m-.x ,k -v a. * v j*UVi.'...«•".'! "tlulo'SI" . uxAJv;-?*;.^ >, ■.VS^'t''^-?1 ■•'-': •'* - -•■,:' *^ut^^ *;:-: .- I ,v.r:-i. ,-h- v fiiro'-Ju-.*- .'V -" '*«£ 'i-j.-.■.'•■■.;» *■ V.vr- v UNITED STATES OF AMERICA FOUNDED 1836 WASHINGTON, D.C. GPO 16—67244-1 v*/s'/r<#/*u/ffi CONSTITUTION OF MAN considered in RELATION TO EXTERNAL OBJECTS THE CONSTITUTION OF MAN CONSIDERED IN RELATION TO EXTERNAL OBJECTS. GEORGE COMBE. WITH AN ADDITIONAL CHAPTER ON THE HARMONY BETWEEN PHRENOLOGY AND REVELATION. BY JOSEPH A. WARNE, A. M., " Vain is the ridicule with which one sees some persons will divert themselves, upon finding lesser pains considered as instances of divine punishment. There is no possibility of answering or evading the general thing here intended, without denying all final causes."—Butler's Analogy. lObfoo FIFTH AMERICAN FROM THE SECOND ENGLISH EDITION, CORRECTED AND ENLARGED. BOSTON: PUBLISHED BY WILLIAM D. TICKNOR. Corner of Washington and School Streets. 1837. Entered, according to act of Congress, in the year 1835, by William D. Ticknor, in the Clerk's Office of tne District Court of the District of Massachusetts. C7,2tc 1237 STEREOTYPED BY T. G. WELLS & CO. BOSTON. ADVERTISEMENT. Though the author of the treatise on The Constitu- tion of Man, says little or nothing, in his Preface to the last edition, of its being considerably enlarged, such is really the fact. Its value is, by this means, very greatly increased; and this circumstance, alone, should ensure for it an extensive circulation: for it is reasonable to suppose, that the additional matter, from the pen of the author, is, at least, as valuable as the original matter; and of the value of that matter, testimony is found, in the large edi- tions which have been called for; both in this countiy, and in England. Some of the readers and admirers of Mr. Combe's work, however, have lamented that his allusions to Revealed Religion, and especially to the peculiarities of Christianity, are not more frequent, and more definite;—nor has their regret had relation merely to this work; but has extended to the other Phrenological writings of the Author and other Phrenologists. These persons have desired that the peculiarities of evangelical religion, should, in works on Phrenology, be brought into prominence ; and that it might be shown, that Phrenology and Religion are in harmony with each other. This is attempted to be shown, in an additional chapter, in the present edition. The author of that chapter is sen- sible that the subject he has undertaken to exhibit, is there presented only in outline; but as he was, of necessity, 1- VI ADVERTISEMENT. confined to a single chapter, this was unavoidable. If, in this case, he has kept clear of the error which the ancient Poet censures, " Brevis esse laboro, obscurus fio;" it is all that he presumes to hope:—at a future time, should life and health be spared to him, he may present the sub- ject of the Harmony between Phrenology and Revelation, more at large. In the meantime, the present effort may have this beneficial effect, (and this effect it is, which he, principally, desires to produce;) viz. to convince consci- entious, evangelical Christians, that there is nothing in Phrenological Science, in the least at variance with the Oracles of Inspired Truth. Brookline, Mass. Oct. 1835 PREFACE. This Essay would not have been presented to the Pub- lic, had I not believed that it contains views of the consti- tution, condition, and prospects of Man, which deserve attention; but these, I trust, are not ushered forth with any thing approaching to a presumptuous spirit. I lay no claim to originality of conception. My first notions of the natural laws were derived from a manuscript work of Dr. Spurzheim, with the perusal of which I was honored in 1824. This work was afterwards published under the title of " A Sketch of the Natural Laws of Man, by G. Spurz- heim, M. D." A comparison of the text of it with that of the following pages, will show to what extent I am indebted to my late excellent and lamented master and friend for my ideas on this subject. All my inquiries and meditations since have impressed me more and more with a conviction of their importance. The materials employed lie open to all. Taken separately, I would hardly say that a new truth has been presented in the following work. The parts have all been admitted and employed again and ao-ain, by writers on morals, from Socrates down to the present day. In this respect, there is nothing new under the sun. The only novelty in this Essay respects the re- lations which acknowledged truths hold to each other. Physical laws of nature, affecting our physical condition, as well as regulating the whole material system of the universe, are universally acknowledged, and constitute the elements of natural philosophy and chemical science. Physiologists, medical practitioners, and all who take medi- cal aid, admit the existence of organic laws: And the sci- ences of government, legislation, education, indeed our whole train of conduct through life, proceed upon the admission of laws in morals. Accordingly, the laws of nature have formed an interesting subject of inquiry to philosophers of all ages; but, so far as I am aware, no author has hitherto attempted to point out, in a combined and systematic form, the relations between these laws and the constitution of Man ; which must, nevertheless, be done, before our knowledge of them can be beneficially vm PREFACE. applied: nor has any preceding author unfolded the inde- pendent operation of the several natural laws, and the practical consequences which follow from this fact. The great object of the following Essay is to exhibit these rela- tions and consequences with a view to the improvement of education, and the regulation of individual and national conduct. But although my purpose is practical, a theory of Mind forms an essential element in the execution of the plan. Without it, no comparison can be instituted between the natural constitution of man and external objects. Phre- nology appears to me to be the clearest, most complete, and best supported system of Human Nature, which has hitherto been taught; and I have assumed it as the basis of this Essay. But the practical value of the views now to be unfolded does not depend entirely on Phrenology. The latter, as a theory of Mind, is itself valuable, only in so far as it is a just exposition of what previously existed in human nature. We are physical, organic, and moral beings, acting under the sanction of general laws, whether the connection of different mental qualities with particular portions of the brain, as taught by Phrenology, be admitted or denied. Individuals, under the impulse of passion, or by the direction of intellect, will hope, fear, wonder, per- ceive, and act, whether the degree in which they habit- ually do so be ascertainable by the means which it points out or not. In so far, therefore, as this Essay treats of the known qualities of Man, it may be instructive even to those who contemn Phrenology as unfounded; while it can prove useful to none, if the doctrines which it unfolds shall be found not to be in accordance with the principles of human nature, by whatever system these may be ex- pounded. Some individuals object to all mental philosophy as useless, and argue, that, as Mathematics, Chemistry, and Botany, have become great sciences, without the least reference to the faculties by means of which they are cul- tivated, so Morals, Religion, Legislation and Political Economy have existed, been improved, and may continue to advance with equal success, without any help from the philosophy of mind. Such objectors, however, should con- sider that lines, circles, and triangles,—earths, alkalis and acids,—and also corollas, stamens, pistils and stio-mas, are objects which exist independently of the mind, and may be investigated by the application of the mental powers, in PREFACE. IX ignorance of the constitution of the faculties themselves; —just as we may practise archery without studying the anatomy of the hand; whereas the objects of moral and political philosophy are the qualities and actions of the mind itself: These objects have no existence independ- ently of mind; and they can no more be systematically or scientifically understood without the knowledge of mental philosophy, than optics can be cultivated as a science in ignorance of the structure and modes of action of the eye. I have endeavored to avoid all religious controversy. " The object of Moral Philosophy," says Mr. Stewart, " is to ascertain the general rules of a wise and virtuous con- duct in life, in so far as these rules may be discovered by the unassisted light of nature; that is, by an examination of the principles of the human constitution, and of the cir- cumstances in which Man is placed."* By following this method of inquiry, Dr. Hutcheson, Dr. Adam Smith, Dr. Reid, Mr. Stewart, and Dr. Thomas Brown, have, in succession, produced highly interesting and instructive works on Moral Science; and the present Essay is a hum- ble attempt to pursue the same plan, with the aid of the new lights afforded by Phrenology. I confine my observa- tions exclusively to Man as he exists in the present world, and beg that, in perusing the subsequent pages, this ex- planation may be constantly kept in view. In consequence of forgetting it, my language has occasionally been misap- prehended, and my objects misrepresented. When I speak of man's "highest interest," for example, as on page 7, and in other places, I uniformly refer to man as he exists in this world; but as the same God presides over both the temporal and the eternal interests of the human race, it seems to me demonstrably certain, that what is conducive to the one, will in no instance impede the other, but will in general be favorable to it also. This work, however, does not directly embrace the interests of eternity. These be- long to the department of theology, and demand a different line of investigation; I confine myself exclusively to moral philosophy. Since the first Edition of this work appeared, on 9th June 1828, additional attention has been paid to the study of the laws of Nature, and their importance has been more generally recognised. In "A Discourse on the Studies of the University, by Adam Sedgwick, M. A. &c." of which * Outlines of Moral Philosophy, p. 1. X PREFACE. a third edition was published at Cambridge in 1834, the author remarks, that "we are justified in saying, that, in the moral as in the physical world, God seems to govern by general laws." " I am not now," says he, " contending for the doctrine of moral necessity; but I do affirm, that the moral government of God is by general laws, and that it is our bounden duty to study these laws, and, as far as we can, to turn them to account." " If there be a super- intending Providence, and if his will be manifested by general laws operating both on the physical and moral world, then must a violation of these laws be a violation of his will, and be pregnant with inevitable misery." "No- thing can, in the end, be expedient for man, except it be subordinate to those laws the Author of Nature has thought fit to impress on his moral and physical creation." " In the end, high principle and sound policy will be found in the strictest harmony wjth each other." These are precisely the views which it is the object of the present work to enforce; and it is gratifying to me to see them so ably and eloquently recommended to the attention of the students of the University of Cambridge. 23. Charlotte Square, Edinburgh, 5th March, 1835. CONTENTS. INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. GENERAL VIEW OF THE CONSTITUTION OF HUMAN NATURE, AND ITS RELATIONS TO EXTERNAL OBJECTS, Page 1 CHAPTER I. ON NATURAL LAWS,.........27 CHAPTER II. ON THE CONSTITUTION OF MAN, AND ITS RELATIONS TO EX- TERNAL OBJECTS,.........41 Sect. I. Man considered as a Physical Being, . . . . .42 II. Man considered as an Organized Being, . . . . 44 III. Man considered as an Animal — Moral — and Intellectual Being,..........49 IV. The Faculties of Man compared with each other; or the Su- premacy of the Moral Sentiments and Intellect, . . .54 V. The Faculties of Man compared with External Objects, . . 75 CHAPTER III. ON THE SOURCES OF HUMAN HAPPINESS, AND THE CONDITIONS REQUISITE FOR MAINTAINING IT,......82 CHAPTER IV. APPLICATION OF THE NATURAL LAWS TO THE PRACTICAL AR- RANGEMENTS OF LIFE,........9(5 CHAPTER V. TO WHAT EXTENT ARE THE MISERIES OF MANKIND REFERA- BLE TO INFRINGEMENTS OF THE LAWS OF NATURE 1 . .107 Sect. I. Calamities arising from infringements of the Physical Laws, 108 II. On the Evils that Befall Mankind from infringement of the Organic Laws, ..••••• III. Calamities arising from infringement of the Moral Law, . • 198 Xll CONTENTS. CHAPTER VI. ON PUNISHMENT,..........254 Sect. I. On Punishment as inflicted under the Natural Laws, • • 254 II. Moral Advantages of Punishment,......280 CHAPTER VII. ON THE COMBINED OPERATION OF THE NATURAL LAWS, . . 285 CHAPTER VIII. INFLUENCE OF THE NATURAL LAWS ON THE HAPPINESS OF INDIVIDUALS,..........306 CHAPTER IX. ON THE RELATION BETWEEN SCIENCE AND SCRIPTURE, . . 317 CONCLUSION,...........835 ADDITIONAL CHAPTER. ON THE HARMONY BETWEEN THE SCRIPTURES AND PHRE- NOLOGY, ..... . . . . 351 APPENDIX. Natural Laws,..........381 Note I. Organic Laws ........385 II. Hereditary Transmission of Qualities, ..... 386 III. Laws Relative to Marriage and Education in Germany, . 393 IV. Death,..........397 V. Edinburgh Association for procuring Instruction in useful and entertaining Sciences,.......401 VI. Infringement of the Moral Laws, . ..... 403 Index,...........407 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. GENERAL VIEW OF THE CONSTITUTION OF HUMAN NATURE, AND ITS RELATIONS TO EXTERNAL OBJECTS. In surveying the external world, we discover that every creature and every physical object has received a definite constitution, and been placed in certain relations to other objects. The natural evidence of a Deity and his attri- butes is drawn from contemplating these arrangements. Intelligence, wisdom, benevolence, and power, character- ize the works of creation; and the human mind ascends by a chain of correct and rigid induction to a great First Cause, in whom these qualities must reside. But hitherto this great truth has excited a sublime yet barren admira- tion, rather than led to beneficial practical results. Man obviously stands pre-eminent among sublunary objects, and is distinguished by remarkable endowments above all other terrestrial beings. Nevertheless no crea- ture presents such anomalous appearances as man. View- ed in one aspect he almost resembles a demon; in another he still bears the impress of the image of God. Seen in his crimes, his wars, and his devastations, he might be mistaken for an incarnation of an evil spirit; contemplated in his schemes of charity, his discoveries in science, and his vast combinations for the benefit of his race, he seems a bright intelligence from Heaven. The lower animals exhibit a more simple and regulated constitution. The lion is bold and ferocious, but he is regularly so; and, be- sides, is placed in circumstances suited to his nature, in which at once scope is given and limits are set to the gratification of his instincts. The sheep, as a contrast, is mild, feeble, and inoffensive; but its external condition also is suited to its constitution, and it apparently lives and 1 2 VIEW OF THE CONSTITUTION OF HUMAN NATURE, flourishes in as great enjoyment as the lion. The same remarks apply to all the inferior creatures; and the idea which I wish particularly to convey is, that their bodily organs, faculties, instincts, and external circumstances, form parts of a system in which adaptatioa and harmony are discoverable; and that the enjoyment of the animals depends on the adaptation of their constitution to their external condition. If we saw the lion one day tearing in pieces every animal that crossed its path, and the next oppressed with remorse for the death of its victims, or compassionately healing those whom it had mangled, we should exclaim, what an inconsistent creature! and con- clude that it could not by possibility be happy, owing to this opposition among the principles of its nature. In short, we should be strikingly convinced that two condi- tions are essential to enjoyment; first, that the different instincts of an animal must be in harmony with each other; and, secondly, that its whole constitution must be in ac- cordance with its external condition. When, keeping these principles in view, we direct our attention to Man, very formidable anomalies present them- selves. The most opposite instincts or impulses exist in his mind; actuated by Combativeness, Destructiveness, Acquisitiveness, and Self-Esteem, the moral sentiments being in abeyance, he is almost a fiend; on the contrary, when inspired by Benevolence, Veneration, Hope, Con- scientiousness, Ideality, and Intellect, the benignity, seren- ity, and splendor, of a highly-elevated nature beam from his eye, and radiate from his countenance. He is then lovely, noble, and gigantically great. But how shall these conflicting tendencies be reconciled? And how can exter- nal circumstances be devised that shall accord with such heterogeneous elements? Here again a conviction of the power and goodness of the Deity comes to our assistance. Man is obviously an essential and most important part of the present system of creation, and, without doubting of his future destinies, we ought not, so long as our know- AND ITS RELATIONS TO EXTERNAL OBJECTS. 3 ledge of his nature is incomplete, to consider his condition here as inexplicable. The nature of man has hitherto, to all philosophical purposes, been unknown, and both the designs of the Creator and the situation of man have been judged of ignorantly and rashly. The skeptic has advanc- ed arguments against religion, and crafty deceivers have, in all ages, founded systems of superstition, on the disorder and inconsistency which are too readily admitted to be inseparable attributes of human existence on earth. But I venture to hope that man will yet be found in harmony with himself and with his condition. I am aware that some individuals, whose piety I respect, conceive, that as the great revolutions of human society, as well as all events in the lives of individuals, take place under the guidance of the Deity, it is presumptuous, if not impious, in man to endeavor to scan their causes and effects. But it is obvious that the Creator governs man with reference to the faculties bestowed on him. The young swallow, when it migrates on the approach of the first winter of its life, is impelled by an instinct implanted by the Deity, and it can neither know the causes that prompt it to fly, nor the end to be attained by its flight. But its mental constitution is wisely adapted to this condi- tion; for it has no powers stimulating it to reflect on itself and external objects, and to inquire whence came its de- sires, or to what object they tend. Man, however, has been framed differently. The Creator has bestowed on him faculties to observe phenomena, and to trace cause and effect; and he has constituted the external world to afford scope to these powers. We are entitled, therefore, to say, that it is the Creator himself who has commanded us to observe and inquire into the causes that prompt us to act, and the results that will naturally follow; and to adapt our conduct according to what we shall discover. To enable us to form a just estimate of our duty and interest as the rational occupants of this world, we may inquire briefly into the constitution of external nature, and of ourselves. 4 VIEW OF THE CONSTITUTION OF HUMAN NATURE, The constitution of this world does not look like a sys- tem of optimism. It appears to be arranged in all its departments on the principle of gradual and progressive improvement. Physical nature itself has undergone many revolutions, and apparently has constantly advanced. Geology seems to show a distinct preparation of it for successive orders of living beings, rising higher and high- er in the scale of intelligence and organization, until man appeared. The globe, in the first state in which the imagination can venture to consider it, says Sir H. Davy,* appears to have been a fluid mass, with an immense atmosphere revolving in space round the sun. By its cooling, a por- tion of its atmosphere was probably condensed into water, which occupied a part of its surface. In this state, no forms of life, such as now belong to our system, could have inhabited it. The crystalline rocks, or, as they are called by geologists, the primary rocks, which contain no vestiges of a former order of things, were the result of the first consolidation on its surface. Upon the farther cooling, the water, which, more or less, had covered it, contracted; depositions took place; shell-fish and coral insects were created, and began their labors. Islands appeared in the midst of the ocean, raised from the deep by the productive energies of millions of zoophytes. These islands became covered with vegetables fitted to bear a high temperature, such as palms, and various spe- cies of plants, similar to those which now exist in the hottest parts of the world. The submarine rocks of these * The description in the text is extracted chiefly from " The Last Days of a Philosopher," by Sir Humphrey Davy, 1831, p. 134, on account of its popular style; but similar representations may be found in several recent works on Geology,—particularly " A Geological Manual, by II. T. De La Beche;" the Penny Magazine of 1833, in a very instructive popular form; and in Sedgwick's Discourse on the Studies of the University of Cambridge third edition. Mr. Lyell, however, in his Principles of Geology, vol. i. ch. ix. controverts the doctrine of a progressive development of plants and ani- mals. AND ITS RELATIONS TO EXTERNAL OBJECTS. 5 new formations of land became covered with aquatic vegetables, on which various species of shell-fish, and common fishes, found their nourishment. As the tempera- ture of the globe became lower, species of the oviparous reptiles appear to have been created to inhabit it; and the turtle, crocodile, and various gigantic animals of the Sauri (lizard) kind seem to have haunted the bays and waters of the primitive lands. But in this state of things, there appears to have been no order of events similar to the present. Immense volcanic explosions seem to have taken place, accompanied by elevations and depressions of the surface of the globe, producing mountains, and causing new and extensive depositions from the primitive ocean. The remains of living beings, plants, fishes, birds, and oviparous reptiles, are found in the strata of rocks which are the monuments and evidence of these changes. When these revolutions became less frequent, and the globe became still more cooled, and inequalities of tempe- rature were established by means of the mountain-chains, more perfect animals became its inhabitants, such as the mammoth, megalonix, megatherium, and gigantic hyena, many of which have become extinct. Five successive races of plants, and four successive races of animals, appear to have been created and swept away by the physi- cal revolutions of the globe, before the system of things became so permanent as to fit the world for man. In none of these formations, whether called secondary, ter- tiary, or diluvial, have the fossil remains of man, or any of his works, been discovered. At last, man was created, and since that period there has been little alteration in the physical circumstances of the globe. " In all these various formations," says Dr. Buckland, " the coprolites," (or the dung of the saurian reptiles in a fossil state, exhibiting scales of fishes and other traces of the prey which they had devoured) " form records of war- fare waged by successive generations of inhabitants of our planet on one another; and the general law of nature, 1* 6 VIEW OF THE CONSTITUTION OF HUMAN NATURE, which bids all to eat and be eaten in their turn, is shown to have been co-extensive with animal existence upon our globe, the carnivora in each period of the world's history fulfilling their destined office to check excess in the pro- gress of life, and maintain the balance of creation." This brief summary of the physical changes of the globe, is not irrelevant to our present object. The more that is discovered of creation, the more conspicuously does uniformity of design appear to pervade its every department. We perceive here the physical world gradu- ally improved and prepared for man. Let us now contemplate Man himself, and his adapta- tion to the external creation. The world, we have seen, was inhabited by living beings, and death and reproduc- tion prevailed before Man appeared. The order of crea- tion seems not to have been changed at his introduction: —he appears to have been adapted to it. He received from his Creator an organized structure, and animal in- stincts. He took his station among, yet at the head of, the beings that existed at his creation. Man is to a cer- tain extent an animal in his structure, powers, feelings, and desires, and is adapted to a world in which death reigns, and generation succeeds generation. This fact, although so trite and obvious as to appear scarcely worthy of being noticed, is of importance in treating of Man; because the human being, in so far as he resembles the inferior creatures, is capable of enjoying a life like theirs: i^e has pleasure in eating, drinking, sleeping, and exercis- ing his limbs; and one of the greatest obstacles to im- provement is, that many of the race are contented with these enjoyments, and consider it painful to be compelled to seek higher sources of gratification. But to man's animal nature, have been added, by a bountiful Creator moral sentiments and reflecting faculties, which not only place him above all other creatures on earth, but consti- tute him a different being from any of them, a rational and accountable creature. These faculties are his highest AND ITS RELATIONS TO EXTERNAL OBJECTS. 7 and his best gifts, and the sources of his purest and intens- est pleasures. They lead him directly to the great objects of his existence,—obedience to God, and love to his fel- low men. But this peculiarity attends them, that while his animal faculties act powerfully of themselves, his rational faculties require to be cultivated, exercised, and instruct- ed, before they will yield their full harvest of enjoyment. The Creator has so arranged the external world as to hold forth every possible inducement to man to cultivate his higher powers, nay almost to constrain him to do so. The philosophic mind, in surveying the world as prepared for the reception of the human race, perceives in external nature a vast assemblage of stupendous powers, too great for the feeble hand of man entirely to control, but kindly subjected within certain limits to the influence of his will. Man is introduced on earth apparently helpless and unpro- vided for as a homeless stranger; but the soil on which he treads is endowed with a thousand capabilities of produc- tion, which require only to be excited by his intelligence to yield him the most ample returns. The impetuous tor- rent rolls its waters to the main; but as it dashes over the mountain-cliff, the human hand is capable* of withdrawing it from its course, and bending its powers subservient to his will. Ocean extends over half the globe her liquid plain, in which no path appears, and the rude winds oft lift her waters to the sky; but, there the skill of man may launch the strong-knit bark, spread forth the canvass to the gale, and make the trackless deep a highway through the world. In such a state of things, knowledge is truly power; and the highest interest of human beings is to be- come acquainted with the constitutions and relations of every object around them, that they may discover its capa- bilities of ministering to their own advantage. Farther, where these physical energies are too great to be control- led, man has received intelligence by which he may observe their course, and accommodate his conduct to their influ- ence. This capacity of adaptation is a valuable substitute 8 VIEW OF THE CONSTITUTION OF HUMAN NATURE, for the power of regulating them by his will. Man cannot arrest the sun in its course, so as to avert the wintry storms and cause perpetual spring to bloom around him; but, by the proper exercise of his intelligence and corpo- real energies, he is able to foresee the approach of bleak skies and rude winds, and to place himself in safety from their injurious effects. These powers of controlling na- ture, and of accommodating his conduct to its course, are the direct results of his rational faculties; and in proportion to their cultivation is his sway extended. If the rain falls and the wind blows, and the ocean billows lash against the mere animal, it must endure them all; because it cannot control their action, nor protect itself by art from their power. Man, while ignorant, continues in a condition almost equally helpless. But let him put forth his proper human capacities, and he then finds himself invested with the power to rear, to build, to fabricate, and to store up provisions; and by availing himself of these resources, and accommodating his conduct to the course of nature's laws, he is able to smile in safety beside the cheerful hearth, when the elements maintain their fiercest war abroad. Again: We are surrounded by countless beings, inferior and equal to ourselves, whose qualities yield us the great- est happiness, or bring upon us the bitterest evil, according as we affect them agreeably or disagreeably by our con- duct. To draw forth all their excellences, and cause them to diffuse joy around us — to avoid touching the harsher springs of their constitution, and bringing painful discord to our ears — it is indispensably necessary that we know the nature of our fellows, and act with a habitual regard to the relations established by the Creator betwixt ourselves and them. Man, ignorant and uncivilized, is a ferocious, sensual and superstitious savage. The external world affords some enjoyments to his animal feelings, but it confounds his moral and intellectual faculties. External nature ex- hibits to his mind a mighty chaos of events, and a dread AND ITS RELATIONS TO EXTERNAL OBJECTS. 9 display of power. The chain of causation appears too intricate to be unravelled, and the power too stupendous to be controlled. Order and beauty, indeed, occasionally gleam forth to his eye, from detached portions of creation, and seem to promise happiness and joy; but more fre- quently, clouds and darkness brood over the scene, and disappoint his fondest expectations. Evil seems so mixed up with good, that he regards it either as its direct product or its inseparable accompaniment. Nature is never con- templated with a clear perception of its adaptation to the purpose of promoting the true enjoyment of man, or with a well founded confidence in the wisdom and benevolence of its Author. Man, when civilized and illuminated by knowledge, on the other hand, discovers in the objects and occurrences around him, a scheme beautifully arranged for the gratification of his whole powers, animal, moral, and intellectual; he recognises in himself the intelligent and accountable subject of an all-bountiful Creator, and in joy and gladness desires to study the Creator's works, to ascertain his laws, and to yield to them a steady and a willing obedience. Without undervaluing the pleasures of his animal nature, he tastes the higher, more refined, and more enduring delights of his moral and intellectual capacities, and he then calls aloud for Education as indis- pensable to the full enjoyment of his rational powers. If this representation of the condition of the human be- ing on earth be correct, we perceive clearly the unspeaka- ble advantage of applying our minds to gain knowledge of our own constitution and that of external nature, and of regulating our conduct according to rules drawn from the information acquired. Our constitution and our position equally imply, that the grand object of our existence is, not to remain contented with the pleasures of mere animal life, but to take the dignified and far more delightful sta- tion of moral and rational occupants of this lower world. If the physical history of the globe clearly indicates progression in an advancing series of changes the civil 10 VIEW OF THE CONSTITUTION OF HUMAN NATI'Iit, history of man equally proclaims the march, although often vacillating and slow, of moral and intellectual im- provement. To avoid too extensive an inquiry, unsuitable to an introductory discourse, let us confine our attention to the aspects presented by society in our native country. At the time of the Roman invasion, the inhabitant of Britain lived as savages, and appeared in painted skins. After the Norman conquest, one part of the nation was placed in the condition of serfs, and condemned to labor like beasts of burden, while another devoted themselves to war. They fought battles during day, and in the night probably dreamed of bloodshed and broils. These gener- ations severally believed their own condition to be the per- manent and inevitable lot of man. Next, however, have come the present arrangements of society, in which mil- lions of men are shut up in cotton and other manufactories for ten or twelve hours a-day; others labor under ground in mines; others plough the fields; while thousands of higher rank pass their whole lives in idleness and dissipa- tion. Now, the elementary principles, both of mind and body, were the same in our painted ancestors, in their chivalrous descendants, and in us, their shopkeeping, manufacturing, and money-gathering children. Yet how different the external circumstances of the individuals of these several generations! If, in the savage state, the internal faculties of man were in harmony among them- selves, and if his external condition was in accordance with them, he must then have enjoyed all the happiness that his nature admitted of, and he must have erred when he changed; or, if the institutions and customs of the ao-e of chivalry were calculated to gratify his whole nature harmoniously, he must have been unhappy as a savage and must be miserable now; if his present condition be the perfection of his nature, he must have been far from en- joyment, both as a savage and a feudal warrior; and if none of these conditions have been in accordance with his constitution, he must still have his happiness to seek. AND ITS RELATIONS TO EXTERNAL OBJECTS. 1] Every age, accordingly, has testified that it was not in possession of contentment; and the question presents itself, If human nature has received a definite constitution, and if one arrangement of external circumstances be more suited to yield it gratification than another,—what are that constitution and that arrangement? No one can tell. And in what respects have we in times past departed, and do we now depart, from them? The answer is involved in equal obscurity. How has it happened that, in all their various changes, the British have never succeeded in sat- isfying themselves with their condition? Why did they institute the savage state? It was not fixed by the Creator as the permanent condition of man, otherwise they could not have escaped from it. The bear and the wolf, the ox and the camel, do not change their states and avocations as men have done. What prompted them to betake themselves to war as their most honorable employment? Again we say that that condition was not the ultimate lot of man, because it also has changed. And what has led us now to spin and weave, to hammer and construct, for all the nations of the globe ? We answer, that this state may also disappear, and then it will not be regarded as the ne plus idtra of human enjoyment. Farther, if we have not reached the limits of attainable perfection, what are we next to attempt? Are we and our posterity to spin and weave, build ships, and speculate in commerce, as the highest occupations to which human nature can aspire, and persevere in these labors till the end of time? Or if changes are to follow, we may ask, who instituted the changes which history records? On what principles were they regulated? And who shall guide the helm in our future voyage on the ocean of existence ? The British are here cited as a type of mankind at large; for in every age and every clime similar races have been run, and with similar conclusions. Only one answer can be returned to these inquiries. Man is evidently a progressive being; and the Creator having designed a higher path for him 12 VIEW OF THE CONSTITUTION OF HUMAN NATURE, than for the lower creatures, has given him intellect to discover his own nature and that of external objects, and left him, by the exercise of it and his other powers, to find out for himself the method of placing his faculties in harmony among themselves, and in accordance with the external world. Time and experience are necessary to accomplish these ends, and history exhibits the human race only in a state of progress towards the full develop- ment of their powers, and the attainment of rational en- joyment. As long as man remained ignorant of his own nature, he could not of design form his institutions in accordance with it. Until his own faculties became the subjects of his observation, and their relations the objects of his re- flection, they operated as mere instincts. He adopted savage habits, because his animal propensities were not at first directed by moral sentiment or enlightened by reflec- tion. He next adopted the condition of the barbarian, because his higher powers had made some advances, but had not yet attained supremacy; and he now manufactures, because his constructive faculties and intellect have given him power over physical nature, while his Acquisitiveness and Ambition are predominant, and are gratified by these avocations. Not one of these changes, however, has been adopted from design, or from perception of its suitableness to the nature of man. He has been ill at ease in them all; but it does not follow that he shall continue for ever equally ignorant of his nature, and equally incapable of framing institutions to harmonize with it. The simple facts, that the Creator has bestowed on man reason capa- ble of discovering his own nature, and its relations to external objects; that He has left him to apply it in fram- ing suitable institutions to ensure his happiness; that, nevertheless, man has hitherto been ignorant of his nature and of its relations, and that, in consequence, his modes of life have never been adopted from enlightened views of his whole capacities and qualities, but sprung up from the AND ITS RELATIONS TO EXTERNAL OBJECTS* 13 instinctive ascendency of one blind propensity or another, —warrant us in saying, that a new era will begin when man shall be enabled to study his own nature and its rela- tions with success; and that the future may exhibit him assuming his station as a rational creature, pursuing his own happiness with intelligence and design, and at length attaining higher gratification to his whole faculties than he has hitherto enjoyed. The inquiry next naturally presents itself, What has been the cause of the human race remaining for so many ages unacquainted with their own nature and its relations? The answer is, that, before the discovery of the functions of the brain, they did not know how to study these subjects in a manner calculated to attain to true principles and practical results. The philosophy of man was conducted as a speculative, and not as an inductive science; and even when attempts were made at induction, the manner in which they were conducted was at variance with the fundamental requisites of a sound philosophy.* In conse- quence, even the most enlightened nations have never possessed any practical philosophy of mind, but have been bewildered amidst countless contradictory theories. In our own country two views of the constitution of the world and of human nature have long been prevalent, dif- fering widely from each other, and which, if legitimately followed out, would lead to distinct practical results. The one is, that the world contains the elements of improve- ment within itself, which time will evolve and bring to maturity; it having been constituted by the Creator on the principle of a progressive system, like the acorn in re- ference to the oak. This hypothesis ascribes to the power and wisdom of the Divine Being the whole phenomena which nature, animate and inanimate, exhibits; because, in conferring on each part the specific qualities, and consti- tution which belong to it, and in placing it in the circum- * See System of Phrenology, Third Edition, p. 40. 2 14 VIEW OF THE CONSTITUTION OF HUMAN NATURE, stances in which it is found, He is assumed to have design- ed, from the first, the whole results which these qualities, constitution, and circumstances, are calculated in time to produce. There is no countenance given to atheism by this system. On the contrary, it affords the richest and most comprehensive field imaginable, for tracing the evi- dence of Divine power, wisdom, and goodness in creation. The other hypothesis is, that the world was perfect at the first, but fell into derangement, continues in disorder, and does not contain within itself the elements of its own rectification. If the former view be sound, the first object of man, as an intelligent being in quest of happiness, must be to study the elements of external nature and their capabilities; the elementary qualities of his own nature, and their applica- tions; and the relationship between these. His second object will be to discover and carry into effect the condi- tions, physical, moral, and intellectual, which, in virtue of this constitution, require to be realized before the fullest enjoyment of which he is capable can be attained. According to the second view of creation, nothing of good can be expected from the evolution of nature's ele- ments, these being all essentially disordered; and human improvement and enjoyment must be derived chiefly from spiritual influences. If the one hypothesis be sound, man must fulfil the natural conditions requisite to the existence of religion, morality, and happiness, before he can reap full benefit from religious truth: according to the other, he must believe aright in religion, and be the subject of spiri- tual influences independent of natural causes, before he can become capable of any virtue or enjoyment; in short, according to the latter hypothesis, sciences, philosophy, and all arrangements of the physical, moral, and intellec- tual elements of nature, are subordinate in their effects on human happiness on earth, to religious faith. It appears to me extremely difficult to reconcile these conflicting views. AND ITS RELATIONS TO EXTERNAL OBJECTS. 15 The theologians who condemned the natural world, lived in an age when there was no sound philosophy, and almost no knowledge of physical science; they were unavoidably ignorant of the elementary qualities of human nature, and of the influence of organization on the mental powers;__ the great link which connects the moral and physical worlds. They were unacquainted with the relations sub- sisting between the mind and external nature, and could not by possibility divine to what extent individuals and society were capable of being improved by natural means. In the history of man, they had read chiefly of misery and crime, and had in their own age beheld much of both. They were, therefore, naturally led to form a low esti- mate of human nature, and to expect little good from the cultivation of its inherent capabilities. These views ap- pear to me to have influenced their interpretations of scrip- ture; and having once been entwined with religious senti- ments, they have descended from generation to generation: In consequence, persons of sincere piety have, for several centuries, been induced to look down on this world as a wilderness abounding with briars, weeds, and noxious things, and to direct their chief attention, not to the study of its elements and their relations, in the hope of reducing them to order, but to enduring the disorder with patience and resignation, and to securing, by faith and penitence, salvation in a future life. It has never been with them a practical principle, that human nature itself may be vastly improved in its moral and intellectual capacities, by those hieans which Physiology and Phrenology have recently opened up to us; nor that human nature and the external world are adjusted on the principle of favoring the deve- lopment of the higher powers of our minds; nor that the study of the constitution of nature is indispensable to human improvement; nor that this world and its professions and pursuits might be rendered favorable to virtue by searching out the natural qualities of its elements, their relationship, and the moral plan on which God has consti- 16 VIEW OF THE CONSTITUTION OF HUMAN NATURE, tuted and governs it. Some philosophers and divines having failed to discover a consistent order or plan in the moral world, have rashly concluded that none such exists, or that it is inscrutable. It appears never to have occurred to them that it is impossible to comprehend a whole system without becoming acquainted with its parts; these persons have been ignorant of the physiology of man, of the philo- sophy of man, of the philosophy of external nature, and their relations, and nevertheless have not perc'eived that this extensive ignorance of the details rendered it impos- sible for them to comprehend the plan of the whole. Hence they have involved themselves in contradictions; for while it has been a practical principle with them, that en- joyment in a future state is to be the consequence of the believer attaining to a holy and pious frame of mind in this life; they have represented the constitution of the world to be so unfavorable to piety and virtue, that men in general, who continue attached to it, cannot attain to this right frame of spirit, or act habitually in consistency with it. They have not had philosophy sufficient to perceive that man must live in society to be either virtuous, useful, or happy; that the social atmosphere is to the mind what air is to the lungs; that while an individual cannot exist to virtuous ends out of society, he cannot exist in a right frame in it, if the moral atmosphere with which he is sur- rounded be deeply contaminated with vice and error. In- dividual merchants, for example, cannot act habitually on Christian principles, if the maxims of their trade be not Christian; and if the world be so unfavorably constitued that it does not admit of the rules of trade becoming Chris- tian, then active life and practical religion are naturally opposed to each other. Divines have laboriously recom- mended spiritual exercises as means of improvement in this life and of salvation in the next; but have rarely dealt with the philosophy of this world, or attempted its rectifi- cation, so as to render these exercises truly efficacious. Their minds have been infected with the first o-reat error AND ITS RELATIONS TO EXTERNAL OBJECTS. 