce.  For ils  virtues, see
Cinchona.
  Tinctura  cinnamomi.   Tincture  of  cinnamon
Formerly called 07110 cinnamomi fortis.   Take of cin-
namon-bark, bruised, three ounces;  proof  spirit, two
pints.  Macerate for fourteen days, and strain.  The
dose is from a  fluid drachm to three or more.
  Tinctura cinnamomi composita.   Compound tinc-
turcnf cinnamon. Formerly called tinctura aromatica.
Take of cinnamon-bark, bruised, six drachms; carda-
mom-seeds, bruised, three drachms ; long pepper, pow
dered, gineer-root, sliced, of each txvo drachms; proo.
spirit, txvo  pints.  Macerate  for  fourteen  duys,  and
strain.   The dose is from half a fluid drachm to txvo
or more.
  Tinctura digitalis. Tincture of fox-glove. Take
of fox-glove leaves,  dried,  four ounces; proof spirit,
two pints.   Macerate for fourteen days, and strain
This tincture  is introduced in the Loudon  Pharmaco-
poeia as possessing the properties nf ihe plant in a con
venienr, uniform, and permanent form; it is  a saturated
tincture, arid in the same proportions has been long
used in general practice.  The dose is from ten to forty
minims.   For  its virtues, see Digitalis.
  Tinctura ferri acetatis.  This preparation  is
directed  in the Dublin Pharmacopoeia, xvith acetate ol
potassa, two ounces; sulphate of iron, one ounce; and
rectified spirit, txvo piuts.
  Tinctura ferri ammoniati.  Tincture of ammo-
niated iron, formerly called tinctura ferri ammoniaca-
lis; tinctura florum martialium ; tinctura martis myn-
sichti.   Take  of ammoniated iron, four ounces, proof
spirit,  a pint    Digest <uid strain.   This is a mose
                                         351 
TIN
i'lN
 •set llcnt chalybeate in ajl atonic affections, and may be
 given with cinchona in the cure of dropsical and other
 cachectic diseases.   The  dose is from  half a fluid
 drachm to txvo.
   Tinctura ferri muriatis.  Tincture of muriate
 of iron  Formerly called tinctura martis  in spiritu
 salis; tinctura martis cum spiritu salis;  and lately
 knoxvn by tlie name of tinctura ferri muriali.  Take
 of subcarbonate of iron, half a pound ;  muriatic acid, a
 pint; rectified spirit, three pints.  Pour the acid upon
 the subcarbonate of iron in a glass vessel, and shake it
 occasionally for three days.  Set it by that the faeces, if
 there be any, may subside; then pour off  the solution,
 and  add the spirit.   Cline strongly recommends this in
 ischuria and many diseases of the kidneys and urinaiy
 passages.  The dose is from ten to twenty drops.  Lis
 a good chalybeate, and serviceable against most dis-
 eases of debility without fever.
   Tinctura gentian/e composita.  Compound tinc-
 ture of gentian.   Formerly called tinctura  amara.
 Take of gentian-root, sliced, txvo ounces; orange-peel,
 dried, an ounce; cardamom-seeds,  bruised, half an
 ounce; proof spirit, txvo pints.   Macerate for fourteen
 days, with a gentle heat, and strain.  Tlie dose is from
 one fluid drachm to txvo.   Forits virtues, see Gentiana.
   Tinctura oiiaiaci.  Tincture of guaiacum.  Take
 of guaiacum  resin,  poxvdered, half a pound; rectified
 spirit, txvo pints.   Macerate for  fourteen days, and
 strain. This tincture, which possesses all the active
 parts of this  peculiar vegetable matter,  is noxv first
 introduced into the London Pharmacopoeia.  The dose
 is from one fluid drachm to txvo.  For its virtues, see
 Guaiacum.
 Tinctura ocaiaci ammoniata.  Ammoniated tinc-
 ture  of guaiacum.  Formerly called tinctura guaiacina
 volatilis.  Take of guaiacum  resin, poxvdered, four
 ounces; aromatic spirit of ammonia, a pint and a half.
 Macerate for fourteen days, and strain.   The dose is
 from one fluid drachm to two.
   Tinctura hellebori  niora.  Tincture of black
 hellebore.    Formerly called   tinctura   melampodii.
 "Take of black hellebore-root, sliced, four ounces;
 proof spirit,  txvo pints.  Macerate for fourteen days,
 and  strain."  The dose is from half to a whole fluid
 drachm.  For its virtues, consult Helleborus niger.
  Tinctura humuli.   Tincture of hop.  Take  of
 hops, five ounces;  proof spirit, txvo pints.  Macerate
 for fourteen days, and strain.  Various modifications
 of tlie preparations of this bitter have  lately been
strongly recommended by Freke (Observations on Hu-
mulus Lupulus), and employed by many practitioners,
 who believe that it unites sedative and tonic poxvers,
and  thus forms a useful combination.  The  dose  is
from half to a xvhole fluid drachm.  See Humulus.
  Tinctura  hyoscyami.    Tincture of  henbane.
Take of  henbane-leaves,  dried, four ounces;  proof
spirit, txvo pints.  Macerate for fourteen days, and
strain. That the henbane  itself is narcotic is abun-
dantly proved, thnt the same power is  also found in its
tincture is also certain, but to produce the  same effects '
requires a much larger dose.   In some  of the state-
ments made to the College of Physicians of London, a
different opinion has been given, and twenty-live drops
have been considered as equivalent to twenty of tinc-
ture of opium: it does not produce costiveness, or the
subsequent confusion of head which folloxvs the use of
opium, and xvill therefore  be,  even if i',s poxvers be
xveaker, of considerable use.  The dose  is from ten
minims lo one fluid drachm.
  Tinctura jalap.-e.  Tincture of jalap, formerly
called tinctura jalapii.  Take of jalap-root, poxvdered,
eight ounces;  proof spirit, txvo  pints.  Macerate for
fourteen days, xvith a gentle heat, and strain.  The
dose is from one fluid drachm to half a fluid ounce.
For its virtues, see Convolvulus jalapa.
  Tinctura kino.   Tincture of kino.  TnKoofkino,
powdered, three ounces; proof spirit, txvo pints.  Ma-
cerate for fourteen  days, and strain.   All the astrin-
penoy of kino is included in this preparation.  The
dose is from Imlf a fluid drachm to txvo.  See Kino.
  Tinctura LYTT.r.  See Tinctura cantharidis.
  Tinctura myrrhs:. Tincture of myrrh. Tukeof
myrrh, bruised, four ounces; rectified spirit, txvo pints;
water, u pint.  Macerate for fourteen days, and strain.
The  dose  is from half to a xvhole  fluid drachm.  For its
 virtues, sec Myrrha.
  Tinctura oph.  Tincture of opium.  Take of hard
     :ir>-2
 opium, powdered, two ounces and a half; pioof spirit
 txvo pints.   Macerate  for fourteen days and strain
 The dose is from ten minims, or twenty drops, to half a
 fluid drachm.  For its virtues, see  Opium,
   Tinctura rhbi.  Tincture of rhubarb.  Formerly
 knoxvn by  the  names of Tinctura rhabarbari, and
 Tinctura rhabarbari  spirituosa.   Take  of rhubarb-
 root sliced, two ounces; cardamom-seeds, bruised, half
 an ounce;  saffron, two  drachms; proof spirit, two
 pints   Macerate for fourteen days, wish a gentle heat,
 and strain.  The dose is from half a fluid ounce to one
 ami a  half.  For its virtues, see Rheum.
   Tinctura riiei composita.  Compound tincture cte,
 rhubarb.  Formerly called Tinctura rhabarbari com-
 posita.  Take  of rhubarb-root, sliced, two ounces;
 liquorice-root,  bruised, half an  ounce;  ginger-root,
 sliced, saffron, of each txvo drachms; proof spirit, a
 pint; water, twelve fluid  ounces.   Macerate for  four-
 teen days, xvith a gentle heat, and strain.  This is a
 mild stomachic aperient.  The dose is from half a fluid
 ounce to one and a half.
   Tinctura scill.e.   Tincture of squill.  Take  of
 squill-root, fresh dried, four ounces; proof spirit, two
 pints.  Macerate for fourteen  days, and  strain.  The
 virtues of tins squill (see Scilla) reside  in the tincture,
 which is administered in doses of from twenty drops to
 a fluid drachm.
   Tinctura senn;e.  Tincture of senna.  Formerly
 called  Elixir salutis.  Take of senna-leaves, three
 ounces; carrawuy-seeds, bruised, three drachms; car-
 damom-seeds, bruised, a drachm; raisins, stoned, four
 ounces; proof spirit, two pints.  Macerate for fourteen
 days, with th gentle heat, and strain.  A carminative,
 aperient,  and  purgative,   111  doses from two  fluid
 drachms to a fluid ounce.   See Cassia senna.
   Tinctura serpentaria.  Tincture of serpentary.
 Formerly called   Tinctura serpentaria   virginiana.
 Take of serpentary-root, three ounces; proof spirit, two
 pints.  Macerate for fourteen days, and strain.   This
 tincture  (eossesses, in  addition to  the  virtues of the
 spirit, those of the serpentaria.  The dose is  from hall
 a fluid drachm  to txvo.  See Aristolochia serpentaria.
   Tinctura valerian*.   Tincture of valerian.  For
 merly  called Tinctura Valeriana simplex.  Take  of
 valerian-root,  four ounces; proof spirit, txvo pints.
 Macerate for  fourteen days,  and  strain.  A useful
 antispasmodic in conjunction with  others.  The dose
 is from half a fluid drachm to txvo.   See Valeriana.
  Tinctura valerian.e  ammoniata.   Ammoniated
 tincture of valerian.  Formerly called Tinctura  vale
 riana  volatilis.   Take of valerian-root, four ounces,
 aromatic  spirit of  ammonia, txvo pints.  Macerate for
 fourteen days, and strain.  A strongrantisposmodic and
 stimulating tincture.  The dose is  from half a  fluid
 drachm to txvo.
  Tinctura  veratri.  A very active alterative,  re
 commended in the cure of epilepsy and cutaneous erup
 tions.  Its administration  requires  great caution; the
 white hellebore being a powerful poison.
  Tinctura zingiberis.  Tincture of ginger.  Take
 of ginger-root, sliced,  ixxo ounces; proof spirit, two
 pints.  Macerate for fourteen days, and strain.  A sti-
 mulating carminative.  The  dose is from a  fluid
drachm to three.
  7"incfure.  See Tinctura.
  Tincture of assafatida.   See Tinctura assafmtida.
  Tincture of black hellebore.  See  Tinctura hellebori
nigri.
  7\ncture ofblistering fly. See Tinctura lytta
  Tincture of calumba.  See Tinctura calumba.
  Tincture of capsicum. See Tinctura capsici.
  Tincture of cardamom.  See Tinctura cardamomi
  Tincture of cuscarilla.  See  Tinctura cascarilla
  Tincture of castor.  See  Tinctura castorei.
  Tincture of catechu.  See Tinctura catechu.
  Tincture of cinchona.  Sec Tinctura cinchona.
  Tincture of cinnamon.  Sec 'Tinctura cinnamomi.
  'Tincture of fox-glove.  See Tinctura digitalis.
  Tincture of guaiacum.  See Tinctura guaiaci.
  Tincture of guaiacum, ammoniated.  See  Tinctur*
 naiad ammoniata.
  Tincture of ginger.  See Tinctura zingiberis.
  Tincture of henbane.  See Tinctura hyoscyami.
  Tincture of hops.  See Tinctura humuli.
  Tincture of jalap.  See  Tinctura jalapa.
  Tincture of kino.  See Tinctura  kino.
  T.ncture of myrrh.  See  Tinctura myrrha 
TIT
TIT
  Vmr I ur c sf opium.  See Tinctura opii.
  Tincture of orange-peel.   See Tinctura aurantii.
  Tincture of rhubarb.  See Tinctura rkei.
  Tincture of senna.  See Tinctura senna.
  Tincture of serpentary.  See Tinctura serpentaria.
  Tincture of squills.  See Tinctura scilla.
  Tincture of valerian.   See Tinctura Valeriana.
  Tincture of valerian,  ammoniated.  See  Tinctura
Valeriana ammoniata.
  Tincture, compound, of aloes.  See Tinctura aloes
tomposita.
  Tincture, compound, of benzoin.  See Tinctura ben-
loini composita.
  Tincture, compound,  of camphor.   See  Tfncfvra
camphora composita.
  Tincture, compound, of cardamom.  Sec  Tinctura
csrdamomi composita.
  Tincture, compound,  of  cinchona.   See  Tinctura
cinchona composita.
  Tincture, compound,  of cinnamon.  See  Tinctura
cmnamomi composita.
  Tincture, compound, of gentian.  See Tinctura gen-
tiana composita.
  Tincture, compound, of rhubarb.  See Tinctura rhd
composita.
  TINEA.   (Tinea; from tcneo, to hold.)  Tinea ca-
pitis. The  scald  head.   A genus of diseases in tlie
Class Locales, and Order Dialyses, of Cullen; charac-
terized by small  ulcers at the root  of the hairs of the
head, xvhich produce a friable xvhite crust
  THn-glsss.  See Bismuth.
  TINNITUS    (Tinnitus, us, m.;  a ringing.)   A
ringing or tingling noise.
  Tinnitus ai-riux.  A noise like ringing or tingling
in the ears.   A species of paracusis.  See Paracusis.
  TISSUE.  A term introduced by the French anato-
mists to express the textures xvhicli compose the dif-
ferent organs of animals.   These hax-e chemical and
physical properties which it is  important to study on
tlie dead subject and in the living animal.  We find in
them almost all the physical qualities which are ob-
served in inorganic  bodies; different degrees of con-
sistence  from extreme hardness to fluidity,  elasticity,
transparency, refractivencss, &c.;  but xve are particu-
larly attracted by  certain qualities xvhich have been
named the propirties of tissue.  These are the exten-
sibility and contractility of tissue ; the contractility par
racornissement,  from  crispation.   Independently of
these physical qualities, the tissues hax-e been studied
in respect of their composition, and it has been found
that some aie principally composed of gelatine, others
of albumen,  others  of  phosphate of lime, others of
fibrine, and so on.  These various textures present
llso, in  the living animal, certain phenomena xvliich
have not failed to attract the attention of physiologists.
  TITANITES.  A  name given  to certain ores  of
titanium wnich contain that metal  in a state of oxide.
  TITANIUM.  This is a lately discovered  metal. It
was first noticed  by Macgregor as existing in the state
of an oxide mixed with iron, manganese, and silex, in
a grayish-black sand found in the vale of Menachan, in
Cornxvall, and thence named menachanite. or oxide of
titanium, combined with iron.  It  has since been dis-
covered by Klaproth, in an ore named titanite, or oxide
ol titanium, combined with lime and silex.  This ore
Is generally met  with riystallized in four-sided prisms,
not longer  than  a quarter of an inch.  Its colour is a
yellowish-red, or blackish-broxvn; it is opaque, and of
an imperfect lustre.  It breaks xvith a foliated, uneven,
or conchoidai fracture.   It exists also in an ore called
red schorl, of Hungary, or red oxide of titanium.   This
ore, which is found generally crystallized in  rectangu-
lar  prisms, is of  a brownish-red colour, of ihe specific
gravity 4.2, and  its texture  foliated.  In ail these ores
tieanium exists in the stale of an oxide.
  Properties »f titanium.—Titanium  has been  only
obtained in very small agglutinated grains.  It is of a
red-yellow and  crystalline  texture, brittle, and ex-
tremely  refractory.  When broken with  a  hammer,
xvhile yet  hot from its recent  reduction, it shows a
change of colours of purple, violet, and blue.   In a
reiy intense  heat  it is volatilized.   Most of  the acids
have a  striking  action  on this metal:  though nitric
acid has little effect upon it.  It  is very oxidable by
the muriatic acid.  It is not attacked by the alkalies.
Nitro-munati<. acid converts it info a white powder.
Sulphuric acid, xvhen boiled upon  it,  is partly decom-
l posed.  It Is one ofthe most infusible meals.   If doc
 not combine with sulphur, but il may be uniled to phon
 phorus.  It does not alloy xvitii copper, lend, or arse-
 nic, but combines xvitii iron.
   Method of obtaining titanium.—It is extremely difli
 cult to reduce the oxide of titanium to tlie metallic
 state.  Hoxvever, the experiments of Klaproth, Hecht.
 and Vauquelin have proved its reducibility.  Accord
 ing to the txvo latter, one part  of oxide of letnuium ir
 to be melted with six of potassa; the mass, xvhen cold,
 is to be dissolved  in xvater.   A xvhite precipitate xvill
 be formed xvhicli is carbonate of titanium.  This car-
 bonate is then made into a paste with oil, and the mix-
 ture is put into n crucible filled xvitii charcoal poxvder
 and a little alumine. Tlie xvhole is then exposed for n
 fexv hours to the action of a strong heat.  The metal-
 lic titanium xvill be found in  the form  of a blackish
 puffod-up substance,  possessing  a  metallic  appear
 am*.
   (A very curious  ore  of titanium, one of the nexvly
 discovered metals,  has  been  found  to exist  in  Nexv-
 Jersey.  A specimen  of considerable size  had boen
 presented, several   years  ago, by Mr. Alber  to  Dr.
 Mitchill, as an ore of zinc.  But it not  appearing to
 him to be an ore of zinc, and indeed, his mind remain
 ing rather uncertain as to what it truly was, he  laid  il
 nside in his cabinet, and at length furnished  Professor
 Bruce xvith a  part of it.  This able mineralogist  has
 not only made it a subject of experiment himself, but
 has taken ihe opinion of some  of his chemical  corres-
 pondents in Europe upon il; and  it is their  united
 opinion that it Is composed chiefly of the oxide of tita-
 nium,  combined xvilh  the olher  form of ihe metal,
 which, from  its having been found in the valley of
 Menachan, in Cornwall, England, has  been  called
 Menachanite.
   A further account of this remarkable substance  is
 contained in a letter,  from  Professor Woodhouse to
 Senator Mitchill.
   " The following experiments were performed upon
 the minora! found in  Nexv-Jersey, xvhich I received
 from you in the year 1805, which was then supposed,
 by  the person  xvho presented it to you, to be an ore of
 zinc,  and which  Count  Bournnn has declared to be
 composed of iron and titanium.
   " The specific gravity of this mineral is 5.28.  When
 viexved, it has the appearance of black spots, the  size
 of  duck shot, surrounded  by a red substance;  and
 streaks of a xvhite powder, (xvhich islithormarge,) aie
 dispersed through  it.   Upon looking through a micro
 scope, a  crystal of titanium was  seen adhering to it.
 One hundred  grains of it,  reduced to nn impalpable
 poxvder, and exposed one hour to  the intense heat of
 an air furnace, lost fifteen grains in weight, and from n
 broxvn xvas turned to a black colour.
   " One hundred grains of it, submitted  to heat in the
 same manner  with charcoal, produced a great number
 of small globules  of pure iron.  This metal  can be
 separated from the powder by  a magnet.
   " One hundred grains of it, boiled in aqua regia, xvas
 totally soluble in this agent, which proves it contains
 no silex.
   " The prussiate of  potash,  added to this solution,
 yielded a blue precipitate, xvhich, xvhen dried, weighed
 three hundred grains.   Now, if xve divide this sum b>
 six, xve shall  have the quantity of metallic iron in the
 hundred grains of  the ore, which is fifty.
   "A portion of lime was thrown down from a solu-
 tion of the mineral in aqua regia, by the oxalate of
 potash.  Carbonate of ammonia, and a solution of
 potash produced a copious white and gelatinous pre
 cipitate.
   " One  hundred  grains of it were mixed  with six
 hundred of potash, and submitted to intense  heat  one
 hour, in a blacklead crucible.  The part  remaining in
 the crucible was powdered,  boiled iu  water, and fil-
 tered.  Upon adding a small portion of muriatic acid
 to the water, a white  precipitate  xvas thrown down
 which  xvas supposed  to be the titanium.  Upon  col-
 lecting it, and  mixing it with a small portion of sper-
 maceti oil and charcoal, it xvas exposed to the heat of
 a blacksmith's forge, when nothing was obtained but a
 shining, heavy, black substance, of the appearance of
 glass.
   " When the muriatic acid xvas added In excess to
 the filtered water  obtained, by boiling  the residue
 wliich  remained in the crucible, in wafer, no precini
                                         353 
TON
TOR
tate wasp oduccd, until a solution of potash xvas added
lo neutralize the acid.
  "The solution of the mineral in nitric acid is as-
tringent to the taste.
  " The ore appears to be composed of iron, titanium,
lime, alumina, and no silictous earth."—Med. Repos.
  From the above it appears that  the ores of titanium
are of very frequent  occurrence within the  United
States. The locality of the specimens described, as
tar as could be ascertained, tend to confirm the opinion
uf Werner, as to titanium being  one of the oldest of
metals.  Should this metal hereafter be applied exten-
sively to the arts, it is presumed that the United States
xvill be enabled to furnish  any quantity required.—
Min. Jour.  A.]
  TITHY'MALUS.  (From nfJos, a dug, and paXos,
lender: so called  from ils smooth leaves and milky
juice.)  Spurge.  Two plants are directed for medi-
cinal purposes hy this name.  See Euphorbia par alias,
and Esula minor.
  Tithymalus  cyparissius. See Esula minor.
  Tithymalys paralios.   Sec  Euphorbia paralias.
  Tithymel.e'a.   See Daphne gnidium.
  Tit. llicum.   (From  titillo,  to tickle:  so called
from ils being easily tickled,)  The arm-pit.
  TOAD-FLAX.  See Antirrhinum linaria.
  TOBACCO.  See Nicotiana.
  Tobacco, English. See jAcotinva rustica.
  Tobacco, Virginian.  See Nicotiana.
  TOE.   Digitus pedis.  The  toes consist of three
distinct bones disposed in  rows, called phalanges, or
rank ofthe toes.  The great toe has but two phalanges:
the others have  three ranks of bones,  xvhich have
nothing particular, only the joints are made round  and
free, formed by a round head on  one bone, and  by a
pretty deep hollow for receiving  it, in the one above it
  Toffania aqua.  (Toff ana, or Tophania.  the name
of an infamous  woman, who  lesided  at  Palermo,
and afterward at Naples, xvho sold this poison.)   See
 lijuclta.
   Tolu balsam.  See Toluifera  balsamum.
   TOLUI'FERA.  (So called because it produces the
balsam of Peru.)  The name of a genus of plants in
the Linnipan  system.   Class,  Decandria;  Order,
Monogynia.
   Toluifera  balsamum.  The systematic name of |
ihe  tree which  affords the Tolu balsam.  Balsamum
tolutanum.  Balsam  of  Tolu.    It groxvs  in South
America, in the province of Tolu, behind Caithagena,
whence  xve are supplied xvilh  ihe balsam, which is
brought  to us in little gourd-shells.  The balsam  is
obtained by making incisions into the bark ofthe tree,
and is collected into  spoons, which is made of black
 xvax. from xvhicli  it is poured inlo proper vessels.  It
thickens, and in  lime becomes  concrete:  it has  a
 fragrant colour, and a xvarm, sweetish taste.  It dis-
 solves entirely in alkohol, and communicates its odour
 and taste  to xvater, by boiling.  It contains  acid of
 benzoin.  This is the niildest of all the balsams. It has
 been used as an expectorant; but 'its poxvers are very
 Inconsiderable, and it is at present employed princi-
 pally on account of its flavour, somewhat resembling
 .hat of lemons.  It is directed, by the pharmacopoeias,
  n the  Syrupus so'utanus,  Tinctura  tolutana,  and
 Syrupus balsnmicus.
   Tolutanum balsamum.  See Toluifera balsamum.
   TOMATUM.  Love apple.  See Solatium  lycoper-
 sicum.
   TOMBAC.  A  xvhite alloy of copper with  arsenic.
   Tomdei'um.  (From rtpvu,  to cut.)  An  incision-
 knife.
   Tomknti'tia.  (From tomentum,* flock of ivool: so
 called from its soft coat.)  Cotton-weed.
   TOMENTOSUS. Doxvny. Applied to stems, leaves,
 tc. ns the slem ofthe Ceranium  rotundifoliuin.
   TOMF/NTUM.  (Tomentum, f. n.; a flock of xvool.)
 I  This lerm is used in anatomy to the small vessels of
 the brain, xvhich appear like xvool.
   2.  In  botany, a species of pubescence, very soft to
 the touch, of a while, or ferruginous colour, giving the
 surface  a downy appearance, and so thick that  ihey
 cannot be seen separately.
   Tomentum cerebri.   The small vessels that pene-
 trate the cortical substance of  the brain from the pia
 mater, which, when separated from the brain, nnd ad-
  hering to the pia mater, give it  a flor.ky appearance.
   TONGUE.   Lingua.  A soft, fleshy viscus, very
       314
moveable  in every direction, situated inferiorly in the
cavity of  the mouth, and constituting  the organ of
taste.  It is divided into  a base, body,  and back, an
inferior surface, and two lateral parts. It is composed
of muscular fibres, covered by a  nervous membrane,
on wliich are a great number of nervous papillae, par
ticularly at ihe apex, and lateral parts, Die rete uiuco
sum, and  epidermis. The arteries of the tongue are
branches of the ranine and labial.  The veins empty
themselves into the  great Unguals, whicli proceed to
the external jugular.  The  nerves  come from  the
eighth, ninth, and fifth pair.  The use of this organ is
for chexving, sxvalloxving, sucking, and  tasting.   See
also Taste.
   Tongue-shaped.  See Lingulatus.
  TONIC.  (Tonicus, Tovtxos; from rttvu, to puJI oi
draxv.)  1. A rigid contraction of ihe muscles, xvith
out relaxation,  as in trismus, tetanus,  &c.  See Te-
tanus.
  2. (From rovou, lo strengthen.)   Medicines whico
increase the tone of the' muscular fibre, such as vege-
table bitters; also stimulants, adstringents, Sec.
  TONSIL. (Tonsilla,arum,f.) Amygdala; Tola,
Toles;  Tolles.   An oblong, suboval  gland, situated on
each side ofthe fauces, and opening into the cavity of
the mouth by txvelve or more large excretory ducts
  TOOTH.  See  Teeth.
  TOOTHACHE.  See Odontalgia.
   Tooth-shaped.  See Dentatus.
  TOPAZ. According to Jameson this mineral species
contains three subspecies  common  topaz, schorlite,
and physalite.
  Common topaz is  of a wine-yellow colour, in granu-
lar crystallized  concretions, harder than emerald.  It
comes  from the  Brazils,  Siberia, Asia  Minor,  and
Saxony.   It forms  an  essential  constituent of the
topaz-rock.
   TOPAZOLITE.  A variety of precious garnet found
at Mussa, in Piedmont.
   TOPHUS.   (Toph,  Hebrexv.)   A  toph.  Epipo-
roma, a soft sxvelling on a bone.)  The concretion on
the teeth or in the joints of gouty people.   Also gravel.
   TO'PICAL.   (From  roiros, a place.)  Medicines
applied  to a particular place.
   Topina'ria.  A species of turnout in  tho skin of th i
head.
   TO'RCULAR. (From torqueo, to  twist.) The toui
■liquet:  a bandage lo check liaernorihagesafter wounds
ur amputations.
   Torculap. herophii.i.  Lcchcnon;  Lenos.   The
press of Herophilus. That place where the four si-
nuses of the dura mater meet together, first accurately
described  by Herophilus, the anatomist.
   TORDY'LIUM.   (Tordylium, ii, n.  Quasi tor-
lilium ,  from torqueo, to txvist: so named from its tor-
tuous branches, or fiom the neat orbicular figure of it?
seed, xvhicli seem as if artificially wrought or turned.)
Che name of a  genus nf plants in  tbe Linnaean system.
Tlass, Pentandria;  Order, Digynia
   Tordylium officinale.  Tlie systematic name of
the officinale seseli creticum.  The seeds are said to be
diuretic.
   TORMENTIL.  See  TormentiUa.
   TORMENTI'LLA.  (From tormentum, pain;  be-
cause it was supposed  to relieve pain  in ihe teeth.)
1. The  name  of a  genus of plants in  the  Linnaean
system.   Class, Icosnndria; Older,  Mouoirynia.
   2. Tiie pharmacopueialnanieof the upright stepfok
See TormentiUa crecta.
   Tormentilla  ERECTA.  The systematic  name of
Hie upright stepfoil.  Heptaphyllum;  Consolida ru
bra ; TormenHUn—caule erecliusculo, foliis sessilibus,
of Linnaeus.  The root  is the only  part of  the plant
which is  used  medicinally;  H  has a  strong styptic
taste, but imparts no peculiar sapid flavour: it has
been long held in estimat ion as a poxverful adstringent;
and, as  a  proof of its efficacy in this way, it  hns been
substituted for  oak  bark in the  tanning of skins fof
leather.   Tormentil is clered  in   the pulvis  creta
compositus, of the London Pharmacopoeia.
   TORMINA.  Severe  pains.
   TORPOR.  A numbness, or deficient sensation.
   TORTICOLLIS.  (From torqueo,   to twist,  and
 collum, the neck.)  The vvrv neck.
   TORTULOSUS. A little sxvelling  out.   Applied
 lo thc knotty pod of the Rhaphanus sativus.
   Toktu'ra ossis. The locked iaw 
Tf)U
TOU
   "Nofrx aoKA.  See Chcnapodium bonus henricus.
   TOUCH.   Taclus.  ''By  touch xve are enabled  to
 know the properties of bodies;  and as it is less subject
 t« deception than the other senses, enabling  us in cer-
 tain cases lo clear up errors into which the others have
 led us, it has been considered the first and the most ex-
 cellent of all tlie senses;  but several of the advantages
 which have been attributed to it by physiologists and
 metaphysicians should be considerably limited.
   We ought to distinguish tact  from touch.   7'act is,
 with some fexv exceptions, generally diffused through
 all our organs, and particularly oxer the cutaneous and
 mucous surfaces.  It exists in all animals; xvhile touch
 Is exerted evidently only by pans that are intended oarti
 sularly for this use   It does not exist in all animals,
 and it is nothing else but tact united to muscular con-
 tractions directed by the xvill.
   In the exercise of tact, xve may be considered  as
 passive, while xve are essentially active in ihe exercise
 of touch.
   Physical  properties of bodies  which employ the
 action of touch.   Almost all ihe physical properties of
 bodies are susceptible of acting upon the organs of
 touch ; form, dimensions,  different degrees of consist-
 ence, xveight,  temperature,, locomotion, vibration, Sec
 are ail so many circumstances that are exactly appre-
 ciated by the touch.
   The organs destined to touch do  not alone exercise
 this function ;  so that in this respect the touch differs
 much from the other senses.   As in most cases il is the
 skin which receives  the tactile impressions produced by
 the bodies which surround us,  il is necessary to aay
 something of its structure.
   The skin forms tlie envelope of the body; it  is lost
 In the mucous membranes at the entrance of all tlie
 cavities; but it is improper to say that tliese membranes
 are a continuation of it
   The skin is formed principally by the cutis vera, a
 fibrous layer of various  thickness, according  to the
 part which it covers ; it adheres by a cellular tissue,
 more or  less firm, at other limes by fibrous  attach-
 ments.  The cutis  is almost alxvays separated from
 tbe subjacent parts by a layer of a greater or less thick-
 ness, wbicb is of use iu the exeicise of touch.
   The external side of the cutis cera is covered by the
 epidermis,  a solid matter secreted by the skin. We
 ought not to consider the epidermis as a membrane;  it
 is a homogeneous layer, adherent by its internal face to
 Jie chorion, and  full of a great number of holes, of
 which the one  sort are for the passage  of the iiair, and
 the  other for  that of cutaneous perspiration :  they
 serve at tlie same time  for the absorption xvhich takes
 place by the skin.  These  last arc called tlie poics of
 the skin.
   It is necessary to notice, with regard to the epidermis,
 that it is void of feeling ;  that it possesses none of tlie
 properties of life; that it is uot subject to putrefaction;
 that it xvears and is  renewed  continually;  that its
 thickness augments  or lessens as it may be necessary:
 it is even said to be proof lo the action of the digestive
 organs-
   The connexion of tlie epidermis to the  cutis vera is
 very close;  and yet it cannot be  doubted that there is
 a  particular layer between these txvo  parts, in which
 :ertain particular phenomena take place.   The organi-
 zation of this  layer is yet little knoxvn.  Malpighi
 believed it to be formed of a particular mucus, the ex-
 istence of which  has bern long  admitted, and whicli
 bote tbe name of tlie corpus  mucosum  of Malpighi.
 Other authors have considered  it, more justly, as a vas-
 cular net-work.  Gull makes it similar to  the gray
 matter which is seen in many  parts of  the biain.
   Gautier, in examining attentively the external  sur-
 face of the true skin, has noticed some small reddish
 projections, disposed in pairs; they are easily perceived
 xvhen Ihe skin is  laid bare by a blister.  These  little
 bodies are regularly disposed  upon the  palm of the
 hand, and on the sole of the foot. They are sensible,
and  are  reproduced when tiey have  been torn out!
They appear to be essentially x ascular.   These bodies,
without being understood, have  been long called the
papilla of thc skin.  The epidermis is pierced by little !
holes, opposite their  tops, through which  small  drops
of sweat are seen to issue, when the akin is exposed
to  an elevated temperature.  The skin contains a great
number of  sebaceous  follicles;   it receives  a great
aumber of vessels and  nervti,  particularly at  the
  poults   ,,«ie Ihe  sense of touc i is more immediately
  exercised.  The mode in which the nerves are termi-
  nated iu the skin is totally unknown ; all lhat lias been
  said of thc cutaneous nervous papillae is entirely hypo
  ihelicnl.
    The exercise of tact and of touch is facilitated by
  the thinness of the cutis vera, by a gentle elevation of
  leuiiieraltirc. by an  nbunduul cutaneous perspiration,
  as well  as  by a certain thickness nnd flexibility of
  the epidermis;  xvhen tlie contraiy dispositions exist,
  the tact and the touch  are always more or less im
  perfect.
    Mechanism of tact.—The mechanism of fact is ex-
  tremely simple ; il is sufficient that bodies be in contact
  with the skin  to furnish  us xvilh data, more or  less
  exact, of their tactile properties.   By  tact xve judge
  particularly of  the temperature.  When bodies deprive
  us of caloric, we call them cold; when they yield  il tu
  us, xve say they are hot;  and according to the quantity
  of caloric xvhich they give or take, we determine their
  different degrees of heat or cold. The notions lhat xve
  have of  temperature are, nevertheless, far from being
  exactly in relation to the quantity of caloric lhat bodies
  yield to us, or take from us ; xve join xvilh it imaxvaicf
  a comparison with the temperature  of the atmosphere,
  in such  a manner that a body colder than ours, but
  hotter than the atmosphere, appears  hot.  though it
  really deprive us of caloric xvhen xve touch it.  On ihis
  account, places which have a uniform  temperature,
  such  as cellars or wells, appear cold in summer, and
  hot in winter.  The  capacity also of bodies for  caloric
  has  a great influence upon  us with regard to tempe-
  rature ; as an example of this, we have only to notice
  the grent difference of sensation produced by iron  and
  xvood, though the temperature of both be the same.
    A body xvhich is sufficiently hut to cause a chemica.
  decomposition of our organs produces the sensation of
  burning.  A body xxthose temperature is so low as to
  absorb quickly a great  portion of  the caloric of any
  part,  produces a sensation  of the  same sort nearly:
  this may be proved in touching frozen mercury.
    The bodies which have a chemical action upon the
  epidermis, those that dissolve it, as the caustic alka-
  lies,  aud concentrated acids,  produce  an impression
  which is easy to be recognised, and by which these
  bodies may  be knoxvn.
    Every part of the skin is not endowed  with  the
  same sensibility ; so that the same body applied  to dif
  ferent points of the skin in  succession will produce a
  series of different impressions.
   The mucous membranes  possess great delicacy of
  tact.  Every one knows  the great sensibility  of the
  lips, the tongue, of thc conjunctiva, the pituitary mem-
  brane, of the mucous membrane, of the trachea, ol
  the urethra,  of  Ihe v.-igina, &c.  The first contact of
 bodies, whicli arc not destined naturally to touch these
 membranes', is painful at first, but this soon wears off.
   Mechanism of touch.—In man, the hand is the prta
 cipal  organ  of  touch; all the most suitable  circutn
 stances  are  uniled in it.  The epidermis  is thin
 smooth, flexible; the  cutaneous perspiration abundant]
 as well as the oily secretion.  The vascular eminences
 are more numerous there than any  where else.  The
 cutis  vera has but little  thickness;   it receives a greet
 number of vessels and nerves ;  it adheres to the subja-
 cent aponeuroses by  fibrous  adhesions ; and it is sus-
 tained by a  highly elastic cellular tissue.  The extre-
 mities of the  fingers possess all these properties in the
 highest degree:  the  motions of the hand  are very
 numerous, and performed with facility, and it may be
 applied with  ease to any body of whatsoever form.
  As  long as the hand remains immoveable at the
 surface of a  body,  it acts only as an organ of tact-
 To exercise touch, it must move, either by passing over
 ihe surface,  to examine  form, dimensions, &c, or tu
 P'css it for the purpose of determining its consistence.
 elasticity, Sec.
  We  use the whole liana to touch a body of consider-
 able dimensions; if, on the contrary, a body is  very
 small,  xve employ only thc points of the fingers.   ThM
 delicacy of touch in the lingers has given man a  great
 advantage over the animals.  His touch is so delicate
 that it has been considered the source of his intelli-
gence.
  From tbe highest  antiquity the touch has been con-
sidered of more importance than any  of the olhci
senses; it  has been supposed  the  cause of humta
                                        3» 
TOU
TRA
    reason  This idea has continued to our times ; it has
    lieon  even remarkably extended  in  the writings  of
   Condillac, of Buffon, and other  modern physiologists.
   IRuffon, in particular, gave such  an importance to the
   touch, that he thought one man had  little more ability
   than another, but only in so far  as he had been in the
   habit  of making use of his hands.   He said  it would
   be xvell lo allow children the free use of their hands
   from tlie moment of their birth.
     7'he touch does not really possess any prerogative
   oxer the other senses ; and if in certain cases it assists
   the eye or tlie ear, it receives aid from thein in others,
   and there is no reason to believe that it excites ideas
   In the brain of a higher order  than those wliich are
   produced  by the action of the otlier senses.
     Of  internal sensations.—All  the organs, as xvell as
   tlie skin,  possess the faculty of transmitting impres-
   sions to the brain, xvhen they are touched by  exterior
   bodien, or xvhen they  are compressed, bruised, Sec.
   It  may  be  said, lhat  they generally possess tact.
   There must  be au exception made of the bones, the
   tendons, the aponeuroses, tbe ligaments, &c;  which in
   a healthy stale are insensible, and may be cut, burned,
   torn, xvitiiout any thing being felt by the brain.
     This important fact was not known to thc ancients;
   they considered all  tlie xvhite parts  as nervous, and
   attributed to them all those properties xvhich we noxv
   know  belong only to the nerves.   These useful results,
   whicli have had a great influence upon the recent pro-
   gress of surgery, we oxve to Haller and his disciples.
     All the  organs are eapable of transmitting sponta-
   neously a  great  number of impressions to the  brain
   without the intervention of any external cause. They
   are of ihree sorts. The first kind take place when  it
   is necessary for the organs to  act;  they are called
   loants, instinctive desires.  Such are hunger, thirst,
   tlie necessity of making water, of  respiration, the
   venereal impulse, Sec   The second sort take  place
   during tiie action of thc organs;  they are frequently
   obscure, sometimes  very violent.   The  impressions
   which accompany the different  excretions,  as of the
   semen, the urine, are of this number.
     Such are  also the impressions xvhich inform us of
   our motions, ofthe periods of digestion:—even thought
   seems to belong lo this kind of imptessioit.
     The third kind  of internal  sensations are  deve-
   loped  when the organs have acted.  To this  kind be-
   longs  the feeling of fatigue, which is variable in the
I  different sorts of functions.
     The impressions which are felt in sickness ought to
   be added to these  three sorts:  these are much more
   numerous  than  the others.   The study of  them  is
   absolutely necessary to the physician.
     All those sensations which proceed from xvithin, and
   which have no dependence upon the  action of exterior
   bodies, have been  collectively  denominated internal
   sensations, or feelings."—Magendie's Physiology.
     TOUCH-ME-NOT.  See Noli me langere.
     TOUCHSTONE.   Lydian stone.  A variety  of
   flinty  slate.
     TOUCHWOOD.  See Agaricus.
     TOURMALINE.  Rhomboidal tourmaline-isdivided
   Into two subspecies, schorl and tourmaline. The latter
   mineral is of a green, broxvn, and red colour, in pris-
   matic concretions, rolled pieces, but generally crystal-
   lized.  It ocrurs in gneiss, mien slate, talc stale, &c.
     TOURNEFORT, Joseph Pitton  de, xvas born at
   Aix, in Provence,  in 1056.  He xvas destined for the
   church, but a taste for natural knoxvledge led  him, at
   his father's  death,  to change   for the  profession  of
   physic.  He therefore qualified  himself thoroughly in
   anatomy,  chemistry, and  other branches of medical
   study, and likexvise distinguished himself as an elegant
   xvriter and  lecturer; but  he displayed especially  au
   ardent devotion  to  botany,  which ever after made the
   chief  object nf his  life.   His zeal in this pursuit led
   him to encounter considerable dnniter in exploring the
   Alps,  Pyiem es, Sec during several seasons, passing the
   intermediate xvinters nt  Montpelliei; but he is said to
   have  p<ndunt"d  at Orange.  His merits as a botanist,
   soon  became conspicuous at Pa'is,  and the superin-
   tendence of lie-  royal garden xvas resigned to him by
   Fagon.  In  this school he soon drexv together a croxvd
   «f students; but anxious for farther improvements, he
   travelled  inlo the  tiriifhtumriiig countries,  and thus
   greatly enriched his collections.  He xvas admitted a
   member of  tlie  Academy ol" Sciences, and of the Me-
         350  .
 dical Faculty at Paris; and was likewise dtecoTatei!
 xvith tlie Order of St  Michael.  He published about
 Ihe same period several botanical works, of which the
 principal is entitled,  " Institutiones Rei  Herbaria;."
 In the year 1700, he set out, under royal  patronage, on
 a voyage to the Levant, xvilh ihe view of investigating
 tbe plants of ancient writers, and making new disco-
 veries ; and on his retain, after two years, he wrote a
 very interesting and valuable acriunt of the expedition
 in French, which was not published, however, till after
 his death.  This look place in 1708,  in consequence of
 a hurt in the breast,  xvhich  lie received  from a car-
 riage.  He left his collection of plants to the king, who
 bestowed in return a pension of a thousand livies on
 his nephew.  Besides the botanical works published
 by him, lie  is said to have left seveial others in nianu
 script   One object, which  had  occupied much of his
 attention, xvas to determine the medical  virtues  of
 plants  by a chemical  analysis; but the loss of these
 labours is not to be regretted, as lliose of Geoffroy,  on
 the same plan, turned out to be without any solid ad-
 vantage. The  elegance  and facility of Tourneforl's
 botanical method gained him many followers at fiisi;
 but it has since been superseded by that of Linnaeus,
 which is much  more  systematic  and comprehensive.
 Still, hoxvever, it must  be acknowledged, that the ge-
 neric distinctions established by the former botanist,
 and most accurately delineated, have been the principal
 foundation of subsequent improvements.
   TOURNIQUET.  (French ; from toumer, to turn.)
 An instrument used for stopping the  floxv of blood into
 a limb.
   TOXICA RIA.  ( Toxicaria, a, f. ; from roltxov, a
 poison: so called  from its poisonous quality.)  The
 name of a plant.
   Toxicaria macassv.hien.sis.   An  Indian  poison
 obtained from a tree hitherto undescriberi by any me-
 dical botanist, known by the name of Boas-upas: it is
 a  native of Southern  Asia.  Concerning litis  plant,
 various and  almost incredible particulars  have been
 related, both  in  ancient  aud  modern  times; some
 of ihem true, others probably founded on superstition.
 Rniiiphuis testifies thai he had not met with any otlier
 more dreadful product from- any  vegetable.  And he
 adds, lhat this poison, of whicli the Indians boast, xvas
 much more terrible to the Dutch than any warlike  in-
 strument.  He  likexvise says, it is  his opinion, lhat it
 is of the same natural order, if not of tbe same genus
 as the cesirnin.
   TOXICODE'NDRUM.   (From  To*£«iroi>, a  poison,
 and  itvipov, a  nee.)  The poison-tree, xvhich is so
 noxious lhat no insects ever come near it.  See Rhus
 toxicodendron.
   TOXICOLOGY.  (Toxicologia; from  ro\ov,  an
 arroxv or boxv;  because ihe dans of the  ancients were
 usually besmeared xvilh some  poisonous substance;
 and Xoyof,  a discourse.)  A  dissertation on  poisons
 See Poison.
   TO'XICUM.  (From rolov, an arroxv,  xvhich was
 sometimes  poisoned.)  A deadly poison.  See Poison.
   Toxite'sia.  Thc artemisia or inugxvort.
   TRABE'CULA.  (TVafteetila, a small beam.)  This
 xvord is mostly  applied by anatomists to the small me-
 dullary fibres of the brain, which constitute the com
 missuses.
   TRA'CHEA.  (So called from its roughness; from
 rpaxvs, rough.)   Tlie  xx indpipe.   The trachea is a
 cartilaginous  and menibrnnous canal, through  which
 the nir passes into the lungs.  Ils  upper part,  which
 is called the  larynx, is composed  of five  cartilages.
 The  uppermost  nnd smallest of these cartilages  is
 plnced over the glottis or mouth of ihe larynx, and  is
 called epiglottis, as closing the passage to the lungs in
 the net of six-allowing.   The sides  of the larynx are
 composed of the ixvo  arytenoid cartilages, xvliich are
 of a  very complex figure,  not easy to  be described.
 The anterior and larger part of thc larynx  is made up
| of two cartilages, one of wiiich is called thvroides ot
 scufiformis, from ils being shaped like a buckler: and
 the olher cricoides or unnularis, from its resembling a
 ring.  Both these cartilages may be felt immediately
 under the skin,  at the forepart of the thorax ; and the
 Ihyroides, hy  its convexity, forms an eminence  called
 the pomum adami, wliich is usually  more considerable
 in the male than in the  female subject.
   All these cartilages are united lo each other by menus
 of very elastic ligamentous fib.es; and atei i>ab'ed b» 
TRA
TRA
the assistance of their several muscles, to  dilate  or'
contract the passage of the larynx, and to perform that
variety of motion xvliich seems to point out the larynx
as the principal  organ of the voice;  for when the air
passes through  a wound in tnc  tiachea, it  produces
little or no sound.
  These cartilages are  moistened  by a mucus, wliich
seems to  be secreted by minute glands  situated near
them.   The upper part of the trachea, and the cricoid
and thyroid  cnrtilaces,  nre in some  measure covered
anteriorly by a considerable body, which is  supposed
to beef a glandular structure, and from ils situation is
called the thyroid gland, though its excretory duct has
riot  yet -been discovered, or its real use ascertained.
The  glottis is entirely  covered by a very fine mem-
brane which is moistened  by  a  constant supply  of
watery fluid.  From the larynx the canal begins  to
lake  ihe name  of trachea, or aspera arteria, and ex-
tends  from thence as far down  as the  fourth or fifth
v-ertebraeof theback, whereitdivides into two branches,
which are the right and left bronchial tube.   Each nf
th.se  bronchia  ramifies through thesubstanceofth.it
lobe of the lungs, to which it is distributed by an infi-
nite number of  branches, which are formed  of car-
tilages separated from  each other like tliose of thc
trachea, by an intervening membranous and ligament-
ary substance.  Each of these cartilages is of an annu-
lar figure; and as they become gradually less and less
in llieir diameter, the loxver ones arc  in some measure
received into those above them, when the lungs, afler
being  inflated, gradually  collapse by  the air being
pushed out from them iu expiration.  As the  blanches
of the bronchia become  more minute, their cartilages
become more and more  annular and  membranous, till
at length they-become  perfectly membranous,  and  at
last become invisible.  The trachea is furnished xvitii
fleshy or muscular fibres, some of which pass through
its whole  extent longitudinally, xvhile the others are
carried round it ia a circular direction, so that by the
contraction or relaxation of  these fibres, it is enabled
to shorten or lengthen itself, and likexvise to dilate or
contract the-diameter of its passage.  The trachea and
its branches, in  all  their ramifications, are furnished
with a great number of small glands which are lodged
in  llieir cellular substance,  and discharge a mucous
fluid on the inner surface of these tubes.
  The cartilages of the trachea, by keeping it constantly
open, afford a free  pa-sage lo  tne air  which xve are
obliged to be incessantly  respiring;  and its membra-
nous part, by being capable of contraction or dilatation,
enables us to receive and expel thc air in a greater or
less quantity,  and with  more or less  velocity, as may
be  required in singing and declamation.  This mem-
branous structure  of the trachea posteriorly, seems
likewise to assist in the descent of  the  food, by pre-
venting that impediment to its passage  down the (eso-
phagus, which might be expected, if the cartilages were
complete rings.  The trachea receives its arteries from
tlie carotid and subclavian arteries, and its veins pass
into the jugulars.  Its nerves arise from the recurrent
branch of the-eighth pair, and from thecerx-ieal plexus.
  TRACHELA'GRA.    (Trachelagra, a,  f.; from
rpaxnXos, the  throat, and aypa, a seizure.)  The gout