17 that this world is irremediably defective in its constitution, and that human hope must be concentrated entirely on the next. This may be attributed to the premature formation of a system of theology in the dawn of civilization, before the qualities of the physical world, and the elements of the moral world and their relationship, were known; and to erroneous interpretations of Scripture in consequence, partly, of that ignorance. Now, if the discovery of the philosophy of mind, founded on the functions of the brain, is to operate at all in favor of human improvement, one of the most striking effects which it will produce, will be the lifting up of the veil which has so long concealed the natural world, its capa- bilities and importance, from the eyes of divines. To all practical ends connected with theology, the philosophy of nature might as well not exist: With few exceptions, the sermons preached a century ago are equal, if not superior, in sense and suitableness to human nature, to those deliv- ered yesterday; and yet, in the interval, the human mind has made vast advances in knowledge of the works of creation. Divines have frequently applied scientific dis- coveries in proving the existence and developing the char- acter of the Deity; but they have failed in applying either the discoveries themselves, or the knowledge of the Divine character obtained by means of them, to the construction of any practical system of mental philosophy, capable of combining harmoniously with religion, and promoting the improvement of the human race. This, however, Phrenelogy will enable them one day to do. In surveying the world itself, the phrenologist per- ceives that the Creator has bestowed elementary qualities on the human mind, and on external objects, and estab- lished certain relations between them; that these faculties have been incessantly operating according to their inherent tendencies, generally aiming at good, always desiring it, but often missing it through pure ignorance and blindness, yet capable of attaining it when enlightened and properly 2* 18 VIEW OF THE CONSTITUTION OF HUMAN NATURE, directed. The baneful effects of ignorance are even where apparent. Three-fourths of the mental faculties have direct reference to this world, and in their functions appear to have no intelligible relation to another, such are Amativeness, Philoprogenitiveness, Combativeness, De- structiveness, Constructiveness, Acquisitiveness, Secret- iveness, Self-Esteem, and others; while the remaining fourth have reference at once to this life and to a higher state of existence, such are Benevolence, Ideality, Wonder, Veneration, Hope, Conscientiousness, and Intellect. To guide and successfully apply the first class of faculties to the promotion of human happiness, it appears indispensable that the faculties themselves, the physical conditions on which their strength and weakness, inertness and vivacity, depend,—the relations established between them and the external world, which is the grand theatre of their action, —and, finally, the relation between them and the superior faculties, which are destined to direct them, should be known; and yet, scarcely any thing is known in a philo- sophical and practical sense by the people at large, on these points. If I am correct in saying that these faculties nave, by their constitution, reference chiefly to this world, then useful knowledge for their guidance will be afforded by the philosophy of this world; and the wisdom which is to reduce them to order, will receive important aid from studying the constitution which it has pleased the Creator to bestow on them, and the relations which he has seen proper to institute between them and the otner departments of his works. His wisdom and goodness will be found to pervade them. He has bestowed on us intellect to dis- cover, and sentiments to obey, his will in whatever record its existence is inscribed, and yet little of this knowledge is taught to the people by divines. Knowledge of the constitution, relations, and capabilities of this world, is indispensable also to the proper exercise and direction of the superior powers of our minds. In all ages practical men have been engaged for three-fourths of AND ITS RELATIONS TO EXTERNAL OBJECTS. 19 their time in pursuits calculated to gratify the faculties which have reference to this world alone, but, unfortunately, the remaining fourth of their time has not been devoted to pursuits bearing reference to their higher faculties. Through want of intellectual education, they have been incapable of deriving pleasure from observing nature, and they have not been furnished with ideas to enable them to think. Owing to the barbarism which pervaded society in general, there has been no moral atmosphere in which their superior sentiments could play. Ambition, that pow- erful stimulant in social life, has not been directed to moral objects, but generally the reverse. The hours, therefore, which ought to have been dedicated to the improvement of the higher portion of their faculties, were either devoted to the pursuit of gain, sensual pleasure, or ambition, or spent in mere trifling amusements and relaxa- tion. There was no practical onward purpose of moral and intellectual advancement abroad in the secular occu- pations of society; and the divines who formed public opinion, so far from discovering that this disorder was not inherent in the constitution of nature, and that Christianity, in teaching the doctrine of the supremacy of the moral faculties, necessarily implied the practicability of a state of society founded on that principle, fell into the opposite error, and represented the world as deranged in all its parts; as incapable, by the development of its own elements, of rectification; and thereby added strength and perma- nence to the evils originating in ignorance and unguided passion. I am far from casting blame on the excellent individuals who fell into these mistakes; they were inevitable at the time in which they lived, and with the lights which they possessed; but I point them out as imperfections which ought to be removed. The late Earl of Bridgewater died in February 1829, and left the sum of £ 8,000, which by his will he directed the President of the Royal Society of London to apply in 20 VIEW OF THE CONSTITUTION OF HUMAN NATURE, paying any person or persons to be selected by him, "to write, print, and publish one thousand copies of a work 'On the Power, Wisdom, and Goodness of God, as mani- fested in the creation;' illustrating such work by all rea- sonable arguments, as, for instance, the variety and forma- tion of God's creatures in the animal, vegetable, and mineral kingdoms; the effect of digestion, and thereby of conversion; the construction of the hand of man, and an infinite variety of other arguments; as also by discoveries, ancient and modem, in arts, sciences, and the whole extent of literature.'" The President of the Royal Society called in the aid of the Archbishop of Canterbury and of the Bishop of London, and with their advice nominated eight gentle- men to write eight treatises on different branches of this great subject. The aim of the Earl of Bridgewater appears to have been to ascertain what the character of external nature and the capacities of the human mind really are, and what is the adaptation of the latter to the external world; questions of vast importance in themselves, and which can be solved only by direct, bold, and unbiassed appeals to Nature herself. The first inquiry that ought naturally to have presented itself in the execution of this object was, " What is the constitution of the human mind;" because, before we can successfully trace the adaptation of two objects to each other, we must be acquainted with each of the objects themselves. But the authors of the Bridgewater Treatises have neglected this branch of inquiry. They disdained to acknowledge Phrenology as the philosophy of mind, and although perfectly aware that there was no other system that could be applied, with any reasonable success, to the investigation in hand, they have never even attempted to assign to human nature any definite or intelligible consti- tution. In consequence, they appear to me to have thrown extremely little new light on the moral government of the world AND ITS RELATIONS TO EXTERNAL OBJECTS. 21 In the following work, the first edition of which was published in 1828, before the Earl of Bridgewater's death, I have endeavored to avoid this inconsistency. Having been convinced, after minute and long continued observa- tion, that Phrenology is the true philosophy of mind, I have assumed it as the basis of my reasoning. In this inquiry it is indispensably necessary to found on some system of mental philosophy in order to obtain one of the elements of the comparison; but the reader, if he chooses, may regard the Phrenological views as hypothetical in the meantime, and judge of them by the result. Or he may attempt to substitute in their place any better system with which he is acquainted, and try how far it will successfully conduct him. In the next place, in instituting the comparison in question, I have brought into view, and endeavored to substantiate and apply a doctrine which, so far as I have yet been able to discover, is the key to the true theory of the divine government of the world, but which has not hitherto been duly appreciated,—namely, the independent existence and operation of the natural laws of creation. The natural laws may be divided into three great classes, —Physical, Organic, and Moral; and the peculiarity of the new doctrine is, that these operate independently of each other; that each requires obedience to itself; that each, in its own specific way, rewards obedience and punishes disobedience; and that human beings are happy in propor- tion to the extent in which they place themselves in accord- ance with all of these divine institutions. For example, the most pious and benevolent missionaries sailing to civilize and christianize the heathen, if they embark in an unsound ship, may be drowned by disobeying a physical law, without their destruction being averted by their mo- rality. On the other hand, if the greatest monsters of iniquity were embarked in a stanch and strong ship, and managed it well, they might, and, on the general principles of the government of the world, they would escape drown- 22 VIEW OF THE CONSTITUTION OF HUMAN NATURE, ing in circumstances exactly similar to those which wou send the missionaries to the bottom. There appears some- thing inscrutable in these results if only the moral qualities of the men be contemplated; but if the principle be adopt- ed that ships float in virtue of a purely physical law,—that the physical and moral laws operate independently, each in its own sphere,—the consequences appear in a totally different light. Again, the organic laws operate independently; and hence, one individual who has inherited a fine bodily con- stitution from his parents, and observes the rules of tem- perance and exercise, will enjoy robust health, although he may cheat, lie, blaspheme, and destroy his fellow men; while another, if he have inherited a feeble constitution, and disregards the rules of temperance and exercise, will suffer pain and sickness although he may be a paragon of every Christian virtue. These results are frequently ob- served to occur in the world, and, on every such occasion, the darkness and inscrutable perplexity of the ways of Providence are. generally moralized upon; or a future life is called in as the scene in which these crooked paths are to be rendered straight. But if our views be correct, the divine wisdom and goodness are abundantly conspicuous in these events; for we perceive that, by this distinct operation of the organic and moral laws, order is preserved in creation, and the means of discipline and improvement are afforded to all the human faculties. The moral and intellectual laws also operate indepen- dently. The man who cultivates his intellect, and practi- cally obeys the precepts of Christianity, will enjoy within himself a fountain of moral and intellectual happiness, which is the appropriate reward of that obedience. By these means he will be rendered more capable of studying, comprehending, and obeying, the physical and organic laws, of placing himself in harmony with the whole order of creation, and of attaining the highest degree of perfec- tion, and reaping the highest degree of happiness of which AND ITS RELATIONS TO EXTERNAL OBJECTS. 23 human nature in this world is susceptible. In short, whenever we apply the principle of the independent opera- tion of the natural laws, the apparent confusion of the moral government of the world disappears. These views will be better understood and appreciated after perusing the subsequent chapters, the object of which is to unfold and apply them; the aim of these introductory remarks being merely to prepare the reader for travelling over the more abstruse portions of the work with a clearer perception of their scope and tendency. The work itself has now been before the public for six years, and I have seen no criticism which has shaken my conviction of the substantial truth of the principles maintained in it. Of its value as a contribution to the philosophy of human nature, the public are the only legitimate judges. Some well-meaning individuals have imagined, that this work is hostile to religion, because it is confined to princi- ples which can be discovered by observation and reflection, and to human conduct in this life without direct reference to a future state; but such ideas are entirely unfounded. Human nature and the external world have both proceeded from the Creator, and it is impossible, in interpreting their constitution aright, to arrive at any conclusions at variance with a correct interpretation of Scripture. This fundamen- tal truth must be granted, otherwise religion can have no substantial foundation. If two sound interpretations of the divine will, as recorded in Creation and in Scripture, can by possibility contradict each other, we can have no confi- dence in the moral Governor of the world. Assuming, then, that all sound philosophy, and all true religion, must harmonize, there will be a manifest advantage in cultivat- ing each by itself, till its full dimensions, limits, and appli- cations shall be brought clearly to light. We may then advantageously compare them, and use the one as a means of elucidating or correcting our views of the other. To the best of my knowledge, there is not one practical result of the natural laws expounded in the subsequent 24 VIEW OF THE CONSTITUTION OF HUMAN NATURE, pages, which does not harmonize precisely with the prac- tical precepts of the New Testament. Indeed this work has been characterised by some individuals as the philoso- phy of Christian morality, because they regard it as exhib- iting the natural foundations of the admirable precepts which are taught only dogmatically in the New Testament. It is objected, however, that, by omitting the sanction of future reward and punishment, this treatise leaves out the highest, best, and most efficacious class of motives to vir- tuous conduct. This objection is founded on a misappre- hension of the object of the book. It is my purpose to show, that the rewards and punishments of human actions are infinitely more complete, certain, and efficacious, in this life, than is generally believed; but by no means to interfere with the sanctions to virtue afforded by the pros- pects of future retribution. It appears to me that every action which is morally wrong, in reference to a future life, is equally wrong and inexpedient with relation to this world; and that it is of essential advantage to virtue to prove this to be the case. Having observed a great ten- dency in many religious men to overlook the importance of understanding the moral administration of this world, and to turn their attention too exclusively to the next, I have endeavored to present the administration of the pre- sent world in a clear light, calculated to arrest attention, and to draw towards it that degree of consideration to which it is justly entitled. This proceeding will be recog- nised as the more necessary, if one principle largely insist- ed on in the present work shall be admitted to be sound viz. that religion operates on the human mind, in subordi- nation, and not in contradiction, to its natural constitution. If this view be well founded, it will be indispensable that religious teachers shall comply with all the natural condi- tions required by the human constitution, as preliminaries to moral and religious conduct, before their purely religious teaching can produce its full effects. If, for example an ill constituted brain be unfavorable to the appreciation and AND ITS RELATIONS TO EXTERNAL OBJECTS. 25 practice of religious truth, it is not an unimportant inquiry, whether any, and what, influence can be exercised by human means in improving the size and proportions of the mental organs? If certain physical circumstances and occupations have a natural tendency to blunt all the higher feelings and faculties of the mind, in consequence of their influence on the nervous system in general, and the brain in particular, and if religious emotions cannot be experi- enced with full effect by individuals so situate, the ascer- tainment, with a view to removal, of the nature, causes, and effects, of these impediments to holiness, is not a mat- ter of indifference. This view has not been systematically adopted and pursued by the religious instructers of man- kind in any age, or any country, and for this sole reason, in my humble opinion, that the state of moral and physical science did not enable them either to appreciate its impor- tance or carry it into effect. By presenting Nature in all her simplicity and strength, a new impulse and direction may perhaps be given to their understanding; and they may be induced to consider whether their universally con- fessed failure to render men as virtuous and happy as they desired, may not to some extent have arisen from their non-fulfilment of the natural conditions instituted by the Creator as preliminaries to success. 3 (27) CHAPTER I. ON NATURAL LAWS. In natural science, three subjects of inquiry may be dis- tinguished. 1st, What exists? 2dly, What is the purpose or design of what exists; and, 3dly, Why was what exists designed for such uses as it evidently subserves? It is matter of fact, for instance, that arctic regions and torrid zones exist,—that a certain kind of moss is most abundant in Lapland in winter,—that the rein-deer feeds on it, and enjoys health and vigor in situations where most other animals would die; that camels exist in Africa, that they have broad hoofs, and stomachs fitted to retain water for a length of time, and that they flourish amid arid tracts of sand, where the rein-deer would not live for a day. All this falls under the inquiry, What exists? In contemplating these facts, the understanding is natu- rally led to infer that one object of the Lapland moss is to feed the rein-deer, and that one purpose of the deer is to assist man: and that broad feet have been given to the camel to allow it to walk on sand, and a retentive stomach to fit it for arid places in which water is found only at wide intervals. These are inquiries into the uses or purposes of what exists; and they constitute a legitimate exercise of the human intellect. But, 3dly, we may ask, Why were the physical ele- ments of nature created such as they are? Why were summer, autumn, spring, and winter introduced? Why were animals formed of organized matter? Why were torrid zones and trackless wastes of snow called into existence ? These are inquiries why what exists was made such as it is, or into the will of the Deity in creation. 28 Oft NATURAL LAWS. Now, man's perceptive faculties are adequate to the first inquiry, and his reflective faculties to the second; but it may well be doubted whether he has powers suited to the third. My investigations are confined to the first and second, and I do not discuss the third. In the introduction, p. 8, I have endeavoured to show that the Creator has bestowed definite constitutions on physical nature and on man and animals, and that they are regulated by fixed laws. A law, in the common ac- ceptation, denotes a rule of action; it implies a subject which acts, and that the actions or phenomena which it exhibits take place in an established and regular manner; and this is the sense in which I shall use it, when treating of physical substances and beings. Water, for instance, when at the level of the sea, and combined with that portion of heat indicated by 32° of Fahrenheit's ther- mometer, freezes or becomes solid; when combined with the portion denoted by 212° of that instrument, it rises into vapor or steam. Here water and heat are the sub- stances,—the freezing and rising in vapor are the appear- ances or phenomena presented by them; and when we say that these take place according to a Law of Nature, we mean only that these modes of action appear, to our intel- lects, to be established in the very constitution of the water and heat, and in their natural relationship to each other; and that the processes of freezing and rising in vapor are their constant appearances, when combined in these proportions, other conditions being the same. The ideas chiefly to be kept in view are, 1st, That all substances and beings have received a definite natural constitution; 2dly, That every mode of action, which is said to take place according to a natural law, is inherent in the constitution of the substance, or being; and, 3dly, That the mode of action described is universal and invari- able, wherever and whenever the substances, or beings, are found in the same condition. For example, water at the level of the sea, freezes and boils at the same temper- ON NATURAL LAWS. 29 ature, in China, in France, in Peru, and in England; and there is no exception to the regularity with which it ex- hibits these appearances, when all its other conditions are the same: For this last qualification must constantly be attended to in all departments of science. If water be carried to the top of a mountain 20,000 feet high, it will boil at a lower temperature than 212°; but this depends on its relationship to the air, and takes place also according to fixed and invariable principles. The air exerts a great pressure on water. At the level of the sea the pressure is every where nearly the same, and in that situation the freezing and boiling points correspond all over the world; but on the top of a high mountain the pressure is much less, and the vapor not being held down by so great a power of resistance, rises at a lower temperature than 212°. But this change of appearances does not indicate a change in the constitution of the water and the heat, but only a variation in the circumstances in which they are placed; and hence it is not correct.to say, that water boil- ing on thQ tops of high mountains, at a lower temperature than 212°, is an exception to the general law of nature: there never are exceptions to the laws of nature; for the Creator is too wise and too powerful to make imperfect or inconsistent arrangements. The error is in the human mind inferring the law to be, that water boils at 212° in all altitudes; when the real law is only that it boils at that temperature, at the level of the sea, in all countries; and that it boils at a lower temperature the higher it is carried, because there the pressure of the atmosphere is less. Intelligent beings are capable of observing nature and of modifying their actions. By means of their faculties, the laws impressed by the Creator on physical substances become known to them; and, when perceived, constitute laws to them, by which to regulate their conduct. For example, it is a physical law, that boiling water destroys the muscular and nervous systems of man. This is the result purely of the constitution of the body, and the rela- 3* 30 ON NATURAL LAWS. tion between it and heat; and man cannot alter or suspend that law. But whenever the human intellect perceives the relation, and the consequences of violating it, the mind is prompted to avoid infringement, in order to shun the torture attached by the Creator to the decomposition of the human body by heat. Similar views have long been .taught by philosophers and divines. Bishop Butler, in particular, says:—"An Author of Nature being supposed, it is not so much a deduction of reason as a matter of experience, that we are thus under his government, in the same sense as we are under the government of civil magistrates. Because the annexing pleasure to some actions, and pain to others, in our power to do or forbear, and giving notice of this appointment beforehand to those whom it concerns, is the proper formal notion of government. Whether the pleasure or pain which thus follows upon our behavior, be owing to the Author of Nature's acting upon us every moment when we feel it, or to his having at once contrived and executed his own part in the plan of the world, makes no alteration as to the matter before us. For, if civil magis- trates could make the sanctions of their laws take place, without interposing at all, after they had passed them, without a trial, and the formalities of an execution; if they were able to make their laws execute themselves, or every offender to execute them upon himself, we should be just in the same sense under their government then as we are now; but in a much higher degree and more perfect manner. Vain is the ridicule with which one sees some persons will divert themselves, upon finding lesser pains considered as instances of divine punishment. There is no possibility of answering or evading the general thing here intended, without denying all final causes. For, final causes being admitted, the pleasures and pains now mentioned must be admitted too, as instances of them. And if they are, if God annexes delight to some actions, with an apparent design to induce us to act so and so, ON NATURAL LAWS. 3J then he not only dispenses happiness and misery, but also rewards and punishes actions. If, for example, the pain which we feel upon doing what tends to the destruction of our bodies, suppose upon too near approaches to fire, or upon wounding ourselves, be appointed by the Author of Nature to prevent our doing what thus tends to our de- struction; this is altogether as much an instance of his punishing our actions, and consequently of our being under his government, as declaring, by a voice from Heaven, that, if we acted so, he would inflict such pain upon us, and inflicting it whether it be greater or less.*" If, then, the reader keep in view that God is the Creator; that Nature, in the general sense, means the world which He has made; and, in a more limited sense, the particular constitution which he has bestowed on any special object, of which we may be treating; and that a Law of Nature means the established mode in which the actions and phe- nomena of any creature or object exhibit themselves, and the obligation thereby imposed on intelligent beings to attend to it, he will be in no danger of misunderstanding my meaning. Every natural object has received a definite constitution, in virtue of which it acts in a particular way. There must, therefore, be as many natural laws, as there are distinct modes of action of substances and beings, viewed by themselves. But substances and beings stand in certain relations to each other, and modify each other's action, in an established and definite manner, according to that rela- tionship; altitude, for instance, modifies the effect of heat upon water. There must, therefore, be also as many laws of nature, as there are relations between different substan- ces and beings. It is impossible, in the present state of knowledge, to elucidate all these laws: countless years may elapse before they shall be discovered; but we may investigate some of * Butler's Works, vol. i. p. 44. Similar observations by other authors will be found in the Appendix, No. I. 32 ON NATURAL LAWS. the most familiar and striking of them. Those that most readily present themselves bear reference to the great classes into which the objects around us may be divided, namely, Physical, Organic, and Intelligent. I shall there- fore confine myself to the physical laws, the organic laws, and the laws which characterise intelligent beings. 1st. The Physical Laws embrace all the phenomena of mere matter; a heavy body, for instance, when unsupport- ed, falls to the ground with a certain accelerating force, in proportion to the distance which it falls, and its own densi- ty; and this motion is said to take place according to the law of gravitation. An acid applied to a vegetable blue color, converts it into red, and this is said to take place according to a chemical law. 2dly. Organized substances and beings stand higher in the scale of creation, and have properties peculiar to them- selves. They act, and are acted upon, in conformity with their constitution, and are therefore said to be subject to a peculiar set of laws, termed the Organic. The distinguish- ing characteristic of this class of objects, is, that the indi- viduals of them derive their existence from other organized beings, are nourished by food, and go through a regular process of growth and decay. Vegetables and Animals are the two great subdivisions of it. The organic laws are different from the merely physical. A stone, for example, does not spring from a parent stone; it does not take food; it does not increase in vigor for a time, and then decay and suffer dissolution; all which processes characterise vegeta- bles and animals. The organic laws are superior to the merely physical, A living man, or animal, may be placed in an oven, along with the carcass of a dead animal, and remain exposed to a heat which will completely bake the dead flesh, and yet come out alive, and not seriously injured. The dead flesh is mere physical matter, and its decomposition by the heat instantly commences; but the living animal is able, by its organic qualities, to counteract and resist, to a certain ex- ON NATURAL LAWS. 33 tent, that influence. The Organic Laws, therefore, mean the established modes according to which all phenomena connected with the production, health, growth, decay and death of vegetables and animals, take place. In the case of each animal or vegetable of the same kind their modes of action are always the same, in the same circumstances. Animals are the chief objects of my present observations. 3dly. Intelligent beings stand still higher in the scale than merely organized matter, and embrace all animals that have distinct consciousness, from the lowest of the inferior creatures up to man. The great divisions of this class are into Intelligent and Animal — and into Intelligent and Moral creatures. The dog, horse, and elephant, for in- stance, belong to the first class, because they possess some degree of intelligence, and certain animal propensities, but no moral feelings; man belongs to the second, because he possesses all the three. These various faculties have re- ceived a definite constitution, and stand in determinate relationship to external objects; for example, a healthy palate cannot feel wormwood sweet, nor sugar bitter: a healthy eye cannot see a rod partly plunged in water straight, because the water so modifies the rays of light, as to give to the stick the appearance of being crooked: a healthy sentiment of Benevolence cannot feel gratified with murder, nor a healthy Conscientiousness with fraud. As, therefore, the mental faculties have received a precise constitution, have been placed in fixed and definite rela- tions to external objects, and act regularly, we speak of their acting according to rules or laws, and call these the Moral and Intellectual laws. Several important principles strike us very early in attending to the natural laws, viz. 1st, Their independence of each other; 2dly, Obedience to each of them is attend- ed with its own reward, and disobedience with its own punishment; 3dly, They are universal, unbending, and invariable in their operation; 4thly, They are in harmony with the constitution of man. 34 ON NATURAL LAWS. 1. The independence of the natural laws may be illus- trated thus:—A ship floats because a part of it being im- mersed, displaces a weight of water equal to its whole weight, leaving the remaining portion above the fluid. A ship, therefore, will float on the surface of the water as long as these physical conditions are observed; no matter although the men in it should infringe other natural laws; as, for example, although they should rob, murder, blas- pheme, and commit every species of debauchery; and it will sink whenever the physical conditions are subverted, however strictly the crew and passengers may obey the moral laws here adverted to. In like manner, a man who swallows poison, which destroys the stomach or intestines, will die, just because an organic law has been infringed, and because it acts independently of others, although he should have taken the drug by mistake, or have been the most pious and charitable individual on earth. Or, thirdly, a man may cheat, lie, steal, tyrannise, and in short break a great variety of the moral laws, and nevertheless be fat and rubicund, if he sedulously observed the organic laws of temperance and exercise; while, on the other hand, an individual who neglects these, may pine in disease, and be racked with torturing pains, although at the very moment, he may be devoting his mind to the highest duties of humanity. 2. Obedience to each law is attended with its own re- ward, and disobedience with its own punishment. Thus the mariners who preserve their ship in accordance with the physical laws, reap the reward of sailing in safety; and those who permit its departure from them, are punished by the ship sinking. Those who obey the moral law, enjoy the intense internal delights that spring from active moral faculties; they render themselves, moreover, objects of affection and esteem to moral and intelligent beings, who, in consequence, confer on them many other gratifications. Those who disobey that law, are tormented with insatiable desires, which, from the nature of things, cannot be grati- ON NATURAL LAWS. 35 fied; they are punished by the perpetual -craving of what- ever portion of moral sentiment they possess, for higher enjoyments, which are never attained; and they are objects of dislike and malevolence to other beings of similar dis- positions with themselves, who inflict on them the evils dictated by their own provoked propensities. Those who obey the organic laws, reap the reward of health and vigor of body, and buoyancy of mind; while those who break them are punished by sickness, feebleness, and languor. 3. The natural laws are universal, invariable, and un- bending. When the physical laws are infringed in China or Kamschatka, there is no instance of a ship floating there more than in England; and, when they are observed, there is no instance of a vessel sinking in any one of these coun- tries more than in another. There is no example of men, in any country, enjoying the mild and generous internal joys, and the outward esteem and love that attend obedience to the moral law, while they give themselves up to the dominion of brutal propensities. There is no example, in any latitude or longitude, or in any age, of men who enter- ed life vMfta, constitution in harmony with the organic laws, and who continued to obey these laws throughout, being, in consequence of this obedience, visited with pain and disease; and there are no instances of men who were born with constitutions at variance with the organic laws, and who lived in habitual disobedience to them, enjoying that sound health and vigor of body that are the rewards of obedience. 4. The natural laws are in harmony with the whole con- stitution of man, the moral and intellectual powers holding the supremacy. If ships in general had sunk when they were stanch, strong, and skilfully managed, this would have outraged the perceptions of reason; but as they float, the physical law is, in this instance, in harmony with the moral and intellectual law. If men who rioted in drunk- enness and debauchery had thereby established health and increased their happiness, this, again, would have been at 36 ON NATURAL LAWS. variance with our intellectual and moral perceptions; but the opposite result is in harmony with them. It will be subsequently shown, that our moral sentiments desire universal happiness. If the physical and organic laws are constituted in harmony with them, it ought to follow that the natural laws, when obeyed, will conduce to the happiness of the moral and intelligent beings, who are called on to observe them; and that the evil consequences, or punishments, resulting from infringement of them will be calculated to enforce stricter obedience, for the advan- tage of these creatures themselves. According to this view, when a ship sinks, in consequence of a plank start- ing, the punishment is intended to impress upon the spec- tators the absolute necessity of having every plank secure and strong before going to sea, this being a condition indispensable to their safety. When sickness and pain follow a debauch, the object of the suffering is to urge a more scrupulous obedience to the organic laws, that the individual may escape death, which is the inevitable conse- quence of too great and continued disobedience to these laws,—and enjoy health, which is the reward 01 fhe oppo- site conduct. When discontent, irritation, hatred, and other mental annoyances, arise out of infringement of the moral law, this punishment is calculated to induce the offender to return to obedience, that he may enjoy the rewards attached to it. When the transgression of any natural law is excessive, and so great that return to obedience is impossible, one purpose of death, which then ensues, may be to deliver the individual from a continuation of the punishment which could then do him no good. Thus, when, from infringe- ment of a physical law, a ship sinks at sea, and leaves men immersed in water, without the possibility of reaching land, their continued existence in that state would be one of cruel and protracted suffering; and it is advantageous to them to have their mortal life extinguished at once by drowning, thereby withdrawing them from farther agony. ON NATURAL LAWS. 37 In like manner, if a man in the vigor of life, so far infringe any organic law as to destroy the function of a vital organ the heart, for instance, or the lungs, or the brain, it is better for him to have his life cut short, and his pain put an end to, than to have it protracted under all the tortures of an organic existence, without lungs, without a heart, or without a brain, if such a state were possible, which,'for this wise reason, it is not. I do not intend to predicate any thing concerning the perfectibility of man by obedience to the laws of nature. The system of sublunary creation, so far as we perceive it, does not appear to be one of optimism; yet benevolent design, in its constitution, is undeniable. Paley says, 'Nothing remains but the first supposition, that God^ when he created the human species, wished them happi- ness, and made for them the provisions which he has made, with that view and for that purpose. The same argument may be proposed in different terms: Contriv- ance proves design; and the predominant tendency of the contrivance indicates the disposition of the designer. The world abounds with contrivances; and all the con- trivances which we are acquainted with, are directed to beneficial purposes.' Paley's Mor. Phil. Edinb. 1816, p. 51. Many of the contrivances of the Creator, for ef- fecting beneficial purposes, have been discovered by phi- losophers; but, so far as I am aware, no one has adverted to the foregoing principles according to which these con- trivances operate, so that nothing like a systematic view of the moral government of the world has hitherto been presented to mankind. I do not intend to teach that the natural laws, discerni- ble by unassisted reason, are sufficient for the salvation of man without revelation. Human interests regard this world and the next. To enjoy this world, I humbly main- tain, that man must discover and obey the natural laws. Revelation does not communicate complete information concerning the best mode of pursuing even our legitimate 4 38 ON NATURAL LAWS. temporal interests;—and numerous practicable duties re- sulting from our constitution are discoverable, which are not treated of in detail in the inspired volume; the mode of preserving health, for example; of pursuing with suc- cess a temporal calling; of discovering the qualities of men with whom we mean to associate our interests; and many others. This is the case probably because faculties have been given to man to discover arts, sciences, and the natural laws, and to adapt his conduct to them; and that the physical, moral, and intellectual nature of man, is itself left open to investigation by these faculties. My object, I repeat, is to investigate the natural constitution of the human body and mind, their relations to external objects and beings in this world, and the courses of action that, in consequence, appear to be beneficial or hurtful in this life. Man's spiritual interests belong to the sphere of reve- lation; and I distinctly declare, that I do not teach that obedience to the natural laws is sufficient for salvation in a future state. Revelation prescribes certain requisites for salvation, which may be divided into two classes; first, faith or belief; and, secondly, the performance of certain practical duties not as meritorious of salvation, but as the native result of that faith, and the necessary evidence of its sincerity. The natural laws form no guide as to faith; but so far as I can perceive, their dictates and those of revelation coincide in all matters relating to practical duties in temporal affairs. It may be asked, whether mere knoivledge of the natural laws is sufficient to insure observance of them? Certainly not. Mere knowledge of music does not enable one to play on an instrument, nor of anatomy to perform skilfully a surgical operation. Practical training, and the aid of every motive that can interest the feelings, are necessary to lead individuals to obey the natural laws. Religion, in particular, may furnish motives highly conducive to this obedience. But it must never be forgotten, that although ON NATURAL LAWS. 39 mere knowledge is not all-sufficient, it is a primary and in- dispensable requisite to regular observance; and that it is as impossible effectually and systematically to obey the natural laws without knowing them, as it is to perform any other complicated and important duty in ignorance of its principles and practical details. Some persons are of opinion, that Christianity alone suffices, not only for man's salvation, which I do not dispute, but for his guidance in all practical virtues, without knowledge of, or obedience to, the laws of nature; but from this notion I respectfully dissent. It appears to me, that one reason why vice and misery, in this world, do not diminish in proportion to preaching, is, because the natural laws are too much over- looked, and very rarely considered as having any relation to practical conduct. Before religion can yield its full practical fruits in this world, it must be wedded to a philosophy founded on these laws; it must borrow light and strength from them, and in return communicate its powerful sanction in enforcing obedience to their dictates. Connected with this subject, it is proper to state, that I do not maintain that the world is arranged on the principle of Benevolence exclusively; my idea is, that it is constituted in harmony with the whole faculties of man; the moral sentiments and intellect holding the supremacy. What is meant by creation being constituted in harmony with the whole faculties of man, is this. Suppose that we should see two men holding a third in a chair, and a fourth draw- ing a tooth from his head:—While we contemplated this bare act, and knew nothing of the intention with which it was done, and of the consequences that would follow, we would set it down as purely cruel; and say, that, although it might be in harmony with the propensity which prompts men to inflict pain and destroy, it could not be so with Benevolence. But, when we were told that the individual in the chair was a patient, and the operator a dentist; and that the object of all the parties was to deliver the first 40 ON NATURAL LAWS. from violent torture, we would then perceive that an ope- ration attended with pain had been used as a means to accomplish a benevolent purpose; or, in other words, that the operator had acted under the supremacy of moral sentiment and intellect, and we would approve of his conduct. If the world had been created on the principle of Benevolence exclusively, the toothache could not have existed; but, as pain does exist, a mental faculty, called by the phrenologists Destructiveness, has been given to place man in harmony with it, when used for a benevolent end. To apply this illustration to the works of Providence I humbly suggest it as probable, that, if we knew thoroughly the design and whole consequences of such institutions of the Creator, as are attended with pain, including death itself, we should find that Destructiveness was used as a means, under the guidance of Benevolence and Justice, to arrive at an end in harmony with the moral sentiments and intellect; in short, that no institution of the Creator has pure evil, or destructiveness alone, for its object. The opposite of this doctrine, viz. that there are institu- tions of the Creator which have suffering for their exclusive object, is clearly untenable; for this would be ascribing malevolence to the Deity. As, however, the existence of pain is undeniable, it is equally impossible to believe that the world is arranged on the principle of Benevolence exclusively. The view now presented makes no attempt to explain why pain exists, because I consider this inquiry to surpass the limits of the human understanding. It offers an explanation, however, of the uses which pain serves, namely, to enforce obedience to the natural laws; and it shows that the human mind is constituted in harmony with this order of creation. Phrenology alone, of all sys- tems of mental philosophy, admits faculties calculated to place us in harmony with difficulty, pain, and death, and thus enhances our perceptions of divine wisdom and good- ness. (41) CHAPTER II. ON THE CONSTITUTION OF MAN, AND ITS RELATIONS TO EXTERNAL OBJECTS. Let us next consider the Constitution of Man, and the natural laws to which he is subjected, and endeavor to discover how far the external world is arranged with wis- dom and benevolence, in regard to him. Bishop Butler, in the Preface to his Sermons, says, ' It is from consider- ing the relations which the several appetites and passions in the inward frame have to each other, and, above all, the supremacy of reflection or conscience, that we get the idea of the system or constitution of human nature. And from the idea itself, it will as fully appear, that this our nature, i. e. constitution, is adapted to virtue, as from the idea of a watch it appears that its nature, i. e. constitution or system, is adapted to measure time.' 'Mankind has various instincts and principles of action, as brute creatures have; some leading most directly and immediately to the good of the community, and some most directly to private good.' 'Man has several, which brutes have not; particularly reflection or conscience, an approbation of some principles or actions, and disapprobation of others.' ' Brutes obey their instincts or principles of action, ac- cording to certain rules; suppose, the constitution of their body, and the objects around them.' ' The generality of mankind also obey their instincts and principles, all of them, those propensities we call good, as well as the bad, according to the same rules, namely, the constitution of their body, and the external circumstances which they are in.' 4* 42 MAN CONSIDERED AS A PHYSICAL BEING. ' Brutes, in acting according to the rules before men- tioned, their bodily constitution and circumstances, act suitably to their whole nature. 'Mankind also, in acting thus, would act suitably to their whole nature, if no more were to be said of man's nature than what has been now said; if that, as it is a true, were also a complete, adequate account of our nature. " But that is not a complete account of man's nature. Somewhat further must be brought in to give us an adequate notion of it; namely, that one of those principles of action, conscience, or reflection, compared with the rest, as they all stand together in the nature of man, plai7dy bears upon it marks of authority over all the rest, and claims the absolute direction of them all, to allow or forbid their gratification;— a disapprobation on reflection being in itself a principle manifestly superior to a mere propension. And the con- clusion is, that to allow no more to this superior principle or part of our nature, than to other parts; to let it govern and guide only occasionally, in common with the rest, as its turn happens to come, from the temper and circumstan- ces one happens to be in; this is not to act conformably to the constitution of man: neither can any human creature be said to act conformably to his constitution of nature, unless he allows to that superior principle the absolute authority which is due to it.'—Butler's Works, vol. ii. Preface. The following Essay is founded on the principles here suggested. SECTION I. MAN CONSIDERED AS A PHYSICAL BEING. The human body consists of bones, muscles, nerves, blood-vessels, besides organs of nutrition, of respiration, and of thought. These parts are all composed of physical elements, and, to a certain extent, are subjected to the physical laws of creation. By the law of gravitation, the body falls to the ground when unsupported, and is liable to be injured, like any frangible substance; by a chemical law, MAN CONSIDERED AS A PHYSICAL BEING. 43 excessive cold freezes, and excessive heat dissipates, its fluids; and life, in either case, is extinguished. To discover the real effect of the physical laws of nature on human happiness, we would require to understand, 1st, The physical laws themselves, as revealed by mathematics- natural philosophy, natural history, chemistry, and their subordinate branches; 2dly, The anatomical and physiolo- gical constitution of the human body; 3dly, The adaptation of the former to the latter. These expositions are necessa- ry to ascertain the extent to which it is possible for man to place himself in accordance with the physical laws, so as to reap advantage from them, and also to determine how far the sufferings which he endures fall to be ascribed to the inevitable operation of these laws, or how far to his igno- rance and infringement of them. To treat of these views in detail, would require separate volumes, and I therefore confine myself to a single instance as an illustration of the mode in which the investigation might be conducted* By the law of gravitation, heavy bodies always tend towards the centre of the earth. Some of the advantages of this law are, that objects, when properly supported, re- main at rest; that walls, when built sufficiently thick and perpendicular, stand firm and erect; that water descends from high places, and precipitates itself down the channels of rivers, turns mill-wheels in its course, and sets in motion the most stupendous and useful machinery; and that ships move steadily through the water with part of their hulls immersed, and part rising moderately above it, their masts and sails towering in the air to catch the inconstant breeze. To place man in harmony with this law, the Creator has bestowed on him bones, muscles, and nerves, constructed on the most perfect principles, which enable him to pre- * The reader will find many valuable illustrations of these laws in " The principles of Physiology applied to the Preservation of Health, and to the Improvement of Physical and mental Education," by Andrew Combe, M. D. third edition. Black, Edinburgh; and Longman 8c Co., London. 44 MAN CONSIDERED AS AN ORGANIZED BEING. serve his equilibrium, and to adapt his movements to its influence; also intellectual faculties, calculated to perceive the existence of the law, its modes of operation, the rela- tion between it and himself, the beneficial consequences of observing this relation, and the painful results of in- fringing it. When a person falls over a precipice, and is maimed or killed; when a ship springs a leak and sinks; or when a reservoir of water breaks down its banks and ravages a valley, the evils, no doubt, proceed from the operation of this law; but we ought to inquire whether they could or could not have been prevented, by a due exercise of the physical and mental powers bestowed by the Creator on man, to enable him to avoid the injurious effects of gravi- tation? By pursuing this course, we shall arrive at sound con- clusions concerning the adaptation of the human mind and body to the physical laws of creation. The subject, as I have said, is too extensive to be here prosecuted in detail, and I am incompetent, besides, to do it justice; but enough has been said to elucidate the principle contended for, And the more minutely any one inquires, the more firm will be his conviction, that, in these relations, admirable provision has been made by the Creator for hTuman happi- ness, and that the evils which arise from neglect of them, are attributable, to a great extent, to man's not adequately applying his powers to the promotion of his own enjoyment, SECTION II. MAN CONSIDERED AS AN ORGANIZED BEING. Man is an organized being, and subject to the organic laws. An organized being is one which derives its existence from a previously existing organized being, which subsists on food, which grows, attains maturity, decays, and dies. The first law, then, that must be obeyed, to render an organized being perfect in its kind, is, that the germ, from which it MAN CONSIDERED AS AN ORGANIZED BEING. 45 springs, shall be complete in all its parts, and sound in its whole constitution. If we sow an acorn, in which some vital part has been destroyed altogether, the seedling plant and the full grown oak, if it ever attain to maturity, will be deficient in the lineaments which were wanting in the embryo root; if we sow an acorn entire in its parts, but only half ripened, or damaged by damp or other causes in its whole texture, the seedling oak will be feeble, and will . probably die early. A similar law holds in regard to man. A second organic law is, that the organized being, the moment it is ushered into life, and so long as it continues to live, must be supplied with food, light, air, and every other physical aliment requisite for its support, in due quantity, and of the kind best suited to its particular con- stitution. Obedience to this law is rewarded with a vigor- ous and healthy development of its powers; and in ani- mals, with a pleasing consciousness of existence and apti- tude for the performance of their natural functions; disobe- dience is punished with feebleness, stinted growth, general imperfection, or death. A single fact will illustrate this observation. At the meeting of the British Association, held in Edinburgh in 1834, an Abstract of a Registry, kept in the Lying-in Hospital of Great Britain Street, Dublin, from the year 1758 to the end of 1833, was read by Dr. Joseph Clarke, from which it appeared, that, in 1781, when the hospital was imperfectly ventilated, every sixth child died within nine days after birth of convulsive disease, and that, after means of thorough ventilation had been adopted, the mortality of infants, within the same time, in five succeeding years, was reduced to nearly one in twenty.* A third organic law, applicable to man, is, that he shall duly exercise his organs, this condition being an indispensable requisite of health. The reward of obedi- ence to this law, is enjoyment in the very act of exercis- ing the functions, pleasing consciousness of existence, and » Edin, New Phil. Jour. Oct. 1834, p. 416, 46 MAN CONSIDERED AS AN ORGANIZED BEING. the acquisition of numberless gratifications and advantages, of which labor, or the exercise of our powers, is the pro- curing means.; disobedience is punished with derangement and sluggishness of the functions, with general uneasiness or positive pain, and with the denial of gratification to nu- merous faculties. Directing our attention to the constitution of the human body, we perceive that the power of reproduction is be- stowed on man, and also intellect, to enable him to discov- er and obey the conditions necessary for the transmission of a healthy organic frame to his descendants; that diges- tive organs are given to him for his nutrition, and innu- merable vegetable and animal productions are placed around him, in wise relationship to these organs. Without attempting to expound minutely the organic structure of man, or to trace in detail its adaptation to his external condition, I shall offer some observations in sup- port of the proposition, that the due exercise of the osseous, muscular, and nervous systems, under the guidance of intellect and moral sentiment, and in accordance with the physical laws, contributes to human enjoyment; and, that neglect of this exercise, or an abuse of it, by carrying it to excess, or by conducting it in opposition to the moral, intellectual, or physical laws, is punished with pain. The earth is endowed with the capability of producing an ample supply for all our wants, provided we expend muscular and nervous energy in its cultivation; while, in most climates, it refuses to produce, if we withhold this labor and allow it .to lie waste: Further, the Creator has presented us with timber, metal, wool, and countless mate- rials, which, by means of muscular power, may be con- verted into dwelling places, clothing, and all the luxuries of life. The fertility of the earth, and the demands of the body for food and clothing, are so benevolently adapted to each other, that, with rational restraint on population, a few hours' labor each day from every individual capable of labor, would suffice to furnish all with every commodity MAN CONSIDERED AS AN ORGANIZED BEING. 47 that could really add to enjoyment. ' It has been com- puted,' says Dr. Franklin, 'by some political arithmeti- cian, that, if every man and woman would work for four hours each day on something useful, that labor would be sufficient to procure all the necessaries and comforts of life; want and misery would be banished out of the world; and the rest of the twenty-four hours might be leisure and pleasure.' {Dr. Franklin,—Essay on Luxury, Idleness, and Industry.) In the tropical regions of the globe, where a high atmos- pheric temperature diminishes the quantum of muscular energy, the fertility and productiveness of the soil are in- creased in a like proportion, so that less labor suffices. Less labor, also, is required to provide habitations and raiment. In the colder latitudes, muscular energy is greatly increased, and there much higher demands are made upon it: The earth is more sterile; the rude winds render firmer fabrics necessary to resist their violence; and the piercing frosts command a thicker covering to be used for the body. Farther, the food afforded by the soil in each climate appears to be adapted to the maintenance of the organic constitution of the people in health, and to the supply of the muscular energy necessary for the particular wants of the situation. In the Arctic Regions no farinaceous food ripens; but on putting the question to Dr. Richardson, how he, accustomed to the bread and vegetables of the temper- ate regions, was able to endure the pure animal diet, which formed his only support on his expedition to the shores of the Polar Sea along with Captain Franklin, he replied, that the effect of the extreme dry cold to which he and his companions were constantly exposed, living, as they did, in the open air, was to produce a desire for the most stimulating food they could obtain; that bread in such a climate was not only not desired, but comparatively im- potent, as an article of diet; that pure animal food, and the fatter the better, was the only sustenance that maintained 48 MAN CONSIDERED AS AN ORGANIZED BEING. the tone of the corporeal system; but that when it was abundant (and the quantity required was much greater than in milder latitudes), a delightful vigor and buoyancy of mind and body were enjoyed, that rendered life highly agreeable. Now, in beautiful harmony with these wants of the human frame, these regions abound, during summer in countless herds of deer, in rabbits, partridges, ducks, and, in short, in game of every description, and fish; and the flesh of these dried, constitutes delicious food in win- ter, when the earth is wrapped in one wide mantle of snow. In Scotland, the climate is moist and moderately cold, the greater part of the surface is mountainous, well adapt- ed for rearing sheep and cattle, while a certain portion consists of fertile plains, fitted for raising farinaceous food. If the same law holds in this country, the diet of the peo- ple should consist of animal and farinaceous food, the former predominating. And on such food, accordingly, the Scotsman thrives best. As we proceed to warmer lati- tudes, to France for instance, we find the soil and tempera- ture less congenial to sheep and cattle, but more favorable to corn and wine; and the Frenchman inherits a native vigor of body and elasticity of mind, that enable him to flourish in health on less of animal food, than would be re- quisite to preserve the Scottish Highlander, in the recesses of his mountains, in a like gay and alert condition. From one of a series of interesting letters on the agriculture of France by M. Lullin de Chateauvieux, published in the Bibliotheque Universelle, it appears that the consumption of beef in that country relative to the population, is only one-sixth of what it is in England. Journal of Jigricullure, No. iii. p. 390. The plains of Hindostan are too hot for the extensive cultivation of the sheep and the ox but pro- duce rice and vegetable spices in prodigious abundance, and the native is healthy, vigorous and active, when sup- plied with rice and curry, and becomes sick, when obliged to live chiefly on animal diet. He is supplied with less MENTAL FACULTIES OP MAN. 49 muscular energy from this species of food; but his soil and climate require far less laborious exertion to maintain him in comfort, than those of Britain, Germany, or Russia. So far, then, the external world appears to be wisely and benevolently adapted to the organic system of man, that is, to his nutrition, and to the development and exer- cise of his corporeal organs. The natural law appears to be, that every one who desires to enjoy the pleasures of health, must expend in labor the energy which the Creator has infused into his limbs. A wide choice is left to man, as to the mode in which he shall exercise his nervous and muscular systems: The laborer, for example, digs the ground, and the squire engages in the chase; both pursuits exercise the body. The penalty of neglecting this law is imperfect digestion and disturbed sleep, debility, bodily and mental; lassitude, and, if carried to a certain length, confirmed bad health and death. The penalty for over- exerting these systems is exhaustion, mental incapacity, the desire of strong artificial stimulants, such as ardent spirits, general insensibility, grossness of feeling and per- ception, with disease and shortened life. Society has not recognised this law, and, in conse- quence, the higher orders despise labor, and suffer the first penalty; while the lower orders are oppressed with toil, and undergo the second. The penalties serve to pro- vide motives for obedience to the law, and whenever it is recognised, and the consequences are discovered to be inevitable, men will no longer shun labor as painful and ignominious, but resort to it as a source of pleasure and advantage. SECTION HI. MAN CONSIDERED AS AN ANIMAL —MORAL —AND INTELLECTUAL BEING. I have adverted to the bodily constitution of man, which is essentially animal; but I observe, in the third place, 5 50 MENTAL FACULTIES OF MAN. that man, viewed in regard to his mental constitution, is an animal—moral—and intellectual being. To discover the adaptation of these parts of his nature to his external cir- cumstances, we must first know what are his various ani- mal, moral, and intellectual powers themselves. Phrenol- ogy gives us a view of them, drawn from observation; and as I have verified the inductions of that science, so as to satisfy myself that it is the most complete and correct ex- position of the Nature of Man which has yet been given, I adopt its classification of faculties as the basis of the subse- quent observations. According to Phrenology, then, the Human Faculties are the following:— Order I. FEELINGS. Genus I. PROPENSITIES— Common to Man with the Lower Animals. The Love of Life. An Appetite for Food.— Uses: Nutrition.—Abuses: Gluttony and drunkenness. 1. Amativeness 3 Produces sexual love. 2. Philoprogenitiveness.— Uses: Love of offspring.—Abuses: Pam- pering and spoiling children. 3. Concentrativeness.—Uses: It gives the desire for permanence in place, and for permanence of emotions and ideas in the mind.— Muses: Aversion to move abroad ; morbid dwelling on internal emotions and ideas, to the neglect of external impressions. 4. Adhesiveness.— Uses: Attachment; friendship and society result from it.—Muses: Clanship for improper objects, attachment to worthless individuals. It is generally strong in women. 5. Combativeness.— Uses: Courage to meet danger, to overcome diffi- culties, and to resist attacks.—Muses: Love of contention, and tendency to provoke and assault. This feeling obviously adapts man to a world in which danger and difficulty abound. 6. Destructiveness.—Uses : Desire to destroy noxious objects, and to kill for food. It is very discernible in carnivorous animals.— Muses: Cruelty, desire to torment, tendency to passion, rage, harshness and severity in speech and writing. This feeling places man in harmony with death and destruction, which are woven into the system of sublunary creation. 7. Secretiveness.—Uses: Tendency to restrain within the mind the MENTAL FACULTIES OF MAN. 51 various emotions and ideas that involuntarily present themselves until the judgment has approved of giving them utterance ; it also aids the artist and the actor in giving expression; and is an ingre- dient in prudence.—Abuses: Cunning, deceit, duplicity, lying, and, joined with Acquisitiveness, theft. 8. Acquisitiveness.—Uses: Desire to possess, and tendency to accu- mulate articles of utility, to provide against want.—Abuses : Inordinate desire for property ; selfishness; avarice. 9. Constructiveness.— Uses: Desire to build and construct works of art.—Abuses: Construction of engines to injure or destroy, and fabrication of objects to deceive mankind. Genus II. SENTIMENTS. I. Sentiments common to Man with the Lower Animals. 10. Sei.f-Esteem.—Uses: Self-respect, self-interest, love of indepen- dence, personal dignity.—Abuses: Pride, disdain, overweening conceit, excessive selfishness, love of dominion. 11. Love of Approbation.—Uses: Desire of the esteem of others, love of praise, desire of fame or glory.—Abuses: Vanity, ambi- tion, thirst for praise independently of praiseworthiness. 12. Cautiousness.—Uses: It gives origin to the sentiment of fear, the desire to shun danger, to circumspection; and it is an ingredient in prudence.—Abuses: Excessive timidity,poltroonery,unfounded apprehensions, despondency, melancholy. 13. Benevolence.—Uses : Desire of the happiness of others, universal charity, mildness of disposition, and a lively sympathy with the enjoyment of all animated beings.—Abuses: Profusion, injurious indulgence of the appetites and fancies of others, prodigality, facility of temper. II. Sentiments Proper to Man. 14. Veneration.—Uses .- Tendency to worship, adore, venerate, or respect whatever is great and good; gives origin to the religious sentiment.—Abuses .• Senseless respect for unworthy objects con- secrated by time or situation, love of antiquated customs, abject subserviency to persons in authority, superstition. 15. Firmness.—Uses : Determination, perseverance, steadiness of pur- pose.—Abuses: Stubbornness, infatuation, tenacity in evil. 16. Conscientiousness.—Uses: It gives origin to the sentiment of justice, or respect for the rights of others, openness to conviction, the love of truth.—Abuses: Scrupulous adherence to noxious principles when ignorantly embraced, excessive refinement in the views of duty and obligation, excess in remorse, or self-condem- nation. 52 MENTAL FACULTIES OF MAN. 17. Hope.—Uses: Tendency to expect and to look forward to the future with confidence and reliance; it cherishes faith.—Abuses: Cre- dulity, absurd expectations of felicity not founded on reason. 18. Wonder—Uses: The desire of novelty, admiration of the new, the unexpected, the grand, the wonderful, and extraordinary.— Abuses: Love of the marvellous, astonishment. — Note. Venera- tion, Hope, and Wonder, combined, give the tendency to religion; their abuses produce superstition and belief in false miracles, in prodigies, magic, ghosts, and all supernatural absurdities. 19. Ideality.— Uses: Love of the beautiful and splendid, the desire of excellence, poetic feeling.—Abuses: Extravagance and absurd enthusiasm, preference of the showy and glaring to the solid and useful, a tendency to dwell in the regions of fancy, and to neglect the duties of life. 20. Wit—Gives the feeling of the ludicrous. 21. Imitation—Copies the manners, gestures, and actions of others and nature generally. Order II. INTELLECTUAL FACULTIES. Genus I. EXTERNAL SENSES. Uses : To bring man into communication with ex- ternal objects, and to enable him to enjoy them. —Abuses: Excessive indulgence in the pleasures arising from the senses, to the extent of impair- ing the organs and debilitating the mind. Feeling or Touch. Taste. Smell. Hearing. Light. Genus II. INTELLECTUAL FACULTIES—which perceive existence. 22. Individuality—Takes cognizance of existence and simple facts. 23. Form—Renders man observant of form. 24. Size—Renders man observant of dimensions, and aids perspective, 25. Weight—Communicates the perception of momentum, weight, resistance, and aids equilibrium. 26. Coloring—Gives perception of colors. Genus III. INTELLECTUAL FACULTIES—which perceive the relations of external objects. 27. Locality—Gives the idea of relative position. 28. Number—Gives the talent for calculation. MENTAL FACULTIES OF MAN. 53 29. ORDER-Communicates the love of physical arrangement 30 Eventuality—Takes cognizance of occurrences and events. 31. Time—Gives rise to the perception of duration. 32. Tune.—The sense of Melody arises from it. 33. Language—Gives a facility in acquiring a knowledge of arbitrary signs to express thoughts,—readiness in the use of them;—and a power of inventing them. Genus IV. REFLECTING FACULTIES—which compare, judge, and discriminate. 34. Comparison—Gives the power of discovering analogies, resem- blances, and differences. 35. Causality—Traces the dependencies of phenomena, and the rela- tion of cause and effect. Observation proves that each of these faculties is con- nected with a particular portion of the brain, and that the power of manifesting each bears a relation to the size and activity of its organ. The organs differ in relative size in different individuals, and hence their differences of talents and dispositions. This fact is of the greatest importance in the philosophy of man; and the circumstance of its hav- ing been unknown until Dr. Gall's discovery of the func- tions of the brain, is sufficient to explain the past barrenness of mental science, and to render probable the assertion, that a great flood of light on this subject is now pouring forth on the world. These faculties are not all equal in excel- lence and authority; some are common to man with the lower animals; and others are peculiar to man. Before comparing the human mind, therefore, with its external condition, it becomes an object of primary importance to discover the relative rank and authority of these different powers. If the Animal Faculties are naturally or necessa- rily supreme, in other words, if man is by nature only an animal of superior intelligence, then • external nature, if it be wisely constituted, may be expected to bear direct refer ence, in its arrangements, to this supremacy; and to be calculated to render him most happy when acting in con- 5* 54 SUPREMACY OF THE formity with his animal feelings. If the Moral and Intel- lectual Faculties hold the ascendency, then the constitution of external nature may be expected to be in harmony with them; or, in other words, to confer the highest degree of enjoyment on man, when he acts under the guidance of his moral and intellectual powers. SECTION IV. THE FACULTIES OF MAN COMPARED WITH EACH OTHER; OR THE SUPREMACY OF THE MORAL SENTIMENTS AND INTELLECT. According to the phrenological theory of human nature, the faculties are divided into Propensities common to man with the lower animals, Sentiments common to man with the lower animals, Sentiments proper to man, and Intellect. Every faculty stands in a definite relation to certain ex- ternal objects;—when it is internally active it desires these objects; —when they are presented to it they excite it to activity, and delight it with agreeable sensations. Human happiness and misery are resolvable into the grati- fication, or denial of gratification, of one or more of our faculties, of the external senses, or of the feelings connect- ed with our bodily frame. The faculties, in themselves, are mere instincts; the moral sentiments and intellect are higher than the animal propensities. Every faculty is good in itself, but all are liable to abuse. Their manifes- tations are right only when directed by enlightened in- tellect and moral sentiment. The faculties may be considered as acting in a variety of ways: First, The lower propensities may be viewed as acting by themselves, each seeking its own gratification, but, without transgressing the limits prescribed by enlight- ened intellect and the moral sentiments: this gratification is legitimate and proper, and the fountain of much enjoy- ment to human beings. Secondly, The propensities may be considered as acting in opposition to the dictates of the moral sentiments and intellect; a merchant, for instance, MORAL SENTIMENTS AND INTELLECT. 55 by misrepresentation of the real qualities of his commodi- ties, may obtain a higher price for them than if he spoke the truth; or, by depreciating unjustly the goods of a rival, he may attract that rival's customers to himself: By such conduct he would apparently benefit himself, but he would infringe the dictates of the moral sentiments and intellect; in other words, he would do an injury to the interests of his rival proportionate to the undue benefit which he attempted to secure to himself: All such manifestations of the propensities are abuses, and, when pursued to their results as a system, injure not only the individual against whom they are directed, but him also who practises them. Thirdly, The moral sentiments may be regarded as acting by themselves, each "seeking its own gratification; thus Benevolence may prompt an individual to do acts of kind- ness; and Veneration to perform exercises of devotion: When the gratification sought by any one or more of the sentiments does not infringe the duties prescribed by all the other sentiments and enlightened intellect, the actions are proper. But any one moral sentiment, acting by itself, may run into excess,—Benevolence, for instance, may instigate to generosity at the expense of justice; Venera- tion may prompt a person to run after sermons abroad, when he should be instructing his children at home,—and these also are abuses. Thus there is 1st, a wide sphere of action provided for the propensities, in which each may seek its gratification in its own way, without exceeding the limits of morality, and this is a good and proper action; 2dly, There is ample scope for the exercise of each of the moral and intellectual faculties, without infringing the dictates of any of the other faculties belonging to the same classes; and this action also is good: But, on the other hand, the pro- pensities, and also the moral and intellectual faculties, may act singly or in groupes, in opposition to the dictates of the whole moral sentiments and intellectual powers enlightened by knowledge, and acting in combination; 56 SUPREMACY OF THE and all such actions are wrong. Hence the rule of right conduct is that which is approved of by the whole moral and intellectual faculties fully enlightened, and acting in harmonious combination. This I call the supremacy of the moral sentiments and intellect. In maintaining the supremacy of the moral sentiments and intellect, therefore, I do not consider any of them singly, nor even the whole of them collectively, as suffi- cient to direct conduct by their mere instinctive sugges- tions. To fit them to discharge this important duty, they must act in harmonious combination, and be illuminated by knowledge of science and of moral and religious duty. The sources of knowledge are observation and reflection, experience, instruction by books, teachers, and all other means by which the Creator has provided for the improve- ment of the human mind. Whenever their dictates, thus combined and enlightened, oppose the solicitations of the propensities, the latter must yield, otherwise, by the constitution of external nature, evil will inevitably ensue. This is what I mean by nature being constituted in har- mony with the supremacy of the moral sentiments and intellect. Phrenology shows that different individuals possess the faculties in very different degrees; I do not mean, there- fore, to say that, in each individual, whatever the propor- tion of his organs may be, the dictates of his moral and intellectual powers are rules of conduct not to be disputed, On the contrary, in most individuals one or more of the moral or intellectual organs are so deficient in size, in proportion to the organs of the propensities, that his indi- vidual perceptions of duty will be far short of the highest standard. The dictates of the moral and intellectual powers, therefore, which constitute rules of conduct, are the collective dicta of the highest minds illuminated by the greatest knowledge. Let us now consider the faculties themselves. First, I shall view the propensities as acting by themselves unin- MORAL SENTIMENTS AND INTELLECT. 57 fluenced by the moral and intellectual powers. There is an ample scope for their proper activity in this way, but the great distinction between the animal faculties and the powers proper to man is, that the former do not prompt us to seek the welfare of others,—their object is chiefly the preservation of the individual himself, his family or tribe; while the latter have the general happiness of the human race, and our duties to God, as their ends. The Love of Life, and The Appetite for Food, have clearly reference to the preservation of the indivi- dual alone. Even the domestic affections, amiable and respectable as they undoubtedly are when combined with the moral feelings, have self as their chief object. The first three propensities, Amativeness, Philoprogenitiveness, and Adhesiveness, or the group of the domestic affections, desire a conjugal partner, offspring and friends: the ob- taining of these affords them delight,—the removal of them occasions pain. But they do not take an interest in the welfare of their objects on their own account. He who loves from Amativeness alone is sensual, faithless, and negligent of the happiness of its object. He who com- bines with love, springing from this propensity, Benevo- lence, Veneration, Justice, and Intellect, will disinter- estedly promote the real happiness of the object of his affection. Thus the whole faculties must be gratified harmoniously, or at least the gratification of one or more of them must not offend any of the others. For example, suppose the group of the domestic affections to be highly interested in an individual, and strongly to desire to form an alliance with him, but that the person so loved is improvident and immoral, and altogether an object of whom the higher fac- ulties, if left dispassionately to survey his qualities, could not approve; then, if an alliance be formed with him, under the ungovernable impulses of the lower feelings, bitter days of repentance will necessarily follow, when these 58 SUPREMACY OF THE begin to languish, and the latter faculties receive offence from his qualities. If, on the other hand, the domestic affections are guided to an object pleasing to the better powers, these themselves will be gratified, they will double the delights afforded by the inferior faculties, and render the enjoyment permanent. The love of children, springing from Philoprogenitive- ness, when acting alone, is the same in kind as that of the miser for his gold; an interest in the object, for the sake of the gratification it affords to his own mind, without de- siring, or being able to distinguish, what is good for the object on its own account. This truth is recognised by Sir Walter Scott. He says, ' Elspat's ardent, though selfish affection for her son, incapable of being qualified by a regard for the true interests of the unfortunate object of her attachment, resembled the instinctive fondness of the animal race for their offspring; and, diving little farther into futurity than one of the inferior creatures, she only felt that to be separated from Hamish was to die.* ' In man, this faculty generally acts along with Benevo- lence, and a disinterested desire of the happiness of the child mingles along with, and elevates the mere instinct of, Philoprogenitiveness; but the sources of these two affections are different, their degrees vary in different per- sons, and their ends also are dissimilar. This is exemplified every day by the conduct of mothers, who, although actuated by an intense instinctive love of their offspring, nevertheless spoil them by vicious indulgence, and render them completely miserable. If Philoprogenitiveness were capable, by itself, of desiring and perceiving the real wel- fare of children, the treatment of them would, in all cases, be rational and beneficial, in proportion to the degree in which this faculty was active; but this is not consistent with experience. Again, Christian mothers, who sincere- ly believe that, at death, their children pass into everlasting Chronicles of the Canongate, vol. i. p. 281. MORAL SENTIMENTS AND INTELLECT. 59 happiness, which is far better for them than sojourning on earth, nevertheless, show the highest indications of be- reavement and sorrow on their loss;—thus affording evi- dence that their love was an instinct which gives pain when disappointed, and not a disinterested affection concerned exclusively for the happiness of the being itself which con- stituted its object. The same observation applies to the affection proceeding from Adhesiveness. When this faculty acts alone, it desires, for its own satisfaction, a friend to love; but, from its own impulses, it is not interested in the welfare of its object. It feels attached to him as a sheep does to its fellows of the flock; but, if benevolence do not act along with it, it does nothing for the happiness of that friend. The horse feels melancholy when his companion is remov- ed; but the feeling appears to be one of uneasiness at the absence of an object which gratified his Adhesiveness. His companion may have been led to a richer pasture, or introduced to more agreeable society; yet this does not assuage the distress suffered by him at his removal; his tranquillity, in short, is restored only by time causing the activity of Adhesiveness to subside, or by the substitution of another object on which it may exert itself. In human nature, the effect of the faculty, when acting singly, is the same; and this accounts for the fact of the almost total indifference of many persons who were really attached, by Adhesiveness, to each other, when one falls into misfor- tune, and becomes a disagreeable object to the pride or vanity of the other. Suppose two persons, elevated. in rank, and possessed of affluence, to have each Adhesive- ness, Self-Esteem, and Love of Approbation large, with Benevolence and Conscientiousness moderate, it is ob- vious that, while both are in prosperity, they may really like each other's society, and feel a reciprocal attachment, because there will be mutual sympathy in their Adhesive- ness, and the Self-Esteem and Love of Approbation of each will be gratified by the rank and circumstances of the 60 SUPREMACY OF THE other; but imagine one of them to fall into misfortune, and to cease to be an object gratifying to Self-Esteem and Love of Approbation; suppose that he becomes a poor friend instead of a rich and influential one; the harmony between their selfish faculties will be broken, and then Adhesiveness in the one who remains rich will transfer its affection to another individual who may gratify it, and also supply agreeable sensations to Self-Esteem and Love of Approbation, —to a genteel friend, in short, who will look well in the eye of the world. Much of this conduct occurs in society, and the whining complaint is very ancient, that the storms of adversity dis- perse friends, just as the winter winds strip leaves from the forest that gaily adorned it in the sunshine of summer; and many moral sentences have been pointed, and epi- sodes finally turned, on the selfishness and corruption of poor human nature. But such friendships were attach- ments founded on the lower feelings, which, by their con- stitution, do not regard the welfare of others, and the desertion complained of is the fair and legitimate result of the principles on which both parties acted during the gay hours of prosperity. If we look at a cast of the head of Sheridan, we shall perceive large Adhesiveness, Self- Esteem, and Love of Approbation, with deficient reflecting organs, and moderate Conscientiousness. He has large Individuality, Comparison, Secretiveness, and Imitation, which gave him talents for observation and display. When these earned him a brilliant reputation, he was surrounded by friends, and he himself probably felt attachment in re- turn. But he was deficient in morality, and this prevented him from loving his friends with a true, disinterested, and honest regard; he abused their kindness; and, as he sunk into poverty and wretchedness, and ceased to be an honor to them, or to excite their Love of Approbation, all consti- tuted like himself, deserted him. But the whole connection was founded on selfish principles; Sheridan honored them, and they flattered Sheridan; and the abandonment was the MORAL SENTIMENTS AND INTELLECT. 61 natural consequence of the cessation of gratification to their selfish feelings. I shall by £nd by point out the sources of a loftier and purer friendship, and its effects. It was only those individuals who acted from Adhesiveness combined with the higher feelings, who remained attached to Sheridan through all his misfortunes. Combativeness and Destructiveness, also, when act- ing in combination with the other propensities, do not in their own nature seek the happiness of others. If aggres- sion is committed against us, Combativeness draws the sword and repels the attack: Destructiveness inflicts vengeance for the offence; both feelings are obviously very different from Benevolence. I do not say that, in themselves, they are despicable or sinful; on the contrary, they are necessary, and, when legitimately employed, highly useful; but still their first and instinctive object is the preservation of self. The next organ is Acquisitiveness. It blindly desires to possess, is pleased with accumulating, and suffers great uneasiness in being deprived of possessions; but its object is not the happiness of others. It is highly useful, like all the other faculties, for even Benevolence cannot give away until Acquisitiveness has acquired. There are friendships, particularly among mercantile men, founded on Adhesive- ness, and Acquisitiveness, just as in fashionable life they are founded on Adhesiveness and Love of Approbation. Two individuals fall into a course of dealing, by which each reaps profit from transactions with the other: this leads to intimacy; Adhesiveness mingles its influence, and a feeling of attachment is at last produced. The moment, however, that the Acquisitiveness of the one suffers the least inroad from that of the other, and their interests clash, they are apt, if no higher principle unite them, to become bitter enemies. It is probable that, while these fashionable and commercial friendships last, the parties may profess great reciprocal esteem and regard, and that, when a rupture takes place, the one who is depressed or 6 62 supremacy of the disobliged, may recall these expressions and charge the other with hypocrisy; but they really were not insincere. From Adhesiveness and gratified Love of Approbation, each probably felt something which he colored over, and perhaps believed to be disinterested friendship; but if each would honestly probe his own conscience, he would be obliged to acknowledge that the whole basis of the connec- tion was selfish; and hence, that the result is just what every man ought to expect, who places his reliance for happiness chiefly on the lower feelings. Secretiveness suppresses feelings that are improper to be manifested, and that might injure us with other individ- uals, and restrains the faculties generally. It also desires to find out secrets that may enable its possessor to guard self against hostile plots or designs. In itself it does not desire, in any respect, the benefit of others. Self-Esteem is, in its very essence and name, selfish; it is the love of ourselves, and the esteem of ourselves, par excellence. Love of Approbation, although many think otherwise, does not in itself desire the real happiness of others. Its object is applause to ourselves, to be esteemed ourselves: and if it prompt us to do services, or to say agreeable things to others, it is not from pure love of them, but for the sake of obtaining the self-gratification afforded by their good opinion. Suppose, for example, that we are acquainted with a person who has committed an error in some official duty, who has done or said something that the public disapprove of, and which we see to be really wrong,—Benevolence and Conscientiousness would prompt us to lay before our friend the very head and front of his offending, and conjure him to forsake his error, and make public amends:—Love of Approbation, on the other hand, would simply desire.to gain his applause, without looking farther. If unenlight- ened, it would either render us averse to speak to him at all on the subject, lest he should be offended, or prompt u1 MORAL SENTIMENTS AND INTELLECT. 