  TRACHE'LIUM.   (Trachelium, ij, n.; from  rpa-
XvXos, the throat: so called from its efficacy in diseases
of the throat.)  The Campanula trachelium, of Lin-
naeus, or herb throat-wort.
  TRACHELO. (FromrpaxnXos, the neck.)   Names
compounded of this xvord belong to muscles, ic. which
are attached to the neck; as  Trachclo-masloideus.
  TRACHELOCE'LE.  (From rpaxtta, the xvind-
pipe, and xifXri, a tumour).  A tumour upon the trachea.
A bronchocele.
  Trachelo-mastoideus.   A muscle situated on the
neck, which assists the complexus, but pulls the head
more to one side. It is  the complexus minor seu mas-
toideus lateralis, of Winslow.  Trachelo-mastoidicn, of
Dumas.  It arises from the transverse processes of the
five inferior cervical verteorae, where it is connected
xvith the transversalis cervicis, and of the tliree superior
dorsal, and it is inserted  into the middle of the posterior
part ofthe mastoid process.
  TRACHELOPHYMA. (From rpaxnXos, thethroat,
ind <bvpa, a tumour.)  A swelling of the bronchial gland.
  TRACHE LOS.   (From rpa^u;, rough ; because of
the rough cartilages.*)  The wind-pipe. See Trachea,
  TRACHEOTOMY.   (Trscheotomii, a, f.\  f>om
rpaxcta, the trachea, and rtpvu, to cut.)  Sec lir^n-
chotomy.
  TRACHOMA.  (Trachoma, atis, n.; from rpavue,
rough.)  An asperity in the internal superficies of the
eyelid.  The effects  are a violent ophthalmia, mid a
severe pain, as often as the eyelid moves.  The specie*
are,
  1. Trachoma sabulosum, from sand  falling between
the eve and the eyelid of persons travelling, blown by
a high wind ;  this happens chiefly in sabulous situa-
tions, and may be prevented by spectacles for the pur-
pose, or by guarding against the  flights of sand by
covering the eyes.
  2. Trachoma carunculosum, which arises from carun-
cles, or fleshy  verrucae, groxving in the internal super-
ficies of the eyelid.  This species  of  the tiachoma li
called morum  palpebrae intemae, because the tubercu-
lous internal superficies appears of a  livid red  like a
mulberty.  Others call these carunculae pladorotes.
  3. Trachoma hcrpcticum, xvhich are  hard pustules in
the  internal superficies of the eyelids.  This is also
called ficosis, and palpebra ficosa, from its resemblance
tn the  granulated substances in a  cut fig.  With ll •.
Greeks, it  is  denominated atomablephaion, or prop
toris.
  TRACHYTE.  A rook of igneous origin, principally
composed of felspar.  It has generally a  porphyritic
structure.
  TRAGACANTH.   See Astragalus.
  TRAGACANTHA.  (Tragacantha, a, f.;  from
rpayos, a goat, and axav$a, a thorn: so called from its
pods resembling a coat's beard.)  See Astragalus tra-
gacantha.
  TRA'GICl'S.  A  proper muscle of the ear, xvhich
pulls the point ofthe tragus a little forward.
  TR.VGIUM.  (From rpayos, a goat: so named from
its  filthy smell.)  1.  The name  of a  genus of plants.
Class,  Pentandria; Order, Digynia.
  2. The bastard dittany, or Dictamnus albus.
  TRAGO'CERUS.   (From rpayos, a goat, and xi~ .<-,
a horn : so named from the supposed resemblance, of
its leaves to the horn of a goat.)  The  aloe.
  TRAGOPOGON.  (Tragopogon,  onis, m.; fro:n
rpayos, a goat, and iruyuv, a beard: so called because
its downy seed, xvhile enclosed in the calyx, resemoles
a goat's beard.)  1. The name of a genus of plants iu
the Linna-an system.  Class,  Syngenesia; Order,  Po-
lygamia.
  2. The pharmacopceial name of the common goat's
beard.
  TRAC.oroaoN pratense.  The systematic name of
the common goal's beaid.  The young  stems of this
plant are eaten like asparagus, and are a pleasant and
wholesome food.  The root is also excellent, and xvas
formerly used  medicinally as a diuretic.
  TRAGOPY'RUM. (7Va^oyjrrum,i,n.; fromTpayoy,
a goat,  and irvpov, wheat:  so named  from its beard.)
Buck-wheat.
  TRAGO RCIIIS.  (Tragorchis, is,m.; from rpayoc,
a goat,  and  opxts,  a testicle:  so  named  from the sup-
posed resemblance of its roots to the testicles of a goat.
A species of orchis.
  TRAGORI'GANUM.   (Tragoriganum, i, n. • from
rpayos, a goat, and optyavov, marjoram : so called be-
cause goats are fond of it.)  A  species of wild mar
joram.
  TRAGOSELI'NUM.   (Tragoselinum, i, n.; fr-.u
rpayoc, a goat, and otXtvov, parsley:  named from its
hairy coat like the beard of a goal.)  The burnet saxi-
frage.   See Pimpinella saxifraga.
  TRA'GUS.   (Tpayoj.  Tragus, i, m.;  a  goat: s:j
called from its having numerous little hairs, or from i-»
being hairy  like the  goat.)   1. In anatomy.  A sma'l
cartilaginous eminence ofthe auricular or external tar,
placed  anteriorly, arid connected to the anterior extre-
mity of the helix.  It is beset with numerous little haiis.
defending, in some measure, the entrance of the exter-
nal  auditory passage.
  2.  In botany.  This name  has been variously  •,;>
piled, by Dioscorides, to meal or flour, and  to a mtiri
time shrub.
  TRALLIAN.   Alexander,  a learned and  inge
nious physician, xvho was born at  Tralles, in Lydia
and  flourished at  Rome under the emperor Justinian'
about the middle  of the sixth century.  Like Hippo'
crates,  he travelled over various countries to  improve
                                        a*i7 
TRA                                            TRA
his Knowledge.  Besides improving upon many or the
compositions then employed, he invented several others:
and particularly introduced the liberal use of the pre-
parations of iron.  He principally followed the practice
of Hippocrates and Galen, but not indiscriminately.
He appears, however, to iiave had too great faith in
charms and amulets, which was the common error of tlie
age in whicli he lived.
  TRA'MIS.  Tpapts-  The line xx Inch divides  the
scrotum, and runs on to the anus.  See Raphe.
  TRANSFUSION.   (Transfusio;  from Iransfundo,
to pour from one vessel into another.)  The Iransiuis-
iiiiui of blood  from one living animal to anolher by
means of a canula.  " Harvey xvas thirty years before
he could get his discovery admitted, though ihe most
evident proofs  of it were every where perceptible;  but
as soon as the  circulation was acknowledged, people's
minds were seized xvitii  a sort of delirium: it  was
thought that the means of curing all diseases xvas found,
and even of rendering man immortal.  The cause of
nil cur evils was attributed to the blood; in order to
cure them,  nothing more was necessary but to remove
tlie bad blood,  and to  replace  it by pure blood, drawn
from a sound animal.
  Tlie fiist  attempts were made upon animals, and they
had complete success.   A dog having lost a great  part
of ils blood, received, by transfusion, that of a sheep,
and it became well.   Another dog, old and deaf, re-
gained, by this means, the  use of hearing, and seemed
to recover its youth.  A horse of tiventy-slx years hav-
ing received in his veins  Ihe blood of four lambs, lie
recovered his strength.
  Transfusion  was soon attempted upon man.  Denys
and Emerez, tbe one a physician, the  other a surgeon
of Paris, were  the first  who ventured to try it.  They
introduced  into the veins of a young man,  an  idiot, ihe
blood of a  calf, in greater quantity than that xvhicli
had been draxvn from them, and he appeared to recover
his reason.  A leprous person, and a quartan ague,
were also cured by this means; and several otlier trans-
fusions were made upon healthy persons  xvithout any
disagreeable result.
  However, some sad events  happened,  to calm  the
general enthusiasm caused  by these repeated successes.
Tlie young idiot xve mentioned fell into a state of mad-
ness a short lime afler the experiment.  He xvas sub-
mitted a second time  to the tiausfiision, and  he  xvas
immediately seized with a hamaturia, and died  in a
state of sleepiness and torpor.   A young  prince of the
blood royal was also the victim of it.  The parliament
of Paris prohibited transfusion.  A short  time after,
G. Riva, having,  in Italy, performed the transfusion
upon two individuals, xvho died of it, the  pope prohi-
bited it also.
  From this period, transfusion hns been legarded as
useless, and even dangerous."
  TRANSPARENCY.  Diaphaneity.  A quality in
certain  bodies, by which they give passage to the rays
of light.  It is  opposed lo opacity; hence Cornea trans-
narens, and Contra apace.
  TRANSPIRATION.  (Transpiratio; from trans,
through, and spiro, to  breathe.)  See Perspiration.
  TRANSUDATION.  Transudatio.  The passing
through Ihe cells or pores of any thing.  The term
should be distinguished from perspiration, xvliich im-
plies a function, by xvhicli the perspired fluid is secreted
from  the blood, ivhcreas,  by  transudation, the blood
or other fluid merely passes or oozes through unaltered.
  TRANSVERSALIS.  Transverse.
  Transversalis abdominis.  A muscle situated on
the anterior part of the abdomen: so named from its
direction.   It arises internally or posteriorly from Ihe
cartilages of the seven loxver ribs, being there connected
xvilh the intercostals  and  diaphrasm, also from  the
transverse process of the Insl vertebra of the bark, from
tho-e of the four upper vertebrae ol" the loins, from the
inner edge ofthe crista ilii, and from part of Poupart's
ligament, and it is inserted  into the inferior bone ofthe
Hleinuin, and almost all the length of the linea alba
Irs  use is  to  support  nnd compress  Ihe  abdominal
vim era.
  Transvkrsalis anticus primus.  See Rectus capi-
tis lateralis.
  Transversalis cervicis.  See Longissimus dorsi.
  Transversalis colli.   A musole, situated on the
posterior part  of ihe neck, xvliich  turns the neck ob-
liquely bncl.xv-iids, ami a little to one sido
      3.W
  Transversalis dorsi.  See Multifidus spina.
  Transversalis major colli.   See  Longissimu;
dorsi.
  Transversalis pedis.  A muscle of the :"bot, xvhich
it contracts, by bringing the great toe and the two outer-
most toes nearer each oilier.
  Transverse suture.  Sutura transversalis.  This
suture runs across tlie  face, and  sinks down into the
orbits, joining the bones ofthe skull to the hones of ths
face ; but xvith so many irregularities and interruptions,
that it can scarcely be recognised as a suture.
  Transverso-sfinales.  See Multifidus spina.
  Transversus  auris.   A muscle of Ihe external ear,
whicli draws the upper pan of the concha toxvards the
helix.
  Transversus   perinjei.  (Musculus transversus
pcrinai.)  A muscle of the organs of generation
which sustains  and keeps tlie perinueum in its propel
place.
  Transversus  perin.ei alter.  Prostalicus  infe-
rior, of Winsloxv.  A small muscle occasionally found
accompanying the former.
  TRAP.  This  term is derix-ed  from  the Swedish
word trappa, a stair.  It is applied in geology to rocks
principally characterized  by the presence of horn-
blende and black  iron clay.
  TRAPA.   (A term given by Linnxus, whose idea ia
certainly taken from  the xvarlike instrument called cal-
trop, the tribulus of  tbe  ancients, which  consisted  of
four iron radiated spikes, so placed, thai one of them
must always  stand upxvards, in order lo xvound the
feet of the passengers. Such is the figure of the sin-
gular fruit of this genus; hence named by Tournefort,
tribuloides.   Calcitrapa, an old  botanical term of  si-
milar meaning to tribulus, is compounded, perhaps, of
calco, to tread or kick, and rptnu, to turn, because the
caltrops arc continually  kicked ox-er if they failof theii
intended mischief: here xve have the immediate origin
of  trapa.)   The name of a genus of plants, Class,
 Tetrandria; Order, Monogynia.
  Trapa natans.  The systematic name of tiie plant
xvhicli affords the nux aquatica.   Tribulus  aqualicus.
Caltrops. The fruit  is of a quadrangular  and some-
xvhat  oval shape, including a nut of a sweet farina-
ceous flavour, somewhat like lhat of  the  chesnut,
xvhich is apt to constipate the boxvels, and produce dis-
ease;  hoxvever, it is  said  to  be nutritious and demul-
cent, and  to be  useful  in  diarrhoeas from  abraded
boxvels, nod against calculus.  Likexvise a poultice  of
these nuts is said  lo be efficacious in resolving hard aud
indolent  tumours.
  TRAPEZIUM.   (A  four-sided figure:  so called
from its shape.)   The first bone of the second row  of
the carpus.
  TRAPE'ZICS.   (From rpaireftoc, four-square:  so
named from its shape.)  Cucullaris.  A  muscle  situ-
ated immediately under the integuments of the poste-
rior part of the  neck and  back.  It arises by a thick
round, and short tendon, from the loxver part of a pro-
tuberance in  the middle  of the occipital bone  back-
xvards, nnd from  the  rough line that is extended  from
thence toxvards ihe mastoid process of the os temporis,
and by a thin membranous tendon, which covers part
of the complexus  and splenius.  It then  runs down-
wards along the nape of the neck, and rises tendinous
from the spinous processes  of the livo lowermost ver-
tebrae of the neck, and from the spinous  processes  of
all the vertebrae of the back, being inseparably united
to its felloxv, the whole length of'iu origin, by tendi
nous fibres, which, in the nape of the neek, form what
is called ligamentum colli, or thc cei xical ligament.  It
is inserted fleshy into the broad and posterior half of
the  clavicle,  tendinous  and  fleshy into  one-half  of
the  acromion, and into almost all the spine of the sea
pula.
  This muscle serves to move the scapula in differed
directions.  Its upper descending fibres pull it oblique■;•
upwards; its  middle  transverse ones pull  it directly
backxvards; its inferior fibres, xvhich ascend obliquely
upxvards, draw it obliquely downxveids and back-
wards.
  The upper part of the muscle acts upon the neck
and head, the latter of xvhich il draws backxvarils, ami
turns upon its axis.   It likewise concurs w'lh other
muscles in  counteracting the flexion of the beau for-
wards.
  TRAPEZOI'DES OS   The second  bone of u» 
TRl
TRI
second row of the carpus: so called from its rosemblnnce
io the trapezium, or quadrilateral geomotri :al figure.
  TRAUMATIC.  (From rouvpa, a wound.)   Any
tiling relating to a xvound.
  TRAVELLER'S JOY.  See Clematis vitalba.
  TREACLE.  See Theriaca.
  Treacle, mustard.  See Thlaspi.
  TREFOIL.  (So called because the leaf is formed
nf three leaflets.)   See Trifolium.
  Trefoil marsh.  See Menyanthes trifoliata.
  TREMOHTE.  A  subspecies of straight  edged
augite.  There are three kinds, the asbeslous, couiinon,
and glassy.
  TREMOR.  An involuntary trembling.
  TREPAN.  Trephine.   An instrument used by sur-
geons to remove a portion of bone from the skull.
  TREPHINE.  Si-e  Trepan.
  TREW, Christopher James, xvas born at Lauffen,
In Francr.nia, in 1605;  and settled  as a  physician al
Nuremburg, xvhere he gained so much reputation, as to
be made  director of the academy "Naturae Curioso-
rum." He also contributed much toxvards establishing
a society  under  tlie title of " Cominercium Literal iuin
Noricum," for tlie advancement of medical and natural
knoxvledge, xvhicli published  some valuable memoirs.
To these societies he communicated several papers, aud
he also published some splendid xvorks in anatomy and
botany.   He died in 1760.
  TRIANGULARIS.   Trigonus.   Triangular: a
term very generally used iu the different  departments
of science, to parts of animals, vegetables, minerals, I
&c, from their form.  See  Caulis Folium, Sec.
  TRIBULUS.   (TptfioXos; from  rpiSn,  to tear or
injure: an instrument of xvai to be throxvn in  the way
to annoy the enemy's horse: hence the  name of an
herb from its resemblance to this instrument)
  1.  The name  of a  genus of  plants.  Class, Decan-
dria ; Order, Monogynia.
  2.  Sec  Trapa natans.
  Tribulus aquaticus.   See  Trapa natans.
  TRICA.   (7Viea, a, f.; from Optl, rptxos, a  hair:
because they seem composed of a horse hair rolled, or
|iartly folded, into a liltle, round, black head.)  A term
applied by Dr.Aoharius to thc  black filaments, resem-
bling a curled horse hair, in Ibe Gyrophora  and  Umbi-
licaria of Hoffman.
  TRICAUDA'LIS.   (From tres, three, and cauda, a
tail.)  A muscle with three tails.
  TRI'CEPS.  (From  tres, throe, and caput,  a head.)
Three-headed.
  Triceps adductor  femoris.  Under this appella-
tion  are  comprehended three  distinct muscles.  See
ddductor brevis, longus, and magnus femoris■
  Triceps auris. See Retrahentes auris.
  Triceps  extensor cubiti.  This muscle, xvhich
occupies  all  the posterior part of the os humeri, is de-
scribed as two  distinct muscles  by Douglas,  and  as
three by Winsloxv. The upper  pari of ils long head is
covered by the deltoides-. the rest of the muscle is situ-
ated immediately under the integuments.
  It arises, as its name indicates, by three heads.  The
first, or long  head, (the long head of the biceps  exter-
nus, of Douglas; anconeus major, of Winslow, as it is
called,) springs,  try a flat tendon of an inch in  breadth,
from the anterior extremity of the inferiorcosta of the
scapula,  near ils neck, and  below thc origin of the
teres minor.   The second head, (the short head of the
biceps externus, of Douglas;  anconeus externus,  of
Winslow), arises by  an acute, tendinous,  and  fleshy
beginning, from the upper and outer part of the os hu-
meri, at the  bottom of its great tuberosity.  The third
head, (braehialis  externus of  Douglas; anconeus in-
ternus, of Winslow,)  which  is the  shortest of the
three, originates by an acute fleshy beginning,  from the
back  part of the os humeri, behind the flat lendon of
the latissimus dorsi.  These three portions unite about
the middle of the arm, so as to form one thick and
powerful muscle, which adheres to the os humeri to
xvithin an inch of the elbow, where it begins to form a
aroad tendon, which,  after  adhering to  the  capsular
ligament  of  the elbow, is inserted into the upper and
outer part of the olecranon, and sends off a  great num-
ber of fibres, which help to form the fascia on the
outer part of the forearm. The use of this muscle is
to extend the forearm.
  TKICHIA.  (From  dpi?, a hair.)  A disease  of the
hair.  See 'Trichoma.
  TRICHl'ASIS.  (From  Opt\,  a hair)   Trichosis
1.  A disease of Ihe eye-lashes, in xvliich they are turned
in towards the bulb of Ihe eye.
  2.  A disease of the hair.   See 'Trichoma.
  TRICHl'SMUS.  (From 0pi*>,u hair.)   Aspeciesol
fracture xvhicli  appears like a hair, and is almost im-
perceptible.
  TRICHOMA.  (From ryuxts, thc hair.) Tho plaited
hair.  See Plica.
  TRICHOMANES.  (From rpi\ts, hair, and pavos,
thin, lax: so called because il resembles fine hair.) See
Asplenium trirhomanes.
  TRICHOSIS.   (TfMxu,0'15i P'l<tre malum; from Opii,
a hair.l  Under this name Good makes a genus of dis-
ease iii the Class Eccritica, Order  Acrotica, of his
Nosology.   Moibid  hair.  Il has  eight  s-pci ics, viz.
Trichosis setosa, plica, htrsutus, distrix.   See Plica.
  TRICIIU'RIS.  (Fronfflpi*;, ahair.)  Thc long hair-
worm.  See fVorms.
  TRICOCCL'S.  (From rptij,  tliree, and  xoxxos,  a
grain.)  Three-seeded.
  Tnicocc.*:.  Tlie name  of an order in Linnaeus's
Fragments of a  Natural Method,  consisting of those
which have a triangular capsule xvitii three seeds.
  TRICUSPID.   (Tricuspis; from tres, three, and
cuspis, a point: so called  from their being three-point
edj  Three-pointed.
  Tricuspid valve.  The name of the  valve in the
right ventricle.
  Trifoil, water.  See Menyanthes trifoliata.
  TRIFO'LIUM.  (From  tres, three, and folium, a
leaf: so called  because  it  lias three leaves on  each
stalk.)   The name of a genus of plants iu the  Lin-
naean system.  Class, Pentandria; Order, Monogynia.
Trefoil.
  Trifolium acetosum.  The xvood-sorrel xvas so
called.  See Oxalis acetosella.
  Trifolium aquaticum.   See  Menyanthes  trifo-
liata.
  Trifolium arvense.  Hare's-foot trefoil.
  Trifolium  aureum.   Herb  trinity;  noble liver-
wort.
  Trifolium caballinum.  Melilolus.
  Trifolium c*ruleum.   Sweet trefoil.
  Trifolium falcatum.  The Auricula muris.  See
Hicracium pilosella.
  Trifolium fibrinum.   See Menyanthes trifoliata.
  Trifolium hepaticum.   See -Anemone hepatica.
  Trifolium melilotus  officinalis.   The syste
matic nameof the officinal  melilot; Melilotus; Lotus
sylvestris ; Scralula campana; Trifolium caballinum;
Coroda regia; Trifolium  odoratum.  This  plant has
been said  to be  lesolvent,  emollient,  anodyne, and to
participate of the virtues of chamomile.   Its taste is
unpleasant,subacrid, subsalinc, but not bitter; xvh«n
fresh it Ins scarcely any smell;  in drying, it acquires a
pretty strong one of the aromatic  kind, but not agree
able.  The principal use of melilot has been in  clys-
teis, fomentations, and other external  applications.
  Trifolium odoratum.   See  Trifolium melilotus
officinalis.
  Trifolium paludosum.  See Menyanthes trifcliala.
  TRIGE'MINI.  (Trigeminus, from tres, three, and
geminus, double;  three-fold.) Nervi innominati. The
fifth pair  of nerves, which  arise from  the crura ol
the cerebellum, and are  divided within the cavity ol
the cranium into three branches, viz.  the orbital, supr
rior, and  inferior maxillary. The  orbital branch i»
divided  into  the frontal, lachrymal, and nasal nerves
the superior  maxillary into the spheno-palatine, poste
rior alveolar, and infra-orbital nerves ; and Ihe inferior
maxillary into  two branches, the internal lingual, and
one more properly called the inferior maxillary.
  TRIGONE'LLA.  (A diminutive of trigona, three
sided, alluding  to its little triangular flower.)  The
nanieof a genus of plants.  Class, Diadclphia ;' Order,
Decandria.
  Trigonella   rffiNuw  or*cum.   The systematic
name of the frenugreek.  Fcenum gracum ;  Buceras;
JEa-oceras.  Trigonella—leguminibus sessilibus stric
tis erectiusculis sttbfalcatis  acuminatis, caule ercclo
of Linnaeus. A native of Montpellier. The seeds art
brought to us from the southern parts of France and
Germany; they  have a strong disagreeable smell, and
an unctuous farinaceous tasle, accompanied  with  a
a slight  bitterness. They are esteemed as assisting thr
formation  ot pus, in  inflammatory tumours; and tli«
                                        •i-Ji 
TRO
TRO
 Real, xvith that irueution, is made into a poultice wilh
 milk.
   TRIGONUS.   See Triangularis.
   TRIHILAT^E.  (From tres, three, nnd hilum,  the
 E-:ar or external mark on the  seed.)  The name of a
 class of plants in Linnaeus's Fragments of a Natural
 Method, consisting of plants, the seeds of xvliich have
 the scar xvell marked ; the style has three stigmas.
   TRILOBUS.   Three-lobed.   Applied to  parts of
 animals and plants which are so shaped.
   TRINERVIS.  Three-nerved.   In  botany, three-
 ribbed ; ns applied to leaves, &c.
   Trinita'tis herba.  See Anemone hepatica.
   TRINITY-HERB.  See Anemone hepatica.
   [" TRIOSTEUM.  The triosteum  perfoliatum is a
 native plant, the root of which is cathartic in tiie dose
 nf thirty or thirty-five grains.   It sometimes!  operates
 as au emetic in the same dos|s.  The strength is some-
 xvhat impaired by keeping, so that the stock should be
 renewed (very year."—Big. Mat. Med.  A.]
   TRIPARTITUS.   Tripartite: divided into three.
   Tripa'strum  apellidis.  Tripastrum archimedis.
 A surgical instrument for extending  fractured limbs;
 so named because it resembled a machine  invented by
 Apellides or Archimedes, for  the  launching of ships,
 ;md  because it was xvorked with three cords.
   TRIPHANE.  See Spodumcne.
  TRIPHYLLUS.  (From rp£ic, tliree, and cbvXXov, a
 leaf.) Three-leaved.
  Tripi.inervis.  Triply-ribbed:  applied  to a  leaf,
 xvhich has a pair of  large ribs branching off from a
 main one above the base, xvhich is the case in every
 species of sunfloxver,  and tlie Blakea triptincrvis.
  TRIPOLI.  Rottenstone. A grayish yellow-coloured
 mineral  used for polishing.
  TRIOUE'TRA.  (Triquelrus;  from  Ires, three.)
 Ossicula wormiana.   The  triangular-shaped bones,
 which are found mostly in the course ofthe lambdoidal
 suture ofllie skull.
  TRIQUETRUS.   Three-sided.  Applied lo some
 parts of plants;  ns  tlie  stems,  flowerstalk,  leaves,
 seeds, &c.
  TRISMUS. (From rpijjw, to gnash.)   Locked jaw.
 Spastic  rigidity  of  the  under  jaxv.   Capistrum, of
 Vogel.   Dr.  Cullen makes two species.  1. Trismus
 nascentium,  attacking infants during the first txvo
 xveeks  from  their  birth.  2. Trismus traumaticus,
 attacking persons of all ages, and arising from cold or a
 xvound.   See Tetanus.
  TRISSA'GO.  (Quasi trist'ago; from trislis,  sad:
 hecause it dispels sadness.)  The common germander
 is sometimes so called. See  Teucrium chamadrys.
  Trissago pallustris.  The water-germander was
 so called.  See Teucrium scordium.
  TRITiEO'PHYA.  (From ripfaios, tertian,and d>vu,
 importing a like nature or original.)  Tritaus.  A fever
 much of a nature xvith a tertian, and taking its rise
 from it.   Some call it a continued tertian.  It is remit-
 tent or intermittent.
  Trit.hophya causus.   The fever called causus by
 Hippocrates.
  TRIT^E'US.   See  Tritaophya.
  TRI'TICUM. (From tero, to thresh from the husk.)
The  name of a genus of plants.  Class, Triandria;
 Order, Digynia.   See Wheal.
  Triticum repens.  Gramen  caninum;  Gramen
 Dioscoridis;  Gramen repens; Loliaceum radice re-
oente.  Dog's grass;  Couch grass.  A very common
grnss, the roots of which are agreeably sxveet, and pos-
sess  aperient  properties.  The  expressed juice  is
 recommended to be given largely.
  TRITO'RIUM.  (From tritus,  beat small.)  1.  A
 mortar.
  2.  A glass  for separating the oil from the xvater In
dlrtilling.
  TRITURATION.  (Trituratio; from tero, to rub
irr grind.)  Tntura;  Tritus.  The act of reducing a
solid body into n subtile powdei; as woods, barks, &c.
It  is performed  mostly by  the  rotary  motion  of a
pestle in metallic, glass, or Wedgexvood mortars.
  TROCAR.  (Corrupted from un trois quart, French,
a three-quarters; from the tliree sides xvitii xvhich
the point is made.)  The name of an  instrument used
'n  tapping for the dropsy
  TROCHA'NTER.   (From rptxu, to run: because
the muscles  inserted  into tiiein  perforin the office of
running.)  The name of txvo processes of the thigh-
     3GU
 bene, xvliich are distinguished into  the  greater ane
 less.  See Femur.
   TROCHI'SCUS.   (Diminutive of rpoxos, a wheel.)
 A troch or round tablet.  Troches and  lozenges  are
 composed of powders  made  up with glutinous sub
 stances  into liltle cakes, and afterxvard dried.  This
 form i3 principally used for the more commodious exhi
 bilion of certain medicines, by fitting them to  dissolve
 sloxvly in the mouth, so as to pass by degrees into  the
 stomach ; and  hence these preparations have geneially
 a considerable portion of sugar  or  other materials
 grateful to  the palate.  Some powders have  likewise
 been reduced into trochee, xvitii a view to their prepara
 tion, though possibiy for no very good reasons: for  the
 moistening  them, and afterxvard drying them in  the
 air, must on this account be of greater injur)', than any
 advantage accruing from this form can counterbalance.
   General rules for making troches:
   1. If" the  mass proves so" glutinous as to stick to  tie
 fingers in making up,  the hands  may be  anointed
 wilh any sweet or aromatic oil; or else sprinkled with
 starch, or liquorice powder, or xvith flour.
   2. In order to  thoroughly dry the troches, put them
 on  an inverted sieve, in a shady, airy place, and fre-
 quently turn them.
   3. Troches are to be kept in glass vessels, or in
 earthen ones xvell glazed
   TROCHLEA.  (TpoxXca, a pulley; from rptxu, to
 run.)  A kind of cartilaginous pulley, through xvhich
 the  tendon of one ofllie muscles ofthe eye passes.
   TROCHLEA'RIS.  See Obliquus superior oculi.
   TROCHLEATO'RES.  The fourth pair of nerves
 are so called, because they are inserted into the  mus-
 culus troclearis of the eye.  See Pathetici
   TROCHOI'DES.   (From rpoxoj, a wheel, and uios,
 rcsemblnacc.)  Area commissura.  A species of diar-
 throsis, or moveable connexion of bones, in which one
 bone rotates upon another; as the first cervical verte-
 bra  upon ihe odontoid process ofthe second.
   TRONA.  The African name for  the native car-
 bonate of soda found near Fezzan.
   [" Tlie caibonate of soda, strictly so called, is found
 in the province of Sukcua,  txvo days' journey from
 Fezzan, in Africa.  It appears in crusts, composed  of
 minute crystals, at the foot of a mountain.  It is there
 called Troita, and transported to Egypt, Tripoli, Sec
 This variety is also found near Buenos Ayres  in con
 siderable quantities, xvhence it has been transported to
 England.  It there exists in stratified masses from txvo
 to six inches thick, resting on clay, which is strongly
 impregnated xvitii common salt. It has a light yel-
 lowish-gray colour, a granular texture, is easily broken,
 and  does not effloresce in the air."—Cleat-. Min.  A  ]
 _TR0NCH1N, Theodore,  was born at Geneva  in
 1709, and xvent to study under Boerhaave, at Loydtn,
 xvhere he  graduated iu 1730.  He then settled at Am-
 sterdam, became a  member  of the  College of Phy-
 sicians, and an inspector  of hospitals ;  and  distin-
 guished himself as a zealous promoter of inoculation.
 In 1754, he returned to Geneva, and ranked among the
 most eminent practitioners  in Europe ; a chair of me
 dicine was instituted in  his favour, and the Society of
 Pastors  admitted him into their body.  He was em-
 ployed by the Duke of Orleans, and other persons  of
 rank nt Paris, to inoculate their children; and per-
 formed thc  same office for the Duke of Parma.  In
 I7G6, he accepted the appointment of principal  ohv-
 sician to the Duke of  Orleans; though he had pre-
 viously declined an invitation from  the  Empress  of
 Russia.  His practice appears to have been simple and
judicious, and his conduct  marked by humanity and
 charily. He had little time for writing;  but besides his
 inaugural  dissertation, he published a treatise  on the
 Colica Pictonum, in 1757, and  contributed several arti-
 cles to the Encyclopaedia, and to the Memoirs of the
 Academy of Surgery: and to an edition of tlie works of
 Bail  ou he gave a Preface on the State of Medicine
 He had the honour of  being a member of the chief
 medical and scientific societies in Europe.  His death
 happened in 1781.                    v         caln
  TROP^'OLUM.  (A  diminutive of tropaum,  ox
 ■puvatov,  a  warlike  trophy.  This fanciful but ele-
gant  name xvas chosen  by Linna-us  for this singular
 and  striking genus, because he conceived the  shield-
 itke leaves and the brilliant floxvers, shuped like golden
helmets, pierced through nnd through, and stained xvith
blood, might well justify  such an allusion.)  Thc name 
TRU
TUB
 of a genus of plants.  Class, Octandria; Order, Mono-1
 gynia.
   Trop^olum  majus.  The systematic name of the
 Indian cress.  Nasturtium indicum ; Acriviola; Flos
 sanguineus monardi; Nasturtium peruvianum; Car-
 damindum minus.  Greater Indian  cress, or  Nastur-
 tium.  This plant  is a native of Peru;  it was first
 brought to France in 1&34, nnd tliere called Lagrande
 capucine.  Ill  its  recent state this plant, and  more
 especially  ils flowers, have a smell and  tasle resem-
 bling tliose of X7ater-cress; and the leaves, on  being
 bruised in a mortar, emit  a  puiueent  odour, somewhat
 like that of horse-radish.  By distillation xvitii xvater,
 they impregnate the fluid in a considerable degree xx ith
 the smell and  flavour of the plant.  Hence the anti-
 scorbutic character of the nasturtium seems to be xvell
 founded, at least as far as xve are able to judge  from its
 sensible qualities:  therefore, in all those cases where
 the xvarm and  antiscorbutic vegetables  are recom-
 mended, this plant  may be  occasionally adopted as a
 pleasant and effectual variety.  Patients lo xvhom the
 nauseous taste of scurvy-grass is i;> tolerable, may find
 a grateful substitute iu  the  nasturtium.  Tlie flowers
 are frequently used in  salads, and the capsules are by
 many highly esteemed as a pickle.  The floxvers, in the
 xvarm  summer months, about the time of sunset, have
 been observed to emit sparks like those of ihe electrical
 kind.
   Trophis americana.   Red  fruited bucephalon.
 The fruit of the plant is  a rough red berry, xvhich is
 eaten in Jamaica, though not verv pleasant.
  TRUFFLE.   See Lycoperdon tuber.
  TRUNCATCS.  Truncate.  Used in botany.   A
 truncate leaf is an abrupt one, which has the extremity
 :ut off, as  it xvere,  by a transverse line; as  in Lirio-
 dendrum tulipifera, and the petals of Hura crepitans.
  TRUNCUS.  (Truncus, i, m.)  The trunk.
  1. In anatomy, applied to the hody strictly so called.
 It is divided  into the  thorax or chest, the abdomen  or
 belly, and the pelvis.
  II.  In  botany, that part of a plant xvhich emerges
 from tlie root, mid sustains all otlier parts.  The genera
 of trunks are,
  1. Truncus: applied to trees and shrubs, xvhich are
 hick and woody
  2. Caulis: the stem of horns.
  3. Calmus : the stem of grasses.
  4. Stipes: the trunk of funguses, ferns, and palms.
  5. Scopus: which is not a trunk, but a flower-stalk,
 emerging from the root.
  [Truss.  This is an instrument employed by sur-
 geons  to retain  the intestines in their proper place,
 when they have been forced out of their natural posi-
 tion, forming thc disease which is called a rupture  or
 hernia. A "hernia is reducible or not.  When not re-
 ducible, it becomes a strangulated  hernia, requiring a
 surgical operation, before the intestines can be restored
 to their proper position.  When not strangulated, rup-
 tures are liable to  become so by accident, and hence
trusses were  invented to  keep the intestines  in their
place, and if possible to cure the disease, by closing the
opening through which the boxvels protruded.  Trusses
have heretofore been considered as a palliative remedy,
rather than the means of effecting a radical cure.  This
 has arisen from the manner of constructing them; and
 although they sometimes  effected tiie desired object,
 yet they more generally failed, because the padsof all the
 trusses heretofore applied, were made  eonteei.  The
 intention of this shape of the instrument xvas to  press
 into the opening through which tlie gut descended, and
 to keep it xvell into its place; but xvhile it had  this ef-
 fect, it tended to keep the opening from healing, and
even to enlarge it.   This evil was  not fully  remedied
until Dr. Amos G. Hull, of Nexv-York, turned his at-
tention to thc subject, and by his improvements in the
construction of trusses, has rendered  it certain that all
recent ruptures, and those  of children, may be  perma-
 nently cured, and tliose of old people and of long stand-
ing may, in many cases, also be remedied.  The pad
of* Dr. Hull's truss  is concave, and not convex; and
hence the raised circular margin, by proper adaptation,
presses upon the sides ofthe hernial opening, and tends
lo close the aperture and cure the hernia.
  The  following particulars of this invention,  and its
 tpplication io the cure of hernia,  xve take  from the
New-York Medical  and Physical Journal, vol. 4.
  "The qualities xve have united in ihe truss, are
| equally applicable lo every species of hernia, and w«
 can say, xvitiiout the fear of contradiction,  that  the
 proportion of cures it has effected is altogether unpa-
 ralleled.  It may, perhaps, be an interesting inquiry to
 some, how this instrument produces its effects: nnd xve
 think, after considering its construction, this question
 can be answered to the satisfaction of ■every rational
 mind.   It xvill be observed, that this truss presents a
 concave surface to the rupture opening.   The conca-
 vity of the  plate is occupied  by an elastic cushion, the
 resistance of xvhich is sufficient to reduce the intruding
 intestine while it is prevented escaping to any consider
 able  distance by the pressure of the  metallic plate;
 xvhich pressure  being greatest at the circumference and
 diminishing toxvards tiie centre, lends constantly to ap-
 proximate Ihe hernial  purifies, and afford ihem  rest
 and mechanical suppotl.   It is therefore obvious that
 nothing is suffered to intervene betxveen the lips of the
 opening, as is the case xvhen the intestine protrudes, or
 a convex pad is  applied, but a fair opportunity is pre-
 sented for  the fibres to recover their  (one, or to heal,
 when any  laceration  has been produced  by violence
 done to Hue parts.  It is a laiv of the animal economy,
 particularly noticed by  Horsey, that  all hollow parts
 of the body have a tendency to adapt themselves to
 their contents.
   " For thc cure of hernia, then, it is only necessary to
 remove every obstacle xvhich counteracts this tendency
 This indication  is certainly very far  from being an-
 sxvered by tlie convex pad, and we think it can only be
 fulfilled by one  xvhich shall reduce the boxvel xvithout
 dilating tlie ring: xvitii this view, we have applied the
 concave pud,  xvliich has more than answered our ex-
 pectations,  in preventing a descent of  the  gut, and in
 restoring the fibres, which  it undoubtedly greatly facili-
 tates by ils constant and uniform pressure. But withoul
 investigating the modus operandi, it is sufficient for the
 patient, and for all practical purposes, for the physician
 to knoxv, that with this instrument hernia may alwny
 be secured.  If  applied in cases of umbilical or conge
 nital hernia in children, it xvill, in e.ery instance, re-
 move the necessity of an  operation.   In cases of con
 genital  hernia,   it should  be applied  before adhesion
 takes place, but not until  the testicle has made its de
 scenL   If this particular period should be more care
 fully observed by surgeons, and the application of tlie
 truss  (instead'  of being  abandoned   to  mechanics
 receive  a greater share of llieir attention, ihey might
 be instrumental inobvialing much of the distress which
 has been entailed upon the world.
   " The distinctive merits of this truss Dr. Hull sums up
 under the following heads:—
   " First.—The concave  internal surface  of the rup-
 ture pad, from its pressure being greatest at tlie circum-
 ference, tends constantly  to approximate  the  hernia!
 parietes, affording them rest and mechanical support.
   " Secondly.—The combined hinge  and  pivot mode
 of connexion between the spring and pad, by means
 of a tenon and mortice, so constructed  as to preserve a
 double hinge and limited joint, acting in every direc
 tion,  thereby securing the uniform  pressure  of  the
 spring on the pad, and sustaining the same nice coapta-
 tion of the pad and rupture opening, as well under the
 varied ordinary  desultory  muscular actions, as xvhen
 the body is  in a  recumbent posture.
   " Thirdly.—The graduating poxver and fixture of tbe
 pad to the  spring, rendering, as xvill  be readily per-
 ceived, the  condition of the pad perfectly controllable,
 even to  nameless minuteness.   Also  resulting from
 this mechunisin,  is tlie advantage of accommodating a
 large truss to a small person ; hence Ihe facility of sup-
 plying,  withoul  disappointment, persons  at a great
 distance
   " Fourthly.—The double inguinal truss, being simply
 thc addition of another pad, attaciied to a short elastic
 metallic plate: this plate with its pad move on the main
 spring by the  same poxver of adjustment and  fixture
 as the first pad,  the pressure of the pads being  gradu-
 ated at pleasure  by an intervening cork wedge."  A.]
   TU'BA. (From tubus: any hollow vessel.) 1. A tube.
   2. In botany, the inferior part of a monopetalous
 corol.  It is the cylindrical part which is enclosed  in
 the calyx of the primrose.   See Corolla.
   Tuba eustachiana.   Tuba aristotelica; Aquadu-
 cus ; Aquaduclus fallopii; Meatus siccus; Palatinus
 ductus; Ductus auris palatinus.  The auditory tube
 The Eustachian tube, so nailed because it xvas first
                                         361 
TUN                                             TUN
dcrnaiosd *T Eustachiue,  arises in each ear from the
rohCMH eifnremiiy  of  the tympanum by means of a
bony s*ral-caival; runs forwards and inwards, at the
seme liiiin becoming gradually smaller; and after per-
forating tlie petrous portion of the temporal bone, ter-
minates in a passage, partly cartilaginous  and partly
membranous, narrow at the beginning, but becoming
gradually larger, and ending in a pouch behind the soft
palate.  It is through this orifice that the pituitary
membrane of the  nose enters  the tympanum.  It  is
alxvays open, and affords a free passage for the air into
the tympanum; hence persons  hear  better xvith  their
mouth open.
  Tuba fallopiana.   The Fallopian  tube first de-
scribed  by  Fallopius.   The uterine  lube.  A canal
 Deluded in  txvo laminae of the peritonaeum, which
arises at each side  of tiie fundus of tlie uterus, passes
transversely, and ends xvith  its extremity turned doxvn-
wards at the ovarium.  Ils use is to grasp the ovum,
and convey the prolific vapour to it, and to conduct the
fertilized ovum into the cavity ofthe uterus.
  TUBER.  ('Tuber, eris, n.; from  tumeo, to sxvell.)
An old name for an excrescence.
  1.  In anatomy,  applied to somo  parts  which are
rounded; as tuber annulare, &c.
  2. In surgery, a knot or sxvelling in any part.
  3. In botany, applied to a kind of round turgid root,
as a turnip; hence  these ate called tuberose roots.
  4. The name of  a genus of plants  in the Linnaean
system.  Class, Cryptogamia,  Order, Fungi.
  Tuber cibarum. Tiie common trultle.  See Lyco-
perdon tuber.
  Tubercula quadrigemina.   Corpora quadrigemi-
na; Eminentia quadrigemina;  Natula.   Four xvhite
oval tubercles of the brain, two  of xvhich nre situated
on eacli side over the posterior orifice of the third ven-
tricle and the aqueduct of Sylvius.  The ancients called
them nates and testes, from their supposed resemblance.
  TUBE'RCL'LUM.  (Tuberculum,  i, n.  diminutive
of tuber.)  A tubercle.  In anatomy, applied to several
elevations, and iu morbid anatomy to a diseased struc-
ture, which consists of a solid roundish substance; as
tubercles of the lungs, liver, &c.
  In botany, it is applied  to the  hemispherical projec-
tions, as the fruit ofthe Lichen caninus.
  Tuberculum annulare. The commencement of
the medulla oblongata.
  Tuberculum loxveri.  An  eminence in the right
auricle of the heart where the two venae cavae meet: so
called from Lower, who first described it.
  TUBEROSUS.   Tuberose,   knobbed:   applied  to
parts of plants. Tlie  root so called is of many kinds.
The most genuine  consists of fleshy  knobs, various  in
form, connected by common stalks or fibres; as the po-
tato, and Jerusalem artichoke.
  TUBULARIS.  Tubular. In Good's Nosology used
to designate a species of purging, diarrhaa tubularis,
in which membrane-like tubes pass xvitii the motions.
  TUBULOSUS.   Tubulose.   A leaf  is so called
which is holloxv within, ns  that of the common onion.
  The florets of a compound flower are called tubulosi,
tubular or cylindrical, to distinguish them from such as
are ligulate, or riband-like.
  TU'BULUS.  A small tube or duct.
  Tuuuli lactiferi.  The ducts or tubes in  the nip-
ple, through xvhich the milk passes.
  TUFT.  See Capitulum.
  TULP, Nicholas, xvas the son of an opulent mer-
chant, and  born   at  Amsterdam, in  1593.   Having
 etudied and graduated  at  Leyden,  he settled iu  his
native city, and rose  to a  high rank, not only iu  his
 profession, but also as a citizen.  He was made burgo-
 master in 10*52, and in  that station resisted the invasion
of Holland hy Lewis XIV. twenty years after, and thus
 paved  his country; nn xvhich  occasion a  medal was
Btruck  to his honour.  Ho died  in  1674.   His  three
cooks of Medical Observations have boon several  times
 i'-onntofl. and contain many valuable physiological re-
 uiarss.   He is said to have been among the first xvho
obserxed the lacteal vessels.
   TUMITF.  See  Thummcrstone.
   TUMOUR.  (Tunior; from tumeo, to swell.)   A
(.welling.
   Tumo'res.  Tumours.   An  order in the Class, Lo-
 cales,  of Cullen's Nosology, comprehending partial
 tivellings without inflammation.
   TUNBItlDGE.  Tunbridge xvells  is a populous yi|-
      36ii
lage in the county of Kent, xvhich contains many cha
lybeate springs, all of xvhich  resemble each other very
closely in their chemical properties.  Txvo of these ar*
chiefly used, which  yield about a gallon in a minute,
and therefore afford an abundant supply for the nume-
rous invalids xvho yearly resort thilher.  The analysis
of Tunbridge spring proves it to be a very pure water,
as to the quantity of solid matter; and tiie sriine  con
tents (the iron excepted) are  such as may be found  in
almost any xvater that is used as common drink.  It is
only as a chalybeate, and in the quantity of carbonic
acid, that it differs from common water.  Of this  acid
it contains one twenty-second of its bulk.  Thc general
operation of this chalybeate xvater is to increase the
power of the secretory system in a gradual, uniform
manner, aud to impart tono and strength to all the
functions; hence it is asserted to be of eminent service
in irregular digestion, flatulency, in thc incipient stages
of those chronic disorders which are attended xvith
great debility,  in chlorosis, and numerous olher com
plaints  incident to the female sex.  Thc prescribed
method of using the Tunbridge xvater, observes Dr.
Saunders,  is judicious.  The whole of the quantity
daily used, is  taken at about two or three intervals,
beginning at eight o'clock in the morning, and finishing
about noon.  The dose at each time varies from aboul
one to three quarters of a pint; according to the  age,
sex, and general constitution of the patient, and espe-
cially the duration of the course; for it is found  that
these waters lose much of their effect by long habit.
  TUNGSTATE.  Tunstas.  A salt formed  by the
combination ofthe tungstic acid,  wilh salifiable bases;
as tungstute of lime, Sec.
  TUNGSTENUM.   (Tungsten,  Swed. ponderous
stone.)  A metal, never found but in combination, and
by no means common.  The substance known to mine-
ralogists, under ihe  name of" tungsten, xvas, after some
time, discovered to consist of lime, combined with the
acid of Ihis metal.   This ore  is noxv called lungstate .-/
lime, and is exceedingly scarce.   It has been found  in
Sweden and Germany, both in masses and crystallized,
of a yelloxvish-white or gray colour. It nas a sparry
appearance, is shining, of a lnmellated texture, and
seuiitransparent.  The same metallic acid is likexvise
found united to iron and manganese; it  then forms the
ore called Wolfram, or tungstate of iron  and  manga-
nese.  This ore occurs both  massive and crystallized,
and is found in Cornxvall, Germany, France, and Spain.
Its colour  is brownish-black, and its texture foliated.
It has a metallic lustre, and a lamellated texture; it is
brittle and  very heavy; it is found in solid masses, in
tlie state of layers  interspersed  xvith quartz.  These
txvo substances are therefore ores of the same metal.
   Properties.—Tungstenum  appears of  a steel-gray
colour.  Its specific gravity is about 17 6.   It is one of
the hardest meials,  but it is exceedingly brittle; and it
is said to be almost  as infusible as platina.  Healed in
the air it becomes converted  inlo a yellow pulverulent
oxide, which becomes blue by a  strong heat, or xvhen
exposed to light.  Tungstenum combines  with phos-
phorus and sulphur, and with silver, copper, iron,  lead,
tin, antimony, and bismuth;  but  it does not unite  with
gold and platina. It is not attacked by sulphuric, nitric,
or muriatic acids; nitro-muriatic acid' acts upon it very
slightly.  It is oxidizablc nnd acidifiable by the nitrates
and hyperoxymuriates.   Ii colours the  vitrified earths
or the vitreous fluxes, of a blue or brown colour.  It is
not knoxvn what its action may be on water and differ
ent oxides.  Its  action on the alkalies is  likewise un-
known.  It is not  employed yet, but promises real
utility, on account of its colouring property, as a  basis
for pigment, since the compounds it is said  to form  xvith
vegetable  colouring matter,  afford colours so perma-
nent, ns not to be acted on by the most concentrated
oxymuriatie acid, the great enemy of vegetable colours.
  Methods of obtaining tungstenum—The method of
obtaining metallic tunsstenuni is a problem in chemistry
Scheele, Bergman, and Gmelin did not succeed in  theii
attempts to procure it.  Klaproth tried lo reduce thc
yellow oxide of this metal xvith a variety of combusti-
ble substances,  but without  success.   Ruprecht and
Tondy say they have obtained this metal by using com-
bustible substances alone: and by a mixture of con-
bustible and alkaline matter.
  The folloxvingprocessisrecoinniendedbvKichter.an
imieuinus German chemist.
   Let equal parts ->f tungstic acid and dried blood  be 
TUR                                           TYM
f\posed lor some time to a red heatin a crucible; press
tin- black poxvder xvhich is formed into another smaller
crucible, and expose il again to a violent heat in a
forge, for at least half tin  hour.  Tungstenum xviil
then be found, according to this chemist, iu its metallic
state in the crucible.  There are txvo oxides of tung-
Btcnum, the broxvn and the yelloxv, or tungstic acid.
  TUNGSTIC  ACID has been found only in two mi-
nerals;  one of  xvhich, formerly called tungsten, is a
tungstate  of lime, and is very rare; the other, more
common, is composed of tungstic ncid, oxide of iron,
nnd  a  little oxide of manganese.  The acid is sepa-
rated from the latter in the tolloxving xx-ay:—The xvol-
fiam cleared from its silicious gangite, and pulverized,
is healed in a matrass xvitii five or six times ils xveigiit
of muriatic acid for half an hour.  The oxides of iron
and  manganese  being  thus  dissolved, xve  obtain the
tungstic acid under the form of a yelloxv poxx-der.  After
washing it repeatedly wilh xxater, it is then digested in
an excess of liquid ammonia, heated, xvhich dissolx'es
it completely.  The liquor is filtered and evaporated lo
dryness in a capsule.  The  dry residue being ignited,
th ' ammonia flies of!*, and pure tungstic acid remains.
If the xvhole of the wolfram  has nof been decomposed
in this operation, it must be  subjected lo tiie muriatic
acid  again.
  It is tasteless, and docs  not affect vegetable colours.
The tuugstatesof the alkalies aud magnesia are soluble
and crystallizable, the other earthy ones are insoluble,
as well as tliose of the metallic oxides.  Tlie acid  is
composed of 100 parts metallic tungsten, and 23 or 36.4
oxygen.
  TUNGSTOl S ACID.  What  has  been thus called
appears to be an oxide of tungsten.
  Tunic of a seed.  See Arillus.
  TU'NTCA.  (A tuendo corpore, because it defends
the body.)  A membrane or covering; as tiie coals of
the eye, &c.
  Tunica acimformis. The uvea, or posterior lamella
of the iris.
  Tunica albuoinea oculi. See Adnata tunica.
  Tunica albuoinea testis.  See Albuginea testis.
  Tunica  arachnoidba.  See Arachnoid membrane.
  Tunica cellulosa ruvsciiu.  Tlie second coat of
Jie intestines.
  Tunica choroidea.  See  Choroid membrane.
  Tumca conjunctiva.  See Conjunctive membrane.
  Tunica cornea.   See Cornea.
  Tunica filamentosa.  The false or spongy chorion.
  Tumca retina.  See Retina.
  Tunica vaginalis testis.  A continuation of the
peritonaeum through the  inguinal ring, which loosely
invests the testicle and  spermatic cord.  See Testis.
  Tunica xtillosa.  The villous,or. inner folding coat
of the intestines.
   Turbeth mineral.   See  Hydrargyrus vitriolalus.
  Turbrih root.  See Convolvulus turpethum.
  TURBINATE.   (Turbinatus;  from turbino, to
sharpen at the top, shaped like a sugar-loaf.)  Shaped
like a suear-loaf.
  Turbinated bones.  The superior spongy portion
of the ethmoid bone, and tiie inferior spongy bones, are
so called bv some writers.  See Spongiosa ossa.
  TURBIN A'TUM.  The pineal gland.
  TURBINATUS.   Turbinate, or sugar-loaf form.
Applied to the fig, &c.
  Turbith.   A cathartic eastern bark; a species of
cicely.
  Turkeystone.  See Whctslate.
  TURMERIC. See Curcuma.
  TURNHOOF.  A vulgar  name ofthe ground ivy
Bee Gler.oma hederacea.
  TURNIP. Bee Brassica-rapa.
  Turnip, French.   See Brassica rapa.
  TURNSOLE.  See Heliotropium.
  TURPENTINE.   Terebinthina.  There arc many
kinds of turpentine.  Those employed medicinally nre,
  1.  Tlie  Chian or Cyprus turpentine.  See Pistacia
terebinthus.
  2.  The common turpentine.  See Terebinthina com-
munis.
  3.  The Venice turpentine.  See Phius larix.
  All these have been considered as hot, stimulating
corroborants and detereents;  qualities which they pos-
sess in common.  Theysliimilnte the prima; viae, and
prove  laxatix-e;  xvhen carried into the blond-vessels
Ihey excite the whole system, and thus prove service-
 able in chronic rheumatism and paralysis.  Turprn
 tine readily passes off by urine, xvhich it imbues xvith
 a peculiar odour; also by perspiration and  by exhnia
 tion from the lungs;  and to these respective ellects nn
 ascribed the virtues it possesses in gravelly complaints,
 scurvy, and pulmonic disorders.  Turpentine is much
 used in gleets, and fluor albus, and in general with
 much success.  The  essential oil, in which thc virtues
 of turpentine reside, is not only preferred for external
 use, as a rubefacient, but also internally as a diuretic
 and styptic;  the latter of xvhich qualities it  possesses
 in a very high degree.  Formerly, turpentine xvas much
 used as u digestive application to ulcers, Sec; hut in the
 modern practice of surgery, it isnlmost wholly exploded,
   'I'urpeth mineral.  See Hydrargyrus vitriolalus.
   TUlll'E TUUM.  (From  Turpelh, Indian lurhetli.
 See Convolvulus turpct/iwn.
   Tuki'ktiium mineralk.   See Hydrargyrus vilrio-
 latus.
   TURQUOIS.   Calaite.   A mnch-estecined  orna
 mental stone brought from Persia, of a smalt-blue and
 apple-green colour.
   TURU'NDA.  (A terendo, from  its being rolled up.)
 A tent, or  suppository.
   TUSSILA'GO.   (Tussilago, inis,f.; from ttissis.
 a rough; because  it relieves coughs.)  1. The name of
 a genus of plants in the Linnnean system.  Class, Syn-
 geticsia ; Order, Polygamia superflua.
   2. The pharinncopceial name of the coltsfoot.   Sec
 Tussilago farfara.
   Tussilago farfara-  The systematic name of the
 Bech'um ;  Bechion; Calceum  equinum ; Cliamateuce;
 Ftlius antcpatrem ; Farfarella ; Farfara ; ?'ussilnge
 vulgaris ;  Farfarabeeltium ; Ungulacaballir.a. Colts-
 fool.   Tussilago  farfara—scapo  unifloro imbricato,
 foliis snbeordatis  angulatis denticulatis.  The sensi-
 ble qualities of this plant are very inconsiderable ; it
 has a rough  mucilaginous taste, but no  lemarkable
 smell.  The leaves have nlwny*) been esteemed as pos
 sessing  demulcent and pectoral virtues;  and henco
 they have  been exhibited in pulmonary consumptions,
 coughs, asthmas, and catarrhal affections.  It is used
 as tea, or given in the way of infusion xvitii  liquorice-
 root or honey.
   Tussilago fetasites.  The systematic  name of
 the butter-bur.  Petasites.  Pestilent-wort.   Tiie roots
 of this plant are recommended as  aperient and alexi-
 phannic, and promise, though now forgotten, to be of
 considerable activity.  They have  a strong smell, and
 a bitterish acrid taste, of the  aromatic  kind, but not
 agreeable.
   TU'SSIS.  A cough, a sonorous concussion of the
 breast, produced by  the violent, and for the  most part
 involuntary motion of the muscles of respiration.  It
 is symptomatic of many diseases.
   Tnssis convulsiva.  See Pertussis.
   Tussis exanthematica.  A cough attendant on an
I eruption.
   Trssis  ferina.  See Pertussis.
   TUTENAG. 1  The Indian name for zinc
   2. A metallic compound brought from China.
   TU'TIA.  (Persian.)  Pompholyx; Cadmia.  Tutty.
 A gray oxide of zinc;  il is  generally formed  by fusing
 brass or copper, mixed with blende,  xvhen it is incrusted
 in the chimneys of the furnace.  Mixed with any com-
 mon cerate, it is applied to the eye,  in debilitated state*.
 of the conjunctive membrane.
   Tutia preparata.  Prepared tutty Is often put into
 collyria, to wliich it imparts an adstringent virtue.
   TUTTY.   See Tutia.
   TYLO'SIS.  (From tvXos, acallus.)   Tyloma.  An
 induration of ihe margin of the eyelids.
   Ty'mpam membrana. See Membrana tympani.
   TYMPANITES.    (From  rvpiravov, a drum:  so
 called because the belly is  distended with xvind, and
 sounds like a drum xvhen struck.)   Tympany.  Drum-
 belly.   An elastic distention of the abdomen, which
 sounds like a drum xvhen struck, with costiveness and
 atrophy, but no fluctuation.  Species: 1. Tympanites
 intestinalis, a  lodgment of Wind in  the intestines,
 knoxvn by the discharge of xvind giving relief
   2. Tympanites abdominalis, when tlie wind is in the
 cavity of the abdomen.
   TY'MPANUM.  (Tvuirnvov.  A drum.)  The drum
 or barrel of the ear.  The  hollow part  of the ear in
 wliich are lodged the bones of the  ear.  It begins be
 hind live membrane of flic tympanum, which lermi
                                         3S3 
TYP
TYP
 nates the external auditory passage, and is surrounded
 by tiie petrous portion ofthe temporal bone.  It termi-
 nates at tlie cochlea of the labyrinth, and has opening
 into it four foramina, viz. the orifices of the Eustachian
 tube and mastoid sinus,  the  fenestra ovalis, and ro-
 tunda.  It contains the four ossicula auditus.
   TY'PHA.  (From rtqjos, a lake;  because it grows
 In marshy places.)   The name of a genus of plants in
 the Linnaean system. The cat's tail.
   Tvpha aromatica. See Acorus calamus.
   Tvpiia latifolia. The broad leaved cat's tail, or
 bull-rush.   The young shoots, cut before they reach the
 surface of the xvater, eat like asparagus xvhen boiled.
  TYPHOMA'NIA. (From rvtbos,to burn, andpavta,
 delirium.)   A complication of phrensy and lethargy
 with fever.
  TYPHUS.   (From rvtbos,  stupor.)   A species of
 continued fever, characterized by great debility, a ten-
 dency in  the  fluids to putrefaction and the  ordinary
 symptoms of  fever.   It  is to be readily distinguished
 from the inflammatory by the  smallness of the pulse,
 and the sudden and great debility xvhich ensues on its
 first attack; and, in its more advanced stage, by the pe-
 techiae, or purple spots, xvhich come out on vai ions parts
 ofthe body, and the foetid stools which are discharged;
 and it may be distinguished from a nervous fever by the
 great violence of all its symptoms on its first coming on.
  The most general cause that gives rise to this disease,
 is contagion, applied either immediately from the body
 of a person labouring under it, or conveyed in clothes,
 or merchandise, Sec;  but it may be occasioned by tlie
 effluvia  arising from cither animal or vegetable sub-
 stances  in a decayed or putrid state: and  hence it is,
 that in loiv and marshy countries it is apt to be preva-
 lent xvhen intense and sultry heat quickly succeeds any
 great  inundation.  A want of proper cleanliness nnd
 confined air are likexvise causes of this fever;  hence it
 prevails in  hospitals, jails, camps, and  on board of
ships, especially when sucli places are much crowded,
and the  strictest attention is not paid to a free ventila-
tion and due cleanliness.   A close state of the atmos-
phere, with damp weather, is likewise apt to give rise
to putrid fever.  Those of lax fibres, and xvho  have
 been  weakened  by any  previous debilitating cause,
such as poor diet, long fasting, hard labour, continued
 ivant of sluep, Sec are most 1 iable to it.
  On  the first coming on of the disease, the person is
 •eized xvith languor, dejection  of spirits, amazing de-
 pression and loss of muscular strength, universal wea-
 riness and soreness, pains in the head, back, and extre-
 mities, and rigors; the eyes appear full, heavy, yellow-
 ish, and often  a little inflamed; the temporal arteries
throb violently, the tongue is dry and parched, respira-
tion is commonly laborious, and interrupted with  deep
sighing; the breath is hot and offensive, the  urine is
crude and pale, the  body is costive, and the  pulse is
 usually quick,  small, and  hard, and noxv and then flut-
tering and unequal.  Sometimes a great heat, load, and
pain are felt at the pit of the stomach, and a vomiting
of bilious matter ensues.
  As  the  disease advances, the  pulse  increases  in
 frequency (beating often from 100 to 130 in a  minute);
there is  vast debility, a great heat and dryness in tlie
skin,  oppression at the breast, with anxiety, sighing,
and  moaning;  the thirst is  greatly increased;  the
 tongue,  mouth, lips, and teelh are covered over xvitii a
 brown or black tenacious fur; the speech  is inarticu-
late, aud  scarcely intelligible; the  patient  mutters
much, nnd delirium ensues.  The fever continuing to
 increase still more in violence, symptoms of  putrefac-
 tion  shoxv themselves;  the breath  becomes highly
offensive; the  urine deposites a black and fietid seJi-
meut;  the  stools  are dark, offensive, and  pass oil"
insensibly; hn-morrhages issue from the gums, nostrils,
mouth,  aud other parts of the body;  livid spots or
petechia- appear on ils surface; the pulse intermits and
sinks; the  extremities groxv cold; hiccoughs ensue:
and death at last closes the tragic scene.
  When tliia fever does not terminate fatally, it gene-
 rally begins, in cold  climates,  to diminish about  the
 commencement of thc third week, and goes off gradu-
 ally toxvards the end of the fourth, xvithout any very
evident  crisis;  but in warm  climates It seldom  con-
 tinues above a xveck or ten days, if so long.
 • Our opinion, as to Ihe event, is to be formed by thc
 degiee of violence in the  symptoms, particularly after
 petechia: appear, although  in seme instances recoveries
      3fil
 have been effected under the most unpromising appeal
 ances.   An abatement of '"•ebrile  heat and  thirst, a
 gentle  moisture diffused equally over  the xvhole sur
 face of thc body, loose stools, turbid urine, rising cf
 the pulse,  and the  absence of delirium and  stupor,
 may be regarded in  a favourable light.  On the con
 trary, petechia, xvitii dark, offensive, and involuntary
 discharges  by  urine  and" stool, foetid sxveats, haemor-
 rhages, and hiccoughs, denote the almost certain dis-
 solution of the patient.
   The appearances usually perceived on dissection, are
 inflammations of the brain and viscera, but more par
 ticularly of the stomach and intestines, wliich are noxv
 and then found in a gangrenous state.  In the muscular
 fibres there seems likewise a strong tendency to gan
 grene.
   In thc very early period of typhus fever, it  is often
 possible, by active treatment, to cut short the disease
 at once;  but  where it has established  itself more
 firmly,  xve can only employ  palliative measures  to
 diminish its violence, that  it may run  safely through
 its course.  Among  the most likely means of accom-
 plishing the first object is an emetic ; xvhere the fever
 runs high, we may give antimonials in  divided  doses
 at short intervals till full vomiting is excited;  or  if
 there be less strength in the system, ipecacuanha in a
 full dose  at once.  Attention should nexl be  paid  to
 clear out the bowels  by some sufficiently active form
 of medicine; and as the  disease proceeds,  xve  must
 keep up this function, and  attempt  to icstore that of
 the skin, and the other secretions, as the best means of
 moderating the violence of vascular action.  Some of
 the preparations of  mercury, or if  ihere be tolerable
 strength,  those  of antimony, assisted  by thc saline
 compounds, may be  employed for this purpose.  The
 general antiphlogistic regimen is to  be observed in the
 early part of the disease, as explained under synocha.
 In cases xvhere the skin is uniformly very hot and dry,
 the abstraction of caloric  may be more  actively made
 by means  of the cold  affusion, that is, throwing a
 quantity of cold xvater on the  naked body  of the
 patient; which  measure has sometimes arrested the
 disease  in its first stage;  and xvhen the poxver of the
 system  is less, sponging the body occasionally with
 cold xvater, medicated, perhaps, xvith a little salt or
 vinegar, may be substituted as a milder  proceeding.
 But xvhere the evolution of heat is even deficient, such
 means would be highly improper; and it may be some-
 times advisable to employ the tepid bath, to promote
 the operation of the diaphoretic  medicines.  If under
 the  use of the measures  already detailed, calculated
 to  lessen  the violence  of vascular action,  ihe vital
 powers  should  appear materially falling off, recourse
 must then be had^lo a more nutritious diet, with a
 moderate quantity of wine, and cordial, or ionic medi-
 cines.   There  is generally an aversion from  animal
 food, xvhence the mucilaginous vegetable substances,
 ns arrow-root,  &c, rendered palatable by spice, or a
 little xvine, or sometimes mixed xvith milk, may be
 directed, as nourishing and easy of digestion.   If,
 however, tliere  be no marked septic tendency, and the
 patient cloyed xvith these articles, the lighter  animal
 preparations, as calves-foot jelly, veal broth, Sec, may
 be allowed.  The extent to which xvine may be carried,
 must depend on the urgency of the  case, and Ihe
 previous habits of (he individual; but it will commonly
 not be necessary to exceed half a pint, or a  pint at
 most, in ihe txventy four hours ; and it should be given
 in divided portions,  propeily diluted, made, perhaps,
 into negus, xvhey, &c, according to the liking of the
 patient.   The  preference should always be given to
 that xvhich is of the  soundest quality, if acreea-
 hle : but where xvine cannot be afforded, good" malt
 liquor, or  mustard whey,  may be substituted.   Some
 moderately  stimulant  medicines,  as ammonia,  aro-
 matics,  serpentaria,  Sec,   may  often be used  xvith
 advantage, to assist  in keeping up the circulation •
also those  of a  tonic quality, as calumba, cusparia
cinchona, &c,  occasionally in  llieir lighter  forms'
but more  especially  the acids.   These are, in s.-verai
respects, useful;  by promoting  the secretions of the
prima; viae, Sec, they quench thirst,  remove irritation,
and manifestly coo! the body; and in the xvorst founs
of  typhus, xvhere Ihe putrescent tendency appears.
they are particularly indicated  from their antiseptic
 poxver;  they are also decidedly tonic, and indeed those
 from the mineral kingdom  poxverfully so.  Thesti majt 
ULM
ULM
be given freely as medicines, the carbonic acid also Iri
the form of brisk fermenting liquors; and the ntitive
vegetable  acids,  as  they  exist in ripe fruits, being
generally very grateful, may constitute a considerable
part of ihe  diet.  In the mean time, lo obviate the
septic tendency, great  attention should  be paid to
cleanliness and ventilation, and keeping  the bowels
regular hy mild aperients, or clysters of an  emollient
or antiseptic nature:  and where aphtha- appear, acidu-
lated  gargles should be  directed.    If the  disease
inclines more to the nervous form, xvith much mental
anxiety, tremors, and other irregular  affections of the
muscles, or organs of sense, the antispasmodic medi-
cines niny be employed xvith more advantage, as aether,
camphor,  musk, Sec, but particularly opium ; xvhicli
should be given in a full  dose, sufficient to procure
sleep, provided there be no appearances of determina-
tion of blood to the head; and it may be useful to call
a greater portion of nervous energy to the loxver ex-
tremities by  the pediluvium, or otlier mode of applying
xvarmtli, or occasionally by sinapisms, not  allowing
these to produce vesication.  Bul if there should be
much increased  vascular  action in the brain,  more
active means xvill be  required, even  the local abstrac-
tion of blood, if the strength xvill permit; and it xvill
JTLCER.  (Ulcus, eris, n.;  from tXxos, a sore.)   A
"-1 purulent solution of continuity of the soft parts of
an animal body.  Ulcers may arise from a variety of
causes,  as all those that produce inflammation, from
wounds, specific irritation of  the absorlnents, from
scurvy,  cancer, the venereal or scrofulous virus, &c.
The proximate or  immediate cause  is  an increased
action of the  absorbents, and a specific action of the
arteries, by xvliich a fluid is separated from the blood
upon the ulcerated  surface.   They  are variously
denominated; the  following is the  most frequent
division:
  1. The  simple,  ulcer, xvhich takes place generally
from a superficial xvound.
  2. The sinuous, that runs  under the integuments,
and the  orifice of xvhich is narrow, but not callous.
  3. The fistulous ulcer, or fistula, a deep ulcer xvith
l narroxv and callous orifice.
  4. The  fungous ulcer,  the  surface  of which  is
covered xvith fungous  flesh.
  5. The gangrenous, xvhich is livid, foetid, and gan-
grenous.
  6. The scorbutic, which depends on a scorbutic
acrimony.
  7. The venereal, arising from the venereal disease.
  8. rhe cancerous ulcer, or open cancer.  See Canter.
  9. The carious ulcer, depending upon a carious bone.
  10. The inveterate ulcer, which is of long continu-
ance, and resists the ordinary applications.
  11. The scrofulous  ulcer,  known  by its  having
arisen from indolent tumours,  its discharging a viscid,
glairy matter, and its indolent nature.
  Ulcera serpentia oris.  See Aphtha.
  Ulcerated  sore throat.  See Cynanche.
  ULLA. The  common diminutive ulla, or  ilia,  is,
according to  Dr. Good, most probably derived from the
Greek, 11X17, u'e or ''ei materia, materies, ofthe matter,
make, or  nature of; thus,  papula or papilla, of the
matter or nature of pappus;  lupula, of the matter or
nature of lupus; pustula, of  the matter or nature  of
pus; and so of many others.
  ULMA'RIA.  (From ulmus, the elm : so named be-
cause il has leaves like the elm.)  See Spiraa ulmaria.
  ULMIN.  Dr. Thomson  has given this temporary
name to a very singular substance lately examined  by
Klaproth. It differs essentially from every other knoxvn
body, and must therefore constitute a nexv and peculiar
vegetable principle. It exuded spontaneously from the
trunk of a species of elm, which Klaproth conjectures
to be the ulmus nigra, and was sent to him from Pa-
ermo in 1802.
!■. 1. In  its external characters  it resembles gum.  It
was solid, hard, of a black colour, and had considerable
be alxvays  right to  have the head shaved, and kept
cool  by some evaporating lotion, and a blister applied
10 Ihe back of the neck.  In like  maimer, other  im-
portant parts may  occasionally require local means
of relief.  Urgent vomiting  may, perhaps, be  checked
by the effervescing mixture; a troublesome diarrhea
by small doses of opium, assisted by aromatics, chulk,
and other astringents, or sometimes  by small  doses of
ipecacuanha;  profuse  perspirations by  the  iufusiin
rosae, a cooling regimen, &c.
  Typhus  .-egyptiaci-s.  The plague of Egypt
  Typhus  carcerum.  The jail-fever.
  Typhus  castrensis   The camp-fever.
  Typhus  oravior. The most malignant species ot
typhus. See Typhus.
  Typhus  icterodes.   Typhus with  symptoms of
jaundice.   See Typhus.
  Typhus  mitior.  Thc loxv-fever.
  Typhus  nervosus.  The nervous-fever.
  Typhus  peteiiuai.is.  Typhus xvith  purple spots
  TYRI'ASIS.  Tvptaais-   A  species of leprosy  in
xvhich the skin may  he easily withdrawn from the
flesh.
  TYRO'SIS.   (From  rvpou, to  coagulate.)   A dis-
order of thc stomach from milk curdled in it.
lustre.  Its poxvder xvas brown.  It dissolved readily
in the mouth, and was insipid.
  2.  It dissolved speedily in a small quantity of water
Tlie  solution xvas transparent, of a blackish-broivn
colour, and, even  when very  much  concentrated by
evaporation, xvas nol in the least mucilaginous or ropy;
nor did it answer as a paste.  In Ihis respect ulinin dif
fers essentially from gum.
  3.  It xvas completely insoluble both in  alkohol anu
tether.   When alkohol was poured into the aqueous
solution, the greater part ofthe ulmin precipitated in
light broxvn flakes.  The remainder xvas  obtained by
evaporation, and was not sensibly soluble  in alkohol
The alkohol by this treatment acquired a sharpish taste
  4.  When a feiv drops of nitric acid xvere added to
the aqueous  solution,  it became gelatinous, lost its
blackish-broxvn colour, and a  light broxvn substance
precipitated.  The xvhole solution xvas sloxvly evapo-
rated 10 dryness, and the reddish-brown powder which
remained  was  treated with alkohol.  The alkohol
assumed a golden yellow colour;  and, xvhen ei apo
rated, left a light  broxvn, bitter, and sharp resinous
substance.
  5.  Oxymuriatie  acid  produced  precisely the same
effects as nitric.  Thus  it  appears  lhat ulinin, by the
addition of a little oxygen, is converted info a resinous
substance.  In this new state il is Insoluble in water.
This property is very singular.  Hitherto the volatile
oils xvere  the only substances  known to  assume the
form of resins.  That a substance soluble in xvater
should assume the  resinous  form xvith such facility, is
very remarkable.
  6.  Ulmin when burned emitted little smoke or flame.
and left a spongy but firm charcoal, xvhich, when burned
in the open air, left only a little carbonateof potassa be-
hind.
  U'LMUS.  1. The name of a genus of plants in the
Linnaean system.  Class, Pentandria; Order, Digynia.
  2.  The  pharmacopoeial name of tiie common  elm
See Ulmus campestris.
  Ulmus  campestris.  The systematic name of the
common elm.   Ulmus—foliis duplicato-serratis, basi
inaqualibus, nf Linnaeus. The inner tough hark of this
tree, xvhich is directed for  use by the pharmacopoeias,
has  no remarkable smell,  but a bitterish  taste, and
abounds with a slimy juice, whicli has  been recom-
mended in nephritic cases, and  externally as a useful
application to burns.  It is also  highly recommended
in some cutaneous affections allied to herpes and lepra.
It is  mostly exhibited in tlie form of decoction, by boil
ing four ounces iu four pints of xvater to txvo pints; of
which from four to eight ounces are given two or thret
times a day.
                                         365
U 
IFLN
UNG
   ("Ulmub fulva.   Thc  Ulmus fulva, or slippery
 elm, inhabits the northern and western parts  of the
 United States,  from Canada to  Pennsylvania.  The
 inner bark of this tree is charged  xvith a gummy sub-
 stance iu great quantity, so that if a small piece is
 chexved iu the mouth, it  almost instantly fills it xvitii a
 thick, viscid mucilage.  This bark, both  iu substance
 and decoction,  is a valuable demulcent in dysentery,
 aud  iu strangury, eitlier produced by cantharides or
 resulting from other causes.  Elm-bark has been used
 as food, and been found capable  of supporting  life in
 cases of emergency.  Externally,  it is employed as an
 emollient application, to promote  suppuration, and to
 answer the different ends to xvhich common poultices
 are applicable.  For this purpose, either the green bark
 should be  bruised, or the dried bark cut into shreds
 and boiled.   Internally, it proves must palatable in tiie
 infusion."—Big. Mat. Med.  A.]
   U'LNA.   (From uXtvn, the ulna, or cubit.) Cubitus.