63 to extenuate his fault, to gloss it over, and represent it either as a simple mistake, or as extremely trivial. If we analyze the motive which prompts to this course, we shall find that it is not love of our friend, or consideration for his welfare; but fear lest, by our presenting to him dis- agreeable truths, he should feel offended with us, and deprive us of the gratification afforded by his good opinion. Another illustration may be given. A manufacturer in a country town, having acquired a considerable fortune by trade, applied part of it in building a princely mansion, which he furnished in the richest and most expensive style of fashion. He asked his customers, near and distant, to visit him, and led them into apartments that absolutely dazzled them with splendor. This excited their curiosity and wonder, which was precisely the effect he desired; he then led them over his whole suite of rooms, and dis played before them his grandeur and taste. In doing so, he imagined that he was conferring a high pleasure or them, and filling their minds with an intense admiratior of his greatness; but the real effect was very different The motive of his conduct was not love of them, or regart for their happiness or welfare; it was not Benevolence t( others that prompted him to build the palace; it was nol Veneration, nor was it Conscientiousness. The fabric sprung from Self-Esteem and Love of Approbation, com- bined, no doubt, with considerable Intellect and Ideality. In leading his humble brethren in trade through the prince- ly halls, over the costly carpets, and amidst the gilded mirrors, and rich array, that everywhere met their eyes, he exulted in the consciousness of his own importance, and asked for their admiration, not as an expression of respect for any real benefit conferred upon them, but as the much relished food of his own selfish vanity. Let us attend, in the next place, to the effect which this display would produce on those to whom it was addressed. To gain their esteem or affection, it would have been 64 SUPREMACY OF THE necessary to manifest towards them Benevolence, respect, and justice: In short, to cause another individual to love us, we must make him the object of our moral sentiments, which have his good and happiness for their end. Here, however, these were not the inspiring motives of the con- duct, and the want of them would be instinctively felt. The customers, who possessed the least shrewdness, would ascribe the whole exhibition to the vanity of the owner, and they would either pity, or envy and hate him:—If their own moral sentiments predominated, they would pity him; if their Self-Esteem and Love of Approbation were para- mount, they would envy his magnificence, yet be offended at his assumed superiority, and would hate him. It would be only the silliest and the vainest who would be at all grati- fied; and their satisfaction would arise from the feeling, that they could now return to their own circle, and boast how great a friend they had, and in how grand a style they had been entertained,—this display being a direct gratification of their own Self-Esteem and Love of Appro- bation, by identifying themselves with him. Even this pleasure would exist only where the admirer was so hum- ble in rank as to entertain no idea of rivalship, and so lim- ited in intellect and sentiments as not to perceive the worthlessness of the qualities by which he was captivated. In like manner, when persons, even of more sense than the manufacturer here alluded to, give entertainments to their friends, they sometimes fail in their object from the same cause. Their leading motive is a wish to show off themselves, much more than to confer real happiness upon their acquaintances; and, by the irreversible law of human nature, this must fail in exciting good-will and pleasure in the minds of those to whom it is addressed, because it disagreeably affects their Self-Esteem and Love of Appro- bation. In short, to be really successful in gratifying our friends, we must keep our own selfish faculties in due subordination, and pour out copious streams of real kind- ness from the higher sentiments, animated and elevated by MORAL SENTIMENTS AND INTELLECT. 65 intellect; and all who have experienced the heart-felt joy and satisfaction attending an entertainment conducted on this principle, will never quarrel with the homeliness of the fare, or feel uneasy about the absence of fashion in the service. Cautiousness is the next faculty, and is a sentiment instituted to prompt us to shun danger. Acting apart from the moral sentiments, it would seek first to protect self from evil, and this is its essential object. This terminates the list of the Feelings common to man with the lower animals*, and which, as we have seen, when acting instinctively, either singly or in combination with each other, apart from the moral powers, do not seek the welfare of others as their aim, but have self-preserva- tion as their leading objects. They are given for the pro- tection and advantage of our individual nature, and, when manifested in their proper spheres, are highly useful, and also respectable, viewed with reference to that end; but they are sources of innumerable evils when allowed to usurp the ascendency over the moral faculties, and to become the leading springs of our social conduct. I proceed to notice the Moral Sentiments, which are proper to man, and to point out their objects and relations. Benevolence has direct reference to other beings. It desires purely and disinterestedly the happiness of its ob- jects; it loves for the sake of the person beloved; if he be well, and the sunbeams of prosperity shine warmly around him, it exults and delights in his felicity. It de- sires a diffusion of joy, and renders the feet swift and the arm strong in the cause of charity and love. By the be- * Benevolence is stated in the works on Phrenology as common to man with the lower animals; but in these creatures it appears to produce rather passive meekness and good nature, than actual desire for each other's happi- ness. In the human race, this last is its proper function; and, viewed in this li^ht, I treat of it as exclusively a human faculty 6* 66 SUPREMACY OF THE neficence of the Creator, when gratified, it is the source of great enjoyment to its possessor; and some authors have asserted, that men are benevolent for the sake of this pleasure; but this is not correct. The impulse is instinctive, and acts before the intellect has anticipated the result. Veneration also has reference to others. It looks up with a pure and elevated emotion to the being to whom it is directed, whether God or our fellow men, and delights in the contemplation of their venerable and admirable qualities. It desires to find out excellence, and to repose upon it. It renders self lowly, humble, and submissive. God is its highest object. Hope spreads its gay wing in the boundless regions of futurity. It desires good, and expects it to come; ' it in- cites us indeed to aim at a good which we can live without;' but its influence is soft, soothing, and happy. When com- bined with the propensities, it expects good to self; when with the moral sentiments, it anticipates universal happi- ness. Ideality delights in perfection from the pure pleasure of contemplating it. So far as it is concerned, the picture, the statue, the landscape, or the mansion, on which it abides with intensest rapture, is as pleasing, although the property of another, as if all its own. It is a spring that is touched by the beautiful wherever it exists; and hence its mean's of enjoyment are as unbounded as the universe is extensive. Wonder seeks the new and the striking, and is delight- ed with change; but there is no desire of appropriation to self in its longings. Conscientiousness stands in the midway between self and other individuals. It is a regulator of our animal feelings, and points out the limit which they must not pass. It desires to do to another as we would have another to do to us, and is the guardian of the welfare of our fellow men while it sanctions and supports our personal feelings within MORAL SENTIMENTS AND INTELLECT. 67 the bounds of due moderation. It is a noble feeling; and the mere consciousness of its being bestowed upon us, ought to bring home to our minds an intense conviction that the Author of the universe is at once wise and just. The sentiments now enumerated may be erroneously directed, or may act in excess, and, in either case, may give rise to abuses, such as profusion, superstition, or ex- travagant refinement. But the grand distinction between them and the propensities is this: The propensities acting even legitimately singly, or in combination with each other, but not in combination with the moral sentiments, have individual interests for their direct objects, and do not ac- tively desire the happiness of other beings for the sake of these beings themselves: The actions of the lower animals afford illustrations in point. The moral powers, on the other hand, acting singly, or in harmonious combination with each other, and, directed by enlightened intellect, desire the welfare of other beings as their direct object. The purest and the best of men afford in their conduct examples of the truth of this remark. Intellect is universal in its applications. It may become the hand-maid of any of the faculties; it may devise a plan to murder or to bless, to steal or to bestow, to rear up or to destroy; but, as its proper use is to observe the different objects of creation, to mark their relations, and direct the propensities and sentiments to their proper and legitimate enjoyments, it has a boundless sphere of activity, and, when properly exercised and applied, is a source of high and inexhaustible delight. The world is so constituted, that all necessary and really advantageous gratifications of the propensities are compa- tible with the dictates of the moral sentiments and intellec- tual powers when acting in harmonious combination; and that all gratifications of the propensities which are disap- proved of by the higher powers, are, in their ultimate con- sequences, hurtful to the individual himself. In like man- ner, all manifestations of the higher sentiments, when acting 68 SUPREMACY OF THE in harmonious combination, and directed by enlightened intellect, although they tend directly to the welfare of others, indirectly contribute, in a high degree, to the en- joyment of the virtuous agent. Keeping in view the great difference now pointed out between the animal and properly human faculties, the reader will perceive that three consequences follow from the constitution of these powers: First, All the faculties, when in excess, are insatiable, and, from the constitution of the world, never can be satisfied. They indeed may be soon satisfied on any particular occasion. Food will soon fill the stomach; success in a speculation will render Ac- quisitiveness quiescent for the moment; a triumph will satisfy for the time Self-Esteem and Love of Approbation"; a long concert will fatigue Tune; and a tedious discourse will afflict Causality. But after repose they will all renew their solicitations. They must all therefore be regulated; and, in particular, the lower propensities. These having self as their primary object, and being blind to consequen- ces, do not set limits to their own indulgence; and, when allowed to exceed the boundaries prescribed by the superior sentiments and intellect, lead directly to misery to the in- dividual, and injury to society. As this circumstance attending the propensities is of great practical importance, I shall make a few observations in elucidation of it. The births and lives of children de- pend upon circumstances, over which unenlightened men have but a limited control; and hence an individual, whos*e supreme happiness springs from the gratification of Philo- progenitiveness, may, by the predominance of that propen- sity, and the inactivity of the higher powers, be led to neglect or infringe the natural laws on which the lives and welfare of children depend, to treat them irrationally, and thus to defeat his own desires. He will be in constant danger of anguish and disappointment, by the death of his children, or by their undutiful conduct. Besides, Philo- progenitiveness, acting in each parent along with Self- MORAL SENTIMENTS AND INTELLECT. 69 Esteem and Love of Approbation, would desire that his children should possess the highest rank, the greatest wealth, and be distinguished for the most splendid talents. Now the highest, the greatest, and the most splendid of any qualities, necessarily imply the existence of inferior degrees, and are attainable only by few. The animal fa- culties, therefore, must be restrained in their desires, and directed to their objects by the moral sentiments, and hy intellect, otherwise they will inevitably lead to disappoint- ment. In like manner, Acquisitiveness dosires wealth, and, as nature affords annually only a limited quantity of grain, cattle, fruit, flax, and other articles, from which food, clothing, and wealth, are manufactured; and as this quantity, divided equally among all the members of a state, would afford but a moderate portion to each; it is self-evi- dent that, if all desire to acquire and possess a large amount, ninety-nine out of every hundred must be disap- pointed. This disappointment, from the very constitution of nature, is inevitable to the greater number; and when individuals form schemes of aggrandizement, originating from desires communicated by the animal faculties alone, they would do well to keep this law of nature in view. When we look around us, we see how few become rich; how few succeed in accomplishing all their lofty anticipa- tions for the advancement of their children; and how few attain the summit of ambition, compared with the multi- tudes who fail. The animal faculties exist in all men, and when they act without regulation, they prompt one man to defeat the gratification of another. All this arises, not from error and imperfection in the institutions of the Crea- tor, but from blindness in men to their own nature, to the nature of external objects, and to the relations established between them; in short, blindness to the principles of the divine administration of the world. Secondly, The animal propensities being inferior in their nature to the human faculties, their gratifications, when not approved of by the latter, leave a painful feeling of 70 SUPREMACY OF THE discontent and dissatisfaction in the mind, occasioned by the secret disclamation of their excessive action by the higher feelings. Suppose, for example, a young person to set out in life, with ardent wishes to acquire wealth and to attain honor and distinction. Imagine him to rise early and sit up late, to put forth all the energies of a powerful mind in buying, selling, and becoming rich; and that he is successful: it is obvious, that Benevolence, Veneration, and Conscientiousness, had a small share in prompting him to this course of action; and that, in pursuing it, they have not received direct and intended gratification. They may have anxiously and wearily watched the animal facul- ties, longing for the hour when they would say Enough; their whole occupation, in the meantime, having been to restrain them from such gross excesses as would have defeated their own ends. Suppose, then, this individual to have reached the even- ing of life, and to look back on the pleasures and pains of his past existence; he must feel that there has been vanity and vexation of spirit,—or the want of a satisfying portion; because, the highest of his faculties have not been the motives of his conduct, and have received no direct and adequate gratification. If an individual has, through life, aimed at acquiring reputation, he will find that the real affection and esteem of mankind which he has gained, will be great or small in proportion to the degree in which he has manifested, in his habitual conduct, the higher or the lower faculties. If men have seen him selfish in his pur- suit of wealth, selfish in his domestic affections, selfish in his ambition; although he may have pursued his objects without positive encroachment on the rights of others they will still look coldly on him, they will feel no glow of affec- tion towards him, no elevated respect, and no sincere ad- miration. If he possess penetration, he will see and feel that this is the case, and may perhaps complain that all is vanity and vexation of spirit. But the fault is his own, love, esteem, and sincere respect, arise, by the Creator's MORAL SENTIMENTS AND INTELLECT. 71 laws, from contemplating, not plodding selfish faculties, but Benevolence, Veneration, and Justice, as the motives and ends of our conduct; and the individual supposed has reaped the natural and legitimate produce of the soil which he cultivated, and the seed which he sowed. Thirdly, The higher feelings, when acting in harmo- nious combination, and directed by enlightened intellect, have a boundless scope for gratification; their least indul- gence is delightful, and their highest activity is bliss; they cause no repentance; leave no void; but render life a scene at once of Deaceful tranquillity and sustained felici- ty; and, what is of much importance, conduct proceeding from their dictates carries in its train the highest gratifica- tion to the animal propensities themselves, of which the latter are susceptible. At the same time, it must be ob- served, that the sentiments en;, and lead also to evil, when not regulated by enlightened intellect; that intellect in its turn must give due weight to the existence and desires of both the propensities and sentiments, as elements in the human constitution, before it can arrive at sound conclu- sions regarding conduct; and that rational actions and true happiness flow from the gratification of all the faculties in harmony with each other; the sentiments and intellect bearing the directing sway. This proposition may be shortly illustrated. Imagine an individual to commence life, with the thorough conviction that the higher sentiments are the superior powers, and that they ought to be the sources of his actions, the first effect would be te* cause him to look habitually outward on other men and on his Creator, instead of looking inward on himself as the object of his highest and chief regard. Benevolence would infuse into his mind the feeling that there are other human beings as dear to the Creator, and as much entitled to enjoyment as himself, and that his duty is to seek no gratification to himself which is calculated to prove injurious to them; but, on the contrary, to act so as to confer on them, by his daily exertions, all the servi- 72 SUPREMACY OF THE ces in his power. Veneration would give a sirong feeling of reliance on the power and wisdom of God, that such conduct would conduce to the highest gratification of all his faculties; it would add also an habitual respect for his fellow men, as beings deserving his regard, and to whose reasonable wishes he was bound to yield a willing and sin- cere obedience: Lastly, Conscientiousness would prompt him habitually to restrain his animal desires, so as to pre- vent the slightest abuse of them which would prove injuri- ous to himself or his fellow men. Let us trace, then, the effect which these principles would produce in ordinary life. Suppose a friendship formed by such an individual: one of his fundamental prin- ciples being Benevolence, which inspires with a pure and disinterested regard for other men, he would desire his friend's welfare for his friend's, sake; next Veneration, acting along with intellect, would reinforce this love, by the conviction that it was entirely conformable to the law of God, and would be acceptable in his sight. It would add also a habitual deference towards the friend himself, which would render our manner pleasing to him and our deportment yielding and accommodating in all things prop- er to be forborne or done. Thirdly, Conscientiousness, ever on the watch, would proclaim the duty of making no unjust demands on the good nature of our friend, but of limiting our whole intercourse with him to an interchange of kindness, good offices, and reciprocal affection. Intel- lect, acting along with these principles, would point out, as an indispensable requisite to such an»attachment, that the friend himself should be so far under the influence of the moral sentiments as to be able, in some degree, to sat- isfy them; for, if he were immoral, selfish, vainly ambi- tious, or, in short, under the habitual influence of the pro- pensities, the sentiments could not love and respect him; they might pity him as unfortunate, but love him they could not, because this is impossible by the very laws of their constitution moral sentiments and intellect. 73 Let us now attend to the degree in which such a friend- ship would gratify the lower propensities. In the first place, how would Adhesiveness exult and rejoice in such an attachment? It would be filled with delight, because, if the intellect were convinced that the friend habitually acknowledged the supremacy of the higher sentiments, Adhesiveness might pour forth all its ardor, and cling to its object with the closest bonds of affection. The friend would not encroach on us for evil, because his Benevo- lence and Justice would oppose this; he would not lay aside restraint, and break through the bonds of affection by undue familiarity, because Veneration would forbid this; he would not injure us in our name, person, or reputation, because Conscientiousness, Veneration, and Benevolence, all combined, would prevent such conduct. Here, then, Adhesiveness, freed from the fear of evil, of deceit, and of dishonor, because such a friend could not possibly fall into dishonor, would be at liberty to take its deepest draught of affectionate attachment; it would re- ceive a gratification which it is impossible it could attain, while acting in combination with the purely selfish fac- ulties. What delight, too, would such a friendship afford to Self-Esteem and Love of Approbation! There would be a legitimate approval of ourselves, arising from a survey of pure motives, and just and benevolent actions. Love of Approbation also, would be gratified in the highest degree; for every act of affection, every expression of esteem, from such a friend, would be so purified by Benev- olence, Veneration, and Conscientiousness, that it would form the legitimate food on which Love of Approbation might feast and be satisfied; it would fear no hollowness beneath, no tattling in absence, no secret smoothing over for the sake of mere effect, no envyings, and no jealousies. In short, friendship founded on the higher sentiments, as the ruling motives, would delight the mind with gladness and sunshine, and gratify all the faculties, animal, moral, and intellectual, in harmony with each other. 7 74 MORAL SENTIMENTS AND INTELLECT. By this illustration, the reader will understand more clearly what I mean by the harmony of the faculties. The fashionable and commercial friendships of which I spoke gratified the propensities of Adhesiveness, Love of Appro- bation, Self-Esteem, and Acquisitiveness, but left out, as fundamental principles, all the higher sentiments:—there was, therefore, in these instances, a want of harmonious gratification to the whole faculties, which want gave rise to a feeling of uncertainty, and of the absence of full satisfaction; it permitted only a mixed and imperfect en- joyment while the friendship lasted, and led to a feeling of painful disappointment, or of vanity and vexation, when a rupture occurred. The error, in such cases, consists in founding attachment on the lower faculties, seeing that they, by themselves, are not calculated to form a stable basis of affection; instead of building it on them and the higher sentiments, which, acting together, afford a foun- dation for real, lasting, and satisfactory friendship. In coniDlaining of the vanity and vexation of attachments, springing from the lower faculties exclusively, we are like men who should try to build a pyramid on its smaller end, and then speak of the unkindness of Providence, and lament the hardness of their fate, when it fell. A similar analysis of all other pleasures, founded on the animal pro- pensities chiefly, would exhibit similar results. In short, happiness must be viewed by men as connected with the exercise of the three great classes of faculties, the moral sentiments and intellect exercising the directing and con- trolling sway, before it can be permanently attained. Many men, on arriving at the close of life, complain of all its pursuits and enjoyments having proved vanity and vexation of spirit; but, to my mind, this is just an intima- tion that the plan of their lives has been selfish, or that they have missed the right method of doing disinterested good. I cannot conceive that the hour of death should cause the mind to feel all acts of kindness done to others, —all exercises of devotion performed in a right spirit,__all FACULTIES OF MAN. 75 deeds of justice executed,—all rays of knowledge dissemi- nated, during life,—as vain, unprofitable, and unconsoling, even at the moment of our leaving for ever this sublunary scene. On the contrary, such actions appear to me to be those which the mind would then rejoice to pass in review, as having afforded real enjoyment, and left behind the greatest permanent good. SECTION V. THE FACULTIES OF MAN COMPARED WITH EXTERNAL OBJECTS. Having considered man as a physical being, and briefly adverted to the adaptation of his constitution to the physi- cal laws of creation; having viewed him as an organized being, and traced the relations of his organic structure to his external circumstances; having taken a rapid survey of his faculties, as an animal, moral, and intellectual being, —with their uses and the forms of their abuses,—and having contrasted these faculties with each other, and discovered the supremacy of the Moral Sentiments and Intellect; I proceed to compare his faculties with externa objects, in order to discover what provision has been made for their gratification. 1. Amativeness is a feeling obviously necessary to the continuance of the species; and one which, properly regulated, is not ofFen sive to reason ;—opposite sexes exist to provide for its gratifica tion. * 2. Philoprogenitiveness is given,—and offspring exist. 3. Concentrativeness is conferred,—and the other faculties are its objects. 4. Adhesiveness is given,—and country and friends exist. 5. Combativeness is bestowed,—and physical and moral obstacles exist, to meet and subdue which courage is necessary. 6. Destructiveness is given,—and man is constituted with a carnivo * The nature and sphere of activity of the phrenological faculties is explained at length in the ' System of Phrenology,' to which I beg to refer. Here I can only indicate general ideas. 76 FACULTIES OF MAN rous stomach, and animals to be killed and eaten, exist. Besides, the whole combinations of creation are in a state of decay and renovation. In the animal kingdom almost every species of creature is the prey of some other; and the faculty of Destruc tiveness places the human mind in harmony with this order of creation. Destruction makes way for renovation ; the act of ren- ovation furnishes occasion for the activity of our other powers; and activity is pleasure. That destruction is a natural institution is unquestionable. Not only has nature taught the spider to construct a web for the purpose of ensnaring flies, that it may devour them, and constituted beasts of prey with carnivoroua teeth; but she has formed even plants, such as the Drosera, to catch and to kill flies, and use them for food. Destructiveness serves also to give weight to indignation, a most important de- fensive as well as vindicatory purpose. It is a check upon undue encroachment, and tends to constrain mankind to pay regard to the rights and feelings of each other. When properly regulated, it is an able assistant to justice. 7. Constructiveness is given,—and materials for constructing artifi- cial habitations, raiment, ships, and various other fabrics that add to the enjoyment of life, have been provided to give it scope. 8. Acquisitiveness is bestowed,—and property exists capable of being collected, preserved, and applied to use. 9. Secretiveness is given,—and our faculties possess internal activity requiring to be restrained, until fit occasions and legitimate ob- jects present themselves for their gratification; which restraint is rendered not only possible but agreeable, by the propensity in question. While we suppress and confine one feeling within the limits of our own consciousness, we exercise and gratify another in the very act of doing so. 10. Self-Esteem is given,—and we have an individual existence and individual interests, as its object. 11. Love of Approbation is bestowed,—and we are surrounded by our fellow men, whose good opinion is the object of its desire. 12. Cautiousness is given, and it is admirably adapted to the nature of the external world. The human body is combustible, is liable to be destroyed by violence, to suffer injury from extreme wet and winds, &c.; and it is necessary for us to be habitually watchful to avoid these sources of calamity. Accordingly, Cautiousness is bestowed on us as an ever watchful sentinel constantly whis- pering ' TakeVare.' There is ample scope for the legitimate and pleasurable exercise of all our faculties, without running into these evils, provided we know enough, and are watchful enough; and, therefore, Cautiousness is not overwhelmed with inevitable COMPARED WITH EXTERNAL OBJECTS. 77 terrors. It serves merely as a warder to excite us to beware of sudden and unexpected danger; it keeps the other faculties at their post, by furnishing a stimulus to them to observe and to trace consequences, that safety may be ensured; and, when these other faculties do their duty in proper form, the impulses of Cau- tiousness are not painful, but the reverse : they communicate a feeling of internal security and satisfaction, expressed by the motto Semper paratus: hence this faculty appears equally benev- olent in its design, as the others which we have contemplated. Here, then, we perceive a beautiful provision made for supporting the activity of, and affording legitimate gratifi- cation to, the lower propensities. These powers are con- ferred on us clearly to support our animal nature, and to place us in harmony with the external objects of creation. So far from their being injurious or base in themselves, they possess the dignity of utility, and are sources of high enjoyment, when legitimately indulged. The phrenologist, therefore, would never seek to extirpate, or to weaken them too much. He desires only to see their excesses controlled, and their exercise directed in accordance with the great institutions and designs of the Creator. The next class of faculties is that of the Moral Senti- ments proper to man. These are the following: Benevolence is given,—and sentient and intelligent beings are creat- ed, whose happiness we are able to increase, thereby affording it scope and delight. It is an error to imagine, that creatures in misery are the only objects of benevolence, and that it has no function but the excitement of pity. It is a wide-spreading foun tain of generous feeling, desiring for its gratification not only the removal of pain, but the maintenance and augmentation of positive enjoyment; and the happier it can render its objects, the more complete are its satisfaction and delight. Its exercise, like that of all the other faculties, is a source of great pleasure to the in- dividual himself; and nothing can be conceived more admirably adapted for affording it exercise, than the system of creation ex- hibited on earth. From the nature of the human faculties, each individual, without injuring himself, has it in his power to confer prodigious benefits, or, in other words, to pour forth the 7# 78 FACULTIES OF MAN most copious streams of benevolence on others, by legitimately gratifying their various feelings and intellectual faculties. Veneration.-The legitimate object of this faculty is the Divine Being; and I assume here the existence of God, as capable of demonstration. The very essay in which I am now engaged, is an attempt at an exposition of some of his attributes, as manifest- ed in this world. If we shall find wisdom and benevolence in his works, unchangeableness, and no shadow of turning in his laws; perfect harmony in each department of creation; and shall discover that the evils which afflict us are much less the direct objects of his arrangements than the consequences of ignorant neglect of institutions calculated for our enjoyment,—then we shall acknowledge in the Divine Being an object whom we may love with our whole soul, reverence with the deepest emotions of veneration, and on whom Hope and Conscientiousness may repose with a perfect and unhesitating reliance. The exercise of this sentiment is in itself a great positive enjoyment, when the object is in harmony with our other faculties. Farther, its activity dis- poses us to yield obedience to the Creator's laws, the object of which is our own happiness; and hence its exercise, in the highest degree, is provided for. Revelation unfolds the character and intentions of God, where reason cannot penetrate; but its doc- trines do not fall within the limits prescribed to this Essay. Hope is given,—and our understanding, by discovering the laws of nature, is enabled to penetrate into the future. This sentiment, then, is gratified by the absolute reliance which Causality convinces us that we may place on the stability and wisdom of the divine ar- rangements ; its legitimate exercise, in reference to this life, is to give us a vivifying faith, that good is attainable if we use the proper means; that while we suffer evil, we are undergoing a chastise- ment for having neglected the institutions of the Creator, the object of which punishment is to force us back into the right path. Revelation presents to Hope the certainty of a life to come; and directs all our faculties in points of Faith. Ideality is bestowed,—and not only is external nature invested with the most exquisite loveliness, but a capacity for moral and intel- lectual refinement is given to us, by which we may rise in the scale of excellence, and at every step of our progress reap direct enjoyment from this sentiment. Its constant desire is for ' some- thing more exquisite still.' In its own immediate impulses it ia delightful, and external nature and our own faculties respond to its call. Wonder prompts us to admiration, and desires something new. When we contemplate man endowed with intellect to discover a Deity COMPARED WITH EXTERNAL OBJECTS. 79 and to comprehend his works, we cannot doubt of Wonder being provided with objects for its intensest exercise ; and when we view him placed in a world where all old things are constantly passing away, and a system of renovation is incessantly proceeding, we see at once how vast a provision is made for the gratification of his desire of novelty, and how admirably it is calculated to impel his other faculties to action. Conscientiousness exists,—and it has a wide field of exercise in regu- lating the rights and interests of the individual in relation to other men, and to society. It is necessary to prove that all the divine institutions are founded in justice, to afford it full satisfaction. This is a point which many regard as involved in much obscuri- ty : I shall endeavor in this Essay to lift the veil in part, for to me justice appears to flow through every divine institution. One difficulty, in regard to Conscientiousness, long appeared inexplica- ble ; it was, how to reconcile with Benevolence the institution by which this faculty visits us with remorse, after offences are actu- ally committed, instead of arresting our hands by an irresistible veto before sinning, so as to save us from the perpetration alto- gether. The problem is solved by the principle, That happiness consists in the activity of our faculties, and that the arrangement of punishment after the offence, is far more conducive to activity than the opposite. For example; If we desired to enjoy the highest gratification in exploring a new country, replete with the most exquisite beauties of scenery, and most captivating natural productions, and if we found in our path precipices that gratified Ideality in the highest degree, but which endangered life when, neglecting the law of gravitation, we advanced so near as to fall over them ; whether would it be most bountiful for Providence to send an invisible attendant with us, who, whenever we were about to approach the brink, should interpose a barrier, and fairly cut short our advance, without requiring us to bestow one thought upon the subject, and without our knowing when to expect it and when not;—or to leave all open, but to confer on us, as he has done, eyes fitted to see the precipice, faculties to comprehend the law of gravitation, Cautiousness to make us fear the infringe ment of it, and then to leave us to enjoy the scene in perfect safety if we used these powers, but to fall over and suffer pain by bruises and death if we neglected to exercise them ? It is obvious that the latter arrangement would give far more scope to our various powers; and if active faculties are the sources of pleasure, as will be shown in the next chapter, then it would contribute more to our enjoyment than the other. Now, Conscientiousness punishing after the fact, is analogous in the moral world, to this 80 FACULTIES OF MAN arrangement, in the physical. If Intellect, Benevolence, Venera- tion, and Conscientiousness, do their parts, they will give distinct intimations of disapprobation before commission of offences, just as Cautiousness will give intimations of danger at the sight of the cliff; but if these are disregarded, and we fall over the moral precipice, remorse will follow as a punishment, just as pain is the chastisement for tumbling over the physical brink. The object of both institutions is to permit and encourage the most vigorous and unrestrained exercise of our faculties, in accordance with the physical, moral, and intellectual laws of nature, and to punish us only when we transgress these limits. Firmness is bestowed,—and the other faculties of the mind are its objects. It supports and maintains their activity, and gives determination to our purposes. Imitation is bestowed,—and every where man is surrounded by beings and objects whose actions and appearances it may benefit him to copy. The next class of Faculties is the Intellectual. The provisions in external nature for the gratification of the Senses of Hearing, Seeing, Smelling, Taste, and Touch, or Feeling, are so obvious, that it is unnecessary to enlarge upon them. Individuality and Eventuality, or the powers of observing things that exist, and occurrences, are given, and ' all the truths which Natural Philosophy teaches, depend upon matter of fact, and that is learned by observation and experiment, and never could be discovered by reasoning at all.' Here, then, is ample scope for the exercise of these powers. Form, Size, Weight, Locality, Order, Number, - are bestowed, < and the sciences of Geometry, Arithmetic Algebra, Geography, Chemistry, Botany, Mineralogy, Zoology, Anatomy, and various others, are the fields of tlwir exer- cise. The first three sciences are almost the entire products of these faculties ; the others result chiefly from them, when applied on ex- . ternal objects. COMPARED WITH EXTERNAL OBJECTS. 81 Coloring, Time, Tune, are given, ' and these, aided by Constructive- ness, Form, Locality, Ideality, and other faculties, find scope in Paint- ing, Sculpture, Poetry, Music, and the other fine arts. Language is given,—and our faculties inspire us with lively emotions and ideas, which we desire to communicate by its means to other individuals. Comparison, Causality, Wit, 1 exist, and these faculties, aided by In- dividuality, Form, Size, Weight, and others already enumerated, find ample gratification in Natural Philosophy, in Moral, Political and Intellectual Science, and their different branches. The general objects and affairs of life, together with our own feelings, conduct, and relations, are also the objects of the knowing and reflecting faculties, and afford them vast opportunities for exercise. (82) CHAPTER III. ON THE SOURCES OF HUMAN HAPPINESS, AND THE CON- DITIONS REQUISITE FOR MAINTAINING IT. Having now given a rapid sketch of the Constitution of Man, and its relations to external objects, we are pre- pared to inquire into the sources of his happiness, and the conditions requisite for maintaining it. The first and most obvious circumstance which attracts attention, is, that all enjoyment must necessarily arise from activity of the various systems of which the human constitution is composed. The bones, muscles, nerves, digestive and respiratory organs, furnish pleasing sensa- tions, directly or indirectly, when exercised in conformity with their nature; and the external senses, and internal faculties, when excited, supply the whole remaining per- ceptions and emotions, which, when combined, constitute life and rational existence. If these were habitually buried in sleep, or constitutionally inactive, life, to all purposes of enjoyment, might as well be extinct: Existence would be reduced to mere vegetation, without consciousness. If, then, Wisdom and Benevolence have been employed in constituting Man, we may expect the arrangements of creation, in regard to him, to be calculated, as a leading object, to excite his various powers, corporeal and mental, to activity. This, accordingly, appears to me to be the case; and the fact may be illustrated by a few examples. A certain portion of nervous and muscular energy is in- fused by nature into the human body every twenty-four hours, which it is delightful to expend. To provide for its expenditure, the stomach has been constituted so as to AND THE CONDITIONS FOR MAINTAINING IT. 83 require regular supplies of food, which can be obtained only by nervous and muscular exertion: The body has been created destitute of covering, yet standing in need of 'protection from the elements of heaven; and nature has been so constituted, that raiment can be easily provided by moderate exercise of the mental and corporeal powers. It is delightful to repair exhausted nervous and muscular energy by wholesome aliment; and the digestive organs have been so constituted, as to perform their functions by successive stages and to afford us frequent opportunities of enjoying the pleasures of eating. In these arrange- ments, the design of supporting the various systems of the body in activity, for the enjoyment of the individual, is abundantly obvious. A late writer justly remarks, that ' a person of feeble texture and indolent habits has the bone smooth, thin, and light; but nature, solicitous for our safety, and in a manner which we could not anticipate, combines with the powerful muscular frame a dense and perfect texture of bone, where every spine and tubercle is completely developed.' 