 The  larger  bone of the forearm.   It is smaller aud
 shorter  than  the os  humeri, and becomes gradually
 smaller as it descends to tho wrist.  We may divide it
 into its upper and loxver extremities, and its body or
 middle part.   At its upper extremity are txvo considera-
 ble processes, of xvhicli tlie posterior one and largest is
 named olecranon, and the smaller  and interior one the
 coronoid process.  Betxveen these txvo processes, the
 extremity of the  bone is formed into a deep articulating
 cavity, xvhich, from ils semicircular shape, is called
 the greater sigmoid cavity, to distinguish it from an-
 other, which has been named the less sigmoid cavity.
 'ihe olecranon, called also the anconoid process, begins
 by a considerable tuberosity, xvhich is rough, and serves
 for the insertion of muscles, and terminates in a kind
 of hook, the concave surface of which moves upon the
 pulley of the os  humeri.  This process forms the point
 of the eiboxv. The  coronoid process  is sharper at its
 extremity than the olecranon, but is much smaller, and
 does not reach so high. In bonding the arm, it is received
 Into the fossa at the forepart of the pulley.  At tiie
 external side of the coronoid process is the less  sig-
 moid cavity, which is a small, semilunar articulating
 surface, lined with cartilage, on which tlie round head
 of the radius plays.  At the forepart of the coronoid
 process we observe a small tuberosity, into xvhich the
 tendon of  the braehialis internus is  inserted.   The
 greater sigmoid cavity, the situation of whicli we just
 now mentioned, is divided into four surfaces by a pro-
 minent line which is intersected by a small sinuosity
 that serves for the  lodgment  of mucilaginous glands.
 The whole  of this cavity is covered  xvitii cartilage.
 Tne body, or middle part ofthe ulna, is of a prismatic
 or triangular shape, so as to afford three surfaces and
 as many angles.   The external  and internal surfaces
 are flat and broad, especially the external one, and arc
 separated by a sharp angle, which, from  its situation,
 may be termed the internal angle.  This internal angle,
 xvhich is turned towards tlie radius, serves  for  tlie
 attachment  of the ligament that connects the two
 bones, and xvhich is therefore called the interosseous
 ligament.  The  posterior surface  is convex, and cor-
 responds xvitii tbe olecranon.  The borders, or angles,
 which separate  it from the other txvo surfaces, are
soiuexvliat rounded.  Al about a third ofthe length of
this .bone from  the top, in its forepart, we observe a
channel for  the  passage of vessels.  The loxver extre-
mity is smaller as  it descends, nearly cylindrical, and
slightly curved forwards aud outxvards.  Just before it
terminates, it  contracts, so as to form u  neck to tlie
Bmall head with  which il  ends.  On tiie outside of this
little head,  ausxvering to the olecranon,  a small pro-
cess, called the styloid process, stands out, from xvhich
a strong ligament is stretched to the xvrist.  Tbe head
 has a rounded articulating surface, on its internal side,
wiiich is covered with cartilage, and received into a
semilunar cavity formed at the loxver end ofthe radius.
Between it and the os cuneiforme, a moveable cartilage
is  interposed, xvhich is continued from tbe cartilage
that covers the loxver end of tho  radius, and is con-
nected by ligamentous fibres to the styloid process of
the ulna.  Tins ulna is articulated above xvith the lower
end of the os humeri.  This articulation is of tlie spe-
cies called giiiglyinu"; it is articulated also both above
and below to the radius, and to the carpus at its loxvest
extremity.   Its chief use seems to be to support and
regulate the  motions of the radius.  In children, both
ex tiemitics of this bone are first cartilaginous, and after
      30x5
  ward epiphyses, before  they  are completely united tn
  the rest of thc bone.
    ULNAR.  (Ulnaris; from ulna, the bone so named.j
  Belonging to the ulna.
    Ulnar artery.  See Cubital artery.
    Ulnar nerve.  See Cubital nerve.
    Ulna'ris externus.  See  Extensor carpi ulnaris.
    Ulna'ris internus.  See Flexor carpi ulnaris.
    ULTRAMARINE.  See Lapis lazuli.
    UMBELLA.  (Umbella, a, f.; a little shade, or uru
  hrella.)  An umbel; the ruudlc of some authors.  A
  species of inflorescence in xvliich several floxver-stalks
  of rays, nearly equal in length, spread from one com
  mon centre, their summits forming  a .'evel, convex, or
  even globose surface, more mrely a  concave one.
    From the insertion of the umbel, it is  distinguished
  into pedunculate and sessile.   The  former implies that
  the rays or flower-stalks come  from one ; and the iaiter,
  that thn rays or stalklets come, not from a common
  peduncle, but from the stem or branch of the plant; as
  in Sium nodiflorum, and Prunus aviam.
    From tiie division of the umbel it is said to be simple,
  when single-flowered;  as in  Allium ursinum:  and
  compound, when each ray or stalk bears an umbellula,
  or partial umbel; as in the Anethum faniculvm
    The umbella involucrala is supplied xvith involucra.
    UMBELLULA.   A  partial or little  umbel   See
  Umbella.
    UMBER.  An ore of iron.
    UMBILI'CAL.  (Umbilicalis; from umbilicus, the
  navel.)  Of or belonging to the navel.
    Umbilical  cord.  Funis  umbilicalis;  Funiculus
  umbilicalis.  The navel-string.  A cord-like substance
  of an intestinal form, about half a yard in length,  that
  proceeds from  thc navel  of the  foetus to the centre of
  the placenta.   It is composed  of a  cutaneous sheath,
  cellular substance, one umbilical vein, and two umbili-
  cal arteries; the former conveys Ihe blood lo the child
  from the placenta, and the latter return it from the child
  to the placenta.
    Umbilical hernia.  See Hernia umbilicalis.
    Umbilical  region.   Regis umbilicalis.   Tbe part
  of the abdominal parietes about two inches all round
  the navel.
    UMBILI'CUS.  The navel.
    Umbilicus  marinus.  Cotyledon marina; Andrs
  sace;  Acetabulum marinum;  Androsace matthioli;
  Fungus petraus mannus.  A submarine production
  found on rocks and the shells of fishes, about the coast
  of Montpcllier, Sec.  It is said to be, in tlie form of
  powder, a useful anthelmintic and diuretic.
   UMBO.   (The top of a buckler.)  The knob 01 more
  prominent part in the centre of the hat or pilus of tiie
  fungus tribe.
   Unceola  elastica. This plant affords a juicexvhich
  becomes an  elastic gum.  See Caoutchouc.
   UNCIFORM.  (Unciformis; from  uncus, a  hook,
  and forma, a likeness.) Hook-like: applied to bones, &c.
   Unciform bone.  The last  bone of the second row
 of tlie carpus  or wrist: so  named from its hook-like
 process, which projects toxvards the palm of the hand,
 and gives origin to the great ligament by whicli the ten,-
 dons of" the xvrist are bound down.
   UNCINATUS.  (From uncus, a  hook.)  Uncinate
 or hooked :  applied to the stigma of the Lantana.
   UNDERSTANDING.  Intellects  See Ideology.
   UNDULATUS.  Undulated: applied to a leaf when
 thc disk near  the margin is waved obtusely up and
 down; as in Reseda lutea.
   Unedo papyracea.  Sec Arbutus uneds.
   UNGUE'NTUM.  (Unguentum, t,  n.; from tin^-o,
 to anoint)   An ointment.  The  usual consistence of
 ointments is about that of butter.  The following are
 among the best formulae.
   Unouentum apostolorum.   Dodeca  pharmicum.
 The apostles' ointment: so called because il lias txvelve
 ingredients in it exclusive of the oil and xiuegar.  Not
 used.
   Unouentum cantharidis.    Unguentum  lytta.
 Ointment of the tlistering-fly.  Take of the blistering-
 fly, rubbed to a very flue powder, two ounces; distilled
 xvater, oighl fluid ounces: resin  cerate, eight ounces.
 Boil the water xvith tlie blistering-fly to one-half, aud
 strain; mix  the cerate xvith the liquor, and then let u
 evaporate lo the proper  consistence. This  Is some
 times used to keep a blister open .  but the savine cerate
I is to be nreferro I 
UNG
URA
   Unbuestum  cbtacei.   Ointment  cf spermaceti,
 formerly called  linimentum album, nnd bitterly, un-
 guentum spermaceti. Take of spermaceti, six drachms;
 xvhite wax, txvo drachms; olive oil, three fluid ounces.
 Having melted  them  together oxer n sloxv tire, con-
 stantly stir the  mixture until it gets cold.  A simple
 emollient ointment.
   Uniii'entim iicUT.ft.  Hemlock ointniejil.   Take
 of the  fresh leaves of hemlock, nnd prepared hog's
 lard, of each four ounces.  The  hemlock is to he
 bruised in a marble mortar, alter xvhicli the lard  is to
 he added, and the txvo iugtcdienls thoroughly iucoi|H>-
 rated by beating.  They are then  to be gently melted
 over the lire, and after being strained through n cloth,
 and the fibrous partsof tlie hemlock xvell pressed, the
 ointment is to be stirred till quite cold.  To cancerous
 or scrofulous sores this ointment may be applied xvitii
 a prospect of success.
   Unouentum klk.mi compositum. Compound oint-
 ment of eleiui, formerly called linimentum arcai, and
 unguentum c gummi  elemi.   Take of elemi, n pound;
 coinnion turpentine, ten ounces; prepared suet,  txvo
 pounds; olive oil, Ixxo fluid  ounces.  Melt tiie elemi
 xvith the suet, then remove it from the fire, and iiiiine-
 Jiately  mix in the turpentine and  oil, then strain the
 mixture through  a linen cloth  Indolent ulcers, chil-
 blains, chronic ulceis after burns, and indolent tumours
 are often removed by this ointment.
   Unouentum hydraroyri  fortius.   Strong mer-
 curial ointment, formerly called unguentum caruleum
 'ortius. Take of purified mercury, two pounds; pre-
 pared  lord, twenty-three ounces ;  prepared suel, an
 ounce.  First rub tlie mercury xvitii the suet nnd a little
 if the lard, until  lite globules disappear;  then add the
 remainder of tbe laid, and mix.  iu very geux-ral  use
 for mercurial frictions.  It may be employed in almost
 all cases wliere mercury is indicated.
   Ungubntum hydraroyri mitius.   Mild mercurial
 ointment, formerly called unguentum caruleum mitius.
 Take  of strong  mercurial ointment, a  pound; pre-
 pared  lard, txvo nouui/   Mix.   "Weaker than  the
 former.
   Unouentum hydraroyri  nitratis.   Unguentum
 hydrargyri nilrali.  Ointment of nitrate of mercury.
 Take of purified  mercury, nn ounce: nitric ucid, ele-
 ven fluid d:acinus; prepared lard,  six ounces; olive
 oil, four fluid  ounces.   First dissolve  the  mercury in
 the acid, then, while the liquor is hot, mix ii xvitii the
 lard and oil melted together.  A stimulatine: and deter-
 gent ointment.  Titu-a capitis, psorophtlialmiu, indo-
 lent tumours nn tiie margin of the eyelid, and ulcers in
 tile urethra, nre cured by lis application.
   Unouentum hydraroyri nitratis mitius. Weak-
 er only  than the former.
  Ungukntiiai  hydraroyri  nitrico-oxidi.  Oint-
 ment of nitric oxide of mercury.  Take of nitric oxide
 of mercury, an ounce; xvliite xvax, txvo ounces; pre-
 pared lard, six ounces.  Having melted together  ihe
 xvax and lard, add thereto the uitnc oxide  of mercury
 in very fine imxvder, aud mix.  A  most excellent  sti-
 mulating and escliarotic ointment.
  Unouentum hydraroyri pr.*:upitati albi.  Oint-
 ment of xvliite precipitate of mercury, formerly called
 unguentum e mcrcuria pracipituto  albo, and latterly
 unguentum calcis hydrargyri alba.  Take of while
 precipitate  of mercury, a drachm:  prepared lard, au
 ounce and a half.  Having melted the lard over n slow
 fire, add the precipitated mercury and mix.  A  useful
 ointment to destroy vermin in the head, and to assist in
 the removal of scald head, venereal ulceis of children,
 and cutaneous eruptions.
  Unuukntum l.vir.t:. See Unguentum cantharidis.
  Unouentum opiitiialmh i-.m. Ophthalmic ointment
 of Janiti.  Take of prepared hog's-lard, half an ounce;
 prepared luuy, Armenian hole, "f each Ixvodisirhnis:
 xvhile precipitate one drachm.  Mix.  This celebrated
ointment may  be used lor line same diseases of the eve
 aud eyelid us the  ting. hvdrarg. nitratis.  If ninsi beat
 first weakened with nhoiu txvice its quantity of hog's-
 lard.
  Unouentum puis arid.e.  See Unguentum resina
nigra.
  Unouentum  phis   liquid.*.   Tar ointment, for-
merly cidl'-d  nngiicnl.ilm picis; iiiigiiciitinii  e pice.
Take of tar, piepared  suel, of each a  pound   Melt
 .Hem together, and strain lite mixture through a linen
 cloth  This is applicable to cases ol' linen capitis, and
 some emptive complaints; also to some kinds of irri-
 table sores.
   Unouentum iiesin.e flaviC.   Yellow basilicon ia
 iu general use as a stimulant and detersive;  il is an
 elegant aud useful form of applying the resin.
   Unuukntum resin*  niuk.k.   Unguentum picit
 aridie.   Pilch  ointment,  formerly called unguentum
 basilicum nigrum, vel tctrapharmaciim.  Take of pilch,
 yellow xvax, xelloxv resin, of each iiiue ounces, olive
 oil, a pint.  Melt them together, nnd strain the  mixture
 through a linen cloth.  This is useful for the same pur-
 poses ns the lai ointment.
   Ukouentiim samduci.   Elder ointment, formerly
 called unguentum sambucinuin. Take of elder floxvtni,
 txvo pounds;  prepared lard,  two  pounds.  Boil  the
 elder floxvers in ihe luril  until they become crisp, Hit u
 strain the ointment through a linen cloth.   A cooling
 and emollient preparation.
   Unouentum sulphuris.   Sulphur ointment, (in--
 merly cullud unguentum c sulphure. Take of sublimed
 sulphur, ihree  ounces; prepared  lard,  half a |«)iind.
 Mix.  The most effectual preparation to destroy  the
 itch.  It is also serviceable iu Ihe cure  ol" other cuta-
 neous eruptions.
   Unoi k.ni-um sulphuris compositum.  Compound
 sulphur ointment.  Take of sublimed sulphur, half a
 pound ;  xvhite  hellebore-root,  poxvdered, txvo ounces ;
 nitrate of potussn, n drachm ; soft soap, half n  pound ;
 prepared bird, a pound mid a half.  Mix.   This pre-
 paration is introduced into the last London Pharmaco-
 paeeia ns a more efficacious remedy for itch than com-
 mon sulphur ointment.  In tiie army, xvhere it  is gene-
 rally used, the sulphur vivum, or native admixture of
 sulphur Willi various heterogeneous  matters,  is used
 instead of sublimed sulphur.
   Unouentum vicratri.  White hellebore  ointment,
 formerly called unguentum hellebori albi.  Take of
 xvliite hellebore-root,  poxvdered, txvo ounces: prepared
 lard, eight ounces:  oil of leuious, txveuly minims.
 Mix.
   Unouentum zinci.  Zinc  ointment.   Take of the
 oxide of zinc,  un ounce; prepared lard, six  ounces.
 Mix. A very useful application to chronic ophthalmia
 and relaxed ulcers.
   U'NGUIS.  (Unguis, is, m.; from ovu\, a hook.)
 1. The nail.  The nails are horny lamina- situated at
 the extremities of the fingers and toes ; composed of
 coagulated albumen, and a little phosphate of lime.
   2. Au abscess or collection of pus between  the  la
 uiellae of the cornea transparens of the eye; so called
 from its resemblance  to tbe lunated (torliou of tlie nail
 of the finger.
   3.  The lachrymal bone is named as  unguis, from its
 resemblance to a nail of the finger.
  4. Ju botany,  unguis, or ihe claw : applied to the thin
 part of the petal of a polype-talons corolla.
   U'noiila caballina.   See  Tussilago.
   UNIFLORUS.   Bearing one flower.
   UNIO.   (Unio,  pi. untunes; fro u units, one: so
 called because there is never more than  one found in
 the same shell,  or, according to others, for  that many
 being found in one shell,  not  any one of them is like
 the other.)  The peurl.  See Margarita.
   U'RACIIUS.  (From ovaov, urine, and txu, to con-
 tain.)  Unuaculttm.  The ligamentous cord that arises
 from the basis of tlie  urinary  bladder, along xvhicli II
 runs, and  terminates  in the  umbilical  cord.  In Mte
 foetuses nf brute animals, wiiich tlie  ancients  mostly
 dissected, il is a hulloxv  tube, and conveys the urine tu
 the nllantoid membrane.
  Uka'oii'M.  (From otpayos, tlie hinder part ol* an
 army.)  The apex or extreme point of the heart.
  UR.xNGUMMER.   Green mien.  Chalcolite.  Aa
ore of uranium.
  Ukanis'cus.   iFroni ovpavos,  tlie  firmament:  eg
called I'hiiii us arch.)  Tlwe palate.
  UltANITE.   See Uranium.
  UKA'NIUM. Uiauile   This metal was discovered
 by Klaproth, in ihe year ITrlD.  It exists combined xvitii
sulphur, and a portion  of Iron, lead, and silex, iu the
 mineral  termed  Pecltbtcndc, or oxide of  uranium
 Combined xvilh carbonic acid  il forms the  chalcolite,
or green uiir.it: and mixed xvilh oxide of iron,  it cmi-
 siiiuies Ihe iiraiiilic  ochre.  Il is always found iii Die
siaie of tin oxide xvilh a gronler or smaller portion of
 in ni, or  mineralized  xvilh sulphur and cupper.  The
ores of uranium are of u blackish colour, inclining to a 
URE
UR1
dark iron-gray, and of  a moderate splendour;  they
ure of a  close texture, and  when  broken present a
sotncxvhat  uneven, and  in  the smallest  particles  a
conchoidai surface.  They are found in the mines of
Saxony.
  Properties of uranium.—Uranium exhibits a mass
of small metallic  globules, agglutinated together.   Its
;olour is a deep gray on the outside, in Ihe inside it is a
pole broxvn. It is very porous, and  is so  soft, that it
may be scraped with a knife   It has but little lustre.
Its specific gravity is between eight and  nine.   It is
more difficult to be fused than even manganese.  When
intensely heated witli phosphate of soda and ammonia,
or glncial  phosphoric  acid, it fuses  with them into a
grass-green glass.   With  soda or borax  it melts  only
intongray, opaque, scoriaceous bead.   It is soluble in
sulphuric, nitric, and muriatic acids.  It combines xvilh
sulphur and phosphorus, and alloys wilh mercury.   It
has not yet been combined with other combustible
bodies.  It  decomposes the nitric acid  and becomes
converted into  a yelloxv oxide.  The action of uranium
alone upon xvater, &c. is still unknown, probably on
account of its extreme scarcity.
  Method  of obtaining uranium.—In order to obtain
uranium, the pechblendc is first freed from sulphur by
heat, and cleared  from the adhering impurities as care-
fully as possible.   It is then digested in nitric acid ;  Ihe
metallic matter that it contains is thus completely dis-
solved, xvhile part of the sulphur remains undissolved,
and part of it  is dissipated under the form of sulphu-
retted hydrogen gas.  The solulion is then precipitated
by a carbonated alkali.  The precipitate has a lemon-
yelloxv colour xvhen it  is pure.  This yelloxv carbonate
is made into a paste xfith oil, and exposed  to a violent
heat, bedded in a  crucible xvell lined with charcoal.
  Klaproth obtained a metallic globule  28 grains in
xveight, by forming a  ball of 50 grains of the yellow
carbonate,  xvitii a little xvax, and by exposing this  ball
in a crucible  lined xvith charcoal  to a heat equal to
170° of Wedgewood's pyrometer.   Richterobtained in
a single experiment 100 grains of this  metal, xvhich
seemed to be free  from all admixture.  There are pro-
bably two oxides of uranium, the protoxide, wliich is a
grayish black ; and the peroxide, xvhich is yelloxv.
  UR ANOCHRE.  An ore of uranium.
  URATE. Uras. A compound of uric or lithic acid,
Willi a salifiable basis.
  URCE'OLA.   (From urceolus, a small pitcher: so
named from its uses in scouring glazed vessels.)   The
herb feverfexv.
  UREA.  A  constituent of urine.  The best process
for preparing it is to evaporate urine to the consistence
of syrup, taking care  to regulate the heat  towards the
end of the evaporation;  to add very gradually tn the
syrup its volume of nitric acid (e24° Baume) of 1.20; lo
stir the mixture,  and immerse it  iu a bath of iced
water, to harden the crystals ofthe acidulous nitrate of
urea xvhich precipitate;  to xvash these crystals xvitii
ice-cold water, to drain them, and press them between
the folds  of  blotting  paper.   When  xve have  thus
separated the  adhering heterogeneous matters,«ve re-
dissolve the crystals iu xxater, and add to them a suf-
ficient quantity of caibonate of potassa. to neutralize
Ihe nitric  acid.   We  must then evaporate the  nexv
liquor, at a gentle heat, almost to dryness, and treat
Ihe residuum  xvith a very pure alkohol, xvhich  dis-
solves only the urea.  On concentrating the alkoholic
Boiution, the urea crystallizes.
   The preceding ia Thenard's process, xvhich Dr. Prout
has improved. He sepnrates the nitrate of poiassa by
crystallization, makes the liquid urea into  a paste with
animal charcoal, digests this xvith cold xvater, filters,
concentrates, then dissolves the new colourless urea in
alkohol, aud lastly, crystallizes.
   Urea crystallizes in  four-sided  prisms, xvhich  are
transparent and colourless, xvilh a slight pearly lustre.
It has a peculiar, but not urinous  odour;  it does not
afl'ect litmus or turmeric papers; it undergoes no change
from  Ihe atmosphere, except  a slight deliquescence in
very damp weather.  In a strong heat it melts, and is
partly decomposed and partly sublimed without change.
The spec. grav. of the crystals is about 1 35  It is very
 soluble in  xvater.   Alkohol, at the temperature of the
 atniosplierc, dissolves about  20 per cent.; and, xvhen
 boiling, considerably more Ihan its oxvn weight, from
 whicli the urea separates, on cooling, in ils crystalline
 Smiu.   The fixed alkalies and alkaline-earths decom-
pose it.  It unites with  most of the metallic oxides,
and forms crystalline  compounds wilh the nitric and
oxalic acids.
  Urea  has been recently ana'yzed by Dr. Prout and
Berard.   The following are iu constituents :—
                     per cent  per cent.      per awns.
    Hydrogen....... 10.80     6.6b*    2=  2.5
    Carbon.......... 19.40    W.09    1=  7.5
    Oxygen.......... 26.40    20.66    1 =  10.0
    Azote ..........43.40    46.66    1=17.5
100.00  100.00
37.5
  Uric, or lithic acid, is a substance quite distinct fron
 urea  in  its composition.  This fact, according to Dr
 Prout, explains, xvhy an excess of urea generally ac
 companies the phosphoric diathesis, and not the lithic
 He has several times  seen  urea  as abundant  in  the
 urine of a  person xvhere thc phosphoric diathesis  pre-
 vailed, as to crystallize spontaneously on the addition
 of nitric acid, without being concentrated by evapo
 ration.
  As urea  and uric acid, says Berard, are the most
 azotized of all animal substances, the  secretion of
 urine appears to  have for ils object the separation of
 the excess of azote from the  blood, as respiration sepa-
 rates from it the excess of carbon.
  URE'DO.  (From uro, to  burn.)   An  itching or
 burning  sensation of the skin,  which accompanies
 many diseases.  The nettle-rash is also so called.
  URET.   The compounds of  simple  inflammable
 bodies with each other, and with metals, are commonly
 designated  by this xvord;  as sulphuret of phosphorus.
 carburet of iron, &c.  The  terms bisulphuret, bisul-
 phate, Sec.  applied to compounds, imply that they con
 tain txvice  the quantity of sulphur, sulphuric acid. &c
 existing in  the respective sulphuret, sulphate, tec.
  URETER.   (Ureter, eris, m.;  from otiose, urine.)
 The membranous canal which conveys the urine from
 the kidney to the urinary bladder.   At ils superior pari
 it is considerably thc  largest, occupying the greatest
 portion of  the  pelvis of the  kidney ; it then contracts
 to the size  of a goose-quill, and descends over the psoas
 magnus  muscle  and  large crural vessels into   the
 pelvis, in which it perforates tlie urinary bladder very
 obliquely.  Its internal surface is lubricated xvith mucus
 to defend il from  tlie irritation of  Ihe urine iu passing.
  URETERITIS.   (From  ovpnrnp, the ureter.)   An
 inflammation ofthe ureter.
  URE'TIIRA.  (From ovpov, the urine:  because it
 is the canal through which the urine passes.)  A mem-
 branous  canal  running from the neck of the bladder
 through  the inferior part of  the penis to the extremity
 of the glans penis,  in xvhich il opens by a longitudinal
 orifice, called  meatus urinarius.   In this course, it
 first passes through the prostate gland, wliich portion
 is distinguished by the name of  the prostatical  ure-
 thra;  it then becomes  much dilated, and is knoxvn by
 the name of Ihe bulbous part, in xv inch is situated a
 cutaneous  eminence called  the caput gallinaginis or
 verumonlanum, around xvhich are ten or txvelve orifices
 of the excretory ducts of the prostate gland, and txvc
 of the spermatic vessels.  The remaining  part of the
 urethra contains a number of triangular mouths, xvhich
 are the lacuna, or  openings of the excretory ducts of
 the mucous glands ofthe urethra.
  URETHRITIS.   (From  oupri8pa, the urethra.)  An
 inflammation in the urethra.  See Gonorrhaa.
  Ure'tica.  (From ovpov,  urine.)  Medicines which
 promote a discharge of urine.
  U'RIAS.  (From wp^v, urine.)  The urethra
  URIC ACID.  See 7.itAie acid.
  URINA.  See Urine.
  Urina'cui.um.  See Urachus.
  URi'N.f.  AKnoR.  See Dysuria.
  URINA'RIA.  (From urina, urine: so named from
 its  diuretic qualities.)  The herb dandelion    See
 Leontodon taraxacum.
  URINARY. (Urinarius  ; from urina, urine.)  Ap-
 pertaining  to urine.
  Urinary bladdkr.  Vesica urinaria.  The blad
 der is a menibrnnous pouch, capable of dilatation and
 contraction, situated in the loxver part of tlie abdomen,
 immediately behind the symphysis pubis, and opposite
 to the beginning of the  tectum.  Its figure is nearly
 that of a short oval. It is broader on the fore and t>a:k
, thtm on the lateral  parts; rounder above than bclov* 
Mil
URI
 when «empty; and  broader beloxv than above, xvhen
 full   It is divided into ihe body, neck, and fundus, or
 upper part; the neck is a portion of the loxver part,
 which is contracted  by  a  sphincter muscle.  This
 organ is made up  of several coats;  the upper, pos-
 terior, and lateral parts are covered by a reflection of
 the peritoneum,  xvhich is connected  by  cellular sub-
 stance to the muscular coat.  This  ia composed  of
 several strata of fibres, the outermost of xvhich are
 mostly longitudinal, the interior  becoming  gradually
 more transverse, connected together by reticular mem-
 brane.   Under this  is the cellular coat, xvliich is nearly
 of tiie  same structure xvilh the tunica nervosa of the
 stcniach.  Winsloxv describes the internal or villous
 coat as somexvhat granulated and glandular; but this
 has been disputed by subsequent anatomists.  Hoxv
 exet, a mucous fluid is itourcil out continually from it,
 xvhicli  defends it from the  acrimony of tile  urine.
 Sometimes the internal surface is found very  irregular,
 and full of ruga-, xvhicli appear to be occasioned merely
 by the strong  contraction of the muscular fibres, anil
 •nay be removed  by distending it.   Tlie sphincter does
 not seem to be a distinct muscle, but merely formed by
 the transverse fibres being closely arranged about the
 neck.  The urine is received  from tlie ureters, xvhich
 enter the posterior part of the bladder obliquely; and
 when a certain degree of distention has occurred, the
 muscular fibres are voluntarily exerted to expel it.
   URINE.   {Urina, a, f.   Oupoy;  from opovu,  to
 rush out.)   The saline liquid, secreted in  the kidneys,
 and dropping down from them, gmtatiin, through the
 ureters, into the cavity of tiie urinary bladder.  7'/ie
 secretory organ is composed ofthe arterious vessels of
 the cortical substance of the kidneys, from wliich tile
 urine passes through the uriuiferous tubuli and renal
 papillae into the renal pelvis ; xvhence it flows, drop by
 drop, through the  ureters, into the cavity ofthe urinary
 bladder;  xvhere  it  is  detained some hours, and  at
 length, xvhen a&una°anc, eliminated through the urethra.
   "Fexv of tlie apparatus of  secretion are so compli-
 cated as  lliat  of  the urine; it is composed of the txvo
 kidneys, of the ureters, of the bladder, and the urethra;
 besides, tlie abdominal muscles contribute to the action
 of these  different parts, among  xvhich  the kidneys
 alone form urine; tlie others seive in its transportation
 and expulsion.
   Situated in the  abdomen, upon tho sides of the ver-
 tebral column, befoic the last false ribs and the qua-
 dratus  lumborum, the kidneys arc of small volume
 relatively to the quantity of fluid they secrete.  Ti.ey
 are generally surrounded  xvitii a  great  deal of fa!.
 Theirpareuchytiia is compiled of two  substances; the
 one exterior, vascular, or cortical, the oilier tubular,
 disposed iu a  certain number of  cones,  the  base of
 which corresponds to the surface of  the organ, and
 their summits unite iu the membranous cavity called
 pelvis.  Its cones  appear formed by a great number of
 small holloxv fibres, xvhich are excretory canals of a
 particular  kind, aud xvhicli are generally filled xvilh
 urine.
  Iu respect of its  volume, no organ receives  so much
 blood as the kidney.  The artery xvhich  is directed
 there is large,  short, and proceeds immediately from
 the aorta; il has  easy communication with tiie veins
 and the tubulous  substance, as may easily be ascer-
 tained by means of the most coarse injections, xvhicli,
 being throxvn into the renal artery, pass into the veins
 and into the pelvis, after having  tilled the cortical sub-
 stance.
  The filaments of the great sympathetic alone are dis-
 tributed to  the kidneys.  The caliccs,  pelvis, and
 ureter form together a canal xvhich commences iu tiie
 kidneys, where it embraces the top of the mamillary
 processes, and,  placed al the sides of the vertebral co-
 lumn, it goes in the bottom of the pelvis to the bladder,
 where it terminates.  This last organ  is nn extensible
 and contractile sac, intended to hold the fluid secreted
 by tlie kidneys, and xvhich communicates xvitii the ex-
terior by a canal  of considerable length iu man, but
 very short iu xvotnan, called urethra.
  The posterior extremity of the  urethra is, only in
man, surrounded by the prostate gland, xvhicli is con-
sidered by certain anatomists as a collection of mucous
."ollicles.   Txvo small  glands  placed before the anus
pour a particular fluid into this canal.   Txvo  muscles,
which descend from the pubis toxvards the rectum, pass
 jpon the sides of the pari nf the bladder xvhich ends in
i ihe urethra, approach one another behind, nnd lorm a
 small arc xvhich sui rounds the neck ofthe bladder, mid
 carries it more or less upxvards.
   If the pelvis is cut open iu a living animal, the urine
 is seen to pass out sloxx ly by the summits of tlie e.xcie
 lory cones.  This liquid is deposited  in the pelvis of
 tlie kidney, and then  by little and Utile it eiders into flic
 ureter, through the xvhole length of xvhicli il passes.  It
 thus arrives at the bladder, into which it penetrates by
 a constant exudation or dribbling.
   A slight  compression  u|n>n the uriuiferous conii
 makes the urine pass out in considerable quantity. bul
 instead of being limpid, as xvhen it passes out iiatintillx,
 it is muddy and thick.  It appears Ihen to be filtered by
 the linlloxv fibres of the tubular substance.
   Neither the pelvis nor the  ureter being coutraetiie,
 probably the power xvhicli  produces the motion of tiie
 urine is,on the one hand, thai by whicli il is poured into
 ihe pelvis; aud on the other, the  pressure of the ub-
 dominal muscles, to  xvliich may he  added, when xve
 stand upright, the xveight of the liquid.
   Under tlie influence of these causes, the mine passe
 into the bladder, and  slowly distends  tins organ, some-
 times lo a considerable degree; litis accumulation being
 permitted by the extensibility of different organs.
   Iloxvdoes the urine accumulate in the Modifier 7 Why
 does it not floxv immediately by the urethra? and xvliy
 does it not floxv back into the ureter 1   The ansxx er is
 easy for the ureters.  These conduits pass a considera-
 ble distance into the  sides of the bladder.   In  propor-
 tion as the urine distends Ihis organ, it flattens the  ure-
 ters, and shuts them so much more thinly ns it is nn  re
 abundant.  This takes place  iu the dead body as xvell
 as iu the living; also,  a  liquid, or even air, ieijecled
 into the bladder, by the urethra, never enters the  ure-
 ters.  It is, then, by a mechanism aualagous to that of
 certain valves, that the  urine does  not return  toxvards
 the kidneys.
   It is not so easy to explain xvhy the urine does not
 flow by the urethra.  Several causes appear to contri-
 bute to this.  The sides of this canal, particularly to-
 wards the  bladder, have a continual tendency to con
 tract, and to lessen the cavity; but  this cause alone
 xvould be insufficient to resist the efforts of the urine to
 esca|ie, xvhen the bladder is full.   In the dead body, in
 whicli tlie canal contracts nearly iu the same manner,
 it has but a very weak resistance, and does not prevent
 the passage of the liquid outxvards, though ihe bladder
 may be very little compressed.
   The angleof the bladder xvitii the urethra, xvhen it is
 strongly distended, may also present an obstacle to the
 passage of tiie urine;  but  the principal  cause, mosl
 probably, is the contraction ofllie elevating muscles of
 the anus, which, either by the disposition  to contrac-
 tion  of  the  muscular fibres,  or by their  contiaction
 under the influence of the brain, pre-s  the  urethra
 upxvards, compress its  sides xvitii  inuie or Ic-s lurce
 against each other, and  thus shut its posterior orifice.
   Excretion of urine.—As soon as there  is a certain
 quantity of  urine in the bladder, xve feel an inclination
 to discharge it.  The  mechanism of this expulsion de-
 serves particular attention,  and has not always been
 xvell understood.
  If the urine is not always expelled, this ought not lo
 be attributed to the xvant of contraction in the bladder,
 for litis organ alxvays  tends to contract; but, by the in-
 fluence of the causes that xve have noticed, the internal
 Orifice of the urethra  resists xviili a force that the con-
 traction  of  the  bladder cannot surmount.  The will
 produces this expulsion, 1st, by adding  the contraction
 of the abdominal muscles tu that of the bladder; Sdly
 by relaxing the levalorcs ani, xvhicli shut the met In a.
 The resistance of this canal being once overcome  tlu
 contraction ofthe bladder is suflicient  for the compile
 expulsion of the urine it contained; but Hue action of
 the abdominal  muscles  may be added, and then  tint
 urine passes out with much greater force.  We may
 also stop the floxving of the  urine all at once, by con-
 tracting the levators of the anus.
  The contraction of the bladder is not voluntary
 thougli by acting on the abdominal muscles, an J  ihe
 levators of the anus, xve may cause it to contract when
 xve choose.
  The urine that remains in tiie urethra afler the blad-
 der is empty, is expelled  hy the contraction of ihe mus-
 cles of the  peiintuitu), and  particularly by th.it  of ihe
 accelcraliiics urina.
                                         369 
URI
LIU
   Though the quantity of urine is very copious, and
 though it contains several proximate principles which
 are not found in the blood, and consequently a chemical
 ictiov. takes place in the kidneys, the secretion of the
 urine is nevertlieless very rapid.
   The  physical properties of the urine arc subject to
 great variations.  If rhubarb or madder has been used,
 it becomes of a deep yelloxv, or Dlood red ; if one has
 breathed an air charged with vapours of oil or turpen-
 tine, or if a little rosin has been swallowed, it takes a
 violet colour.   The disagreeable odour that it takes by
 the use of asparagus, is well known.
   Its chemical composition  is not Jes<s variable.   The
 more use that  is  made of xvulery beverages, the  more
 considerable the total quantity and proportion of xvater
 becomes.  If one drinks little, the contrary happens.
   The  uric acid  becomes  more abundant xvhen the
 regimen is very substantial, and the exucise  trifling.
 This acid  diminishes, and may even disappear alto-
 gether,  by the  constant and exclusive  use of unazo-
 tized food, such as sugar, gum, butter, oil, Sec.   Certain
 salts, carried into the stomach, even in small quantity,
 fire found in a short time in the urine.
   The  extreme rapidity wilh wliich tins translation
 takes place, has made it be  supposed  there is a direct
 communication betxveen  the stomach and  the bladder.
 Even now there arc considerable numbers  of partisans
 in favour of this opinion.
   It is not yet long since a direct canal from  the stomach
 to the bladder xvas supposed lo exist, but this passage
 has  no existence.  Others have supposed,  without
 giving any proof,  that the passage took place by the
 cellular tissue, by the anastomoses of  the lymphatic
 vessels, Sec.
   Dai xvin having given to a friend sevpral grains of
 nitrate of potassa, ni half an hour he let blood of him,
 and collected  his urine.  The salt was found iu the
 urine, but not in the blood.   Brande made similar ob-
 servations  with prussiate of potassa.  He concluded
 from it that the circulation is not the only means of
 communication betxveen the stomach and  the urinary
 organs, bul without giving any explanation of the ex-
 isting means.  Sir E verai d Home is also of this opinion.
   I have made experiments in order to clear up this
 important question, and I have found, 1st, That when-
 ever prussiate of potassa is  injected  into the veins, or
 absolved in the intestinal canal, or by a serous mem-
 brane,  it very soon passes into thc bladder, xvhere il
 is easily recognised among  the urine.  2dly, lhat if
 tlie quantity of prussiate injected is considerable, the
 tests can discover it in the blood; but if the quantity
 is small, its presence cannot be recognised by the usual
 means.   3dly,  That the same result takes  place by
 mixing  the  prussiate and blood  together  in a vessel.
 4thly, That the same sad is recognised in all propor-
 tions in the urine.   It is  not extraordinary, then, that
 Darwin and Brande did not  find  in the blood the sub.
 stance that they distinctly perceived in the urine.
   Wilh regard to the organs that transport the liquids
 of the stomach and intestines into the circulating sys-
 tem, it is evident, according to xvhat we have said, in
 speaking of the chyliferous vessels, and Ihe absorption
 of the veins, that these liquids are directly  absoi bed by
 the veins, and transported by them to the liver and the
 heart;  so thai the direction xvhich these liquids follow,
 in order to reach the veins, is much shorter than is ge-
 nerally admitted, viz. by the lymphatic vessels, thc me-
 senteric glands, and the thoracic duct."—Uagendic's
 Physiology.
  'the  urine of a healthy man is divided in general
 into,
   1. Crude, or that which is emitted one or txvo hours
 after eating.   This is for the most part aqueous, and
 often vitiated by some kinds of food.
  2. Coded, which is eliminated  some hours afler the
digestion of" the food, ns thnt xvhicli is emitted In the
morning after sleeping.   This is  generally in smaller
quantity, thicker,  more coloured, more  aciid  than at
any other time. Of such cocted  urine, the colour is
 Usually  citrine, mid  not unhandsome.
  The  degree  of heat agrees with that of the blood.
 Hence in atmospheric  air it is xvarmer, as is perceived
if the hand be xvashed xvith urine.  The specific gra-
vity is  greater than xvnfer, and that emitted  in  the
morning is alxvays heavier  than nt any oilier time.
The smell of  fresh urine is not disagreeable.   The
 laste is saltish and nauseous.   The consistence is siuui -
     370
 xvhat thicker than xvater.  The quantity depends on
 that  of the liquid drink, ils diuretic  nature, and the
 temperature of thc air.
   Clianges of urine in the air.—Preserved in an open
 vessel, il remains pellucid for some time, and at length
 there is perceived at the bottom a nubecula, or little
 cloud, consolidated as it were  from the gluten.  This
 nubecula increases by degrees, occupies all the urine,
 and renders it opaque.  The natural smell is changed
 into  a putrid cadaverous one; and the surface is noxv
 generally covered xvith  a cuticle, composed of very
 minute crystals.  At  length, the urine regains its trans-
 parency, and the colour is changed from a yellow to a
 brown; the cadaverous smell passes into an alkaline,
 and  a broxvn, grumous  sediment  falls to the bottom,
 filled xvilh white particles, deliquescing in the air, and
 so conglutinate'das to form, as it were, little softcalculi.
  Thus  two  sediments  are  distinguishable   in  the
 urine; the one while and gelatinous, and separated iu
 the beginning ; the olher  broxvn and grumous, deposited
 by tlie urine xvhen putrid.
  Spontaneous degeneration.—Of all tile fluids of tlie
 body, the urine first putrifies.   In summer, alter a fexv
 hours it becomes turbid, and  sordidly black;  then
 deposites a copious sediment, and exhales  a fetor like
 that of putrid cancers, which at length becomes cada-
 verous.  Putrid urine effervesces  wilh acids,  and, if
 distilled, gives off, before water,  a urinous  volatile
 spirit.
  The properties of healthy urine are,
  1. Urine reddens  paper stained xvitii turnsole and
 xvitii  the juice of radishes, and therefore contains an
 acid.   This acid has beeu generally considered as the
 phosphoric, but Thenard has shown lhat in reality it in
 the acetic.
  2.  If a solution of ammonia be  poured into fresh
 urine, a white poxvder precipitates, whicli lias Ihe pro-
 perties of phosphate cf tune.
  3.  If the phosphate of lime precipitated  from urine
 be  examined, a little magnesia will be found mixed
 Willi  it.  Fourcroy  and Vauquelin have  ascertained
 thai  this  is  owing  to a little phosphate of magnesia
 whicli urine contains,  and xvhicli  is decomposed  by
 the alkali employed to precipitate the phosphate of lime.
  4.  I'roust  infoims us  that  carbonic acid exists in
 urine, and that its  separation  occasions the fioth
 xvliich appears during the evaporation  ol urine.
  5.  Proust has observed, that urine kept in new casks
 deposites small crystals, xvhich effloresce in  the air, and
 fall to powder.  These crystals possess tlie properties
 of the carbonate of lime.
  G. When fresh urine cools, it often  lets fall a brick
 coloured precipitate, xvhich Scheele first ascertained io
 be crystals of uric acid.   All urine contains this acid,
 even  when no sensible  precipitate appears when ii
 cools.
  7. During  intermitting fevers, and especially during
 diseases of thc liver, a copious sediment of a brick-red
 colour is deposited from urine. This sediment contains
 the rosacic acid of Proust.
  8. If frcsli  urine be evaporated to the consistence ol
 a syrup, and  muriatic ncid  be  then poured into it, a
 precipitate  appears xvhich possesses the properties  ol
benzoic acid.
  9. When an infusion of tannin is dropped Into urine
a xvliite precipitate appears, having the properties  oi
the  combination of tannin and albumen, or  gelatine.
Their quantity in healthy urine is very small, often
indeed not sensible.  Cruickshanks found that the pre-
cipitate afforded by tannin in healthy urine amounted
to l-240th part ofthe xveight ofthe urine.
  10.  If urine be evaporated by a slow fire  to the con-
sistence of a thick syrup, it assumes a deep  brown
colour, and exhales a fuetid ammoniacal odour.  When
allowed to cool, it concretes into a mass of crystals
composed of all the component part? of urine.   If four
times  its weight nf alkohol be poured info this mass, nt
intervals, and a slight heat be applied, the greatest part
is dissolved.  The alkohol which has acquired a brown
colour is to be decanted off, and distilled in a retort in
a sand heat till the mixture has boiled for some lime.
and acquired  the consistence of n syrup.  By this lime
thc xvhole of  the alkohol has passed off, and the mat
ter,  on cooling, crystallizes  in quadrangular  plates,
which intersect each ..li.er.  This s,:bstance is urea,
xvliich composes  il-'JOilm of  the  urine, pivxided \\K
\x titerv part be excluded.  i» is Ihis s,,bstance which 
URI
UTE
cnataetcrie/es nnr.c, a:iu constitutes it xx nat It is, and to
-ft-hicli the erectei pail of ihe very singular phenomena
of urine are to be ascribed.
  II. According to Fourcroy and Vauquelin, the colour
of urine depends upon the'uren; the greater the pto-
pt rtion of urea the deeper the colour. ' Hut ['roust has
delected a resinous matter iu  urine similar lo flic resin
of bile, and to this substance he nscrilies the colour of
urine.
  12. If urine be slowly ex-apornted to tire consistence
of a syrup, a number of crystals make their appearance
r>n ils surface; these possess the properties of the muri-
ate of soda
  13. The  saline residuum xvhich remains after the
separation nf urea from crystallized urine by means of
alkohol, has been long knoxvn by the names of fusible
salt ef urine, and microcesmic salt.  When these salts
are examined, they are found  to hax-e tiie properties of
phosphates. The rhomboidal prisms consist of phos-
phate of ammonia united to a little  phosphate of soda,
thc  rectangular tables, on the contraiy, are  phosphate
of soda united to a small quantify of phosphate of am-
monia ; urine  then contains phosphate  of soda, and
phosphate of ammonia,
  14. When urine is cautiously evaporated a fexv cubic
crystals are often deposited among the other salts;
these crystals have tiie properties of muriate ef am-
monia.
  15. When urine  is lioited in  a silver  basin,  it
blackens the basin, and if the quantity of urine be large,
small crusts of  sulphuret of  silver may be  detached.
Hence we see that urine contains sulphur.
  Urine then contains thc folloxving substances:
I. Water.                10. Albumen.
2. Acetic acid.            11. Urea.
3. Phosphate of lime.      12. Resin
4. Phosphate of magnesia. 13. Muriate of soda.
5. Carbonic acid.         14. Phosphate of soda.
6. Carbonate of lime.      15. Phosphate of ammonia.
7. Uric acid.             10. Muriate of ammonia.
ei. Rosaric acid.           17. Sulphur.
9. Benzoic acid.
  According to   Berzelius, healthy human urine is
composed of", xvater 933, urea 30.10,  sulphate  of potassa
3.71, sulphate of soda 3.16, pliosphateofsoda 2.94, mu-
riate of soda 4.45, phosphate of ammonia 1.65, muriate
]f ammonia 1.50, free acetic acid, with  lactate of am-
monia, animal matter soluble in alkohol,  urea adhering
to the preceding, altogether 17.14, earthy phosphates
xvitii a trace nf fluate of lime 1.0, uric acid 1, mucus of
the bladder 0.32,  silica 0.03, in 1000.0
  No liquor in ihe human body, howex-er, is so vari-
able, in respect to quantity and quality, as the urine;
for it varies,
  1.  In respect to age: in the fatus it  is inodorous,
insipid, and almost aqueous; but as the infant grows,
it becomes more  acrid and foetid; and in old age more
particularly so.
  2.  In respect to drink ;  it is secreted in greater quan-
tity,  and of  a more pale colour, from cold and copious
draughts.  It becomes green from an infusion of  Chi-
nese lea.
  3.  In respect to food: from eating tbe heads of aspa-
ragus, or olives, it contracts a peculiar smell; from the
fruit of the opuntia, il becomes red ; and from fasting,
turbid.
  4.  In respect to medicines: from the  exhibition of
rhubarb-root, it  becomes yelloxv;  from cassia-pulp,
green; and ftom turpentine it acquires a violet odour.
  5.  In respect to the time of  the year:  in the winter
the  urine is more copious and aqueous; but in the
summer, from  the increased transpiration, il  is more
sparing, higher coloured, and so acrid that it sometimes
occasions  strangury.  The climate induces  the same
difference.
  ft.  In respect of the  muscular motion  of  Uie body :
It  s secreted  more sparingly,  and concentrated by
n»)ion; and is more copiously diluted, and rendered
nicr; crude by rest.
  7.  Tn respect  of the affections  of the mind:  thus
fright makes the  urine pale.
  Use.—The urine  is an excrementitious fluid,  like
lixivium, by xvhich thc human body is not only liberated
from the superfluous xvater, but also from the super-
fluous salts,  and  animal "earth; and  is defended from
corruption.
  Lastly, ihe vis medicatrix naturae sometimes cliini-
                                      Hhh3
 nates  many nioibid and  acrid  substances with  th*.
 urine: as may be observed in fevers, dropsies fee.
   Crink, retention of.   A want of the niitinaix
 secretion of urine.   In retention of urine there is no; <
 secreted: in a suppression,  the  urine is  secreted  bit
 cannot be avoided.
   Urine, suppression of.  Sec Ischuria,
   UROCRI'SIA.  (From ovpov, urine, and <cp<vw, !«■
 judge.  The judgment formed of diseases by the insptc
 tion of urine.
   UKORRHAJ \.  (From cxpov, the urine, and ptu,
 floxv )  A discharge of the urme.
   UROSCO'PIA. (From P»oov, the urine, nnd oxost,.,
 to inspect.)  Inspection of  urine, that u judgment
 diseases may be made from its appearance.
   Ursi'na radix.   The root of the plant called buld
 money.  See JEtkusa meum.
   URSINE.   Ursinus.  Of or belonging to the bear.
   URSUS.  1. The bear.
   2.  The name of a genus of animals.  Class, „V/iw-
 malia;  Order, fera.   It comprehends  Ihe several
 kinds of bears, the badger, and racoon.
   URTICA.  (Ab urendo;  because it excites un itch
 ing and pustules like those produced  by tiie.)   1. Tier
 name of a genus of plants  in the Linnaean  system
 Class, Mvnacia ; Order, Tetrandria.  The nettle.
  2.  The pliarmacopueial name of the common nettle
 See  i "rticn dioica.
   Urtica dioica.  The systematic name of the con.
 mon stinging-nettle.   This plant is xvell knoxvn, and
 though  generally despised  as a  noxious xveed,  has
 been long used for medical,  culinary, and  economical
 purposes.  The young shoots in the spring possess diu-
 retic and antiscorbutic properties, and are wilh these
 intentions boiled and eaten instead of cabbage greenr.
   Uutica morti-a.  See Lamium album.
   Urtica pilvlifera.  The systematic name of the
 pillbearing nettle.   Urtica  romana.  The seed  xvai
 formerly given against diseases of the chest, but is now
 deservedly forgotten.  To  raise an irritation in para-
 lytic limbs, the fresh plant  may be employed as pro-
 ducing  a  more permanent sting  than  the common
 nettle.
   Urtica no m ana.   See Urtica pilulifera.
   Urtica ukkns.   The systematic  name of a  his
 nettle than thc dioica, and possessing similar virtues.
  URTICA'RIA.   (From urtica,  a nettle.)   Febris
 urlicata;  Urcdo;  Purpura  urtieata;   Scarlatina
 urtica.   The nellle-rash. A species of exauthemaloits
 fever, knoxvn by pyrexia and an  eruption on the skin
 like that produced by the sting of the nettle.  The little
 elevations, called the nettle-rash, often appear instanta
 neously, especially if the skin be rubbed or scratched.
 and  seldom stay many hours in  the  same  place, and
 sometimes nol many minutes.  No part of the body is
 exempt from them ;  and xvhere many of them  tise
 together, and continue nn hour or  txvo, the parts  are
 often considerably sxvelled, xvhich particularly happens
 in the  arms, face, and hands.  These eruptions will
 continue to infest the skin, sometimes in one place anil
 sonietimes  in another, for one or two hours together,
 livo or three times a day, or perhaps for  the greatest
 part  of twenty-four hours.  In some constitutions they
 last only a fexv dnys, in others many months.
  URTICA'TIO.   (From   urtica,  a nettle.*)   Thc
 whipping a paralytic or  benumbed limb with nettle*,
 iu order to restore its feeling.
  U'SNEA.  See Lichen saxatilis.
  Utbra'ria.  (From uterus, the xvomb.)  Medicines
 appropriated to diseases of the womb.
  UTERINE.  Uterinus.  Appertaining to the uterus.
   Uterine fury. See Nymphomania.
  U'TERUS.  Tcrrpa.   Matrix;  Agcr  natura,
 Hystera ; Melra; Utriculus.  The womb.  A spongy
 receptacle resembling  a  compressed pear, situated In
the cavily of the pelvis, above the vagina, and between
 the urinary bladder and rectum.
  The  form of the uterus resembles that of an oblong
 pear  flattened, xvith the depressed sides placed toward*
 the ossa  pubis  and sacrum; but, in the impregnated
state, it becomes more oval, according to tbe degree of
its distention.  For the convenience of  description,
 and for some practical purposes, thc uterus is distin-
guished into three parts.  The fundus, the body, and
the cervix;  tlie  upper part  is called  the  fundus, the
 lower the cervix; tine space between them, the extent
of xvhich is undefined, the body.  The uterus is about
                                        371 
UTE                                             UTE
 Eircc Inches m length, about two in  breadth at the
 fundus, and one  at tlie cervix.   Its thickness is dif-
 ferent at the  fundus and cervix, being at the former
 usually rather less than half an inch, and at the latter
 somewhat more;  and  this thickness is preserved
 throughout pregnancy, chiefly by tlie enlargement of
 ■ he veins anil lymphatics; there being a smaller change
 in  the  size of the arteries.  But there is so greal a
 variety in the  size and dimensions of the uterus in
 different women, independent of tlie states of virginity,
 marriage, or pregnancy, as to prevent any very ac-
 curate mensuration.   The cavity of the uterus corres-
 ponds xvilh the external form ; that of the cervix leads
 from flic os uteri, xvhere it is very small, in a straight
 direction, to the fundus, xvhere it is expanded into a
 triangular form, xvith txvo of the angles opposed to the
 entrance into the Fallopian tubes ; and at the place of
 junction betxveen tlie cervix and the body of the uterus,
 the cavity is smaller than it is in any otlier part.  There
 is a swell or fulness of all the parts,toxvards the cavity,
 which is sometimes distinguished by a  prominent line
 running longitudinally through its middle.  The villous
 coat of thc vagina is reflected over the os uteri, and
 is continued into the membrane which lines the cavity
 of the uterus.  The  internal surface of the uterus is
 corrugated in  a  beautiful manner, but the rugae, or
 xvn'nkles, which are longitudinal,  lessen  as they  ad-
 vance into the uterus, the fundus of xvhicli is smooth.
 In the  intervals between thc  rugae are small orifices,
 'ike those in the vagina, xvhich  discharge a mucus,
 serving, besides other purposes, that of closing the os
 uteri  very curiously  and perfectly during  pregnancy.
 The substance of the  uterus, which is very  firm, is
 composed of  arteries, veins, lymphatics, nerves, and
 muscular fibres, curiously interwoven nnd connected
 together by cellular membrane.   The muscular fibres
 are of a pale colour, and appear also in their texture
 somexvhat different from muscular fibres in other parts
 of the body.  The arteries of the uterus are the sper-
 matic and hypogastric.  The spermatic arteries arise
 from  the  anterior part of the aorta, a little beloxv the
 emulgents, and sometimes from the einulgents.  They
 pass over the psoae muscles behind the peritonaeum, enter
 between the txvo  laminae or duplicatures of the peri-
tonaeum xvhich form the broad ligaments of the uteius,
 and  proceed to the uterus, near the fundus of which
 they insinuate themselves, giving branches in  their
 passage to the ovaria and Fallopian tubes.  The hypo-
 gastric arteries are on each side a considerable branch
of the internal iliaca.   They pass to the sides of the
body of the uterus,  sending off a number of smaller
branches, Which dip inlo its substance.  Some branches
 also are reflected upxvards to the fundus uteri, which
 anastomose xvith the spermatic arteries, and others are
 reflected  downwards,  supplying  the vagina.   The
 veins which reconduct the blood from the  uterus  are
 very numerous, and  their size in the unimpregnated
state is proportioned to that of the arteries; but  their
 enlargement during pregnancy is such, that the orifices
of some of them, when divided, will admit even of
 the  end  of a small finger.  The veins anastomose in
 the  manner of the arteries xvliich they accompany out
 of the uterus, and then, having the same names xvith
 tlie  arteries, spermatic  and  hypogastric,  the former
 proceeds to the vena cava on the right side, and on the
 left to the emulgent vein ; and the latter to the internal
 iliac.
  From the substance and surfaces  of the uterus  an
 infinite number of lymphatics arise, xvhich folloxv th
 course of the  hypogastric and spermatic blood-vessels.
 The first pass into the gland ofthe internal iliac plexus,
 and the other into the glands xvliich  are situated near
 the  origin of the spermatic arteries. Of these Nuck
 first gave a delineation.
  The uterus is supplied with nerves from the lower
 mesocnlio plexus, and from two small flat circular gan-
 glions, wliich aie situated behind the rectum.  These
ganglions  are joined by a number of small branches
 from the third and fourth sacral nerves.  The ovaria
 derive their nerves from the renal plexus.   By the
great  number of nerves, these pails are rendered very
irritable, lint it is by tliose branches xvhich the uierus
 receives from ihe intercostal, thnt thc intimate consent
 uetxveen it and various other pans is chiefly preserved.
 The muscular fibres of the uierus have been described
 in  a viM-y different manner by  anatomists, some of
 whom h-'x-c asserted  that its'substance was  chiefly
      372
 muscular, with fibres running in transverse; orbicular
 or reticulated order, while others have contended that
 tliere were no muscular fibres whatever in the uterus.
 In tlie unimpregnated uterus, when boiled for the pur-
 pose of a more perfect examination, he former seems
 io be a true representation ; and when the uterus is
 distended toxvnrds  the latter part of pregnancy, these
 fibres are  vety thinly scattered; but they may be dis-
 covered in a circular direction, at the junction between
 Ihe body and tlie cervix of the uterus, and surrounding
 the entrance of each Fallopian tube in a similar order.
 Yet it does not seem reasonable to attribute the lime
 of labour to its muscular fibres only, if we are to judge
 of" the poxver of a  muscle by the number of fibres  of
 xvhicli it is composed, unless it is presumed lhat those
 of the uterus  are stronger than  in common muscles.
 With respect to ine glands of the uterus, none are
 discoverable dispersed through ils substance upon the
 inner surface of the cervix; between the rugae there
 are lacunae whicli secrete mucus, and there  are small
 follicles  at the edge of the os uteri.  These last are
 only observable in a state of pregnancy, when they are
 much enlarged.  From the angles at the fundus of the
 uterus, two processes of au irregular round form ori-
 ginate, called from  the name of the first describer, thf
 Fallopian  tubes.   They  are aboul  three  inches  in
 length, and, becoming smaller in their progress from
 the uterus, have au uneven,fringed termination, called
 the fimbriae.  The  canal which passes through these
 tubes isextremely small at their origin, but il is gradually
 enlarged, and terminates with  a  patulous orifice, ,he
 diameter of xvhich  is about one-third of au inch, sur-
 rounded by the fimbriae.   Il is also lined by a very fine
 vascular  membrane, formed  into  seipenline  plicae.
 Through this canal the  communication  between the
 uterus and ovai ia is preserved.  The Fallopian tubes
 are wrapped in duplicatures of  the peritonaeum, which
 are called the broad lisaments of ihe uterus; but a
 portion of  their extremities, thus folded, hang loose
 on each side of the pelvis.  From each lateral angle of
 the uterus, a little  before and  below the  Fallopian
 tubes, the round ligaments arise, xvhicli are composed
 of arteries, veins, lymphatics,  nerves, and  a fibrous
 structure.  These are connected  together by cellular
 membrane, mid the xvhole is  much enlarged during
 pregnancy.  They receive theiroutxvard covering from
 the peritonaeum, and pass out of the pelvis through the
 ring of the  external  oblique  muscle  to the  groin,
 xvhere tlie vessels subdivide into small branches,  and
 terminate at the mons veneris and  contiguous parts.
 From  ihe insertion of these ligaments into the groin,
 the reason appeals why that part generally suffers  in
 all the diseases and affections of the uterus, and why
 the inguinal glands  are in xvomen so often found in ii
 morbid or enlarged state.   The  duplicatures of th:e
 peritonaeum, in xvhich the  Fallopian tubes and ovarii
 are involved, are called the broad ligaments of ihe
 uterus. These prevent the entanglement of  the pa :s,
 and are conductors of the vessels and nerves, as the
 mesentery is of those of the intestines.  Both therou  id
 and broad  ligaments alter their position during pre •-
 nancy, appearing to rise lower and more forwaid thai
 in the unimpregnated state. Their use is supposed to b ■
 lliat of preventing  the descent of the uterus, and t >
 regulate its direction xvhen il ascends into ihe cavity
 ol the abdomen; but xvliether thev nnsxver these pur
 poses may be much  doubled.  The" use of the xvomb is
 for menstruation, conception, nutrition  of the foetus
 and parturition.  The uterus is liable to many diseases'
 the principal of which are retroversion and its falling
 doxvn, hydatids, dropsy of the uterus, moles, polypes.
 ulceration, cancer, Sec.                             '
  Uterus, retrox  tension of.   By thc term retrover-
 sion, such a change of the position  of the  uterus  is
 understood, that the fundus is turned bnckxvards an I
 doxvnwards upon its cervix, between the va.'ina  and
 rectum, nnd the os uteri is turned  forxvaids to  the
 pubis,  and upwards, in proportion lo the descent of tlie
 lundus, so that by an examination per vaginam, it can-
 not be felt, or  not without difficulty, when ll;e uterus
 is  retroxerted.  By  ihe same examination ihere may
 also be perceived a large round tumour, occupying ihe
 inferior part of the  cavity of the  pelvis, and 'pressino
 the vagina towards  ihe pufees.   ny „,,  examination
per tinum, the same tumour mav he felt,  pressing the
 rectum to the holloxv of ihe sacrum, and if both these
 examinations  arc made  nt  the same time, we may 
VAG
VAG
eeaaily discover that the tumour is confined within the
vagina and rectum.   Besides  the  knowledge of the
retroversion wliich  may be gained by these examina-
tions, it is  found to be  accompanied with other  very
distinguishing  symptoms.  There is in every case,
together xvith extreme pain,  a suppression of urine;
nnd toy the continuance of this distention of the blad-
der, the tumour formed by it in the abdomen often
equals in size, and  resembles in shape the uterus in
the sixth or seventh months of pregnancy; but it is
necessary to observe, that the suppression of  urine is
frequently absolute only before the retroversion of the
uterus,  or during the time it is retroverted; for when
the retroversion is completed, there is often a discharge
of urine, so es to  prevent an increase of the distention
of the bladder, though not in a sufficient quantity to
remove it.  There is also an obstinate constipation of
the boxvels, produced by the pressure  of the retroverted
uterus upon  the  rectum, which  renders the injection
of a clyster very difficult, or even impossible.   But it
appears that all the painful symptoms are chiefly in
consequence of the suppression of urine; for  none of
tliose parts wliich are apt to sympathize in affections
or diseases of the uterus are disturbed by its retrover-
sion.    The retroversion of tlie  uterus has generally
occurred about the thiid month of pregnancy, and
sometimes afterdelivery it may likexvise iiappen, where
the uterus  is, from  any cause, enlarged to  the size it
acquires about the  third month of pregnancy, but not
with such facility as in the pregnant  state, because the
enlargement is then chiefly at  the  fundus.   If the
uterus is but little enlarged, or if it be enlarged beyond
a certain time, it cannot well  be retroverted ;  for,  in
the first case, should the cause of a  retroversion exist,
the xveight at the fundus woidd be wanting to  produce
it;  aud iu the latter the uterus xvould be raised above
the projection  of tlie sacrum, and supported by the
spine.
  Utrica'ria. (From  utter,  a  bottle:  so called  from
its appendages at  the end of the leaves resembling bot-
tles, to contain water.)   A name of the nepenthes, ot
wonderful plant.
  UTRI'CULUS.   (Dim. of titer, a bottle: so called
from its shape.)  1- The womb.
  2. A little bladder.   Applied by botanists to a species
of capsule,  xvhich varies in thickness, never opens hy
any valve,  and falls  off xvith the seed.  Sir J. Smith
believes it never contains more than one seed, of which
it Is most commodiously, in botanical language, called
an external coal, rather than a capsule,  (ia riner ap-
plies it to Chaenopodium and Clematis: in the lonner
it seems to  be pellicula ; in the latter, testa.—Smith.
  U'VA.  (Uva, a, f.; Quasi  uvida, from its juice.
1.  An unripe grape.
  2. A tumour on the eye resembling a grape.
  Uva gruina.  Crane-berries.   The berries of the
Oxycoccos crythrocarpus. They are brought from Nexv
England, and are reckoned antiscorbutic.
  Uva tassa major. The raisin.  Sec Vitis vinifcra
  Uva passa minor.  The dried currant.  See Vitis
coripthiea.
  Uva ursi. Bear's whortle-berry.  See Arbutus uva
ursi.
  U'VEA.   (From uva, an unripe grape: so called be-
cause,  in beasts, xvhich the ancients chiefly dissected,
it is like an unripe grape.)  The posterior lamina of tiie
iris. See Choroid membrane.
  U'VULA.   (Dim.  ol uva, a  grape.)   Columella:
don,  Gargarcon ;  Columna oris ; Gurgulio ; Inter
septum.  The  small conical  fleshy substance hanging
in the middle nf the velum pendulum palati, over the
root of the tongue.  It is composed of Ihe  common
membrane  of the mouth, and a Small muscle  reseni
bling a worm xvhich arises from the union of the pala-
tine bone, and descends to the tip of the uvula.   It xvas
called Palato staphilinus, by Douglas, and Staphilinus
epistaphilinus,  by Winsloxv.   By its contraction, il.e
uvula is raised up.
   UVULA'RIA.  (From uvula; because il cured dis
eases of the uvula.)   See Ruscus hypoglossum.
V
 %TACC.\.  Tlie cow.   See Milk.
 *  VACCA'RIA.  (From vacca, a cow; because it is
coveted by cows.)  The herb cow's-basil.
  VACCINATION.  The insertion  of the matter to
produce the coxv-pox.   See Variola vaccina.
  VACCINIA.   See  Variola vaccina.
  VACCINIUM.  (Quasi baceinium, from its berry.)
The name of a genus of plants in the Linnaean system.
Class, Octandria; Order, Monogynia.
  Vaccinium  myrtillus.  The systematic name of
the myrtle-berry.  The berries  which are directed in
pharmacopoeias by the name of bacca myrtillorum, are
the fruit of this plant.  Prepared with vinegar they
are esteemed as  antiscorbutics, and when dry possess
astringent virtues.
  Vaccinium  oxycoccos.  The systematic name of
the cranberry plant,  Oxycoccos palustris; Vaccinia
palustris;  Vitis idaa palustris.  Moor-berry.  Cran-
berry.  These berries are inserted iu some pharmaco-
poeias.  They are about thc size of our haws, aud are
pleasantly ac'rd, and cooling, with which intention they
are used medicinally in Sweden.  In this countiy they
are mostly  preserved ani made into tarts.
  Vaccinium  vitis idjea.  The  systematic name of
the red xvhortleberry.  Vitis idaa. The leaves of this
plant, vaccinium vitis idaa, of Linnaeus, are so adstrin-
gent as to be used in some places for tanning.  They are
said to mitigate the pain attendant on calculous diseases
when given internally in the  form of decoction.   The
ripe berries abound with  a grateful acid juice; and arc
esteemed in Sxveden  as aperient, antiseptic, and refri-
geiant, and often given in putrid diseases.
  VAGI'NA.   Vagina uteri.  The canal which leads
from the external orifice of  the female pudendum  to
 he uterus.  It is somewhat of a conical form, xvith the
•jarrowest  part downwards,  and  is described as being
 ive or six inches in length, and about two in diameter.
But it xvould be more proper to say, that it is capable
3f being extended to tliose ditneriskms; for iu its com-
mon state, the os uteri is seldom found to be more than
tliree inches from the external orifice, and the vagina
is contracted as xvell as shortened.   The vagina is
composed of two coals, the fiisl or innermost of xx Inch
is villous, interspersed xvitii many excretofy ducts, and
contracted into plicae, or small transverse folds,  parti-
cularly at the fore and back part, but, by child-bearing,
these are lessened  or obliterated.  The second coat is
composed of a firm membrane, in  xvliich muscular
fibres arc not distinctly observable, but xvhich are  en-
dowed,  to a certain degree, xvith contractile poxxei-
like a muscle.  This is surrounded by cellular  mem-
brane, wliich connects it to the neighbouring parts.   A
portion ofthe upper and posterior part ofthe vaeiua :s
also covered by the peritonaeum.  The entrance of the
vagina is constricted by muscular fibres, originating
from the rami of the pubis, which run on each side of
Ihe pudendum, surrounding Ihe  posterior part, mil
executing an equivalent office, though they cannot 1-e
said to form a true  sphincter.
  The upper part of the vagina is conncctid to the  i ,\-
cumference of the  os uteri, but not iu a straight line
so as to render the  cavity of the uterus a continuation
of that of tlie vagina.  For the latter  stretches beyond
the former, and, being joined to the cervix, is reflected
over the os uteri, which by this mode of union, is si-s-
pended  with protuberant lips in the  vagina, and pci
mitted to change ils position in various xvays and  direc-
tions.  When, therefore, these  parts are distended at.d
unfolded al tlie time of labour, ihey are continued ii.tn
each other, and there is no part which can be considered
as the precise beginning of the uterus or termination of
the vagina.
  The diseases  of  the vagina are, first, such an abbre
viation and contraction as render  it unfit for  the uses
for which it xvas designed  : secondly, a cohesion  oi  the
sides in consequence of  preceding ulceiation: tl.iiri'y,
cicatrices after an ulceration ofthe parts; fourthly.»\
cix-scences; fifthly, fluor albus.   This abbreviation iJ
                                        373 
VAG                                             VAL
contraction of the vagina, xvhich usually accompany
each other, are produced by original defective forma-
tion, and they are seldom discovered before the time of
marriage, the consummation of xvhich they sometimes
prevent".   The curative intentions are to relax the parts
'■v the use of emollient applications, and to dilate them
 o their proper size by sponge, or other tents, or, which
are more effectual, by bougies gradually enlarged.  But
the cir-nmstances which atlend this disorder, are some-
*>nes such as might lead us to form an erroneous opinion
nf the disease.  A case of this kind, xvhich xvns under
Dr. Denman's care, from the strangury, from tlie heat
of the parts, and  the profuse and inflammatory dis-
charge, ivas suspected to proceed  from venereal infec-
tion ;  and xvith that opinion the patient had been  put
i-pon  a course of medicine  composed of quicksilver,
for several xveeks, xvithout  relief.  When she applied
n the Doctor, he prevailed upon  her to submit to an
examination, and found the vagina rigid, so much con-
tracted as not to exceed half an inch in diameter, nor
more than one inch nnd a half in length.  The repeated,
though fruitless attempts which had been made to com-
plete the act of coition, had occasioned a considerable
inflammation upon the  parts, and all the suspicious
appearances before mentioned.  To remove the inflam-
mation she was bled, took some gentle purgative medi-
cines, used an emollient fomentation, and afterxvard
some  unctuous applications ; she xvas also advised to
live separate from her husband for  some time.  The
inflammation being gone, tents of various sizes xvere
introduced into the vagina, by xvhich it was distended,
though not very amply.  She then returned to her hus-
band,  and in a  fexv months  became pregnant. Her
labour, (hough sloxv, was not attended xvith any extra-
ordinary difliculty.  She was delivered of a full-sized
child,  and afterward suffered no inconvenience. An-
other kind of constriction of the external  parts some-
times  occurs, and  which seems  to be a mere spasm.
By the violence or long continuance of a labour, by tlie
morbid state ofthe constitution, or by the negligent and
improper  use of instruments, an inflammation of tho
external parts, or vagina, is sometimes produced in such
a degree as to endanger a  mortification.   By careful
management this consequence is  usually pteventcd ;
but in some cases, when the constitution of the patient
xvas prone to disease, the external  parts have sloughed
axvay, and iu others, equal injury has been done to the
vagina. But the effect of the inflammation is usually
confined to the internal or villous coat, xvhich is some-
times  cast off* wholly or partially.  An ulcerated sur-
face being thus left, when the disposition  lo heal has
taken place, cicatrices have been formed of different
kinds, according to the depth and extent of the ulcera-
tion, and there being no counteraction to the contrac-
tile state ofthe parts, the dimensions of the vagina  be-
come  much reduced, or, if the ulceration should not be
healed, and the contractibility of  the parts continue io
operate, the ulcerated surfaces,  being brought together,
may cohere, and the canal of the  vagina be perfectly
closed.
  Cicatrices in the vagina very seldom become an im-
pediment  to the connexion between the sexes; xvhen
they do, the same kind of assistance is required ns xxas
recommended in the natural  conn action or  abbrevia
tion of the part; they always give way to the piessure
of the head ofthe child in the time of labour, though in
many  cases with  great difficulty.  Sometimes the
appeal ances may mislead the judgment; for the above
author was called to a xvonian  iu  labour, who xvas
thought to have become pregnant, though tiie hymen
remained  unbroken; but, on making very particular
inquiry, he discovered that this xvas her second labour,
-and lliat the part, xvhich, from  its form and situation
was supposed to be the hymen, xvitii a small aperture,
xvas a cicatrice, or unnatural contraction of the en-
hance into the  vagina, consequent  to an ulceration
of the part  afler  her former labour.  Fungous ex-
crescences arising from any part of the vagina  or
uterus, have been distinguished, though not very pro-
perly, by the general term polypus.  See Pslypus.
  Vaoina of nerves.  The outer covering of nerves.
Hy some it is said  to be a production of the pia mater
only,  and by others  of the dura mater, because it
ttgrees xvith it in tenacity, colour, and texture.
  Vaoina of tknpons.  A loose membranous sheath,
forimul by cellular membrane, invesring the  tendons,
and containing an unctuous juice, xvhich is secreted by
thn vessels  of its internal  surface.  Canglicns  nre
nothing more than an accumulation of this juice.
  VAGINA'LIS TUNICA.  See  Tunica  vaginalis