'As the structure of the parts is originally perfected by the action of the vessels, the func- tion or operation of the part is made the stimulus to those vessels. The cuticle on the hand wears away like a glove; but the pressure stimulates the living surface to force suc- cessive layers of skin under that which is wearing, or, as anatomists call it, desquamating; by which they mean, that the cuticle does not change at once, but comes off in squamae or scales.' Directing our attention to the Mind, we discover that Individuality, and the other Perceptive Faculties, desire, as their means of enjoyment, to know existence, and to become acquainted with external objects; while the Re- flecting Faculties desire to know the dependences and relations of all objects and beings. ' There is something,' says an eloquent writer, ' positively agreeable to all men, to all, at least, whose nature is not most grovelling and base, in gaining knowledge for its own sake. When you 84 ON THE SOURCES OF HUMAN HAPPINESS, see any thing for the first time, you at once derive some gratification from the sight being new; your attention is awakened, and you desire to know more about it. If it is a piece of workmanship, as an instrument, a machine of any kind, you wish to know how it is made; how it works; and what use it is of. If it is an animal, you desire to know where it comes from; how it lives; what are its dis- positions, and, generally, its nature and habits. This de- sire is felt, too, without at all considering that the machine or the animal may ever be of the least use to yourself prac- tically; for, in all probability, you may never see them again. But you feel a curiosity to learn all about them, because they are new and unknown to you. You, according- ly, make inquiries; you feel a gratification in getting an- swers to your questions, that is, in receiving information, and in knowing more,—in being better informed than you were before. If you ever happen again to see the same instrument or animal, you find it agreeable to recollect having seen it before, and to think that you know some- thing about it. If you see another instrument or animal, in some respects like, but differing in other particulars, you find it pleasing to compare them together, and to note in what they agree, and in what they differ. Now, all this kind of gratification is of a pure and disinterested nature, and has no reference to any of the common purposes of life; yet it is a pleasure—an enjoyment. You are nothing the richer for it; you do not gratify your palate, or any other bodily appetite; and yet it is so pleasing that you would give something out of your pocket to obtain it, and would forego some bodily enjoyment for its sake. The pleasure derived from science is exactly of the like nature, or rather it is the very same.'* This is a correct and forcible exposition of the pleasures attending the active exercise of our intellectual faculties. In the introduction to this work, pages 7 and 8, I have given several illustra- * Objects, advantages, and Pleasures of Science, p. 1. AND THE CONDITIONS FOR MAINTAINING IT. 85 tions of the manner in which the external world is adapted to the mental faculties of man, and of the extent to which it is calculated to maintain them in activity, and I need not repeat them here. Supposing the human faculties to have received their present constitution, two arrangements may be fancied as instituted for their gratification; 1st, Infusing into the intellectual powers at birth, intuitive knowledge of every object which they are fitted ever to comprehend; and, Di- recting every propensity and sentiment by an infallible instinct to its best mode and degree of gratification: Or, 2dly, Constituting the intellectual faculties only as capaci- ties for gaining knowledge by exercise and application, and surrounding them with objects bearing such relations towards them, that, when observed and attended to, they shall afford them high gtatification; and, when unobserved and neglected, they shall occasion them uneasiness and pain:—And giving to each propensity and sentiment a wide field of action, comprehending both use and abuse, and leaving the intellect to direct each to its proper objects, and to regulate its degrees of indulgence. And the ques- tion occurs, Which of these modes would be most condu- cive to enjoyment? The general opinion will be in favor of the first; but the second appears to me to be preferable. Tf the first meal we had eaten had for ever prevented the recurrence of hunger, it is obvious that all the pleasures of satisfying a healthy appetite would then have been at an end; so that this apparent bounty would have greatly abridged our enjoyment. In like manner, if, our faculties being constituted as at present, intuitive directions had been impressed on the propensities and sentiments, and intuitive knowledge had been communicated to the under- standing, so that, when an hour old, we should have been morally, as capable of wise and virtuous conduct, and intellectually, as thoroughly acquainted with every object, quality, and relation, as we could ever become, all provi- sion for the sustained activity of many of our faculties 8 86 ON THE SOURCES OF HUMAN HAPriNESS, would have been done away with. When wealth is ac- quired, the miser's pleasure in it is diminished. He grasps after more with increasing avidity. He is supposed irra- tional in doing so; but he obeys the instinct of his nature. What he possesses, no longer satisfies Acquisitiveness; it is like food in the stomach, which gives pleasure in eating, and would give pain were it withdrawn, but which, when there, is attended with little positive sensation. The miser's pleasure arises from the active state of Acquisitive- ness, and only the pursuit and obtaining of new treasures can maintain that state. The same law is exemplified in the case of Love of Approbation. The gratification which it affords depends on its active state and hence the necessity for new incense, and higher mounting in the scale of ambi- tion, is constantly experienced by its victims. Napoleon, in exile, said, ' Let us live upon the past:' but he found this impossible; his predominant desires originated in Am- bition and Self-Esteem, and the past did not stimulate them, or maintain them in constant activity. In like man- ner, no musician, artist, poet, or philosopher, would reckon himself happy, however extensive his attainments were, if informed, Now you must stop and live upon the past; and the reason is still the same. New ideas, and new emo- tions, excite and maintain the faculties in activity; and activity is enjoyment. If these views be correct, the consequences of imbuing the mind with intuitive knowledge, and instinctive direction as to conduct, would not have been unquestionably bene- ficial. The limits of our experience and acquirements would have been speedily reached; our first step would have been our last; every object would have become old and familiar; Hope would have had no object of expecta- tion; Cautiousness no object of fear; Wonder no gratifica- tion in novelty: And monotony, insipidity, and mental satiety, would apparently have been the lot of Man. According to the view now advanced, creation, in its present form, is more wisely and benevolently adapted to AND THE CONDITIONS FOR MAINTAINING IT. 87 our constitution than if instinctive direction and intuitive instruction had been showered on the mind at birth. By the actual arrangement, numerous noble faculties are bestowed; and their objects are presented; these objects are endowed with qualities fitted to benefit and delight us, when properly used, and to injure and punish us when mis- understood or misapplied; but we are left to find out their qualities by the exercise of our faculties themselves. Pro- vision is thus made for ceaseless activity of the mental powers, and this constitutes delight. Wheat is produced by the earth, and adapted to the nutrition of the body; but it may be rendered more grateful to the organ of taste, more salubrious to the stomach, and more stimulating to the nervous and muscular systems, by being stripped of its external skin, ground into flour, and baked into bread. Now, the Creator pre-arranged all these relations, when he endowed wheat with its properties, and the human body with its qualities and functions. In withholding congenital and intuitive knowledge of these qualities and mutual re lations, but in bestowing faculties fitted to find them out; in rendering the exercise of these faculties agreeable; anc in leaving man, in this condition, to proceed for himself,— he appears to me to have conferred on him the highest boon. The earth produces also hemlock and foxglove; and, by the organic law, those substances, if taken in cer- tain moderate quantities, remove diseases; if in excess, they occasion death: but, again, man's observing faculties are fitted, when applied under the guidance of Cautious- ness and Reflection, to make this discovery; and he is left to make it in this way, or suffer the consequences of neglect. Water, when elevated in temperature, becomes steam; and steam expands with prodigious power; this power, con- fined by metal, and directed by intellect, is capable of being converted into the steam-engine, the most efficient, yet humble servant of man. All this was clearly pre-arranged by the Creator; and man's faculties were adapted to it: 88 ON THE SOURCES OF HUMAN HAPPINESS, but still we see him left to observe and discover the quali- ties and relations of water for himself. This duty, how- ever, must be acknowledged as benevolently imposed, the moment we discover that the Creator has made the very exercise of the faculties pleasurable, and arranged external qualities and relations so beneficially, that, when known, they may carry a double reward in adding by their positive influence to human gratification. The Knowing Faculties, as we have seen, observe the mere external qualities of bodies, and their simpler rela- tions. The Reflecting Faculties observe relations also, but of a higher order. The former discover that the soil is clay or gravel; that it is tough or friable; that it is dry or wet, and that excess of water impedes vegetation; that in one season the crop is large, and in the next deficient. The reflecting faculties take cognizance of the causes of these phenomena. They discover the means by which wet soil may be rendered dry; clay may be pulverized; light soil maybe invigorated; and all of them made more pro- ductive; also the relationship of particular soils to particu- lar kinds of grain. The inhabitants of a country who exert their knowing faculties in observing the qualities of their soil, their reflecting faculties in discovering its capa- bilities and relations to water, lime, manures, and the vari- ous species of grain, and who put forth their muscular and nervous energies in accordance with the dictates of these powers, receive a rich reward in a climate improved in salubrity, in an abundant supply of food, besides much positive enjoyment attending the exercise of the powers themselves. Those communities, on the other hand, who neglect to use their mental faculties, and muscular and nervous energies, are punished by ague, fever, rheumatism, and a variety of painful affections, arising from damp air; are stinted in food; and, in wet seasons, are brought to the very brink of starvation by total failure of their crops. This punishment is a benevolent admonition from the Crea- tor, that they are neglecting a great duty, and omitting to AND THE CONDITIONS FOR MAINTAINING IT. 89 enjoy a great pleasure; and it will cease as soon as they have fairly redeemed the blessings lost by their negligence, and obeyed the laws of their being. The winds and waves appear, at first sight, to present insurmountable obstacles to man leaving the island or con- tinent on which he happens to be born, and to his holding intercourse with his fellows in distant climes: But, by ob- serving the relations of water to timber, he is enabled to construct a ship; by observing the influence of the wind on a physical body placed in a fluid medium, he discovers the use of sails; and, finally, by the application of his facul- ties, he has found out the expansive quality of steam, and traced its relations until he has produced a machine that enables him almost to set the roaring tempest at defiance, and to sail straight to the stormy north, although its loudest and its fiercest blasts oppose. In these instances, we per- ceive external nature admirably adapted to support the mental faculties in habitual activity, and to reward us for the exercise of them. In surveying external nature with this principle in view, many qualities of physical objects present clear indications of benevolent design, which otherwise would be regarded as defects. The Creator obviously intended that man should discover and use coal-gas in illuminating dwelling- houses; and yet it emits an abominable odor. The bad smell, viewed abstractedly from its consequences, would appear to be an unfortunate quality of the gas; but when we recollect that gas is invisible, extremely subtile, and liable to escape, and also, when mixed in a certain propor- tion with atmospheric air, to explode, and that the nause- ous and penetrating smell is like a voice attached to it proclaiming its escape and warning us, in louder and louder tones, to attend to our safety by confining it,—it presents the aspect of wise and benevolent design. It is objected to this argument, that it involves an in- consistency. Ignorance, it is said, of the natural laws is necessary to happiness, in order that the faculties may 8* 90 ON THE SOURCES OF HUMAN HAPPINESS, obtain exercise in discovering them;—nevertheless hap- piness is impossible till these laws shall have been dis- covered and obeyed. Here, then, it is said ignorance is represented as at once essential to, and incompatible with, enjoyment. The same objection, however, applies to the constitution of the bee. Gathering honey is necessary to its enjoyment; yet it cannot subsist and be happy till it has gathered honey, and therefore that act is both essential to, and incompatible with, its gratification. The fallacy lies in losing sight of the natural constitution both of the bee and of man While the bee possesses instinctive ten- dencies to roam about the fields and flowery meadows, and to exert its energies in labor, it is obviously beneficial to it to be furnished with motives and opportunities for doing so; and so it is with man to obtain scope for his bodily and mental powers. Now, gathering knowledge is to the mind of man what gathering honey is to the bee. Appa- rently with the view of effectually prompting the bee to seek this pleasure, honey is made essential to its subsist- ence. In like manner, and probably with a similar design, knowledge is made indispensable to human enjoyment. Communicating intuitive knowledge of the natural laws to man, while his present constitution continues, would be the exact parallel of gorging the bee with honey in midsum- mer, when its energies are at their height. When the bee has completed its store, winter benumbs its powers, which resume their vigor only when its stock is exhausted, and spring returns to afford them exercise. No torpor resembling that of winter seals up the faculties of the human race; but their ceaseless activity is amply provided for, because, 1st, The laws of nature, compared with the mind of any individual, are of boundless extent, so that every one may learn something new to the end of the longest life. 2dly, By the actual constitution of man, he must make use of his acquirements habitually, otherwise he will lose them. 3dly, Every individual of the race is born in utter ignorance, and starts from zero in the seal* AND THE CONDITIONS FOR MAINTAINING IT. 91 of knowledge, so that he has the laws to learn for him- self. These circumstances remove the apparent inconsis- tency. If man had possessed intuitive knowledge of all nature, he could have had no scope for exercising his faculties in acquiring knowledge, in preserving it, or in communicating it. The infant would have been as wise as the most revered sage, and forgetfulness would have been necessarily excluded. Those who object to these views, imagine that after the human race has acquired knowledge of all the natural laws, if such a result be possible, they ivill be in the same condition as if they had been created ivith intuitive know- ledge ; but this does not follow. Although the race should acquire the knowledge supposed, it is not an inevitable consequence that each individual will necessarily enjoy it all; which, however, would follow from intuition. The entire soil of Britain belongs to the landed proprietors as a class; but each does not possess it all; and hence every one has opportunities for adding to his territories; with this advantage, however, in favor of knowledge, that the acquisitions of one do not impoverish another. Farther, although the race should have learned all the natural laws, their children would not intuitively inherit their ideas, and hence the activity of every one, as he appears on the stage, would be provided for; whereas, by intuition, every child would be as wise as his grandfather, and parental protection, filial piety, and all the delights that spring from difference in knowledge between youth and age, would be excluded. 3d, By the actual state of man, using of acquirements is essential to the preservation as well as the enjoyment of them. By intuition, all knowledge would be habitually present to the mind without effort or consid- eration. On the whole, therefore, it appears that man's nature being what it is, the arrangement by which he is endowed with powers to acquire knowledge, but left to find it out for himself, is both wise and benevolent. 92 ON THE SOURCES OF HUMAN HAPPINESS, It has been asked, ' But is there no pleasure in science but that of discovery ? Is there none in using the know- ledge we have attained? Is there no pleasure in playing at chess after we know the moves? ' In answer, I ob- serve, that if we.know beforehand all the moves that our antagonist intends to make and all our own, which must be the case if we know every thing by intuition, we shall have no pleasure. The pleasure really consists in dis- covering the intentions of our antagonist, and in calcu- lating the effects of our own play; a certain degree of ignorance of both of which is indispensable to gratification. In like manner, it is agreeable first to discover the natural laws, and then to study ' the moves ' that we ought to make, in consequence of knowing them. So much, then, for the sources of human happiness. In the second place, To reap enjoyment in the greatest quantity and to maintain it most permanently, the faculties must be gratified harmoniously: In other words, if, among the various powers, the supremacy belongs to the moral sentiments, then the aim of our habitual conduct must be the attainment of objects suited to gratify them. For ex- ample, in pursuing wealth or fame, as the leading object of existence, fulP gratification is not afforded to Benevo- lence, Veneration, and Conscientiousness, and consequent- ly complete satisfaction cannot be enjoyed; whereas, by seeking knowledge, and dedicating life to the welfare of mankind, and obedience to God, in our several vocations, these faculties will be gratified, and wealth, fame, health, and other advantages, will flow in their train, so that the whole mind will rejoice, and its delight will remain per- manent. Thirdly, To place human happiness on a secure basis, the laws of external creation themselves must accord with the dictates of the moral sentiments, and intellect must be fitted to discover the nature and relations of both, and to direct the conduct in harmony with them. Much has been written about the extent of human ig- AND THE CONDITIONS FOR MAINTAINING IT. 93 norance; but we should discriminate between absolute incapacity to know, and mere want of information, arising from not having used this capacity to its full extent. In regard to the first, or our capacity to know, it appears probable that, in this world, we shall never know the essence, beginning, or end of things; because these are points which we have no faculties calculated to discover: But the same Creator who made the external world con- stituted our faculties, and if we have sufficient data for inferring that his intention is, that we shall enjoy existence here while preparing for the ulterior ends of our being; and if it be true that we can be happy here only by be- coming thoroughly conversant with those natural laws which, when observed, are pre-arranged to contribute to our enjoyment, and which, when violated, visit us with suffering, we may safely conclude that our mental capaci- ties are wisely adapted to the attainment of these objects, whenever we shall do our own duty in bringing them to their highest condition of perfection, and in applying them in the best manner. Sir Isaac Newton observed, that all bodies were com- bustible which refracted the rays of light, except one, the diamond, which he found to possess this quality, but which he was not able, by any powers he possessed, to consume by burning. He did not conclude, however, from this, that the diamond was an exception to the uniformity of nature. He inferred, that, as the same Creator had made the refracting bodies, which he was able to burn, and the diamond, and proceeded by uniform laws, the diamond also would, in all probability, be found to be combustible, and that the reason of its resisting his power was ignorance on his part of the proper way to produce its conflagration. A century afterwards, chemists made the diamond blaze with as much vivacity as Sir Isaac Newton had done a wax-candle. Let us proceed, then, on an analogous prin- ciple. If the intention of our Creator be, that we should enjoy existence while in this world, then He knew what 94 ON THE SOURCES OF HUMAN" HAPPINESS. was necessary to enable us to do so; and lie will not be found to have failed in conferring on us powers fitted to accomplish his design, provided we do our duty in develop- ing and applying them. The great motive to exertion is the conviction, that increased knowledge will furnish us with increased means of happiness and well-doing, and with new proofs of benevolence and wisdom in the Great Architect of the Universe. (95} CHAPTER IV. APPLICATION OF THE NATURAL LAWS TO THE PRACTI- CAL ARRANGEMENTS OF LIFE. If a system of living and occupation were to be framed for human beings, founded on the exposition of their na- ture, which I have now given, it would be something like this. 1st, So many hours a-day should be dedicated by every individual in health, to the exercise of his nervous and muscular systems, in labor calculated to give scope to these functions. The reward of obeying this requisite of his nature would be health, and a joyous animal existence; the punishment of neglect is disease, low spirits, and death. 2dly, So many hours a-day should be spent in the sedulous employment of the knowing and reflecting facul- ties; in studying the qualities of external objects, and their relations; also the nature of animated beings, and their relations; not with the view of accumulating mere abstract and barren knowledge, but of enjoying the positive pleas- ure of mental activity, and of turning every discovery to account, as a means of increasing happiness, or alleviat- ing misery. The leading object should always be, to find out the relationship of every object to our own nature, organic, animal, moral, and intellectual, and to keep that relationship habitually in mind, so as to render our ac- quirements directly gratifying to our various faculties. The reward of this conduct would be an incalculably great increase of pleasure, in the very act of acquiring know- ledge of the real properties of external objects, together with a great accession of power in reaping ulterior advan- tages, and avoiding disagreeable affections 96 APPLICATION OF THE NATURAL LAWS TO 3dly, So many hours a-day ought to be devoted to the cultivation and gratification of our moral and religious sentiments; that is to say, in exercising these in harmony with intellect, and especially in acquiring the habit of admiring, loving, and yielding obedience to the Creator and his institutions. This last object is of vast importance. Intellect is barren of practical fruit, however rich it may be in knowledge, until it is fired and prompted to act by moral sentiment. In my view, knowledge by itself is comparatively worthless and impotent, compared with what it becomes when vivified by elevated emotions. It is not enough that Intellect is informed; the moral faculties must simultaneously co-operate, in yielding obedience to the precepts which the intellect recognises to be true. As Creation is one great system of which God is the author and preserver, we may fairly presume that there must be harmony among all its parts, and between it and its Crea- tor. The human mind is a portion of creation, and its constitution must be included in this harmonious scheme. The grand object of the moral and intellectual faculties of man, therefore, ought to be, the study of God and of his works. Before philosophy can rise to its highest dignity, and shed on the human race its richest benefits, it must become religious; that is to say, its principles and their consequences must be viewed as proceeding directly from the Divine Being, and as a revelation of his will to the faculties of man, for the guidance of his conduct. Philosophy, while separated from the moral feelings, is felt by the people at large to be cold and barren. It may be calculated to interest individuals, possessing high intel- lectual endowments; but as the moral and religious senti- ments greatly predominate in energy over the intellectual powers, in the mass of mankind, it fails to interest them. On the other hand, before natural religion can appear in all its might and glory, it must become philosophical. Its foundations must be laid in the system of creation; its authority must be deduced from the principles of that THE PRACTICAL ARRANGEMENTS OF LIFE. 97 system; and its applications must be enforced by a demon- stration of the power of Providence operating in enforcing the execution of its dictates. While reason and religion are at variance, both are obstructed in producing their full beneficial effects. God has placed harmony between them, and it is only human imperfection and ignorance that introduce discord. One way of cultivating the sentiments would be for men to meet and act together, on the fixed principles which I am now endeavoring to unfold, and to exercise on each other in mutual instruction, and in united adoration of the great and glorious Creator, the several faculties of Benevolence, Veneration, Hope, Ideality, Wonder, and Justice. The reward of acting in this man- ner would be a communication of direct and intense pleas- ure to each other; for I refer to every individual who has ever had the good fortune to pass a day or an hour with a really benevolent, pious, honest, and intellectual man, whose soul swelled with adoration of his Creator, whose intellect was replenished with knowledge of his works, and whose whole mind was instinct with sympathy for human happiness, whether such a day did not afford him the most pure, elevated, and lasting gratification he ever enjoyed. Such an exercise, besides, would invigorate the whole moral and intellectual powers, and fit them to dis- cover and obey the divine institutions. Phrenology is highly conducive to this enjoyment of our moral and intellectual nature. No faculty is bad, but, on the contrary, each has a legitimate sphere of action, and, when properly gratified, is a fountain of pleasure; in short, man possesses no feeling, of the right exercise of which an enlightened and ingenuous mind need be ashamed. A party of thorough practical phrenologists, therefore, meets in the perfect knowledge of each other's qualities; they respect these as the gifts of the Creator, and their great object is to derive the utmost pleasure from their legitimate use, and to avoid every approximation to abuse of them. The distinctions of country and education are broken 9 98 APPLICATION OF THE NATURAL LAWS TO down by unity of principle; the chilling restraints of Cau- tiousness, Self-Esteem, Secretiveness, and Love of Appro- bation, which stands as barriers of eternal ice between human beings in the ordinary intercourse of society, are gently removed; the directing sway is committed to Be- nevolence, Veneration, Conscientiousness, and Intellect; and then the higher principles of the mind operate with a delightful vivacity unknown to persons unacquainted with the qualities of human nature. Intellect also ought to be regularly exercised in arts, science, philosophy, and observation. I have said nothing of dedicating hours to the direct gratification of the animal powers; nor that they should not be exercised, but that full scope for their activity will be included in the employments already mentioned. In muscular exercises, Combativeness, Destructiveness, Con- structiveness, Acquisitiveness, Self-Esteem, and Love of Approbation, may all be gratified. In contending with and surmounting physical and moral difficulties, Combative- ness and Destructiveness obtain vent; in working at a mechanical employment, requiring the exertion of strength, these two faculties, and also Constructiveness and Acquis- itiveness, will be exercised; in emulation who shall accom- plish most good, Self-Esteem and Love of Approbation will obtain scope. In the exercise of the moral faculties, several of these, and others of the animal propensities, are employed; Amativeness, Philoprogenitiveness, and Adhe- siveness, for example, acting under the guidance of Be- nevolence, Veneration, Conscientiousness, Ideality, and Intellect, receive direct enjoyment in the domestic circle. From proper direction also, and from the superior delicacy and refinement imparted to them by the higher powers, they do not infringe the moral law, and leave no sting or repentance in the mind. Finally, a certain portion of time would require to be dedicated to taking of food and sleep. All systems hitherto practised have been deficient in THE PRACTICAL ARRANGEMENTS OF LIFE. 99 providing for one or more of these branches of enjoyment. In the community at Orbiston, formed on Mr. Owen's principles, music, dancing, and theatrical entertainments were provided; but the people soon tired of these. They had not corresponding moral and intellectual instruction. The novelty excited them, but there was nothing substan- tial behind. In common society, very little either of rational instruction or amusement is provided. The neglect of innocent amusement is a great error.- If there be truth in these views, they will throw some light on two important questions, that have puzzled phi- losophers in regard to the progress of human improvement. The first is, Why should man have existed so long, and made so small an advance in the road to happiness? It is obvious that the very scheme of creation which I have de- scribed, implies that man is a progressive being; and pro- gression necessarily supposes lower and higher conditions of attainment and enjoyment. While men are ignorant, there is great individual suffering. This distresses sensi- tive minds, and seems inexplicable: they cannot conceive how improvement should so slowly advance. I confess myself incapable of affording any philosophical explanation why man should have been so constituted; neither can I give a reason why the whole earth was not made tempe- rate and productive, in place of being partially covered with regions of barren sand and eternal snow. The Crea- tor alone can explain these difficulties. When the inhabi- tants of Britain wore the skins of animals, and lived in huts, we may presume that, in rigorous winters, many of them suffered severe privations, and that some would perish from cold. If there had been among the sufferers a gifted philosopher, who observed the talents that were inherent in the people, although then latent, and who, in conse- quence, foresaw the splendid palaces and warm fabrics with which their descendants would one day adorn this island, he might well have been led to deplore the slow progress of improvement, and been grieved at the preva- 100 APPLICATION OF THE NATURAL LAWS lence of so much intermediate misery. Yet, the explana- tion that man is a progressive being is all that philosophy can offer; and if this satisfy us as to the past, it must be equally satisfactory in regard to the present and the future. This difficulty is eloquently adverted to by Dr. Chalmers in his Bridgewater Treatise. ' We might not know the reason,' says he, ' why, in the moral world, so many ages of darkness and depravity should have been permitted to pass by, any more than we know the reason why, in the natural world, the trees of a forest, instead of starting all at once into the full efflorescence and stateliness of their manhood, have to make their slow and laborious advance- ment to maturity, cradled in storms, and alternately drooping or expanding with the vicissitudes of the seasons. But though unable to scan all the cycles either of the moral or natural economy, yet we may recognise such in- fluences at work, as when multiplied and developed to the uttermost, are abundantly capable of regenerating the world. One of the likeliest of these influences is the power of education, to the perfecting of which so many minds are earnestly directed at this moment, and for the general acceptance of which in society, we have a guarantee in the strongest affections and fondest wishes of the fathers and mothers of families.' (Vol. i. p. 186.) Although, therefore, we cannot explain why Man was constituted a progressive being, and why such a being ad- vances slowly, the principles of this Essay show that there is at least an admirable adaptation of his faculties to his condition. If I am right in the fundamental proposition, that activity in the faculties is synonymous with enjoyment of existence,—it follows that it would have been less wise and less benevolent towards man, constituted as he is, to have communicated to him intuitively perfect knowledge, thereby leaving his mental powers with diminished motives to activity, than to bestow on him faculties endowed with high susceptibility of action, and to surround him with scenes, objects, circumstances, and relations, calculated THE PRACTICAL ARRANGEMENTS OF LIFE. 101 to maintain them in ceaseless excitement; although this latter arrangement necessarily subjects him to suffering while ignorant, and renders his first ascent in the scale of improvement difficult and slow. It is interesting to observe, that, according to this view, although the first pair of the human race had been created with powerful and well bal- anced faculties, but of the same nature as at present; if they were not also intuitively inspired with knowledge of the whole creation, and its relations, their first movements as individuals would have been retrograde; that is, as in- dividuals, they would, through pure want of information, have infringed many natural laws, and suffered evil; while, as parts of the race, they would have been decidedly ad- vancing; for every pang they suffered would have led them to a new step in knowledge, and prompted them to advance towards a much higher condition than that which they at first occupied. According to the hypothesis now presented, not only is man really benefited by the arrangement which leaves him to discover the natural laws for himself, although, during the period of his ignorance, he suffers much evil from want of acquaintance with them; but his progress towards knowledge and happiness must, from the very ex- tent of his experience, be actually greater than can at pres- ent be conceived. Its extent will become more obvious, and his experience itself more valuable, after he has ob- tained a view of the real theory of his constitution. He will find that past miseries have at least exhausted count- less errors, and he will know how to avoid thousands of paths that lead to pain: in short, he will then discover that errors in conduct resemble errors in philosophy, in this, that they give additional importance and practicability to truth, by the demonstration which they afford of the evils attending departures from its dictates. The grand sources of human suffering at present arise from bodily disease and mental anxiety, and, in the next chapter, these will be traced to infringement, through ignorance or otherwise, of physical, organic, moral, or intellectual laws, which, 9* 102 THE PRACTICAL ARRANGEMENTS OF when expounded, appear in themselves calculated to pro- mote the happiness of the race. It may be supposed that, according to this view, as knowledge accumulates, enjoy- ment will decrease; but ample provision is made against this event, by withholding intuition from each generation as it appears on the stage. Each successive age must acquire knowledge for itself; and, provided ideas are new, and suited to the faculties, the pleasure of acquiring them from instructers, is only second to that of discovering them for ourselves; and, probably, countless ages may elapse before all the facts and relations of nature shall have been explor- ed, and the possibility of discovery exhausted. If the universe be infinite, knowledge can never be complete. The second question is, Has man really advanced in happiness, in proportion to his increase in knowledge? We are apt to entertain erroneous notions of the pleasures enjoyed by past ages. Fabulists have represented them as peaceful, innocent, and gay; but if we look narrowly into the conditions of the savage and barbarian of the pre- sent day, and recollect that these are the states of all indi- viduals previous to the acquisition of knowledge, we shall not much or long regret the pretended diminution of en- joyment by civilization. Phrenology renders the superiori- ty of the latter condition certain, by showing it to be a law of nature, that, until the intellect is extensively informed, and the moral sentiments assiduously exercised, the animal propensities bear the predominant sway; and that wherever they are supreme, misery is an inevitable concomitant. Indeed, the answer to the objection that happiness has not increased with knowledge, appears to me to be found in the fact, that until phrenology was discovered, the nature of man was not scientifically known; and, in consequence, that not one of his institutions, civil or domestic, was cor- rectly founded on the principle of the supremacy of the moral sentiments, or in accordance with the other laws of his constitution. Owing to the same cause, also, much of his knowledge has necessarily remained partial, and inap- THE PRACTICAL ARRANGEMENTS OF LIFE. 103 plicable to use; but after this science shall have been ap- preciated and applied, clouds of darkness, accumulated through long ages that are past, may be expected to roll away, as if touched by the rays of the meridian sun, and with them many of the miseries that attend total ignorance or imperfect information.* It ought also to be kept constantly in remembrance, that man is a social being, and that the precept ' love your neigh- bor as yourself is imprinted in his constitution. That is to say, so much of the happiness of each individual depends on the habits, practices and opinions of the society in which he lives, that he cannot reap the full benefits of his own advancement, until similar principles shall have been embraced and realized in practice by his fellow men. This renders it his interest, as it is his duty, to communicate his knowledge to them, and to carry them forward in the career of improvement. At this moment, there are thou- sands of persons who feel their enjoyments, physical, moral and intellectual, impaired and abridged by the mass of ignorance and prejudice which every where surrounds them. They are men living before their age, and whom the world neither understands nor appreciates. Let them not, however, repine or despair; but dedicate their best efforts to communicating the truths which have opened up to themselves the prospect of happiness, and they shall not be disappointed. The law of our constitution which has established the supremacy of the moral sentiments, renders it impossible for individuals to attain the full enjoyment of their rational nature, until they have rendered their fellow men virtuous and happy; and in the truth and power of this principle, the ignorant and the wretched have a better * Readers who are strangers to Phrenology, and the evidence on which it rests, may regard the observations in the text as extravagant and enthusias- tic; but I respectfully remind them, that, while they judge in comparative ignorance, it has been my endeavor to subject it to the severest scrutiny. Having found its proofs irrefragable, and being convinced of its importance, I solicit their indulgence in speaking of it as it appears to my own mind. 104 THE PRACTICAL ARRANGEMENTS OF LIFE. guarantee for being raised in their condition by the efforts of their more fortunate brethren, than in the establishment of poor laws or other legislative enactments. If all ranks of the people were taught the philosophy which I am now advocating, and if, in so far as it is true, it were enforced by their religious instructers as the will of the Creator communicated to man, through his natural institutions, the progress of general improvement would probably be accel- erated. If the notions now advocated shall ever prevail, it will be seen that the experience of past ages affords no sufficient reason for limiting our estimate of man's capabilities of civilization;—he is yet only in the infancy of his existence. In the introduction I mentioned the long and gradual pre- paration of the globe for man; and that he appears to be destined to advance only by stages to the highest condition of his moral and intellectual nature. At present he is obviously only in the beginning of his career. Although a knowledge of external nature, and of himself, are indis- pensable to his advancement to his true station as a rational being, yet four hundred years have not elasped since the arts of printing and engraving were invented, without which, knowledge could not be disseminated through the mass of mankind; and, up to the present hour, the art of reading is by no- means general over the world—so that, even now, the means of calling man's rational nature into activity, although discovered, are but very imperfectly ap- plied. It is only five or six centuries since the mariner's compass was known in Europe, without which even philo- sophers could not ascertain the most common facts regard- ing the size, form, and productions of the earth. It is only three hundred and forty years since one-half of the habitable globe, America, became known to the other half; and considerable portions of it are yet unknown even to the best informed inquirers. It is little more than two hundred years since the true theory of the circulation of the blood was discovered; previous to which it was impos- THE PRACTICAL ARRANGEMENTS OF LIFE. 105 sible even for physicians to form any correct idea of the uses of many of man's corporeal organs, and of their rela- tions to external nature. It is only between forty and fifty years since the true functions of the brain and nervous system were discovered; before which we possessed no adequate means of becoming acquainted with our mental constitution, and its adaptation to external circumstances and beings. It is only fifty-seven years since the study of chemistry, or of the physical elements of the globe, was put into a philosophical condition by Dr. Priestley's dis- covery of oxygen; and hydrogen was discovered so lately as 1766, or sixty eight years ago. Before that time, peo- ple in general were comparatively ignorant of the quali- ties and relations of the most important material agents with which they were surrounded. At present this know- ledge is still in its infancy, as will appear from an enume- ration of the dates of several other important discoveries. Electricity was discovered in 1728, galvanism in 1794, gas-light about 1798; and steam-boats, steam-looms, and the safety-lamp, in our own day. It is only of late years that the study of geology has been seriously begun; without which we could not know the past changes in the physical structure of the globe, a matter of much importance as an element in judging of our present position in the world's progress. This science also is in its infancy. An inconceivable extent of territory remains to be explored, from the examination of which the most interesting and instructive inferences will probably present themselves. The mechanical sciences are at this moment in full play, putting forth vigorous shoots, and giving the strong- est indications of youth, and none of decay. The sciences of morals and of government are still in the crudest condition. In consequence, therefore, of this profound ignorance, man, in all ages, has been directed in his pursuits, by the mere impulse of his strongest propensities, formerly to war 106 THE PRACTICAL ARRANGEMENTS OF LIFE. and conquest, and now to accumulating wealth, without having framed his habits and institutions in conformity with correct and enlightened views of his own nature, and its real interests and wants. Up to the present day the mass of the people in every nation have remained essen- tially ignorant, the tools of interested leaders, or the crea- tures of their own blind impulses, unfavorably situated for the development of their rational nature. They, constitut- ing the great majority, of necessity influence the condition of the rest:—But at last, the arts and sciences seem to be tending towards abridging human labor, so as to force leisure on the mass of the people: while the elements of useful knowledge are so rapidly increasing; the capacity of the operatives for instruction is so generally recognised; and the means of communicating it are so powerful and abundant; that a new era may fairly be considered as having commenced. Owing to the want of a practical philosophy of human nature, multitudes of amiable and talented individuals are at present anxious only for preservation of the attainments which society possesses; and dread retrogression in the future. If the views now expounded be correct, this race of moralists and politicians will in time become extinct, because progression being the law of our nature, the proper education of the people will render the desire for improvement universal. < 107) CHAPTER V. TO WHAT EXTENT ARE THE MISERIES OF MANKIND RE- FERABLE TO INFRINGEMENTS OF THE LAWS OF NATURE 1 In the present chapter, I propose to inquire into some of the evils that have afflicted the human race; also whether they have proceeded from abuses of institutions benevolent and wise in themselves, and calculated, when observed, to promote the happiness of man, or from a constitution of nature so defective that he cannot supply its imperfections, or so vicious that he can neither rectify nor improve its qualities. The following extract from the journal of John Locke, contains a forcible statement of the principle which I intend to illustrate in this chapter: ' Though justice be also a perfection which we must necessarily ascribe to the Supreme Being, yet we cannot suppose the exercise of it should extend farther than his goodness has need of it for the preservation of his crea- tures in the order and beauty of the state that he has placed each of them in; for since our actions cannot reach unto him, or bring him any profit or damage, the punishments he inflicts on any of his creatures, i. e. the misery or destruction he brings upon them, can be nothing else but to preserve the greater or more considerable part, and so being only for preservation, his justice is nothing but a branch of his goodness, which is fain by severity to restrain the irregular and destructive parts from doing harm.'—Lord King's Life of Locke, p. 122. 108 CALAMITIES ARISING FROM SECTION I. CALAMITIES ARISING FROM INFRINGEMENTS OF THE PHYSICAL LAWS. The proper way of viewing the Creator's institutions, is to look, first, to their uses, and to the advantages that flow from using them aright; and, secondly, to their abuses, and the evils that proceed from this source. In Chapter II, some of the benefits conferred on man, by the law of gravitation, are enumerated; and I may here advert to some of the evils originating from that law, when human conduct is in opposition to it. For example, men are liable to fall from horses, carriages, stairs, precipices, roofs, chimneys, ladders, masts, or to slip in the street;—by which accidents life is often suddenly cut short, or rendered miserable from lameness and pain; and the question arises, Is human nature provided with any means of protection against these evils, at all equal to their frequency and extent? The lower animals are equally subject to this law; and the Creator has bestowed on them external senses, nerves, muscles, bones, an instinctive sense of equilibrium, the sense of danger, or cautiousness, and other faculties, to place them in accordance with it. These appear to afford sufficient protection to animals placed in all ordinary cir- cumstances; for we very rarely discover any of them, in their natural condition, killed or mutilated by accidents referable to gravitation. Where their mode of life ex- poses them to extraordinary danger from this law, they are provided with additional securities. The monkey, which climbs trees, enjoys great muscular energy in its legs, claws, and tail, far surpassing, in proportion to its gravitating tendency, or its bulk and weight, what is be- stowed on the legs and arms of man; so that, by means of them, it springs from branch to branch, in nearly com- plete security against the law in question. The goat, INFRINGEMENTS OF THE PHYSICAL LAWS. 109 which browses on the brinks of precipices, has received a hoof and legs, that give precision and stability to its steps. Birds, which are destined to sleep on branches of trees, are provided with a muscle passing over the joints of each leg, and stretching down to the foot, which, being pressed by their weight, produces a proportionate con- traction of their claws, so as to make them cling the faster, the greater their liability to fall. The fly, which walks and sleeps on perpendicular walls, and the ceilings of rooms, has a hollow in its foot, from which it expels the air, and the pressure of the atmosphere on the outside of the foot holds it fast to the object on which the inside is placed. The walrus, or sea-horse, which is destined to climb up the sides of ice-hills, is provided with a similar apparatus. The camel, whose native region is the sandy deserts of the torrid zone, has broad spreading hoofs to support it on the loose soil. Fishes are furnished with air- bladders, by dilating and contracting of which they can accommodate themselves with perfect precision to the law of gravitation. In these instances, the lower animals, under the sole guidance of their instincts, appear to be placed admirably in harmony with gravitation, and guaranteed against its infringement. Is Man, then, less an object of love with the Creator? Is he alone left exposed to the evils that spring inevitably from its neglect? His means of protec- tion are different, but when understood and applied, they will probably be found not less complete. Man, as well as the lower animals, has received bones, muscles, nerves, an instinct of equilibrium*, and faculties of Cautiousness; but not in equal perfection, in proportion to his figure, size, and weight, with those bestowed on them:—The difference, however, is far more than compensated by other faculties, particularly those of Constructiveness and Reflection, in which he greatly surpasses them. Keeping in view that the external world, in regard to man, is ar- * Vide Essay on Weight, Phren. Journ. vol. ii. p. 412. 10 110 CALAMITIES ARISING FROM ranged on the principle of supremacy in tne moral senti- ments and intellect, we shall probably find, that the cala- mities suffered by him from the law of gravitation, are referable to predominance of the animal propensities, or to neglect of proper exercise of his intellectual powers. For example, when coaches break down, ships sink, or men fall from ladders, how generally may the cause be traced to decay in the vehicle, the vessel, or ladder, which a predominating Acquisitiveness alone prevented from being repaired; or when men fall from houses, scaffolds, or slip on the street, how frequently should we find their muscular, nervous, and mental energies, impaired by pre- ceding debaucheries; in other words, by predominance of the animal faculties, which for the time diminished their natural means of accommodating themselves to the law from which they suffer. Or, again, the slater, in using a ladder, assists himself by Constructiveness and Reflection; but, in walking along the ridge of a house, or standing on a chimney, he takes no aid from these facul- ties; he trusts to the mere instinctive power of equilib- rium, in which he is inferior to the lower animals, and, in so doing, clearly violates the law of his nature, that requires him to use reflection, where instinct is deficient. Causality and Constructiveness could invent means, by which, if he slipped from a roof or chimney, his fall might be arrested. A small chain, for instance, attached by one end to a girdle round his body, and the other end fastened by a hook and eye to the roof, might leave him at liberty to move, and break his fall, in case he slipped. How frequently, too, do these accidents happen, after disturb- ance of the faculties and corporeal functions by intoxica- tion ? The objection will probably occur, that in the gross con- dition in which the mental powers exist, the great body of mankind are incapable of exerting habitually that degree of moral and intellectual energy, which is indispensable to observance of the natural laws; and that, therefore, they INFRINGEMENTS OF THE PHYSICAL LAWS. Ill are, in point of fact, less fortunate than the lower animals. I admit that, at present, this representation is to a consid- erable extent just; but nowhere do I perceive the human mind instructed, and its powers exercised, in a degree at all approaching to their limits. Let any person recollect how much greater capacity for enjoyment and security from danger he has experienced, at a particular time, when his whole mind was filled with, and excited by, some mighty interest, not only allied to, but founded in, morality and intellect, than in that languid condition which accom- panies the absence of elevated and ennobling emotions; and he may form some idea of what man will be capable of reaching, when his powers shall have been cultivated to the extent of their capacity. At the present moment, no class of society is systematically instructed in the constitu- tion of their own minds and bodies, in the relations of these to external objects, in the nature of these objects, in the natural supremacy of the moral sentiments, in the principle that activity of the faculties is the only source of pleasure, and that the higher the powers, the more intense the de- light; and, if such views be to the mind what light is to the eyes, air to the lungs, and food to the stomach, there is no wonder that a mass of inert mentality, if I may use such a word, should every where exist around us, and that count- less evils should spring from its continuance in this condi- tion. If active moral and intellectual faculties are the natural fountains of enjoyment, and the external world is created with reference to this state; it is as obvious that misery must result from animal supremacy and intellectual torpidity, as that flame, which is constituted to burn only when supplied with oxygen, must inevitably become ex- tinct, when exposed to carbonic acid gas. Finally, if the arrangement by which man is left to discover and obey the laws of his own nature, and of the physical world, be more conducive to activity, than intuitive knowledge, the calami- ties now contemplated appear to be instituted to force him 112 CALAMITIES ARISING FROM to his duty; and his duty, when understood, will constitute his delight. While, therefore, we lament the fate of individual vic- tims to the law of gravitation, we cannot condemn that law itself. If it were suspended, to save men from the effects of negligence, not only would the proud creations of human skill totter to their base, and the human body rise from the earth, and hang midway in the air; but our highest enjoy- ments would be terminated, and our faculties become posi- tively useless, by being deprived of their field of exertion. Causality, for instance, teaches that similar causes will al- ways, cceteris paribus, produce'similar effects; and, if the physical laws were suspended or varied, so as to accommo- date themselves to man's negligence or folly, it is obvious that this faculty would be without an object, and that no definite course of action could be entered upon with confi- dence in the result. If, then, this view of the constitution of nature were kept steadily in view, the occurrence of one accident of this kind would stimulate reflection to discover means to prevent others. Similar illustrations and commentaries might be given, in regard to the other physical laws to which man is sub- ject; but the object of the present Essay being merely to evolve principles, I confine myself to gravitation, as the most obvious and best understood. I do not mean to say, that, by the mere exercise of in- tellect, man may absolutely* guarantee himself against all accidents; but only that the more ignorant and careless he is, the more he will suffer, and the more intelligent and vigilant, the less; and that I can perceive no limits to this rule. The law of most civilized countries recognises this principle, and subjects owners of ships, coaches, and other vehicles, in damages arising from gross infringements of the physical laws. It is unquestionable that the enforce- ment of this liability has given increased security to travel- lers in no trifling degree. INFRINGEMENT OF THE ORGANIC LAWS. 113 SECTION II. ON THE EVILS THAT BEFALL MANKIND FROM INFRINGEMENT OF THE ORGANIC LAWS. It is a very common error, not only among philosophers, but among practical men, to imagine that the feelings of the mind are communicated to it through the medium of the intellect; and, in particular, that if no indelicate objects reach the eyes, or expressions penetrate the ears, perfect purity will necessarily reign within the soul; and, carrying this mistake into practice, they are prone to object to all discussion of the subjects treated of under the ' Organic Laws,' in works designed for general use. But their prin- ciple of reasoning is fallacious, and the practical result has been highly detrimental to society. The feelings have exis- tence and activity distinct from the intellect; they spur it on to obtain their own gratification; and it may become either their guide or slave, according as it is, or is not, enlightened concerning their constitution and objects, and the laws of nature to which they are subjected. The most profound philosophers have inculcated this doctrine; and, by phrenological observation, it is demonstratively estab- lished. The organs of the feelings are distinct from those of the intellectual faculties; they are larger; and, as each faculty, cceteris paribus, acts with a power proportionate to the size of its organs, the feelings are obviously the active or impelling powers. The cerebellum, or organ of Ama- tiveness, is the largest of the whole mental organs; and, being endowed with natural activity, it fills the mind spon- taneously with emotions and suggestions which may be directed, controlled, and resisted, in outward manifesta- tion, by intellect and moral sentiment, but which cannot be prevented from arising, or eradicated after they exist. The whole question, therefore, resolves itself into this, Wheth- er it is most beneficial to enlighten and direct that feeling, or (under the influence of an error in philosophy, and false 10* 114 CALAMITIES ARISING FROM delicacy founded on it), to permit it to riot in all the fierce- ness of a blind animal instinct, withdrawn from the eye of reason, but not thereby deprived of its vehemence and im- portunity. The former course appears to me to be the only one consistent with reason and morality; and I have adopted it in reliance on the good sense of my readers, that they will at once discriminate between practical in- struction concerning this feeling addressed to the intellect, and lascivious repiesentations addressed to the mere pro- pensity itself; with the latter of which the enemies of all improvement may attempt to confound my observations. Every function of the mind and body is instituted by the Creator; each has a legitimate sphere of activity; but all may be abused; and it is impossible regularly to avoid abuse of them, except by being instructed in their nature, objects, and relations. This instruction ought to be ad- dressed exclusively to the intellect; and, when it is so, it is science of the most beneficial description. The proprie- ty, nay necessity, of acting on this principle, becomes more and more apparent, when it is considered that the discussions of the text suggest only intellectual ideas to individuals in whom the feeling in question is naturally weak, and that such minds perceive no indelicacy in know- ledge which is calculated to be useful; while, on the other hand, persons in whom the feeling is naturally strong, are precisely those who stand in need of direction, and to whom, of all others, instruction is the most necessary. An organized being is one which derives its existence from a previously existing organized being, which subsists on food, grows, attains maturity, decays, and dies. What- ever the ultimate object of the Creator, in constituting organized beings, may be, it will scarcely be denied, that part of his design is, that they should enjoy their existence here; and, if so, the object of every particular part of their structure ought to be found to conduce to this end. The first law, then, that must be obeyed, to render an organized being perfect in its kind, is, that the germ from INFRINGEMENT OF THE ORGANIC LAWS. 1 15 which it springs shall be complete in all its parts, and sound in its whole constitution; the second is, that the moment it is ushered into life, and as long as it continues to live, it shall be supplied with food, light, air, and every physical aliment necessary for its support; and the third law is, that it shall duly exercise its functions. When all these laws are obeyed, the being should enjoy pleasure from its organized frame, if its Creator is benevolent; and its constitution should be so adapted to its circumstances, as to admit of obedience to them, if its Creator is wise and powerful. Is there, then, no such phenomenon on earth, as a human being existing in full possession of organic vigor, from birth till advanced age, when the organized system is fairly worn out? Numberless exam- ples of this kind have occurred, and they show to demon- stration, that the corporeal frame of man is so constituted as to admit the possibility of his enjoying organic health and vigor, during the whole period of a long life. In the life of Captain Cook it is mentioned, that ' one circum- stance peculiarly worthy of notice is, the perfect and uninterrupted health of the inhabitants of New Zealand. In all the visits made to their towns, where old and young, men and women, crowded about our voyagers, they never observed a single person who appeared to have any bodily complaint; nor among the numbers that where seen naked, was once perceived the slightest eruption upon the skin, or the least mark which indicated that such an eruption had formerly existed. Another proof of the health of these people is the facility with which the wounds they at any time receive are healed. In the man who had been shot with the musket ball through the fleshy part of his arm, the wound seemed to be so well digested, and in so fair a way of being perfectly healed, that if Mr. Cook had not known that no application had been made to it, he declared that he should certainly have inquired, with a very inter- ested curiosity, after the vulnerary herbs and surgical art of the country. An additional evidence of human nature's 116 CALAMITIES ARISING FROM being untainted with disease in New Zealand, is the great number of old men with whom it abounds. Many of them, by the loss of their hair and teeth, appeared to be very ancient, and yet none of them were decrepit. Although they were not equal to the young in muscular strength, they did not come in the least behind them with regard to cheerfulness and vivacity. Water, as far as our navigators could discover, is the universal and only liquor of the New Zealanders. It is greatly to wished that their hap- piness in this respect may never be destroyed by such a connection with the European nations, as shall introduce that fondness for spirituous liquors which hath been so fatal to the Indians of North America.'—Kippis's Life of Captain Cook. Dublin, 1788, p. 100. Now, as a natural law never admits of an exception, this excellent health could not occur in any individuals unless it were fairly within the capabilities of the race. The sufferings of women in childbed have been cited as evidence that the Creator has not intended the human being, under any circumstances, to execute all its func- tions entirely free from pain. But, besides the obvious answer, that the objection applies only to one sex, and is therefore not to be readily presumed to have its origin in nature, there is good reason to deny the assertion, and to ascribe the suffering in question to departures from the natural laws, either in the structure or habits of the indi- viduals who experience it.* The advantage of the study of the finest models of the human figure, as exhibited in painting and sculpture, is to raise our ideas of the excellence of form and proportion to which our nature is capable of attaining; for, other condi- tions being equal, the most perfect forms and proportions are always the best adapted for health and activity. Let us hold, then, that the organized system of man, in itself, admits of the possibility of health, vigor, and *See Appendix, No. I. INFRINGEMENT OF THE ORGANIC LAWS 117 organic enjoyment, during the full period of life; and pro- ceed to inquire into the causes why these advantages are not universal. One organic law is, that the germ of the infant being must be complete in all its parts, and perfectly sound in its condition, as an indispensable requisite to its vigorous development and full enjoyment of existence. If the corn that is sown is weak, wasted, and damaged, the plants that spring from it will be feeble, and liable to speedy decay. The same law holds in the animal kingdom; and I would ask, has it hitherto been observed by man? It is notorious that it has not. Indeed, its existence has been either altogether unknown, or in a very high degree disre- garded by human beings. The feeble, the sickly, the ex- hausted with age, and the incompletely developed, through extreme youth, marry, and, without the least compunction regarding the organization which they shall transmit to their offspring, send into the world miserable beings, the very rudiments of whose existence are tainted with disease. If we trace such conduct to its source, we shall find it to originate either in animal propensity, intellectual igno- rance, or more frequently in both. The inspiring motives are generally mere sensual appetite, avarice, or ambition, operating in the absence of all just conceptions of the im- pending evils. The punishment of this offence is debility and pain, transmitted to the children, and reflected back in anxiety and sorrow on the parents. Still the great point to be kept in view is, that these miseries are not legitimate consequences of observance of the organic laws, but the direct chastisement of their infringement. These laws are unbending, and admit of no exception; they must be fulfil- led, or the penalties of disobedience will follow. On this subject profound ignorance reigns in society. From such observations as I have been able to make, I am convinced that the union of certain temperaments and combinations of mental organs in the parents, are highly conducive to health, talent, and morality in the offspring, and vice versa; 118 CALAMITIES ARISING FROM and that these conditions may be discovered and taught with far greater certainty, facility, and advantage, than is generally imagined. It will be time enough to conclude that men are naturally incapable of obedience to the organ- ic laws, when, after their intellectual faculties and moral sentiments have been trained to observance of the Crea- tor's institutions, as at once their duty, their interest, and a grand source ^>f their enjoyment, they shall be found to continue to rebel. A second organic law regards nutriment, which must be supplied of a suitable kind, and in due quantity. This law requires also free air, light, cleanliness, and attention to every physical arrangement by which the functions of the body may be favored or impaired. Have mankind, then, obeyed or neglected this institution? I need scarcely answer the question. To be able to obey institutions, we must first know them. Before we can know the organic constitution of our body, we must study that constitution, and the study of the human constitution is anatomy and physiology. Before we can become acquainted with its relations to external objects, we must learn the existence and qualities of these objects, (unfolded by chemistry, natural history, and natural philosophy,) and compare them with the constitution of the body. When we have fulfilled these conditions, we shall be better able to discover the laws which the Creator has instituted in regard to our or- ganic system.* It will be said, however, that such studies are im- practicable to the great bulk of mankind, and, besides, do not appear much to benefit those who pursue them. They are impracticable only while mankind prefer founding their public and private institutions on the basis of the propen- sities, instead of on that of the sentiments. I have men- tioned, that exercise of the nervous and muscular systems * In " Physiology applied to Health and Education," by Dr. A. Combe, many striking examples of the infringement of these laws, and of the 'njuri- ous consequences, are given, to which I refer, INFRINGEMENT OF THE ORGANIC LAWS. 119 is required of all the race by the Creator's fiat, that if all, who are capable, would obey this law, a moderate extent of exertion, agreeable and salubrious in itself, would suffice to supply our wants, and to surround us with every bene- ficial luxury; and that a large portion of unemployed time would remain. The Creator has bestowed on us Knowing Faculties, fitted to explore the facts of these sciences, Reflecting Faculties to trace their relations, and Moral Sentiments calculated to feel interest in such investigations, and to lead us to reverence and obey the laws which they unfold; and, finally, he has made this occupation, when entered upon with the view of tracing his power and wis- dom in the subjects of our studies, and of obeying his institutions, the most delightful and invigorating of all vocations. In place, then, of such a course of education being impracticable, every arrangement of the Creator appears to be prepared in direct anticipation of its actual accomplishment. The second objection, that those who study these sciences are not more healthy and happy, as organized beings, than those who neglect them, admits of an easy answer. Parts of these sciences have been taught to a few individuals, whose main design in studying them has been to apply them as means of acquiring wealth and fame; but they have nowhere been taught as connected parts of a great system of natural arrangements, fraught with the highest influences on human enjoyment; and in no instance have the intellect and sentiments been systematically directed to the natural laws, as the grand fountains of happiness and misery to the race, and trained to observe and obey them as the institutions of the Creator. A third organic law, is, that all our functions shall be duly exercised; and is this law observed by mankind? Many persons are able, from experience, to attest the se- verity of the punishment that follows from neglecting to exercise the nervous and muscular systems, in the lassitude, indigestion, irritability, debility, and general uneasiness 120 CALAMITIES ARISING FROM that attend a sedentary and inactive life: But the penalties that attach to neglect of exercising the brain are much less known, and, therefore, I shall notice them more at length. The brain is the fountain of nervous energy to the whole - body, and many individuals are habitual invalids, without actually laboring under any ordinary recognised disease, solely from defective or irregular exercise of the nervous system. In such cases, not only the mind, in its feelings and intellectual capacities, suffers debility, but all the functions of the body participate in its languor, because all of them receive a diminished and vitiated supply of the nervous stimulus, a due share of which is essential to their healthy action. The mode of increasing the strength and energy of any organ and function, is to exercise them regularly and judiciously, according to the laws of their constitution.* The brain is the organ of the mind; differ- ent parts of it manifest distinct faculties; and the power of manifestation in regard to each is proportionate, cceteris paribus, to the size and activity of the organ. The brain partakes of the general qualities of the organized system, and is strengthened by the same means as the other organs. When the muscles are called into vivacious activity, an increased influx of blood and nervous stimulus takes place in them, and their vessels and fibres become at once larger, firmer, and more susceptible of action. Thought and feel- ing are to the brain what bodily exercise is to Jhe muscles; they put it in motion and cause increased action in its blood-vessels, and an augmented elaboration of nervous energy. In a case reported by Dr. Pierquin, observed by him in one of the hospitals of Montpelier, in 1831, he saw, in a female patient in whom part of the skull had been re- moved, the brain motionless and lying within the cranium when she was in a dreamless sleep; in motion and protrud- ing without the skull when she was agitated by dreams; more protruded in dreams reported by herself to be vivid; *See Phren. Journ. vol. vi. p. 109. INFRINGEMENT OF THE ORGANIC LAWS. 121 and still more so when perfectly awake, and especially if engaged inactive thought or sprightly conversation. Sim- ilar cases are reported by Sir Astley Cooper and Professor Blumenbach.* Those parts of the brain which manifest the feelings constitute by far the largest portions of it, and they are best exercised by discharging the active duties of life and of religion; the parts which manifest the intellect are smaller, and are exercised by the application of the under- standing in practical business in the arts, sciences, or lite- rature. The first step, therefore, towards establishing the regular exercise of the brain, is to educate and train the mental faculties in youth; and the second is to place the individual habitually in circumstances demanding the discharge of useful and important duties. I have often heard the question asked, What is the use of education? The answer might be illustrated by explain- ing to the inquirer the nature and objects of the various organs of the body, such as the limbs, lungs, eyes, and then asking him, if he could perceive any advantage to a being so constituted, in obtaining access to earth, air, and light. He would, at once, declare, that they were obvi- ously of the very highest utility to him, for they afforded the only conceivable means by which these organs could obtain scope for action, which action we suppose him to know to be pleasure. To those, then, who know the con- stitution of the brain as the organ of the moral and intellect- ual powers of man, I need only say, that the objects present- ed to the mind by education, stimulate it in the same manner that the physical elements of nature do to the nerves and muscles; they afford the faculties scope for action, and yield them delight. The meaning which is commonly attached to the word education in such cases, is Greek and * See American Annals of Phrenology, No. I. p. 37. Sir A. Cooper's Lectures on Surgery, by Tyrol, vol. i. p. 279. Elliotson's Blumenbach, 4th edition, p. 283. 1] 122 CALAMITIES ARISING FROM Latin; but I employ it to signify knowledge of nature in all its departments. Again, the signification generally attached to the word use in such questions, is how much money, influence, or consideration, will education bring; these being the only objects of strong desire with which uncultivated minds are acquainted; and they do not per- ceive in what way education can greatly gratify such pro- pensities. But the moment the mind is opened to the perception of its own constitution and to the natural laws, the great advantage of moral and intellectual cultivation, as a means of exercising and invigorating the brain and mental faculties, and also of directing the conduct in obe- dience to these laws, becomes apparent. But there is an additional benefit arising from healthy activity of brain, which is little known. Different modi- fications of the nervous energy elaborated by the brain, appear to take place, according to the mode in which the faculties and organs are affected. For example, when misfortune and disgrace impend over us, the organs of Cautiousness, Self-Esteem, and Love of Approbation are painfully excited; and appear to transmit an impaired, or positively noxious, nervous influence to the heart, stomach, intestines, and thence to the rest of the body; digestion is deranged, the pulse becomes feeble and irregular, and the whole corporeal system wastes. When, on the other hand, the cerebral organs are agreeably affected, a benign and vivifying nervous influence pervades the frame, and all the functions of the body are performed with increased plea- sure and success. Now, it is a law, that the quantum of nervous energy increases with the number of cerebral organs roused to activity. In the retreat of the French from Moscow, for example, when no enemy was near, the soldiers became depressed in courage, and enfeebled in body; they nearly sunk to the earth through exhaustion and cold; but no sooner did the fire of the Russian guns sound in their ears, or the gleam of their bayonets flash in their eyes, than new life seemed to pervade them. They INFRINGEMENT OF THE ORGANIC LAWS. 123 wielded powerfully the arms, which, a few moments before, they could scarcely carry or trail on the ground. No sooner, however, was the enemy repulsed, than their fee- bleness returned. The theory of this is, that the approach of the combat called into activity a variety of additional faculties; these sent new energy through every nerve; and while their vivacity was maintained by the external stimu- lus, they rendered the soldiers strong beyond their merely physical condition. Many persons have probably experi- enced the operation of the same principle. If, when sitting feeble and listless by the fire, we have heard of an accident having occured to some beloved friend, who required our instantaneous aid, or, if an unexpected visiter has arrived, in whom our affections were bound up, in an instant our lassitude was gone, and we moved with an alertness and animation that seemed surprising to ourselves. The cause was the same; these events roused Adhesiveness, Benevo- lence, Love of Approbation, Intellect, and a variety of faculties, which were previously dormant, into action, and their influence invigorated the limbs. Dr. Spairman, in his Voyage to the Cape, mentions, that ' there was now again a great scarcity of meat in the wagon; for which reason my Hottentots began to grumble, and reminded me that we ought not to waste so much of our time in looking after insects and plants, but give a better look out after the game. At the same time, they pointed to a neighboring dale over- run with wood, at the upper edge of which, at the distance of about a mile and a quarter from the spot where we then were, they had seen several buffaloes. Accordingly, we went thither; but, though our fatigue was lessened by our Hottentots carrying our guns for us up a hill, yet we were quite out of breath, and overcome by the sun, before we got up to it. Yet, what even now appears to me a matter of wonder is, that as soon as we got a glimpse of the game, all this languor left us in an instant. In fact, we each of us strove to fire before the other, so that we seemed en- tirely to have lost sight of all prudence and caution.'—'In 124 CALAMITIES ARISING FROM the meantime, our temerity, which chiefly proceeded from hurry and ignorance, was considered by the Hottentots as a proof of spirit and intrepidity hardly to be equalled.' It is part of the same law, that the more agreeable the mental stimulus, the more benign is the nervous influence transmitted to the body. An individual who has received from nature a large and tolerably active brain, but who, from possessing wealth sufficient to remove the necessity for labor, is engaged in no profession, and who has not enjoyed the advantages of a scientific or extensive education, so as to take an inter- est in moral and intellectual pursuits for their own sake, is in general a victim to infringement of the natural laws. Persons of this description, ignorant of these laws, will, in all probability, neglect nervous and muscular exercise, and suffer the miseries arising from impeded circulation and impaired digestion. In entire want of every object on which the energy of their minds might be expended, the stimulating influence of their brains on their bodies will be withheld, and the effects of muscular inactivity will be thereby aggravated; all the functions will, in consequence, become enfeebled; lassitude, uneasiness, anxiety, and a thousand evils, will arise; and life, in short, will become a mere endurance of punishment for infringement of institu- tions calculated in themselves to promote happiness and af- ford delight when known and obeyed. This fate frequently overtakes uneducated females, whose early days have been occupied with business, or the cares of a family, but which occupations have ceased before old age has diminished corporeal vigor: It overtakes men also, who, uneducated, retire from active business in the prime of life. In some instances, these evils accumulate to such a degree that the brain itself gives way, its functions become deranged, and insanity is the consequence. It is worthy of remark, that the more elevated the ob- jects of our study, the higher in the scale are the mental organs which are exercised, and the higher the organs the INFRINGEMENT OF THE ORGANIC LAWS. 125 more pure and intense is the pleasure: hence, a vivacious and regularly supported excitement of the moral sentiments and intellect, is, by the organic law, highly favorable to health and corporeal vigor. In the fact of a living animal being able to retain life in an oven that will bake dead flesh, we see an illustration of the organic law rising abdVe the purely physical; and, in the circumstance of the moral and intellectual organs transmitting the most favorable nervous influence to the whole bodily system, we have an example of the moral and intellectual law rising higher - than the merely organic. No person, after having his intellect and sentiments im bued with a perception of, and belief in, the natural laws, as now explained, can possibly desire idleness, as a source of pleasure; nor can he possibly regard muscular exertion and mental activity, when not carried to excess, as^ any thing else than enjoyments, kindly vouchsafed to him by the benevolence of the Creator. The notion that mode- rate labor and mental exertion are evils, can originate only from ignorance, or from viewing the effects of over-ex- haustion as the result of the natural law, and not as the punishment for infringing it. If, then, we sedulously inquire, in each particular in- stance, into the cause of the sickness, pain, and premature death, or the derangement of the corporeal frame in youth and middle life, which we see so common around us, and endeavor to discover whether it has originated in obe- dience to the physical and organic laws, or sprung from infringement of them, we shall be able to form some esti- mate how far bodily suffering is justly attributable to im- perfections of nature, and how far to our own ignorance, and neglect of divine institutions. The foregoing principles being of much practical im- portance, may, with propriety, be elucidated by a few actual cases. Two or three centuries ago, various cities in Europe were depopulated by the plague, and, in partic- ular, London was visited by an awful mortality from this 11* 126 CALAMITIES ARISING FROM cause, in the reign of Charles the Second. The people of that age, attributed this scourge to the inscrutable decrees of Providence, and some to the magnitude of the nation's moral iniquities. According to the views now presented, it must have arisen from infringement of the organic laws, and been intended to enforce stricter obe- dience to them in future. There was nothing inscrutable in its causes or objects. These, when clearly analyzed, appear to have had no direct reference to the moral con- dition of the people; I say direct reference to the moral condition of the people, because it would be easy to show that the physical, organic, and all the other natural laws, are connected indirectly, and constituted in harmony, with the moral law; and that infringement of the latter often leads to disobedience to other laws, and brings a double punishment on the offender. The facts recorded in histo- ry exactly correspond with the theory now propounded. The following is a picture of the condition of the cities of Western Europe in the 15th century:—' The floors of the houses being commonly of clay, and strewed with rushes or straw, it is loathsome to think of the filth collected in the hovels of the common people, and sometimes in the lodgings even of the superior ranks, from spilled milk, beer, grease, fragments of bread, flesh, bones, spittle, excrements of cats, dogs, &c. To this Erasmus, in a letter 432, c. 1815, ascribes the plague, the sweating, sickness, &c, in London, which, in this respect, resem- bled Paris and other towns of any magnitude in those times.'—Ranken's History of France, vol. v. 416. The streets of London were excessively narrow, the habits of the people dirty, and no adequate provision was made for removing the filth unavoidably produced by a dense pop- ulation. The great fire in that city, which happened soon after the pestilence, afforded an opportunity of remedying, in some degree, the narrowness of the streets; and habits of increasing cleanliness abated the filth; these changes brought the people into a closer obedience to the organic INFRINGEMENT OF THE ORGANIC LAWS. 127 laws, and no plague has since returned. Again, till very lately, thousands of children died yearly of the small-pox; but, in our day, vaccine inoculation saves ninety-nine out of a hundred, who, under the old system, would have died. The theory of its operation is not known, but we may rest assured that it places the system more in accordance with the organic laws, than it was in the cases where death ensued. A gentleman, who died about ten years ago at an ad- vanced period of life, told me, that, six miles west from Edinburgh, the country was so unhealthy in his youth, that every spring the farmers and their servants were seized with fever and ague, and needed regularly to undergo bleeding, and a course of medicine, to prevent attacks, or restore them from their effects. At that time, these visitations were believed to be sent by Providence, and to be inherent in the constitution of things. After, however, said my informant, an improved system of agri- culture and draining was established, and vast pools of stagnant water, formerly left between the ridges of the fields, were removed, dunghills carried to a distance from the doors, and the houses themselves made more spacious and commodious, every symptom of ague and marsh-fever disappeared from the district, and it became highly salu- brious. In other words, as soon as the gross infringement of the organic laws was abated by a more active exertion of the muscular and intellectual powers of man, the pun- ishment ceased. Another friend informed me, that, about forty-two years ago, he commenced farming in a high and uncultivated district of East-Lothian; that the crops at first suffered severely from cold fogs; that the whole region, however, has been since reclaimed and drained; that the climate has greatly improved, and, in particular, that the destructive mists have disappeared. The same results have followed in Canada and the United States of America, from similar operations. In like manner, many calamities occurred in coal-pits, 128 CALAMITIES ARISING FROM in consequence of infringement of a physical law, viz by introducing lighted candles and lamps into places filled with hydrogen gas, that had emanated from seams of coal, and which exploded, scorched, and suffocated the men and animals within its reach, until Sir Humphrey Davy discovered that the Creator had established such a relation between flame, wire-gauze, and hydrogen gas, that, by surrounding the flame with gauze, its power of exploding hydrogen was suspended. By the simple application of a covering of wire-gauze, over and around the flame, it is prevented from igniting gas beyond it, and colliers are now able to carry, with safety, lighted lamps into places highly impregnated with inflammable air. I have been informed, that the accidents from explosion, which still occasionally occur in coal mines, arise from neglecting to keep the lamps in perfect condition. It is needless to multiply examples in support of the proposition, that the organized system of man, in itself, admits of a healthy existence from infancy to old age. provided its germ has been healthy, and its subsequent condition uniformly in harmony with the physical and organic laws; but it has been objected, that, although the human faculties may perhaps be adequate to discover these laws, and to record them in books, they are totally incapable of retaining them in the memory, and of formally applying them in every act of life. If, it is said, we could not move a step without calculating the effects of the law of gravitation, and adjusting the body to its influence; and could never eat a meal without squaring our appetite by the organic laws, life would be oppressed by the ped- antry of knowledge, and rendered miserable by the observ- ance of trivial details. The answer to this objection is, that our faculties are adapted by the Creator to the exter- nal world, and act instinctively when their objects are properly placed before their.. In walking during day on a foot-path in the country, we adjust our steps to the ine- qualities of the surface, without being overburdened bv INFRINGEMENT OF THE ORGANIC LAWS. 129 mental calculation. Indeed, we perform this adjustment with so little trouble, that we are not aware of having made any particular mental or muscular effort. But, on returning by the same path at night, when we cannot see, we stumble, and discover, for the first time, how important a duty our faculties had been performing during day, with- out our having adverted to their labor. Now, the simple medium of light is sufficient to bring clearly before our eyes the inequalities of the ground; but to make the mind equally familiar with the nature of the countless objects which abound in external nature, and their relations, an intellectual light is necessary, which can be struck out only by exercising and applying the knowing and reflect- ing faculties; but, when that light is obtained, and the qualities and relationships in question are clearly perceiv- ed, our faculties, so long as the light lasts, will act instinc- tively in adapting our conduct to the nature of the objects, just as they do in accommodating our movements to the unequal surface of the earth. After the poisonous quali- ties of hemlock are known, it is no more necessary for us to go through a course of physical, botanical, and chemical reasoning, in order to be able to abstain from eating it, than it is to go through a course of mathematical investi- gation, before lifting the one foot higher than the other, in ascending a stair. '. At present, physical and political science, morals, and: religion, are not taught as parts of one connected system; nor are the relations between them and the constitution of man pointed out to the world. In consequence, theoretical and practical knowledge are often widely separated. This ought not to be the case; for many advantages would flow from scientific education. Some of these would be the following:— Inthe^irsf place, the physical and organic laws, when truly discovered, appear to the mind as institutions of the Creator; wise and salutary in themselves, unbending in their operation, and universal in their application. Thev interest our intellectual faculties, and strongly impress our 130 CALAMITIES ARISING FROM sentiments. The necessity of obeying them comes home to us with all the authority of a mandate from God. While we confine ourselves to mere recommendations to beware of damp, to observe temperance, or to take exercise, with- out explaining the principle, the injunction carries only the weight due to the authority of the individual who gives it, and is addressed to only two or three faculties, Veneration and Cautiousness, for instance, or Self-love in him who receives it. But if we are made acquainted with the ele- ments of the physical world, and with those of our organiz- ed system,—with the uses of the different parts of the latter,—and the conditions necessary to their healthy ac- tion,—with the causes of their derangement, and the pains thereon consequent: and if the obligation to attend to these conditions be enforced on our moral sentiments and intel- lect, as a duty which is imposed on us by the Creator, and which we cannot neglect without suffering punishment, then the motives to observe the physical and organic laws, as well as the power of doing so, will be prodigiously in- creased. Before we can dance well, we must not only know the motions, but our muscles must be trained to exe- cute them. In like manner, to enable us to act on precepts, we must not only comprehend their meaning, but our intellects and sentiments must be disciplined into actual performance. Now, the very act of acquiring connected scientific information concerning the natural world, its qualities, and their relations, is to the intellect and senti- ments what practical dancing is to the muscles; it invigo- rates them; and, as obedience to the natural laws must spring from them, exercise renders it more easy and de- lightful. 