  VAGINANS.  Sheathing: applied to parts of am
mals and plants, as the tunica vaginalis or testicle ; to
leaves which  sheath the stem, or  each  otlier, as :n
grasses ;  and to the leafstalk of the Canna indica.
which surrounds tlie stem like a sheath; hencepetiolus
vaginans.
  VAGITUS.  The  cry of young  children; also the
distressing cry of persons under surgical operation.
  VA'GUM, PAR.  See Par vagum
  VALERIAN.  See Valeriana.
  Valerian, celtic. See Valeriana  celtica.
  Valerian, garden.  See Valeriana major
  Valerian, great.  See Valeriana  ma \or.
  Valerian, less.  See Valeriana.
  VALERIA'NA.   (From  Valerius, who first par-
ticularly described il.)   1.  The name of a genus of
plants in the Linna-an system.  Class, jVt'anaVta;  Or-
der, Monogynia.  Valerian.
  2. The pharmacopceial name of  tlie nild valerian.
See Valeriana officinalis.
  Valeriana  celtica.   The systematic name of the
Nardus  celtica.  Spica  celtica  dioscoi idis.   Celtic
nnrd.   The toot of litis plant, a native of the Alps, has
been recommended as a stomachic, carminative,  and
diuretic.  At present  it is only used in this country in
the theriaca and mithridate, though its sensible qualities
promise some considerable medicinal poxvers.   It has
a moderately strong smell, and a xvarm, bitterish, sub-
acrid taste.
  Valeriana  lociista.  Album olus.  Corn  salad.
This is cultivated  in our gardens for an  early salad.
It is a wholesome, esculent plant,  generally aperient
and antiscorbutic.
  Valeriana  major.  See Valeriana phu.
  Valep.iana minor.  See Valeriana officinalis.
  Valeriana officinalis.  Tbe systematic name of
the Valeriana minor.  Valeriana  sylvestris;  Leuco
lachanum.   Officinal valerian ;  Wild valerian.  Va-
leriana—fioribus triandris, foliis omnibus pinnatis, of
Linna-us.  The root of this plant has been long extolled
as an  efficacious remedy iu epilepsy, xvhicli  caused it
to be exhibited in a variety of olher complaints termed
nervous, in  which it has been  found highly service
able.   It is  also in very  general use as an antispas-
modic, and  is exhibited iu convulsive hysterical dis-
eases.  A simple and volatile tincture are directed in
the pharmacopoeias.
  Valeriana  vhv.  The systematic name of the gar
den valerian.   Valeriana major.   The root  of this
plant is said to be efficacious in removing rheumatism,
especially sciatica ; and also inveterate epilepsies.
  Valeriana sylvf.stris.  See Valeriana officinalis.
  Va'llum.   (From  vallus, a hedge stake: so called
from the regular trench-like disposition of the hairs.)
The cyebroxvs.
  VALSALVA, Anton.  Maria, xvas born  at Imola,
in 1GG6, and  placed at a proper age  under Malpighi, at
Bologna, where he applied  so closely as to impair his
health.  He  took his  degree at ihe aie of twenty-one,
and connecting surgery xx ith  physic, acquiied higli
reputation.   He simplified the instruments in  u^.
banished the practice of cauterizing the arteries alter
amputation,  and employed  manual operations  iu  the
cure of deafness.  In 1697, he xvas chosen  professor of
anatomy in  the university; and under his direction
the school acquired great celebrity.  among other dis-
tinguished pupils of his, Morgagni must be reckoned
xvhose chief xvork, " De Sedibus el Causis Morborum  ,;
contains  many dissections  by  Valsalva.  As he  ad-
vanced in life he became corpulent  and lethargic, and
in 1723 xvas  carried off by an apoplectic stroke.   His
museum  xvas bequeathed to ihe institute of Bologna
nnd his surgical instruments  to the Hospital  for^In-
curables. The principal of his works is a treatise " Dc
Aure Humana;" and after his death, three of his d'isser
taliims nu anatomical subjects weie piinied by Morgagni.
  VALVA   (Valva; from valveo, to fold up.)  A
lliin and transparent membrane situated within cer-
tain vessels, as arteries, veins,  and  absorbents,  th
office of xvliich appears to be to pievent  the content*
o: thc vessel from flowing back.
  Voire of the colon.   See Intestine,
  Valve, semilunar.  See Semilunar vulvas 
VAR
VAR
   f alee, tricuspid.  See Tricuspid values.
   Valve, triglochin.  See Tricuspid valves.
  VA'LVULA.  (From valva, a /alve, of xvhich it Is
a diminutive.)   A little valve.
  1. Applied to the valves of the venal and lymphatic
system of animals.
  2. In botany, to  the  parts or halves of a  capsule,
which split open xvhen the seed is ripe.
  VaLVULa con.  See Intestine.
  Valvula  eustachii.  A membranous semilunar
valve, xvliich separates  the right auricle from thc  in-
ferior vena cava, first described by Eustachius.
  Valvula mitralis.  See Mitral valves.
  Valvula semilunaris.  See Semilunar valves.
  Valvula triolochims.  See  'Tricuspid valves.
  Valvula tclpii.  See Intestine.
  Valvul.ecunnivkntes. Theseiuilunarfoldsformed
nf the villous coat of the intestiiium duodenum, and
jejunum.  Their use appears to be to increase the  in-
ternal surface ofthe intestines.
  Vanelloe.  See Epidendrum vanilla.
  VANILLA.   See Epidendrum vunilla.
  VAPORA'RIUM.  (From vapor,  vapour.)  A va-
pour-bath.
  VAPKECUL/E.  The name of au orderof plants in
Linnaeus's Fragments of a Natural .Method, consisting
of sucii as are,  aud have a monophylous calyx, like a
coloured corolla.
  Varec.  The French name for kelp.
  Va'ria.  (From  vanus, changeable.)  The small-
pox; also small red pimples in the face.
  VARICELLA.  (.Dim. of varia, the small-pox:  so
ailed from its being changeable.)  Variola lymphatica.
The chicken-pox.   A genus  of disease in the Class
 Pyrexia, and Order Exanthemata, of Cullen,  knoxvn
iv  moderate synocha, pimples bearing some resem-
blance  to the  small-pox, quickly forming pustules,
whicli contain a fluid  matter, but scarcely purulent,
and after three or four days from their first appearance,
desquamate.
  VARICOCE'LE.  (From varix, a distended  vein,
and xijXi), a tumour.)  A sxvelling of the veins of tbe
scrotum, or spermatic cord; hence it  is divided into
the scrotal varicocele, xvhich is known by  the appear-
ance of livid and tumid veins on the scrotum ; and
varicocele of the spermatic cord, knoxvn  by feeling
hard vermiform vessels  in the course of the spermatic
cord.  Varicocele mostly arises from excessive walk-
ing, running, jumping, wearing of trusses, and  the like,
producing at first a slight uneasiness in the part, xvhich,
of not remedied, continues advancing towards the loins.
  VARIEGATUS.  Variegated: applied to an inter-
mixture of colours; as  in tbe leaves of some plants,
Meniha rotundifolia,  Sec
  VAUl'OLA.  (From  varius, changing  colour, be-
cause it disfigures the skin.)  The small-pox.  A genus
of disease in the Class  Pyrexia, and Order Exanthe-
mata, of Cullen, distinguished by synocha, eruption  of
led pimples on  the third day, xvhich on the eighth day
contain pus, and afterxvard drying, fall off in crusts.
  It is a disease of a very contagious  nature, supposed
to have been introduced  into  Europe from Arabia, and
in which there  arises  a  fever, that is succeeded  by a
number of liltle  inflammations in  thc skin, which
proceed to suppuration, the matter formed  thereby
being capable of producing the disorder in another per-
son.  It makes  iu attack on people of all ages, but the
young  of both  sexes are more liable to it than those
xvfio are much advanced in life; and  it may prevail at
all seasons of  the year, but is most prevalent in the
spring and summer.
  The small-pox is distinguished into the distinct and
confluent, implying that in the former the eruptions
arc perfectly separate  from each other, and that in the
.alter they run much into one another.
  Both  species are produced either  bv breathing air
mpregnated with the  effluvia arising from the bodies
.if tliose who labour under the disease, or by the intro-
duction of  a small quantity  of the variolous  matter
;nto the habit of inoculation; and it  is probable, that
ihe difference ofthe small-pox is not owing to any dif-
ference in the  contagion, bul depends  on the  state  of
Uie person to xvhom it is applied, or on certain  circum-
stances concurring xvith the application of it
  A variety of opinions have been entertained  respect-
'ng the effect of the variolous infection on the foetus in
litcro:  o nufficient number of instances, hoivnvor, h»* '
been  rccoxjod, to  ascertain  that the disease may be
communicated from tiie mother to the child.  Iu some
cases, the  body of the child, at its birth has heen
covered xvitii  pustules, and  Ihe naluie of the disease
has been most satisfactorily ascertained by inoculating
xvith matter taken  from  the  pustules.  In otlier cases,
theie has been no appearance of the  disease nt th«
birth, but an eruption  and other symptoms of Ihe dis-
ease'have  appeared so  early, as to  ascertain that the
in lection must have  bun received  previously to the
removal of the child from the uterus.
  Four different stales, or stages, are to be observed in
the small-pox: first, the febrile; second, the eruptive;
third, the matin am .■; and fourth, lhat <>f tine di cliua
tion or scabbing.   When the disease has arisen u.Uu
rally, and is of the distinct kind, the eruption is com
monly preceded  by a  redness iu the eyes, soreness iu
tlie throat, pains in the head, back, and  loins, wcari
ness and I'aintuess, alternate  fits of chilliness and heat
thirst, nausea, inclination to  vomit, and a quick pulse.
  In some instances, these symptoms prevail in a high
degree, aud in others  they are very moderate and tri-
fling.  In very young children, starlings and convul-
sions are apt to take place a  slim l lime previous to the
appearance of the  eruption, always giving great alarm
to those  not conversant wilh  the  frequency  of the
occurrence.
  About the third or fourth day from the first seizure,
the eruption shows itself in luttle red spots on the face
neck, and  breast,  and these continue  to  increase iu
number and size for three or four longer, at the end if
xvhicli time they  are to be  observed  dispersed over
several parts of the body.
  If the  pustules are  not very  numerous, the febrile
symptoms  xvill generally go off on the appearance of
the eruption, or  then  will become very  moderate.   It
sometimes happens, that a number of little spots of an
erysipelatous nature are interspersed among the pus-
tules; but  these generally go in  again, as soon as the
suppuration commences, xvhich is usually about the
fifth or sixth day, at xvliich period, a  small vesicle, con-
taining an almost  colourless fluid,  may be observed
upon tine top of each  pimple.  Should the pustules be
perfectly distinct and separate from each olher, the
suppuration xvill probably be completed about the eighth
or ninth day, and they xvill then be filled xvitii a thick
yelloxv matter;  but should  they run much into each
olher, it xvill not be completed til! some days later.
  When the pustules  are very thick  and numerous on
the face, it is apt about this time  lo become  much
swelled, and Ihe eyelids to  be closed  up, previous to
xvhich, there usually arises a hoarseness, and difficulty
of sxvalloxving, accompanied witii a considerable dis
charge of viscid saliva.   About the  eleventh day, the
swelling ofthe face usually subsides, together xvith the
affection ofthe fauces, and is succeeded by the same in
the hands and  feet, after xvhich the pustules break, and
discharge their contents: and then becoming diy, ihey
fall iu crusts, leaving tl.e skin xvhich they covered of a
brown-red  colour,  which nppenrai/Ce continues for
many days.  In tliose cases where the  pustules are
large, and are late  in becoming diy and falling off, they
are very apt lo leave pits behind them; but where they
arc small, suppurate quickly, and are fexv in number
they neither leave any marks behind them, nor do they
occasion much affection ofthe system.
  In the confluent small-pox, the fever xvhich precedes
the eruption is much more violent than in the distinct,
being attended usually with great anxiety, heat,  thirst,
nausea, vomiting, and a  frequent and contracted  pul-ie,
and often xvitii coma or delirium.  In infants, convul-
sive fits are apt to occur, xvhicli eitlier prove fatal before
any eruption appears, or they usher in  a malignant
species ofthe disease.
  The eruption usually makes its appearance about the
third day, being frequently preceded or attended xvitii
a rosy efflorescence, similar to xvhat  takes place in the
measles; but the fever, although it suffers some  slight
remission on the coming out  of the eruption, does  nol
go off as  in thc distinct kind; on the conttuiy,  it be-
comes increased alter the fifth or sixth day, and con
tinues considerable throughout the remainder of the
disease.
  As  the erupt'on  advances, the face, being thickly
beset  with  pustules, becomes very much swelled,  the
eyelids are closed  up, so as  to deprive tlie patient of
 iltht  and a tvutle salivation ensu;-s, xvhicli  toxvardi
                                        375 
VAR
VAR
the elevenfn day, is so viscid as to be spit up xvitii great
difficulty.  In children, a diarrhoea usually attends this
stage ofthe disease instead of a salivation, which is to
be inet xvitii only in adults.  The vesicles on the top of
the pimples are to be perceived sooner in the confluent
small-pox than  in the distinct; but they never rise to an
eminence being usually flatted  in ; neither do they
arrive  to proper suppuration, as the fluid contained in
thein,  instead af becoming yellow, turns it a  brown
colour.
  About the tenth or eleventh day, the sxvelling of the
face usually  subsides,  and  then the bauds and feet
begin to puff up and swell, and about the same time
.he vesicles break, and pour out a  liquor that forms into
broxvn  or black crusts,  whicli, upon falling off, leave
deep pits behind them that continue for life; and xvhere
the pustules have run much  into each other, they then
disfigure and scar tlie face  very considerably.
  Sonietimes it happens that a putrescency of the fluids
takes place at an early period of the disease, and shoxvs
itself in livid spots interspersed among the pustules, and
by a discharge of blood by urine, stool, and from various
parts of the body.
  In the confluent small-pox, the fex-er xvhich, perhaps,
had suffered some  slight remission from the time the
eruption made its appearance to that of maturation, is
often renewed with considerable  violence at this last-
mentioned period, xvhich is what  is called the second-
ary fever, and this is the most dangerous stage of the
disease.  It has been observed, even among the vulgar,
that  the small-pox is apt to appear immediately before
or after the prevalence of the measles.  Another curi-
ous observation has been made relating to the  symp-
toms of these complaints, namely,  that if, while a
patient labours under the small-pox, he is seized xvith
the measles, the course ofthe former is retarded till the
eruption of the measles  is finished.   Thc measles
apiiear, for instance, on the second day ofthe eruption
of* small-pox; the progress of this ceases, till the mea-
sles terminate by desquamation, and then it goes on in
the usual way.  Several cases are, however, recorded
in the Medical and  Physical Journal, as likexvise in the
third volume of the Medical Commeniaries, in  which
a concurrence ofthe small-pox and measles took place
xvithout the progress of theformer being retarded.  The
distinct small-pox is  not attended xvith danger, txcept
xvhen it attacks pregnant women,  or approaches nearly
in its nature  to that of the confluent; but this  last is
alxvays accompanied xvith considerable risk,  the degree
of xvliich is ever in proportion to  the violence nnd per-
manence of the fever, the  number of pustules on the
face, and the disposition  to putrescency xvhicli pre-
vails.
  When tliere is a  great tendency this xvay, the disease
usually proves fatal betxveen the eighth  ard eleventh
day, but, in some cases, death is protracted to the four-
teenth or sixteenth.  The confluent small-pox, although
it may not prove  immediately mortal, is very apt  to
induce various  morbid affections.
  Both kinds of small pox leave behind them a predis-
position to inflammatory  complaints, particularly  to
opthalmia and visceral inflammations, but more espe-
cially of the thorax; and they not unfrequently  excite
scrofula into action which might otherwise  have lain
dormant in thc  system.
  The  regular sxvelling of the hands and feet upon that
of the  face subsiding, and its continuance for Ihe due
time, may be regarded in a favourable light.
  The  dissections which have been made of confluent
small-pox, have never discovered any pustules  inter-
nally on the viscera.  From  them it  also appears that
variolous pustules never attack the cavities of Ihe body,
except  those  to which the air has free access,  as the
nose, mouth,  trachea, Ihe  larger branches of the bron-
chia, and the outermost part of the meatus auditoiius.
In cases  of prolapsus nni,  they likewise  frequently
attack  that part ofthe gut which  is exposed to the air.
They  have usually shown  the same morbid appear.
ances inxvardly, as are met with in putrid fever, xvhere
the disease has been ofthe malignant kind.  Wheie
the febrile symptoms have run high, and the head has
been much affected with comn or delirium, ihe vessels
of the  brain appear, on  removing the  cranium and
dura mater,  more turgid, and filled xvith a  darker
coloured blood  than usual,  and  a creator quantify of
serous fluid is found, particularly toxvards the base of
the  bruin   Under similar  circumstances,  the  lungs
       370
have often a darker appearance, and their moisture i«
more copious than  usual.  When no  inflammatory
affection has supervened, they are most usually sound.
  The treatiiimil of small-pox  will  difl'er  materially
according to the species of the disease.  In the distinct,
ushered in by synochal pyrexia,  it may i»e occasionally
proper, in persons of a middle  age, good constitution,
and plethoric habit, to begin by taking axvay a mode-
rate quantity of blood; the exhibition of an emetic xvill
be generally advisable, provided there be no material
tenderness of the stomach; the bowels must then be
cleared, antimonial  and other diaphoretics employed,
and the antiphlogistic regimen strictly enforced.   It is
particularly useful in  this disease during the eruptive
fever to expose the patient freely to cold  air, ns taught
by the celebrated Sydenham; and even the cold affusion
may be proper, where there is much  heat and redness
ofthe skin, unless the lungs be xveak.  After the erup-
tion has come out. the symptoms are usually so much
mitigated, that little medical interference  is necessary.
But  the  confluent small-pox requires more manage-
ment :  after evacuating the prima viae, and employing
other means to moderate the fever in the beginning the
several  remedies adapted to support  the strength and
counteract thc septic tendency, must  be resorted to, as
tile disease advances, such  as have been enumerated
under typhus.   The chief points of difference are, that
bark may be more freely given to promote the process
of suppuration, and opium to relieve the irritation in
the skin; xvhen tlie eruption has come out, it will be
generally  proper to direct a full dose of this remedy
every night to procure rest, using proper precautions to
obviate iis confining the boxvels, or determining to the
head.  Where alarming convulsions occur also, opium
is  the medicine chi .fly to be relied upon, taking care
subsequently to  remove any source of irritation  from
tlie primae viae.  Sometimes thc tepid-bath may be
useful  under  these  circumstances,  and favour  the
appearance ofthe eruption, where the skin is pale and
cold, the pulse weak, &c.   Where at  a more advanced
period  the pustules flatten,  and  alarming  symptoms
follow, the mast poxverful cordial and antispasmodic
remedies  must be tried, as the confectio opii, tether,
xvine, &c.  For the relief of the brain, or other impor-
tant  part, particularly affected, local means may be
used, as in typhus.  To prevent the eyes being injured,
a cooling lotion may be applied, and blisters behind the
cars, or even leeches to the temples.
  Variola vaccina.  Vaccinia.  The coxv-pox.  Any
pustulous disease affecting the coxv, may be called the
coxv-pox : whether it arises from an ox'cr-distention of
the udder, in consequence of a  neglect in milking the
coxv, or from the sling of an insect, or any olher cause.
But the species xvhich claims our particular attention,
is that xvhich xvas recommended to the  world by Dr.
Jenncr, in the year 17D8, as a substitute for  the small-
pox.   This, xvhich originates from the grease in ihe
horse'*  heel,  is called the genuine cow-pox ; all otiiet
kinds are spurious.
  That the vaccine fluid, fraught with such unspeakable
benefits to mankind, derives its origin  from this humble
source, hoxvever it may mortify human  pride, or  me-
dical vanity,  Is confirmed  by  the observations  and
experiments of competent judges.  For  proofs of ihis
assertion, the reader  may  consult the xvorks of Dr.
Jenner;  the Medical anil  Physical  Journal; and a
treatise  on the subject by Dr. Loy, of xvhich an ana-
lysis is given  in the Annuls  of Medicine for the year
1801; and Mr. Ring's xx-ork on this disease, whicli con-
tains the whole mass of evidence that has appeared
concerning it.
  The genuine cow-pox  appears on the teats of the
coxv, in the form of vesicles, of a blue colour approach-
ing to livid.  These  vesicles ate  elevated at the mar
gin, and depressed at the centre. They are surrounded
xvith inflammation.  The fluid they contain is limpid.
The animals are indisposed; and the secretion of milk
is  lessened.   Solutinns of the  sulphates of zinc and
copper are a speedy remedy  for these pustules:  other-
wise they degenerate into ulcers, xvhich are extremely
troublesome.   It must, however, be recollected,  thai
much of the obstinacy attending  these cases is owing
to the friction of the pustules, in consequence of milk-
ing.  It is probable, that a solution of ihe superacetate
of lend would be preferable lo irritating  applications.
  Similar efl'ecis nre produced in the  hands of the
milkers,  attended xvith  febrile  symptoms, and some- 
VAR                                           VAR
 times with tumours in the axilla.  Otlier parts, xvhere
 tlie cuticle is abraded, or xvhich are naturally destitute
 »f that  defence, are also liable to the same affection,
 provided active  matter is  applied.   It oven  appears
 lhat, in some instances, pustules  have been produced
 by tlie application of vaccine  virus to tiie sound cu-
 ticle.  One case  of this kind may be found in a letter
 from  Dr.  Fowler, of Salisbury,  to Dr. l'eaison,  pub-
 lished in the first w Drk of Dr. Pearson on this subject.
   The spurious coxv-pox is white; and another crite-
 rion is, that both in the hrute animal and in the human
 subject,  xvhen infected  wilh the  casual  coxv-pox, the
 sores occasioned by the genuine species nre more diffi-
 cult tc heal than those xvhich are occasioned by the
 spurious kind.  It is of the utmost importance to dis-
 tinguish the genuine from tlie  spurious sort, which is
 also, in some degree,  infectious; since  a want of such
 discrimination would cause au idea of security against
 the smallpox, xvliich might prove delusive.
   Dr. Jenner lias elucidated one point of the first im-
 portance,  relative  to the genuine coxv-pox ilself.  It
 had frequently been obserx-ed, that when this disorder
 prevailed  in a farm, some of the persons xvho con-
 tracted it by milking xvere rendered insusceptible ofthe
 s:nall-pox, while others continued liable to  thai infec-
 tion.   This is owing to  the different  periods at xvhich
 the disease xvas  excited in the human subject; one
 person, who caught the  disease xvhile the virus xvas in
 an active state, is rendered secure  from variolous con-
 tagion ; xvhile another,  xvho received ihe infection of
 the cow  pox when  it had undergone a decomposition,
 is still susceptible of the small-pox.  This uncertainty
 of the prevention, tlie  value of xvhich is  beyond all
 calculation, is probably the reason  why it xvas not
 before introduced into practice.
   From  the violent opposition which  vaccine inocu-
 lation has  met with,  in consequence of certain appa-
 rent  failures  in  the  casual way,  it  may be doubted
 whether the public xvould ever have adopted the  prac-
 tice, had not this fallacy been detected by Dr.  Jenner.
 To him also we are indebted for  another discovery of
 the first  importance;  namely, that the  pustule excited
 in the human subject by vaccine matter, yields a fluid
 ol a similar  nature  xvitii that which  was inserted.
 This experiment, so  essential to the general propaga-
 tion of the practice,  and so happy in its  result, was
 never before attempted.   It was reserved lo crown the
 labours of Dr. Jenner.
   A considerable number of instances are on record,
 to prove  that farriers and others xvho receive infection
 from the heel of a horse, are  either partly or totally
 deprived of tlie susceptibility of the small-pox.  When
 Dr. Jenner first published an account of his discove-
 ries, this point was enveloped iu some degree of obscu-
 rity.  He then conceived, that the matter of grease
 was an imperfect  preservative  against the small-pox.
 This  opinion  was founded on the folloxving  circum-
 stance:  It had been remarked,  that  farriers cither
 wholly escaped the small-pox, or had thnt distemper
 in a milder manner than other people.  This, however,
 is easily reconcileable to reason, if we only suppose,
 that in some cases the infection is communicated xvhen
 the virus possesses all its prophylactic virtue; and in
 others, when ils specific quality is in some measure
 lost/
  This variation in the effects  produced by thc  virus
 of the horse, inclined  Dr. Jenner to believe that it was
 modified, and underwent some peculiar alteration in
 tiie teats of the coxv.  He now concludes, that  it is
 perfect when it excites Ihe genuine disease in the coxv;
 yet a considerable advantage is derived from its being
 transferred to the latter  animal, the nipples of xvhicli
 furnish a more obvious and a  more abundant source
 of this inestimable fluid, than its original element the
 horse.
  This theory, that the  preservative against variolous
 contagion is perfect when it issues from the fountain-
 head, and comes  immediately from the hands of Na-
 ture, is consonant  with reason, and  consistent  with
 analogy.   Thus,  one  obstacle  more to the universal
 adoption  ofthe practice  is removed.
  Another point respecting vaccine inoculation, which
has been  much controverted, is the permanency of its
effect.   Instances have been known where  persons
have ^'-aped the smallpox for a number of years, and i
yet h"c ultimately proved not  insusceptible of its in-
fection.  When such persons had previously under-1
 gone the vaccine disease, their apparent security was
 erroneously ascribed to that cause; but xve have not
 even a shadow of proof, that the cow-pox possesses In
 the  least degree the property of a temporary prophy-
 lactic, since it appears not even to retard the eruption
 of the smallpox,  where previous infection has been
 received.
   By this remark, it is not meant to be asserted, that
 it never supersedes or modifies the small-pox,  for we
 haw great reason to believe that such beneficial  ef-
 fects often flow from vaccination ;  but where an erup-
 tion ofthe small-pox actually lakes place after vaccine
 inoculation, the txvo diseases frequently co-exist, xvith-
 out retarding each other in the smallest degree.  It is,
 therefore, contrary to all reason and analogy, to con-
 sider the coxv-pox as a mere temporary preservative:
 it is nothing less than a perfect and permanent security
 against thai terrible disease.
   A number of cases are recorded by Dr. Jenner, and
 other  authors, xvho have xvritten on this  subject, in
 xvliich persons  who  have  received the  coxv-pox  by
 casual infection,  twenty, thirty, forty, and  fifty years
 before, still  continued insusceptible  of variolous con-
 tagion, lu whatever form it was applied.
   As the coxv-pox destroys the  susceptibility  of the
 small-pox, so the  small-pox  destroys that of the coxv-
 pox.  To this  general rule, hoxvever, a fexv exceptions
 are said to have occurred.   Certain it is, that a pustule
 has noxv and then been excited by thc insertion of vac-
 cine virus, in those xvho have  had thc small-pox, and
 that this pustule has been known to yield to the genu-
 ine virus; but it is not equally certain that the pustule
 lias been perfect in all respects.  Possibly, it may have
 been defective in point of size or  duration, in respect
 to its areola, or the limpidity of its contents.  That
 such a pustule has, in some instances, yielded effectual
 x irus, is admitted ; but this is no more than what has
 often happened, incases xvhere persons who have had
 the small-pox are a second time submitted to that infec-
 tion in tlie same form.
   The artificial cow-pox in the human subject is inucl
 milder than the  casual disease;  and incomparably
 milder than the small-pox, even  under  tlie form  of
 inoculation. It neither requires medicine nor regimen
 it may be practised at any season of tlie year; and,
 not being infectious by effluvia,  one person may  be
 inoculated without endangering the life nf another.
   This  affection  produces  no pustulous  eruptions
 When such attend vaccine inoculation, they are  owing
 to some  adventitious cause, such as the  small-pox,
 xvhich it is xvell known may co-exist with the cow-
 pox. The vaccine vesicle is confined to the parts where
 matter is inserted; it is, therefore, entirely a local and
 an inoculated disease.  Nevertheless, it is certain, that
 eruptions of other kinds, in  some  instances,  attend
 vaccine inoculation; such as a nettle-rash, or an erup-
 tion  resembling a tooth-rash, but rather larger than
 xvhat is commonly called by that name.
   Among other singularities attending the coxv-pox, tho
 mildness of the disease, under tlie form of inoculation
 has been urged as an argument against  the practice
 the cause appearing to onfinary comprehensions, in
 adequate to the effect.  This, it  must be allowed, ii
 the best apology lhat can be offered for skepticism ob
 that point; but it will xveigh but  little when put into
 the scale  against  actual observation,  and  incontro-
 vertible fact.  Tiie efficacy  of the cow-pox as a safe
 guard  against the  small-pox, rests, perhaps, nn more
 extensive evidence, and a more solid  foundation, than
 any other axiom in the whole circle of medical science.
  That the  coxv-pox  is not infectious by effiuviu, is
 naturally concluded from its  never being  communi-
 cated from one person lo another in the dairies; where
 the disease is casual, and appears under its worst form.
 The same  inference  may be  drawn from its  never
spreading in a family, xvhen only one person is inocu-
lated at a time.   To confirm this proposition more
fully, the vaccine  pustules have been ruptured, and
persons who have never  had the  disorder  have been
suffered to inhale the effluvia several times  a day, but
to no purpose  This is no  more  than might be ex-
pected, in an affection where the pustulous appearance
on the surface of the body is nearly local.
  As to the constitutional indisposition, it  is teldoni
considerable,  unless  there  is a complication of thia
xvith some other  distemper;  and xviienever  any  unfn
vourable  symptoms appeal  the.v  may in general De
                                         377 
VAR                                            VAR
 traced to some other cause.  We have indeed great
 rteuson to believe, that no ill consequence  ever arises
 from  the cow-pox itself, unless from  ignorance or
 neg'ect.
   But notwithstanding the symptoms are so mild, they
 frequently occur at n very early period.  A drowsiness,
 whicli is one of the most common attendants of the
 disease, is often remarked  by the parents themselx-es,
 xvithin forty-eight hours after the  matter is inserted.
 In a majority of cases, a slight increase of heat is per-
 ceptible, together xvith an acceleration of the pulse, and
 other signs of pyrexia; but not in such n degree as to
 alarm the most timorous mother.   Sometimes the pa-
 tient is restless at nights; and noxv and then a case is
 ■ net with, in which vomiting occurs, but in many cases,
 nt> constitutional indisposition can be perceived.  Ex-en
 then, the coxv-pox has never failed to prove an effec-
 tual preservative against the small-pox, provided the
 pustule has been perfect.
   This being the grand criterion of the security of the
 patient, too minute an attention cannot be paid to its
 rise, progress, and decline.  The best  mode of inocu-
 lating is by making a very small oblique puncture in
 the arm,  near the insertion of the deltoid muscle, with
 the  point of a  lancet charged xvith fluid matter.  Iu
 order to render infection more certain, the instrument
 may be charged again, and xviped upon the puncture.
   In places xvhere the patient is likely to be exposed to
 variolous contagion, it is advisable to inoculate in more
 places than one, but unless there is danger of catching
 the small-pox, it  is better not to make more than one
 puncture in  each arm, lest  too  much inflammation
 should ensue.
   The vaccine fluid may be  taken for inoculation as
 soon as a vesicle appears; but if the vesicle is punc-
 tured at a very early period, it is more apt to be injur-
 ed.  When virus is wanting for  inoculating a consi-
 derable number, it is belter to let  the  pustule remain
 untouched, till about the eighth day, by xvhich time it
 has in general acquired a reasonable magnitude.   After
 that day,  if the pustule has  made  the  usual  progress,
 the  matter begins to lose its virtue;  but it may, in
 general, he used xvith safety, thougli xvitii less certainty
 of producing infection, till  the areola begins to be ex-
 tensive.
   The first sign of infection commonly appears on the
 third day. A small  red  spot, rather elevated, may he
 perceived at the place where the puncture xvas  made.
 Sometimes, however,  the mark  of infection having
 succeeded is not  visible till  a  much later period.  It
 may be retarded,  or  even entirely prevented, by  any
 other disorder, sucli  as dentition, or any complaint at-
 tended wilh  fever, or by extreme cold.  Another fre-
 quent cause of a slow progress in the pustule, or a total
 failure of success, is debility.  Sometimes it is impos.
 sible to discover any sign of infection for above a fort-
 night.   In this respect the  cow-pox  is subject to the
 same laxvs, and liable to the same variation, as the
 small-pox.
   When  a considerable inflammation appears xvithin
 txvo  or three days afler inoculation, there is reason to
 suspect that infection has not taken place; and if sup-
 puration  ensues, that suspicion ought, in general, to
 stand confirmed.   Noxv and then, however, it happens,
 that  after the spurious pustule, or more properly speak-
 ing, the phlegmon, has run its course, which is xvithin
 a few days, a vesicle begins to appear, bearing  every
 characteristic of the genuine vaccine disease, and
 yielding a limpid and elfioient virus for future inocu-
 lations.  In this case the  patient is as perfectly secured
 from all danger of the small-pox, as if no festering of
 the puncture had  preceded.   The occurrence of such a
 case, though rare, is worthy to be recorded;  because
 some practitioners have concluded a spurious pustule to
 be a certain proof of failure.
  The areola commonly  begins to be extensive on the
 ninth day, nnd to decline about thc eleventh or twelfth.
 At this period also the pustule begins to dry;  the first
 sign of which is  a broxvn spot in the centre.  In pro-
 portion as this increases the  surrounding efflorescence
 decreases, till at length nothing remains but  a circular
Bcab, of a dark-brown mahogany  colour, approaching
 to  black.   Sometimes it resembles the section of a
 tamarind-stone; and it often retains the depression in
 the centre, which characterizes this disease before ex-
siccation lakes place.
  Instances have been knoxvn, xvhere Ihe vaccine pus-
     378
 tule, though regular, and perfect in all otlier respects,
 has been totally  destitute of areola; at least, xvhere
 neither the medical practitioner, on visiting the patient,
 nor the attendants, have remarked any appearance of
 that symptom.  In these cases, the patient has proved
 as insusceptible of variolous infection, as if the sur-
 rounding efflorescence had covered the xvhole arm.  It
 must, however, be confessed that xve have no proof of
 the non-existence of an areola in these eases.   It might
 have been trivial; it might have beci. transient; yet it
 might have been effectual.  There is, hoxvever, greater
 reason to believe, that  the surrounding efflorescence,
 though usually a concomitant circumstance, is not an
 essential requisite to the vaccine disease.
   If by any accident tlie vesicle is ruptured, suppura-
 tion often ensues.  In this case, more attention thnii
 ordinary ought to be paid to the progress, and to all the
 phenomena of the local affection ; both on account of
 the uncertainty of success in the  pustule, as a  pro-
 phylactic, and Ihe greater  probability of tedious ulcer-
 ation.
   If there is room for thc least doubt of the sufficiency
 of the first inoculation, a second ought to be performed
 without delay.  This, if unnecessary, is seldom attend-
 ed ivith inconvenience, and never with danger.  Lithei
 no effect is produced, or a slight festering, xvhich termi-
 nates in a few days.  An exception occurs, but rarely,
 where a  spurious", or perhaps, even a genuine pustule,
 takes place, in those persons who are knoxvn to have
 had the  cow-pox or  the small-pox already; but  this
 cannot be the least cause of alarm  to any  one who
 knows the benign character of the distemper.
   Various  topical applications, both stimulant  and
 sedative, have been recommended, in  order to allay the
 violence of inflammation.  If the operation for the in-
 sertion of maiter is not unnecessarily severe, nor the
 pustule irritated  by friction, or  pressure, or other vio-
 lence, no such applications are  necessary. Neverthe-
 less, if either the anxiety  ot the professional man, or
 the importunity of-a tender parent, should demand a
 deviation from this general rule, any of the  following
 remedies may be had  recourse to.   The pustule may
 be touched with very diluted sulphuric acid; which
 should  be permitted to remain on the part half a mi-
 nute, nnd then be xvashed  off  with a sponge  dipped in
 cold xvater.   This has been ignorantly, or artfully,
 called an escharotic; but  any one xvho tries the appli-
 cation xvill soon discox-er, that its operation is mild and
 harmless.
   To avoid cavil and misrepresentation, it is better to
 apply a saturnine lotion ; compresses, dipped in such a
 lotion, may be applied at any time when inflammation
 runs high, and renexx'cd as occasion requires.
   If the pustule should chance to be broken, a drop of
 the liquor plumbi acetatis,  undiluted, maybe applied as
 an exsicennt; but if ulceration threatens tn become
 obstinate, or extensix-e,  a  mild  cataplasm is the  besl
 resource.  In case the ulceration is only superficial,
 and not attended xvith immoderate inflammation, a bit
 of any adhesive plaster, spread on linen, xvill prove the
 most convenient dressing, and seldom fail of success.
 It xvill, iu general, be unnecessary to  renew it oftener
 than every other day.
   These minute observations no one will despise, un-
 less tliere be any person so ignorant as not to know thai
 the care of the  arm  is almost the xvhole duty of the
 medical practitioner in vaccine  inoculation;  and thai
 nothing disgusts the public so much against  the prac
 tice, as a sore arm, nnd the ill consequences whicli,
 from n neglect of that symptom, loo often ensue.
   When fluid virus cannot be  procured, it is necessary
 to be cautious hoxv it is preserved in a dry state.  The
 most improper mode is that of keeping it on a lancet;
 for the metal quickly rusts, and the vaccine matter be-
 comes deconi|ioscd.   This method, hoxvever, is  as
 likely to  succeed as any, xvhen the matter is  not io be
 kept above two or three days.  If the virus  be taken
 on glass,  care must be  taken  not to  dilute it muck •
 otherwise it xvill probably fail.
  Cotton thread is a very commodious vehicle.   If it is
 intended to be sent to any considerable distance, it ought
 to be repeatedly  dipped  in the virus.  No particuhu
caution is necessary with  regard to the exclusion ci
 air;  nevertheless, ns it can be  done xvitii so little trou-
 ble, und is more satisfactory to those xvho receive the
matter, it is better to comply xvith the practice.  On thin
account- it in*ev be enclosed in  a glass tutu-, or in ,.. 
VAR
VAS
tobacco-pipe scaled at each end, or between two square
bits of glass, xvliich may, if necessary, be also charged
xvilh the matter, and wrapped iu gold-beater's skin.
  Nothing is  more destructive to the efficacy of coxv-
pock matter than heat:  on this account it must not  be
dried near the  fire, nor  kept  iu a  xvarm place.  The
advantage of insertins it iu a fluid  state is so great,
that it is to be wished every practitioner xvould enden-
vour to  keep a constant  supply for his oxvn use, by in-
oculating  his patients in succession, at such periods ns
are most likely to ansxx er that purpose.
  The rapidity with which this practice noxv spreads in
various pans of the globe, justifies  our cherishing a
hope, that it xvill ere long extinguish that most dreadful
pestilence, and  perpetual bane of  human felicity, the
small-pox.
  [Dr. Sylvanus Fansher of Middletoxvn, in Connecti-
Ttit, has devoted much time and attention to vaccina-
tion ; and, in the tolloxving letter lo Dr. Mitchill, pro-
poses a  method to hasten the  progress of the vaccine
vesicle.
                " Middle town, (Conn.) March,\£Z8.
" Dr. Mitchill,
  "Sir,—As you had the honour of announcing tbe
happy tidings of the mild substitute  for tlie small-pox
in America, and as you once made honourable mention
of my name relative to the art of preserving the vaccine
virus, I  therefore take the liberty to trouble you  with
the result  of a series of experiments to hasten the pro-
gressive stages  of the vaccine vesicle, xvhich, I am in-
duced to believe,  promises to the xvorld additional ad-
vantages from vaccination.
  " During the earlier part of my vaccine practice,
when persons came to me, with great concern, to know
whether it xvould be too late to vaccinate  a person,
who had  been exposed  to the small-pox a week or
more, aud I have been  under the painful necessity of
expressing my fears that it xvould  be loo late; I have,
from past experience, often felt their  woes, and sighed
for a poxver that seemed to be denied to vaccinators or
inoculators, xvhich xvas,  to be able to force forward the
vaccine process, so as to hasten tiie constitutional affec-
tion at au earlier period  than the well-knoxvn time for
symptoms in either inoculation or vaccination.
  " Having been an eye-xvitness of the extreme anguish
of two fine children in 1803 and 1804, xvho applied too
late for  vaccination, I commenced making experiments
to expedite vaccination, by various methods of insert-
ing the virus.  Al length I found, that by making broad
punctures on tlie body and shoulders, xvith active vac-
cine virus, I was able to produce au early pustule, and
bring on the symptoms from 30 to 40 hours sooner than
usual.   And I am now able to produce nbove forty suc-
cessful experiments to accelerate ihe vaccine process,
substantiated by high medical  authority.   I  xvrite to
you, Sir, because your sagacity and  discernment xvill
be tie first to discover the usefulness  of this improve-
ment, and the first to detect error.
                " I have the honour  to be, Slc.
                          " Sylvanus Fansher."
  We may observe, from the above letter, that Dr. Fan-
sher's method of hastening the vaccine process, by in-
serting tlie virus repeatedly by broad  punctures on the
body and  shoulders, will probably prove efficacious.
The ordinary mode of vaccination is, to introduce the
smallest |iossible quantity of vaccine matter into ihe
puncture; and  hence it frequently happens, that the
effect upon the constitution is so slight as to be hardly,
or even not at all, perceptible.  The consequence is,
that cases of varioloid have sometimes occurred after
vaccination, probably in cases in which it had not pro-
duced its proper influence on the system, or where that
influence was insufficient. Dr. F.'s method xvill, doubt-
less, charge the system xvith the genuine disease, and
prevent the after occurrence of vartloid, or variolus
(small-pox).  He thinks, hoxvever, that it xvill do more,
and force  ihe vaccine to  outrun the  small-pox, where
exposure to infection has taken place.  That it may
do so, or at least that the effectual  introduction of tho
vaccine may modify the small-pox, the tolloxving  case,
which a medical friend has reported to us, xvould seem
to prove.
  A child  exposed to the influence ofthe natural small-
pox xvas vaccinated, and four days after, the operation
xvas repeated.   On thc eighth day  from the first vacci-
nation no  appearance xvas observed of the progress of
the kire-poek.  Further vaccination  xvas then con- \
sidered unnecessary and too late, and the paients w*ia
ndvised to have the child inoculated wilh the small-
pox, xvhich xvas preferable to having it in the natural
way.  Matter  was taken from tho brother, xvho had
the smallpox very badly in  the adjoining room, and
inserted in the arm, near where thc vaccine mutter had
been inserted.  The pock rose on the arm, and to  tho
surprise ofthe physician, the vaccine vesicle also rose,
and they  progressed together, modifying each  other.
The vaccine pock  xvas smaller  than usual, and went
through its stages sooner than is common, though it
had previously laid dormant, and appeared  to have
been put into activity by the smallpox.   The small-
pox xxas also modified, ihe pock were few, the sickness
trifling, the confinement nothing ; and the child reco-
vered before his brother, xvho xxas first taken.  A.]
  Va'riu8.  (From varus, unequal: so called from ilia
irregularity of ils  shape.)  The  cuboid bone  xvas  for-
merly called os varium, from its irnuular shape.
  VA'BIX.  (From varus, i. e. oblortus.)   A dilata
tion of a vein.   A genus of disease in Ihe Class  Lo-
cales, and Order Tumorcs, of Cullen ; knoxvn by a  soft
tumour on a vein  xvhich does not pulsate.  Varicose
veins mostly  become sei pontine, and often  form  a
plexus of knots, especially in (he groins and scrotum.
  VAROLI, Costanzo, xvas born at Bologna, in J542,
and became a professor ol physic and  surgery  in his
native city. At thirty, he xvas invited by Pope  Gregory
XIII. to settle at Rome as his first physician, and pro-
fessor in thc College of Sapienza.  He xvas advancing
iu reputation by his anatomical discoveries, as well as
in his practice, when a premature death cut him off in
1573.  He was particularly distinguished in the Ana-
tomy of the Brain, xvhich he described in his  Work
" De Nervis Opticis, &c.:" and among the parts disco-
vered, or moie accurately demonstrated  by him, was
that tunned by thc union of the crura cerebi i, and cere-
be! Ii, which has been since called tiie Pons Varolii,  and
xvhicli ".'ix-es origin to several nerves.   After his death,
xvas published " De Resolutione Corporis 11 uinaui," an
anatomical compendium, chiefly  according to ihe  in
dents, but xvith several new  observations.
   Va'rus.  See lonlhus.
  VAS.  (Vas, vasis,n.; fromvasum: hence in  the
plural, vasa,  orum ;  a vescendo, because they con-
vey drink.)   A  vessel: applied to  arteries,  veins,
ducts, &c.
  Vas deferens.  A duct xvhich arises from  the  epi-
didymis,  and passes through the inguinal ring in thc
spermatic cord into the cavity ofthe pelvis, and termi-
nates in the vesicula seminalis.   Its use is to convey
tlie semen secreted in the testicle, and brought to it by
the epididymis into the vesicula seminalis.
  Vasa  brevia.   The arteries which come from the
spleen, and run along the large arch of the stomach to
the diaphragm.
  Vasa vorticosa.  Tlie contorted vessels of the cho-
roid membrane of the eye.
  VASTUS.  (So called from its size.) A name given
only to some muscles.
  Vastus externus.  A large, thick, and fleshy mus-
cle, situated on the outer side of the thigh: il arises by
a broad thick tendon, from the lower and anterior part
of the great  trochanter, and up|icr part of the linea
aspera; it likewise adheres by fleshy fibres, to the xvhole
outer edge  of that rough line.  Its fibres descend ob-
liquely forwards, and after it  has run four or live inches
downwards, xve find it adhering to tlie anterior surface
and outer side of the cruraeus, xvith wliich it continues
to be connected to  the loxver  part of the thigh, where
we see it terminating in a broad tendon, xvliich is in-
serted into the upper part of the  patella laterally,  and
it sends off an aponeurosis that adheres lo the head ol
the tibia, and is continued down the leg.
  Vastus internus.   This muscle, xvhich is less con
siderable than the vastus externus,  is situated al  ihe
inner side of the thigh, being sepaiated from  the pre-
ceding by the rectus.
  It arises tendinous and fleshy from between the fore
part of tlie os femoris, nnd  the root of thc less  tro-
chanter, beloxv the insertion of the psoas magnus,  and
the iliacus internus ; and from all the inner side nf the
linea aspera.   Like the vastus externus it is connected
xvith tne  crura-us,  but it continues longer fleshy thai:
that muscle.   A little  above the knee we see  its otiiet
cdee uniting with  the inner edge of the rectus, aftei
xvhich it is inserted tendinous into the upper pari a hJ
                                        37!) 
VEG
VEU
 aner side of thn patella, sending off an  aponeurosis
 wiiich adheres to tbe upper part ofthe tibia.
  VEGETABLE. Vegetabilis.  Oneof the three great
 divisions of nature.  The most obvious difference be-
 tween vegetables and animals is, thnt the latter are, in
 general, capable of conveying themselves from place to
 place; whereas vegetables, being fixed  in  the  same
 place, absorb, by means of their roots and leaves, such
 support as is xvithin their reach.
  The nutrition or support of plants appears to require
 xvater, earth, light, and air.  There are various experi-
 ments xvhich have been instituted to show, that xvater
 is the only aliment which the root draws from the earth.
 Van Helmont planted a willow, weiuhing fifty pounds,
 in a certain quantity of earth covered with slieet-iead ;
 he xvatered it for five years with distilled xvater; and
 at the end of that time the tree  weighed one hundred
 aud sixty-nine  pounds three ounces, and  the earth in
 xvhich il had vegetated  xvas found to have suffered a
 loss of no more than three ounces.  Boyle repeated thc
 saine experiment upon a plant, xvhich at the end of two
years weighed fourteen pounds more, without the earth
 in which it had vegetated having lost any perceptible
 portion of its weight.
  Duhamel and Bonnet  supported plants with moss,
 and fed them with mere xvater: they observed, that
the vegetationxvas ofthe most vigorous kind; and thc
 naturalist of Geneva observes, that the floxvers xvere
 more odoriferous, and the fruit of a higher flavour.
 Cate was taken to change the supports  before they
could suffer any alteration.  Tillet has likexvise raised
 plants, more especially of the gramineous kind, iu a
 similar manner, with this difference only, that his sup-
 ports xvere pounded glass, or quartz in poxvder.   Hales
 has observed, that a plant, which xveighed three pounds,
 gained tliree  ounces after a heavy dexv.  Do we not
 every day observe hyacinths and otlier bulbous plants,
 as xvell as gramineous plants, raised iu saucers or bot-
 tles containing mere xvater 1  And Braconnot  lias lately
 found mustard-seed to  germinate, grow, and produce
 plants, that came to maturity, flowered, and ripened
 their seed,  in  litharge, flowers of sulphur,  and very
small unglazed shot.  The last appeared least favoura-
 ble to the groxvth of the plants, apparently because their
 roots could not penetrate betxveen it so easily.
  All plants do not demand the same quantity of xvater;
 and nature has varied the oreans of the several indi-
 viduals conformably to the necessity of their betas sup-
 plied xvitii  this food.  Plants wliich transpire  little,
 such as the mosses and the lichens, have no need of a
 considerable quantity of this fluid; and  accordingly
 they are fixed upon dry rocks, and have scarcely any
 roots; but plants xvhicli require a larger quantity, have
 roots which extend to a great  distance,  and absorb
 humidity throughout their whole surface.
  The leaves of plants hax-e likexvise the property of
 absorbing waler, and of extracting from the atmosphere
 the same principle whicli the  root draws  from the
 earth.   But plants which  live in the xvater, and as it
 xvere swim iu tlie element which serves them for food,
 have no need of roots;  they receive the fluid at all
 their pores; and we accordingly find, that the fucus,
 the nlva, &c. have no roots xvhatever.
  The dung which is mixed with earths, nnd decom-
 posed, not only affords the  alimentary principles xve
 have spoken of, but likewise favours the groxvth ofthe
 plant by that constant and  steady ileal which its  ul-
 terior  decomposition produces.  Thus it  is that Fa-
 broni affirms his having observed tlie developement of
 leaves and flowers in that part of the tree only, xvhich
 xvas in the vicinity of a heap of dung.
  From the preceding circumstances  it appeal's, that
 the influenceof the earth  in vegetation is almost totally
 confined to  the conveyance of water, and  probably
 the elustic products from putrefying substances, to the
 plant.
  Vegetables cannot live without air.  From tha ex-
 periments of Priestley,  Ingenhousz,  and Sennebier, it
 is ascertained, that plants absorb the azotic part ofthe
 atmosphere; and this principle appears to be the cause
 of the fertility which arises from the use of putrefying
 matters in the form of manure.   The carbonic acid is
 likexvise absorbed by vegetables, xvhen Its quantity is
 small.   If in large quantity, it is fatal to them.
  Chaptal has observed,  that caibonic acid  predomi-
 nates in the  lungus, and other  subterraneous  plants.
 But, bv causing  those  vegetables, together xvitii tlie .
       2m
 body upon which they were fixed, to pass,  by impef
 ceptible gradations, from an almost absolute darkness,
 into the light, the acid very nearly disappeared;  the
 vegetable fibres being  proportionally increased, at  the
 same time that the resin and colouring principles xvere
 developed, xvhich he  ascribes  to  the oxygen of  the
 same acid.  Sennebier has observed, that the plants
 xvhich lie watered with water  impregnated xvith car-
 bonic  acid, transpired an  extraordinary quantity of
 oxygen, xvhich likexvise  indicates a decomposition of
 the acid.
   Light  is almost absolutely necessary  to plants.  In
 the dark, ihey grow pale, languish, and die.  The ten-
 dency of plants toxvards the light is remarkably seen in
 such vegetation as is effected in a chamber or place
 xvhere the light is admitted on one side; for the plant
 never fails  to grow in that  direction.  Whether  the
 matter of light be condensed into the  substance of
 plains, or whether it act merely as a stimulus or agent,
 without wliich the other requisite chemical processes
 cannot be effected, is uncertain.
   It is ascertained, that the processes in plants serve,
 like  those  in  animals,  to produce a  more equable
 temperature, which is  for the most part abox'e that of
 the  atmnsphete.   Dr. Hunter, quoted  by Chapral, ob-
 served, by keeping a  thermometer plunged in a hole
 made  in a sound  tree, that it constantly  indicated a
 temperature several degrees abox'e that  of the atmos-
 phere, xvhen  it was  beloxv the  fifty-sixth division of
 Fahrenheit;  whereas the vegetable  heat,  in  hotter
 xveathor,  xvas always  several degrees beloxv that of
 the  atmosphere.   Tlie same philosopher has likexvise
 observed, that the sap xvliich, out of the  tree, xvould
 freeze at 3e2°, did not freeze in tlie tree unless the cold
 xvere augmented 15° more.
   The vegetable heat may increase  or diminish by
 several causes, of the  nature of disease ; and it may
 even become perceptible to  the touch in  very  cold
 xvcather,  according to Kuflon.
   The principles  of xvhich vegetables are composed,
 if xve pursue their analysis as far  as our means have
 hitherto  allowed,  are  chiefly carbon, hydrogen, and
 oxygen.   Nitrogen is a constituent principle of several,
 but  for the most part iu  small  quantity.  Potassa,
 soda, lime,  magnesia, silex,  alumina, sulphur,  phos
 phorus,  iron,  manganese, and muriatic  acid, have
 likewise been reckoned iu the number; but some of
 these  occur  only occasionally, and  chiefly in very
 small quantities; aud are scarcely more entitled to be
 considered as belonging  to them  than gold, or some
 other  substances, that have been occasionally  pro-
 cured from their decomposition.
   The tolloxving are the principal products of vegeta
 tion:—
   1. Sugar.  Crystallizes.  Soluble in xvater and alko-
 hol.  Taste sweet.  Soluble  in  nitric acid, and yields
 oxalic acid.
   2. Sarcocol.  Does not crystallize.   Soluble in wnter
 and alkohol.  Taste bitter siveet.  Soluble in nilric
 acid, and yields oxalic acid.
   3. Asparogin.  Crystallizes. Taste cooling and nau-
 seous.  Soluble  in hot xvater.   Insoluble in alkohol
 Soluble in nitric acid, and converted into bitter princi-
 ple and artificial tannin.
  4. Gum.  Does not crystallize.   Taste insipid.  So-
 luble in  water, and  forms mucilage.   Insoluble in
alkohol.   Precipitated by silicated potassa.   Sulubleir
 nitric ncid, and forms mucous and oxalic acids.
  5. Ulmin.   Does not  crystallize.   Taste  insipid
Soluble in xvater, and  does not form  mucilage.  Pre
ci pi tated  by nitric and oxymuiiatic acids in tlie state
of resin.   Insoluble in  alkohol.
  6.  Inulin    A  xvhite  poxxder.   Insoluble  in  cold
 xvater.  Soluble in boiling xvater;  but precipitates un-
altered after the .■Alntion  cools.   Insoluble in alkohol
Soluble in nitric acid, and yields oxalic acid.
  7.  Starch.  A xvhite poxvder.   Taste insipid.   Inso
luble in cold xvater.   Soluble in  hot xvnter;  opaqua
and glutinous.  Precipitatedbvan infusion of nutaam
precipitate redissolx-ed by a  hent  of 120°.  Insoluble
iu  alkohol.  Soluble in dilute nitric ncid, nnd precipi-
tated by alkohol.  With  nitric ncid yields oxalic acid
and a xvnxy matter.
  8.  Indii.ro.  A blue poxvder.  Taste insipid.   Inso-
 luble ia xx ater, alkohol, aether.   Soluble in  sulphuric
 acid.  Soluble in nitric acid, and coeix-eitcd  into bittei
 principle and artificial  tannin. 
VEI
VEI
  9.  Gluten.  Forms a ductile clastic mass xvith xvater
Partially soluble in xvater;  precipitated by infusion of
nutgalls and oxygenized muriatic  acid.   Soluble  in
acetic acid and muriatic acid.  Insoluble  in alkohol.
By  feimentation becomes  viscid and adhesive,  and
then assumes the properties of  cheese.   Soluble  iu
nitric acid, and yields oxalic  acid.
  10. Albumen.   Soluble in cold water.  Coagulated
by heat, aud becomes insoluble.   Insoluble in alkohol.
Precipitated by infusion of nutgalls.  Soluble iu nitric
acid. Soon putrefies.
  11. Fibrin.   Tasteless.  Insoluble  in  water  and
alkohol    Soluble iu diluted alkalies, and in nitric acid.
Sium putrefies.
  12  Gt latin.  Insipid.  Soluble in water.  Doosnot
coagulate xvhen heated.  Precipitated by  infusion of
gads.
  13. Bitter principle.   Colour  yellow  or  broxvn.
Taste bitter.  Equally soluble in xvater and alkohol,
Soluble in nitric acid.  Precipitated by nitrate of silver.
  14. Extractive.  Soluble in water and alkohol.   In-
soluble in aether.  Precipitated by oxygenized murialic
acid, muriate of tin, and muriateof aluuiinu ; but not
by gelatin.  Dyes fawn colour.
  15. Tannin.   Taste astringent.  Soluble in xvaler
and in alkohol of 0.810.   Precipitated by gelatin, mu-
riate of alumina, aud muriate of tin.
  lti. Fixed oils.   No smell.   Insoluble in xvater and
alkohol.   Forms  soaps xvith alkalies.  Coagulated by
earthy aud metallic »alts.
  17. Wax.  Insoluble in xvaler.  Soluble in alkohol,
tether, and oils.   Forms soap xvith alkalies.  Fusible.
  18. Volatile oil.  Strong  smell.   Insoluble iu xvaler.
Soluble in  alkohol.  Liquid.  Volatile.   Oily.   By
nitric acid inflamed, and converted into resinous  sub-
stances.
  19. Camphor.  Strong odour.   Crystallizes.  Very
little soluble in xvaler.  Soluble in  alkohol, oils, acids.
Insoluble in alkalies.  Burns xvitii a clear flame, and
volatilizes before melting.
  20. Birdlime.  Vis.tid.   Taste insipid.  Insoluble in
water.   Partially soluble iu alkohol.   Very soluble in
ether.  Solution green.
  31. Resins.  Solid.  Melt  xvhen  heated.  Insoluble
In  xvater.   Soluble in alkohol,  aether, and nlkahee.
Soluble in acetic acid.  By nitric acid converted into
artificial tannin.
  2-. Guaiacum.  Possesses the characters of resins ;
but dissolves in nitric acid, and yields oxalic acid and
no tauiiin.
  23. Balsams.  Possess the characters of the resins,
but  have a strong smell;  when  heated, benzoic acid
sublimes.  It sublimes also xvhen they are dissolved in
sulphuric acid.   By nitric acid converted into artificial
tannin.
  24. Caoutchouc.  Very elastic.   Insoluble in xvaler
and  alkohol.   When steeped in  aether, reduced  to a
pulp, xvhich adheres  to every  thing.   Fusible and
remains liquid.   Very combustible.
  25. Gumresins.  Form milky solutions xvitii xvater,
transparent xvith alkohol.  Soluble in alkalies.  With
nitric acid converted into tannin.  Strong smell.   Brit-
tle, opaque, infusible.
  26. Cotton,  Com|iosed of  fibres.  Tasteless.  Very
combustible.  Insoluble in xxater, alkohol, and aether.
Soluble in alkalies.  Yields oxalic acid to nitric acid.
  27. Suber.  Burns bright, and sxvells.  Converted  by
nitric acid into suberic acid and xvax.  Partially soluble
in water and alkohol.
  <28. Wood.  Composed of  fibres.  Tasteless.  Inso-
luble in water and alkohol.  Soluble in xveak alkaline
lixivium.  Precipitated by acids.   Leaves much char-
coal xvhen distilled in a red heat.  Soluble in nitric
acid, and yields oxalic acid.
  To the preceding we  may add,  emetin, fungin,
hematin, nicotin, pollenin; the nexv vegetable alkalies,
aconita,  atropia, brucia, cicuta, datura, dolphin, hyos-
ciama, morphia, picrotoxia,  strychnia, veratria; and
the various vegetable acids.
  Veil of mosses.  See Calyptra.
  VEIN.  Vena,  A long  membranous canal, which
continually becomes wider,  does not  pulsate, and
returns  the blood from  the arteries to the heart.  All
veins originate  from the extremities of arteries only,
by anastomosis,  and terminate iu the auricles of the
heart; e.g. the veme cavae in the right, and the pul-
ui narv   i-i s in the left auricle.  They ure composed
like arteries, of three tunics, or coals, jvlilch arc inuca
more slender  than in  the  arteries, and  aie supplied
internally with semilunar membranes, or folds, culled
valves.  Their use is to return the blood to the heart.
  The blood  is returned from every part of the body,
except thu lungs,  into the  right auricle, from three
sources:
  1.  The vena cava superior, xvhich brings it from tiie
head, neck, ihoiax, and superior extremities.
  2.  The tiena cava  inferior, from the ubdomen  and
iufeilor extremities.
  3.  The coronary vein receives it from the coronary
arteries of the heart.
  1.  The vena cava  superior.  This vein terminates
in the superior part of the  right auricle,  into which il
evacuates tlie blood, from ihe right and left subclavian
vein, and the venu  azygos.  The light and left  sub-
clavian veins receive  the blood from the  head and
upper extremities, in the following manner.  Tiie veins
of the fingers, culled digitals, receive the blood from
the digital artei ici, nnd empty it into,
  The cephalic of  the thumb, which runs on the back
of tlie hand along the thumb, and evacuates itself into
the external radial.
  The salvatclla,  which runs along thc little finger,
unites xvitii the former, and empties its blood into the
internal and external cubital veins.  At  the bend of
the forearm are three veins, called thc great cephalic,
the basilic, and the median.
  The grcatcephalic runs along the superior pnrtof thc
forearm, and receives the blood from the external radial.
  The basilic ascends on tiie underside, and receives
the blood from the external and internal cubital veins,
aud  some branches which accompany  the urachial
artery, called vena satellites.
  The median is situated in the middle of the forearm,
and arises from the union of several branches.  These
three veins ail unite above tlie bend of  tlie arm, and
form,
  The brachial vein, xvhich receives nil their blood,
and is continued into the axilla, xvhere it is called,
  The axillary vein.   This  receives also  the  blood
from the scapula,  and  superior aud inferior parts of
the chest, by the superior  and inferior thoracic  vein,
the vena mitscularis, and the scapularis.
  The axillary  vein then  passes under the clavicle,
where it  is called the subclavian, xvhich unites  xx ith
the external and internal jugular veins, and the verte
bral vein which  brings the blood from tiie vertebal
sinuses;  it receives also the blood from the medias-
tinal, pericardiac,  diaphragmatic,  thymic, internal
mammary, and laryngeal veins, and then unites  with
its  felloxv, lo form the vena cava superior, or, as it is
sometimes called, vena cava descendens.
  The blood  from the external and internal parts of
thc head and face is returned in the tolloxving manner
into the external  and internal jugulars, which termi
uate in the subclavians.
  The frontal,  angular, temporal, auricular, sublin-
gual, and occipital veins, receive the  blood from the
parts afler xvhicli they are  named; these all converge
to each side of tlie neck, and form a trunk,  called the
external jugular vein.
  The blood from the brain, cerebellum, medulla oblon
nam, and membranes of these parts, is received into ihe
lateral sinuses, or  vein of tlie dura mater, one of xvliich
empties ils blood through the foramen  lacerum in basi
cranii on each side  into the internal jugular, xvhich
descends  in the neck by tlie carotid arteries, receives
the blood from the Cltyroideal  and internal  maxillary
veins, and empties itself into the subclavians xvithin
the thorax.
  The vena  azygos receives the blood from the bron-
chial, superior oesophageal, vertebral,  and intercostal
vdns, and empties it into Ihe superior cava.
  2.  Vena cava inferior.   The  vena cava Inferior is
the trunk of all the abdominal veins and those of the
loxver extremities,  from  which parts  the blood  is
returned in the  following  manner.  The veins of the
;oies, called  the digital veins, receive  the blood  front
 he digital arteries, and form on the back ofthe fool
 liree branches, one on  the great toe,called the cephalic.
another xvhich runs along the little toe, called tht vena
■mphena,  and a third  on the back of the  fool,  vcne
dorsalis pedis ;  and  those on the sole of  the too,
evacuate th  in.-clves into the plantar veins
  The Ihree veins  mi tie upper part of" tlie foot comin
                                          381 
VEN
VER
 together above the ankle, form the anteriar tibial;  and
 the  plantar veins xvitii a branch from the calf of the
 leg, called the sural vein, from the  posterior tibial;
 a branch also ascends in the direction of the fibula,
 called the peroneal van.  These tliree branches unite
 before the ham, into one branch, the subpopliteal vein,
 which ascends through the ham, carrying all the blood
 from the foot: it then proceeds upon the anterior part
 of the thigh, where it is termed the crural or femoral
 vein, receives several muscular branches, and passes
 under Poupart's ligament into the cavity of the pelvis,
 where it is called the external iliac.
   The arteries which are distributed about the pelvis
 evacuate their blood into the  external hamorrhoidal
 veins, the hypogastric veins, the internal pudendal, the
 vena magna ipsius penis, and obturatory veins, ail of
 which unite in the pelvis, and  form  the  internal iliac
 vein.
   The external iliac vein receives tVie blood from  the
 external pudendal  veins, and  then  unites xvith  the
 internal  iliac at the last vertebra ofthe loins; after
 xvhich it forms xvitii its fellow the vena cava inferior
 or ascendens, which ascends on  the light side of  the
 spine,  leceiving  the blood  from the sacral, lumbar,
 emulgent, right  spermatic  veins, and the vena cava
 hepatica; and having  arrived at the diaphragm, it
 passes through the right foramen, and enters the right
 auricle of the  heart, into xvhich it evacuates all  the
 blood from the abdominal viscera and lower extremities.
   Vena cava hepatica.   This vein ramifies in the sub-
 btance of the liver, and brings the blood into the vena
 cava inferior from the branches of the vena porta, a
 great vein xvliich carries the blood from the abdominal
 viscera into  the substance of the liver.  The trunk of
 this vein, about the fissure  of  the liver in xvhich it is
 situated, is  divided into the hepatic and  abdominal
 portions.  The abdominal portion is  composed of  the
 splenic, meseraic, and internal hamorrhoidal veins.
 These three  venous branches carry all the blood from
 the stomach, spleen, pancreas,  omentum, mesentery,
 gail-bladder, and  the  small and large intestines, into
 the sinus of the vena  portae.  The hepatic portion ot
 the vena  porta?  enters  the  substance of  the  liver,
 divides into  innumerable ramifications, which secrete
 the bile, and the superfluous blood passes into corres-
 ponding branches of the vena cava hepatica.
  The action of the veins.   Veins do  not pulsate;  the
 blood  Which they receive  from  the arteries flows
 through them very slowly, and is conveyed to the right
 auricle of the heart, by the contractility of their coats,
 the pressure  nf thc blood from  the arteries,  called  the
 tii's a tergo, the contraction of the muscles, and respira-
 tion; and it  is  prevented from going backward  in  the
 vein  by the valves, of which there nre a great number.
   Veinless leaf.  See Avenius.
   Veiny leaf.  See Venosus.
  Vejuca duouaco.  A plant which has the poxver of
 suring and preventing the bite of venomous serpents.
  Velamk'ntum  bombycincm.  The interior soft
 membrane ofthe intestines.
  VELUM. A veil.
  Velum pendulum talati.   Velum;  Velum palal't-
 num.  The soft palate.  The soft part of the palate,
 which forms two arches, affixed laterally to the tongue
 and pharynx.
  Velum pupillt. Sec Membrana pupillaris.
  VENA.   (From venio, to come; because  the blood
 comes through it.)   A vein.  See Vein.
  Vkna azyuos.  Sec Azygss  vena.
  Vena medinensis.  See Mcdinensis vena.
  Vkna poiit.b.  (Vena porta, d psrtando ; because
 th ough it things arc carried.)   Vena portarum.  Thc
 great vein, situated at the entrance of thc liver, xvhich
 receives the blood from the abdominal viscera, and
tarries it into the substance of tlie liver.  It is distin-
guished into tlie  hepatic nnd  abdominal portion ; the
 former is ramified through the substance of the liver,
 and carrie- the blood destined for the formation ofthe
 bile, whicli is returned by branches to Ihe trunk of the
 vena cava;  the latter is composed of three branches;
 viz. thc splenic, mesenteric, and internal ha-morrhoidal
 veins.  See  Vein.'
  Ven/e  lactk.i:.  Thc lacteal absorbents were  so
 called.  Si e  Lacteals.
  VENEREAL.   (Venereus ;  from Ven us, because It
belongs to acts of vcncry.)  Of or belonging  to thc I
sexual intercourse.
      38J
   Venereal disease.   See Gonorrhaa and Syphilis
   VENOSUS.  Veiny.  Applied by botanists to a leaf
 which  has  the  vessels, by which  it is  nourished,
 branched, subdivided, and more or  less  prominent,
 forming a network over  either or both its surfaces;  as
 in Crataegus, Pyrolus terminalis, &c.
   VE'NTER.  A term formerly applied to the larger
 circumscribed cavities ofthe body, as the abdomen and
 thorax.
   VENTRICLE.  (Ventriculus:  from venter.)   A
 term given  by anatomists  to the cavities of the brain
 and heart.  See Cerebrum, and Heart.
   Ventri'culus pulmonaris.   The right ventricle of
 the heart.
   Ventricclus scccenturiai-us.   That portion  of
 the duodenum, which is surrounded by the peritoneum,
 is sometimes so large as to resemble a second stomach,
 and is so called by some writers.
   VENTRILOQUISM.   Gastriloquism.  Engastri
 mythus.  The formation of the voice xvithin the mouth
 in such a way, ns to  imitate other voices than  that
 which is natural to the person, and so  as not to be seen
 to move the lips.  Nothing is more easy to man than
 to imitate the different sounds he hears: this in fact he
 performs in many circumstances.  Many persons  itni
 tate perfectly the voice and pronunciation  of others,
 actors,  for  example.   Hunters  imitate the different
 cries of the game, aud thus succeed in decoying it into
 llieir nets
  This faculty of imitating the  different sounds, has
 given rise to the art called ventriloquism; but the per-
 sons xvho exercise this art, have no organization dif-
 ferent from that of  other  men;  they require only to
 have the organs of voice and speech very perfect, in
 order that  they  may readily produce the necessary
 sounds.
  The basis of this art is easily understood.   We have
 found by experience, instinctively, that  sounds are
 changed  by many causes:  for  example,  thai the?
 become  feeble, less distinct, and that  their  expression
 changes, according as they are more distant from us ;
 a mail who Is at the bottom of a xvell  xvishes to speak
 to persons xvho are at the top;  but his voice xvill not
 reach their ears until it has received certain modifica-
 tions, xvhich depend upon the distance and the form of
 the tube through xx hich it passes.
  If a person remark these  modifications  xvith care,
 and endeavour to imitate them, he xvill produce acoustic
 illusions, xvliich would be equally deceiving to the ear
 as  the  observation of objects through a magnifying
 glass is  to the eye.  The  error xvill  be complete if he
 employ those deceptions  xvhich  are necessary to dis-
 tract the attention.
  Th-se illusions xvill be  numerous  in proportion to
 Ihe talents ofthe performer-  but xve must not imagine
 that a ventriloquist produces vocal sounds, and articu-
 lates- differently from olher people. His voice is formed
 in the ordinary manner;  only he is capable  of modify
 ing, according to his pleasure, the volume, the expres-
 sion, &c. of It; and With regard to the xvords lhat he
 pronounces xvithout moving his lips, he takes care to
 choose those into xvhich no labial  consonants enter,
 otherwise he would be obliged to move his lips.   This
 art is, in certain respects, for the ear what painting  is
 for the eye.
  VENUS.  Copper was  formerly so called  by the
 chemists.
  VERATRIA.   Veratrine.  A nexv vegetable alkali
 discovered lately by  Pelletier and  Caventou,  iu the
 veratrum sabatilla, or cevadilla,  the veratrum album
 or xvhite hellebore, and the colchicum auiumnale, or
 meadow saffron.
  The seeds of cevadilla, after  being freed from an
 unctuous and acrid matter by aether, were digested in
 boiling alkohol.  As this infusion cooled, a liltle wax
 xvas deiiosited ; and the liquid being evaporated to an
 extract,  redissolved in xvater, and again concentrated
 by evaporation,  parted  xvilh its colouring matter
 Acetate of lead xvas noxv poured into the solution and
 an abundant yellow precipitate fell, leaving the fluid
 nearly colourless.  The  excess of  lead xvas thrown
down by sulphuretted hydrogen, and the filtered liquor
 being concentrated by evaporation, was treated xvith
 magnesia, and again filtered.  The  precipitate, boiled
 in alkohol, gave a solution, xvhich, on evaporation, left
a pulverulent matter, extremely bitter, and xvith de-
cidedly alkaline characters.   It xvas at  first yelloxv, but 
VER
VEK
 by solution In alkohol, and precipitation by water, was
 obtained in a fine xvhite |x>xvder.
   The precipitate by tlie acetate of lead, gave, on exa-
 mination, gallic ncid; and hence it  is concluded, lhat
 the nexv alkali existed in the seed as a gallate.
   Veratria was found in  the other plants above men-
 tioned.  Il is xvliite, pulverulent,  has no  odour, but
 excites violent sneezing.  It is very acrid, but not bitter.
 It produced violent vomiting in vety small doses, and,
 according to some experiments, n fexv grains may cause
 death.  It is very little soluble iu cold xvater.   Boiling
 water dissolves about 1-lOOOth part, and becomes acrid
 to the tasle  It is x-ery soluble  in alkohol, and rather
 less soluble in n-ther.
   VERATRINE.   See Veratria.
   VERA'TRUM.   1. The name of a genus ef plants
 in the Linnaean system.   Class, Polygamia; Order,
 Monacia.
   2.  The pharmacopreial name of  xvhite hellebore.
 See Veratrum album.
   Veratrum album.  Helleborus albus ;  Ellcborum
 album.  White hellebore, or veralium.  Veratrum—
 racemo svpra-decompositn, corutlis erectis,of LiuiiRUs.
 This plant is a native of Italy, Sxxiizerland,  Austiin,
 and Russia.   Every part of the plant is extremely acrid
 and poisonous.  The dried root has no particular smell,
 but  a durable, nauseous,  and bitter  taste, burning thc
 mouth and fauces: xvhen  poxvdered,  and applitd  to
 issues, or ulcers, it produces griping and purging; if
 snuffed up the nose, it-proves a violent sternutatory.
 Gesner made an infusion of half an ounce of this root
 with two ounces  of xvater; of  this  he  took txvo
 drachms, xvhicli produced great heal about the scapulae
 and in the face and head, as xvell as the tongue and
 throat, folloxved by singultus,  xvhich  continued till
 vomiting was excited.  Bergius  also experienced very
 distressing symptoms, upon tasting this infusion.  Tlie
 root, taken in  large doses, discovers such acrimony, and
 operates  by the stomach  and rectum xvith such vio-
 lence, that b.ood is  usually discharged ; it likewise acts
 very poxverfully upon the nervous system,  producing
 great anxiety, tremors, vertigo, syncope, aphonia, inter-
 rupted respiration, sinking of the  pulse,  convulsions,
 spasms, and  death.  Upon opening  those xvho have
 died of the effects ol" this poison, ihe stomach discovered
 marks of inflammation, xvith corrosions of its internal
 coat.  The ancients exhibited this actixe medicine in
 maniacal casts, and it is said ixith success.  The ex-
 perience  of  Ceding is  somexvhat  similar:  out  of
 txveuty-eight cases, in xvhich he exhibited the bark of
 Ihe root collected in the  spring, five were cured.   Iu
 almost every case that he relates, the medicine acted
 more  or less  upon  all the  excretions; vomiting and
 purging xvere very generally produced, and the  matter
 thrown off the stomach  xvas constantly mixed xvith
 bile ; a florid redness frequently appeared  on the face,
 and  various cutaneous efflorescences  upon thc body ;
 and, in some, pleuritic symptoms, xvitii fever, super-
 vened, so  as to require bleeding; nor were  the more
 alarming affections of spasms and convulsions unfre-
 quem.   Critical evacuations  weie also very evident;
 many sweating profusely, in some the  urine xvas con-
 siderably increased, in others the saliva and mucous
 discharges: the uterine obstructions,  of long duration,
 xvere often removed by its use. Veratrum lias likewise
 been found useful  in epilepsy, and other convulsive
 complaints: but  the diseases iu whicli  its efficacy
 seems  least equivocal, are those ofthe skin, as itch, and
 different prurient eruptions, herpes, nimbus pedicuto-
 sus,  lepra, scrofula, &c.; and in many of these it lias
 been successfully employed both internally and exter-
 nally.   As a powerful stimulant and irritating medi-
 cine, its use has  been resorled  lo in desperate cases
 only, and even then it ought first to be exhibited in very
 small doses, as a grain, aud in a diluted state, and to be
 gradually increased, according to the effects, xvhich are
 generally  of an alarming nature.  The active ingre-
 dient of this plant  ia an alkali lately detected.  See
 Veratria.
  Veratrcm  nigrum. See Helleborus niger.
  Veratrum   saoadilla.   Cevadilla hispanorum;
 Sevadilla; Sabadilla; Hordeum cattsticum ; Canis in-
 trrfector.   Indian caustic barley.  The plant  whose
seeds are thus denominated, is a species of veratrum :
Ihey are poxverfully caustic, and are administered xvith
very great success as a vermifuge.  They are also
diuretic an J emetic   The dose to n child, from two to
 four years old, is txvo grams;  from hence to eigm,
 five grains; from eight to txvelve, ten grains.  A tiexV
 alkali has been detected in the seeds of this plant.  Sir
 Veratria.
   [Vekatrum viripk.  See American hellebore.  A.]
   VERBASCUM.  (Quasi barbascum, from its hairy
 coat.)  1. The name of a genus of plants iu tiie Lin
 naean system.   Class, Pentandria ;  Order,  Jl/j»i
 gynia.
   2.  Tlie phui niacopoeial nime of the yelloxv and black
 llllll'eill.
   Yekbascum nigri'm.  Tlie systematic name oi uie
 black mullein.   Candela regia; 'Tupsus barbatui;
 Cniidelaria; Lanarta. The  Verbascum nigrum, aiic1
 Verbascum lhapsui appear to be oideicd  indifferently
 by this  name in the phnrinacopieins.  The flowers,
 leaxes, and roots, are  used occasionally  as mild  ad-
 slriiigents.  Tlie leaves possess a lougliish taste, nnd
 promise to be of service in diarrhoeas and other debili
 fated states ofthe intestines.
   Verbascum thapsus.  The systematic name of
 the yelloxv mullein.  See Verbascum nigrum.
   VERBENA.   (Quasi hirbena; a name of distinc-
 tion for all herbs used in sacred  rites.)   Vervain.   1.
 The  name of a genus of plants in the Liniiueau s)stem.
 Class, Decandria ; Order, Monogynia.
   2. The pharniacopoeial name of the vervuin.  See
 Verbena officinalis.
   Veuuena  fcsmina.   The hedge  mustard is some
 linn-s so called.   See Erysimum alliaria.
   Verbena  officinalis.  The systematic name of
 I'crbtnacu; Pcrislcrium; Hicrobotane; Herba sacra.
 Vervain. * This plant is destitute of odour, and to the
 taste manifests but a slight degree of bitterness and ad-
 stringency. In former times the verbena seems to have
 been held sacred, and xvas employed in celebrating the
 sacrificial  rites; and with a view to this,jnore lhar.
 ihe natural poxver of the plant, it was xvom suspended
 aboul the neck as an amulet.   This practice, thu.-i
 founded on superstition, was, hoxvever, in  process of
 lime, adopted in medicine; and, therefore, to obtain its
 virtues more effectually, tlie vervain was  directed to
 be bruised before it xvas appended to the neck; and of
 its good effects thus used  for inveterate  headache*,
 Forestus  relates a remarkable instance.   In still later
 times it has been  employed  in the. xvay of cataplasm,
 by wliich xve nre told  the  most severe and obstinate
 cases of cephalalgia have been  cured, for xvliich we
 have the authorities of Etmuller, Hartman, and more
 especially  De  Hatn.   Notwithstanding  these tcsti-
 moiiies in  favour of the vervain, it has  deservedly
 fallen  info disuse in Britain; nor has the pamphlet of
 Mr. Morley, xvrrten professedly to recommend its use
 in scrofulous affections, had Ihe  effect of restoring  its
 medical characier. This gentleman directs the root
 of vervain to be tied with a yard of white satin riband
 round ihe neck, xvhere it is to remain  till the | atient
 recovers.   He alto has recourse to infusions and oint-
 ments prepared from  the  leaves of  the  plant, and
 occasionally calls in aid the most active medicines of
 Ihe maieiia medica.
  VERD1CKIS.  JErugo.   An impure subacetate of
 copper.  It is prepaied by  stratifying copper  plates
 with  the husks of grapes, alter Ihe expression of their
juice, and when  they have  been kepi  for some time
imperfectly exposed to the air, in an apartment  xvarm
 but not loo dry, so as lopnssto a  stale of fermentation
 xvhence a quantity of vinegar  is  formed.  The copper
plates are placid in jars in strata, with the husks thus
prepared, which are covered.  At the end  of twelve
fifteen, or twenty days, those  are opened : ihe  plates
have an efflorescence on their surface of a green coloui
and silky lustre: they  are repeatedly moistened wilh
water; and at  length  a crust of verdigris  is formed
which is scraped oil' by a knife, is  put  into bags, nnd'
dried  by exposuie of these to the air and son.  It j3 „f
a green colour, wilh a slight tint of blue.
  In this preparation the copper is oxidized, probably
by the atmospheric air, aided by the  affinity of the
acetic acid; and a portion of this acid lemains in com-
bination  xvitii the oxide, not  sufficient, however  to
produce its saturation.   When acted on by xvater 'the
acid, xvith such a  portion of oxide as it can retain  in
solution, are dissolved, and  the remaining oxide is left
undissolved.  From this analysis of it by the action of
wnier, Proust inferred that it consists of 13 of acetate
uf copper, 27 of black oxide of copper, aud 30 of watei
                                         3d3 
VER                                           VER
  this water not being accidental, but existing In it in
  Ultitn.-eiie combination.
    Verdigris Is used as n  pigment in some of the pro-
  cesses of dx ing, and iu surgery it is externally applied
  as a mild detergent in cleansing foul ulcers, or other
  open x\ onmls-.  On account of its virulent properties,
  It ought nut to be used as  a medicine xvitiiout  profes-
  sional  advice; and in case any portion of this  poison
  be accidentally  swallowed,  emetics should he first
  given,  and  afterxvard  cold  xvater,  gently  alkalized,
  ought to be drunk in abundance.
   VERHEYEN, Philip,  was born  in 1G48 at Ves
  ilronek in tbe county of Waes, and  assumed the
  Clerical profession;  but nn inflammation of his leg
  having rendered amputation necessary, he was deter-
 mined  afterxvard to study medicine.  He accordingly
 graduated and  settled  at  Louvain,  xvhere  he xvas
 nominated  professor  of anatomy in lfi80,  and four
 years   after  of surgery  also.  His  application was
 Indefatigable, so that  he attained distinguished emi-
 nence,  and attached to his school a great number of
 disciples   His celebrity xvas principally the result of
 n work, entitled, " Anatomia Coi poris Hurnani,"  which
 passed  through many editions and improvements, and
 superseded  the compendium of Bartholin?.  He pub-
 lished also a Compendium  of Medicine,  a Treatise on
 Fevers, &c.
   Verjtick.  An acid liquor prepared from grapes or
 apples, that  are  unfit  to  be  convened  info xvine or
 cider.   It is also made from crabs.   It  is principally
 used in sauces and ragouts, thougli it sometimes  forms
 an ingredient in medicinal  compounds.
   VERMICULA'RIS.  (From vermis, a worm.) Ver-
 micular :  shaped like, or having the properties  of,  a
 Worm.  Applied very generally in natural history.
   VERMIFORM.  (Vcrmiformis;  from remits,  a
 Worm, and forma, resemblance.)  Worm-like.
   Vermiform process.  Protuberanlia vermiformis.
 The substance xvhich  unites Ihe txvo hemispheres of
 the cetebellum like a ring, forming a process.   It is
 called vermiform, from its  resemblance to the contor-
 tions of worms.
   VERMIFUGE.   (Vcrmifugus; from  vermis,  a
 worm,  and fugo, to drive axvay.)  See Anthelmintic.
   VERMILION.  See Cinnabar.
   VERMIS.  A worm.  See Worm.
   Vermis mordicans.  Vermis repens.  A species of
 herpetic eruption on the skin.
   Vermis terrestris.  See Earth worm.
   VERNATIO.  (From  ver, the spring.)  This term
 Is applied, like foliatus, to  the  manner in xvliich the
 >eaves are folded or wtapped up, and expanded in the
 sprins.  See Germ.
   VERNEY, Guichard-Josepii nr, xvas the son of a
 physician  at Tours, and  bom in Iti4H.  After studying
 at Avignon, he removed, at nineteen, to  Paris, xx here
 he acquired high reputation as an anatomical lecturer.
 He xvas admitted, nine  years after, into the Academy
 of Sciences, whose memoirs  he enriched  by his re-
 searches in natural history.  In 1079 he xvas nominated
 professor  of anatomy  at  the  Royal  Gardens.   His
 work on the Organ of Hearing appeared about four
 years after, and was translated into various languages.
 He continued the pursuit of natural history xvith  great
 ardour,  and even to the detriment of his health, yet he
 was enabled,  by  a good constitution, to  reach his
 eighty-second  year.   He  bequeathed his valuable
 anatomical preparations to the academy.  After his
 death, a treatise on the Diseases ofthe Bones xvas pub-
 lish d from his manuscripts  ; and subsequently various
 otlier  papers, under the title  of  "(""Euvres Anato-
 mique."
  VERONICA.  1. Thc name of a genus of plants in
 the Linnrcan system.  Class, Diandria; Order, Mono-
gynia.   Speedwell.
  2. The pharmacopoeia! name of the male veronica.
 See Veronica officinalis.
  Veronica  mcccADUNaA.  Bcccabunga; Anagallis
 csualica:   Laver germanicum; Veronica  aquatica, j
 Ccpaa.  Water-pimpernel and brooltliaie.  The plant
 Which  bears  ll'.jse mimes,  is the Veronica—racemis
loteralibus, f.-nis ovatis ptnnis, caule repente, of Lin-
 nreus.  It  xv.is formerly considered of much use  in
several diseases, and xvas applied externally to wounds
ai d ulcers: but If it have any peculiar efficacy, it is to
 be derived  from its antiscorbutic, virtue.  As a  mild j
 refrigerant juice, it is preferred xvhere an  acrimonious ,
  state of the fluids prevails, indicates by prurient erup
  tions upon the skin, or in what has been called the hoi
  scurvy.  To derive much advantage from it, the juice
  might to be taken in large quantities, or the fresh plant
  eaten  as food.
    Veronica officinalis.  The  systematic name of
  the plant xvhicli is called in the pharmacopoeias Vero
  nica mas ; Thea germanica;  Betonica pau* ,  <_Aa
  madrys spuria.  Veronica—spicis latcralibuT pcaun
  culatis ; foliis oppositts; caule procumbente, ol Lin
  naeus,  is not unfrequent on dry  barren grounds and
  heath, as that of Hampstead, flowering in June and
  July.  This plant was  formerly used  us  a pectoral
  against coughs and asthmatic affections, but it is noxv
  justly  forgotten.
    [Veronica virgimca.  This is a tall native plant,
  differing from the rest of its family in habit, and con-
  sidered by Nuttall and some otlier botanists as a sepa
  rate genus.   Its root is very  bitter, and somexvhat nau
  seous.  It sometimes operates as a cathartic, in Ihe dose
  of a scruple; but in several trials which I have made
  with  it,  I  have  found it uncertain  in this  respect.
  Big. Mat. Med.  A.]
    Verricula'ris tumca.  The retina ofthe eye.
    VERRUCA.  1. A xvart,  or thickening and  indu
  ration  of the cuticle which  is raised up in different
  forms,  mostly ofthe size of a lentil, or flat pea.
   2. In botany, applied to a small round prominence
  on the  inferior suilace ofthe funguses.
   Verruca'ria.  (From Verruca, a xvart: because it
  xvas supposed to  destroy xvatts.)  Tiie Heltolropium
  ciirnpaum, or turnsole.
   VERRUCOSUS.  Warty: applied to such appear-
  ances on vegetables, as on the stem of the Euonymus
  verrucosus ; and  to the appearance on the gourd-seed
  vessel, as in the Cucurbita verrucosa.  See Pepo.
   VERTEBRA.   (Vertebra,  a,  f.;  from  verto, lo
  turn.)  The spine is a long  bony column, xvliich ex-
  tends from the head to the loxver partof the trunk, and is
 composed of irregular bones, xvhich are called vertebra;.
   The  spine  may be considered  as  being composed
 of txvo irregular  pyramids, xvhich are united to each
 otlier in  thai part of the  loins where the last nf the
  lumbar vertebrae is united to  tlie os sacrum.
   The  vertebrae, xvhicli form the upper nnd lonsesl
 pyramid, arc  called irue vertebra: and those which
 compose  the  loxver pyramid, or  the  os sacrum  and
 coccyx, are termed false vertebra?, because they do not
 in every  thing  resemble  the others, and particularly
 because, in the  adult state, they become perfectly im-
 moveable, xvhile the upper ones continue to be capable
 of motion.  For it is upon the  bones of the spine that
 the body turns, nnd their name lias its derivation from
 the Latin verb verto, to turn, as obserx-ed above.
   The true vertebrae, from their situations xvith respect
 to  the  neck, back, and loins, nre divided into three
 classes, of cervical, dorsal, and lumbar vertebrie.   We
 xvill first consider tiie general  structure of nil ihese, and
 then separately describe their different classes.
   In each of the vertebrae, as in other bones, we may
 remark Ihe body of thc bone, its process  and cavities.
 The body may be compared to part of a cjTinder rjutofl
 transversely;  convex  before, and concave behind,
 where il makes part ofthe cavity of ihe spine.
  Each vertebra has commonly seven proceeds.  The
 fiist ol" these is the spinous process, xvliich is placed at
 Ihe back partof the vertebra, and gives the nanieof
 spine to tlie whole of this bony canal.  Txvo others arc
 called transverse processes, from  their situation  xvith
 respect to the spine, and are placed on each side of the
 spinous  process.  The four others, xvhich are called
 oblique  processes,  are  much  smaller  than  the other
 three.  There  are txvo of these on the upper and two
 on the loxver partof each vertebra, rising from near the
 basis of the transverse processes.  They are someiinies
 called articular processes, because thevare articulated
 xvith each olher; that is, the two superior processes of
 one vertebra are articulated xvith tlie txvo inferior pro-
 cesses of the  vertebra  above  it; and  they are called
oblique  processes, from their  situation xvith respect to
 the processes xvith  which they are articulated.  These
oblique  processes are articulated to each other by a
species ot ginglymus, and each process  is covered at its
 articulation with cartilage.
  There is in every vertebra, betxveen its body nnd
apophyses, u foramen, large enough to admit  a finger.
 I hese foramina correspond with each otlier through ail 
VER
VER
 the xeitebrae, and form a long bony conduit, for thc
 lodgment of the spinal marroxv.
   Besides this great hole, there are fournotcheson each
 fide of every vertebra?, betxveen the oblique processes
 and tlie body of the verlcbra.  Txvo of ihese notches
 are at the upper, and two at the loxver part ofthe bone.
 Each of ihe inferior notches, meeting with one of the
 superior notches ofthe vertebra below it, forms a fora-
 men ;  xvhile the superior notches do tlie same with the
 inferior notches of the vertebra above it.  These four
 foramina form  passage* for  blood-vessels, and for the
 nerves thai pass out of the spine.
   The  vertebra; are uniled together by means of a sub-
 stance, compressible  like cork, xvhich forms a  kind of
 partition benveen tlie several vertebrae.   This interver-
 tebral substance seems, in Ihe foetus, to approach nearly
 to ihe nature of ligaments; in ihe adult it has a great
 resemblance to  cartilage.  When cut horizontally,  ii
 appears lo consist of concentrical curved fibres: exter-
 nally, it is fit most and hardest; internally, it becomes
 thinner and  softer, till at length, in the centre, xve find
 it in the form of a mucous  substance,  xvhich  facilitates
 the motion ofthe spine.
   Genga,  an Italian anatomist, lone aro observed, that
 the change xvhich takes place in Ihese  intervertebral
 cartilages, (as ihey are  usually called.)  in  adx-anced
 life, occasions the decrease iu stature,  and Ihe stooping
 forwards, xvhicli are usually to be observed iu old peo-
 ple.  The cartilages then become shrivelled, and con-
 sequently lose in a great measure, their elasticity.  But,
 besides this gradual effect of old age, these cartilages
 are subject to a temporary diminution, from the weight
 of the  body in  an  erect posture, so that people xvho
 have been long  standing, or who have  carried a con-
 siderable  weight, are found to be  shorter than  when
 they have been long in bed.  Hence we are taller in the
 morning than al night.  This fact, thougli seemingly
 obvious, xvas not  ascertained till of late years.  The
 difference in such cases depends on the age and size of
 thc subject;  in tall, young  people, it xvill be  nearly an
 inch : but in older, or shorter persons,  it xvill  be less
 considerable.
  Besides the connexion of  the several vertebrae, by
 means  of these cartilages, tliere are likexvise  many
 urong ligaments, which unite the bones of the spine
 to each other. Some of these ligaments arc external,
 and others internal.  Among the  external  ligaments,
 we obseixe one  which is common to  all ihe vertebra',
 extending, iu a longitudinal direction, from the forepart
 of the body or the second vertebra ofthe neck, over all
 the other xeriebra", and becoming broader as it descends
 towards the os sacrum, xvhere it becomes thinner, and
 gradually  disappears.  This external longitudinal liga-
 ment, if xve may  so call it,  is strengthened by other
shorter  ligamentous tetrss, xvhich pass from one vei fe
bra to  another,  throughout  the  whole spine.   The
internal ligament, the fibres nf which,  like the external
one, are spread in  a longitudinal direction, is extended
nx'er the back part ofthe bodies of tlie vertebra-, xvhere
they help to form the cavity of the spine, and reaches
from the  foramen  of Use occipital  bone to the os
sacrum.
  We  may  venture to remark, that nil  thc  vertebrae
diminish iu  density and firmness of texture, in propor-
tion  as  they  increase in  size, so that  ihe  loxver verte-
 bra?, though lamer, are not so heavy  in  proportion as
those above  them.   In consequence of  this mode of
structure,  the size of the vertebra- is increased xvithoul
 adding to their xveight: and this is an object of no little
 importance in a  part of the'body, xvhich, besides flexi-
 bility and  suppleness, seems to require lightness as one
of its essential properties.
  In the foetus, at the ordinary time of birth,  each ver-
 tebra is found to be composed of three bony pieces, con-
 nected by cartilages which afterxvard ossify.  One of
Ihese pieces is the  body of  the bone; the other fxvo are
 flee poiterior and lateral portions, which form the fora-
 ir.jn for the  medulla  spinalis.  The oblique  processes
 are at that time  complete, and the transverse processes
beginning to be  formed, but the spinous  processes are
totally wanting.
  The  cervical vertebra are  seven in number; their
bodies  are smaller  and of a (inner texture  than the
Other bones of the spine.  The transverse processes of
these vertebrae are short, and  forked for  the  lodgment
 3f muscles; and, nt tlie  bottom of each  nf there pro-
 cesses, there is a foramen, foi the passage of the cer-
                                            f i i
 T.cal artery and vein.  The spinous process of each of
 ihese vertebra- is likexvise shorter than the other verte-
 brae, and  forked at its extremity ; by which means it
 alloxvs  a  more convenient insertion to the muscles of
 the neck.  Their oblique processes are more deserving
 of that name than either those of the dorsal or  lumbar
 vertebrae.   Thc  uppermost of these processes  are
 slightly concave, and the  lowermost  slightly convex
 This may suffice for a general description of these ver-
 tebrae ;  but the first, second, and seventh deserve to be
 spoken of more particularly.  The first, xvliich is called
 Alias, from its supporting the head, differs from nil Ihe
 other vertebral of the spine.  It forms a kind of bony-
 ring, which inny be divided into its anterior and posu-
 rior arches, and its lateral portions.  Ol' these,  the an
 lei tor arch is tiie smallest aud flattest: at the middle of
 its convex forepart xve observe a small tubercle xvliich
 is here xvhat the body is in the other vertebra!.   To this
 tubercle  a   ligament  is attached,  which  helps  to
 strengthen thc articulation of the spine xvitii  the o»
 occipitis.  The back partof this anterior portion is con
 cave, and coveted wilh cartilage, xvhere it receives the
 odontoid pioccssof the second vertebra. The posterior
 portion ofthe vertebra, or, more properly speaking, the
 posterior arch, is Iniger than the anterior one.  Instead
of a spinous  process, xve observe a rising, or tubercle,
larger than that which xve have just noxv described, on
the forepart of ihe bone. The  lateral portions of thr
vertebra project, so as  to f'oiin xvhat are called  the
transverse processes, one  on each  side, which  aie
longer and larger than the transverse processes of the
other vertebrae.  They terminate iu a roundish tuber-
cle, the  end of  which has a slight bend downwards
 Like the otlier transverse processes, they are perforated
 at llieir basis,  for the passage of the cervical  artery.
 But, besides these transverse processes, xve observe,
 both on the superior and inferior surface of these lateral
 portions of the first vertebra, an articulating surface,
covered xvith caitilago, answering to the oblique pro
cesses in the other vertebrae.  The uppermost of these
are oblong, and slightly concave, and their external
edges rise somewhat higher than their internal brims.
They receive the condyloid processes of tlie os occipitis,
 xvitii xvhich they are articulated  by a species of gingly
mus.  Tlie lowermost articulating surfaces, or the infe
 rior oblique  processes, as  they  are  called,  are large,
concave, and circular, and are formed for receiving the
superior oblique processes of the second vertebra; sc
that the atlas differs from the rest of the cervical verte
brae in receiving the bones, xvith which it is articulated
both above and beloxv.   In the foetus we find this ver-
tebra composed of five, instead of tliree pieces, as in the
other vertebrae.  One of  ihese is the anterior arch, the
other four are the posterior arch and the sides, each ol
the latter  being composed of txvo  pieces.  The trans
verse process, on each side, remains long in a stale of
epiphysis  wilh respect to the rest ofthe bone.
  The second vertebra  is  called  deutatus, from  thc
process on the upper part of its body, xvhich has been,
though perhaps improperly, compared to a tooth.  This
process, whicli  is the most remarkable  partof the ver-
tebra, is of a cylindrical shape, slightly flattened, hoxv-
ever, behind and  before.  Aiiteiioily, it has a convex,
smooth, articulating  surface, xvhere  it is  received by
the atlas, as xve observed in our description of lhat ver-
tebra.  It  is by means of this articulation that the rota-
lory motion of the head is performed;  the articulation
of the os occipitis xvilh the superior oblique processes
of the first verlcbra, allowing only a certain degree of
motion backwards and forwards, so lhat when we turn
thc face either to the riglu or left, the atlas moves upon
this odontoid  process of the second vertebra.  Bul nt
the face cannot lum a quarter of a circle, that is, to tlie
shoulder, upon this vertebra alone, without being liable
tu injure the medulla spinalis, we find that all the i ei
vical vertebrae concur in this totary motion, when  ii
is in any considerable degree; and indeed we sec many
strong ligamentous fibres arising from the sides of the
odontoid process, nnd passing over the first vertebra, tc
the os occipitis, xvhich not only strengthen lite ariiru
lation of these bones xvith each otlier, but serve to regu
late and limit their motion.  It  is on this account thai
the name of moderators  has  sometiiins been seixen ic
these ligaments.   The transve-se pmces-v.* <>l ihe xcr-
lehrarfewtata are short, inclined (loxvuxvauls. and  Ji.iked
at their extremities.  Its  spinous process is short an,
thick.  Its superior oblique processes arc slielulv con
                                        3?5 
VER
VES
vex, nnd somewhat larger than the articulating sur-
faces of tlie first vertebra, by which mechanism the
motion of that bone upon this second vertebra is per-
formed with greater safety.  Its inferior oblique pro-
cesses have nothing singular in their structure.
  The seventh vertebra of the neck differs from the
rest chiefly iu having its spino us process of a greater
length, so lhat, upon this account, it has been sometimes
called vertebra prominens.
  'The dorsal vertebra, wliich nre twelve in number,
are of a middle size, between the cervical and  lumbar
vertebrae; the upper ones gradually losing their resem-
blance to those of the neck, and ihe lower ones coming
nearer to those of the loins.  The bodies of these ver-
tebrae are more flattened at their sides,  more  convex
before, and more concaveriiehiud, than tlie other bones
of llie spine.  Their upper and loxver surfaces are hori-
zontal.  At  their sides we observe txvo depressions,
one at their upper, and the other at  their loxver edge,
which, united xvitii similar depressions iu the vertebrae
above and beloxv, form articulating surfaces, covered
xvitii cartilage, in  which the heads of the ribs  are re-
ceived.  These depressions, hoxvever, are not exactly
alike in  all the dorsal vertebiae; for xve find the head of |
ihe first  rib articulated solely with tlie first of these ver-
tebrae, xvhich has therefore the xvhole ofthe superior
articulating  surface  within itself, independent of the
vertebra above it.  We may  likexvise observe a simi-
larity in this respect in the eleventh and twelfth of the
dorsal vertebrae, xvith which the eleventh and twelfth
ribs are articulated separately.  Their spinous processes
are long, flattened at the sides, divided  at their upper
and  back part into txvo surfaces by a  middle ridge,
xvhicli is received by a small groove in  the inner part
of the spinous process immediately above it, and con-
nected to  it by a ligament.  These  spinous processes
are terminated by a  kind of round tubercle,  which
slopes considerably  downivards, except  in the tliree
lowermost vertebrae, where they are shorter and more
trect.  Their transverse processes are of considerable
length and thickness, and are turned obliquely back-
xvards.  Anteriorly, they have an articulating surface,
for  receiving thc tuberosity of thc  libs, except in the
eleventh and twelfth of the dorsal vertebrae to xvhicli
the ribs  ure articulated by  their heads only.  In the last
•if these vertebrae the  transverse processes aie  very
short and thick, because otherwise tiiey  would be apt
to strike against the lowermost ribs, xvhen we bend tiie
body to  either side.
  The lumbar  vertebra, the  lowest  of  •'»»■ true  ver-
tebrae, are five  in number.  They are largei Ihan the
dorsal vertebrae.  Their bodies are  extremely  promi-
nent, and  nearly of a circular form at their forepart ;
posteriorly they are concave.  Their intermediate car-
tilages arc of considerable thickness, especially anteri-
orly, by which means the curvature  of the spine for-
wards, towards the abdomen, in  Ihis part, is greatly
assisted.  Their spinous processes arc short and thick,
of considerable breadth, erect, and  terminated by  a
kind of tuberosity.   Their oblique   processes are of
considerable thickness; thc superior one? are concave,
and  turned  inwards; the inferior ones convex, and
turned outxvards. Their transverse processes are thin
and  long, <-xcept in the fiist  and lasi vertebra, xvheic
they are much shorter, that tlie lateral motions of the
trunk might not be impeded.  The Inferior surface of
all these vertebra; is  slightly oblique, so  that the fore-
part of the body of each is somewhat thicker than its
hind-part;  but  this is more particularly observable in
the lowermost  vertebra, which is connected wilh the
os sacrum.  Many anatomists describe the os sacrum
and the os coccygis when  considering ihe bones of the
spine, while others regard them as belonging more pro-
perly to the pelvis.  These bones the reader may con-
inll.  It noxv remains to notice the uses of the spine.
We find the spinal marrow lodged in this bony canal,
secure from external injury.   It defends the thoracic
and abdominal viscera, and forms a pillar which sup-
ports the head, and gives a  general firmness  to  the
whole trunk.
  To give it a firm basis, we find the bodies of th- ver-
tebrae gradually Increasing in  breadth ns  ihey descenc";
and to fit it for a variety of motion, it is composed of a
great number of joints, with an  intermediate elas'L
substance, so thnt to great firmness  there Is added  a
perfect flexihilr.v.
  We have already observed, that thc lowermost nnd
      386
largest vertebrae are not so heavy in proportion as tnom
above them; their bodies being  more spongy, except
lug at their circumference, where they aie more imme
diately exposed to pressure;  so that nature seems every
where endeavouring  to  relieve  us of an unnecessary
weight of bone.  Eut behind, where the spinal innrroxv
Is moie exposed to injury, xve find the processes com-
posed of very hard hone; and the spinous processes
nre in general placed over each otlier in a slanting
direction, so that a pointed  instrument  cannot easily
get between them, excepting in the neck, xvhere they
are almost perpendicular, and leave a greater space be-
tween them.   Hence, in  some countries, il is usual to
kill cattle by thrusting a pointed instrunient  betxveen
the occiput and the atlas, or  between the ntlas and  the
second vertebra.  Besides these uses of the vertebrae iu
defending the spinal manoiv, and in  articulating  the
several vertebrae, as  is the case xvilh the oblique pro-
cesses, we shall  find  that  they all serve to  form a
greater surfnee for the lodgment  of  muscles, and  to
enable the latter to act more powerfully on the trunk,
by affording them a lever of considerable length.
   In the neck, we  see the spine projecting somewhat
forward,  to support  the head,  xvhich, xvithout  this
assistance, would require a greater number of muscles.
Through the  xvhole length of the ihora.v it is carried iu
a curved direction backwards, and thus adds consider-
ably to the cavity of the chest, and consequently affords
more  room in the lungs, heart, and large blood-vessels
In the loins, the spine again projects forxvards, in a  di-
rection xvitii the centre of gravity, by xvhich means the
body is easily kept  in an  erect posture; for otherwise
we should be liable to  fall forwards.  But, at ils infe-
rior part, it again recedes backwards, and helps to form
a cavity called tlie pelvis, in which the urinary blad
der, intestinum rectum, and  olher viscera, are placed.
   In a part of the body that is composed of so great n
number ol* bones, and constructed for such a variety of
motion, as Ihe spine is, luxation is more to be expected
than fracture; and this is very wisely guarded against
iu exery direction, by the many processes ihafare to be
found iu  each vertebra, and by tiie  cartilages, liga-
ments, and other means of connexion, which we have
described  as uniting them together.
   VERTEBRAL.   Vertebralis.  Appertaining to the
vertebrae, or bones of tlie spine.
   Vertebral artery.    Arteria  vertebralis.    A
branch of the subclavian, proceeding through ihe ver-
tebrae to within tlie cianium, where, xx ith its fellow, it
forms the basilary artery, the internal audiio.y, cndtlie
posterior artery of the dura  nialer.
   VERTEX.  (Vertex,  icis, m.;  from terrc.) I'ht
croxvn of the head.   The  os verticis .s tl , p-jieUJ
bone.
   Verticalia ossa.   See Parifol bt*cs.
   VERTICALIS.  Vertical, f ^rn>.ndi<- Jar  Appiie<
to leaves xvhich have both si j». j n. rhrin angles with thf
horizon; ns in Lactuca scar >l\.
  VERT1CELLUS.   A  v Imrl.  The name of n spe
cies of inflorescence, in wl.ic.i tlie flowers surround thi
stein hi a sort of ring.
  From the insertion of t'le  floxvers, the vesture, an<
distance of the verticellus. it is called,
  1. Pedunculatus , as ill Milisxa officinalis.
  2. Sessilis, ill Mentha a< vensis.
  3. Dimidiatus, going hidf  round; as in Ballot a dis
ticha.
  4. NitUt, xvithout floral or other leaf; as in Salrii
verticednta.
  5. Bracteatus, in Balk ta  nigra.
  6. Distorts, ia Salvia indica.
  7. Confertus; wlvn crowded together.
  Ve'rtuis cs. See Iatietalbones.
  VF.RTI'JO.  G-Jdincs.
  VERVAIN.  See Verbena officinalis.
   Vervain, fen'.le.  So-e Erysimum alliaria.
  VESALIUS, An jRr.xv, was born at Brussels about
the year U.14  Af.er  pvrsuing his studies  at diffcrerr
universities, nr.d searing  for two years professional!)
with the i-nptri-.il trii-.y,'.iesettled at Padua,  and  laugh'
ani--oniy xv!th gr.'.v applause, wliich  he subsequent!!
continued nt  some oilier schools  in Italy.   In  1544, In
hec.nie ph;sicia.i toCharies V., and resided chiefly at
the imperial court.   About  ttventy years after, in llie
r:;dstof his pmfessint.nl  career, an extraoidinui v cir
i-uinstance occurred, xvliich  was the cause of his ruin
Being  summoned ;o  examine the body of  a Spanish 
VIB
VIN
fentlentan, and having begun the operation too preci-
pitately, the heart xvas observed to palpitate ; in conse-
quence of xvhich, lie  was accused before the Inquisi-
tion:  but ihe interposition of Philip II. procured  him
to be  merely enjoined to make a pilgrimage to the Holy
Laird.  While at Jerusalem, he was invited to the ana-
tomical chair at Padua; but«^j his return, theship xvas
xvrecked on the  coast of Zante. xvhere  he soon  after
died.   Vesalius has been represented as the first person
who rescued anatomy from the slavery imposed  upon
it by deference to ancient opinions, and led the xvay to
modern improvements.   His  first  publication  of note
xvas a sel of Anatomical Tables, xvhich  was soon fol-
lowed by his great xvork " De Corporis Humani Fabri-
ca," printed at Basil  in 1543, and often since in several
countries.  The earliest impressions of ihe plates are
mosl valued, but  the explanations xvere made subse-
quently more correct  In a treatise " De Radicis Chi-
nae Usu," he severely  criticised the errors  of Galen,
xvhich engaged him  in a controversy  with  Fallopius.
His medical and surgical xvritings are not held in much
estimation.
  VESA'NLE.  (The  plural of resant'a ; from  vrsa-
tas, a madman.)  The fourth order in the Class .Vea-
roses, of Cullen's nosological arrangement; compre-
hending diseases in  xvhich the judgment is impaired,
Without either coma or pyrexia.
  VESI'CA.  (Diminutive  of  vas,  a  vessel.)    A
bladder.
  Vesica fellis. The gall-bladder. Sec Gall-bladder.
  Vesica  urinaria.  The  urinary  bladder.   Sec
Urinary bladder.
  VESICATORY.   (Vesieatorius;  from  cesi'ea,  a
bladder: because it raises a bladder.)   See Epispastic.
  VESICLE.  (Vesicula; a  diminutive of vesica, a
bladder.)  An elevation  of ihe cuticle,  containing a
transparent watery fluid.
  VESICULA.  See Vesicle.
  Vesicula fellts.  The gall-bladder.
  Vksicl-lx mvx barcar.e.  The confluent small-
pox.
  Vesicul* gingivarum.   The thrush.
  VEsicnt-.t pi'lmonales.   The air-cells which com-
pose the greatest part of the lungs, and are situated at
the termination of the bronchia.
  Vesicul* seminales   Txvo membranous recep-
tacles, situated un the back  part of the bladder, above
its neck.  The excretory ducts are called ejaculatory
ducts. They proceed to  the  urethra, into wliich they
spen by a peculiar orifice at the top ofthe verumonta-
num.   They have vessels and nerves from the neigh-
bouring parts, and are well supplied with  absorbent
vessels, which proceed to the lymphatic glands about
the loins.  The use of the vesicula; seminales is to re-
ceive  the  semen brought into them by the rasa defe-
rentia, lo retain, somewhat inspissate, and to excern
it sub eoitu inlo the urethra, from whence it is pro-
pelled into the vagina uteri.
  Vesicular fever. See Pemphigus-
  VESTI'BULUM.  A  round cavity of the internal
ear, between the cochlea and semicircular canals, in
which arc an oval opening communicating with the
cavity of the tympanum, and the orifices of the semi-
eircular canals.   It is xvithin this cavity and the semi-
circular canals, that  the nexv apparatus discovered by
the celebrated neurologist Scarpa, lies.   He has demon-
strated membranous tubes, collected loosely by cellular
texture, xvithin the bony semicircular canals, each of
which is dilated in the cavity of the vestibule  into an
ampulla; it  is upon  these ampullae, which communi-
cate by means of an alveus communis, that branches of
the portio mollis are expanded.
  VESUVIAN.   Idocrase of HaQy.   A subspecies of
pyramidal garnet of a green or brown colour, found in
great abundance in unaltered ejected rocks in the vi-
cinity of Vesuvius. At Naples it is cut into ring stones.
  Veto'mca corhi.  See Betonica.
  VEXILLUM.   (Vexillum. i, n.; a banner or stand-
ard.)   Thc standard, or large uppermost petal at the
lack of a papilionaceous flower.
  VIA. A way or passage.  Used in  anatomy.   See
Prima via.
  VI'BEX.   (Vibcx,  ids, plu. Vibices.)   The large
purpls spot xvhich appears under the skin in  certain
inali£rnant fevers.
  VIBRI'SS.i*E.  (Vibrissa; from vibro, to quaver.)
Hairs  growing in the nostrils.  See Capillus.
                                      I i i 2
   Viburnum lantana.  Liburnum.  The pliant mea.y
tree.  The berries nre considered as adstringent.
   VICHY.  Tlie name of a town in France, In  the
neighbourhood of which is a tepid mineral spring.  Ofi
account of its chalybeate and alkaline ingredients, It is
laken internally, being reputed to be of great service
in bilious colics, diarrhoeas, and in  disorders of  the
stomach, especially such as arise from a relaxed or ire
bilitated state of that organ.
   These xvalers are likexvise very  useful when em
ployed as  a tepid bath, particularly In rheumatism,
sciatica, gout, &c.  By combining the internal use xvith
the external application, they have often effected a cure
xvhere other remedies had failed to afford relief.
   Vl'CIA.  (Viscia, an old Latin name, derived by
some etymologists from Vincio, to bind together, ns Ihe
various species of this genus txvine, xvith their tendrils,
round other plants.)   The name of a genus of plants
in thc Linnaean system.  Class, Diadelphia; Order,
Decandria.
   Vicia  faba.  The systematic name of the couiinon
bean-plant.   It is a native of Egypt.   There are immy
varietios.   Beans are very wholesome  and nutritious
lo those  xvhose  stomachs are strong, and accustomed
lo the coarser modes of living.  In delicate stomachs
they produce flatulency, dyspepsia, cardialgia, &c. es-
pecially xvhen old.  Sec Legumina.
   Victoria'lis  longa.  See Allium victorialis.
   VIEUSSENS, Raymond, was born at a village hi
Rovergne, graduated at Montpellier,  and in 1671 xvas
chosen physician to the hospital of St. Eloy.  The result
of his anatomical researches in this situation xvas pub-
lished  under the title of Neurology, and gained hiiu
cveat reputation.  His name became  known  at co lit,
and Mad. de Montpensier made htm her physician.
After her death he  returned  to Montpellier, and  di-
rected his attention to chemistry; and having found an
acid in the caput mortuum of the blood, he made this
the groundxvork of a  nexv  medical  theory.  In ad-
vanced life, his writings xvere multiplied xvithout aug-
menting his reputation.  He died in 1726".
   VIGILANCE.  Pervigilium.  Vigilance, when  at
tended by anxiety, pain in the head,  loss of appetite,
and diminution of strength, is by  Sauvages and Sagar
considered as a genus of disease, and is called Agrypnia.
   VILLOSUS.  Villous, shaggy : applied in anatomy
to a velvet-like arrangement of fibres or vessels, as the
villous coat of the intestines: and  in  botany to Ihe
stem of the Cineraria  inlegrifolia, and  to  other  paits
of plants; as the receptacle of the Artemisia absyntltium.
  VILLUS.  A species of hairy pubescens of plants,
consisting of soft, slender, upright, short, and scarcely
conspicuous, and for the most part white hair-like fila
ments.
  Vl'NCA.   (From  vincio, to bind: because of  its
usefulness in making bands.)  The name of a genua
of plants in the Linnaean system.  Class, Pentandria;
Order, Monogynia.
  Vinca minor.   The systematic name of the less
periwinkle.   Vinca pervinca ;  Clematis dap lino ides
major.   It possesses bitter and adstringent virtues, and
is said to be efficacious iu stopping nasal haemorrhages
when bruised and put into the nose.   Boiled, it forms a
useful adstringent gargle in common sure throat, and it
is given by some  in phthisical complaints.
  Vinca pervinca.  See Vinca minor.
  VINCETO'XICUM.  (Fromvinco,toovercomc, and
toxicum, poison:  so named from its supposed virtue cf
resisting and expelling poison.)  See Asclepias vines
toxicum.
  VINE.  See Vitis.
  Vine, white. See Bryonia alba
  Vine, wild.  See Bryonia alba.
  VINEGAR. See Acetum.
  Vinegar, aromatic.  See Acetum aromaticum
  Vinegar, distilled  See Acetum.
  Vinegar, spirits of.   See Acetum.
  Vinegar of squills.   See Acetum scilla.
  Vinegar, thieves'. See Acetum aromaticum.
  VINUM.   Seo Wine.
  VwrM  aloes.  Wine of  aloes.  Formerly known
bv the names of  Tinctura hiera, and  Tinctura sacra
Take of extract of spiked aloe, eight ounces; canella.
bark, two ounces; wine, six pints; proof spirits, two
pints. Rub  the  aloes into  poxvder with white sand,
previously cleansed from any impurities; rub the ca
nella-bark also into powder;  and after havinz mixed
                                        387 
VIO
VIS
Wse poxvders together, pour on the wine and spirit.
Macerate for fourteen days occasionally shaking the
mixture, and afterward strain.  A stomachic purga-
live, calculated for tlie  aged  and phlegmatic, who are
nut troubled xvitii the piles. The dose is from a half to
a win de fluid ounce.
  Vim m anti.xio.nii.  In small doses  this proves al-
terative and diaphoretic, and a large dose emetic; in
whicli  last  intention it is the common emetic for chil-
dren.
  Visum antimonii tartarizati.  Bee Antimonium
tnrtarizatum.
  Vinum ferri.   Wine of iron, formerly called Vinum
r/iulybeatum. Take of iron filings, two ounces; wine.
txvo pints.  Mix, and set the mixture by for a month,
occasionally shaking it;  then filter  it through paper.
For its virtues, see Ferrum tartarizatum.
  YiNi-M ipecacuanha:. Wine of ipecacuanha. Take
of ipecacuanha root, bruised, two ounces; xvine, two
pints.  Macerate for fourteen days,  and strain.  Tlie
dose, xvhen used as an emetic, is from  two fluid drachms
lo halt' a fluid ounce.
  Vinum opii.   Wine  of opium, formerly known by
the names  of Laudanum liquidum sydenhami, and
Tinctura thebaica.   Take of  extract  of opium, an
ounce; cinnamon-bark, bruised, cloves, bruised, of each
a drachm; wine, a pint.  Macerate for eight days, and
strain.  See Opium.
  Vinum veratri.  Wine of white hellebore. Take
of xvliite hellebore-root, sliced, eight ounces; wine,
txvo  pints and a half; macerate for fourteen  days, and
strain.  See Veratrum.
  VIOLA.   (From lov; because it  was first found in
Ionia.)  1.  The name of a genus of  plants in the Lin-
naean system.  Class, Syngenesia ; Order, Monogynia.
The violet.
  2.  The pharmacopceial name of  the sweet violet.
See  Viola odorata.
  Viola canina.  The dog-violet.  The root of this
plant possesses the poxver of vomiting and purging the
thowels; xvith whicli intention a scrupie of the dried
root must be exhibited-   It appears, though neglected
in this country, xvorthy the attention of physicians.
  Viola ipecacuanha.  The plant which was sup-
posed to afford the ipecacuanha root.
  Viola lutka.  See  Cheiranthus  cheiri.
  Viola  odorata.   The  systematic  name of  the
sweet violet.  Viola—acaulis, foliis cordatis, stoloni-
bus repentibus, of Linnieus.  The  recent floxvers of
Jiis plant are received into the catalogues of the ma-
teria medica.  They have an agreeable sxveel smell,
and a mucilaginous bitterish taste.  Their virtues are
purgative or laxative, and by some they are said io
possess an anodyne and pectoral quality. The officinal
preparation of this flower is a syrup, xvhich, to young
children, answers the purpose of a purgative; it is also
of considerable  utility  in many chemical inquiries, to
detect an acid or an alkali;  the  former changing llie
blue colour to a red, and the latter to a green.
   Viola palustris.   See Pinguicula.
   [Viola pedata.  The violets are generally mucila-
ginous plants, and employed ns demulcents in catarrh
and strangury.   Some of  them  are allied  to ipeca-
cuanha, and contain emetin in their substance.  The
tiolu pedata, a native  species  retained in Ihe pharma-
copoeia, is considered  a useful expectorant  and  lubri-
cating medicine in pulmonary complaints, and is given
in syrup or decoction.  Big. Mat. Med.  A.]
   Viola tricolor.  Harts-ease   Pausies.  This well-
known beautiful little plant groxvs In corn-fields, xvaste
nt:l  i ultivatcd  grounds, flowering all the  summer
months.  It  varies much by cultivation; and by  the
x ivid colouring of its floxveis often becomes extremely
In uutiful in gardens, where it is distinguished by various
names.  To the taste, this plant in its recent state is
extremely  glutinous,  or mucilaginous, accompanied
xvith the couiinon heibaoeous flavour and roughness.
By distillation  xvith xvater, according to Manse, it af-
fords  a small quantity of odorous  essential oil, ol" a
i  inexvliat net id tasle.  The dried  herb yields  about
half its xveight of watery extract, the fresh plant about
one-ei'.'luh.   Though many  of the  old xvriters on  the
materia  medica represent this plant as a poweilul me-
dicine iu epilepsy, asthma, ulcers, scabies, nnd cutane-
 ous complaints, yet the viola tricolor oxves ils present
 character as a medicine to the modern authorities of
 Ktarck,  Metzger, Manse, and others, especially  as  a
       3c<8
retired-)  for the crusta lactea.   For this  purpovt, 4
handful of the fresh herb ir half a drachm of il drieit
boiled txvo  hours  in milk, is to be strained and taker.
night and morning.  Bread, Willi ihis decoction, is also.
to be formed  into a poultice, and  applied to  the |>art.
By  this treatment, it has been observed,  that  Ihe
eruption during the first eight days, increases, and
that the urine, when  flie medicine  succeeds, has an
odour similar to that of cats;  but on continuum  llie
use of the  plant a suflicient time, this smell goes  off,
the scabs disappear, and  thc skin recovers ils natural
purity.  Instances of the successful  exhibition  of  this
medicine, as cited by these authors, are very numerous,
indeed this remedy, under  their management, seems
rarely, if ever, to have  failed.  It appeals, hoxvever,
that Mursinna, Akermann, and  IJenutng xvere  less
fortunate in the employment of this  plant: the lust of
whom declares, lliat iu  the different cutaneous disor-
ders iu xvhich he used it, no benefit  was derived.
Ilaase, who administered this species of violet in  va-
rious forms and large doses, extended its use to many
chronic disorders ; and from the great number of cases
in xvhich il proved successful, we are desirous of re-
commending  it lo a farther trial in this country.
  It is remarkable thai Bergius speaks of this plant as
a useful mucilaginous purgative, and lakes no notice
of its efficacy in  the  crustea lactea, or in any other
disease.
  VIOLA'RIA.   See  Viola.
  VIOLET.   See Kiola odorata.
  Violet, dog.  See Viola canina.
  VIPER.  See Vipera.
  VIPEK-GRASS. See Scorzoner  .
  V I' P E R A.   (Quod vi pariat : because  it was
thought that its young eal through the mother's bowels.)
The viper or  adder.  See Coluber berns.
  VIPKRA'RIA.  See Aristolochia serpentaria,
  VIPERI'NA.   (From vipera, a snake:  so called
from  the  serpentine appearance of its roots.)   See
Aristolochia  serpentaria.
  Vii-lrina  Virginia!!a.  See Aristolochia serpen-
taria.
   Vi'bga aurea.  See Solidago virga aurea.
  Virga'ta  sutura.  The sagittal sutuie of tlie skull
  VIRGIN'S BOWER.  See Clematis recta.
   Virgin's milk.   A solution of gum-benzoin.
   Virgina'le ci.austrum. The hymen.
   Virginian  snake-mot.  See Aristolochia virginiana.
   Virgin,un  tobacco.  See Nicotiana.
   VIRUS.  See  Contagion.
  VIS.  Poxver.  In physiology, applied to vital power
and its edicts: hence vis vita, vis  iusitu, vis irrila-
bilis, vis nervia, Sec
   Vis conservaTrix.  See Vis medicatrix  natura.
   Vis elastica.  Elasticity.
   Via inerti*.  The propensity to rest  inherent in
nature.
  Vis insita.  This property Is defined by  Haller to
be  that poxver by xvhicli a muscle, when xvnuuded,
touched, or irritated, contiacts, independent of tie xvill
of  ihe animal that is the object of the experiment,  and
without its feeling pain.  See Irritability.
  Vis medicatrix nature    Vis  conservatrix.   A
term employed by physicians to express lliat healing
poxvei in an animated body, by which, xvhen dismsed,
the body is enabled to regain its healthy actions.
  Vis mortua.  That  property by wliich a muscle
after  the death of tlie  animal, or a muscle, immedi-
ately after having been  cut out  from  a living body.
contracts.
  Vis  nervosa.   This property  Is considered by
Whytt to  be  another  power of the  muscles by xx hich
they act xvhen excited by the nerves.
  Vis plastka.   That  facility of formation w.Vjcli
spontaneously operates in animals.
  Vis a teruo.   Any  impulsive power.
  Vis vit.1!.   The natural poxver of the animal  ma
chine in preserving life.
  From the  most remoteanliqnltv,  philosophers xx ere
persuaded that a great partof thc'phenoniena peculiar
to liviiis bodies, did nol folloxv ihe  same  course,  nor
obey the same laxvs, as thc phenomena proper io brute
m.itter.
  To  ihese phenomena of living bodies, a patticiilai
cause  has been, nssiiem-d, xvliich has rooivod difl'erent
denominations.   Hippocrates bertoxvs on it thc appri
lalion of physis, or nature,  Aristotle calls it the matins 
VIS
VIS
 •r gv.irr&ing principle;  Kaw Boerhaave, the impe-
 tum facials ; Van Helmont, archaa; Stahl, tbe *■. ul;
 others, the vis insita, vis vita, vilul force, Sec.
   VISCIDITY.   (Vicidilas;  from viscus.)  Visco-
 sity : glutinous, sticky, like thc bird-lime,
   VISCIDUS.  Viscid.  1  Of thenatureof ropy pulp
 of the  visrum, or misslctoe   In general use to imply
 viscidity in fluids, Sec
   2. See Lcntor.
   VTSCL'M.  (Viscum, i, n.; and Viscus, i, m.  De-
 rived from tlie Greek,i{»c, altered by the ^Eolinns Into
 litaxos.)  L  The  fruit of  the  misletoe.  See Viscum
 album.
   2. The Name of  a genus  of parasitical plants  in
 the Linnaean system.  Class Diacia;  Order, Tetran-
 dria.
   Viscum  album.   Viscus   gucranus.   Misletoe.
 This singular parasitical plant  most commonly grows
 on apple-trees,  also on the pear, hawthorn, service,
 oak, hazel, maple, ash, lime-tree, willow, elm,  horn-
 bean, &c.  It is supposed to be propagated  hy birds,
 especially by ihe  field-fare and thrush, whicli feed
 upon its berries, the seeds of which  pass through the
 boxvels unchanged; and along with  the  excrement
 adhere  to the blanches of trees where tliey vegetate.
   The  misletoe  of the oak has, from the times of the
 ancient Druids, keen alxvays preferred to that produced
on other trees; but  it is now well known that the viscus
 <iucrctis differs in no respect from others.
  This  plant  is the c£ of the Greeks, and was in former
 times thought to possess many medicinal virtues; hoxv-
 ever, xve learn but little  concerning its efficacy  from
 tlie ancient writers ou the Materia Medica, nor will  it
 be deemed necessary to stale the extraordinary powers
 ascribed to the misletoe by the crafty designs of Drui-
 dical knavery.  Both the leaves and branches of the
 plant have very liltle smell, and a very xx-eak  taste of
 the nauseous kind.   In  distillation  ihey  impregnate
 water xvitii  their  faint unpleasant smell, but yield no
 essential oil.   Extracts made from tttcm by xvater, are,
 bitterish, roughish,  and subsaliue.   The spirituous
 extract nf the xvood has the greatest austerity, r.ud lhat
 of  the  leaves  the greatest bitterness. The  berries
 abound  with an  extremely  tenacious and most un-
 grateful sweeet mucilage.
  The viscus quercus obtained great reputation for the
 <urc of epilepsy; and a case of this disease,  of  a
 woman of quality, in xvhich il proved remarkably suc-
 cessful, is  mentioned by Boyle.  Some years  after-
 ward its use was strongly recommended in various
 convulsix-e disorders by  Colhacli, xvho has related
 several  instances of its good effects.  He administered
 it in substance In  doses of  half  a  drachm,  or  a
draclun, of tlie wood or leaves, or an infusion of an
 ounce.  This author was folloxved by others, who have
notonly given testimony of the efficacy of the misletoe
in different  convulsive affections,  but also iu those
complaints denominated nervous, in xvliich it was sup-
posed to act  in the character of a tonic.  But all that
 has been written in  favour of this remedy, xvhich  is
 certainly xvell deserving of notice, has not prevented
 it from  falling into ireueral  neglect; and the  colleges
 of Loudon aud Edinburgh  have, perhaps not withoul
 reason, expunged  it  from  their  catalogues of  the
 Materia Medica.
   VI'SCUS.   (Viscus,  eris, n.; plural, viscera.)   1.
 Any organ or part xvhich has  an appropriate use, as
 the viscera of Ihe abdomen, Sec.
  2. (Viscus, i, m.)  The name of the misletoe.  See
 Viscum album.
  VISION.    [Visas, is, m.)  The function xvliich
 enables us to perceive the magnitude, figure, colour,
 distance, fee. of bodies.   The  organs whicli compose
 the apparatus ef  vision  enter into action  under the
 influence of  a particular excitant, or stimulus, called
 tight.
  We perceive bodies, we  take cognizance of many
 of their properties, though they are often  at a great
distance,—there must then be betxveen them and our
eye some intermediate agent;  this intermediate sub-
stance we denominate light.  Light is an excessively
subtle fluid, xvhich emanates from tliose bodies called
luminous, as  the sun, the fixed stars, bodies in a state
of ignition, phosphorescence, Sec.  Light is composed
of atoms xvhicli move with a >:rodigious rapidity, since
they pa.-s through about eigmy thousand 'endues of
space in a second.
   A series of ltoms, or particles, wliich succeed ench
 otlier in a right line xvithout interruption are denomi-
 nated  a ray of light.   The atoms  xvliich compose
 every ray of light are separated by intervals, that aie
 considerable in  proportion to their mass; xvliich cir-
 cumstances permit a considerable number of rays to
 cross each other in  the same point, without their pap
 tides coming in contact.
   The light that proceeds from luminous bodies forms
 diverging cones, xvhich xvould prolong themselves In
 definitely, did they meet xvilh no  obstacles.   Philoso-
 phers  have from thence  concluded, that the intensity
 of tight in any place, is always in  an  inverse ratio to
 the  square  of the  distance  of the  luminous  bodies
 from which it proceeds.   The coins  that nreforuud
 by the  light in passing from luminous  bodies,  are, in
 general, called pencils of light, or  pencils of rays, and
 the bodies through xvhich the light moves aredesigoat, d
 by the name of media.
   When light happens to come in contact xvitii cer_  i
 bodies  that are  called opaque, it  is  repulsed, and it*
 direction is modified according to the disposition of
 those bodies.—The  change that   light  suffers  iu its
 course is, in this case, ca'led reflection.  The study i.f
 reflection constitutes that part of physics, xvhich is
 named catoptrics.
   Certain bodies allow the light to pass through  tlu in,
 for instance glass:  they are said to be transparent.  In
 passing through these bodies, light sutlers  a certain
 change xvhich is called refraction.  As the medium-  i
 of vision rests entirely upon the  principle of refrac-
 tion, the examination of these becomes, tlierefoie, a
 matter of importance.
   The point where  a ray of light enters into a medium
 is called  the point  of immersion; and  that where it
 goes out is called the point of emergence.
   If the ray comes in contact xvitii a  medium iu a line
 perpendicular to ils surface, thc ray then continues i\*
 direction xvithout any change; but if its  direction  is
 oblique to the surface of the medium, the ray is then
 turned  out of its course, aud appears  broken  at t'v
 point of immersion.
   The angle of  incidence is that  xvhich the incident
 ray makes with a perpendicular line  drawn ox-er the
 point of immersion  upon the surface  nf the medium,
 and the angle of refraction is thai which the broken
 ray makes xvitii  the perpendicular.
   If the ray of light'pass from a rare medium into one
 more dense, it inclines toxvards the  perpendicular al
 the point of contact; but it declines from  it if it pass
 from a dense  medium into one  that is rarer.  Tiie
 same phenomenon  takes place, but in a contrary di-
 rection, xvhen  the ray enters  into the first  medium;
 this takes place in such a manner, that if the txvo sur-
 faces of llie medium tra/ersed by llie ray are parallel
 to each other, the ray in passing into the surrounding
 medium, xvill take a direction parallel  lo mat  of thc
 incident ray.
  Bodies refract the light in proportion to their den-
sity and combustibility.  Thus, of txvo bodies of eq-ial
density, one of xvhich being composed of more com-
bustible  elements   than   llie other, the   refractive
poxver  of the first  xvill  be greater than  that of the
second.
  All transparent bodies refract at tiie same  time lhat
they  reflect  the  light.  On  account  of this  property
these bodies arc capable  of being used as  a sort of
mirror.   When  their density  is very inconsiderable,
such as that of the air, they are not visible unless tliu'.-
mass be considerable.
  The form of a refractive body has no influence upo-i
its refractive power; but it modifies the disposition of
the refracted rays in respect to each other.  In fact, t':c
perpendiculars lo the surfaces of the body,approaching
or receding according to the form of the body, the  re-
fracting rays should  at the same time approach or
 recede.
  When,  by the effort of a refractive body, the rays
tend towards each other, the point where tliey unite is
called the focus  of  the refractive  body.  Bodies of i
lenticular form are those which present principally this
phenomenon.
  A  refractive body, with parallel surfaces, does noi
change the direction of the rays, but  it  inclines the.i.
towards ils axis by a sort of transportation.  A refrac-
tive body of two convex sides does  not possess a grea-e:
refractive poxver than a body convex  on one side, and
                                        2H9 
VIS                                                VIS
 iitane on the olher; but the point  behind it in wiiich
 the rays are united is much nearer.
  The*  discovery of the action of  refractive bodies
 upon light has not oeen an object of simple curiosity;
 It has led !■- the construction of ingenious instruments,
 by  means of which the sphere of human  vision has
 been extended to an extraordinary degree.
  Apparatus of vision.—The apparatus of vision  is
 composed of three distinct parts.
  TliejSrst: modifies the light.
  The second receives the impression of that fluid.
  Thc third transmits this impression to tlie brain.
  The apparatus of vision is of an extremely delicate
 texture, capable of being deranged by  the  least  acci-
 dent.  Nature has also placed before this apparatus a
 series of organs,  the use  of which is  io protect and
 maintain it in those conditions necessary  lo  tlie perfect
 exercise of its functions.   Those protecting parts are
 the eyebrows, the eyelids, and the secreting and ex-
 creting  apparatus of the tears.
  The  eyebrows,  wliich  are  peculiar  to man, are
 formed,
  1.  By hair, of a variable colour.
  2.  By llie skin.
  3.  By sebaceous follicles placed  at the root of every
 hair.
  4.  By  muscles  destined  for their  various motions,
 viz.  the frontal portion of the occipito-frontalis, the
 superior edge of the orbicularis palpebrarum,  the su-
 pcrcilium.
  5.  Numerous vessels.
  C. Nerves.
  The eye is composed of parts which have very dif-
 ferent uses in the production of vision.  They may be
distinguished into refractive, and non-refractive.
  The refractive parts are:
  A. The transparent cornea, a refractive  body, con-
 vex and concave, xvhich, in its transparency, its form,
 and its insertion, pretty much  resembles the glass that
 is placed before the face of a watch.
  B. The aqueous humour which fills the chambers of
the eye; a liquid which is not purely  aqueous, as ils
name indicates, but is essentially composed of water,
and of a little albumen.
  C. Tile crystalline  humour, wliich  is improperly
compared to a lens.  The comparison xvould be exact,
 ivere  it  merely for the form ; but it is defective in re-
 gard to structure.  The crystalline  is composed of con-
centric  layers, the hardness of xvhich  increases  from
the surface  to the  centre, and xvhich probably pos-
sesses diffeient refractive poxvers.   The crystalline is,
besides, surrounded by a  membrane,  xvhich  has  a
great effect upon vision, as experience  teaches us.  A
lens is homogeneous in all its parts ; at  ils surface, as
 in every point  of its substance;  it possesses every
 xvhere thc same refractive poxver.  Hoxvever, it is ne-
cessary  io remark that the  curve of the  anterior sur-
 face of the crystalline is very far from being .similar lo
lhat of  the posterior aspeit.  This last  belongs  to a
sphere,  of which ihe diameter is much less than that
 of the sphere to which tl,c curve of the  anterior sur-
 face belongs.  Until noxv il  has been understood lhat
 the crystalline was composed mostly  of albumen; but
 according to a nexv ana'ysis of Berzelius, it dots not
 contain any: it is forme 1 almost entirely  of water, mid
 of a  peculiar  matter that  has a great  analogy, in ils
 chemical properties, to the colouring  matter of the
 blood.
  1).  Behind the crystalline is  the vitreous humour, so
 called because of its resemblance to melted glass.
  Each of the parts whicli we have noticed is enve-
 loped by a very thin membrane, xvhicli is transparent
 Ike the part that it covers:  thus, before the cornea is
 lie conjunctiva; behind  it is the membrane ofllie
 iqueous humour, which lines all the  anterior chamber
 nf the eye; that is, the anterior surface  of the Iris, and
 the posteiior surface ofthe cornea.
  The crystalline is surrounded by the crystalline cap-
 sule, xvhich adheres by ils  circumference  to the mem-
 brane that covers the vitreous humour.  This, in pass-
 ing from the circumference  of the crystalline upon the
 -interior and posterior surfaces of this part,  leaves be-
 tween an interval which has  been  called  the canal
 tfoudrinmi.
  The vitreous humour is also surrounded by n mem-
 brane called hyaloid.  This membrane does not alone
 contain  this humour, it is sent doxvn  among  it, and
      390
separating, forms il into cells.  The details of anatomy
with regard to the  disposition of the cells, have not
hitherto added any tjiing to xvhat is knoxvn of the use
of the vitreous humour.
   The eye is not only composed of parts that arc re
fractive, but it is composed also of membranes xvliich
have each a particular use; these are:—
   A. The sclerotic, the  exterior envelope  of the eye,
which is a membrane of a fibrous nature; it is thick
and resisting, and its use  is evidently to protect the in-
terior parts of the organ; it serves besides as a point
of insertion for many muscles that move the eye.
   B. The choroid, a vascular  and nervous membrane,
formed by txvo distinct plates; it is impregnated  with
a daik matter which is very important to vision.
   C. The  iris, which  is  seen behind  the  transparent
cornea, is differently coloured in different individuals;
it is pierced in the centre by an opening called the pupil,
xvliich dilates or contracts according to certain circum-
stances xvhich xve shall notice.  The iris adheres out-
wardly, and by its circumference, to the sclerotic, by
a cellular tissue of a particular nature, which is called
Ihe  ciliary,  or iridian ligament.  There are,  behind
the iris, a great number of white lines arranged in the
manner of rays, which would unite at the centre of
the iris, if they xvere sufficiently prolonged: these are
the ciliary processes.
   Neither the use nor the structure of these bodies has
been properly determined: they are believed by some to
be nervous, by others to be muscular, xvhile others think
them glandular, or vascular.   The truth is, their real
structure is nut understood.
   The colour of the  iris depends on its structure,
which is variable, and on thai of the dark layer of iu
posterior  surface, the colour  of  whicli shines through
the iris.   For instance, the tissue  of the iris is nearly
xvhite in blue eyes; in this case the dark colour behind
appears almost alone, and determines ihe colour of the
eyes.
   Anatomists difl'er nbnut the nature of the tissue of
the iris: some think it entirely like that of the choroid,
essentially composed of vessels and of nerves; others
have imagined they saxv a great  many  muscular fibres
iu il; others consider this membrane a tissue sui ge-
neris;  and  others confound it with thc erectile struc-
ture.  Edwards has shown that  the  iris is formed by
four layers very easy to be distinguished, txvo of which
are  a continuation ofthe laminae of  ihe  choroid;  a
tiiird belongs to the membrane of the aqueous humour;
and a fourth forms the proper tissue of the iris.
   Betxveen the choroid and the hyaloid there exists  a
membrane essentially nervous. This uiembraiie, known
by the name of the retina, is almost  transparent;  it
presents a slight opacity, and  a tint feebly inclining to
lilac; it is composed  ol" the  expansion of tlie threads
which compose the optic nerve.
  The eye receives a great  number  of vessels, the
ciliary  arteries and veins,  and  many  nerves, the
greater  part of whicli come from the ophthalmic gan
glion.
  The optic nerve preserves  thc  communication be-
txveen the biain and the eye.
  Mechanism of vision.—In order the better to explain
the action of light in the eye, let us suppose a luminous
cone commencing in n  point placed in the prolongation
of the anterior-posterior axis of the eye.   VVe see
lhat only the light xvhich falls upon the cornea can be
useful for vision; that  xvhich falls  on the xvlrite of the
eye, the eyelids and eyelashes, contributes nothing; it
is reflected by those parts differently according to their
colour.  The cornea itself does not receive the light on
ils whole extent; for it is generally covered in part by
the border ofthe eyelids.
  The cornea having  a fine polish on  its  surface as
soon as thc light reaches it, part of it is reflected,  xx hich
contributes  to form  the  brilliancy of  the  eye.  The
same reflected light forms the images xvhich one sees
behind the cornea.  In this case the cornea acts as a
convex mirror. The form of the cornea indicates the
influence  it should have upon the light which enters
the eye:  on account of its thickness, it only causes
Ihe rays  to  converge a little towards  the  axis  of the
pencil; iu other xvords  it  increases  the intensity of the
light xvhich penetrates into the anterior chamber.
  The rays, in traversing the cornea, pass from a more
rare  to a denser medium;  consequently they ought to
converge from tlie perpendicular toxvards thc point ot 
MS
vis
intact.  If,  on entering  into the anterior  chamber,
Ihey passed  out  again, they xvould diverge ns much
from the perpendicular as  they had converged before;
ami xvould, therefore, assume their former divergence;
but as they enter into the aqueous  humour, which is a
medium more  refrac ive  than  air—they incline less
from the perpendicular, and consequently diverge less
than if  they had passed back inlo the air.
  Of all the light transmitted to the anterior chamber,
only that which passes llie pupil can bt- of use to vision;
all  that  which falls upon the iris is  reflected, returns
through the cornea, and exhibits the colour of thc iris.
  Iu traversing the posterior chamber the light under-
goes no nexv  modification, as il proceeds alxvuys in the
same medium (the aqueous humour).
  It is in traversing the crystalline  lhat light undergoes
the most important modification.  Philosophers com-
pare the action of this body to thai of a lens, the use of
xvhicli xvould be to assemble all the rays of any cone of
light upon a certain point of tlie  retina.  But a-- Ihe
crystalline is very far from being like a lens, we merely
mention this opinion, xvhich is generally received,  in
remark  that it merits a  fresh  investigation.   Every
tiling positive which can be said on the subject is, lhat
llie crystalline  ought to increase llie intensity of the
buhl xvhich is directed toxvards the bottom of  tlie eye,
xvith an energy proportionate to  the convexity of its
posterior surface.  It may be  added, that llie  light
which passes near the circumference of the crystalline
Is probably reflected in a different manner from thai
which passes through the centre; and lliai therefore the
contraction and dilatation of the pupil ought to possess
an influence upon the mechanism of vision, xvhich de-
serves the attention of philosophers.
  The xvhole of the light which arrives at the anterior
surface of the  crystalline, does not penetrate  into the
vitreous body; it is partly reflected.  One part of this
 reflected light  traverses tlie aqueous humour and the
cornea, and contributes to form the brilliancy of the
eye; another falls upon the posterior surface ofthe iris,
 and is absorbed by the dark matter found there.
   It is probable lhat something of this sort happens al
 every one of the strata or layers which forms  the crys-
 talline.
   The  vitreous bodv possesses  a less refractive power
 Jian the crystalline,  consequently  the  rays of light
 wliich, after having passed the crystalline, penetrate
 into the vitreous body, diverge from the  perpendicular
 at the point of contact.  Its use then, xvith regard to the
 direction of the rays in the eye, is to increase their con-
 vergence.  It might be said, that iu order to produce
 the same result, nature had only to render Ihe crystal-
 line a liltle more refractive, bul the vitreous hum mr
 has another most esseutial use,  which is, to give a
 larger extent to tlie retina, and thus to increase the field
 of vision.
   What xve said about a cone of light, commencing  in
 a point placed in the prolongation of the anterio-postc-
 rior axis of the eye, must be repeated for every lumi-
 nous cone commencing in otlier  points, and directed
 toxvards the eye; xvith this difference, that, in the first
 case, the listht tends to unite at the centre of the retina;
 xvhile the light of the other cones tends to unite in dif-
 ferent  points, according to that form xvhich they com-
 mence.  Thus the luminous cones  commencing from
 below, unite at the upper partof'he retina, while those
 thai come from  above, unite at the lower part of this
 membrane.  The other rays follow a direction analo-
 gous ; so that there xvill be formed at the bottom of the
 eye an exact repicsenlation of every body placed before
 il, with this difference, that the images xvill be inverted,
 or in  a position contrary to thai of  the objects they
 icpresent.
   Thi3 result  is  ascertained by different means.  For
 this  purpose, eyes, constructed  artificially  of ::lass,
 which  represent the transparent cornea, and the crys-
 talline; and of xvater, xvhich represents the aqueous
 and vitreous humours, have long been employed.
    Motions of ac iris—Some say that the pupil vanes
 its dimensions according  to tlie distance of the object.
 This  fact  has  not  been sufficiently  demonstrated;
 hitherto the influence of the  intensity  of light  is the
 only thing that has been  correctly observed.
    The choroid  is of use  to vision, principally by  the
  lark matter with which  it is impregnated, and xvhich
 absorbs the light immediately after it has traversed the
 retina.  One  may consider, as a conhrmatinn of this
..pinion, what happens to some individuals in wnoin
some parts of this membrane become varicose. UK
dilaied vessels throw  off  the  darker mailer winch
covered them, and every lime  that the image ot the
object tails upon the point of the  retina corresponding
to these vessels, tlie object appears spotted xvith red.
  The state of vision in  Albino men  and  annuals, In
which the choroid nnd the iris aie not coloured black,
supports still more ihis assertion; vision is extremely
imperfect  iu  tiiem: during tiie day, they can scarcely
see  sufficiently to  go  about.   Mnnotle,  Local, and
others, have allowed to the choroid the faculty of per-
ceiving light.  This idea  is completely xvithout proof.
  We knoxv very little, that is certain, of llie ciliary
processes.  They are generally supposed contractile;
bul some think thnt they are destined to the motions ot
the iris, xvhile others imagine ihey are intend, c to bung
forward the crystalline.
  The lays of light have noxv reached the retina, xvlucn
receives the impression of light xvhen il is within cer
tain limits of intensity.   A very feeble light is not felt
by the retina; too strong  a light hurts it, and lenders it
unlit for action.
  When  the  retina receives loo strong a  light, the
impression is called dazzling; the retina is Ihen inca-
pable for some lime of feeling Ihe presence of Ihe light.
This happens xvhen one looks at the sun.  After having
been long iu ihedark, even a very feeble light produces
dazzling.—When  the light is exceedingly xveak, and
the eye made lo observe objects  narrowly, the  retina
liecomes fatigued, there folloxvs a  painful feeling in the
orbit, and also in llie heal.
  A light, ol" xvhicli the intensity is not very strong, but
xvliich acts for a certain lime upon a determined point
of  the retina, reudeis it at  last insensible in  this point
When xve look for some lime at  a xvhile spot upon  a
 black ground, and  afterxvard carry ihe eye to a xvhite
ground, xve seem to perceive a black spot; this happens
 because the retina has become insensible in the point
 xvhicli xvas formerly fatigued by the white light.  In
 the same manner, after the retina has been  some time
 xvithout acting  in one of its points while  the  others
 have  acted, the  point xvhicli has been in repose be-
 comes of an extreme sensibility, and on this account
 objects seem as if they were spotted.  Iu this manner
 it is explained, why, after having looked a long time at
 a red spot, xvliite bodies appear as if spotted with green-
 in  this case, the retina has become insensible to the red
 rays,  and xve knoxv that a ray of xvhite light, from
 xvhich the red is subtracted, produces  the sensation of
 green.                                         •
   Tlie same sort of phenomena happens xvhen xve have
 looked long at a red body, or one of any other colour,
 and afterxvard look nt  xvliite, or differently coloured
 bodies —We perceive xvith facility the direction ofthe
 light received by the retina.  We believe instinctively
 that light proceeds in a  right line, and thai  this line is
 the prolongation of that according to wliich the light
 penetrated into the cornea.  Therefore, xviienever the
 light has been modified in its direction, before reaching
 the eye,  the retina gives  us nothing certain.  Optical
 illusions proceed principally from this cause.
   The retina can receive at the same time impressions
 in  every point of ils extent, but  the  sensations wliich
 result from them nre then incorrect.  It may be affected
 by thc image of one or txvo objects only, though a much
 greater number be impressed on  it; the vision  is then
 much more defined.
   The central partof the membrane appears to possess
 much more sensibility than the  rest of its cxient;  xve
 therefore make  tlie image fall on this part xvhen we
 wish to examine an object xvitii atlenlion.
   Does the light act upon the retina by simple contaci
 only, or  must it traverse this membrane ?  The pre
 fence of thc choroid in the eye, or rather the dark
 matter xvhich covers it, renders this second opinion the
 most probable.
   That part of the retina which corresponds xvith  the
 centre ofthe optic nerve, has been said to be insensible
 to thc impression of light.  I know nothing xvhicli car
 directly prove this assertion.
    There is  no doubt that the optic nerve transmits to
 the brain, in an  instant, the impression that tiie light
 makes on the retina; but by what mechanism  xve arc
 entirely ignorant.  The manner  in xvliich the txvo optic