2. It is only by being taught the principle on which consequences depend, that we become capable of perceiv- ing the invariableness of the results of the physical and organic laws; acquire confidence in, and respect for the laws themselves; and fairly endeavor to accommodate our conduct to their operation. Dr. Johnson defines ' princi- INFRINGEMENT OF THE ORGANIC LAWS. 131 pie' to be 'fundamental truth; original postulate; first posi- tion from which others are deduced;' and in these senses I use the word. The human faculties are instinctively ac- tive, and desire gratification; but Intellect itself must have fixe The world is arranged, in so far as regards the lower animals, with a wise relation to the faculties bestowed on them. Accordingly animal resentment is really effective in their case. In consequence of their not possessing reflecting faculties, they are incapable of forming deep or extensive schemes for mutual aggression, and are not led to speculate on the chances of escaping detection in their misdeeds. Their offences are limited to casual overflow- ings of their propensities when excited by momentary temptation; which are checked by counter overflowings of other propensities, momentarily excited in the animals aggrieved. In regard to man, however, the world has been arrang- ed on the principle of supremacy of the moral sentiments and intellect, and, in consequence, animal retribution is not equally effectual in his case. For example, a human offender employs his intellect in devising means to enable him to escape detection, or to defend himself against punishment; and, in consequence, although he sees pun- ishment staring him in the face, his hope deludes him into the belief that he may escape it. Farther, if the real cause of human offences be excessive size and activity in the organs of the animal propensities, it follows that mere punishment cannot put a stop to crime, because it over- looks the cause, and leaves it to operate with unabated energy, after the infliction has been endured. The history of the world, then, presents us with a regular succession of crimes and punishments, and at present the series appears to be as far removed from a termination as at any previous period of the annals of the race. If the world, in regard to man, has been arranged on the plan of supremacy of the moral sentiments and intel- lect, we might expect better success, were moral retribu- tion, of which I now proceed to treat, resorted to. The motive which prompts the dog to worry, or the cock to peck and spur his assailant, is, as we have seen, mere animal resentment. His propensities are disagree- UNDER THE NATURAL LAWS. 267 ably affected, and Combativeness and Destructiveness in- stinctively start into activity to repel the aggression. The animal resentment of man is precisely analogous. A thief is odious to Acquisitiveness, because he robs it of its trea- sures; a murderer is offensive to all our feelings, because he extinguishes life. And these faculties being offended, Combativeness and Destructiveness rush to their aid in man while under the animal dominion, as instinctively as in the dog, and punish the offender on principles, and in a way, exactly similar. The case is different with the proper human faculties. Benevolence, contemplating outrage and murder, disap- proves of them, because they are hostile to its inherent constitution, because they occasion calamities to those who are their objects, and misery to the perpetrators them- selves. Conscientiousness is pained by the perception of theft, because its very nature revolts at every infringement of right, and because justice is essential to the welfare of all intelligent beings. Veneration is offended at reckless insult and indignity, because, from its very constitution, it desires to respect the intelligent creatures of the God whom it adores, believing that they are all the objects of his love. When crime is presented before the moral sentiments, therefore, they all ardently and instinctively desire that it should be stopped, and its recurrence pre- vented, just because it is in direct opposition to their very nature, and this impression on their part is not dependent on the power of the criminal to offend or to forbear offence. Benevolence grieves at death inflicted by a madman, and calls aloud that it should be averted: Conscientiousness disavows all theft, although committed by an idiot, and requires that he should be restrained; while Veneration recoils at the irreverences even-of the frenzied. The circumstance of the offenders being involuntary agents, quite incapable of restraining their propensities, does not alter the aversion of the moral faculties to their actions; and the reasons of this are obvious: first, the sentiments 268 ON PUNISHMENT AS INFLICTED hate evil, because it is contrary to their nature, no matter from what source it springs; and, secondly, the circum- stance of the aggressor being a necessary agent, does not diminish the calamity inflicted on the sufferer. It is as painful to be killed by a madman as by a deliberate assassin; and it is as destructive to property to be robbed by a cunning idiot, as by an acute and practised thief. We perceive, therefore, as the first feature of the moral and intellectual law, that the sentiments, absolutely and in all circumstances, declare against offences, and demand imperatively, that they shall be brought to an end. There is a great difference, however, between the means which they suggest for accomplishing this object, and those prompted by the propensities. The latter blind- ly inflict "animal resentment without the slightest regard to the causes which led to the crime, or the consequences of the punishment. They seize the aggressor, worry, bite, or strangle him, and there they begin and terminate. The moral and intellectual faculties, on the other hand, embrace even the criminal himself within the range of their sympathies. Benevolence desires to render him virtuous, and thereafter happy, as well as to rescue his victim. Veneration desires that he should be treated as a man; and Conscientiousness declares that it cannot with satisfaction acquiesce in any administration towards him that does not tend to remove the motives of his miscon- duct, and to prevent their recurrence. The first step, then, which the moral and intellectual faculties combine in demanding, is a full exposition of the causes of the offence, and the consequences of the mode of treatment proposed. Let us, then, pursue this investigation; and here let me observe, that we are now in condition to do so, with something like a chance of success; for, by the aid of Phrenology, we have obtained a tolerably clear view of the elementary faculties of the mind, and the effects of organization on their manifestations. UNDER THE NATURAL LAWS. 269 The very first fact, then, that arrests our attention in this inquiry, is, that every crime proceeds from an abuse of some faculty or another. The question next arises, Whence does the tendency to abuse arise? Phrenology enables us to answer, from three sources; first, from par- ticular organs being too large and spontaneously active; secondly, from excessive excitement from external causes; or, thirdly, from intellectual ignorance of what are uses and what are abuses of the faculties. The moral and intellectual powers next demand, What is the cause of particular organs being too large and active in individuals? Phrenology, for answer, points to the law of hereditary descent, by which the organs most energetic in the parents determine those which shall predominate in the child. Intellect, then, infers that, according to this view, certain individuals are unfortunate at birth, in hav- ing received organs from their parents so ill proportion- ed, that abuse of some of them is almost an inevitable consequence, if they are left to the sole guidance of their own suggestions. Phrenology replies, that the fact ap- pears to be exactly so. In the Phrenological Hall is ex- hibited a large assemblage of skulls and casts of the heads of criminals, collected from Europe, Asia, Africa, and America; and an undeniable feature in them all, is a great preponderance of the organs of the animal propensities over those of the moral sentiments and intellect. In the next place, excessive excitement from without may arise from the individual being pressed by animal want, stimulated by intoxicating liquors, or seduced by evil example, and from a variety of similar causes. And, thirdly, abuses may arise from sheer want of in- formation concerning the constitution of the mind, and its relations to external objects. I have examined the cere- bral development, and inquired into the external circum- stances, of a considerable number of criminals, and have no hesitation in saying, that if, in the case of every offen- der, the three sources of crimes here enumerated were 23* 270 ON PUNISHMENT AS INFLICTED investigated, reported on, and published, the conviction would become irresistible, that the individual was the victim of his nature and external condition, and that peni- tentiaries would be resorted to as the only means of at once abating crime and satisfying the moral feelings of the public. The public err through ignorance, and need only to know better to ensure their going into the right path. Farther, intellect perceives, and the moral sentiments acknowledge, that these causes subsist independently of the will of tlie offender. The criminal, for example, is not the cause of the unfortunate preponderance of the animal organs in his own brain, neither is he the cause of the external excitement which seduces his propensities into abuse, or of the intellectual ignorance in which he is in- volved. Nevertheless, the moral and intellectual faculties of the indifferent spectator of his condition, do not, on this account, admit that he ought, either for his own sake or for that of society, to be permitted to proceed in an unre- stricted course of crime. They absolutely insist on ar- resting his progress, and their first question is, How may this best be done? Intellect answers, by removing the causes which produce the offences. The first cause—the great preponderance of animal organs—cannot, by any means yet known, be summarily removed. Intellect, therefore, points out another alterna- tive, viz. to supply, by moral and physical restraint, the control which, in a brain better constituted, is afforded by large moral and intellectual organs; in short, to place the offender under such a degree of effective control as abso- lutely to prevent the abuses of his faculties. Benevolence acknowledges this to be kind, Veneration to be respectful, and Conscientiousness to be just, at once to the offender himself and to society; and Intellect perceives that, when- ever it is adopted, it will form an important step towards preventing a repetition of crimes. The second cause, viz. great external excitement, may be removed by withdrawing the individual from its influ- UNDER THE NATURAL LAWS. 271 ence. The very restraint and control which serve to remedy the first, will directly tend to accomplish this second object at the same time. The third cause, being moral and intellectual ignorance, may be removed by conveying instruction to the higher faculties of the mind. If these principles be sound, the measures now recom- mended ought, when viewed in all their consequences, to be not only the most just and benevolent, but, at the same time, the most advantageous that could be adopted. Let us contrast them with the results of the animal method. Under the animal system, we have seen that no measures are taken to prevent crimes. Under the moral method, as soon as a tendency to abuse the faculties should be per- ceived in any individual, instant measures of prevention would be resorted to, because the sentiments could not be satisfied unless this were done. Under the animal system, no inquiry is made into the future proceedings of the of- fender, and he is turned loose on society, under the una- bated influence of all the causes which led to his infringe- ment of the law, and, as effects never cease while their causes continue to operate, he repeats his offence, and again becomes the object of a new animal infliction. Un- der the moral system, the causes would be removed, and the evil effects would cease. Under the animal system, the lower propensities of the offender and society are maintained in habitual excitement, for the punishment proceeds from the propensities, and is addressed to the propensities. Flogging, for instance, proceeds from Destructiveness, and is addressed solely io self-love and fear. The tread-mill springs from Destruc- tiveness in a milder form, and, as its sole object is to cause annoyance to the offender, it is obviously addressed only to Cautiousness and his selfish feelings. Hanging and decapitation undeniably spring from Destructiveness, and are administered as terrors to the propensities of persons criminally disposed. These punishments, again, 272 ON PUNISHMENT AS INFLICTED especially the latter, are calculated to excite the animal faculties, and none else, in the spectators who witness them. A capital execution obviously interests and grati- fies Destructiveness, Cautiousness and Self-Love, in the beholder, and nothing can be farther removed than such exhibitions from the proper food of Benevolence, Venera- tion, and Conscientiousness. Under the moral system, again, the whole faculties ex- ercised and addressed in restraining and instructing the offender, are the human powers. The propensities are employed merely as the servants of the moral sentiments in accomplishing their benignant purposes, and Benevo- lence is as actively engaged in behalf of the offender as of society at large. The whole influence of the proceed- ing is ameliorating and elevating. Under the animal system, children produced of parents who have been recently engaged in either suffering, in- flicting, or witnessing punishment, will, by the organic law, inherit large and active animal organs, occasioned by the excitement of similar organs in the parents. Thus a public execution, from the violent stimulus which it produ- ces in the lower faculties of the spectators, may, within twenty-four hours of its exhibition, be the direct cause of a new crop of victims for the gallows. Under the moral system, children born of parents active- ly engaged in undergoing, executing, or witnessing the elevating and ennobling process of moral reformation, will, by the organic law, inherit an increased development of the moral and intellectual organs, and be farther removed than their parents from the risk of lapsing into crime. Under the animal system, spectators of crime, and ac- complices, need to be bribed with large rewards to induce them to communicate their knowledge of the offence; and witnesses require to be compelled by penalties to bear testimony to what they have seen concerning it. Many will recollect the affecting picture of mental agony drawn by the author of Waverly, when Jeanie Deans, at the bar UNDER THE NATURAL LAWS. 273 of the High Court of Justiciary, gives evidence against her sister, which was to deprive that sister of life. Paral- lel cases occur too frequently in actual experience. The real cause of this aversion to betray, and internal repug- nance to give evidence, is, that the moral sentiments are revolted at the delivery of the culprit to the cruelty of animal resentment. Under the moral system, the sentiments and intellect of the spectator of a crime, and those of the nearest relatives of the offender, would unite, along with those of society at large, in an unanimous desire to deliver him up with the utmost speed to the ameliorating influence of moral refor- mation, as the highest benevolence even to himself. Under the animal system, the office of public execu- tioner is odious, execrable, and universally contemned. If it were necessary by the Creator's institutions, it would present the extraordinary example of a necessary duty be- ing execrated by the moral sentiments. This would be a direct inconsistency between the dictates of the superior faculties and the arrangement of the external world. But the animal executioner is not acknowledged as necessary by the human faculties. Under the moral system, the criminal would be committed to persons whose duties would be identical with those of the clergyman, the physician, and the teacher. These are the executioners under the moral law; and just because their avocations are highly grateful to the sentiments, these are the most esteemed of man- kind. The highest and the most important object of this long exposition of the principles of punishment under the natu- ral laws, remains to be unfolded. We are all liable to abuse our faculties; and the inquiry is exceedingly interesting, what, in our cases, are the causes of the infringement of the moral law. The offen- ces which we daily commit, are neither more nor less than minor degrees of abuse of the very same faculties of which crimes are the greater. For example, if in private life we 274 ON PUNISHMENT AS INFLICTED backbite or slander our neighbor, we commit abuses of Self-Esteem and Destructiveness, which, if increased mere- ly in intensity, without at all changing their nature, might end, as in Ireland, in maiming his cattle, or, as in Spain or Italy, in murdering him outright. If, in any transac- tion of life, we deliberately give false representations as to any article we have for sale, or overcharge it in price, this is just a minor abuse of Secretiveness and Acquisitive- ness, acting in absence of the moral sentiments, of which pocket-picking and stealing are higher degrees. I need not carry the parallel farther. It is so obvious that every offence against the moral law is an abuse of some faculty or other, and that great crimes are just great abuses, and smaller offences lesser aberrations, that every one must perceive the fact to be so. Reverting to what I observed in regard to crime, I repeat, that every infringement of the moral law, the small- est as well as the greatest, is denounced by the sentiments and intellect, just because it is opposed to their nature, and they desire absolutely to bring all abuses to an end, from whatever source they spring, be they voluntary or involuntary. Animal resentment is, by the present practice of society, resorted to as the chief method of dealing with the minor, just as it is with the higher, abuses of our faculties. If one gentleman insults another, the offended party makes no inquiry into the state of mind and other causes that pro- duced the insult, but proceeds to knock him on the head, to challenge, and thereafter to shoot him, or to prosecute him in a jury court, and inflict pain by depriving him of money. These are the common methods by which men inflict animal retribution on each other, and in essential character they do not much differ from those followed by the lower creatures. I do not say that these proceedings are absolutely with- out beneficial effect. The animal faculties are selfish, and these inroads upon their enjoyment have undoubtedly a UNDER THE NATURAL LAWS. 275 tendency to check them. It is painful to a gentleman to be knocked down or shot, and, in consequence, some indi- viduals whose moral principles are low, are induced to manage matters so as to avoid these forms of retaliation, who would not be restrained from insulting their neighbors by the dictates of their own feelings; but here the benefit terminates. The infliction of the chastisement excites only the animal faculties of the offended party, and it is ad- dressed exclusively to the animal part of the offender's mind. Habitual morality, however, cannot exist without supreme activity of the moral sentiments; and the whole code of animal law, and animal punishment, does nothing whatever to establish this as a permanent condition of mind. Under the moral and intellectual law, every thing is different. The intellectual faculties inquire into the causes of abuses, and the sentiments desire to remove them with kindness and respect, even for the offender him- self. If one person insult another, intellect, aided by Phrenology, "perceives that he must of necessity do so, either from excessive predominance of Combativeness, Destructiveness, and Self-Esteem in his own brain, so that he has an instinctive tendency to insult, just as some ill natured dogs and horses have a tendency to bite without provocation; or from excessive external stimulus, that is to say, from some aggression offered to these lower organs by other people; or, thirdly, from intellectual ignorance, that is, erroneously supposing motives and intentions in the party whom he insults, which really do not belong to him. If one person cheats another, Intellect, aided by Phrenology, perceives that he can do so, only because Acquisitiveness and Secretiveness predominate in him over Conscientiousness; because the external temptation to cheat is too powerful for his combination of faculties to resist; or because he is intellectually ignorant that cheat- ing is equally fatal to his own interest as injurious to that of his victim In short, intellect, aided by Phrenology, 276 ON PUNISHMENT AS INFLICTED comes to an irresistible conclusion, that no abuse of the animal faculties can be committed, that may not be traced to these or similar causes. But intellect and the moral sentiments desire to remove the causes as the most effectual way of putting an end to the effects, and their method is one congenial to their own constitution. If a man by nature is irritable, and prone to injure every one with whom he comes into contact, they desire most sedulously to remove every cause that may tend to exasperate his propensities, and also to surround him with a high moral and intellectual atmosphere. If he is exposed to temptation, they desire to withdraw it; if he is misinformed, ignorant, or deceived, they desire to in- struct him, and give him correct information. After we have suffered injury from another, if we perceive the causes from which it proceeded to be really such as I have now explained, and if we comprehend and believe in the supremacy of the moral law, it will be impossible for us to prefer the method of redress by animal resentment. The question naturally presents itself, What is the distinction between right and wrong, under this system? If offences proceed from unfortunate development of brain, not fashioned by the individual himself; from external temptations which he did not make; or from want of knowledge which he never possessed, how are the distinc- tions between right and wrong, merit and demerit, to be explicated and maintained? The answer is simple. The natural distinction between right and wrong, so far as man is concerned, depends on the constitution of the moral and intellectual faculties. The act of wantonly killing another is wrong; because it is in direct opposition to the dictates of Benevolence. The act of appropriating to ourselves effects belonging to another is wrong, because it is distinctly denounced by Conscientiousness, and so with all other offences. The authority of the moral law, in forbidding these offences, depends on the whole arrange- ments of creation being constituted to enforce its dictates. UNDER THE NATURAL LAWS. 277 If Benevolence and Conscientiousness denounce murder, and if the whole other faculties of the mind, and the external order of things, harmonize with their dictates, and combine to punish the offender, the foundation and sanctions of the moral law appear abundantly strong. It has been objected, that, in Tartary, theft is honorable; but Dr. T. Brown has well answered this objection. There are more principles in the mind than Benevolence, Vene- ration and Conscientiousness; and it is quite possible to misinform the intellect, and thereby misdirect the propen- sities and sentiments. For example, the Tartars are taught, as matter of fact, that all men beyond their own tribes are their enemies, and would rob and murder them if they could; as long as this intellectual conviction lasts, strangers become the objects of their animal resentment. They are criminals, in their eyes, clearly convicted of deliberate purpose to rob and murder. In England, under Lord EUenborough's act, when men are convicted in a court of this intention, they are delivered over to the hang- man to be executed; and we might as well maintain, as an abstract proposition, that the English are fond of hanging one another, as that the Tartars approve of robbery and murder. Strangers whom the latter maltreat in this man- ner, actually stand convicted in their minds of an intention of using them in that way if they could. The real method of arriving at a correct view of the question is to suppose the conviction complete in a Tartar's mind that other men love him, and make him an object of their most sedulous benevolence, and then ask him whether he approves of robbing and murdering a benefactor? There is no instance of human nature, in a state of sanity, regarding such a deed as virtuous. The moral law, therefore, when cleared of other principles that may act along with it, but are not part of it, is obviously universal and inflexible in its dic- tates. The views contained in this chapter were printed and distributed amongst a few friends in 1827, and I have been 24 278 ON PUNISHMENT AS INFLICTED favored by them with several remarks. Two of these appear to me to merit a reply. It is objected, that, according to the moral system of treating offenders, punishment would be abrogated and crime encouraged. I respectfully answer, that if this system be right in itself, and suited to the nature of man, it will carry in itself all the punishment that will be needed, or that can serve any beneficial end. I believe that to an individual whose mind consists chiefly of animal propensities and intellect, confinement, compulsory labor, and the enforce- ment of moral conduct, will be highly disagreeable, and that this is the punishment which the Creator designed should attend that unfortunate combination of mental qualities. It is analogous to the pain of a wound; the object of which is to induce the patient to avoid injuring himself again. The irksomeness and suffering to a crimi- nal, inseparable from confinement and forced labor, are intended as inducements to him to avoid infringements of the moral law; and when perceived by himself to arise from -the connection established by the Creator, between crime and the most humane means of restraining it, he will learn to submit to its infliction, without those rebellious feelings which are generally excited by pure animal retri- bution. It appears to me that the call for more suffering than would accompany the moral method of treatment, proceeds to a great extent from the yet untamed barbarism of our own minds; just as it was the savageness of the hearts of our ancestors which led them to demand torture and burning, as elements in their administration of criminal justice. In proportion as the higher sentiments shall gain ascendency in society, severity will be less in demand, and its inutility will be more generally perceived. The Americans, in their penitentiaries, have set an admirable example to Europe in regard to criminal legislation. Their views still admit of improvement, but they have entered on the right path by which success is to be attained. Dr. UNDER THE NATURAL LAWS. 279 Caldwell, of Lexington, has offered them excellent coun- sel, which I hope they will appreciate and follow. Another objection is, that the views now advocated, even supposing them to be true, are Utopian, and cannot be carried into effect in the present condition of society. I deny the first branch of this objection; but admit the second to be well founded. No system of morals which is true, can be Utopian, meaning by this term, visionary and impracticable. But a true system may not be prac- ticable, on its first announcement, by a people who do not know one word of its principles, and whose guides sedu- lously divert their minds from studying it. Christianity itself has not yet been generally practised; but does any rational man on this account denounce it as Utopian and worthless? It would be folly to expect judges and juries to abandon the existing practice of criminal jurisprudence, and to adopt that which is here recommended, before they, and the society for whom they act, understand and approve of its principles; and no one who bears in mind by what slow and laborious efforts truth makes its way, and how long a period is necessary before it can develope itself in practice, will expect any new system to triumph in the age in which it was first promulgated. I have frequently repeated in this work, that, by the moral law, we cannot enjoy the full fruits, even of our own intelli- gence and virtue, until our neighbors shall have been rendered as wise and amiable as ourselves. No reason- able man, therefore, can expect to see the principles of this work, although true, generally diffused and adopted in society, until after the natural means of communicating a knowledge of them, and producing a general conviction of their truth and utility, shall have been perseveringly used, for a period sufficient to accomplish this end. In the meantime, the established practices of society must be supported, if not respected, and he is no friend to the real progress of mankind, who, the moment after he has sown his moral principles, would insist on gathering the fruit 280 MORAL ADVANTAGES OF PUNISHMENT. before he has allowed summer and autumn to bring the produce to maturity. The rational philanthropist will zealously teach his principles, and introduce them into practice as favorable opportunities occur, not doubting but that he will thereby sooner accomplish his object, than by making premature attempts at realizing them, which must inevitably end in disappointment.* SECTION II. MORAL ADVANTAGES OF PUNISHMENT. After the intellect and moral sentiments have been brought to recognise the principles of the divine adminis- tration, so much wisdom, benevolence, and justice, are discernible in the natural laws, that our whole nature is ameliorated in undergoing the punishments annexed to them. Punishment endured by one individual also serves to warn others against transgression. These facts afford another proof that a grand object of the arrangements of creation is the improvement of the moral and intellectual nature of man. So strikingly conspicuous, indeed, is the ameliorating influence of suffering, that many persons have supposed this to be the primary object for which it is sent; a notion which, with great deference, appears to me to be unfounded in principle, and dangerous in practice. If evils and misfortunes are mere mercies of Providence, it follows that a headache consequent on a debauch, is not intended to prevent repetition of drunkenness, so much as to prepare the debauchee for ' the invisible * The leading ideas of this chapter have been most ably and eloquently followed out by Dr. Gharles Caldwell of Lexington, Kentucky, in his ' New Views of Penitentiary Discipline and Moral Education, and Reformation of Criminals,' published at Philadelphia in 1829, and reprinted in the Phreno- logical Journal, vol. viii. pp. 385, 493. Mr. Simpson also has treated the subject with great ability in the Phrenological Journal, vol. ix. p. 481, and in the appendix to his work on the ' Necessity of Popular Education,'— a work in which he has expounded apd applied the principles of the present essay with much acuteness and felicity of illustration. MORAL ADVANTAGES OF PUNISHMENT. 281 world;' and that shipwreck in a crazy vessel is not design- ed to render the merchant more cautious, but to lead him to heaven. It is however undeniable, that in innumerable instances pain and sorrow are the direct consequences of our own misconduct; at the same time it is obviously benevolent in the Deity to render them beneficial directly, as a warning against future transgression, and indirectly, as a means of purifying the mind. Nevertheless, if we shall imagine that in some instances it is dispensed as a direct punish- ment for particular transgressions, and in others, only on account of sin in general, and with the view of ameliorat- ing the spirit, of the sufferer, we shall ascribe inconsisten- cy to the Creator, and expose ourselves to the danger of attributing our own afflictions to his favor, and tliose of others to his wrath; thus fostering in our. minds self-con7 ceit and uncharitableness. Individuals who entertain the belief that bad health, worldly ruin, and sinister accidents, befalling them, are not punishments for infringement of the laws of nature, but particular manifestations of the love of the Creator towards themselves, make slight inqui- ry into the natural causes of their miseries, and bestow few efforts to remove them. In consequence, the chas- tisements endured by them, neither correct their own con- duct, nor deter others from committing similar transgres- sions. Some religious sects, who espouse these notions, literally act upon them, and refuse to inoculate with the cow-pox to escape contagion, or take other means of avoiding natural calamities. Regarding these as dispen- sations of Providence, sent to prepare them for a future world, they conceive that the more of them that befall them the better. Further, these ideas, besides being repugnant to the common sense of mankind, are at vari- ance with the principle that the world is arranged so as to favor virtue and discountenance vice; because favoring virtue means obviously that the favored virtuous will posi- tively enjoy more happiness, and, negatively, suffer fewer 24* 282 MORAL ADVANTAGES OF PUNISHMENT. misfortunes than the vicious. The view, then, now advo- cated, appears less exceptionable, viz. that punishment serves a double purpose—directly to warn us against transgression, and indirectly, when rightly apprehended, to subdue our lower propensities, and purify and vivify our moral and intellectual powers. Bishop Butler coincides in this interpretation of natural calamities. 'Now,' says he, 'in the present state, all which we enjoy, and a great part of what we suffer, is put in our power* For pleasure and pain are the conse- quences of our actions; and we are endued by the Author of our nature with capacities of foreseeing these consequen- ces.' ' I know not that we have any one kind or degree of enjoyment, but by the means of our own actions. And, by prudence and care, we may, for the most part, pass our days in tolerable ease and quiet; or, on the contrary, we may, by rashness, ungoverned passion, wilfulness, or even by negligence, make ourselves as miserable as ever we please. And many do please to make themselves extremely mise- rable; i. e. they do what they know beforehand will render them so. They follow those ways, the fruit of which they know, by instruction, example, experience, will be disgrace, and poverty, and sickness, and untimely death. This every one observes to be the general course of things; though it is to be allowed, we cannot find by experience, that all our sufferings are owing to our own follies.' Ana- logy, P- 40. In accordance with this last remark, I have treated of hereditary diseases; and evils resulting from convulsions of physical nature may be added to the same class. It has been objected that physical punishments, such as the breaking of an arm by a fall, are often so dispro- portionately severe, that the Creator must have had some other and more important object in view in appointing them, than for them to serve as mere motives to physical * These words are printed in Italics in the original. MORAL ADVANTAGES OF PUNISHMENT 283 observance; and that that object must be to influence the mind of the sufferer, and draw his attention to concerns of higher import. In answer, I remark, that the human'Sjody is liable to destruction by severe injuries; and that the degree of suf- fering, in general, bears a just proportion to the danger connected with the transgression. Thus, a slight surfeit is attended only with headache or general uneasiness, be- cause it does not endanger life; a fall on any muscular part of the body is followed either with no pain, or only a slight indisposition, for the reason that it is not seriously injurious to life; but when a leg or arm is broken, the pain is intensely severe, because the bones of these limbs stand high in the scale of utility to man. The human body is so framed that it may fall nine times and suffer little damage, but the tenth time a limb may be broken, which will entail a painful chastisement. By this arrangement the mind is kept alive to danger to such an extent as to ensure general safety, while at the same time it is not overwhelmed with terror by punishments too severe and too frequently repeated. In particular states of the body, a slight wound may be followed by inflammation and death; but these are not the results simply of the wound, but the consequences of a previous derangement of health, occa- sioned by departures from the organic laws. On the whole, therefore, no adequate reason appears for regarding the consequences of physical accidents in any other light than as direct punishments for infringement of the natural laws, and indirectly as a means of accomplish- ing moral and religious improvement. In the preceding chapters we have obtained glimpses of some of the sanctions of the moral law, which may be briefly recapitulated. If we obey it, we enjoy, in the first place, the highest gratifications of which our nature is susceptible, in habitual and sustained activity of our no- blest faculties. Secondly, We become objects of esteem 284 MORAL ADVANTAGES OF PUNISHMENT. and affection to our fellow men, and enjoy exalted social pleasure. Thirdly, Whatever we undertake, being pro- jected in harmony with the course of nature, will prosper. Fourthly, by observing the moral law we shall place our- selves in the most favorable condition for obeying the organic law, and then enjoy health of body and buoyancy of mind. Fifthly, By obeying the moral, intellectual, and organic laws, we shall place ourselves in the best condi- tion for observing the physical laws, and thereby reap countless benefits conferred by them. We need just to reverse the picture, to perceive, on the other hand, the penalties by which the Creator punishes infringements of the moral law. There is denial of that elevated, refined, and steady enjoyment which springs from the supreme activity of the moral sentiments and intellect, and from the perception of the harmony between them and the institutions of creation. By infringing the moral law we become objects of dislike and aversion to our fellow men; and this carries denial of gratification to many of our social faculties. Whatever we undertake in opposition to the moral law, being an enterprise against the course of nature, cannot succeed; and its fruits must therefore be disappointment and vexation. Inattention to the moral and intellectual law incapacitates us for obedi- ence to the organic and physical laws; and sickness, pain and poverty overtake us. The whole scheme of creation, then, appears constituted for the purpose of enforcing obedience to the moral law;—virtue, religion and hap- piness, seem to be founded in the inherent constitution of the human faculties, and in the adaptation of the exter- nal world to them; and not to depend on the fancies, the desires, or the mere will of man. ( 285 ) CHAPTER VII. ON THE COMBINED OPERATION OF THE NATURAL LAWS. Having now unfolded several of the natural laws, and their effects, and having also attempted to show that each is inflexible and independent in itself, and requires abso- lute obedience, (so that a man who shall neglect the phy- sical law will suffer the physical punishment, although he may be very attentive to the moral law; that one who in- fringes the organic law will suffer organic punishment, although he may obey the physical law; and that a person who violates the moral law will suffer the moral punish- ment, although he should observe the other two;) I pro- ceed to show the mutual relationship among these laws, and to adduce some instances of their joint operation. The defective administration of justice is a fertile source of human suffering in all countries; yet it is surprising how rude are the arrangements which are still in use, even in a free and enlightened country, for accomplishing this important end. A Scotch Jury in a civil cause, even in Edinburgh, now frequently presents the following particulars for observa- vation. It consists of twelve men, eight or ten of whom are collected from the country, within a distance of twenty or thirty miles to the west, south, and east of the capital. These individuals hold the plough, wield the hammer or hatchet, or carry on some other useful and respectable but laborious occupation, for six days in the week. Their muscular systems are in constant exercise, and their brains are rarely called on for any great exer- tion. They are not accustomed to read, beyond the Bible 286 ON THE COMBINED OPERATION and a weekly newspaper; they are still less prepared to think; and in general they live much in the open air. In this condition, they are placed in the jury-box at ten o'clock in the morning, after having travelled probably from seven to twenty-five miles to reach the court: coun- sel address long speeches to them; numerous witnesses are examined; and the cause is branched out into compli- cated details of fact, and wire-drawn distinctions in argu- ment. The court is a small apartment, ill ventilated, and in consequence is generally crowded and over-heated. Without being allowed to take air, exercise, or food, they are confined to their seats till eight or ten in the evening, when they retire to return a verdict, by which they may dispose of* thousands of pounds, and in which by law they must be unanimous. There is here a tissue of errors which could not exist for a day, if the natural laws were generally