  nerves are confounded  upon the sphenoid bone, ought
  doubtless to have a considerable influence upon  thi
                                          331 
VIS                                               VIS
transmission of the impressions received by the eyes ;—
bul this is also a point upon whicli it is difficult to form
any probable conjecture.
  Notxvithstanding  xvhat  has been said at  different
periods, os well as tlie late efforts of Gall, to prove that
ive see with only one eye at a time, there seems  suffi-
cient  proof not only that  the txvo eyes concur at the
same  lime in the production of vision, but that it is
absolutely necessary this should be so, for certain most
important operations of this function.  There are  hoxv
ever certain cases in xvhich it is more convenient to
i mploy only one eye; for instance, when it is necessary
in understand perfectly tho direction of tne light, or the
situation of any body relative to us.  Thus  we shut
one eye to take aim xvith a gun,  or to place a number
of bodies upon a level in a right line.
  Another case in which it is advantageous to employ
inly one eye is, when the two  organs are unequal,
 tilier in refractive poxver or insensibility.   For the
same reason we  shut one eye when xve employ a tele-
scope.   But, except in these particular cases, it is of the
utmost importance to employ both eyes at once.  The
following  experiment proves that both eyes see the
sti'iie object at the same time.
  Receive the image ofthe sun upon a plane in a  dark
chamber; put before your eyes loo thick glasses,  each
of which  presents one of the prismatic colours. If
your eyes are good and  both equally strong, the image
if the sun xvill appear of a dirty white,  xvnatever |
be the colour of the glasses employed.  If one of  your
-yes is much stronger than the other, the image of tlie
sun xvill be seen of the same colour as  the glass which
:s before the strongest eye.
  One object produces  then  really txvo  impressions
••vhile the biain  perceives only one.  To produce this
the  motions of the  txvo eyes  must be in  unison. If,
after a disease, tlie movement of the eyes are no longer
remilar,  xve  receive txvo impressions  from the same
object, which constitutes  strabismus, or  squinting.
We may  also, at  pleasure, receive txvo  impressions
from one body; for that purpose, it is only necessary to
lerange the harmony of the two eyes.
  Estimation of thc distance of objects.—Vision is pro-
duced essentially by the action of light upon  the retina,
mid yet we alxvays consider the bodies from xvhich light
proceeds as being the cause of it, though they are ofien
placed at a considerable distance.  This result can be
produced only by an intellectual operation.
  We judge differently of the  distance  of bodies
acciu'ding to tlie degree of that distance; xve judge cor-
rectly xvhen tliey are near us, but it is not the same
xvhen they are at a short distance; our judgment is then
often incorrect: but xvhen they are at a great distance,
xve  are constantly deceived.  The united action of the
txvo eyes is absolutely necessary to determine exactly
the distance, as the following experiment proves.
  Suspend a ring by a thread, and fix a hook to the end
of n long  rod, of a size that will easily pass the ting;
stand  at a convenient distance, and try to introduce the
hcok: in using both eyes, you may succeed xvith ease in
every attempt you make; but if you shut one eye, and
then'endeavour to pass the hook  through, you will not
succeed  any longer; the hook will go  eitlier too far or
else not far enough, and it xvill  only he  after trying
repeatedly that it xvill be got through.  Those persons
whose eyes are very unequal in their  power, are sure
io fail in this experiment, even xvhen they use them
both.
  When a person loses an eye by accident,  it  is some-
limes a whole year before he can judge correctly of the
distance of a body placed near him.  Tliose xvho have
only one eye, determine distance, for ihe most  part,
very incorrectly.   The size of the object, the intensity
of the light thnt proceeds from it, the presence of inter-
mediate' bodies, &c. have a great  influence  upon our
jtist estimation of distance.
  We judge most correctly of objects  that are placed
ipon a level with our bodies.  Thus,  xvhen we  look
from  the  lop of a loxver  at the  objects  below,  they
appear much less than they xvould if they were placed
at the same distance, on the same plane xvitii ourselves.
Hence the necessity of giving a considerable volume to
objects that  arc  intended lo be placed on the tops of
buildings, and  xvhich are to be seen from a distance.
The smaller the dimensions of nn object nre, the nearer
it ougiit  to be to the eve, iu order to be distinctly seen.
What is called the di',:iuct point  of vie'"  ** also very t
      392
 variab.e.  A horse is seen very distinctly at six yards,
 but a bird could not te distinctly seen at Ihe same dis
 tance.  If xve wish to examine the hair or the feather?
 of those animals, the eye requires to be much nearer.
 However, the same object may be seen distinctly at dif-
 ferent distances; for example, il is quite  the same to
 many persons whether they place the book that  they
 are reading at one or two feet of distance from the eye.
 The intensity of the light which illuminates an object,
 has a considerable effect upon the  distance at wliich it
 can be distinctly seen.
  Estimation of the size of bodies.—The manner  in
 xvliich wc arrive at a just determination of the size of
 bodies, depetids more  upon knowledge and habit tnan
 upon the action of the apparatus of vision.  We form
 our judgment relative to the dimensions ol" bodies, from
 the size ofthe image xvhich is formed in the eye, from
 the intensity of tlie light xvhich proceeds from the ob-
 ject, from the distance at xvhich xve think  it is placed,
 and, above all, from  the  habit of seeing such objects.
 We therefore judge xvitii difliculty of the size of a body
 lliat xve sec for the first time, when we  cannot appre
 ciate the distance.  A mountain xvhich xvesee at a dis-
 tance for the first time, appears generally much less
 than  it really is; xve think it is  near us xvhen it is very-
 far axvay.
  Beyond a distance somexvhat considerable, we are so
 completely deceived, that judgment is unable to correct
 us.   Objects appear lo us infinitely less than they really
 are :  as happens xvitii the celestial bodies.
  Estimation of the motion  of bodies.—We judge of the
 motion of a body by lhat of its image upon the retina.
 by the variations of the size of tins finaae,  or, xvhicli is
 the same thing, by the  change  of the direction of thc
 light xvhich arrives at the eye.
  In order that xve may be able to follow the motion of
 a body, it ought not to  be displaced too rapidly, for xve
 could  not then perceive it; this happens with bodies
 projected by the force of gunpowder, particularly when
 they pass near us.  When they move at a distance from
 us, the light comes from  them to the eye for a much
 longer space of time, because the field of viexv is much
 greaier, and we can see them xvitii more facility.   We
 ought to be ourselves at rest, in order to judge correctly
 of the motions of bodies.
  When bodies arc at a considerable distance from us,
 xve cannot easily perceive their motions to or from us.
 In this case, xve judge of the motion of the body, only
 by tbe variation of the size of its image.  Noxv this
 variation being infinitely small,  because the  body is at
 a great distance, it  is very difficult, and  frequently
 impossible, for us  lo estimate its  motion.  Generally
 xve perceix-e xvith great difficulty, sometimes xve cannot
 perceive at  all, the motion of a body  which movei
 extremely sloxv; this may be on account of the sloiv-
 ness of its oxvn motion, as in tlie case ofllie hand of a
 xvatch, or it may be the result of tlie sloxv motion of ihe
 image, xvhich happens with the stars, and objects very
 far from us.
  Of optical illusions.—After what xve have just said,
 of the manner in xvhich xve estimate the distance, the
 size, and the  motion of bodies, we may easily see that
 xve are often deceived by sight.  These deceptions are
 known in Physics, and in Physiology, by the name of
 optical illusions.   Generally xve judge pretty xvell of
 bodies placed near us; but we arc most commonly de-
 ceived xx ith regard to  those thai are distant.  Those
 illusions xvhich happen to  us with regard to objects
 that  are near  us, are the result, sometimes of the
 reflection, sometimes of the refraction, of  light before
 it reaches the eye; and sometimes of the law that we
 establish  instinctively; namely,  that light proceeds
 alxvays in right lines.
  We must refer to litis cause those illusions occasioned
 by mirrors: objects arc seen in plane mirrors at the
 same distance behind them, as the mirrors are distant
 from the eye.  To this cause may be attributed also the
 apparent increase, or diminution of bodies seen through
 a glass.  If the glass make the rays converge, the body
 xvill appear greater; if it cause them to diverge, tho
 body  xvill appear less.  These glasses produce  still
 another illusion;  objects appear  surrounded bv the
colours of the solar spectrum, because their surfaces
 not being parallel, they decompose lighl in the manner
ofllie prism.
  We are constantly deceived by objects at a distance,
in a manner  that xve cannot utevent,  because those 
vis                                               vrr
  aecepttons result from certain Inxvs xvhich go\-ern the
  animal  economy.  An object seems near us in propor-
  tion ns its image occupies a greater space upon the
  retina;  or in  proportion to the  intensity of the light
  which proceeds from it.
   Of two objects of a different volume, equally illu-
  minated and placed at the same  distance,  the greatest
  will appear  the nearest, should circumstances be such
  as to admit of the distance being justly estimated.  Of
  txvo objects  of equal volume, placed  at nn equal dis-
  tance from  the eye, but  unequally  illuminated, the
  brightest xvill appear the nearest; it xvould be the same,
  if the objects were  nt  unequal  distances, as can  be
  easily seen  in looking at a string of lamps: if tliere
  happen lo be one of them brichter than the rest, it will
  appear  the  nearest,  xvhile  that xvliich is really the
  nearest xvill  appear the farthest, if it is the least bright.
  An object seen without  any intermedium, alxvays ap-
  pears nearer than when there happens to be betxveen it
  and the eye,  some  body that may have an influence
  upon the estimation that xve make of its distance.
   When a bright object strikes the eve, while all the
  objects around it are obscured, it  appears much nearer
  than  it  really is; a  light in the night produces this
  effect.
   Objects appear always small in proportion  as ihey
 are distant;  thus, the  trees in a long alley, appear so
 much smaller, and so much nearer together, in propor-
 tion as they are  farther from  us.  It is by observing
 these illusions, and tlie laws of the animal economy,
 upon  which Ihey aie founded, that art has been en-
 abled to imitate them.  The art of painting, in certain
 cases, merely  transfers to the canvass  those optical
 errors into which xve most habitually fall.
   The construction  of optical Instruments  is  also
 founded upon these principles:  some of them augmer.t
 the intensity of the light, xvhich proceeds from the ob-
 jects observed  ; others cause it to diverge, or converge,
 in order to  increase  or diminish their apparent vo-
  lume, &c.
   By the constant exercise ofthe sense of sight, xve are
 e.iabled  to get over many optical illusions, as xvill  be
 proved by the curious  history of the blind  youth,
 spoken of by Cheselden.   This celebrated surgeon,  by
 a surgical operation, Generally said to be that for cata-
 ract, but, more probably, it was a division of the mem
 brana pupillaris, procured sight to a very intelligent
 person who xvas borff blind: and he observed the man-
 ner in which this sense was developed in  this young
 man.  " When he saxv the light for the first time,  he
 knexv so little  how to judge of distances, that he be-
 lieved the objects wliich he saxv touched his eyes (and
 ihis  xvas  his expression) as the things  which he felt
 touched  his skin.  The objects xvliich  were most plea-
 sant to him were those whose form xvas regular and
 smooth, though he had no idea of their form, nor could
 he tell why they  pleased him better than the others.
 During the time of his blindness he hid such an imper-
 fect  idea of colours,  that he was then able to dis-
 tinguish, by a very strong light, that they had not left
 an impression sufficient  by which he could again
 recognise them.  Indeed, when he saxv them, he  said
 tlie colours he then saw xvere not the same as those he
 had seen formerly; he did  not know the form of any
 object; nor  could he  distinguish  one  object  from
 another, hoxvever different their figure or size might be:
 xvhen objects were shown to him xvhich he had knoxvn
 formerly by the touch, he looked at them with  atten-
 tion,  and observed them carefully in order to knoxv
 them again;  but as he had too many objects to retain
 at once, he forgot the greater part of them, and xvhen
 lie first learned, as he said, to see and to know objects,
 he forgot a thousand for one that he recollected.  It
 was  txvo moi.lhs  before he  discovered lhat pictures
 represent solid bodies;  until  that time he had con-
 sidered them as planes and surfaces differently coloured,
 nnd diversified Dy a variety of shades; but xvhen he
 "legan to conceive that these pictures represented solid
 .indies, in touching the canvass of a picture with his
 land he expected to find in reality something solid upoa
 it, aud he was  much astonished xvhen, upon touching
 those parts xvhich seemed round and unequal, he found
 them  flat, and  smooth like  llie  rest; he asked, which
 xvas  the  sense that  deceived him,—the sight or the
lotion ?  There was shown to him a little portrait of his
tinhtr, which was in the case of his mother's xvatch
he said, that he knexv very xvell it was the resemblance
 of his father; but he asked, xvith greal astonishment
 htu il was possible for so large a visage to be kept in
 so small a space, as that appeared to him as impossible
 as that -. bushel should be contained in a pint.  He
 could not support much light at first, find every object
 seemed very large to him ; but after he had seen larger
 things he considered the first smaller: he thought there
 xvas nothing beyond the iimits of his sight.  The same
 operation xvas performed on the other eye about a year
 after tlie  first, and it succeeded equally xvell.   At first
 he saxv objeefs xvith his second eye much larger than
 xvith the olher, but  not so large, hoxvever, as he had
 seen them wilh  the first eye; and  when he looked at
 the same object xvitii both eye9 at once, he said that it
 appeared txvice as large as xvith the first eye; but he
 did not see double, at least it could  not be ascertained
 that he saxv objects double, after he had got the sight
 of the second eye."
   Thi» observation is not singular; there exists a num-
 ber of others, nnd they have all  given results nearly
 alike.  The conclusion that may  be draxvn from it is,
 that the exact manner in which we  determine the dis-
 tance, size, and form of objects, is the result of habit,
 or, xvhich is  the  same thing, of thc education of the
 sense of sight.
   Virion, defective.  See Dysopia.
   VI'SUS   See  Vision.
   Visus  iikfiguratis.  See Metamorphopsia.
   VITA.  (Vita, a,f.;i vivendo.)  See Life.
   ViT.f: aiibor.  See Arbor vita.
   Vit.e lignum.  See Guaiacum.
   Vital actions.  See Vital functions.
   Vital air.  See Oxygen.
   Vital force.  See Vis vita.
   Vital functions.  See  Function.
   Vital principle. See Life.
   VI I'A'LBA.  See Clematis recta.
   VITELLUS.  (Vitellus, i, in.; from vita, life; be
 cause the life of the chick is in it.)
   1. The yelk of an egg.
   2. In botany applied by Gaertner to that part of n
 seed xvhich is very firmly  and inseparably connected
 xvith ihe  embryo, yet never  rising  out of the integu-
 ments of the seed in germination,  but absorbed, like
 the albumen, for  the nourishment of the embryo.  If
 the albumen be present, the vitellus is always situated
 betxx-cen u and tlie embryo, and yet is constantly distinct
 from the former.   It is esteemed by Gaertner to com-
 pose the  bulk of the seed in the  fusci, mosses, and
 ferns.  Iu the natural order of grasses, llie  vitellus
 forms a scale  belxven tlie embryo and  the albumen.
 Sir J. Smith thinks the vitellus is nothing  else than a
 subterraneous cotyledon.  See Albumen.
   VI'TEX.  (From  vieo, to bind.)  The name of a
 genus of plants in the Linnaean system.  Class, Didy-
 namia ; Order, Angiospcrmia.
   Vitex  aonus casti's.  Tiie systematic name of the
 Agnus  castus; Elaagnon.   The chaste Iree.  Vitex
 —foliis digitalis, serratis, spicis verticillatis,  of Lin
 naeus.  The seeds are the medicinal part, xvhicli have,
 when fresh, a fragrant smell, and an acrid aromatic
 taste.   Formerly  Ihey  were celebrated as anaphro-
 disiacs; but experience does not discover in them any
 degree of such virtue, and some have described to them
 an opposite one.  They are noxv fallen into disuse.
   Vi'ti saltus.  See Chorea.
   VITILI'CO.  (Vitiligo,inis, f.; from vitio, to infect.)
 See Alphus.
   VI'TIS. 1. The name of a genus of plants in the Lin-
 mean system.  Class, Pentandria; Order, Monogynia.
  2. The  pharniacopoeial name of the  grape.   See
 Vitis vinij'cra.
  Vitis alba.  See Bryonia alba.
  Vitis corinthica.  The  dried fruit of this tree is
 the  Uva passa minor;  Passu corinthiaca.   The vlr
tues of the currant are similar to those  of the raisin
See Vitis vinifera.
  Vitis id.ea.  See  Vaccinium.
  Vrns svlvestris.  White bryony.
  Vitis vinifera. The systematic name of the grape
Iree.  Vitis—foliis lobatis sinuatis nudis, of Linnaeus
Vine leaves and thc tendrils have an adstringent taste
and xvere  formerly used  in diarrhoeas, haemorrhages,
and other dismders requiring refrigerant and  styptic
medicines.  The juice or sap of the vine called lachry-
ma, has been recommended in calculous disorders: and
it is said to bo an excellent application to xveak eves 
VOI
VOI
 ann specks ot tne cornea.   The unripe fruit has a
 harsh, rough, sour taste; ils expressed juice, called ver-
 juice, xvas formerly much esteemed, bul is now super-
 seded  by the juice of lemons;  for external use, hoxv-
 ever, particularly in bruises and pains, verjuice is still
 employed, and considered to be a very  useful applica-
 tion.  The  dried fruit is  termed Uva passu major.
 Passula major,  the raisin.  Raisins are prepared  by
 immersing the fresh  fruit itito a solutioii of alkaline
 salt and soap Icy, made boiling hot, to  xvhich is added
 some olive oil, aud a small quantity of common salt,
 and afterxvard drying them in  the shau..  They are
 used as agreeable, lubricating, acescent sweets in pec-
 toral decoctions,  and for obtunding  the  acrimony in
 otlier medicines, and rendering  them grateful to the
 palate and stomach.  They are directed in the decoc-
 tum hordei compositum, tinctura senna, and tinctura
 cardamomi composita.  See also Wine and Acetum.
  Vitra'wa.  The pellitory of the wall.
  VITREOUS.   (Vitreus; from vitrum, glass:  so
 named from its transparency.)   Glassy:  applied  to
 parts of the body.
  Vitreous humour. Humor vitreus. The pellucid
 body which fills the xvhole bulb of the eye behind the
 crystalline lens  The vitreous substance is composed
 of small cells xvhicli communicate with each other, and
 are distended xvith a transparent fluid.
  VITRIOL.  See  Vitriolum.
  V. trial, acid of.  See Sulphuric acid.
  Vitriol, blue. See Cupri sulphas.
  Vitriol, green.  See Ferri sulphas.
  Vitriol, Roman.   See Cupri sulphas.
  Vitriol, sweet, spirit of.   See Spiritus atheris sul-
 phurict.
  Vitriol, white.  See Zinci sulphas.
  Vitriolated kali.  See Potassa sulphas.
  VITRIOLUM.   (From vitrum,  glass: so called
 from its likeness to glass.   Hollandus  says this  word
 is fictitious, and composed from tlie initials of the fol-
lowing sentence: Vade in  terrain rimandj,  invenics,
optimum lapidem veram  medtcinam.)  Calcadiuum;
 Calcalar ;  Calcotar ; Calcantkos ; Calcanthum ;  Cal-
citea.  Vitriol, or sulphate of iron.    See  Ferri sul-
 vhas.
  Vitriolum  album.  See Zinci sulphas.
  Vitriolum  c<e,*uleum.  See Cupri sulphas.
  Vitriolum  romanum.   See Cupri sulphas.
  Vitriolum  viridb.  See Ferri sulphas.
  VI'TRUM.  (Vitrum, i, n.)  Glass.
  Vitrum antimonii.  Glass  of antimony.  Anti-
mony first calcined, then fused in a crucible.
  Vitrum antimonii ceratum.  A diaphoretic com-
 pound exhibited in tlie cure of dysenteries arising from
checked perspiration.
  Vitrum iiypoclkpticum.  A funnel to separate oil
 from xvater.
  VIVERRA.  The nameof a genusof animals in the
 Order Fcra, of the Linnaean classification.
  Viverra civetta.  The systematic name of the
 ash-coloured weazel, which, with tlie  folloxving  spe-
 cies, affords the perfume called civet.
  Viverra zibetha.  Tlie systematic name of the
 civet-cr.t.  See Civetta.
  VIVUM.  A name variously applied: to mercury,
 because  it moves about as if il were alive; hence ar-
 gentum vivum : to lime,  because xvhen  moisture  is
 added it cracks aud swells, as if alive.
  VOICE.  Vox.   By voice we understand llie sound
 xvhicli is  produced  in the larynx, nt tlie instant when
 the air traverses this organ, either to enter or go out of
 the trachea.
  In order to understand the mechanism by xvhicli thc
 voice is produced  and modified, xve must say some-
 thing of the manner in which sound  is produced, in
 xvliich it  is propagated and  modified  in xvind instru-
 ments, particularly those that have most analogy with
 ihe organ of voice.
  A wind instrument is generally formed of a tube,
 either straight or bent, in xvliich, by various processes,
 the nir is maae to vibrate.
  Wind  instruments  are of txvo  sorts: the  one sort
 ate called mouth instruments, the other sort reed instru-
 nienis.
  In the mouth instruments (ihe horn, trumpet, trom-
 »onr, flageolel, flute, organ,) the column  of air  con-
 tained in tlie tune Is the sonorous body. The air must
 be  c»us..<i m vibrate ill it in order to produce sounds.
      394
 For this purpose, the means  employed are variable,
 according to the sort of instrument.  The length, thi
 xvidth, the form of the tube, the openings in its sides, ot
 its extremities, the power of tlie vibrations, and the
 manner  in  wliich they are excited, are Ihe causes ot
 the various sounds of this sort of instruments.  The
 nature of the matter which forms the sounds has no
 influence but upon thc tone.
   The reed instruments are  the most necessary to be
 knoxvn,  for the organ of the voice  is cf this kind.
 Their theory is, unfortunately, much more imperfect
 than that of the other sort.  In this sort of instruments.
 (the clarionet, hautboy,  bassoon, voice organ, &c ) we
 ought to distinguish between the reed, or anche, and the
 body of Ihe lube.  Their mechanism is essentially dif
 Cerent.
   A reed is alxvays formed of one, and sometimes of
 txvo, thin plates, susceptible of a rapid motion, the
 alternate vibrations of xvhich are intended  to intercept
 and permit, by turns, the passage of a current of air.
 For this reason, tlie sounds which they produce do not
 follow the same laws as the  sounds formed by elastic
 plates, witli one end fixed, and the  other  free, which
 produce  sonorous undulations in tlie open air.  In the
 reed instruments, the reed alone produces and modifies
 thc sound.   If the plate is long, the  motions are long,
 slow, and consequently the sounds are grave.   On Ihe
 contrary, a short plate produces acute sounds, because
 the alternations of transmission and interception of the
 current of air are more rapid.
   When a number of different sounds are  intended to
 be produced by a reed, ii is necessary to vary the length
 of tiie plate.  'The bassoon and clarionet  players do
 ihis when they wish to produce different sounds on the
 same instrument.  We  add, ns an important circum-
 stance, that the greater or less elevation of sound pro-
 duced by the instrument, partly depends on the elasti-
 city, the  xveigiit, and the form of the little tongue, or
 plate, and on the force  of the current of air.  If all
 these elements are not the same, the length being inva-
 riable, the tone xvill be different.
  A reed is never employed alone; it is  alxvays fitted
 to a tube through xvhich  the wind passes that has been
 bloxvn into the reed, and xvhicli ought, on this account,
 to be  open at the txvo  extremities.  Thc tube has no
 influence upon the lone of the music ; it acts only upon
 the intensity, the timbre, aud upon the power of mak-
 ing the reed speak.             *
  Apparatus of voice.—The  larynx  ought properly
 to be considered as the organ of voice.
  The size of the larynx varies according  to age and
 sex. It is  placed  at the  anterior part of the neck
 where a  small projection is seen, between the tongue
 and the trachea.   It is small  in children and women,
 greater in young men, and still larger in adult age.
  The larynx not only produces the voice, but it is also
 the agent of its principal  modifications;  on xvhich ac
count,  n  perfect knoxvledge of the anatomy of this
organ is indispensably necessary to a perfect kiioxvledge
of the mechanism of voice.  As we  cannot enter here
into all the details of the structure of the  larynx, we
will only  touch upon such as are most necessary to be
knoxvn, many of xvhich are not yet well understood.
  Four cartilages and three fibre-cartilages enter into
the composition ofthe larynx, and fotm the  skeleton of
it.  The cartilages are the cricoid, the thyroid, and the
txvo aryianoid.   The thyroid joins xvith the cricoid by
thc extremity of its txvo inferior horns.  In the living
state, llie thyroid is fixed xvith respect to  llie cricoid,
 xvhich is contrary to xvhat is generally supposed. Every
arytanoid cartilage is articulated xv'ith the cricoid by
means of a surface, which is oblong, nnd concave in a
transverse direction.   The cricoid presents a  surface
 xvhicli is  similarly disposed to that of the  arytanoid.
 xvith this difference, that it is convex in the  same direc-
 tion in xvhich tlie olher i3 concave.   Round the articu-
 lation there is a synovial capsule, firm before and be
 hind, and moveable  xvithout  and within.   Before tht
 articulation is the Iky ro-arytanoid ligament; behind it
 a strong ligamentous band lhat might be called crico-
 arytanoid, on account of the manner in  which it  i«
 fixed.
  Thus disposed, the articulation admits only of latera.
 movementsof the arytanoid upon the cricoid cartilage
 No movement forward  or backxvatd  can  lake place,
 nor a certain movement up and doxvn, mentioned iii
 anatomical books which none ofthe muscles is so dis- 
VOI
VOI
 Posed as to pioduce.  This articulation ought to be con-
 sidered ns a simple lateral ginglymus.  The libra car-
 nitines of the larynx are the epiglottis, and txvo small
 oodles that are found above the top of the arytanoid
 cartilages, and  that  have  been  called  by Santorini,
 tapitula carlilaginum arytanoidearum.
   There  are  a great many muscles  attached  to the
 jarynx.  These muscles  are called external: they are
 intended to move the xvhole organ, either in  carrying
 it up or doxvn, backward or forward, &c.  The  larynx
 has also otlier muscles, whose use is  to  give a move-
 ment to tlie different parts in respect of each  otlier.
 Tin se muscles have been called internal.  They are,
   1st, The crico-thyroid,ll\e use of xvliich is not,us lias
 hitherto been  believed, to loxver the thyroid ii|ion tho
 cricoid  cartilage, but, on the contrary, to  raise Ihe cri-
 coid toxvards the thyroid cartilage, or In making  it pass
 a little beloxv its inferior edge.
   2d, The muscles crico-urytanoideus posterior, and
 thc crico-arytanoideus lateralis, the use of xvhich is to
 draxv outxvards ihe arylaenoitl cartilages,  in separating
 them from one another.
  3d, The arytanoid muscle, xvhich draxvs the  arytae-
 noid cartilages together.
  4th, The tkyro-arytanoideus, a knowledge of xvhicli
 is more important than that of all the muscles  of the
 larynx, because its vibrations pioduce the x-ocal sound.
 This muscle forms the lips nf the glottis, and the infe-
 rior, superior, and lateral sides of tlie ventricles  of tlie
 larynx.
  5ih, Lastly,  the muscles of the epiglottis, xvhicli are
 the thyro-epiglottidcus, the  arytano-epiglottideus. and
 some fibres that may be considered as llie vestige ofthe
 glosso-epiglottidcus muscle that exists in some animals,
 whose contraction has an influence upon the position
 ofthe epiglottis.
  The larynx is covered xvithin by a mucous membrane.
 This membrane,  in passing from tlie  epiglottis to the
 arytaenoid and thyroid cartilages, forms txvo folds, called
 'ateral ligaments ofthe epiglottis.  They concur iu the
 "brinatioh of tlie  superior and inferior ligaments of thc
 glottis.
  Iii the substance of the epiglottis, and behind it, are
 found a great number of mucous follicles, and some
 niveous glands.   Within tlie mass of the ligaments of
 the epiglottis, there exists a collection  of those  bodies
 that  have  been very  improperly  called arytanoid
 glands.
  Betxveen the epiglottis behind, and the os hyoides
 and thyroid cartilage before, there is seen a considera-
 ble quantity of tbe adipose cellular tissue, xvhich  is
 very elastic, and similar to that xvhich exists near cer-
 tain articulations.  There has been no use assigned  In
 this body.  I)r. Magendie believes it serves to facilitate
the frequent movements  of  the thyroid cartilage upon
 the posterior face of the os hyoides, and to keep the
epiglottis separated  from  the upper part of this bone,
while, at  the same  time, it provides  it  with a very
 elastic support, favourable to the  action  of the fibro-
 cartilages in the production of the voice, or in  deglu-
 tition.
  The vessels of the larynx present nothing remarka-
 ble.   It  is not so with the nerves of this organ.  Their
 distribution merits a careful examination. There are
 four of these nerves, the superior laryngeal and the
 inferior.
  The recurrent nerve is distributed to thc posterior
 crico arytaenoid,  to the  lateral  crico-arytaenoid, and
 tbyro-arylaenoid.  None of tlie ramifications of this
 nerve go to the arytaenoid, or to the crico-thyroid, mus-
 cles.  On the contrary, the superior nerve of the larynx
 goes to the arytenoid muscle, xvhich  it  provides with a
 considerable branch   ami to ihe crico-thyroid, to xvhich
 it gives a small filament, more remarkable for the dis-
 tance it proceeds than for its size.   In certain cases this
 filament does not exist.   The external branch of the
 nerx-e of the larynx is then of a  larger size.   The re-
 mainder of the'filainents of the laryngeal nerves are
 distributed to  tlie epiglottis, and to the mucous  mem-
 brane xvhicli covers the entrance of the larynx.  This
 part  possesses an  extraordinary sensibility.
  Tne interval which separates  the thyro-arytaenoid
 muscles, and the arytaenoid cartilages, is called glottis.
 [n the dead body, the glottis presents  the appearance
of a longitudinal slit of about eielit or ten lines long.
and txvo or three xvide; it is xvider behind than before!
H«"0 the txvo sides meet at the point of" iheir insertion
Into the thyroid cartilage.  The posterior extremity of
the glottis is formed by the arytanoid muscles.
   If the arytanoid cartilages are brought together so ns
to touch on their internal laces, the glottis is diminished
nearly a  third  of its length.   It then  presents a slit
xvhich is from five to six lines long, and from half n line
lo a line long.  The sides of this slit are called Ihe lips
of the glottis.  They present  a siiarp edge turned up-
xvard and inward.  Tliey are essentially formed by tlie
arytaenoid  muscle, and by the ligament of the same
name, xvhich" as an aponeurosis, covers the muscle to
xvhich it  adheres strongly, and xvhich, being itself
covered by the mucous membrane, forms line thinnest
parts or edge of tlie lip.  These lips of the glottis vibrate
in the production of the voice; they might be called
ihe human reed.  Above llie  inferoir ligaments of the
glottis are tlie ventricles of the larynx, Ihe cavity of
xvhich is larger than il seems at fiist sight.   The supe-
rior, inferior, and external sides of it are formed by the
thyro arytaenoid muscle, turned upon  itself.  The ex-
tremity, or anterior side, is formed by the thyroid carti
lage.  By means of these ventricles,  the  lips  of the
glottis are completely isolated upon their upper  side.
   Above the opening  of the ventricles we see two bo
dies, which, iu their manner of being disposed, have a
great deal of analogy with the  vocal chords, and xvhicli
form a sort of  second glottis above the first.  These
bodies are called the superior  ligaments ofthe glottis.
Tliey aie formed by the superior edge ofllie thyro ary
taenoid muscle, a little adipose cellular tissue, and llie
mucous membrane of the larynx, xvhich covets them
before penetrating into the ventricles.  These observa-
tions arc easily made upon the larynx of dead  bodies,
The glottis of a living person has never been examined
at least there has been nothing written on this subject
but xvhen tliose of animals, as of dogs,  arc examined
they contract and enlarge alternately.  The arytenoid
cartilages are directed outxvards when  the air pene-
trates into the lungs ; nnd in thc instant xvhen the air
passes out, they come close together.
   Mechanism of the Production of Voice.—If xve take
the trachea and the larynx  of an animal or of a man,
and  bloxv air strongly into the trachea,  directing it to
wards the larynx, there is no sound produced, but only
a  slight noise, resulting  from  the pressure of  the ail
against the sides of the larynx.   If, in bloxvinj,  xve
bring together  the arytaenoid  cartilages, so tlial  ihey
may touch upon llieir internal face, a sound  will  be
produced, something like the  voice of the  animal to
xvhich the larynx used in the experiment belongs.
  The sound xvill be dull or sharp, according as the car-
tilages are pressed more or less forcibly together:  its
intensity will be more or less, according to tlie intensity
of tlie nir.  It is easily seen, in this experiment, that
the sound is produced by the vibrations of the inferior
ligament ofthe glottis.
   Both man and the animals are deprived of x-oice by
making an opening below ihe larynx.  The voice is
reproduced if the opening is closed mechanically.  Dr
Magendie knows a person xvho has  been in tins situa
tion  for four years.   He cannot speak without pressing
a cravat strongly against a fistulous opening in  the la-
rynx.  The same tiling takes place  xvhen the larynx is
opened beloxv the inferior ligaments ofthe glottis.
  But if a xvouud exists above  the  glottis,  if the epi
glottis and its muscles are affected, if the superior liga
ment of the glottis, even if the superior aspect  ofthe
arytanoid cartilages are injured, the voice continues.
  Lastly, the glottis of an animal being laid bare in the
instant that it cries, shoxvs very well that voice is pro-
duced by the vibrations of the  vocal chords, or  lips of
the glottis.  This is enough to prove, beyond all doubt,
lhat  the voice is fo-med in the glottis by the motion of
its inferior ligaments.
  This fact being established, is it possible, on physical
principles, to account  for the formation of the  voice 1
The following explanation appears the most probable.
  The air being  pressed from  the lungs,  proceeds in a
pipe of considera": Eize.  This pipe very soon becomes
contracted, and the air is forced to pass through a nar-
roxv slit, the two sides of which are vibrating  plates,
which permit and  intercept the nir, I ke the plates ol
reeds, and xvhich ought, in  the same manner, by these
alternations, to  produce  sonorous undulations in the
transmitted current of air.
  But, in Mowing into the trachea of a dead body, why-
does it not produce  a sound  like that  of  the human
                                        39j 
VOI                                               VOI
 voice 1   Why is tlee palsied state of the internal mus-
 cles cf this organ followed by the loss of the voice"!
 Why, -ii a xvord, is an act of the will necessary to pro-
 duce the vocal sound 1  Thc answer to this is not diffi-
 cult.  The ligaments ofthe glottis have not tlie faculty
 of vibrating like plates of reeds, except the thyro ary-
 taenoid muscles are contracted; and, therefore, in every
 case in which the muscles are not  contracted, the voice
 will not be produced
  Experiments performed on animals ate perfectly in
 unison wilh this doctrine.  Divide the txvo  recurrent
 neives, unit the voice will cease.   If only one is cut,
 thc voice will be only half lost.
  Dr. Magendie, hoxvever, lias seen a number of ani-
 mals, in which  the txvo recurrent  nerves had been cut,
cry very loud xvhen tliey suffered severe pain.  These
sounds xvere very similar to the sounds that would be
produced mechanically xvilh tlie larynx of the animal
when dead, hy blowing into the trachea, and bringing
together  the arytaenoid cartilages.  This phenomenon
 is easily understood  by llie distribution of the nerves
of the laiynx.  The recurrents being cut, the thyro-
arytaenoid muscles do not contract, and thence results
tiie loss of voice; but the arytaenoid muscle, that re-
ceives its nerves from the superior laryngeal, contracts,
-ind brings together, in the instant of a strong expira-
tion, tlie arytaenoid cartilages, and  the slit of thc glottis
becomes  sufficiently narrow for the  air to throw the
thyro-aryta-noid muscles, though they are not contract-
ed, into vibration.
  Intensity or volume of the voice.  The intensity of
the voice, like that of all other soundg, depends upon
 he extent ofthe vibrations.
  The vibrations of the vocal chords xvill be in propor-
tion to tiie force xvith which the  air is expelled from
the breast; and the longer the chords are, that is, the
more voluminous the larynx is, the more considerable
xvill be the extent of the vibrations.  A strong person.
xvith a large chest, and  a larynx of laigc dimensions j
 presents  the  most advantageous condition  for the in-
 tensity of the voice.  If such a person becomes sick,
 his voice, on  account of his weakness, loses much of
 its intensity, because  it is no longer expelled xvitii the
same force from the chest.
  Children, women, and eunuchs, whose laiynx is pro-
portionably loss than that of a man iu adult age, have
also much less intensity of voice.
  In the ordinary production of the  voice, it results
from the simultaneous motions ofthe txvo sides of the
glottis.  Were one of these sides to lose the faculty of
causing tlie air to vibrate, the voice xvould lose, neces-
sarily, half its intensity, the force  of expiration being
the same.  This may lie proved in cutting one of tiie
recurrent nerves of a dog, or in paying attention to the
voice of a person who has had  a  complete attack of
hemiplegia.
  Tone of the voice.—Every individual has a particu-
 lar tone of voice by wliich he is known: tliere is also a
particular tone xvliich belongs to tlie different sexes and
age.  The tone of the voice presents au infinite num-
 ber of modifications.  Upon what circumstances do
 these depend 1  This  is  unknown.  The  feminine
 tone, however, which is found in children and eunuchs,
 generally agrees wilh the state of the cartilages of the
 larynx.   On the contrary, the masculine tone  which
 xvomen sometimes possess,  appears  to be connected
 wilh  the  state of these cartilages, and  particularly
 with that of  the thyroids.  Tone  is a modification of
 sound, of xvhich philosophers have by no means given
 an exact explanation.
  Of the extent of the voice.—The sounds xvhich  the
 human larynx is capable of producing are very nume-
 rous.   Many celebrated authors have endenvoured to
 explain the manner of their formation; but they have
 rather given us comparisons than explanations.
  We have examined the reed of the organ of voice;
 we shall  now  consider thc tube that the vocal sound
 traverses after having been produced.  In proceeding
 from below upwards, the tube is composed, 1st, of the
 interval between  the epiglottis before, its lateral  liga-
 ments upon the sides, and of the posterior side of the
 pharynx; 2dly, of the pharynx behind, and  laterally,
 nnd of the most posterior part of the base of the tongue
 before; 3dly, sometimes of the mouth, and sometimes
 of the nasal  cavities; at other times, of these two
 cavities together.
  This tube capable of being prolonged or shortened,
      3%
 of being made wider or narrower;  being susceptible of
 assuming au infinite variety of forms, ought io be very
 capable of performing all the functions of the body of
 a reed instrument;—that  is, to be capable  of hninio-
 nizing with the larynx, and of  thus favouring the pro-
 duction of the numerous tones of which Ihe voice is
 susceptible;  of increasing the intensity of the vocal
 sound, by taking a conical  form, xvilh the base out-
 wards ; of giving a roundness and  agreeableness to the
 sound, by suitably exposing its  exterior  opening, or by
 almost entirely shutting  it, &c.
   Until the influence of the tube of reed instruments
 has been determined  with  precision, it is evident that
 we  can form only probable conjectures respecting the
 influence of the tube of the organ of voice.  In this
 respect xve can make only a small  number of observa-
 tions, which  relate particularly to the most apparent
 phenomena.
   A. The larynx is raised in the production of acute
 sounds; it is lowered, on the contrary, in the formation
 of those that are grave ;  consequently, the vocal tube
 is shortened in the fiist case,  and lengthened in the
 second.
   We suppose that a  short tube is  more favourable to
 the transmission of acute sounds, xvhile a long one is
 more so for those that are  gi a ve.  The tube changes its
 length at the  same time that it changes its breadth;
 and  this is remarkable, as we  have  seen above that the
 breadth of the tube has a great  influence upon its
 facility of transmitting sounds.
  When the  larynx descends, that is, xvhen the vocal
 tube is prolonged, the  thyroid cartilage descends, and
 removes from  the os hyoides  the whole height of the
 thyrohyoid membrane.  By this separation  the gland
 ofthe epiglottis is carried forward,  and places itself in
 the cavity of  the posterior aspect  of the os hyoides:
 this gland draws after it  the  epiglottis: from this re-
 sults a considerable e-nlatgementof the inferior part of
 the vocal tube.
  The contrary phenomenon happens when the laryns
 is raised.   The  thyroid  cartilage then  rises,  aud
 becomes engaged behind  the os  hyoides, by displacing
 and  pushing backxvard theepiglottid gland; this pushes
 the epiglottis, and the vocal tube is much contracted.
 By imitating the motion upon the dead body, xve may
 easily  ascertain  that  the narroxving may proceed to
 five-sixths of the breadth  of the  tube.  Noiv„ xre adapt
 a large tube to a reed for the purpose of producing
 grave  sounds; on  tlie contrary, it is a narrow lube
 xvhich is generally employed for the purpose of trans-
 mitting acute sounds.   We can then, to a certain de-
 gree, account for the utility of the changes of breadth
 xvhich take place in  the inferior  part of the  vocal
 tube.
  B. The presence of the ventricles of  the  larynx
 immediately above the inferior ligaments of the glottis,
 appears intended, to isolate those  ligaments, so that
 they may vibrate  freely  in ihe air.  When foreign
 bodies enter the ventricles, or when a false membrane,
or mucosities  are  formed,  Ihe  voice is  generally ex-
 tinguished, or much xveakened.
  C. From its form, its  position, its elasticity;  from
the motions xvliich  its muscles  impress upon  it, the
epiglottis appears to belong essentially to thc apparatus
of the voice; but xvhat are its uses 1 ' We have already
seen that it contributes powerfully to the narrowing
of the vocal H be; it  mny be supposed that it I.as a
 more importnn .unction.
  D. The vocal tube has  visibly an influence upon the
 intensity of the voice.   The  most intense sounds
 which the voice can produce, cause the mouth to he
 opened very xvide,  the tongue  to  be  draxvn n  little
 back, and the velum of  ihe palate raised into a  hori
 zontal  position, and to become elastic, closing all  com-
 munication xvilh the nostrils.
  In this case the pharynx and the month  evidently
 perform the ofheeof a speaking trumpet, that is to sax'
 they represent  very exactly a  tube with a reed, wl ch
 increases in xvideness outivnrds, the effect of xvhicli is
 to augment the intensity  ofthe sound produced by the
 reed.  If the mouth is in part closed, the lips cariisd
 forxxard and turned toxvards each other, ihe sound
 xvill  acquire rotundity, and an  agreeable expression;
 but it xvill lose partof its  intensity:  this resuh isensily
 explained after xvhat xve  have said  of the influence ol
 the form of tubes in reed  instruments.
  For the same reasons, whenever the vocal sonm 
VOI
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pusses Into the nose, it xvill become dull, for the  form
nf the cavities ofthe nose is xvell filled for diminishing
the intensity of sounds.  If the mouth and nose ure
shut ui the same time, no sound can be produced.
   E.  We have seen, in considering the production of
voice, that i great number of modifications relative to
expression arise from changes ofthe thickness, and of
the elasticity of the lips of the glottis.  The tube may
pioduce  a number of others, according to lbs difl'erent
negroes of length or breadth; according to ils form, the
contraction of llie pharynx, the position ofthe tongue,
or of the velum of the palate; according as the sound
passes ivholly or in part through the mouth, or the nose,
or both together; according to tho individual disposition
ofthe mouth or nose;  the  existence ur non-existence
of leelh ; the size of the tongue, Sec; the expression
of ihe voice is continually modified according to  all
these circumstances.   For example,  xviienever  the
sound  traverses the nasal cavities, it becomes dis-
agreeably nasal.
  Those  persons are mistaken, xvho think  that the  in-
tensity of vocal sound may be augmented by repercus-
sion, iu passing through the nasal cavities ;  these cavi-
ties produce quite a contrary etfect.  Whenever the
voice is introduced into them, from whatever cause, it
becomes dull.
  F. Besides the numerous modifications  xvhich the
tube of the vocal organ causis in the intensity and the
expression of the  voice, in alternately  permitting  or
intercepting its productions: there is another very im-
portant kiiid of modification produced by it.   By
means of this the  vocal sound is divided into  very
small portions, each possessing a distinct character,
because each of them is produced  by a distinct motion
of the tube.  This  sort of influence of the vocal lube is
called  Ihe faculty of  articulating,  xvhich presents,
besides, an infinite variety of individual  differences
suitable  to the  peculiar organization  of  the  vocal
tube.
   We have  hitherto treated of the human voice in
a  general  manner; xve noxv proceed to speak of its
principal  modifications; namely, the cry or native
voice; the voice proiicrly so called, or acquired voice;
speech, or  articulate  voice ;  singing,  or  appreciable
voice.
   The cry, or native  voice.—The cry is a sound which
tannul be appreciated; il Is, like all those sounds pro-
duced  by the larynx, susceptible of variation in  tone,
intensity, and expression.  The cry is easily distin-
guished from all oilier vocal sounds ;  but as its charac-
ter depends upon  the  expression, it is impossible to
account physically for the difference betxveen if and
the latter.  Whatever  is the  condition of man,  or
xvhalever his age, he is capable of crying.   The nexv-
burn child, the idiot, the person deaf from birth, the
savage, the  civilized,  Ihe  decrepit old man,  all arc
capable of producing cries.  We ought, then, to con-
sider ihe  cry as particularly attached to organization;
indeed, xve may be convinced of this in examining its
uses.
  By the cry xve express vivid sensations, whether they
proceed from without or xvithin; xvliether they are
agreeable or painful:—there are cries of pleasure and
of pain.   By the cry we express our most  simple  in-
stinctive  wauls, the natural passions.  There is a cry
of fury, another of fear, Sec
   The social xvanu  and passions, not being aii indis-
pensable consequence of organization, and the state of
civilization being necessary for their developement, they
have no peculiarcry.   Thecry comprehends, generally,
the most intense sounds that the organ of voice can
produce; itsexpression has often something in il which
offends ihe ear, and  it has a strong action  upon those
who arc near it.
   By means of the cry, important relations are estab-
lished  among mankind.  The  cry of joy  inclines to
joy; the cry of pain  excites pity;  the cry produced  by
terror  causes  fear, even in  those at a distance, Sec.
This sort of language is found in most animals; it is
almost the only language which has been given them;
the song of birds ought to be considered as a modifica-
tion of their cry.
  Acquired voice,  or voice properly so called.—In the
usual state of man,  that is, when he lives  in society,
nnd xvhen he is possessed of the faculty of hearing, he
knows, from earliest  youth, that mankind utter sounds
•vhich are not cries  he very soon finds that he can
produce the same sort of sounds with his larynx, and
immediately, xvhat is cnlled acquired voice, is deve-
loped in him, by the etfect of imitation, and the advan-
tages he derives from it.  A deaf child cannot inakf
any remark xvith  regard lo sound,  and, therefore, he
never acquires  it.  Theie seems  to  be no difference
betxveen the voice and the cry, except in intensity and
expression, for  it is likexvise formed of inappreciable
sounds, or  of sounds whose  intervals arc  not  exactly
distinguished by the ear.
  Since the voice is the consequence of hearing, and
of an intellectual process, it cannot be developed il
those circumstances, by xvliich  il Is  produced, do not
exist  In fact, children born deaf, xvho have never had
any  idea of sound; idiots,  lhat  establish  no  relation
betxveen the sounds xvhich they hear, and ihuse which
their larynx  can produce, have no voice, though the
vocal apparatus of both  may be lit to form and modify
sounds as xvell as lhat of individuals perfectly formed.
  For  the  same reason  those whom xve improperly
term savages, because they have been found xvandering
in forests since their infancy, can have  no voice; the
understanding not  being developed in u solitary slate,
but only in social life.
  The expression,  the intensity, the tone of the voice,
are susceptible of numerous  modifications  on tiie part
of the larynx; the vocal tube also exerts  n powerful
influence upon  the voice: speech and singing are only
modifications of the social voice.
  Modifications of the voice by age.—The larynx is in
proportion very small in the foetus, and  the new-born
infant; its small volume forms a contrast with  lhat of
the os hyoides, xvith the tongue and other organs of
deglutition, whicli are already much developed.   Be-
sides, it is  round, and the thyroid cartilage forms  no
projection in the neck.
  Thc lips of the  glottis, the ventricles, the superior
ligaments,  are very short in  proportion  to xvhat  Ihey
become afterward ; for Ihe thyroid cartilage not being
much developed, they consequently  occupy  a smali
space.  The cartilages are flexible, and have not nearly
the solidity xvhich tliey possess afterward.
  The larynx preserves  these  characters almost till
puberty;  at  this  period a  general  revolution takes
place in the economy.   The developement of  the ge-
nital organs determines a sudden increase iu the nutri-
tion of many of the organs, of which that of the voics
is one.
  The greatest activity of nutrition is first remarked in
the muscles;  afterward, but  more slowly, it is  seen in
the cartilages: Ihe geneial form of the laiynx  is  tiien
modified ; the thyroid cartilage becomes developed in
its autcrior part, it forms a projection in the neck, but
greater in the male than in the female.   From this cir-
cumstance  results  a considerable prolongation of the
lips of  the glottis, or thyro-aryta-uoid muscles; and
this phenomenon is much more worthy of remark than
the general increase of the glottis xvliich hapuens at the
same time.
  Though these changes in the larynx are rapid, they
do not happen nil at once; sonietimes it is six  or eight
months before they terminate.
  After puberty the larynx  does  not suffer any other
remarkable changes; its volume and the projection of
the thyroid cartilage continue to increase, aud become
more strongly  marked.   The cartilages become par-
tially ossified in manhood.
  In old age the ossification of the cartilages continues,
and  becomes almost complete;  the epiglollid gland
diminishes considerably, and the internal muscles, bul
those particularly that form ihe lips of the g ottis, dimi-
nish in volume, assume a  colour less deep, and lose
their elasticity ; iu a word, they take the same modifi-
cations as the muscular system in general.
  The production of voice, as it supposes the passage
of air to and from  the lungs  to take place, cannot exist
in the foetus,  plunged as  It is in the liquor amnii; but
the child is capable of producing very ucute sounds at
Ihe instant of birth.
  Vagitus  is the name  that is given to this voice, or
cry of" children, by  xvhicli they express their wants and
feelings.  We must recollect that this is the object of
the cry.
  Towards the end of the first year, the child begins to
form sounds that are easily distinguished from the va-
gitus.  These sounds, at first vague and irregular, very
booh become more distinct and connected; nurses then
                                        397 
VOL
VOM
Eteglit to make them pronounce the most simple words,
and afterxvard, tliose that are more complicated.  ,
  The pronunciation of children has very little resem-
blance to that of adults; but there is  also a great dif-
ference between them.  In children, tiie teeth have not
yet quitted their  alveoli;  tlie tongue  Is comparatively
verv large: when the lips are closed they  are larger
than is necessary for covering anteriorly the gums; the
has.il cavities are not much developed, Sec
  Children advance only by degrees, and in proportion
as their organs of pronunciation approach those ofthe
adult, to articulate exactly the different  combinations
of letters.   They ire liot  capable of forming appreci-
able  sounds, or of singing, until long after  they have
acquired the faculty of'speech.  This sort of sounds is
the voice properly so Called, or acquired : they could not
exist in thc child xvere it deaf.  They ought not  to be
considered as u modification of the vagitus.
  Until the period of puberty, the larynx remains pro-
portionably very small, as well as the lips of the glottis :
the x-oice  is also composed entirely of acute sounds.
It is physically impossible that the larynx should pro-
duce grave ones.
  At  puberty, particularly in males, the  voice under-
goes a remarkable modification: it acquires in « fexv
days, often all at once, a gravity, and a dull or deaf ex-
pression, that it xvas far from having before.
  It sinks in general about an octave.   The voice of a
young man is said to moult, according to the common
expression.  In certain cases Ihe voice is almost en-
tirely lost  for some  weeks; it frequently contracts a
marked hoarseness.  Sometimes it happens that the
young man produces involuntarily a very acute sound
xvhen he  xvislies to  produce a grave one;  it is then
scarcely possible for tfiin to produce appreciable sounds,
or to sing true.
  This state of things continues sometimes nearly a
year, after which the x-oice becomes  more  clear, and
remains so during life: but seme individuals lose en-
tirely, during the moulting of the voice, the  faculty of
singing; others,  who having  a tine extensive  voice
before the moulting, hax-e afterward only a  very ordi-
nary one.
  The gravity that thc voice acquires depends evidently
upon tne developement of the larynx, and particularly
on the prolongation of the lips ofthe glottis.  As these
parts cannot stretch bnckxvard, they come forxvard: it
is also at this lime thnt tlie larynx projects in the neck,
and  ihe pomum  adami appears.  In the female, the
lips of the glottis do not present at puberty this increase
in breadth ; the voice also generally remains acute.
  The voice generally preserves the  same characters
until after adult age; nt least the modifications that it
undergoes in  the interval are but  inconsiderable, nnd
affect principally the expression, and the volume.  To-
wards the beginning of old  aae, ihe x-oice changes
anew, ils expression alters, and lis extent diminishes:
ringing is more difficult, the sounds become noisy, and
their production painful and fatiguing. 'The organsof
pronunciation being changed by the  effect of age, the
teeth  become shorter, and frequently being lost, the
pronunciation is sensibly changed.  All  these pheno-
mena are more noted in continued old nge.   The voice
Is xveak, shaking, and broken ; singing has thc same
characters which depend on  impaired muscular con-
traction.   Speech also undergoes remarkable modifica-
tions ; the slnxvuess of the motions of llie tongue, the
xvant of the teeth, llie  lips proportionality longer, &.c.
necessarily influence the pronunciation."—Magendie's
Physiology.
  VOLATICUS. (Volaticus; fromvolo, to fly.)  Vo-
latile; flint goeth or flieth, as il were, axvay suddenly.
  VOLATILE.  See Volaticus.
   Volatile alkali.  See Ammonia.
   Volatile caustic, alkali.  See Ammonia.
  VOLATILITY.  Thc properties of bodies by whicli
Ihey nre disposed to assume  the vaporous or elastic
state, nnd  quit the vessels in xvliich tliey nre placed.
  VOLCANITE.  See Augite.
  VoLsb'li.a.  A probang, or Instrument to remove
bodies sticking in the throat.
  VOLUBILIS.  Txvinlng. Botanists npply it to stems
xvhich twine round other plants by their oxvn spirnl
form, either from left to right, supposing the observer
in the centre  (or, in oilier xvouls, according  lo the ap-
parent motions of the sun); as iu  Tamus communis,
and the honeysuckle  or from right to left contrary to '
      :m
the sun, as with Convolvulus  serpium, the  Flench
bean, Sec.
  VOLVA.  (Volva, a, f.; from valva.)  The wrap
per or covering of thc fungous tribe, of a membranous
texture, concealing their parts of fructification, and in
due time bursting all round, forming a rini upon the
stalk, as in Agaricus campestris.  Such is the original
meaning of this term, as explained by Linnaeus; but it
has become more generally used by Linnaeus himself
for the fleshy external covering  of some  other fungi,
which is scarcely raised out of the ground, and enfolds
the xvhole plant when young. It  is  simple, double, or
stellated, very much cut;  as in Lycopodium stellatum.
  VOLVULUS.  (From uoliw. to roll up.)   The iliac
passion, or inflammation in the boxvels, called twisting
of the guts. See Iliac passion.
  Volvulus terrestris.   Small  bindweed.  The
Convolvulus minor.
  VOMER.  Named from its ereat resemblance to a
ploughshare.  It is  a slender thin bone, separating the
nostrils from each other, consisting of two plates much
compressed together, very dense and strong, yet so thin
as to be transpaieut; these two  plates seem at every
edge to separate from eacn other,  and thus a groove is
formed  at every side.—1. This groove on  the upper
edge, or, as it may be called, iis base, is wide, and re
ceives into il thc projecting points of the ethmoid and
sphenoid bones, and ihus it stands very firmly and se-
curely o-e. tlie skuII, and capable of resisting bloxvs of
considerable violence.—2. The groove, upon the loxver
part,  is narrower, and receives  tlie rising line in the
middle ofthe palate plate, xvhere the bones join to form
the palate suture.  At the forepart it is united by a
ragged surface, and by something  like a groove, to the
middle cartilage of the nose, and as the vomer receives
the otlier bones into its grooves,  it is, as it xvere, locked
in on all  sides, receiving support and strength from
each, but more particularly from the thick  and strong
membrane which covers  the whole, and which is so
continuous as  lo resemble a periosteum, or rather a
continued ligament, from Its strength; thus the slender
vomer possesses sufficient strength to avert from it all
those evils which must inevitably have occurred, had
it been less xvisely or less strongly constructed.
  VO'MICA.   (From vomo, lo  spit up;  because il
discharges a sanies.)  An abscess of the lungs.
  VOMITING.  Vomitio.  A forcible ejection of food,
or any otlier substance from the  stomach, through tiie
oesophagus and mouth.
  " That internal sensation which announces the ne
cessily of vomiting is called  nausea; it consists of a
general uneasiness, xvitii a feeling of dizziness in the
head, or  in  the epigastric region: ihe lower lip trem-
bles, and the salivn  floxvs  iu abundance.  Instantly,
and involuntarily, convulsive contractions  of" the ab-
dominal  muscles, and at the same  lime, of the dia-
phragm, succeed to  this state; the  first are not very
intense, but tliose that folloxv are  more  so; they al
last become such, that the matters contained in  the
stomacli surmount the resistance of the cardia, and are
thus darted, as it were, into the oesophagus and mouth-
the same effect is produced many limes in succession;
il ceases  for a  lime, and  begins  again afler some in-
terval.
  At  llie  instant that the matters driven  from  the
stomach  traverse the pharynx   and  the mouth,  the
glottis shuts, the velum ofthe palate  rises, and becomes
horizontal, as in deglutition;  nevertheless, every lime
that one vomits, a certain quantity  of liquid is intro-
duced either into the larynx, or the nasal canals.
  Vomiting was long believed  to  depend  upon  the
rapid convulsive contiaction of the stomach;  but it
has been shown, by a series  of experiments, thai, in
tlie process, this viscus is nearly passive; and lhat the
ttue ugents of vomiting are, on the one hand, the dia-
phragm, and, on Uie other, the large abdominal muscles.
  In the ordinary state, the diaphragm and the muscles
or the abdomen co-operate in vomiting;  but each of
them can, nevertheless, produce  it separately.  Thus.
an animal still vomits, though the diaphragm has been
rendered  immoveable by  cutting the diaphragmatic
nerves; it vomits the same, though  thc whole abdo
minal  muscles have been  taken axvay by the knife,
with the precaution of leaving the linea nlba and the
peritonaeum untouched."
  Vomiting of blood.  See Hamatcmesis.
  vo'MiTt-st-Rt'BNTfs.  See Hamatcmesis. 
WAR
WAT
  Voracious appetite.  See Bulimia.
  Vox abscissa.  Hoarseness, and alsoa loss of Tolce.
  Viiloa'oo.  Tho asarabacca xvas so called.  See
ilsarum.
  VULNFRA'EIA.  (From ttalnus, awound.)   Me-
hcines xvhich heal wounds.  An herb named from its
use in healing wounds.
  Vulneraria a<jva.   Arquebusade.
  VU LNUS.   A wound.
  Vulnus sclopeticu.m.  A gun-shot xvound.
  VULPEN1TE   A  mineral of a graylsh-whlte «♦
lour, found along xvitii granular foliated limestone al
Vulpino, in Italy.
  VU'LVA.  (Quasi vulva, the aperture tothe wortiD-
or ouasi volva, because the fatus Is xvrapped up in It.,
The pudendum muliebre, or parts of generation propvf
lo women ; also a foramen in the brain
  VULVARIA.  (From vulva, the xvomb; so name*
fromltssmell.or use in disordersof the xvomb.)  Stink
ing orach.  See Chenopodium vulvaria.
w
V"C"ACKE.  A  mineral substance intermediate be-
 * *  liveen clay and basalt.
  W.MID.  A name of plumbago.
  Wadd, black.  An ore of manganese: so culled in
Derbyshire.
  WAKE KOHIN.  See Arum.
  WALLFLOWER.  See Cheiranthus cheiri.
  WALL PKLLITORY.  See Parietaria,
  WALL PEPPER.  See Sedum acre.
  WALNUT.  See Juglans.
  WALTHER, AioisriNE Fredbric, a physician,
was ap|Kiinled, in 17-23. professor  of anatomy and sur-
gery  at Leyden.   Several of his  dissertations on ana-
tomical subjects are commended, and have been re-
printed by Haller.  The best  of his  larger  pieces is
-' De Lingua Humana Libellus,"  in  quarto.   As a
botanist he published a Catalogue of the Plains  in his
own garden, and a work on the Structure of Plants.
He died about the year 1746.
  WALTON.  A toxvn, near Tewkesbury  in  Glou-
cestershire, xvhere there is a mineral spring,containing
a small portion  of iron dissolved in fixed an ; of ab-
sorbent earth combined xvith hepatic air; of vitriolated
magnesia, and muriated  mineral alkali; bul the pro-
portions of these constituent parts have not been accu-
rately  ascertained   Walton xvater  is chiefly effica-
cious iu obstructions and olher affections ofthe glands.
  [WARREN.  Da. Jostni,  xvas horn in  Roxbury,
near Boston, iu 1741. He xvas adistintruished physician
and patriot ofthe American Revolution, and was killed
early in the contesi, at the battle of Bunker's Hill, June
17, 1773.  The following is from Thacher's Life of
Warren:
  "The calmni -s and indifference of the veteran 'in
clouds of dust and seas of blood,' can only he acquired
by long acquaintance xvith the trade of death ; but the
heights of Charlestoxvn will bear eternal testimony,
how suddenly in the cause  nf freedom llie peaceful
citizen can become tlie invincible warrior;  stung by
oppression, he springs forivard from his tranquil pur-
suits, undaiiired  by opposition  and  undismayed  by
danger, lo tight even to death for the defence of his
rights.  Parents, wives, children,  and country, all the
hallowed properties of existence, are to him the talisman
lhat  tallies fear from his  heart and nerves his arm to
victory.  In the requiem over those Who have fallen in
the cause of llieir country, which 'Time, wilh hisoxvn
eternal lips shall sing,'  the praises of Warren shall be
distinctly heard.
   The blood of those patriots xvi. ■> have fallen  in de-
fence of republics has often 'crieu from the ground,'
against the iugiatittius ofllie country for xvhich it was
shed.  No monument  xvas reared to  their fame; no
record of their virtues written ; no fostering  hand ex-
tended to their offspring; but they and their deeds weie
neglected and forgotten.  Toxvards Warren there xvas
no insraritude,—our country is  free from thi*  stain.
Congress xvere th • guardians of his honours, and  re-
membered that his children xvere unprotected orphans.
Within a year afler his death, Congress passed the fol-
lowing resolution:
   ' 'That a monument be erected to the  memory of
General Warren, iu tlie town of  Boston, with the tol-
loxving inscription:—
  ' In Honour of JOSEPH WARREN, Major-General
of Massachusetts Bay.  He devoted his life to the liber-
ties of his country; and In b avely defending  them,
'"all ar early victim  -n the dattlk of bunker hill,
June 17,1775.   The Congress of the United Statei at
an nckiioivledgmeni of his services and distinguished
merit, have creeled this monument to his memory."
  Ii xvas resolved, likewise, ' That the eldest son of
General Warren should he educated  from that lime al
the expense of the United States.'   On  the first ol
July, 17H), Congress, recognising  these former resolu-
tions, further resolved,' Thai il should be recommended
to the executive of Massachusetts Bay, to make provi-
sion for the maintenance and education of his  three
younger cliildien ; and that Congress xvould defray tto
expense tothe amount ofthe half-pay of a major-gene
nil; to commence nt  the lime of his  death, and con
tiuue till the youngest of the children should be of age.'
The part of ihe resolutions relating lo the educating of
llie children, was carried into etlect accordingly.   The
monument is not yel erected, bul it is not loo lale.  The
shade of Warren wil!  nol repine nt this neglect, xvhile
llie ashes of Washington repose without gravestone oi
epitaph."   Thach. Med. Biog.  A.]
  WATER.  Aqua.   This fluid  is so xvell knoxvn, as
scarcely to require any definition.
  It is transparent, without colour, smell, or  laste; In
a very slight degree  compressible;  when  pure,  nol
liable lo spontaneous change;  liquid in the common
temperature of our atmosphere,  assuming  the solid
form  at 32° Fahrenheit, and ihe gaseous at 212°, but
returning unaltered to its liquid state on resuming any
diegree of heat between these points:  capable of dis-
solving a greater number of natural bodies than any
oilier flu.d whatever, and especially tliose knoxvn by
the name of the saline; performing the most impor-
tant functions in the vegetable and animal kingdoms,
and entering largely  into their composition as a  con-
stituent part.
  "Native xvater is seldom, if ever,  found  perfectiy
pure.   The xvaters that  floxv within or upon tlie sur-
face of the earth, contain  various earthy, saline, me-
tallic, vegetable, or animal particles, according io the
substances over or  through xvhich  they pass.  Kain
and snoxv xvaters are much purer  than these, although
they also contain whatever floats in  the air, or  has
been exhaled along xvitii the watery vapours.
  The purity of water may be known by the  following
marks or properties of pure xvater:—
  1. Pure xvater is lighter than xvater lhat is not pure.
  *. Pure xvater is more fluid than  water that is not
pure.
  3.  It has no colour, smell, or taste.
  4. Il xvets more easily than the waters containing
metallic aud earthy salts, called iiard xvaters, and feels
softer when touched.
  5. Soap, or a solution of soap in alkohol, mixes easily
and perfectly with it.
  C.  It is not rendered turbid by adding to it a solution
nf gold in aqua regia,  or a solution of sliver, or of lead,
or of  mercury, in nitric acid, or a solution of acetate
of lead in water.
  Water xvas, till modern times, considered as an ele-
mentary or simple substance.
  Previous to the month  of October,  177(5,  the  cele
bratcd Macquer, assisted by Sigaud de la Fond, made
an  experiment by burning hydrogen  gas in a bottle
without explosion, and holding a white china saucei
over  the flame.  His intention appears to have been
thai of ascertaining xvliether any fuliginous smoke xvai
produced, and he observes, thai  the saucer rciuainea
perfectly clean and xvhite, but xvas moistened i* thoer
                                        3U9 
WAT                                            WAT
 rcnllblc drops of a clear fluid, resembling water;  and
 wfiich iu fact, appeared to him and his assistant to be
 nothing but pure water.  He does not say xvliether any
 test xvas applied to ascertain this purity, neither does
 ne make any remark on the fact.
  In tlie mouth of September, 1777,  Bucquet and  La-
 voisier, not being acquainted xvith the  fact xvhich  is
 Incidentally and  concisely  mentioned  by Macquer,
 made an  experiment to discover what is produced by
 he combustion of hydrogen.  They  fired five  or six
 pints of hydrogen in an open and xx ide-mouthed bofufe,
 and instantly poured two ounces of lime-xvuter through
 the flame, agitating the bottle during the time thc com-
 bustion lasted.  The result of this experiment showed,
 that carbonic acid xvas not produced.
  Before  the month of April,  1781, Mr. John Warl-
 tire, encouraged by Dr. Priestley, fired  a mixture of
 common air and hydrogen gas in a close copper vessel,
 nnd found its weight diminished.  Dr. Priestley, like-
 wise, before the same  period, fired a like mixture of
 hydrogen  and oxygen gas in a closed glass vessel, Mr.
 Warltire  being present.   The  inside  of the  vessel,
 though clean and  dry before,  became dexvy, and xvas
 lined  with u  sooty  substance.   'These experiments
 xvere afterward repeated by  Mr.  Cavendish and  Dr.
 Priestley; and it  was  found, that the  diminution of
 xveight did not tike place, neither xvas the sooly mat-
 ter perceived.  These circumstances, therefore, must
 have arisen from some imperfection  in  the apparatus
 or materials xvitii which the former experiments xvere
 made.
  It xvas tlie summer of the year 1781,that Mr. Henry
 Cavendish xvas  busied iu examining what becomes
 of the  air lost by combustion, aud made tliose valuable
 experiments xvhich xvere read before the Royal Society
 on  the 15th  of January, 1784.  He binned  500,000
 grain measures of hydrogen gas, xvitii about two and
 a  half times the  quantity of common air, and  by
 causing the burned air to pass through a glass tube
 eight feet in  length, 136 grains of pure water were
 condensed.  He also exploded  a mixture  of  19,500
grain measures of oxygen gas, and 37,000 of  hydrogen,
 in a close  vessel.   The condensed liquor xvas found to
contnin a  small portion of nitric arid, when the mix-
 ture of the air xvas such, that the burned air still con-
 tained  a  considerable  portion  of oxygen.   In this
 case it may be presumed, that some  of the oxygen
 combines with a portion of nitrogen present.
  In the mean time, Lavoisier continued his researches,
 and during the xvinter of 1761-1782, together  xvitii Gin-
 gembre, he filled a bottle of six  pints  xvitii hydrogen,
 which  being  fired,  and  txvo ounces of liine-xvnter
 poured in, was instantly stopped xvith a cork, through
 xvhich  a flexible tube communicating xvilh a vessel of
oxygen xvas passed.  The inflammation ce.ased, except
 nt the orifice  of the tube, through xvhicli the oxygen
 xvas pressed,  where a beautiful flame appeared.  Tlie
 combustion continued a considerable  time, during
 which  the lime-water xvas  agitated  in the bottle.
 Neither this, nor the same experiment  repeated xvilh
 pure xvater, and xvilh a xveak solution of alkali instead
 of lime-water, afforded tlie information sought after,
 for Ihese substances xvere not at nil altered.
  The  inference of Mr. Warltire, respectintr the moist-
 ure on the inside of the  glass iu  xvhich Dr. Priestley
 first fired hydrogen and common air, was, lliat these
 tiirs, by combustion, deposited the moisture  they con-
 tained.    Mr. Watt, hoxvevei,  inferred  from  these
 experiments, that xvater is u compound of thc burned
 airs, which have given  out their latent heat by com-
 bustion ;   and communicated  his sentiments  to Dr.
 Priestley in a letter dated  April 26, 17K1
  It does  not appear, lhat the composition of water
 was known or admitted in France, till the summer of
 1783, xvhen Lavoisier and De In Place, nn the "24th of
June, repented the experiment of" burning hydrogen and
oxygen in  a glass vessel over mercury, in n still greater
quantity  ihan had been  burned  by  Mr. Cavendish.
The result  xxnis  nearly  five gross of pure xvater.
 Mouce made a similar  experiment at I'm is nearly at
 the same time, or perhaps before.
  This -lssiduons and accurate philosopher  then pro-
 ceeded, in conjunction  xvitii Meusnier,  to pass the
 "tenin of xvater through a red-hot iron tube, and found
 thnt the iron xvasoxydi/ed, and hydrogen disotcnged  ;
 tti.d thc steam of xvater being  passed oxer a variety of
 other  com'lustible or oxidable  substances  produced
       400
  similar results, the water disappearing and  hydrogen
  being  disengaged.   These capital experiments  were
  accounted  tor by Lavoisier,  by s ipposing the  watet
  to be decomposed into ils component parts, oxygen and
  hydrogen, the former of xvhich unites with tlie igniter)
  substance,  xvhile the latter is disengaged.
   The grand experiment of the composition of xvater
  by  Fourcroy, Vauquelin, and  Seguin, xvas begun on
  Wednesday, May lit, 1790, and was finished on Friday,
  the 22d of the same month.   The  combustion xvas
  kept up 185 hours xvillilittle interruption, during xvhich
  time the machine xvas not quitted for a moment   The
  experimenters alternately refreshed  themselves when
  fatigued, by lying for a fexv hours on mattresses in the
  laboratory.
   To obtain  the  hydrogen, 1.  Zinc was melted and
  rubbed  into a poxvder  in a very hot mortar.  2. This
  metal  xvas dissolved in concentrated sulphuric  acid
  diluted xvilh seven parts of xvater.  The air  procured
  xvas made to  puss through  caustic alkali.  To obtain
 the oxygen,  txvo  pounds and a half of crystallized
  hyperoxymuriate of potassa xvere distilled, and tiie air
  was transferred through caustic alkali.
   The volume of hydrogen employed was 25063.566
 cubic inches, and the xveight xvas 1039.358 grains.
   The vulume of oxygen xvas 12570 942, and the xveight
 xvas 6209.869  grains.
   The total xveight of both elastic fluids was 7240.227.
   Tiie weight of xvater obtained  xvas *T244 grains, or
 12 ounces 4 gros 45 grains.
   The xveight of water xvhich should have been ob-
 tained was 12 ounces 4 gros 40.227 grains
   The deficit xvas 4.227 grains.
   Tiie quantity of azotic air before  the experiment
 xvas 415.256 cubic inches, aud al the close of il  467.
 The excess afler the  experiment was consequently
 51.744 cubic inches.  This augmentation is to be attri"
 buted, the academicians think, to the small quantity of
 atmospheric air in the cylinders of the gasometers at
 the  time thc other airs were introduced.  These addi-
 tional 51 cubic inches could  not arise from  Ihe hydro-
 gen, for experiment shoxved, that it contained no azotic
 air.   Some addition of  this iatt  fluid,  the experi-
 menters think, cannot be avoided, on account  of the
 construction of the machine.
   The water being examined, xvas found to be as pure
 as distilled water.   Its specific gravity to distilled xvater
 was as 18671: 186*70.
   The  decomposition of xvater is most elegantly ef-
 fected by electricity.
   The composition of xvaler is best demonstrated by
 exploding 2 volumes of hydrogen nnd 1 of oxygen, in
 the  eudiometer.   They disappear totally, and  pine
 xvater results.   A cubic inch of this liquid, at WIO
 xveighs 252.52  grains, consisting of
            28.06 grains hydrogen, and
          221.46        oxygen
 The bulk of the former gas is 1325 cubic inches
 That of the latter is         662

                            1087

   Hence there  i< a condensation of nearly txvo thousand
 volumes into one;  and one volume of water contains
 662  volumes of oxygen.  The prime  equivalent of
 water is 1.125; composed of a prime of oxygen = 1.0 -j-
 a prime of hydrogen = 0.125; or 9 parts by  weight of
 xvaler, consisting of 8 oxygen +1 liydrocen."
  The simple xvaters are the following: ~
   1.  Distilled  water.  This is the lightest of ull others
 containing noithei solid nor gaseous substances in solu
 lion,  is perfectly void of taste  and smell,  colourless
 nnd beautifully transparent, has a soft feel, and wets
 the  fingers  more readily  than  any otlier.   It mixes
 uniformly with soap into a smooth opaline mixture.
 hut may be  added  to  a solution of soap  in spirit of
 xvine xvithout Injuring ils transparency.  The clearness
of distilled water is not  impaired by'the most delicate
chemical reagents, such as  liine-xvnter, a solution of
 \Ar'tcs '" a"y aci<1. ni"*ated silver, or acid of sugar.
 When  evaporated  in a  silver  vessel it leaves no
 residuum ; if preserved  from access of foreign matter
 floating in the  air, it may be  kept tor ages unaltered in
vessels upon xvhich it has no action, as it does  not
possess xvithin  itself tlie poxver of decomposition.   As
it freezes exactly at 30° of Fahrenheit, nod  boils at
212° under the atmospherical pressure of 29.8 inches 
WAT
WAT
 these points are made use of as the standard ones for
 thermometrical division; and Its specific weight being
 alxvays the same under the mean pressure and tempe-
 rature, it is employed for the comparative standard of
 ■specific gravity.
   Pure distilled water can only be procured from xvater
 which contains no volatile mailers that will rise in dis-
 tillation, and continue still in union xvilh the vapour
 when condensed.  Many substances are volatile during
 distillation, but most  of the gases, such  as  common
 air, carbonic acid,  and the like, are  incapable of
 uniting xvith water  at a  high  temperature: other
 bodies, hoxvever, such as vegetable essential  oil, and,
 in general, much of  that xvhich gives the peculiar
 odour to vegetable and animal  matter,  will remain
 in xvater after distillation.  So  the steam  of many
 animal nnd vegetable decoctions  has n certain flavour
 which  distinguishes  it from pure water;   and  the
 aqueous exhalation  from  living bodies,  xvhich  is a
 Kind of distillation, has a similar impregnation.
   To obtain distilled xvater perfectly pure, much stress
 was laid by former  chemists on repeating the process
 a greal number of times;  but it was found by Lavoi-
 sier, that  rain xvater once distilled, rejecting the first
 and  last  products, was as pure a xvaler  as could be
 procured by any subsequent distillations.
   Distilled xvater appears to possess a  lusher poxver
 than any other as a resolvent of all animal aud vege-
 table matter, and these it holds iu solution as little as-
 possible altered from the state iu xvhich  ihey existed
 in tlie body lhat yielded them.  Hence the great prac-
 tical utility of that kind of chemical analysis xvliich
 presents  Ihe  proximate constituent  parts  of these
 bodies, and whicli is effected particularly by the assist-
 ance of pure water.   On  the  otlier hand, a saline,
 earthy, or  otherwise impure  xvater,  wHI  alter  the
 texture of some of the parts, impair their solubility,
 produce material changes on the colouring matter, and
 become a icss accurate analyzer on account of the
 admixture of foreign contents
   Distilled water is seldom employed tn any extent in
 thc preparation of food, or in manufactures, on account
 of the trouble of procuring it in large quantities ; but
 for  preparing a great number  of medicines, aud in
 almost every one of the nicer chemical processes  that
 are carried on in the liquid way, this water is an es-
 sential requisite.   The only cases  in xvhich it has been
 used largely as an article of drink, have been in those
 Important trials  made of the practicability nf  pio-
 curing  it by condensing ihe steam of  sea water by
 means of a simple apparatus adapted to a ship's boiler;
 and these hax-e fully shoxvn the ease with which a large
 quantity of fresh water, of the purest  kind, may be
 had at sea, at a moderate  expense, whereby one of
 the  most distressing of all  wants may  be  relieved.
 There are one or two circumstances which seem to
 show that water, when not already loaded with foreign
 matter, may  become  a solvent  for concretions in
 urinary passages.   At least, we  know  thai  very ma-
 terial advantage  has been derived in these cases from
 very pure natural  springs, and  hence a  course of dis-
 tilled water has been recommended as a  fair subject
 of experiment.
   2. Ram water, the next in purity to distilled xvater,
 L% that which has undergone a natural distillation from
 "xe earth, and is condensed in tbe form of  rain.  This
 is .*  xvater so nearly approaching to absolute purity as
 probably to be equal to distilled xvater for every pur-
 pose except in the nicer chemical experiments.  The
 foreign contents of rain water appear to vary accord-
 ing to the state of the air through which it falls.  The
 heterogeneous  atmosphere of a smoky town will give
 some impregnation to rain as it  passes through, and
 this, though  it may nut  be at once  perceptible on
 chemical examination, will yet render it liable to spon-
 taneous change;  and hence, rain xvater, if long kept,
 especially in  hot  climates,  acquires a  strong smell,
 becomes full of animaleula, and in some degree putrid.
According to Margraaff, the constant foreign contents
nf rain water appear tone some traces of the muriatic
and  nitric acids; but as this water is alxvays very soft,
it is  admirably adapted for dissolving snap, or for the
solution of alimentary or colouring matter,  and it is
accordingly used largely for these  purposes. The spe-
tide gravity of rain water  is so nearly the  same as
Jiat of distilled xvater, that it requires the most delicate
.nsttnments  to ascertain tiie difference.  Rain, that
falls in towns, acquires  a small quantity nf lime ana
calcareous matter from the mortar and plaster of the
houses.
  3. Ice  and snow water.  This equals rain water in
purity, and, xvhen fresh  melted, contains no air, xvhich
is expelled during freezing.  Iu  cold climates and in
high latitudes, thawed snoxv forms th'e constant drink
of the inhabitants during xviuter; and the vast masses
of ice xvliich float on the polar saes afford an abundant
supply to the mariner.   It  is well known, that in n
weak brine, exposed to  a  moderate freezing cold, it Is
only the xvalery part that congeals, leaving the unfrozen
liquor proportionably stronger of the salt.  The  same
happens with a dilute solution of vegetable acids, xvilh
fermented liquors, and ihe like; and advantage is taken
of this property to reduce the saline part lo a more con-
cenlrated form.  Snow  water has  long lain  under the
imputation of occasioning those strumous sxvelliiigs ir.
the neck xvhich deform the inhabitants of many of the
Alpine valleys; bul this  opinion is nol supported by any
well-authenticated, indisputable facts, and is rendered
still more improbable, if not entirely overturned, by tht
frequency of the disease  in  Sumatra, where ice and
snoxv are never seen, and its being quite unknoxvn iu
Chili and in Thibet, though  the rivers of these coun-
tries are chiefly supplied hy the  melting of llie snoxv,
xvith xvhich ihe mountains are covered.
  4. Saring water.  Under this comprehensive  chins
are included all xvaters lhat spring from  some depth
beneath the soil, and are used at  the fountain head, or
at least before they have run any considerable distance
exposed to the air.   It is obvious that spring xvater will
be as various iu its contents as the substances thatcom-
|iose the  soil through xvhich it flows.  When the ingre-
dients are not such as to give any peculiar medical or
sensible  properties, and  the xvater is used for common
purposes, ii is distinguished as a  hard or soft spring,
sweet or brackish, clear  or turbid, and the like.  Ordi-
nary springs insensibly  pass into  mineral springs, as
their foreign contents become more notable  and un
common; though sometimes waters have acquired  great
medical reputation from mere purity.
  By far the greater number of springs are cold; but as
they take their origin at some depth from  the surface,
and beloxv the influence of the external atmosphere,
iheir temperature is, in general, pretty uniform during
every vicissitude of season, aud alxvays several degrees
higher than the freezing  point.   Others, again,  arise
constantly hot, or with a temperature always exceeding
the summer heat;  and  the warmth possessed by the
water is entirely independent of that of the atmosphere,
and varies liltle, winter or summer.
  One of ihe principal incoi.veniences in almost every
spring water, is its hardness, owing lo the  presence of
earthy salts, xvhich, in by far the  greater number of
cases, are only the insipid  substances, chalk, and  sole
nite, which do not impair the taste ofthe xvaler; xvhile
the air xvhich il contains, and its grateful coolness, ren
der it a most agreeable, and generally a perfectly inno.
cent drink ;  though sometimes, in xveak stomachs, it Is
apt to occasion an uneasy sense of weight in that organ,
folloxved  by a degree of dyspepsia.  The quantity ol
earthy salts varies considerably;  but, in general, it ap-
pears'that the proportion of five grains of these in the
pint xvill constitute a hard xvater, unfit for washing with
soap, and for many other purposes of household use oi
manufactures.  The xvatei of deep wells is always,
ceteris paribus, much harder than thntof springs xvhich
overflow their channel; for much  agitation  and ex-
posure to air produce a gradual deposition of the calca
reous earth; and hence spring xvater often incrusts to n
considerable thickness the inside of any kind of tube
through xvhich  it flows, as  it arises from the earth.
The specific gravity of these xvaters is also, in general,
greater than that of any other kind of water, that of tho
sea excepted.  Springs that overflow their channel, and
form to themselves  a limited bed, pass insensibly into
the state of stream or river water, and become thereby
altered in some of their chemical properties.
  5. River water.—This is in general much softer and
more free from earthy salts than tlie last, but contain*
less air of any kind: for,  by the agitation of a long cur-
renf, and in most cases a great increase of tempprnture,
it loses common  air and carbonic acid, and, xvith thia
last, much of the lime which it held in solution.   The
specific gravity thereby becomes less, the  taste not so
harsh, hut less fresh and agreeable, and out ot a  hard
                                        401 
WAT                                           WHE
spring  is often made a stream of suflicient purity for
most of thc purposes where  a soft water is required.
Some streams, however, that arise from a clean sili-
cious rock, and flow in a sandy or stony bed, are from
the outset remarkably pure.   Such are the mountain
lakes and rivulets in the rocky districts of Wales, the
source  of the beautiful xvaters ofthe Dee, and number-
less other rivers that flow through tlie hollow of every
valley.   Switzerland has long been celebrated for the
purity and excellence of its waters,  xvhich pour in co-
pious streams from the mountains, and give  rise  to
some of the finest  rivers in Europe.   An excellent
ibserver and naturalist, the illustrious Haller,  thus
speaks  of the Swiss waters:—" Vulgaribus nquis Hel-
vetia super omnes fere Europae regiones excellit.  Nus-
quam Iiquidas illas aquas et crystalli simillimas se mihi
obtulisse memini postquam ex Helvetia excessi.   Ex
scopulis enim nostra; per puros silices  percoiaiae nulla
terra vitiantur."  Some of them never  freeze in the
severest xvinter,  the cause of which  is probably,  as
Haller  conjectures, that they spring at once out  of a
su bterrancous reservoir so deep as to be out of the reach
of frost; and during their short course, when exposed
to day, they have not time to be cooled doxvn from 53°,
their original temperature, to below the freezing point.
  Some river waters, however, that do not take llieir
rise from a rocky soil, ami are indeed at first consider-
ably charged with foreign matter, during a long course,
even over a rich cultivated plain, become remarkably
pure as to saline contents, but often fouled xvith mud,
aud vegetable or animal exuvia*, xvhich are rather sus-
pended than held in true solution.  Such is that of thc
Thames, which, taken up at London at low xvater, is a
very soft and good xvater, and, after rest and filtration,
it holds but a very small portion of any thing that could
prove noxious or impede any manufacture.  It is also
excellently fitted for sea-store; but it here undergoes a
remarkable spontaneous change.  No water carried
lo sea becomes putrid sooner  than that of the Thames.
When  a cask is opened after being kept a month  or
two, a  quantity of inflammable  air escapes,  and the
xvater is so black and offensive as scarcely to be borne.
Upon racking it off, hoxvever, into large earthen vessels
(oil jars are commonly used  for the purpose), and ex-
posing  it to the air,  it gradually deposites a quantity  of
black slimy mud, becomes clear as crystal, and remark-
ably sweet and palatable. The  Seine has  as high a
reputation in France, and appears from accurate expe-
riments to be  a river of great purity.  It might be ex-
pected  that a river  which has passed by a large toxvn,
and received all its impurities, and been used by nume-
rous dyers, tanners, halters, and the like, that croivd to
its hanks for the convenience of plenty of water, should
thereby acquire such a foulness as  to be very  percep-
tible lo chemical examination for a considerable dis-
tance below  the  toxvn; but it appears, from the most
accurate examination, that where the stream  is at all
considerable, these kinds of impurity have but little
influence in  permanently altering  the quality of the
water,  especially as they are for the  most part only sus-
pended, and not truly dissolved; and, therefore, mere
rest, and especially filtration,  will icstore the xvater  to
its original purity.  Probably, therefore, thte most accu-
rate chemist would find it difficult lo dwlirguish xvater
taken up at London from that procured at Hampton
Court,  after each has been purified by si.nrilc filtration.
  6. Stagnated waters.—The xvaters that present the
greatest Impurities to the senses, arc those of stagnant
pools, and low marshy countries.  They are filled xvith
the remains of animal and vegetable matter undergoing
decomposition, and, during that process, becoming  in '
part soluble in water, thereby nffording a rich nutri-
ment to  the succession of living plants and  Insects
xvhich  is  supplying  the place ol"  those  lhat  perish.
From  thc want of sufficient  agitation in these  waters,
vegetation goes on undisturbed,  and  llie surface be-
comes covered xvith conferva  and other aquatic plants;
and ns these standing xvaters are in general shallow,
they receive the full influence of the sun, xvhich further
promotes all the changes that are going on  xvithin
litem.  The taste is generally vapid, and destitute  of
thnt freshness and agreeable coolness xvhich distinguish
spring wnter.   Hoxvever, It should  he remarked,  that
stagnant xvaters  are generally soft, and many of the
impurities ar e only suspended, and  therefore separable
by filtration; and perhaps the uiipalatableness of this
drink  lios caused it to be in worse credit than it de-
      402
 serves, on tne score of salubrity.  Thc decidedly nox
 ious effects produced  by the air of marshes and stag
 nant pools, tiave been often supposed to extend to the
 internal  use of these  waters; nnd often, especially in
 hot climates, a residence near these places has been as
 much condemned on  the one account as on the olher;
 and, in like manner, an improvement in health has been
 as much attributed to  a change of water as of air
  WATER-BRASH.  See Pyrosis.
   Water-cress.  See Sisymbrium nasturtium.
   Water-dock.   See Rumex hydrolapathum.
   Water-flag, yellow.   See Iris pseudacorus.
   Water-germander.  See Teucrium scordium.
   Water-hemp.  See Eupatorium.
   Water-lily, white.  See Nymphaa alba.
   Water-lily, yellow.  See Nymphaa lutea.
   Water-parsnip.  See  Sium nodifiorum.
   Water-pepper.  See Polygonum hydropiper.
   Water-iiiania.  See Zizania aquatica.
   Waters, mineral.  See Mineral waters.
  WAVELITE.  (So named after  Dr. Wavell, who
 first discovered  it at  Barnstable, iti  Devonshire.")  A
 mineral of a grayish-xvhile colour, composed of a!u
 mina,  70; lime, 1.4; water, 26.2;   as  hard  as fluor
 spar.
  WAX. See Cera.
  WEDEL, Georgk  Wolffoano, was Dorn  in 1645,
 at Golznn in Lusatia, and graduated at Jena in 1067:
 xvhere, after a temporary exercise of his profession at
 Gotha, he became medical professor; iu  which station
 he continued with reputation for almost half a  century.
 He combined xvith his skill in medicine a considerable
 acquaintance with mathematics and philology, ns well
 as xvitii the oriental and classical languages.  He was
 an associate to the Academy Natura: Curiosorum, and
 to the Royal Society  of  Berlin,  physician to several
 German sovereigns, a count palatine, and an  imperial
 counsellor.  Notwithstanding  these  high offices  and
 numerous engagements, he xvas attentive to the poor,
 aud  assiduous in his literary labours.  He is celebrated
 for his pharmaceutical knoxvledge, and his elegance of
 prescription, so  that  many of his compositions have
 been adopted in dispensatories.  Of his xvorks, besides
 his academical  dissertations, the principal  are "Opio-
 logia;" " Pharmacia in  Arlis I or in am redacta ;" " De
 Medicatnentorum Facultatibus ;" " De  Moibis Infan-
 tum ;" and " Exercitationes Medico-Philologicue."
  WELD.  Woald.  Tlie Reseda luteola of Linnaeus,
 which is used as a yelloxv dye.
  WEPFER, John James, xvas born in 1620, at Schaff-
 hnusen, and after visiting  several universities in Italy,
 graduated at Basil, and settled in his native place.  His
 reputation xvas extensive there and  in Germany,  and
 he attained, by his dissections and experiments, a high
 rank among those xvho  have contributed  to  improve
 medical science.  In 1658, he published a celebrated
 work,entitled "Observaiiones Anatomicae," &c,since
 often reprinted with the tide of " Historia Apoplecti-
 corum."   In an epistle " De Dubiis Analomicis," he
 asserted  the entire  glandular structure  of the  liver,
 prior to Malpighi.  Another valuable work  is called
 " Cicutae Aquatics  Historia et Noxae."   His constitu-
 tion was injured by attendance, at an advanced age, on
 the duke of Wurtemburg, and the imperial army under
his command; and  he xvas carried off by a dropsy in
 1695.  His papers xvere published by txvo of his grand-
sons, in a work entitled "Observationes  Medico-Prac-
ticae," &c.  To the  Ephemerides  Nature Curiesorun
 he made several valuable communications,  being i
 member of that society.
  WERNERITE.  Foliated scapolite.
  WHARTON, Thomas, was  born in  Yorkshire ii
 1610, and educated at  Cambridge.  He afterxvard be
 came a private tutor at Oxford: but on the commence
 ment of the  civil xvars, he removed to London,  ans
 engaged  in the practice «,." physic.   On the surrendei
 of Jxford to the parliament in 1646,  he  obtained  u
 doctoi s degree there, became a member of the College
 of Physicians in London, and got  into considerable
 practice.  In 1652, he  read lectures on Ihe glands before
 thc College; and he afterward published  a xvork on
 that  subject, entitled " Adenographia."   The  descrip-
 tions cannot be  relied upon, being chiefly taken from
 brutes ;  yet there are  some useful observations on the
 diseases  of those organs.   His name has been affixed
 to thc salivary ducts on the side of the tongue.
  WHEAT.   Tritieum.  Thc  seeds of the TriUcu-m 
WHE
Will
 iifiemum, and astiviLm, of Linnaeus, are so termed.  It
 is to  these plants, therefore, xve are indebted  for our
 bread, and the various kinds of pastry.  Wheat is first
 ground between mill-stones, and then sifted to obtain
 its farina or flour.  The flour of xvheat  may be sepa-
 rated into its three constituent  parts, in the following
 manner.  The flour is to be kneaded into a paste xvitii
 water in an earthen vessel, nnd the xvater continue
 pouring  upon it from a cock; this liquid, as it falls
 upon the paste,  takes up from it a very fine xvhite
 powder,  by means of  which it acquires the colour and
 consistency of milk.   This process is to be continued
 till thc water run olf clear, when the flour will be sepa-
 rated into three distinct parts: 1. A gray elastic matter
 that sticks to the hand, and on account of its properties
 has gained the name of the glutinous, or vegeto-animal
 part.   2. A white powder xvhich falls to the bottom of
 the water, and is the faculum or starch.  3. A matter
 which remains dissolved in the water, and seems to be
 a sort of mucilaginous extract.
 _  Flour,  from whatever species of corn obtained,  is
 Ikewise  disposed  to  vinous fermentation, on account
 of its saccharine contents.   The aptitude for fermen-
 tation of these mealy  seeds increases if they be first
 converted into malt; insomuch as by this process, the
 gluten  xvhich  forms the  germ is separated, and  the
 s-tarchy part appears to be  converted into saccharine
 matter.  The making of  malt, for which purpose
 barley and wheat are  generally  chosen, is as follows:
 The grains are put in the malting tub, and immersed
 in cold xvater, in a temperate and xvarm season, chang-
 ing this fluid several times, especially in hot weather,
 and they  are thus kept soaking till  they be sufficiently
 soft to the touch.  Upon this they are piled up in heaps
 on a roomy, clean, airy floor, where, by the heat spon-
 taneously taking place, the vegetation begins, and the
 grains germinate.   To cause the germination to go on
 uniformly, tlie heaps  are  frequently turned.   In this
 state  the vegetation  is suffered to continue till  the
 germs  have about two-thirds or three-fourths of the
 length of ihe corn.  It is carried too far when the leafy
 germs have begun to sprout.
   For this reason, limits are set to  the germination by
 drying the malt, which is effected by transferring it to
 the kiln, or by spreading it about in spacious airy lofts.
 Dried in the last way, it is called air-dried malt; in the
 first, kiln-malt.  In drying this lalter,  care must  be
 taken that it does not receive a burned smell, or be in
 part converted into coal.
   From this malt, beer is made by extraction xvitii
 xvater and fermentation.
   With this view, a  quantity of malt freed from its
 germs, and  sufficient  for one  intended brewing, is
 coarsely bruised by grinding, and in the mash-tub first
 well mixed with  some cold, then  scalded xvith hot
 xvater, drawn upon it from tlie boiler.  It is afterwaid
 strongly and uniformly stirred.  When the whole mass
 has stood quietly for a certain time, the extract, (mash,)
 ur sxveetxvort, is brought into the boiler, and the mall
 remaining in the tub is once more extracted by infusion
 with hot water.
  This second extract,  treated in like manner, is added
 to the first, and both are boiled together.
  This clear decoction is now drawn off, and called
 boiled wort.  To make the  beer more fit for digestion,
 and at the same time to deprive it of its too great and
 unpleasant sweetness,  the wort is mixed xvitii a decoc-
 tion of hops, or else these are boiled with it.  After
 which  it ought  to be quickly cooled, to prevent its
 transition into acetous fermentation, which  would
 ensue if it were kept too long in  a high temperature.
  On  this account the wort is transferred into the
 cooler, where it is exposed with a large surface to cold
 air, and from this to the fermenting tub, that by addi-
 tion of  a sufficient portion of recent yest it may begin
 to ferment.   When this fermentation has proceeded
 to a due degree, and the yest ceases to rise, the beer  is
 conveyed into  casks placed in  cool cellars, where it
 finishes its fermentation, and xvhere it is xvell kept and
 preserved, under the name of barrelled beer, with the
 precaution of  filling  up  occasionally  the vacancy
 caused in the vessels by evaporation; or the beer is bot-
 tled before it has done fermenting, nnd the bottles are
Btopped a little before  the fermentation is completely
over.  By so doing the bottled beer is rendered spark-
ting.  In this state it  frequently bursts the bottles, by
 the disengagement of the  carbonic  acid gas xvhich it!
 contains, and it strongly froths, like chanipalgr, xvhen
 brought into contact with air on being poured into
 another vessel.
   Beer xvell prepared should be limpid and clear, pos-
 sess a due quantity of spirit, and excite no  disagree-
 able sweet taste, and contain no disengaged, ncid.  By
 these properties it is a species of vinous beverage, and
 is distinguished from wine in the strict sense, and other
 liquors of that kind, by the much greater quantity ol
 mucilaginous matter wliich it  has received by extrac
 tion from  the malted grains, but  xvhich also makes  ii
 more  nourishing.  Broxvn beer derives its colour from
 malt strongly roasted in the kiln, and its bitterish taste
 from the hops.  Pale beer is brewed  from malt dried
 in the air, or but slightly roasted,  with but little or no
 hops at all.  See Beer.
   Wheat, buck.  See Polygonum fngopyrttiu.
   Wheal,  eastern buck.   See Polygonum divaricn-
 turn.
   Wheat,  Indian.  Sec Zea mays.
   Wheat, Turkky.  The Turkey xvheat is  a native
 of America, where it is much cultivated, as it is also iu
 some parts of Europe, especially in Italy and Germany.
 Tliere are many varieties, xvhicli difl'er in the  colour ol
 the grain, and are frequently raised in our gardens by
 xvay of curiosity, whereby the plant is xvell known.  Ii
 is the  chief bread-corn in some of the southern pari*
 of America, hut since the introduction  of rice into
 Carolina, it is but little used in  thc northern  colonics.
 It makes a main part too of the food of the poor peo-
 ple in  Italy and Germany. This is the sort of ivheuf
 mentioned in the book  of Ruth, xvhere it is  said thai
 Boaz treated Ittoth with parched ears of corn dipped in
 vinegar.  This  method of eating the roasted ears of
 Turkey wheat is still  practised iu the East; they gather
 in the cars xvhen about half ripe, and having scorched
 them to their minds, eat them xvith as much satisf'uc
 tion as we do the best flour-bread.
   In several partsof Soutli America they parch thc ripe
 corn, never making it into bread, but grinding it be-
 txveen two stones, mix it xvitii water in a calabash, and
 so eat il.   Tho Indians make a sort of drink from this
 grain, which they call bid.  This liquor is very windy
 and intoxicating, and has nearly the taste of sour smail
 beer:  but they do not use it in common, being too lazy
 to make it often, and therefore it is chiefly kept for the
 celebration of feasts  and weddings,  at xvhich  times
 they mostly  get intolerably drunk xvith il.  The man-
 ner  of making this  precio"us beverage, is  to steep a
 parcel of corn in a vessel of water, till it groxvs sour,
 Ihen the old xvomen being provided with calabashes foi
 the  purpose, chew some grains of the corn iu llieir
 mouths, and spitting it into the calabashes, empty them,
 spittle and all, into the sour liquor, having previously
 drawn off the latter into another vessel.
  The chewed grain  soon raises  a fermentation, ami
 when this ceases, the liquor is  let  off from tlie dregs,
 and  set by till wanted.  In some of the islands  in the
 South Sea, where each individual is his own laxvgiver,
 it is  no uncommon thing for a near relation to excuse
 a murderer for a good drunken bout of ciri.
  ITurkcy wheat is the Indian corn of America. I:
 makes a rich, wholesome,  and  nutritious  bread-corn.
 and  may be cooked iu a greater variety of ways than
 any  other grain.  Dr. Hooper is mistaken in supposing
 it is  but little used in the northern  parts of the United
 States (formerly colonies).  There is  not  a  farm or
 plantation in any part ofthe country xvithout a portion
 planted in Indian corn.  A portion of Indian  men*
 mixed with wheat or rye flour,  improves the bread
 made in that xvav. A.]
  WHET-SLATE.  A greenish gray-coloured mine-
 ral, used to sharpen steel instruments.
  WHEY.  The fluid part of milk which remains aftei
 the curd has been separated.  It contains a saccharine
 matter, some butter, and a small portion of cheese.
  WHISKEY.   A dilute alkohol obtained by distilling
malt.
  [Whiskey is obtained in this country from rye, India:.
corn, potatoes, Sec.  It is a spirit xvhich, xvhen concen-
trated by  repeated distillation,  produces alkohol, and
 may  be obtained from various fruits, roots, seeds, tv-.
See Fruits, affording spirit.  A.j
  WHISPERING.  A loxvness  of speech, caused l.v
uttering the xvords so feebly, as not lo produce  any
vibration of the larynx.
  White-swelling.  See Arthropuosis, and lludiirthriii,
                                         403 
WIN                                              WIN
   WHITES.  See Leucorrhaa.
   WHITING.   See Gadus.
   Whortleberry, bears'.  See Arbutus uva ursi.
   Whortleberry, red.   See Vaccinium vitis idaa.
   WHVTT, Robert, xvas born in 1714, at Edinburgh,
 where he studied physic, and after visiting the medical
 schools at  London, Paris, and Leyden, settled in the
 exercise of his profession, became a fellow, then presi
 dent ofthe college, and chairman ofthe Institutions of
 Medicine in that university.  As a medical practitioner
 and teacher, and also as a writer, he acquired deserved
 celebrity.   The fiist of his publications was  an " Essay
 on the Vital and other involuntary Motions of Animals,"
 1751,  iu xvhich he opposed the Sluhliun Theory,  and
 ascribed them to the operation of. stimuli.  Four years
 after, his " Physiological Essays'' appeared, in xvhich
 he supposes the  circulation assisted by an  oscillatory
 motion of the minute vessels, and treats of sensibility
 and  irritability.   He also  xvrote  on  the Use of Lime-
 water in Calculous Complaints ;  and on Nervous  Dis-
 eases; and contributed likewise some papers  to the
 Edinburgh  Essays.  The Observations on Hydrocepha-
 lus, xvere published after his death, which occurred in
 1706,  after labouring  long under a complication of
chronic complaints.
   WIDOW-WAIL.   See Daphne meter cum.
   Wild carrot.   See Daucus sylvestris.
   Wild cucumber.  See Momordica elaterium.
  [ IfiW hoarhound.  See Eupatorium teucrium.
   Will lettuce.   See Lactuca virosa.  A.J
   Wild nnvew.   See Brassica napus.
  WILLIS, Thomas, was born in Wiltshire, about the
year 1621, and entered at Oxford, with a viexv to the cle-
rical profession;  but he afterward changed to physic,
took  his bachelor's degree in 1646, and commenced
practice at the university.   He distinguished himself
by his steady attachment to the church of England, and
 ::lso by his love of science, so that he became one of the
 first members of that philosophical  society  at Oxford,
 which laid  the foundalion of tiie Royal Society of Lon-
don.  He was ambitious of excelling as ,i chemist, and
published, in 1659, a treatise on Fermentation, and an-
other  on Fever, xvith a Dissertation on tlie Urine. After
 the Restoration be was appointed to the Sedleian  pro-
 fessorship of Natural Philosophy, aud received his doc-
tor's degree.  In 1664, he published his celebrated xvork
"Ccrclei Anatome," xvith a description of the nerves;
which was folloxved, after three years, by his " Pathu-
logia Cerebri et Nervosi Generis," iu xvhich he treats
of Convulsive Diseases, and the Scurvy.  In the mean
time he had settled in  Loudon, and being nominated a
physician in ordinary  to the king, was advancing to
the first rank in practice.   His next publication  was on
Hysteria and Hypochondriasis.   In 1672, he produced
another work, "De Annua Bruloruni;" which  he sup-
posed like the vital principle in man of a corporeal na-
ture.  The year folloxving  he began to print his " Phar-
inaceutice Rationalis," which he  did not live to com-
plete, being carried off by n pleurisy in his fifty-fourth
year.   His  xvorks engaged  great  attention at first,  and
arc still admired, though modern improvements have
diminished their  value.  They are written  in  an ele-
gant Latin style.
  WILLOW.  See Salix.
   Willow, crack.   See Salis fragilis.
   Willow, sweet.  See  Myrica gale.
   Willow, white.  See Salix fragilis.
   Willow-herb.   See Lythrum snlicnria.
   Willow-herb,  roecbay.   See Epilobium angustifo-
linm.
   Willow-leaved oak.   Sec Quercus phellos.
  WINE.  Vinum.  " Chemists give the name of wine
iff general to nil liquors lhat have become spirituous by
fermentation.  Thus cider, beer,  hydromel or  mead,
and otlier similar liquors, are wines.
  The principles and theory of the fermentation xvhich
produces these liquors nre essentially the same.
  All  those nutritive,  vegetable,  and  animal matters
which contain sugar rendy formed, are susceptible of
the spirituous fermentation.  Thus xvine may he made
nf all  the juices of plants, the sap of trees, the infusions
and decoctions of farinaceous vegetables, the mllkof
ft-ugiverous animals; nnd, lastly,  it may be made of all
ripe succulent fruits; but nil  Ihese substances are  not
equally pinner lo be changed into a good and generous
Wine.
  >\.-  the production of alkohol is  the result ofthe spi-
      404
 rituous fermentation, lhat wine may be considced m
 essentially the best, which contains most alkohol. But
 of all substances susceptible of the spirituous fermenta-
 tion, none is capable of being converted into so good
 wine, as ihe juice of lh« grapes of France, or of other
 countries that arc nearly in the same latitude, or in the
 same leiuperaliire.  The grapes of hotter countries, aud
 even those of the southern provinces of France, do  in
 deed furnish wines that have a more agreeable, that is,
 more of a saccharine taste; but these xvines, though
 they are  sufficiently  strong,  are not so spirituous as
 those of  tiie provinces near tlie middle of France: ai
 least front these latter  xvines the best vinegar anr;
 brandy are made.  As an example, therefore, of spirit-
 uous fermentation in general, we shall describe thc
 method of making wine from the juice of the grapes oi
 France.
   This juice, when newly expressed, and before it han
 begun to ferment, is called must, and in coinnion lan-
 guage sweet wine.  It is  turbid, has an agreeable and
 very saccharine taste.  It is  very  laxative;  and xvhep
 drunk too freely, or by persons disposed to diarrhoeas,
 it is npt to occasion these disorders.  Its consistence is
 somexvhat less fluid than that of water, and it becomes
 almost of a pitchy thickness when  dried.
   When the must is pressed  from the grapes, aud bul
 into a proper vessel and place, wilh a temperature be-
 tween fifty-five and sixty degrees, very sensible effect*
 are produced iu it, in a shorter or longer time accord-
 ing to tlie nature ofllie liquor, and the exposure of iImj
 place.   It  then swells, and is so rarefied, that it fre-
 quently overflows the vessel containing it,  if this  be
 nearly full.  An  intestine motion is excited among  its
 parts], accompanied with a small hissing noise aud evi-
 dent ebullition.   The bubbles rise to the surface, and
 at the same lime is disengaged a quantity of carbonic
 acid of such purify, and so subtle and dangerous, thai
 it is capable of killing instantly men  and animals ex-
 posed  to  it in a  place xvhete the  air is not renewed.
 The skins, stones, and otlier grosser matters of thc
 grapes, are buoyed up by the particles of disengaged air
 that adhere to their surface, are variously agitated, and
 are raised in form nf a srum,  or soft and spongy crust,
 that covers the xvhole  liquor.  During the  fermenta-
 tion, this  crust is frequently  raised, and broken by the
 air disengaged from the liquor xvliich  forces  its way-
 through it; afterward  the crust subsides, and becomes
 entire as before.
   These  effects  continue xvhile the fermentation is
 brisk, and nt last  gradually cease: then the crust, being
 no longer supported, falls in pieces  to the bottom ofthe
 liquor.  At this time, if we xvould have a strong and
 generous  wine,  all  sensible  fermentation  must  be
 stop|ied.  This is done by putting the wine into close
 vessels, and carrying  these into a cellar or other cool
 place.
   After ihis first operation, an interval of repose takes
 place, as  is indicated by the  cessation of the sensible
 effects of the spirituous fermentation ;  and thus enables
 us to preserve a liquor no less  agreeable in its taste,
 than useful for its reviving nnd nutritive qualities, when
 drunk moderately.
   If xve examine the xvine produced by this first fer-
 mentation, we shall find, that it differs entirely and
 essentially from  the juice of grapes  before fermenta-
 tion.  Its sweet and saccharine taste is changed into
 one  Chat is  very  different, though  still agreeable, and
 somewhat spirituous and piquant.  It has not the laxa-
 tive  quality of must,  but  affects the  head, and occa-
 sions, as is well knoxvn, drunkenness.   Lastly, if it  be
 distilled, it yields, instead ofthe insipid xvater obtained
 from must by distillation with the heat of boiling xvater,
 a  volatile, spirituous, and inflammable liquor, called
 spirit of xvine, or alkohol.  This spirit is consequent!-'
 a  nexv being, produced  by the  kind of fermentation
 called the  vinous or spirituous.                  .    '
  When nny liquor undergoes thc spirituous fcrmeiua
 tion, all its parts seem  not to ferment at the same time,
otherxvisc line  fermentation xvould probably  be very
quickly complete,.1, nnd the appearances xvould be much
 more striking: hence, In a liquor much disposed lo fer-
 mentation, this motion is 'norequick and simultaneous
than in another liquor less disposed.  Experience has
shown, that n wine, the fermentation of which is very-
slow and tedious,  is never good or very spirituous; nnd
therefore,  when the weather is too cold, the fermenta-
tion is usually accelerated by heating tbe place in which 
WIN
WIN
me wine is made. A proposal has been made by a person (
rery intelligent in economical affairs, to apply a greater
than the usual heat to accelerate the fermentation of
the xvine,  in tliose years iu xvliich grapes have not been
sufficiently ripened, and when the juice is not suffi-
ciently disposed to fermentation.
  A  too hasty and violent fermentation is perhaps also
nurtful, from the dissipation  and loss  of some of the
spirit; but of this xve are not certain.  Hoxvever, xve
mny distinguish, in the ordinary  method  of making
wines of  grapes, two periods in the fermentation, the
first of which lasts during thc appearance of the sensi-
ble effects above  mentioned, in xvliich the grealest
number of fermentable particles ferment.   Alter this
first  effort of fermentation, these effects sensibly dimi-
nish, and  ought to be slopped, for reasons  hereafter to
be mentioned.  The fermentative motion of the liquors
then ceases.  The heterogeneous parts that were sus-
pended  in the  wines by this motion, and  render  il
muddy, are separated and form a sediment, called thc
lees ; after wliich the  wine becomes clear; but though
the operation is then considered as  finished, and llie
fermentation apparently ceases, it does not really cease;
and il ought to be continued in some degree, if xve would
have good xvine.
  In this  new xvine a part of thc liquor probably re-
mains that has  not  feimented, and xvhich  afterxvard
ferments,  but so very slowly, thai none of the sensible
effects produced in the first fermentation are  here  per-
ceived.  The fermentation, therefore, still continues in
the wine, during a longer or  shorter time, although in
an imperceptible manner; and this is the second pe-
riod  of the spirituous  fermentation, xvhich may be
called the  imperceptible fermentation.  We may easily
perceive that the etfect of this imperceptible fermenta-
tion is the gradual increase of tlie quantity of alkohol.
It has also another effect no less advantageous, namely,
the separation of the acid salt called tartar from the
xvine.  This matter is, therefore, a second  sediment,
lhat is formed in the wine, and adheres to ihe sides of
the containing vessels.  As the taste of tartar is harsh
and disagreeable, it is evident that the xvine, xvhich by
means of the  insensible fermentation has acquired
more alkohol, and has disengaged itself of the greater
part of its tartar, ought to be" much better  and  more
agreeable; and for this reason chiefly old wine is uni-
versally preferable to  nexv wine.
   But insensible fermentation  can only  ripen  and
meliorate the wine, if the sensible fermentation have
regularly  proceeded,  and been  stopped in  due time.
We knoxv certainly that if a sufficient time have not
been allowed for the first period of the fermentation,
the iinfermeiited matter that remains, being in too large
a quantity, will theu ferment in the bottles, or close
vessels, in which the  wine is  put, and will occasion
effects so  much more sensible, as fhe  first  fermenta-
tion  shall have been  sooner interrupted:  hence these
wines are always turbid, emit bubbles, and sometimes
break the bottles from the large quantity of air disen-
gaged during the fermentation.
  We have an instance of these effects in the wine ot
Champaign, and in others of the same kind.  The
sensible fermentation of these xvines is interrupted, or
rather suppressed,  that they may have this sparkling
quality.   Il is well knoxvn that these wines make the
corks fly out of the bottles; that they sparkle and froth
when  tliey are poured into glasses; and lastly,  that
they have a taste much more lively and more piquant
than wines that do not sparkle;  but this sparkling
quality, and  all tlie effects depending  on it, are only
caused  by a considerable quantity  of carbonic  acid
gas,  which is disengaged during the confined fermenta-
tion  that  the wine has undergone in close  vessels.
This air,  not having an opportunity of escaping, and
nf being  dissipated as fast as it is disengaged,  and
being interposed betxveen all the parts of the wine,
combines  in some  measure wilh them, and adheres  in
the same  manner as it does to certain mineral waters,
in which  it produces nearly the  same effects.  When
this  air is entirety disengaged from these wines, they
no longer sparkle,  they lose their  piquancy of taste,
become mild, and even almost insipid.
  Such are the qualities that wine  acquires in time,
xvhen  its  first  fei mentation has not continued suffi-
ciently long.  These qualities are given  purposely  to
certain kinds of wine, to indulge taste or caprice; but
such wines are supposed  to be unfit for  daily use.
 Wines for dally use ought to have undergone so conr
! pletely the sensible fermentation, that the succeeding
 fermentation shall be insensible, or nt least exceedingly
 little perceived.  Wine, in which llie first fermenta-
 tion has been too lai advanced, is liable to xvoise in-
 conveniences than lhat in which Ihe first fe mentation
 has been too quickly suppressed; for every lenneiita-
 ble liquor is, from its nature, iu a continual intestine
 motion, more or less strong according to circumstances
 from the first  instant of the spirituous  fermentation,
 till it is completely purified:  hence,  from the  time of
 the completion ot the spirituous  fermentation, or even
 before, the wine begins  io undergo the acid or acetous
 feiinentation.  This acid fermentation is very sloxv and
 insensible, xvhen the wine is included  in  very close
 vessels, and in a cool place; bul it gradually advances,
 so thai iu a certain time tlie xvine, instead of being
 improved, becomes at last sour.  This evil cannot be
 remedied ; because the fermentation may advance, but
 cannot be reverted.
   Wine-merchants, therefore, xvhen their xvines become
 sour, can only conceal or absorb this acidity by certata
 substances, as by  alkalies and absorbent earths.   Bui
 these substances give to wine a dark greenish  colour,
 and a tasie which, though not acid, is somexvhat  dis-
 agreeable.  Besides, calcareous earths accelerate con-
 siderably the total destruction and putrefaction of ihe
 xvine.  Oxides of lead, having the property of forming
 xvith the acid of vinegar a salt of au  agreeable saccha-
 rine taste, xvhich does not alter the colour of ihe xvine,
 and which besides has  the advantage of stopping  fer-
 mentation and putrefaction, might  be  very xvell em-
 ployed to remedy the acidity of  wine, if lead and all
 ils preparations xvere not pernicious to health, us ihey
 occasion most terrible  colics,  and even death, when
 taken internally.  We cannot believe thai any wine-
 inerchant, knowing the evil consequences of lead,
 should, for thc sake of  gain, employ it for the purpose
 mentioned ; but if tliere be any such persons, they must
 be considered  as  the poisoners  and  murderers of the
 public.  At Alicant, where very sxveet xvines are made,
 it is the practice to mix a little lime xvilh the grapes
 before Ihey are pressed.  This, hoxvcver,can only neu-
 tralize the acid already existing in the grape.
   If xvine contain litharge, or any other oxide of lead,
 it may be discovered by evaporating some pints of it to
 dryness, and melting the residuum in a crucible, at tlie
 bottom of xvhich a small billion of lead may be found
 after ihe fusion:  but an easier aud more expeditious
 proof is by pouring  into the xvine some liquid sulphu-
 ret.  If the precipitate occasioned by this addition of
 tiie sulphuret be xvhile, or only coloured  by the wine.
 xve may  knoxv that no  lead is contained in it; but if
 the precipitate be dark coloured, broxvn, or blackish,
 we may conclude, that il contains lead or iron.
   The only substances  that cannot  absorb or destroy.
 but cover and render  supportable  the  sharpness oft
 xvine, xvithout any inconvenience, are, sugar,  honey,
 and olher saccharine alimentary matters; but they can
 succeed only xvhen  the  wine is  very little acid, and
 xvhen an exceeding small quantity only of these sub-
 stances is sufficient to produce thedeeiredeffect; other-
 wise Ihe xvine xvould have a sxveetish,  tart, and  not
 agreeable taste.
   From what is here said concerning the acesceucy of
 wine, xve may conclude  that xvhen  this  accident hap-
 pens, it cannot by any good method  be  remedied and
 lhat nothing remains to be done  with sour wine but to
 sell it  to  vinegar-makers, as  all  honest  wine-mer-
 chants do.
   As the mini of the grape contains a greater propor-
 tion of tartar  Ihan  our currant or  gooseberry juices
 do, Dr. Ure has been accustomed, for many years;, tn
 recommend, in his lectures, the addition of a small
 portion of that salt to our must, to make it  fermait
 into a more genuine wine.  Dr.  M'CuJIoch has latJy
 prescribed the same addition in his popular treatise on
 the art of making wine.
   The following is Brande's valuable table of the quae
 tity of spirit in different kinds of xvine:—
                                         Proportion oi
                                        »pin  per ceia,
    .  . .                                  txsoeamm.
    1. Lissa..................   ..   ......   26.47
      Ditto....................              24.35
                      Aveiage.  «  .........  25.41
    2. Raisin xvine........                  e26.40
      Ditto...............                  85T'
                                          405 
WIN
WIN
    Raisin wine.........................  23.20
                   Average.............  25.12
 3.  Marsala.............................  2630
    Ditto................................  25.05
                   Average.............  25.09
 4.  Madeira.............................  24.42
    Ditto  ...............................  23.93
    Ditto (Sircial).......................  21.40
    Ditto................................  19.24
                   Average.............  22.27
 5.  Currant wine........................  20.55
 6.  Sherry..............................  19.61
    Ditto................................  19.83
    Ditto................................  1879
    Ditto................................  18.25
                   Average.............  19.17
 7.  Teneriffc............................  J9.79
 1.  Colares.............................  19.75
 9.  Lachryma Christi....................  19.70
10.  Constantia, xvhite....................  19.75
11.  Dilto.red............................  18.92
12.  Lisbon..............................  1R94
13.  Malaga (1666).......................  18.94
14.  Buceflas...........................  18.49
15.  RedMadeira........................  92.30
    Ditto...............................  18.40
                   Average.............  20.35
16.  Cape Muschat.......................  18.25
17.  Cape Madeira.......................  22.94
    Ditto................................  20.50
    Ditto................................  18.11
                   Average.............  20.51
18.  Grapewine..........................  18.11
19.  Calcavella...........................  19.20
    Ditto................................  18.10
                   Average.............  18.65
20.  Vidonia.............................  19.25
SI  AlbaFlora...........................  17.26
22.  Malaga..............................  17.26
23.  White Hermitage....................  17.43
84.  Rousillon............................  19.00
    Ditto...............................   17.26
                   Average............   18.13
25.  Claret..............................  17.11
    Ditto....... ........................  16.32
    Ditto................................  14.08
    Ditto...............................  12.91
                   Average.............  15.10
26.  Malmsey Madeira....................  16.40
27.  Lunel...............................  15.52
*je.  Sheraaz.............................  15.52
29.  Syracuse............................  15.28
30.  Sauterne...........................  1422
31.  Burgundy............................  16.60
    Ditto................................  15.22
    Ditto................................  14.53
    Ditto................................  1195
                   Average.............  14.57
32.  Hock................................  14.37
    Ditto................................  1300
    Ditto  (old in cask)...................    8-88
                   Average.............  12.08
33. Nice................................  14.IS3
34.  Barsac..............................  1386
35.  Tent................................  1330
36.  Champaign (still)....................  1380
    Ditto  (sparkling).....................  12 80
    Ditto (red)...........................  12-56
    Ditto (ditto).........................  H-30
                   Average.............  1261
37.  Red Hermitage.....................  12.32
38  Vinde Grave........................  13.94
     Ditto...............................  12.80
                   Average.............  13.37
39.  Frontignac..........................  12.79
40.  CoteRotie...........................  1232
41.  Gooseberry wine.....................  11.84
42.  Orange  xvine—average of six samples
      made by a London  manufacturer---  11-26
■13.  Tokay..............................    9-88
44. F.lderwine..........................    9-87
45. Cider, highest average................    987
    Ditto, lowest ditto....................    521
V>.  Terry, average of four samples........    7-26
47. Mead....................'..........    7.32
*i  Ale .Burton).........................    8.88
    400
     Ditto (Edinburgh)....................  J2fl
     Ditto (Dorchester)....................  5.58
                     Average.............  087
  49. BrnwnStout........................  680
  50. London Porter (average)...............  4.20
  51. Ditto small beer (ditto)...............   128
  52. Brandy........................... -••■ M.3S
  53. Rum................................. K5-"8
  54. Gin................................... 5l-,i0
  55. Scolch whiskey....................... 54.12
  56. Irish ditto............................53.90'
  The  wines principally used  in  medicine are, tl
vinum album hispanicum, or sherry, vinum canariun.
canary or sack wine, the vinum rhenanum, or Rhenish
wine, and the vinum rubrum,  or  port wine.  These
differ from each other in the  proportion of their con
slituent principles, and particularly in that of alkohol,
which  they contain.  The  qualities of wines depend
not only upon the difference of  the grapes, as contain
ing more or less of saccharine juice and the acid mat
ter which accompanies it, but also upon circumstances
attending the process of fermentation.  New wines are
liable to a strong degree of acescency xvhen taken inlo
the stomach, and  thereby occasion much flatulency
and eructations of acid matter;  heartburn and violent
pains in  the stomach from  spasms are also often pro-
duced ; and the acid matter, by  passing into the intes-
tines and mixing xvitii thc bile, is apt to occasion colics
or excite  diarrhoeas.  Sxveet wines are likewise more
disposed  to  become  acescent in the stomach than
others; but as the quantity of  alkohol which they con-
tain  is more considerable than appears sensibly to the
taste, their  acescency  is thereby in  a great measure
counteracted.  Red  port, and most of the red wines,
have an  adstringent quality, by xvliich they strengthen
the stomach, and prove useful in restraining immode-
rate evacuations ; on the contrary, those which are of
nn acid nature, as Rhenish, pass freely by the kidneys,
and  gently loosen the belly.  But this, and perhaps all
the thin or weak wines, though of an agreeable flavour,
yet as containing little alkohol,  are readily disposed to
become acid in the stomach, and thereby lo aggravate
all arthritic and calculous complaints, as well as lo pro-
duce llie effects of new wine.  The general effects ol
xvine are, to stimulate the stomach, exhilarate the spi-
rits, xvarm the habit, quicken  the circulation, promote
perspiration,  and, in large  quantities, to prove intoxi-
cating, and powerfully sedative. In many disorders,
xvine is universally admitted to be of important service,
and especially in fevers ofthe typhus kind, or of a pu-
trid tendency; in xvhicli it is found to raise the pulse-
support the strength, promote  a diaphoresis,  and to
resist putrefaction; and in many  cases  it proves of
more immediate advantage than the Peruvian bark.
Delirium, which is the consequence of excessive irri-
tability, and  a defective state  of  nervous energy, is
often entirely removed by the free use of xvine.  It is
also a well-founded observation, lhat those who indulge
in the use of wine are less subject to fevers of the ma
lignant and intermittent kind.  In the putrid sore throat,
in the  small-pox, when attended  xvitii great debility
and symptoms of putridity, in  gangrenes, and in the
plague, xvine is to be considered  as a principal remedy;
and in almost all cases of languor, and of great pros
traiion of strength, wine is experienced lo be a more
grateful and efficacious cordial  than can be furnished
Irom thc xvhole class of aromatics.
  WING.  See Ala.
  WINSLOW, Jamis Binigni'9, xvas bom in 1669, in
the isle of Funen, and having  studied a vear under
Borrichius, was sent xvith a pension from ihe king of
Denmark, to  seek improvement in the principal uni-
versities of Europe.   In 1698,  he became a pupil of the
celebrated Duverney, at Paris, xvhere  he  xvas induced
to abjure the Protestant religion; and llie patronage oi
Bossuet, who converted him, procured for him  the de-
gree  of doctor in 1705.  He afterxvard rend lecluries of
anatomy and surgery at the  Royal Gardens;  and r
1743 xvas promoted to the professorship iu lhat institn
Hon.  In the mean  time,  he communicated several
papers on anatomical and physiological subjects to the
Academy of Sciences, by  whom,  as  xvell  as  by the
Royal Society of Berlin, he  xvas  admitted nn associate
His great woik,mentioned by  Haller as superseding ail
former compositions of nnatoinv, and entitled " Expo-
sition Anatomique de la Structure du Corps Ilmnrtiu " 
woo
WOR
  hist appeared at Paris in 1732,4to.  Il was frequently
  reprinted, and translated into various languages;  and is
  still regained as of standard authority.  It Was intended
  as a plan of a larger xvoik, xvhich, hoxvever, he did not
  finish.  He reached the advanced ase of ninety-one.
    Winter-bark.  See  Winteranus cortex.
    Winter-cherry.  Sec Physalis alkekengi.
   WINTE'RA.  (Named after Captain Winter, who
  brought the bark from the straits of Magellan in 1579,
  and introduced  it to  tlie knoxvledge of physicians as
  useful in scurvy, &c.)
   Winter* aromatica. The systematic name  ofthe
  winter-bark tree. Tlie bark is called  Cortex wintera-
  nus; Cortex magellanicus ; Cortex canella alba ; and
  the tree, Winteranus spurius; Canella cubana ; Win-
  lerania canella, and Winteria aromatica—pedunculis
  nggregatis terminatibus, pistalis  quatuor,  of Lin-
  naeus.  It  is a native  of the West Indies.  The bark
  is  brought  into  Europe in  long  quills, somexvhat
  thicker than cinnamon.  Their taste  is moderately
  warm, aromatic, and bitterish, and of an agreeable
  smell somexvhat resembling that of cloves.   Canella
  alba has been supposed  to possess considerable me-
 dicinal poxvers in  the cure of scurvy  and some other
 complaints.  It is now merely considered as a useful
 and cheap  aromatic, and is chiefly  employed for the
 purpose of correcting  and rendering less disagreeable
 the  more powerful  and nauseous drugs;  xvith which
 viexv it is used in the tinctura amara, vinum amarum,
 vinum rkai, Sec. of the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia.
   Winteranus cortex.  See Wtntera aromatica.
   Wintera'nus spumes.  Set Canella alba.
   fWiNTER green  See  Pyrola  umbellate.  A.]
   WISEMAN, Richard, xvas first knoxvn as a sur-
 geon in the civil xvars  of  Charles I.,  and accompanied
 Prince Charles, when  a fugitive, in France, Holland,
 and Flanders.  He served for three years in the Spanish
 navy, and, returning with the  prince to Scotland, was
 made prisoner in the  battle of Worcester.  After his
 liberation  in  1652,  he  settled in  London.  When
 Charles 11. was  restored, he  became  eminent in his
 profession, and was made one of the sergeant-surgeons
 to the king.   In 1676, he appears, from  the preface  H
 his  works,  to  have  been a sufferer by ill health for
 twenty years:  but the time of his death is not known.
 The result  of his experience xvas given in ''Several
 Surgical Treatises on  Tumours, Ulcers, Diseases  of
 the  Anus, Scrofula, Wounds, Gunshot Wounds, Frac-
 tures and Luxations, and Syphilis."  He seems to have
 given a faithful  account  of more than six hundred
 cases, recording his failures as well as  his cures.  He
 advocated  the efficacy  of  the royal touch  in scrofula,
 though the fallacy is evident even from his oxvn nar-
 ration.  His writings have long been regarded as stand-
 ard  authority.
   WITHERING, William, was born in 1741, and
 finished his medical education at Edinburgh, where he
 took his degree at twenty-five.  From Stafford, xvhere
 be first settled and married, ne removed to Birming-
 ham, and speedily obtained a very extensive practice by
 his skill and assiduity, without neglecting his scientific
 pursuits, which were chiefly in botany and chemistry.
 He was author of several  valuable publications: "A
 Botanical Arrangement of British Plants," xvhich ap-
 peared at first in 1776,  in two  volumes, 8vo., but  pro-
 gressively increased  to four; a translation of Berg-
 man's " Sciagraphia Regni Mineraiis;"  and some  che-
 mical  and  mineralogical  papers  contributed  lo  the
 Royal Society, of which he xvas a fellow.  " Account
 of the Scarlet Fever,  &c.;" "Account of the Fox-
 glove,"  with Practical Remarks on  the Dropsy  and
 other Diseases, published  in  1785.  His lungs being
 weak, he found it necessary, in the winter of 1793, to
go to Lisbon, and afterward to relax from  his profes-
sional exertions.  His death occurred  in 1799.
  WITHERITE.  See Heavy-spar.
  WOAD.   See Isatis  tinctoria.
  WOLFRAM.  An ore of tungsten.
  WOLF'S-BANE.  See Aconitum napellus.
  WOMB.   See Uterus.
  Womb, inflammation of.  See Hysteritis.
  Wood-louse.  See Oniscus aseltus.
  Wood-sorrel.  See  Oxalis acetosella.
  Wood-stone.  See Hornstone.
  VVOODVILLE, William, xvas born at  Cocker-
  Then passing some time on the Continent, ne settled
  near his native place, and practised there for five oi
  six years.  He next  came to London, and xvas soon
  ap|K>inted  a  physician  to the Middlesex Dispensary.
  In 1790, he published the first part, wliich was after-
  ward completed in  four quarto volumes, of a  highly
  vuluable xvork, entitled " Medical Botany."  The fo!
  lowing  year he xvas elected physician to the Small-pox
  Hospital; and in executing the duties of that office he
  displayed the highest zeal.  He gave a manifest proof
  of his attention to thc subject, by publishing in 1796 the
  first part of a " History of the Small-pox in Great  Bri-
  tain, &c.;" hut the discovery of vaccination superseded
  the necessity of completing that xvork.  Dr. Woodvii:o
  xvas duly impressed with the importance of xvhat  had
  heen announced by Dr. Jenner; but feeling  a proper
  degree of skepticism  at first, he was anxious to  inves-
  tigate the. practice fully,  before he gave it his sanction.
  Unfortunately he xvas led into ancrror at the outset,
  by not keeping in recollection, that the atmosphere of
 •ihe  hospital  xvas  loaded  with  variolous contagion,
  whence sonic unpleasant results appeared; but  this
  being suggested to him, he xvaa induced, on more ma-
  ture consideration, strenuously to advocate the prac
  lice of vaccination;  and by the excellent opportunities
  he enjoyed, he  contributed very materially to its rapid
  success.  He died in  1805.
    WOODWARD,  John, was born  iu Derbyshire  in
  1664, and put apprentice to some trade in London;  but
  evincing an ardour fur science, Dr. Barwick took him
  into his family, and for  four years instructed him in
  medicine and anatomy;  after xvhich he procured him
  the medical  professorship at Gresham College   He
  published about this lime an essay toxvards a Natural
  History of the Earth, which, though executed without
  suflicient preparation, procured his election  inlo  ihe
  Royal Society.  In  1695, he was created M.D. by
  Archbishop Tenison, and Ihe year afler obtained  the
  same degree from Cambridge; whence he was admitted
  inlo  ihe College of Physicians as a fellow, in 1702.
  He however pursued  his inquiries into natural history
  and antiquities for some time xviih great zeal.  In 1718,
  he published a work entitled "The State of Physic and
  of Diseases,"  containing some fanciful  theories, which
  were ably confuted by Dr. Freind, both  ludicrously and
 seriously.   He died at Gresham College  in 1727,  be-
 queathing his personal property  to the University of
 Cambridge, for Ihe endowment of an annual lecture-
 ship, on some subject taken from his oxvn writings.
 Soon after  his  death, a  catalogue of his fossiis xvas
 published in 1737, his " Select Cases and Consultations
 in  Physic," containing some  valuable observations.
 He supposed  the vital principle  to reside not in the
 nerves, but in the blood,  and other parts of thc body;
 and he  made many experiments to establish  the vis
 insita of muscles.
   Woody nightshade.   See Solanum dulcamara.
  WORL.  See Vertieillus.
  WORM.  Vermis.   There are several kinds of ant
 mals which infest the human  body.  Their usual di-
 vision is into  those xvhich inhabit only the intestinal
 canal, as the ascarides, Sec; and tliose xvhich are found
 in other parts, as hydatids, Sec.   Such is the nature and
 office of the human stomach and intestines, that in-
 sects and worms, or their ovula, may not unfrequently
 be conveyed into that canal wilh  those things that are
 continually taken as food; but such insects, or xvorms,
 do  not live long, and seldom, if ever, generate iu a
 situation so difl'erent from  their natural one.  Besides
 these, there are xvorms that are never found in any
 other situation than the human stomach or intestines,
 and xvhich there generate  and  produce their species.
 Thus it appears that the human stomach and intestines
 are  the seat for animaleula, xvhich are translated from
 their natural situation, and also for xvorms proper to
 them, which live in no other situation.
  First Class.  This contains  those which arc  gene-
 rated and nourished in the human intestinal canal, and
 which there propagate their species
  Second Class, comprehends those insects or xvormt
that accidentally enter the human prima- via; ab extra
and which never propagate their species In that canal
but  are soon eliminated from the body.   Such are se-
veral  species of  Scarabai, the Lumbricus terrestris
the  Fasciola,  the Gordius  intestinalis, and  others
mouth in 1752.   After serving a short apprenticeship  The second class belongs to thc province of natural his
loan apothecary he graduated at Edinburgh in 1775. | tory.  The consideration ofthe first  class belongs  tc
                                                                                           407 
XER
XYL
the physician, which, from tlie variety it affords, may
zte divided into different orders, genera, and species.
  Order I. Round worms.
  Genus I. Intestinal ascarides.
  Character.   Body round, head obtuse, and furnished
with ihree vesicles.
  Species 1.  Ascaris lumbricoides.  The long round
worm, or lumbricoid ascaris.
  C/iaracter.   When full grown, a foot  in length.
Mouth triangular.
  2. Ascaris  vermicularis.   The thread  or maw-
worm.
  Character.  When full grown, half au inch in length.
Tail terminates in a fine point.
  Genus II.  Intestinal trichurides.
  Okai-acler.  Body round, tail three times the length
of the body, head without vesicles.
  Species.   Trichuris vulgaris.  The trichuris, or long
thread-worm.
  Character.  The head furnished xvith a proboscis.
  Order II. The flat xvorms.
  Genus I. Intestinal tape-worm.
  Character.  Body flat  and jointed.
  Species 1.  Tania osculis marginalibus.   The long
tape-worm.
  Character.  The oscula are situated upon the margin
of the joints.
  2.  Tania osculis superficialibus.  The broad tape-
worm.
  Character.  The oscula are placed upon the flattened
surface.
  These worms  xvere all known to the ancients, thc
trichuris only excepted,  and are  mentioned in  the
works of Hippocrates, Galen, Celsus, Paulus jEgineta,
and Pliny.
  When worms  are generated in the intestines, they
often  produce the folloiving symptoms, viz. variable
appetite, foetid breath, acrid eructations and pains in
the stomach, grinding of  the teelh during sleep, picking
ef the  nose, paleness of the  countenance ; sonietimes
dizziness,  hardness and  fulness nf the belly; slimy
stools, with occasional griping pains, more particularly
about the navel, heat and itching about the anus; short
dry cough; emaciation of the body ; slow fever, with
evening exacerbations and irregular pulse, and some-
times convulsive fits.
   Worm-bark.  See Geoffraa jamaicensis.
   Worm-grass, perennial.  See Spigelia.
   Worm, Guinea.  See Dracunculus.
   Worm, ring.   See Herpes.
  WORMSEED.  See Artemisia santonica.
  WORMWOOD.  See Artemisia absinthium.
   Wormwood, common.  See Artemisia absinthium.
   Wormwood, mountain.  See Artemisia glacialis. —
   Wormwood, Roman.  See Artemisia absinthium.
   Wormwood, sea.  Pee Artemisia maritima.
   Wormwood, Tartarian.  See Artemisia santonica.
   WORT.  An infusion of malt.  This lias been fount
 useful in the cure of the scurvy.  Dr. Macbride, in his
 very ingenious experimental essays, having laid down
 as a principle, " that the cure of the scurvy depends on
 the fermentative quality in the remedies made use of,"
 was led to inquire after a substance capable of being
 preserved during n long sea-voyage, nnd yel containieg
 materials by wliich a  fermentation might occasionally
 be excited in the boxvels.  Such a one appeared to him
 to be found in malt, wliich is well knoxvn to be the
 grain of barley, brought suddenly  lo a germinating
 stale by heat and moisiure, and then dried, whereby its
 saccharine principle is developed, and rendered easy of
 extraction by watery liquors.  Tlie sxveet infusion of
 this he proposed to give ns  a dietic article to scorbutic
 persons,e»pei:tingthalit would ferment in their bowels,
 and give out its fixed  air, by tlie antiseptic poxvers of
 xvhich the strong tendency to putrefaction iu this dis
 ease might be corrected.
  It was some time before a fair trial of this purposed
 remedy could  be obtained;  and different reports xx-ero
 made concerning it.   By some cases, hoxvever,  pub-
 lished in  a postscript of the second edition of tlie  doc-
 tor's xvork in 1767, it appears that scorbutic complaints
of the most dangerous kind  have  actually been cured
at sea by the use of wort.  Its general effects were to
 keep the  patient's boxvels open, and lo prove highly nu-
tritious and strengthening.  It  sometimes pureed loo
 much, but this effect was easily obviated by the tinctura
thebaica.  Other unquestionable cases of its success in
 this disease are lo be seen in the London Medical Es-
 says and  Inquiries.
  The use of wort has hence been  adopted  in other
 cases xvhere a strong and putrid disposition in the fluids
 appeared to prevail, as in  cancerous and phagedenic
 ulcers; and instances are published, in the fourth volume
 of the work above mentioned, of its remarkable good
 effects in these cases.
  As the efficacy of the malt infusion depends upon its
 producing changes in tlie whole  mass of fluids, ii is
 obvious lhat it must be taken in large quantities for a
 considerable length of  time,  and rather as an article of
 diet than medicine.  From oneto four pints daily have
 generally been directed.  The proportion recommended
 in preparing it, is one measure of ground malt to three
 equal measures ol boiling xvater.  The mixture must
 be xvell stirred, and left to stand, covered, three or four
 hours  II should be made fresh every day.
  WOUNDWORT.   See Laserpitium chironium
   WRAPPER.  See Valva
  WRIST.  See Carpus.
^T ala'pt-*.  (From the province of Xalappa, in New
■*"■  Spain, whence it comes.)  Jalap.
  XA'NTHIUM.   (From \avBos, yellow:  so  named
because it Is said  to make  thc hair yellow.)   The
name of n genus of plants in the  Linnaean system.
Class, Monacia ; Order, Pentandria.   The less bur-
dock.
  Xanthium strumarium.  The systematic name of
the less burdock.  This herb of  Linna-us was mice
esteemed in the cure of scrofula, but, like most otlier
remedies against this disease, proves ineffectual.  The
seeds are administered  internally in some countries
.against erysipelas.
  [Xanthoxylum fraxineum.   See Prickly-ash.  A.]
  XERA'SIA.   (From Inpos, dry.)  Au excessive te-
nuity, or softness of lint hairs, similar to down.
      406
  Xerocoi.lv'rium.   (From \npos, dry, and xtXXvoto*
a collyrium.)   A dry collyrium.
  Xkromy'rum.   (From  \ripos,  dry,  and pvpov, an
ointment.)  A dry ointment.
  XEROPHTHALMIA.  (2r/poj, dry, and otpOnXpta.
an inflammation of the eye.)  A dry inflammation ol^
ihe eye xvithout discharge.
  Xi'phu'm.  (From  (iAoj, a sword: so named from
the sivord like shape of its leaves.)  Spurgexvort.
  XIPHOID.   (Xiphoides; from  \tq)os, a sxvord, and
ttios, likeness.)  A term given  hy anatomists to par's
which had some resemblance to an ancient sword, as
the xiphoid cartilage.
  Xiphoid cartilage.   See  Cartilago ensiformis
  Xyloa'loes.  See Lignum aloes.
  Xylobalsamcm. See Amyris gileadensis. 
YTT
Y
YUC
    VAM.  See Dioscorea.
    .  YANOLITE.  See .tfzinitc
  YARRCiW.  See Achillea millefolium.
  YAWS.  1. Thc African name for raspbeny.
  2. The  name of  a disease which resembles a rasp-
6erry.   See Frambasia.
   Yayama.  The Brazilian name of the pineapple.
  YELLOW  EARTH.   An  ochre  yellow-coloured
mineial, found in Upper Lusatia.
   Yellow fever.  See Febris continue.
   Yellow saunders.  See Santalum album.
  YEN ITE. See Lievritt.
  YEST.   See Fermentum.
   Yoked leaf.  ISee  Conjugatus.
  YOLK.   See Vitellus.
   Yorkshire sanicle.  t>ee Pinguicula.
  Ypsiloolo'ssds.   (From vytXottSts, the ypsiloid
hone, and  yXuaoa, the tongue.)  A muscle originating
in the os hyoides, and terminating in the tongue.
  Ypsiloi'dbs.  (From  v,  the  Greek letter,  called
ypsilou, and ados, si likeness.)  The  us  hyoides: so
named from its likeness to the Greek letter ypsilon.
  YTTRIA. This is a nexv earth discovered in 1794,
by Professor Gadoiin,  in  a stone  from  Ytterby, in
Sweden.
  It may be obtained most readily by fusing the gado-
finite with two parts of caustic potassa, washing  the
mass with boiling xvater, and filtering the liquor, which
is of a tine green.  This liquor is to be evaporated, te.l
no more oxide of manaanese falls down fiom it iu a
black powder; after which llie liquid is to be saturated
Willi nitric acid.  At the same time digest the sediment
that xvas  not  dissolved,  in very dilute  nitric  acid,
which will dissolve  the earth xvilh much heat, leaving
the silex, and the highly oxided  iron, undissolved.  Mix
the txvo liquors, evaporate them to dryness, redissolve
nnd filter, which  will separate any silex  or oxide of
iron that may have been left.  A fexv drops of a solu-
tion of carbonate of potassa will separa:e any lime
that may be present, and a cautious addition of hydro-
sulphuret  of potassa xvill throw down the oxide of
manganese lliat may have been left; but if too much
be employed, it xvill throw down the  yttria likexvise.
Lastly, the yttria is  to be  precipitated by pure ammo-
nia, well xvashed and dried.
  Yttria is  perfectly white, when not contaminated
  witli oxide of manganese, from which it Si nut cas'lf
  freed.   Its specific gravity is 4.842.  !t has neither
  tasle nor smell.  It Is infusible alone; but xvilh borax
  melts into a transparent glass, or opaque while, if thf
  borax were in excess.  It is insoluble in  wnter, and in
  caustic  fixed alkalies; but it dissolves in carbonate of
  ammonia, though it requires five or six limes as much
  as glucine.  It is soluble in most of the acids.   The
  oxalic acid, or oxalate of ammonia, forms precipitates
  in its solutions  perfectly resembling the muriate of
  silver.  Prussiate of poiassa, crystallized  and redis-
  solved in water, ihroxvs it down in xvhite  grains; phos-
  phate of soda, in xvhite gelatinous flakes; infusion of
  gulls, iu broxvn flocks.
   Some chemists are inclined to consider yttria rather
  as  a  metallic than as an  earthy substance:  llieir
  reasons are,  its specific gravity, its forming  coloured
  salts,  and ils  properly of oxygenizing  muriatic  acid
|  afler il has undergone a  long calcination.
i   When yttria is treated wilh potassium in the same
I  manner as the other earths, similar results are  ob-
I  mined;  the potassium becomes potassa,  and the earth
I  gains  appenrances of metallization; so  that  it  is
[  scarcely to lie doubted, says Sir H. Davy, lhat yitria
I  consists of inflammable  matter, metallic in ils nature,
|  combined xvilh oxygen.   The salts of yttria  have the
''  follnxvin-e, general characters:—
i   1. Many of them are insoluble in water.
   2. Precipitates are occasioned in those which  dis
  solve, by phosphate of soda, carbonate of soda, oxalate
  nf ammonia, tartrate of potassa, and fei roprussiaie of
  poiassa.
   3 If xve except the sweet-tasted soluble sulphate ol
  yttria, the olher salts of this earth lesemble those wilh
  the base of lime in their solubilitv.
   YTTRO-CERITE.  A minera'l or a reddish, grayish
  xvliite, and a violet-blue colour consisting nf oxide of
  cerium, yttria, lime, and fluoric acid, found hitherto
  onlv at Finbo, in Sweden.
   YTTRO-TANTALITE.  An ore of tantalum, from
  whicli the columbic acid is procured.
   YUCCA.  (Yucca, Yuca, or Iucca, of the original
  Inhabitants of America.)  The name of a genus ol
  plants  in the Linnaean system. Class, Hexandria,
  Order, Monogynia.
   Yucca gloiuosa.  See Adam's needle.
Z
                      ZEA

    Za'cchardm.  See Saccharum.
     ZACCHIA, Paolo,  an eminent physician, xvas
born al Rome iu 1585, and  became distinguished hy his
learning  aud accomplishments, as well as by his pro-
fessional skill.   He was physician to Pope Innocent
X., and  celebrated  among  his  contemporaries by
various publications, nf which the principal is entitled,
" Guaestioiies Medico-legalos,"  and  has been  often
reprinted.  He xvas also the author, in Italian, of txvo
esteemed works, on the Lent diet, and on hypochon-
driacal affections.  He died in 1659.
  Za'ftran. (Arabian.)   Saflrou.
  ZAFFRE. Saffre.  The residuum of cobalt after
the sulphur, arsenic, and other volatile matters of this
mineral have been expelled by calcination.
  Zai'bac.  (Arabian.)  Quicksilver.
  Za'rza.   An  ancient and  provincial  name of the
sarsaparilla.
  ZE'A.   (Zea, a, \.\  a   name borrnivred  from the
ancient Greeks, whose gciu appears > > have been some
kind of Triticum or Hordeum, agreeing with this genus
only 39 being a grain cultivated for the use of mini.)
The mai/e.
                      ZEO

  Zea mays.  The systematic name of ihe Indian
wheat-plant, the  coinnion maize, or Indian  com, a
native of America and cultivated in  Italy and several
partsof Europe, for its grain, xvhich is ground for thc
same purposes as our xvheat, to xvhicli it is very little
Inferior.
  ZEDOA'RIA.  1. The name of a genus of plants in
the Linnaean system.  Class, Monandria; Order. Mo-
nogynia.  Zedoary.
  2. The pharmacopreial name of a Kampfera.   See
Kampfera rotunda.
  Zeuoaria lonua.  The long roots of the Kampfera
rotunda, nf Linnaeus.
  Zedoaria rotunda.  The  round  root of the ze-
doary plant.  See Kampfera rotunda.
  ZEDOARY.  SeeZedoaria.
  ZEINE.   A yelloxv substance, having the appear
ance of xvax, obtained from maize or Indian corn.
  ZEOLITE  The name of a  very extensive mineral
genus, contaiiiini!  the following species:
  1. Dodeoahcdial zeolite, or leuclte.
  2. Hexahedi.ll zeolite, or analcime.
  n. Rhomboidal zcolile, chnbasile, or chabnsln
                                       409 
Z1N
ZI?N
   4. Pyramidal zeolite, or cross stone
   5. Diprismatic zeolite, or laumonite.
   6. Prismatic zeolite, or mesotype, divided into three
 subspecies: natrolite; mealy zeolite, of a white colour,
 of vai ious shades; and fibrous zeolite, of which tliere
 are two kinds.
   a. The acicular, or needle zeolite, the mesotype of
 Haiiy.  This is  of a grayish, yellowish,  or  reddish-
 white colour.  It is found in Scotland.
   b. Common fibrous zeolite, of a white colour.
   7. Prismatoidal zeolite, orstilbite, comprehending,
   a. Foliated zeolite, stilbite of Haiiy ol* a white and
 red colour, beautiful specimens of which are found in
 Stirlingshire.
   b. Radiated zeolite, of a yelloxvish-white, or grayish-
 white colour.
   8. Axifrangible zeolite, or apophyllite.
   Zic'riia.  An ulcerated impetigo.
   ZERO.  The commencement of a scale marked 0:
 thus we say, the zero of Fahrenheit, which is 32°
 below the melting point of ice; the zero of the centi-
 grade scale, wliich coincides xvith  the freezing of
 water.  T' e absolute zero is the imaginary point in
 the scale if temperature,  when thc whole  heat is
 exhausted:  the term of absolute cold or privation of
 caloric.
  ZI'BETHUM.  (From  Zobeth, Arabian.)  Civetta.
 Civet.  A soft, unctuous, odoriferous substance, about
 thc consistence of honey or butter, of a whitish, yel-
 lowish, or brownish colour, sometimes blackish, con-
 tained in some excretory follicles near thc anus of the
 Viverra zibetka, of LinnEeus.   It has a grateful smell
when diluted, and an unctuous subacrid  taste, and
 possesses  stimulating, nervine,  and  antispasmodic
 virtues.
  ZIMMERMAN, John George, was born in 1728, at
 Brug, in the canton of Bern, and studied medicine
under Haller at Gottingen, where he took his degree at
23.  Having married  a relation  of  Haller, at  Bern,
he settled as a  physician in his native town; the re-
tirement  of  which gave him  an opportunity of com-
posing many pieces in prose aud verse, and particularly
a sketch of his popular work " On Solitude."  His
treatise  " On the  Experience of Medicine," appeared
im 1763, and three years after, that on dysentery.   In
1768, he accepted the post of physician to the  king  of
 England for Hanover,  whither he removed.  Here the
accumulation of business tended in some  measure to
allay the irritability of his temper; and being  obliged
about three years after, to put himself under the care
of a surgeon at  Berlin for some local complaint, the
notice that was taken of him, even  by the king, con-
tributed much to improve his health and spirits, and
of course his happiness.   Having lost his first wife,  In-
 formed  a second matrimonial connexion in  1782;
 wliich helped much to alleviate the afflictions to xvhich
 he xvas afterxvard exposed.  In 1786 he xvas sent for to
 attend  the great Frederick  in his last illness:  and  he
 {mblished an account of the conversations which he
 lad  with that celebrated  prince.  He xvas led, too, to
 defend the character of Frederick against the censures
 of Count de Mirabeau, wliich suffered him to severe
 criticisms.  His political  and religious principles in-
 duced him also to attack those societies which  paved
 the way to the French revolution; and he advised the
 Emperor  Leopold to  suppress  them by  force; and
 having laid an unavoxved publication to the charge of
 n particular person, he subjected himself to a prosecu-
 tion for n libel.   His mind had arrived to such a state
 of irritation, that the approach of the French towards
 Hanover  almost subverted his reason; he abstained
 from food, and died absolutely xvorn out in 1795.
   ZIMOME.  See Gluten, vegetable.
   ZINC.  (Zincum, a German word.)  A metal found
 In nature combined wilh  oxygen, carbonic acid, and
 sulphuric acid ; and mineralized by sulphur.   Native
 oxide of zinc is commonly called calamine.  It occurs
 in a loose,  and in a  compact form, amorphous, of a
 white, gray, yellow, or broxvn colour,  without lustre,
 or transparency.  Combined xvith  carbonic acid, it is
 called vitreous zinc ore, or native carbonate of zinc.  It
 Is found  in solid masses, sometimes in six-sided com-
 pressed prisms, both ends being covered with pentagons.
 Its colour is generally  grayish inclining to black.  Il is
 often transparent.  Sulphate of zinc is found  efflores-
 cent in the form of stalactites, or in rhombs.   Sttlphu-
 rtt of zinc,  or blende, is the most abundant ore. It is
      410
 found of various colours;  brown, yellow, "yad"1''
 black, &c, and with  various degrees of lus'"" »rj"
 transparency. This zincore is contaminated witn ir>  ,
 lead, argillaceous and silicious earths, Sec.  » 0??"™
 both  in amorphous masses and crystallized in a aiver
 sity of polygonal figures.                  .      h
   It is of a bluish- white colour, somewhat brighter man
 lead; of considerable hardness, and  so malleaoie ns
 not to be broken with the hammer, though it cannot De
 much extended in this way.   It is very easily extenaeu
 by the rollers of tlie flatting mill.  Its sp.gr.  is from
 6.9 to 7.2.  In a  temperature beixveen 210° and 300"
 of F., it  has so much ductility that it can be drawn
 into wire, as well as laminated.                   .,
  When  broken by bending, its texture appears as it
 composed of cubical grains.   On account of its impei-
 fect malleability, it is difficult to reduce it into small
 parts by filing or hammering; but it may be granu-
 lated, like the malleable metals, by  pouring it, when
 fused, into cold  water;  or, if it be heated nearly to
 melting, it is then sufficiently brittle to be pulverized.
  It melts long before  ignition, at  about the 700tn de-
 gree of Fahrenheit's thermometer; and, soon after  it
 becomes red-hot, it bums xvitii a dazzling xvhite flame,
of a bluish or yellowish tinge, and  is oxidized xvith
such rapidity, that it flies up  in  the form of while
flowers, called the flowers  of  zinc,  or philosophical
wool.   These are generated so plentifully,  lhat the ac-
cess of air is soon intercepted ; and tiie  combustion
ceases, unless the matter be stirred, and a considerable
 heat kept up.  The xvhite oxide of zinc is not volatile,
 but is driven up merely by the force of the combustion.
 When it  is again urged by a strong heat, it become?
 converted into a clear yelloxv glass.  If zinc be heated
 in closed vessels, it rises without decomposition.
  When zinc  is burned in chlorine, a solid substance
 is formed  of a whitish-gray colour, and semitrans-
 parent.  This is the  only chloride of zinc, as there  is
 only one oxide of the metal.  It may likewise be made
 by heating together zinc filings and corrosive sublimate.
 It is  assort as wax, fuses al a  temperature a little
 above 212°, and  rises in the gaseous form at a heal
 much below ignition.  Its taste is  intensely acrid, and
 it corrodes the skin.  It acts upon water, and dissolves
 in it, producing much heat; and its solution decom-
 posed, by an alkali, affords the while hydrated  oxide
 of zinc.   This chloride has been called butter of line,
 and muriate of zinc.
   Blende is the native sulphuret of zinc. The txvo
 bodies are difficult to combine artificially. The salts
 of zinc possess the following general characters:—
   1. They  generally  yield  colourless solutions  with
 water.
  2. Ferroprussiate of potassa, hydrosulphuret of po-
 tassa, hydriodate of potassa, sulphuretted hydrogen,
 and alkalies, occasion white precipitates.
  3. Infusion of gall produces no precipitate.
  The diluted sulphuric  acid dissolves zinc: at the
 same time that  the temperature of the solx-ent is in
 creased, and much hydrogen escapes, an  undissolved
 residue is left, xvhich  has been supposed lo consist of
 plumbago.  Proust, however, says, that it is a mixture
 of arsenic, lead, and  copper.   As the combination of
 the sulphuric acid and the oxide proceeds, the tempera-
 ture diminishes, and  the sulphate of zinc, which  it
 more soluble in  hot than  cold xvater, begins to sepa-
 rate, and disturb the transparency  of the fluid.  If
 more water be added, the salt may" be obtained in fine
 prismatic four-sided  crystals.  The  white vitriol, or
 copperas, usually sold,  is crystallized hastily, in  thc
 same manner as loaf-sugar, xvhich on this account  it
 resembles  iu  appearance;  it is  slightly  efflorescent
 The white  oxide of zinc is soluble  in the sulphuric
 acid, and forms the same salt as  is  afforded  by zinc
 itself.
  The hydrogen gas that is extricated from xvater by
 the action of sulphuric acid, carries  up xvilh it a por
 linn of zinc, which is apparently dissolved in it; but
 this is deposited spontaneously, at least in part, if n0
 xvholly, by standing.  It burns  xvith  a brighter flame
 than common hydrogen.
   Sulphate of zinc is prepared in thc large wav fron
 some vnrietics  of the native sulphuret.   The "ore  is
 roasted, xx-etted  xvitii  xvater, and exposed  to  the air
 The sulphur attracts oxygen, and is converted into sul-
 phuric ncid; and the metal, being at the same time
 oxidized, combines xvitii thc acid.  After sometime the 
ZIN
ZIN
suiphate is e.-.iractcd by  solution in water; and the
solution lieiiej evaporated to dryness, the mass is run
into moulds.   Thus the white vitriol of  the shops
generally ccr.-aii-.s a small portion  of iron,  and some-
times of !ear*.
   Sulphurous  ccid dissolves zinc,  and sulphuretted
hydrogen is evolved.  The solution, by exposure to the
air,  deposi'cea  needly  crystals,  which,  according to
Fourcroy and Vauquelin, are sulphuretted sulphite of
zinc.  By dis-c'.ving oxide of zinc in  sulphurous  acid,
the  pure sulphite is obtained.   This is soluble, and
crystallizable.
  Diluted nitric acid combines rapidly xvith zinc, and
produces much heat, at  the  same time that  a  large
quantity of nitrous air flies off.  The solution is  very
caustic, and  affords crystals by evaporation and  cool-
ing, xvhich slightly detonate upon liot coals,  and leave
oxide of zinc behind.  This salt is deliquescent.
   Muriatic acid acts very strongly upon zinc, and dis-
engages much hydrogen; the solution, when  evapo-
rated, does not a:ford crystals, but becomes  gelatinous.
By a strong he?.t it  is partly decomposed, a portion of
the  acid bcie. • expelled, and part of the muriate  sub-
limes and cord-, scs iu a congeries of prisms.
   Phosphoric e :id dissolves zinc.   The phosphate docs
not  crystallize, but  becomes gelatinous, and  may be
fused by e strong heat.   Tlie concrete phosphoric acid
heated  with  zinc filings is decomposed.
   Fluoric as'rf likexvise dissolves zinc.
   The boracic acid digested xvith zinc becomes milky;
and if a solution of borax be added to a solution of
muriate or nitrate of zinc, an insoluble borate of zinc
is throxvn dewrt.
   A solution of cr.rbonic acid in xvater dissolves a  small
quantity of zir.c, end more  readily ils oxide   If the
 solution be exposed to llie air, a thin iridescent pellicle
 forms on ita  surface.
   The acetic acid readily dissolves zinc, and yields by
 evaporation  crystals of acetate of zinc, forming rhom-
 boidal or hexagonal plates.  These are not altered by
 exposure to tie *.ir, are soluble in xvater, and burn with
 a blue flame.
   The cv.^is.-r.  ccid  dissolves zinc with  efferves-
 cence, and the .oiution yields long, slender,  foliated
 crystals.
   Zinc is ren i"'y dissolved in benzoic acid, and the so-
 lution yie:•?: .ic-edle-shaped crystals, which  are soluble
 both in wc:t  r.nd in alkohol. Heat decomposes them
 by volatilising their acid.
   The oxalic < :',' attacks zinc xvith a violent efferves-
 cence, and  a v.-iiite poxvder soon subsides, xvhich  is
 oxalate of zinc.  If oxalic acid be dropped  into a solu-
 tion of sulphate, nitrate, or  muriate of zinc, the same
 salt is precipitated; it being scarcely soluble in  xvater
 unless ar. e:. cess of acid be present. It contains  seventy-
 five per cent, of metal.
   The tartaric asid likewise dissolves  zinc with  effer-
 vescence, and  forms a salt difficult of solution in xvater.
   The citric acid attacks zinc with effervescence, and
 small brilliant cryrtals of citrate of zinc are gradually
 deposited, which are insoluble in water.   Their taste
 is styptic and metallic, and they are composed of equal
 parts of tee acid r.nd of  oxide of zinc.
   Thc re:;: acid dissolves zinc, and affords beautiful
 crystals l;/ :-ejection.
   Lactic aci;  acts upon zinc with effervescence, and
 produces a c*/-tallizable salt.
   Tbe metal'..-: adds likewise combine xvith  zinc.   If
 arsenic acid be poured  on  it, an effervescence  takes
 place, arsenical hydrogen gas is emitted, and a  black
 powder fc lis doxvn, which is arsenic in the metallic state,
 the  zinc having deprived a portion of the arsenic,  as
 well as the water, of its oxygen.   If one (part of zinc
 filings, and  txvo parts of dry arsenic acid be distilled  in
 a retort, a violent detonation takes place when the re-
 tort becomes red, occasioned by the sudden absorption
 of ihe oxygen of the acid by the zinc. The arseniate
 of zinc may bo precipitated by pouring arsenic acid into
 the solutioi c~ acetate of zinc, or by mixing a solution
 of  an  alka'.i.ie arseniate with that of sulphate of zir.c.
 It is a white vixvder, insoluble in water.
   By a simi':: process zinc may be combined xvith the
 molybdic acid, and with ihe oxide of tungsten, the
 tungstic p.c'rl  of some, xvith both of which it forms a
 white inso'.u j'e compound;  and xvitii the chromic acid,
 the result of which compound is equally insoluble, but
 of an orarifc-i'c;' colour.
  Zinc likexvise forms some triple salts.  Thus, .1 lh«
vrhite oxide of zinc lie boiled in a solution of muriate
of ammonia, a  considerable portion is dissolved ;  and
though part of the oxide is again deposited as the solu-
tion cools, some of it remains combined xvith the acid
and alkali iu the solution, and is not precipitable eitlier
by pure alkalies  or their caibonates.   This triple salt
does not crystallize.
  If  the acidulous tartrate of potassa be boiled in xvater
xvith zinc filings, a triple compound  xvill be formed,
xvhich is very soluble  in xvater, but not easily crystal-
lized.  This,  like the preceding, cannot be precipitated
from Its solution either by pure or carbonated alkalies.
  A  triple sulphate of zinc and iron may be formed by
mixing together the sulphates of iron  nnd of zinc dis-
solved in water, or by dissolving iron and zinc In dilute
sulphuric acid.   This salt crystallizes in  rhomboids,
which nearly resemble the  sulphate of zinc in figure,
but are of a pale green-colour.  In taste, and in degree
of solubility, it difliers  Utile from the sulphate of zinc.
It contains' a much  larger proportion of zinc than of
iron.
  A  triple sulphate of zinc and cobalt, as ft»st noticed
by Link, may be  obtained by digesting zaftVi. in a solu-
tion  of sulphate of zinc.  On evaporation, laige quad-
rilateral prisms are obtained, which effloresce on ex-
posure to tbe air.
  Zinc is precipitated from  acids by the soluble earth?,
and  the alkalies:  the latter redissolve the precipitate,  if
tliey be added in  excess.
  Zinc decomposes, or alters, the nential sulphates  in,
the  dry xvay.  When fused with sulphate of* potassa,
it converts lhat sail into a sulphuret: the zinc at the
same time being oxidized, and  partly dissolved in tht
sulphuret.   When pulverized  zinc is added to fused
nitre, or projected together xvith that salt into a rcd-hnl
crucible, a very violent detonation takes place;  inso-
much that it is necessary for the operator to be careful
in using only small quantities, lest the burning mat.ei
should be throxvn about.  The zinc  is oxidized, and
 part of the oxide combines with the alkali, with which
 it forms a compound soluble in water.
   Zinc decomposes common salt, and also sal ammo-
 niac, by combining with the muriatic acid.  The filings
 of zinc likewise decompose alum, when  boiled in a
 solution of that salt,  probably by combining xvith  itr
 excess of acid.
   Zinc may be combined with phosphorus, by projeel
 ing  small pieces  of phosphorus on thc zinc melted in ft
 crucible, the zinc being covered with a little resin, tu
 prevent its  oxidation.  Phosphuret  of zinc is xvliiti,
 xvith a shade of  bluish-may, lias a metallic lustre, and
 is a little malleable.   When zinc and phosphorus are
 exposed to heat  in a retort, a red  sublimate rises, and
 likewise a bluish sublimate in needly crystals with a
 metallic lustre.   If zinc and phosphoric acid be heated
 together, with or without a little charcoal, needly crys-
 tals are sublimed, of a silvery-white colour.  All these,
 according to Pelletier, are phosphuretted oxides of zinc.
   Most of the metallic combinations of zinc have been
 already treated of.  Il forms a brittle compound with
 antimony; and its effects on manganese, tungsten, and
 molybdena, have not yet been ascertained.
   Zinc, nitriolated.  See Zt'nei sulphas.
   Zi'nci acetas.   See Acetas zinci.
   Zinci oxidum.  Zincum calcinatum.  Oxide of zinc.
 Floxvers of zinc.  Nihil album; Lana philosophomm.
 "Throw gradually little pieces of zinc into a large deep
 crucible placed  obliquely and made of a xvhite heal,
 another crucible being  placed over ii, so that the zinc
 may be exposed to the air, and that it may be frequently
 stirred with an iron spatula; take  out  directly  the
 oxide, which is formed  from time to time; then pasa
 the white and  lighter part of  it   through  a  sieve
 Lastly, pour xvater upon this, that a very fine poxvder
 may be formed, in tlie same manner as chalk is directed
 to  be  prepared."   The properties  of  this oxide  ar.t
 analogous to those of the sulphate, (except that it it
 hardly  active enough tn excite vomiting,) if given i:'
 larger doses: but it is more precarious in its cflecti;
 and chiefly  used at present as an external  astring nt
   Zinci sulphas.  Zincum vitriolatum.  Vitriolun
  album. Sulphate of zinc.  White  vitriol.  This oc-
 curs native, but not sufficiently pure for medical tn*.
  It is thus prepared  in  the pharmacopoeia.  "Take 01'
 zinc, broken to little pieces, three ounces; sul; Imrlc
 acid, by xveight, five  ounces- water, four  pint*.  M*,; 
ZIR
ZOO
them In a glass vessel, and xvhen the effervescence is
over, filter the solution through paper; then boil it
doxvn, till u pellicle appears, and set it by to crystal-
lite."  This preparation is given internally iu the dose
of from 3 i to 3 ss, as a vomit.  Iu small doses it cures
dropsies, intermitting  headaches, and some nervous
diseases; and is a poxverful  antispasmodic and tonic.
A solution of xvliite vitriol  is also used to remove gleets,
gonorrheas, and for cleaning foul ulcers, having an as-
tringent or stimulant effect, according lo  its strength.
  Zl NCCM.  See Zinc.
  Zincum calcinatum.  See Zinci oxidum.
  Zincum vitriolatum.   See Zinci sulphas.
  Zincum  vithiolatum  purificatum.   See  Zinci
sulphas.
  Zinoi.  An ancient name ofthe stellated aniseed.
See Illicium aaisatttm.
  ZINGIBER.  (Zingiberis, is, f.  Zingiber, cris,n.
Zmgibcri; iudiec. ZtyytStpts,  of Dioscorides, a name
xvliich  the Greeks seem to have taken from  the Ara-
bians, xvhen Ihey got tlie plant.)  The name of a genus
of plants, according lo Roscoe.  Class, Monandria;
Order,  Monogynia.
  Zingiber aloum.  Ginger-root xvhen deprived of its
radicles and sordes.
  Zingiber communb.  See Zingiber officinale.
  Zi.-joihkr murum.  The root of the zingiber offici-
nale is so called xvhen suffered  to dry xvitii its radicles
and the sordes xvhich usually hang to it,
  Zinoihlr officinale.   The systematic name ofthe
ginger-plant.    Zingiber  album;  Zingiber nigrum;
Zingiber commune; Zinziber;  Amomum zingiber, of
Linnaeus.   The xvhite and black ginger are  both tiie
produce of the same  plant, the difference depending
upon the mode of preparing them.  Ginger is generally
considered  as an aromatic, and less pungent aud heat-
ing to  tlie system  than  might  be expected  from its
effects upon the organ of taste.  Il is used as au anti-
spasmodic and carminative.  The coses  iu which  it is
more immediately serviceable are flatulent colics, de-
bility, and  laxity ofllie stomach aud intestines;  and
in torpid and phlegmatic constitutions to excite brisker
vascular action. It is seldom given but in combination
with other  medicines.  In  tiie pharmacopoeias  it is
directed in tlie form of a syrup and condiment, and in
many compositions ordered as a subsidiary ingredient.
  ZINN, John Godfrky, was born in  1726, studied
under Haller al Gottingen, and  became botanical  pro-
fessor in that miix-ersity.  His first experiments xvere
undertaken to ascertain  the  sensibility of  different
parts of the brain ; he then proceeded to the examina-
tion of the eye, on xvhich he published a work in much
estimation.  The result of  his botanical  labours ap-
peared  in  scx-ernl  papers, and iu a catalogue of the
plants about Ooilingen, arranged according to the plan
of his  preceptor.  He died  prematurely in 1758.  He
xvas a member of i-everal  learned societies.
  Zi'nzibkr.  See Zingiber.
  ZIRCONIA.  Zircon.   An eartii discovered in the
year 1793, by Klaproth of Berlin, iu the Zircon or Jar-
gon, a gem first brought from the island of Ceylon, but
also found in  France, Spain, and other parts of  Eu-
rope.  Its colour is either gray, greenish, yelloxvish,
reddish-iirown, or purple.  It  has little lustre, and  is
nearly opaque  Zircon is likexvise  found in another
gem called the hyacinth.   This stone is of a yellowish-
red colour, mixed xvilh broxvn.   It possesses lustre  and
transparency.  To  obtain if, the stone should be  cal-
cined and throxvn  into cold xvaler, to render it friable,
and then  powdered  in un agate mortar.   Mix  the
poxvder xvitii Nine parts  of pure potassa, and project
the mixture by spoonfuls into a red-lint crucible, taking
care that each portion is fused before another Is added.
Keep the xvhole in fusion, xvitii an increased heat, for
an hour and  n half.   When cold, break the crucible,
separate its contents, poxvder and boil in xvaler, to dis
solve the alkali.  Wash the insoluble part; dissolve in
muriatic acid; heat the  solution, that the silex may
fall doxvn ;  and precipitate the zitcon by caustic fixed
alkali.  Or the zircon may be precipitated by carbonate
of soda, nnd the carbonic ncid expelled by heat.
   Nric process for preparing pure zirconia,—Poxvder
the  zircons very fine, mix them with txvo parts of
pure potassa, and heat thcni  red-hot in a silver cru-
cible, for tin linur.   Trent the substance obtained xvitii
 distilled xvater, pour it on a filter, and xvnsh the inso-
 lublr part xvell; it will  be a  compound  of zirconia,
     412
silex, potassa, and oxide of iron.   Dissolve it to «"'•
riatic acid, and evaporate to dryness, to sepaiaie
silex.  Redissolve the muriates of zirconia and iroii j"
xvater;  ami to separate the zirconia xvhich adheres in
the silex, xvash  it xvitii weak muriatic acid, and aua
this to the solulion.   Filter the fluid, and precipitate
the zirconia and  iron by pure  ammonia; xvash tne
precipitates xvell,  and then treat the hydrates xvitn
oxalic  acid, boiling them xvell together, that the acid
may act on the iron, retaining it in solution, xvhile an
insoluble oxalate of zirconia is formed.  It is then to
be  filtered, and the oxalate washed, until no iron can
be delected in tiie xvater lliat passes.  The earthy oxa-
late is, when dry, of  an opaline colour.   Afler being
well washed, it is to be decomposed by heat in a P'a
linum crucible
  Thus obtained, the  zirconia is perfectly pure, but is
not atfected by acids. It must be reacted on by po-
tassa as  before,  and then xvashed until the alkali  is
removed.   Afterxvard dissolve it in muriatic acid, and
precipitate by ammonia.  Tlie  hydrate thrown down,
xvhen well xvashed, is perfectly pure, and easily soluble
in acids.
  Zircon  Is a fine xvhite  powder, without  taste or
smell, but somexvhat  harsh to the touch.   It. is  inso-
luble in water;  yet  if slowly dried, it coalesces into
a semitrausparent yelloxvish mass, like  gum-arabic,
xvhich retains one-tiiird its weight of water.   It unites
xvith all the acids.  It is insoluble in pure alkalies; but
the alkaline carbonates dissolve  it.  Heated xvilh the
blowpipe,  it does not melt, but emits a yelloxvish phos-
phoric light.  Heated in a crucible of charcoal, bedded
in charcoal powder, placed iu a stone crucible, and ex-
posed to a good forge  fire for some hours, it undergoes
a pasty fusion, which unites ils particles into a gray
opaque mass, not truly vitreous, but more resembling
porcelain.  In this state it is sufficiently hard to strike
fire with steel, and scratch glass; and is of the specific
gravity of 4.3.
  There is the same evidence for  believing that zirco-
nia  is a compound of a metal  and  oxygen, as that
afforded by the action of potassium on the other earths
The alkaline metal,  xvhen brought into  contact xvitii
zirconia ignited to whiteness, is,  for the most  part,
converted  into   potassa,  and dark particles,  xvhich,
when examined by a magnifying glass, appear metallic
in  some  parts,  of a chocolate-brown in others, are
found  diffused  through the poiassa and  the deconi
pounded earth.
  According to Sir II. Davy, 4.66  is the prime equiva-
lent of zirconium on the oxygen scale, and 5.66 thai of
zirconia.
  ZIZA'NIA.   (An  ancient name,  SJiga-.-uy, of the
Greeks, synonymous with infelix lolium, of the Latins.)
The name of a genus of plants in the Linnaean system.
Class, Monacia;  Order. Hexandria.
  Zizania aquatica.  Tlie systematic name of a reed,
thc grain of which is much esteemed  in Jamaica and
Virginia.   The Indians are exceedingly fond of it, and
account it more delicious than rice.
  [The zizania aquatica  is a native of most of the
northern parts of tlie  United States, but it has disap-
peared iu  the settled and cultivated parts of the coun-
try.  It  is noxv principally  found on ihe streams and
shoal waters of the  north-xvestern lakes aud rivers,
xvhere it prows spontaneously in the xvater, like rice in
Ihe southern states.   During seed-time, the aborigines
of the country collect it for food ; xvhich they use  by
parching with lire, and then pounding xvith  a stone
The meal thus produced  tastes much like  parched
Indian corn.  The plant is the Fausse arsiue, or false
oats of the French Canadians.   The gram is black
and from half au inch to au inch in length, xvith much
of tiie appearance, xvhen groxving, of oats or rice.   A.l
  Zi zyi'hus.  The jujubes xvere formerly so called.
Sec Rhamnus zitypkus.
  ZOISITE. A subspecies of prismatic augite, xvhich
is divided  into txvo kinds :
  1. Common zoisitc^of a yelloxvish-gray colour, found
m Coniithia.
  2. Friable zoisite, of a  reddish  colour, which comes
also from Coiiiuhia.
  ZONA.  (From ^urn-jit, to surround.) Tlie shin
gles.  See Erysipelas.
  ZOOLOGV.   (Zonlogia; from X,uov, an animal, and
Xoyos, a discourse.)  That part of natural history xvliich
treats of animals. 
ZY&
ZZ
  ZOON1C  ACID.   In the liquid procured by distilla-
tion from animal substances, xvhich had been supposed
lo contain only carbonate of ammonia and an oil. Ber-
thollet imagined he had discovered a peculiar acid, to
xvhich he gave the  name of zoonic  Thenard, hoxv-
ever,  has demonstrated that  it is merely noetic acid
combined with animal matter
  ZOONO'MIA.  (From gwov, an animal, and vopos,
a law.)   Tiie laws of organic life.
  ZOOPHYTE.  (Zoophyte, i, n.; from guiov, nn ani-
mal, nnd  qjvrov, a  plant.)   A  kind  of intermediate
body, supposed to partake both ofthe na'ure of an ani-
mal and a vegetable.  In the Linnaean system, zoophytes
constitute an order of the Class Vermes.
  ZOOTOMY.  (Zootomia; from giiiov, an animal, and
• tpvu, to cut.)  The dissection of animals.
  ZOSTER.  (Fromgui-i'Vfii, lueiid.) A kindof ery-
sipelas xvhich noes rouiid the body like n girdle.
  Zc'char.   (Arabian.)  Sugar.
  ZUMATE.  A compound of tlie zumic acid, xvilh a
salifiable basis.
  ZUMIC ACID.  (Acidum zumicum, from  $1707, lea-
ven.)   An ncid  produced from  vegetable suhstances
xvhicli nave undergone the acetous fermentation.  Its
claim 10 be considered as a distinct compound is doubt-
ful.  See Nanceic acid.
  ZUNDERERZ.  Tinder ore.  An ore of silver.
  ZYGO'MA.  (From tyyos, a yoke: because it trans-
mits tiie tendon  of the temporal mii-cle like a yoke.)
The cavily under the zygomatic process of llie tempo-
ral boae, and os mattt.
  ZYGOMATIC.  (Zygomaticus; from zygoma.) Be-
longing to Ihe zygoma.
  Zygomatic i;kocess. An apophysis of the osjugalo,
aud another ofthe temporal bone, are so called.
  Zygomatic suture.  Sutura tygomattca. The union
of the zygomatic process of the temporal bone to the
cheek bone. •
  Zygomaticus major.  This muscle arises from the
cheek bone near the zygomatic suture, taking n direc-
tion doxvnwards and inwards to the angle of the mouth.
It is a long  slender  muscle, which  ends by mixing its
fibres xvith  the  orbicularis  oris,  and llie depressor of
the lip.
  Zygomaticus minor.  This muscle arises  a little
higher up than the zygomaticus major, upon the cheek
bone, but nearer the nose; it is much  more slender
than that muscle, nnd is often wanting.  It is the zygo-
matic muscle that marks the face xvith that line xvhicli
extends from the cheek bone to the corner of the mouth,
which is  particularly distinguishable in  some persons.
The zygomatic muscles  pull the angles nf the  mouth
up as "iu laughter, and from, in this xvay, rendering thc
face distorted,  it has obtained  the name of distorlor
oris.   The strong action of this  muscle is mere parti-
cularly seen in laughter, rage, or grinning.
  Zytho'oala.   ZvOoyaXa-  Beer aud  milk,  xvliich
make together xvhnl xve commonly call posscl-drink,
a term often to be met wilh in Sydenham.
  ZZ.  The ancients signify  Myrrh by these two let-
ters, from Zjtvpvn, a name for  il common among '.hem
They have  alio  been used for Zingiber.
                                       413
THE END 
APPENDIX.
   [THE'following  obsolete  terms have been omitted  in the  body of the 1707k,  but to
preserve Dr.Hooper's Dictionary perfect, they are inserted in the present pk.c3 and form.j
  A'abam.  An obsolete  term  used by some ancient
 alchemists for lead.
  A'banet.  (Hebrew.  The girdle worn by thc Jew-
 ish priests.)   A girdle-like bandage.
  Aba'rtamen.  Lead
  A'bas.  An Arabian term for the scald-head, and
 also for epilepsy.
  Abo'it.  An Arabic term for white lead.
  A'mric.  An Arabic term for sulphur.
  Abstract!'this.  (From abstraho, to draw away.)
 An obsolete term formerly applied to any native spirit,
 not produced by fermentation.
  Aca ca.   (hxaxos; from a, neg.,  and xaxos, bad.)
 Formerly applied to those diseases, which are  rather
 troublesome than dangerous.
  Aca'lai.  (Arabian.)   Common salt
  Aca'lcum.   Tin.
  Aca'nor.  (Hebrew.)  A furnace.
  Al-a'zdik.  Tin.
  A'ccib.  An  obsolete term for lead.
  A'C'ESIS.  (From axtopai, 10 cure.)  L  A remedy
 ar cure.
  2. The herb water-sage  ; so called from its supposed
 healing qualities.
  "Acs storis.  (From axtopai, to cure.)   It strictly
 ilguifies a female physician, and is used for a midxvife.
  Achma'dium.  Antimony.
  A'CHNE.  An obsolete term applied to
  1. Chaff.
  2. Scum or froth of the sea.
  3. A while mucus in tlie fauces, thrown up from the
 lungs, like froth.
  4. A whitish mucilage in the eyes of those who have
 fevers, according to Hippocrates.
  5. It signifies also lint.
.:„ ACONITUM.   (Aconitum, i, m.   Of this  name
 various derivations are given by etymologists; as, axovn,
 a whetstone ot rock, because it is usually found in bar-
 ren and rocky places: axovtros, a  .neg., and xovts, dust;
 became it grows without earth, or on barren situations;
 agreeable to Ovid's description, " Q,uae quia nascumur
 dura vivacia caute, Agrestes aconita vocant:" axovau,
 tc sharpen; because it was used in medicine intended
 to quicken the sight: axuv, axn, a dart; because they
 poison darts therewith: or, axovt^opat, to accelerate;
 for it hastens death.)  Aconite.  1. A genus of plants in
 the Linnaean system, all the species of which have pow-
 eiful effects on the human body.  Class, Polyandria;
 Order, Trigynia.
  2. The pharmacopoeia! name of the common, or blue
 xvolf's-bane.  See Aconitum napellies.
  Alo'nium.  A little mortar.
  ACORI'TES.  (From axopov, galangal.)  Acorites
 vinum.   A wine mentioned by Dioscorides, made with
 galangal, liquorice, Sec. Infused with wine.
   -Vcortinus.  A lupin.
  A'cra.  (An Arabian word.)  Acrai.
  1. Excessive  venereal appetite.
  2. The time of  menstruation.
  ACTON.  A village four miles from London,  xvhere
 is a xvell that affords a purging water.  This is one of
 the  strongest purging waters near London: and  has
 been drank in the  quantity of from one to three pints in
 a morning, against scorbutic and cutaneous affections.
 This medical spring is no longer resorted to by tho
 ,iublic.
  Adaicks.  Sal-ammoniac.
  Adamitum.  Sec Adamita.
  Adari'qes.  An ammoniacal salt
  A'dec.  Sour milk, or buttermilk.
  Abiathorosus. A spirit distilled from tartar  Ob-
 solete.
  A dib at  Mercury.
      Hi
I   A'mcs.  Kitxr).  A nettle.
   Adi'rigb.  Auinioniacal salt
   A'ooc.  Milk.
   A'dram.   Fossil salt.
   Aei'gluces.  (Fromau,always,ex.C y'-.-.-r-JS,sweet.}
 A sweetish wine, or must.
   JE'OJi.  The spinal marrow.
   iEONE'SIS. A washing or sprinkli 3 thc whole body.
   iEscHROMYTHE'sis. The obscenr lanj-tage of the
 delirious
   jEseca'vum.  Brass.
   ^Esta'tes.  Freckles in the face: r... '.■-■eangs.
   ./Etas crepita. See Age.
   /Etas virilis. See Age.
  JE'thkx.  A chemical furnace.
  jE'tiioces.  JElholiccs.  SuperC:' .,'" -'.'licsin llie
skin, raised by heat, as boils, fiery puseu.et.
  jEthya.  A mortar.
  iE'Tiioi fhlebes.   Eagle veins.   Tiie veins which
pass through the  temples to tlie head. •-.-•;,: go called
formerly by Rufus Ephesius.
  jEtolium. See JEtocion.
  A'ffion.  An Arabic name foropin:...
  A'mcM.  An Arabic name for opium.
  Aoera'tus lapis.  (Ageratus, common.)  A atone
used by cobblers
  A'GES.  (From nyi/j, wicked: so cilied  because it
is generally the instrument of wicked mC'r.)  The palm
of the hand.
  A'GIS.  The thigh or femur.
  A'oma.  Agme.    A fracture.
  Aoo'ce.  1  The deduction or rez.* iniag upon dis-
eases from their symptoms and appearances.
  2. The order, state, or tenour of a disease or body.
  Ago'stos.  (From ayu, to bring, er lead.)  That
part of ihe arm from the elbow to the fintrerr;  also tbe
palm or hollow of the hand.
  AGRESTA.   (Aypioc, wild.)   1. The  immature
fruit of the vine.
  2. Verjuice, xvhich is made from t:.  ivi.'i* apple.
  Agre'sten.  Common tartar
  AGUIA.  (From a, priv., and yv; >t>, a  member.)
Paralytic xveakness of  a limb.  Where the use of the
members is defective or lost.
  A'gul.  Alhagi.  An Arabian nr.:. - .,.- the Syrian
thorn.  The leaves are purgative
  Aoyion.  SeeAguia.
  AGY'RT^E.  (From ayvpts, a cro\:\l ©f people or
a mob; or from  ayttpu,  to gather  together.)  It for-
merly expressed  certain strollers,  who ]>•  tended to
strange things from supernatural aes.- i.'rrj- jt wag
afterxvard  applied to all illiterate dab*  . ,,—iedicin^
Now obsolete.                         • - ^eaicine.
  Aiiai.otii.  The Hebrew name cf .
See Lignum aloes.
  Ahame'lla.  See Achmelli.
  Aho'vai theveticlush.  A  ches::-<
Brazil, of a poisonous nature.
  Ahu'sal.  Orpiment.
  Ai'lmad.  Aiiiiiiiony.
  Ai'tmad.   Antimony.
  Ajura'rat.  Lead.
  Ala'bari.  Lead.
  A'lacar.  Sal ammoniac.
  A'lafi.  Alafor.  Alafort. Alcali- ■■
  A'lamad.  Alamed.  Antimony.
  Ala'mdic  Mercury.
  Alapou'li.  See BUimbi.
  Alasalet.  Alaset.  AmmoniacG.-,i.
  Alasi.  Alafor.  An nlcalinesal'.
  Ala'strob.  Lead.
  A'latan.   Litharge.
  A lau'rat   Nitre.
m aloes.
fruit ef 
APPENDIX.
  Albadal.  Aii Arabic name for the sesamoid bone
of llie first joint of the great toe.
  Albaue'nzi.  Albagiazi.  Arabic names for the os
tacruin.
  Alba'ra.  (Chaldean.) Tlie xvhile leprosy.
  Albaras.  1. Arsenic.
  2. A xvhite pustule.
  A'lbkras.  (Arabian.) White pustules on the face:
ftlso, stuphisagria, because its juice was said lo rcmox-e
these pustules.
  Albk'ston.  Quicklime.
  A'lbktad.  Galbanum.
  Albi suolimati.   Muriated mercury.
  A'lbimec.  Orpiment.  See Arsenic.
  A'lbor.  Urine.
  Aldo'rea.  Quicksilver.
  A'lbot.  A crucible.
  Albo'tai.  Turpentine.
  A'lbotar.  Turpentine.
  A'lbotat.  White lead.
  A'lbotim.  Turjicntine.
  A'LBOTIS.  A cutaneous phlegmon or boil.
  Albvhar.  White lead.
  A'lckbar.  See Lignum aloes.
  A'lcebris vivum.  This signifies, according to Ru-
andus, Sulphur vivum.
  A'lchabric  Sulphur vivum.
  A'lchachil.  Rosemary.
  A'lciiaritii.  Quicksilver.
  A'lchibric Sulphur.
  A'lchien.  This xvord occurs in IheThcatrum Che-
micum, nnd seems to signify that poxver iu nature by
xvliich all corruption  and generation are effected
  Alchimelec.  (Hebrew.)  The Egyptian melilot.
  A'LCHLYS.   A  speck on the pupil of  tlie  eye,
somexvhat obscuring vision.
  A'lchute. The mulberry.
  A'lcimad.  Antimony.
  A'lcob.  Sal ammoniac.
  Alco'calvm.   Most probably  the Indian  name of
the artichoke.
  A'lcofol.  Antimony.
  A'lcola.  (Hebrew.)   1. The thrush.
  2. Paracelsus gives this name to tartar, or excrement
of urine, whether it appears as sand, mucilage, Sec.
  Alcoli'ta.  Urine.
  Alco'ne.  Brass.
  A'lcor.  JEs ustum.
  A'lcte.  Tlie  name of a plant mentioned  by Hip-
pocrates, supposed to be the elder.
  Alcu'brith.  Sulphur.
  Alzara.  A cucurbit
  Ale'bria.  (From  alo, to  nourish.) An  obsolete
term for that xvliich is nourishing.
  A'lkc  Aleck.  Vitriol.
  Ale'chauith.  Mercury.
  Alei'mma.  (From aXticbu, to anoint.)  Anointment.
  Ale'mzadar.  Sal ammoniac.
  Ale'mzadat.   Sal ammoniac.
  Alfa'cta.  Distillation.
  A'lfaoas.  Alfides.  Cerusse.
  Alfa'sra.  Alphesara. Arabie terms for the vine.
  Ai.fa'tide.  Sal ammoniac.
  A'lfol.  Sal ammoniac.
  A'lflsa.  Tutty.
  A'i.gali.  A catheter.  Also nitre.
  A'lgaraii. See Anchilops.
  Alge'ri*.  Algiric.   Lime.
  A'lgerotii. See Algarolh.
  A'lgibic  Sulphur vivum.
  Alguada.  A xvhite leprous eruption.
  Alinde'sis.   (KXiviijatS',  from aXtvSovpai, to  be
    d  about.)  A bodily exercise which seems to be
rolling on the ground, or rather in the dust, after being
anointed with oil.  Hippocrates says it hath nearly the
same effect as wrestling.
  Alipjs'nos.  (From a, neg. nnd Xtiratvu, to he  fat.)
Alipanum ; Alipantos.   An external remedy, without
fat or m.iisture.
  Alipk.  Remedies for wounds  in the cheek, to pre-
vent inflammation.
  Ai.i'stelis.  (From aXs, the sea.)  Sal ammoniac.
  Alkafi'al. Antimony.
  A'lkant.  Quicksilver.
  Alka'nthum.  Arsenic.
  Alkasa. A crucible.
  Alke'rva.  (Arabian.) Castor oil.
  A'lki plumbi.  Supposed to be the FUgnr or acetatt
of lead.
  A'lkosor.  Camphire.
   Alksoal.  A crucible.
  Alkymia.  Powder of basilisk.
  A'llabor.  Lead.
  A'llicar.  Vinegar.
  Alli'coa.  Petroleum.
  Ai.ligatu'ra.  A ligature or bandage
  ALLIO'TICUM.  (From aXXtou, to  alter, or vary.;
An alterative  medicine, consisting of various antiscor-
butics.— Galen.
  ALLO'CHOOS.  (From aXXos, another, and vtu, to
pour.)  Hippocrates uses this word lo mean delirious.
  A'lmagra.   Bolttm cuprum.  1. Red earth, or ochre,
used by the ancients as an  astringent.
  2.  Rulandus says it is the same ns Lolio.
  3.  In the Thealrum Chcmicuin, it is a name for the
white sulphur of the alchemists.        ,
  Almara'nda.  Almakis.  Litharge.
  Alma'rcab. An Arabian xvord for litharge of silver.
  Almarca'rida.  Litharge of silver.
  Alma'roen.  Almarago.  Coral.
  Almarkasi'ta.  Mercury.
  Alma'rtak.  Poxvder of litharge.
  Almata'tica.  Copper.
  Almeaile'ti'.   A word used  by Avicenna, to ex-
press a preternatural heat less than that of fever and
xvhicli may continue afler a fever.
  Ai.meca'sitr.  Almechasite.  Copper
  Almi'sa.  Musk.
  Almiza'dar.  Sal ammoniac.
  Ai.miza'dir.  Verdigris.
  A'lnec  Tin.
  A'lneric  Sulphur vivum.
  A'lohar.  (Arabian.)  Alohoe. Mercury.
  Alo'mba.  (Arabian.)  Alooe.  Lend.
  Alphaee'tumchemuum. Raymond Lully hath give
the world this alphabet, but to xvhat end is difficult to sat
      A significai  Deum.
 Mcrcuritim.
 Salis pctram
 Vitriolum.
 Menstruate.
■ Lunam claram.
■ Mercitrium nostrum.
-----Salem purum
-----Compositum lima.
-----Compositum solis.
----- Terram compositi luna.
-----Aquam compositi luna.
-----JErem compositi luna.
----- Terram compositi solis.
-----Aquam compositi solis.
-----JErem compositi solis.
---- Ignem compositi solis.
     Lapidem album.
              ---Medicinam corporis rubei.
              ---Calorcmfumi secreti.
              ---Ignem siccum cineris.
              ---Culorem balnei.
              ---Separationem liquorum.
              ---Alcmbicum cum cucurbitA.
  A'lpiianic  Alpkcnic.  An Arabian word, signify
ing tender, for barley-sugar, or sugar-candy.
  A'lrachas. Lead.
  Alra'tica.  An Arabic xvord used by Albucasis, tu
signify a partial or a total imperforation of the vagina.
  Alsa'macii. Au Arabic name for the great hole in
the os |>et/osum-
  A'ltaior.  Camphire.
  Altha'naca.  Althanaea.  Orpiment.
  Althebe'gium.  An  Arabian  name  for a son of
swelling, such as  is observed in cachectic and leuco-
phlegmatic habits.
  Altihit. So Avicenna calls the Laserpitium ofthe
ancients.
  A'lud.   Arabian aloes.
  Alusar.  Manna.
  Alze'mafor.  Cinnabar.
  A'MBE.  (ApSri, the edge of a  rock; from apSaiw,
to ascend.)  An old chirurgical machine for reducing
dislocations of the shoulder, and  so called, because ils
extremity projects like the prominence of a rock.  Its
invention is imputed to Hippocrates.  The ambe is the
most ancient  mechanical  contrivance for the above
purpose, but is not used at present
                                      415 
APPENDIX.
  Ambila.  .(Arabian^  The cornered hazel-nut, thc
Dark of whjCh'is purgative.
  A'mbulo. '"(From upfiaXXu, to cast forth.)  Flatus
'uriosus.  A periodical flatulent  disease caused, ac-
cording to Michaelis,  by vapours  shooting  through
various parts of the body.
  Amy'ctcia.  (From apvtrou, to  vellicate.)   Medi-
cines xvhich stimulate and vellicate the skin, according
to Caelius Aurelianus.
  Ana'tp.is.  Mercury.  Ruland.
  A'neric. Anerit.  Sulphur vivum.
  Antaris.  Mercury.
  Anti'ades.   (From avfiau, to meet.)  1. The ton-
sils are so called because ihey answer one another.
  2. The mumps.—Nic Piso.
  Archima'oia.  (From apxv, the chief, and magaa,
the Arabian for meditation.)  Chemistry, as being the
chief of sciences.
  A'rfar.  Arsag.  Arsenic.—Ruland, Sec
  A ssac   (Arabian.)  Gum ammoniacum.
  A'ssala. The nutmeg.
  A'ssanus.  The name of an old xveight, consisting
of two drachms.
  A'suar.  Indian  myrobalans, or purging nut.
  A sugar.  Verdigris.
  Asu'oli. Soot.
  A'tac.  Nitre.
  Ata'xir. (Arabian.)  1. A tenesmus.
  2. A disease of ihe  eyes.
  Ata'xmir.   (Arabian.)   Removal of preternatural
hair groxving under the natural ones of  the eyelids.
  A'tkbras.   A chemical subliming vessel.
  Atiia'nor. (Arabian.) A chemical digesting furnace.
  Athena. A plaster in much repute among the an-
cients.
  Athenato'rium.  A thick glass cover formerly used
for chemical purposes.
  Athenio'nis catapotium.  The name of a pill in
Celsus's writings.
  Athehi'ppon. Athenippum. The name of a collyrium.
  Atho'nor.   (Arabian.)  A chemical furnace.
  Ati'ncar.  (Arabian.)   Borax.
  Atrame'ntum sutorium.  A name of green vitriol.
  Aurus  braziliensis.  An obsolete name of the
Calamus aromaticus.
  AUTOLITHO'TOMUS.    (From  auroc,  himself,
XtOos, a stone, and rtpvu, to cut.)  One who cuts him-
self for the stone.                           "
  Av 'nsis.   Avanlc.  Indigestion.

  Ba'iaw  White lead.
  Ba'rac  (From  borak,  Arabian, splendid.)   Ba-
rach panis.  Nitre.
  Ba'ras.  (Arabian.)  In  M. A. Severinus, it is sy-
nonymous with Alphus, or Leuce.
  Bara'thrum.  (Arabian.)  Any cavity or hollow
place.
  Barba'ria.   Barbaricum.  An obsolete term for-
merly applied to rhubarb.
  Bako'ptis.   A black stone, said to be an antidote to
venomous bites.
  Bauda.   A vessel for distillation was  formerly so
called.
  Bau'rach.   (Arab.  Bourach.)  A  name formerly
applied to nitre, borax, soda, and many other salts.
  Bdk'llus.   (From (Htu, to break  wind.)  A dis-
charge of xvind by the anus.
  Bdely'omia.  (From (iStu, to  break wind.)  Any
filthy and nauseous odour.
  Bellu'tta tsjampacam.  (Indian.)  AtreeofMa-
labar, to xvhich many virtues are attributed.
  Belu'zzar.  Beluzaar.  The Chaldee word for anti-
dote.
  Be'nath.   (Arabian.)  Small pustules produced by
sxveatinss in the night.
  Bere'drias. An ointment.
  Berna'rvi.   An electuary.
  Berrio'nis.  A name of black resin.
  Bery'tion.   (From Beryiius, its inventor.)  A col-
lyrium described by Galen.
  Hes. Au eight ounce measure.
  Besa'char.  A sponge.
  Bes'asa.  Formerly applied to wild rue.
  Bksk.xse.   An old name for mace.
  Bkse'nna.   (An  Arabian xvord.) Musearum fun-
gus.  Probably a sponge, xvhich is thp nidus of some
torts of flies.
      416
  Bezuas.  An obsolete chemical epithet.
  Bla'nca jiulierum.  Whrile lead.       .•„„,„«-,
  Bo'sa.  An Egyptian word for an inebriating ina s,
made of the meal of darnel, hempseed, and water*  ..
  Bo'smoros.  (From fSoaxu, to eat, and popos, a pari,
because it is divided for food by thc mill)  Bosporus.
A  species of meal.                            lh
  Bo'thor.  (Arabian.)  Tumours; pmples in "»
face: also the smallpox or measles.
  Bo'tia.  A name given to scrofula.
  Bo'tim.  A name for turpentine.
  Bo'tium.  Boetum. 1.  A bronchocele.
  2. Indurated bronchial glands.
  BoTOTHf.\-ir.M. The most evident symptom of disease.
  Bo'tus.  Botia.  Botus barbatus.  A cucurbit ol
the chemists.
  Bra'cium.  Copper.  Verdigris.               .
  Burac  (An Arabian word.)  Borax, or any kind
of salt.

  C, in the chemical alphabet, means nitre.
  Ca'lcaton.  White arsenic.   Troches of arsenic.
An obsolete term.
  Calce'na. Calcenonius; Calcetus. Fnracclsususes
these words to express the tartarous matter in the blood;
or that the blood is impregnated xvitii the tartarous prin-
ciples.
  Calchoi'dks.  (From xo^'l,  a chalk stone, and
ttlos, form.)  Anobsoletenameofthecuneiform bones
  Calcidi'cium.  The name  of a medicine in widen
arsenic is an ingredient.
  Calcita'ri.  Alkaline salt.
  Calcite'a.   Vitriol.
  Calciteo'sa. Litharge.
  Ca'lcithos.  Verdigris.
  Calcithe'a.  Vitriol.
  Ca'lcotar.  Vitriol.
  Ca'rabe.  See Capyridion.
  Ca'rabe.  (Persian)  Amber
  Chi'bur.  Sulphur.

  Diami'syos.  (From ha, and piav, misy.)  A com
position in which misy is an ingredient.
  Dysra'chitis.  The name of a plaster.

  Ebel.  The seeds of sage, or of juniper.
  Ebe'smecii.  Quicksilver.
  Ebsemech.  Quicksilver.
  Eccatha'rtica.   (From txxaOaipu, to purge out-
wards.)  According to Gorraeus, eccathartics are medi-
cines which open the poresof the skin;  but in general
they are  understood to be deobstruent.  Sometimes
expectorants are thus called, and also purgatives.  An
obsolete term.
  Edes.  Amber.
  Eije'ssenum. An  eye-water of tragacanth, gum
arabic, opium, &c.
  E'detz.  Amber.
  E'bic.  Edich; Eder.   Iron.
  E'dra.  A fracture; also  the loxver part of tlie
rectum.
  E'ffides.  Ceruss.
  Ela'niila.  Alum.
  E'la.iuir. Red vitriol.
  E'las maris.  Burnt lead.
  Ele'rsna.  An old term for black lead.
  Ele'smatis.  An old term for burnt lead.
  Ens martis.  An oxide of iron.
  Ens primum  solare.  Antinionv.
  Ens veneris.  The muriate of copper.

  Fumus albus.  Mercury.
  Fumus citrinus.   Sulphur.
  Fumus duplex.  Sulphur and  mercury
  Fumus rubkns.   Orpiment.


plans'""'  A term °f bnrbarous or'g'n applied  to ixvo

  Ge'ryon.  Quicksilver.

  Ilei'dos.   In the Spagyric language  it is the ale
mentary air.                               w ale

  La'rbason.  Antimtny.

  Satanus okvorans.  Antimony
  Sathk.  The penis 
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