understood: First, The physical habits of such jurors render their brains inactive, and their intellects in consequence incapa- ble of attending to, and comprehending, complicated cases of fact and argument. Secondly, Their memories cannot retain the facts, while their skill in penmanship and litera- ture is not sufficient to enable them to take notes; and their reflecting faculties are not capable of generalizing. Their education and daily pursuits, therefore, do not fur- nish them with principles of thinking, and power of mental action, sufficient to enable them to unravel the web of in- tricacies presented to their understandings. Thirdly, Pro- tracted confinement in a close apartment, amidst vitiated air, operates injuriously on the most vivacious tempera- ments:—On such men it has a tenfold effect in lowering the action of the brain, and inducing mental incapacity, because it is diametrically opposed to their usual condition. Add to these considerations, that occasionally a jury trial lasts two, three, or even four days, each of which presents a repetition of the circumstances here described; and then the reader may judge whether such jurors are the OF THE NATURAL LAWS 287 fittest instruments, and in the best condition, for disposing of the fortunes of a people who boast of their love of justice, and their admirable institutions for obtaining it. The influence of the physical condition of a human being on his mental capacity seems never to have entered the imaginations of our legislators as a matter of impor- tance in the administration of justice. In the Circuit Courts of Scotland, the judges frequently sit for several days in succession in a crowded apartment, intently en- gaged in business, from ten o'clock in the morning till eight, ten, or twelve at night, without any proper inter- mission or exercise. They go to their hotel at these late hours, dine, take wine, go to bed, and next morning re- sume their seats on the bench. Now, by the laws of their nature, which never cease to operate, the effect of this conduct is to impair the vigor of the moral and intellectual organs, and by constraint, want of exercise, and obstruc- tion of the bodily functions, to irritate and exalt the activ- ity of the animal organs; so that at the close of a circuit, the most excellent individual is physically deteriorated, and mentally incapacitated for the distribution of justice, compared with himself when he began his labors. It is accordingly matter of observation, that in proportion as a long and heavy session in circuit advances, irritability, impatience, and intellectual obscuration proceed pari passu. The accused, therefore, who go to trial first, have a far higher chance of obtaining justice, than those who appear last on the roll. In these instances we observe infringements of the organic and moral laws, and the combined result is, the maladministration of justice, of which the country so loudly complains. The proper remedies will be found in educat- ing more effectually the people, in training them to the exercise of their mental faculties, and in observing the organic laws in the structure of court-rooms, and in the proceedings that take place within them. Another example of the combined operation of the na- 288 ON THE COMBINED OPERATION tural laws is afforded by the great fires which occurred in Edinburgh in November 1824, when the Parliament Square and a part of the High Street were consumed. That calamity may be viewed in the following light:— The Creator constituted England and Scotland, with such qualities, and placed them in such relationship, that the individuals of both kingdoms would be most happy in acting towards each other, and pursuing their separate vocations, under the supremacy of the moral sentiments. We have lived to see this practised, and to reap the re- wards of it. But the ancestors of the two nations did not believe in this constitution of the world, and they preferred acting on the principles of the propensities; that is to say, they waged furious wars, and committed wasting devastations on each other's properties and lives. It is obvious from history, that the two nations were equally ferocious, and delighted reciprocally in each other's calamities. This was clearly a violent infringe- ment of the moral law; and one effect of it was to render personal safety an object of paramount importance. The hill on which the Old Town of Edinburgh is built, was naturally surrounded by marshes, and presented a perpen- dicular front to the west, capable of being crowned with a castle. It was appropriated with avidity, and the metro- polis of Scotland was founded there, obviously and unde- niably under the inspiration purely of the animal faculties It was fenced round, and ramparts built to exclude the fierce warriors who then inhabited the country lying south of the Tweed, and also to protect the inhabitants from the feudal banditti who infested their own soil. The space within the walls, however, was limited and narrow; the attractions to the spot were numerous; and to make the most of it, our ancestors erected the enormous masses of high, confused, and crowded buildings which now com- pose the High Street of this city, and the wynds, or alleys, on its two sides. These abodes, moreover, were con- structed, to a great extent, of timber; for not only the OF THE NATURAL LAWS. 289 joists and floors, but the partitions between the rooms, were made of massive wood. Our ancestors did all this in the perfect knowledge of the physical law, that wood ignited by fire not only is consumed itself, but envelopes in inevitable destruction every combustible object with- in its influence. Farther, their successors, even when necessity had ceased, persevered in the original error* and, in the perfect knowledge that every year added to the age of such fabrics increased their liability to burn, they not only allowed them to be occupied as shops filled with paper, spirits, and other highly combustible materials, but let off the upper floors for brothels, introducing there- by into the heart of this magazine of conflagration, the most reckless and immoral of mankind. The consum- mation was the two tremendous fires of November 1824, the one originating in a whiskey-cellar, and the other in a garret-brothel, which consumed the whole Parliament Square and a part of the High Street, destroying property to the extent of many thousands of pounds, and spreading misery and ruin over a considerable part of the population of Edinburgh. Wonder, consternation, and awe, were forcibly excited at the vastness of this calamity; and in the sermons that were preached, and the dissertations that were written upon it, much was said of the inscrutable ways of Providence, that sent such visitations on the people, enveloping the innocent and the guilty in one com- mon sweep of destruction. According to the exposition of the ways of Providence which I have ventured to give, there was nothing won- derful, nothing vengeful, nothing arbitrary, in the whole occurrence. The surprising thing was, that it did not take place generations before. The necessity for these fabrics originated in gross violation of the moral law; they were constructed in high contempt of the physical law; and, latterly, the moral law was set at defiance, by placing in them inhabitants abandoned to the worst habits of reck- lessness and intoxication. The Creator had bestowed on 25 290 ON THE COMBINED OPERATION men faculties to perceive all this, and to avoid it, when- ever they chose to exert them; and the destruction that ensued was the punishment of following the propensities, in preference to the dictates of intellect and morality. The object of the destruction, as a natural event, was to lead men to avoid repetition of the offences: but the prin- ciples of the divine government are not yet comprehended; —Acquisitiveness whispers that more money may be made of houses consisting of five or six floors, under one roof, than of only two; and erections, the very counterparts of the former, have since reared their heads on the spot where the others stood, and, sooner or later, they also will be overtaken by the natural laws, which never slumber or sleep. The true method of arriving at a sound view of cala- mities of every kind, is to direct our attention, in the first instance, to the law of nature, from the operation of which they have originated; then to find out the uses and advan- tages of that law, when observed; and to discover whether the evils under consideration have arisen from violation of it. In the present instance, we ought never to lose sight of the fact, that the houses in question stood erect, and the furniture in safety, by the very same law of gravi- tation which made them topple to the foundation when it was infringed; that mankind enjoy all the benefits which result from the combustibility of timber as fuel, by the very same law which renders it a devouring element, when unduly ignited; that, by the same moral law, which, when infringed, leads to the necessity of ramparts, fortifications, crowded lanes, and extravagantly high houses, we enjoy, now that we observe it better, that security of property and life which distinguishes modern Scotland from ancient Caledonia. This instance affords a striking illustration of the man- ner in which the physical and organic laws are constituted in harmony with, and in subserviency to, the moral law. We see clearly that the leading cause of the construction OF THE NATURAL LAWS. 291 of such erections as the houses in the Old Town of Edin- burgh (with the deprivation of free air, and liability to combustion that attend them), arose from the excessive predominance of Combativeness, Destructiveness, Self- Esteem, and Acquisitiveness, in our ancestors; and although the ancient personages who erected these monu- ments of animal supremacy, had no conception that, in doing so, they were laying the foundations of a severe punishment on themselves and their posterity,—yet, when we compare the comforts and advantages that would have accompanied dwellings constructed under the inspiration of Benevolence, Ideality, and enlightened Intellect, with the contaminating, debasing, and dangerous effects of their workmanship, we perceive most clearly that our an- cestors actually were the instruments of chastising their own transgressions, and of transmitting that chastisement to their posterity so long as the animal supremacy shall be prolonged. Another example may be given. Men, by uniting under one leader, may, in virtue of the social law, acquire prodigious advantages to themselves, which singly they could not obtain; and I stated, that the condition under which the benefits of that law were per- mitted, was, that the leader should know and obey the natural laws that were conducive to success; that if he neglected these, then the same principle which gave the social body the benefit of his observing them, involved them in the punishment of his infringement; and that this was just, because, under the natural law, the leader must necessarily be chosen by the social body, and they were responsible for not attending to his natural qualities. Some illustrations of the consequences of neglect of this law may be stated, in which the mixed operation of the physical and moral laws will appear. During the French war, a squadron of English men-of- war was sent to the Baltic with military stores, and, in re- turning home up the North Sea, they were beset, for two or three days, by a thick fog. It was about the middle of 292 ON THE COMBINED OPERATION December, and no correct information was possessed of their exact situation. Some of the commanders proposed lying-to all night, and proceeding only during day, to avoid running ashore unawares. The commodore was exceedingly attached to his wife and family, and stated his determination to pass Christmas with them in England, if possible, and ordered the ships to sail straight on their voyage. The very same night they all struck on a sand- bank off the coast of Holland; two ships of the line were dashed to pieces, and every soul on board perished. The third ship drew less water, was forced over the bank by the waves and stranded on the beach; the crew was saved, but led to a captivity of many years' duration. Now, these vessels were destroyed under the physical laws; but this calamity owed its origin to the predominance of the ani- mal over the moral and intellectual faculties in the com- modore. The gratification which he sought to obtain was individual and selfish; and, if his Benevolence, Venera- tion, Conscientiousness, and Intellect, had been as alert, and carried as forcibly home to his mind the operation of the physical laws, and the \\relfare of the men under his charge; nay, if these faculties had been sufficiently alive to see the danger to which he exposed his own life, and the happiness of his own wife and children,—he never could have followed the precipitate course which consign- ed himself, and so many brave men, to a watery grave, within a few hours after his resolution was formed. Very lately the Ogle Castle East Indiaman was offered a pilot coming up the Channel, but the captain refused assistance, professing his own skill to be sufficient. In a few hours the ship ran aground on a sand-bank, and every human being on board perished in the waves. This also arose from the physical laws, but the unfavorable opera- tion of it sprung from Self-Esteem, pretending to know- ledge which the intellect did not possess; and, as it is only by the latter that obedience can be yielded to the physi- cal laws, the destruction of the ship was indirectly the ON THE NATURAL LAWS. 293 consequence of infringement of the moral and intellectual laws. An old sailor, whom I lately met on the Queensferry passage, told me, that he had been nearly fifty years at sea, and once was in a fifty-gun ship in the West Indies. The captain, he said, was a ' fine man;' he knew the cli- mate, and foresaw a hurricane coming, by its natural signs; and, on one occasion, in particular, he struck the top- masts, lowered the yards, lashed the guns, and made each man supply himself with food for thirty-six hours; and scarcely was this done when the hurricane came. The ship lay for four hours on her beam ends in the water, but all was prepared; the men were kept in vigor during the storm, and, fit for every exertion; the ship at last righted, suffered little damage, and proceeded on her voy- age. The fleet which she convoyed was dispersed, and a great number of the ships foundered. Here we see the supremacy of the moral and intellectual faculties, and discover to what a surprising extent they present a guar- antee, even against the fury of the physical elements in their highest state of agitation. A striking illustration of the kind of protection afforded by high moral and intellectual qualities, even amidst the most desperate physical circumstances, is furnished by the following letter written by the late Admiral Lord Exmouth to a friend. ' Why do you ask me to relate the wreck of the Dutton?' says his Lordship. ' Susan (Lady Exmouth) and I were driving to a dinner party at Plymouth, when we saw crowds running to the Hoe, and learning it was a wreck, I left the carriage to take her on, and joined the crowd. I saw the loss of the whole five or six hundred men was inevitable without somebody to direct them, for the last officer was pulled on shore as I reached the surf. I urged their return, which was refused; upon which I made the rope fast to myself, and was hauled through the surf on board,—established order, and did not leave her until every soul was saved but the boatswain, who would 25* 294 ON THE COMBINED OPERATION not go before me. I got safe, and so did he, and the ship went all to pieces.' Indeed there is reason to believe that the human intel- lect will, in time, be able, by means of science and obser- vation, to arrive at a correct anticipation of approaching storms, and thus obtain protection against their effects. 1 The New Zealanders, it is said, by the accuracy of their observations, predict the changes of the weather with ex- traordinary skill. One evening when Captain Cruise and some of his friends were returning from a long excursion up one of the rivers, although the sky was at the time without a cloud, a native, who sat in the boat with them, remarked, that there would be heavy rain the next day; a prediction which they were the more inclined to believe by finding, when they returned on board the ship, that the barometer had fallen very much, and which the deluge of the fol owing morning completely confirmed.'* The utility of the marine barometer, or the sympie- someter, in indicating approaching storms, is strikingly illustrated by the following extract from the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal. ' The correspondent (Mr. Stevenson, civil engineer) to whom we are indebted for the notice regarding the Scotch fisheries, inserted in this number (p. 129), informs us, that having occasion, towards the conclusion of his voyage, in the beginning of September last, to visit the Isle of aMan, he beheld the interesting spectacle of about three hundred large fishing boats, each from fifteen to twenty tons' bur- den, leaving their various harbors at that island in an ap- parently fine afternoon, and standing directly out to sea, with the intention of prosecuting the fishery under night. He at the same time remarked, that both the common marine barometer, and Adie's sympiesometer, which were in the cabin of his vessel, indicated an approaching change of weather, the mercury falling to 29.5 inches * Library of Entertaining Knowledge; the New Zeala.% lers, p. 381. OF THE NATURAL LAWS. 295 It became painful, therefore, to witness the scene; more than a thousand industrious fishermen, lulled to security by the fineness of the day, scattering their little barks over the face of the ocean, and thus rushing forward to imminent danger, or probable destruction. At sunset, accordingly, the sky became cloudy and threatening; and in the course of the night it blew a very hard gale, which afterwards continued for three days successively. This gale completely dispersed the fleets of boats, and it was not without the utmost difficulty that many of them reach- ed the various creeks of the island. It is believed no lives were lost on this occasion; but the boats were dam- aged, much tackle was destroyed, and the men were un- necessarily exposed to danger and fatigue. During the same storm, it may be remarked, thirteen vessels were either totally lost or stranded between the Isle of Anglesey and St. Bee's Head in Lancashire. Mr. Stevenson re- marks how much it is to be regretted that the barometer is so little in use in the mercantile marine of Great Britain, compared with the trading vessels of Holland; and ob- serves, that though the common marine barometer is per- haps too cumbersome for the ordinary run of fishing and coasting vessels, yet Adie's sympiesometer is so extreme- ly portable, that it may be carried even in a Manx boat. Each lot of such vessels has a commodore, under whose orders the fleet sails: it would therefore be a most desira- ble thing that a sympiesometer should be attached to each commodore's boat, from which a preconcerted signal of an expected gale or change of weather, as indicated by the sympiesometer, could easily be given.'—Edin. Phil. Journ. ii. 196. See also Dr. Neil Arnot's Elements of Physics, vol. i. p. 350. One of the most instructive illustrations of the connec- tion between the different natural laws is presented in Captain Lyon's Brief Narrative of an unsuccessful at- tempt to reach Repulse Bay, in his Majesty's ship Griper, in the year 1824. 296 ON THE COMBINED OPERATION Captain Lyon mentions, that he sailed in the Griper on 13th June 1821, in company with his Majesty's sur- veying vessel Snap, as a store-tender. The Griper was 180 tons burden, and ' drew 16 feet 1 inch abaft, and 15 feet 10 inches forward.'—On the 26th, he 'was sorry to observe that the Griper, from her great depth and sharp- ness forward, pitched very deeply.'—She sailed so ill, that, ' in a stiff breeze, and with studding-sails set, he was unable to get above four knots an hour out of her, and she was twice whirled round in an eddy in the Pentland Frith, from which she could not escape.'—On the 3d July, he says, ' being now fairly at sea, I caused the Snap to take us in tow, which I had declined doing as we passed up the east coast of England, although our little companion had much difficulty in keeping under sufficiently low sail for us, and by noon we had passed the Stack Back.' 'The Snap was of the greatest assistance, the Griper frequently towing at the rate of five knots, in cases where she would have not gone three.'—' On the forenoon of the 16th, the Snap came and took us in tow; but, at noon on the 17th, strong breezes and a heavy swell obliged us again to cast off. We scudded while able, but our depth in the water caused us to ship so many heavy seas, that I most reluctantly brought to under storm stay-sails. This was rendered exceedingly mortifying, by observing that our companion was perfectly dry, and not affected by the sea.'—'When our stores were all on board, we found our narrow decks completely crowded by them. The gang- ways, forecastle, and abaft the mizzen-mast, were filled with casks, hawsers, whale-lines, and stream-cables, while on our straitened lower decks we were obliged to place casks and other stores, in every part but that allotted to the ship's company's mess-tables; and even my cabin had a quantity of things stowed away in it.'—' It may be pro- per to mention, that the Fury and Hecla, which were enabled to stow three years' provisions, were each exactly double the size of the Griper, and the Griper carried two years' and a half's provisions.' OF THE NATURAL LAWS. 297 Arrived in the Polar Seas, they were visited by a storm, of which Captain Lyon gives the following description:— ' We soon, however, came to fifteen fathoms, and I kept right away, but had then only ten; when, being unable to see far around us, and observing, from the whiteness of the water, that we were on a bank, I rounded to at 7 a. m,. and tried to bring up with the starboard-anchor and seven- ty fathoms chain, but the stiff breeze and heavy sea caused this to part in half an hour, and we again made sail to the north-eastward; but, finding we came suddenly to seven fathoms, and that the ship could not possibly work out again, as she would not face the sea, or keep steerage- way on her, I most reluctantly brought her up with three bowers and a stream in succession, yet not before we had shoaled to five and a-half. This was between 8 and 9 a. m., the ship pitching bows under, and a tremendous sea running. At noon, the starboard-bower anchor parted, but the others held. ' As there was every reason to fear the falling of the tide, which we knew to be from twelve to fifteen feet on this coast, and in that case the total destruction of the ship, I caused the long-boat to be hoisted out, and, with the four smaller ones, to be stored to a certain extent with arms and provisions. The officers drew lots for their respective boats, and the ship's company were stationed to them. The long-boat having been filled full of stores which could not be put below, it became requisite to throw them overboard, as there was no room for them on our very small and crowded decks, over which heavy seas were con- stantly sweeping. In making these preparations for taking to the boats, it was evident to all, that the long-boat was the only one that had the slightest chance of living under the lee of the ship, should she be wrecked; but every man and officer drew his lot with the greatest composure, though two of our boats would have swamped the instant they were lowered. Yet, such was the noble feeling of those around me, that it was evident, that, had I ordered 298 ON THE COMBINED OPERATION the boats in question to be manned, their crews would have entered them without a murmur. In the afternoon, on the weather clearing a little, we discovered a low beach all around astern of us, on which the surf was running to an awful height, and it appeared evident that no human power could save us. At 3 r. M., the tide had fallen to twenty-two feet, (only six more than we drew,) and the ship, having been lifted by a tremendous sea, struck tvilh great violence the length of her keel. This we naturally conceived was the forerunner of her total wreck, and we stood in readiness to take the boats, and endeavor to hang under her lee. She continued to strike with sufficient force to have burst any less fortified vessel, at intervals of a few minutes whenever an unusually heavy sea passed us. And, as the water was so shallow, these might be called breakers rather than waves, for each in passing burst with great force over our gangways, and, as every sea ' top- ped,' our decks were continually, and frequently deeply, flooded. All hands took a little refreshment, for some had scarcely been below for twenty-four hours, and I had not been in bed for three nights. Although few or none of us had any idea that we should survive the gale, we did riot think that our comforts should be entirely neglected, and an order was therefore given to the men to put on their best and warmest clothing, to enable them to support life as long as possible. Every man, therefore, brought his bag on deck, and dressed himself; and in the fine athletic forms which stood before me, I did not see one muscle quiver, nor the slightest sign of alarm. The officers each secured some useful instrument about them, for the purpose of observation, although it was acknowledged by all that not the slightest hope remained. And now that every thing in our power had been done, I called all hands aft, and to a merciful God offered prayers for our preser- vation. I thanked every one for his excellent conduct, and cautioned them, as we should, in all probability, soon appear before our Maker, to enter his presence as men OF THE NATURAL LAWS. 299 resigned to their fate. We then all sat down in groups, and, sheltered from the wash of the sea by whatever we could find, many of us endeavored to obtain a little sleep. Never, perhaps, was witnessed a finer scene than on the deck of my little ship, when all the hope of life had left us. Noble as the character of the British sailor is always allowed to be in cases of danger, yet I did not believe it to be possible, that, amongst forty-one persons, not one repining word should have been uttered. The officers sat about, wherever they could find a shelter from the sea, and the men lay down conversing with each other with the most perfect calmness. Each was at peace with his neighbor and all the world, and I am firmly persuaded that the resignation which was then shown to the will of the Almighty, was the means of obtaining his mercy. At about 6 p. m., the rudder, which had already received some very heavy blows, rose, and broke up the after-lock- ers, and this was the last severe shock that the ship receiv- ed. We found by the well that she made no water, and by dark she struck no more. God was merciful to us, and the tide, almost miraculously, fell no lower. At dark heavy rain fell, but was borne in patience, for it beat down the gale, and brought with it a light air from the north- ward. At 9 p. m. the water had deepened to five fathoms. The ship kept off the ground all night, and our exhausted crew obtained some broken rest.':—P. 76. In humble gratitude for his deliverance, he called the place, ' The Bay of God's mercy,' and ' offered up thanks and praises to God, for the mercy he had shown to us.' On 12th September, they had another gale of wind, with cutting showers of sleet, and a heavy sea. ' At such a moment as this,' says Captain Lyon, ' we had fresh cause to deplore the extreme dulness of the Griper's sailing; for though almost any other vessel would have worked off this lea-shore, we made little or no progress on a ivind, but re- mained actually pitching, forecastle under, with scarcely steerage-way, to preserve which, I was ultimately obliged to keep her nearly two points off the wind.'—P. 98. 300 ON THE COMBINED OPERATION Another storm overtook them, which is described as follows:—' Never shall I forget the dreariness of this most anxious night. Our ship pitched at such a rate, that it was not possible to stand, even below; while on deck we were unable to move, without holding by ropes, which were stretched from side to side. The drift snow flew in such sharp heavy flakes, that we could not look to wind- ward, and it froze on deck to above a foot in depth. The sea made incessant breaches quite fore and aft the ship, and the temporary warmth it gave while it washed over us, was most painfully checked, by its almost immediately freezing on our clothes. To these discomforts were added the horrible uncertainty as to whether the cables would hold until daylight, and the conviction also, that if they failed us, we should instantly be dashed to pieces, the wind blowing directly to the quarter in which we knew the shore must lie. Again, should they continue to hold us, we feared, by the ship's complaining so much forward, that the bitts would be torn up, or that she would settle down at her anchors, overpowered by some of the tremen- dous seas which burst over her. At dawn on the 13th, thirty minutes after four a. m., we found that the best bower cable had parted; and, as the gale now blew with terrific violence from the north, there was little reason to expect that the other anchors would hold long; or, if they did, we pitched so deeply, and lifted so great a body of water each lime, that it was feared the windlass and forecastle would be torn up, or she must go down at her anchors: al- though the ports were knocked out, and a considerable portion of the bulwark cut away, she could scarcely dis- charge one sea before shipping another, and the decks were frequently flooded to an alarming depth. ' At six a. m. all farther doubts on this particular ac- count were at an end; for, having received two over- whelming seas, both the other cables went at the same moment, and we were left helpless, without anchors, or any means of saving ourselves, should the shore, as we OF THE NATURAL LAWS. 301 had every reason to expect, be close astern. And here, again, I had the happiness of witnessing the same general tranquillity as was shown on the 1st of September. There was no outcry that the cables were gone; but my friend Mr. Manico, with Mr. Carr the gunner, came aft as soon as they recovered their legs, and, in the lowest whisper, informed me that the cables had all parted. The ship, in trending to the wind, lay quite down on her broadside, and, as it then became evident that nothing held her, and that she was quite helpless, each man instinctively took his station; while the seamen at the leads, having secured themselves as well as was in their power, repeated their soundings, on which our preservation depended, with as much composure as if we had been entering a friendly port. Here, again, that Almighty power, which had before so mercifully preserved us, granted us his protection."— P. 100. Nothing can be more interesting and moving than this narrative; it displays a great predominance of the moral sentiments and intellect, but sadly unenlightened as to the natural laws. I have quoted, in Captain Lyon's own words, his description of the Griper, loaded to such excess that she drew 16 feet water; that she was incapable of sailing; that she was whirled round in an eddy in the Pent- land Frith; that seas broke over her which did not-wet the deck of the little Snap, not half her size. Captain Lyon knew all this, and also the roughness of the climate to which he was steering; and, with these outrages of the physical law staring him in the face, he proceeded on his voyage, without addressing, so far as we perceive, one remonstrance to the Lords of the Admiralty on the subject of this infringement of every principle of common pru- dence. My opinion is, that Captain Lyon was not blind to the errors committed in his equipment, or to their prob- able consequences; but that his powerful sentiment of Veneration, combined with Cautiousness and Love of Approbation (misdirected in this instance), deprived him 26 302 ON THE COMBINED OPERATION of courage to complain to the Admiralty, through fear of giving offence: or that, if he did complain, they have pre- vented him from stating the fact in his narrative. To the tempestuous north he sailed; and his greatest dangers were clearly referable to the very infringements of the physical laws which he describes. When the tide ebbed, his ship reached to within six feet of the bottom, and, in the hollow of every wave, struck with great violence: but she was loaded at least four feet too deeply, by his own account, so that, if he had done his own duty, she would have had four feet of additional water, or ten feet in all, between her and the bottom, even in the hollow of the wave,—a matter of the very last importance, in such a critical situation. Indeed, with four feet more water, she would not have struck. Besides, if less loaded, she would have struck less violently. Again, when pressed upon a lea shore, her incapability of sailing was a most obvious cause of danger: in short, if Providence is to be regarded as the cause of these calamities, there is no impropriety which man can commit, that may not, on the same princi- ples, be charged against the Creator. But the moral law again shines forth in delightful splen- dor, in the conduct of Captain Lyon and his crew, when in the most forlorn condition. Piety, resignation, asd manly resolution, then animated them to the noblest ef- forts. On the principle, that the power of accommodating our conduct to the natural laws, depends on the activity of the moral sentiments and intellect, and that the more numerous the faculties that are excited, the greater is the energy communicated to the whole system, I would say, that while Captain Lyon's sufferings were, in a great de- gree, brought on by his infringements of the physical laws, his escape was, in a great measure, promoted by his obe- dience to the moral law; and that Providence, in the whole occurrences, proceeded on the broad and general principle, which sends advantage uniformly as the reward of obe- dience, and evil as the punishment of infringement, of every particular law of creation. OF THE NATURAL LAWS. 303 That storms and tempests have been instituted for some benevolent end, may, perhaps, be acknowledged, when their causes and effects are fully known, which at present is not the case. But, even amidst all our ignorance of these, it is surprising how small a portion of evil they would occasion, if men obeyed the laws which are actually ascertained. How many ships perish from being sent to sea in an old worn out condition, and ill equipped, through mere Acquisitiveness; and how many more, from captains and crews being chosen who are greatly deficient in know- ledge, intelligence, and morality, in consequence of which they infringe the physical laws. The London Courier, of 29th April 1834, contained a list of ten British brigs of war, mostly employed as packet ships, which had founder- ed at sea within the preceding twelve years, owing to bad construction and bad condition; while, it remarked, that not one American private packet ship, out of the vast number constantly sailing between Liverpool and New York, is recollected to have perished in that manner. Such facts show in how small a degree nature is to blame for the calamities of shipwreck, and to how great an extent they arise from human negligence and folly. We ought to look to all these matters, before complaining of storms as natural institutions. The last example of the mixed operation of the natural laws which I shall notice, is that which followed from the mercantile distresses of 1825-6. I have traced the origin of that visitation to excessive activity of Acquisitiveness, and a general ascendency of the animal and selfish faculties over the moral and intellectual powers. The punishments of these offences were manifold. The excesses infringed the moral law, and the chastisement for this was depriva- tion of the tranquil steady enjoyment that flows only from the sentiments, with severe suffering in the ruin of fortune and blasting of hope. These disappointments produced mental anguish and depression; which occasioned unhealthy action in the brain. The action of the brain being dis- 304 OPERATION OF THE NATURAL LAWS. turbed, a morbid nervous influence was transmitted to the whole corporeal system; bodily disease was superadded to mental sorrow, and, in some instances, the unhappy suffer- ers committed suicide to escape from these aggravated evils. Under the organic law, the children produced in this period of mental depression, bodily distress, and or- ganic derangement, will inherit weak bodies, with feeble and irritable minds;—a hereditary chastisement of their fathers' transgressions. In the instances now given, we discover the various laws acting in perfect harmony, and in subordination to the moral and intellectual. If our ancestors had not forsaken the supremacy of the moral sentiments, such fabrics as the houses in the old town of Edinburgh never would have been built; and if the modern proprietors had returned to that law, and kept profligate and drunken inhabitants out of them, the conflagration might still have been avoided. In the case of the ships, we saw, that wherever intellect and sentiment had been relaxed, and animal motives per- mitted to assume the supremacy, evil had speedily follow- ed; and that where the higher powers were called forth, safety had been obtained. And, finally, in the case of the merchants and manufacturers, we traced their calamities directly to placing Acquisitiveness and Ambition above Intellect and Moral Sentiment. Formidable and appalling, then, as these punishments are, yet, when we attend to the laws under which they occur, and perceive that the object and legitimate opera- tion of every one of these laws, when observed, is to pro- duce happiness to man; and that the punishments have the sole object in view of forcing him back to this enjoyment, we cannot, under the supremacy of the moral sentiments and intellect, fail to bow in humility before them, as at once wise, just, and benevolent. ( 305 ) CHAPTER VIII. INFLUENCE OF THE NATURAL LAWS ON THE HAPPI- NESS OF INDIVIDUALS. A formidable objection has often been stated against the Natural Laws, namely, that although, when viewed abstractly, they appear beneficent and just, yet, when applied to individuals, they are undeniably the causes of extensive, severe, and unavoidable suffering; so that while, theoretically, the moral horizon appears to be cleared up, nevertheless, practically and substantially, the obscurity and intricacy remain undiminished. In answer, I have to observe, that, as the whole is just an aggregate of all the parts, if any natural institution, when viewed in its operation in regard to the race, is found to be just and beneficent, it cannot well be cruel and unjust to individuals, who are the component parts of that whole; and this, accordingly, I humbly conceive to admit of something approaching to demonstration. The form of dialogue is perhaps the best way of illustrating the subject, and if, in imitation of some of the classic fables, we suppose the suffering individuals to make an appeal to Jupiter, the law of gravitation may be thus exemplified. It happened in a remote period, that a slater slipped from the roof of a high building, in consequence of a stone of the ridge having given way as he walked upright along it; he fell to the ground, had a leg broken, and was otherwise severely bruised. As he lay in bed suffering severe pain from his misfortune, he addressed Jupiter in these words: ' O Jupiter, thou art a cruel god, for thou hast made me so frail and imperfect a being, that I had not 26* 306 influence of the natural laws faculties to perceive my danger, nor power to arrest my fall when its occurrence showed how horrible an evil awaited me. It were better for me that I had never been.' Jupiter, graciously bending his ear, heard the address, and answered: 'Of what law of mine dost thou complain?' 'Of the law of gravitation,' replied the slater; 'by its operation, the slight slip which my foot made upon the stone, which, quite unknown to me, was loose, precipitated me to the earth, and crushed my organized frame, never calculated to resist such violence.' 'I restore thee to thy station on the roof,' said Jupiter, ' heal all thy bruises, and, to convince thee of my benevolence, I suspend the law of gravitation as to thy body and all that is related to it; art thou now content?' The slater, in deep emotion, offered up gratitude and thanks, and expressed the profoundest reverence for so just and beneficent a deity. In the very act of doing so, he found himself in perfect health, erect upon the ridge of the roof, and, rejoicing, gazed around. His wonder, at so strange an event, having at last abated, he endeavored to walk along the ridge to arrive at the spot which he in- tended to repair: But the law of gravitation was suspended; and his body did not press upon the roof. There being no pressure, there was no resistance, and his legs moved backwards and forwards in the air without his body 1 • i making progress in space. Alarmed at this occurrence, he stooped, seized his trowel, lifted it full of mortar, and made the motion of throwing it on the slates; but the mortar, freed from the trowel, hung in mid air; the law of gravitation was suspended as to it also. Nearly frantic with terror at such unexpected novelties of existence, he endeavored to descend to seek relief; but the law of grav- itation was suspended as to his body, and it hung poised at the level of the ridge, like a balloon in the air. He tried to fling himself headlong down, to get rid of the uneasy sensation, but his body floated erect, and would not move downwards. ON THE HAPPINESS OF INDIVIDUALS. 307 In an agony of consternation, he called once more upon Jupiter. He, ever kind and compassionate, heard his cry and pitied his distress, and asked, ' What evil hath be- fallen thee now, that thou art not yet co"htent; have I not suspended, at thy request, the law which made thee fall? Now thou art safe from bruises and from broken limbs; why, then, dost thou still complain?' The slater answered, ' In deep humiliation, I acknow- ledge my ignorance and presumption; restore me to my couch of pain, but give me back the benefits of thy law of gravitation.' 'Thy wish is granted,' said Jupiter in reply. The slater in a moment lay on his bed of sickness, endured the visitation of the organic law, was restored to health, and again mounted to the roof that caused his recent pain. He thanked Jupiter anew from the depths of his soul, for the law of gravitation, with its countless benefits; and ap- plied his faculties to study and obey it during the remain- der of his life. This study opened up to him new and wonderful perceptions of the Creator's beneficence and wisdom, of which he had never even dreamed before; these views so excited and gratified his moral and intellec- tual powers, that he seemed to himself to have entered on a new existence. Ever after he observed the law of gravitation, and, in a good old age, when his organic frame was fairly worn out by natural decay, he transmitted his trade, his house, and much experience and wisdom, to his son, and died thanking and blessing Jupiter for hav- ing opened his eyes to the true theory of his scheme of creation. The attention of Jupiter was next attracted, by the loud groans and severe complaints of a husbandman, who ad- dressed him thus: ' O Jupiter, I lie here racked with pain, and pass the hours in agony without relief. Why hast thou created me so miserable a being?' Jupiter answered, ' What aileth thee, and of what institution of mine dost thou complain?' The husbandman replied, 'The earth which 308 INFLUENCE OF THE NATURAL LAWS thou hast made will yield me no food, unless I till and sow it; and no increase, except it be watered by thy rain. While I guided my plough in obedience to thy law, thy rain came, and it fell not only on the earth, but on me; it penetrated through the clothes which I had been obliged to make for myself, because thou hadst left me naked; it cooled my skin, which thou hadst rendered delicate and sensible; it disordered all the functions of my organized frame, and now rheumatic fever parches my blood, and agonizes every muscle. O Jupiter, thou art not a kind father to thy children.' Jupiter heard the complaint, and graciously replied, ' My physical and organic laws were established for thy advantage and enjoyment, and thou hast grievously in- fringed them; the pain thou sufferest is intended to reclaim thee to thy duty, and I have constituted thy duty the high- est joy of thy existence; but say, what dost thou desire?' The husbandman answered, ' What, O Jupiter, signify the purposes of thy laws to me, when thou hast denied me faculties to discover and obey them?—Frail and fallible as I am, they cause me only pain; deliver me from their effects, and I ask no other boon?' 'Thy prayer is granted,' said Jupiter; ' I restore thee to perfect health, and, for thy gratification, I suspend the laws that have offended thee. Henceforth water shall not wet thee or thine, thy skin shall feel cold no more, and thy muscles shall never ache. Art thou now contented?' ' Most gracious Jupiter,' said the husbandman, * my soul is melted with deepest gratitude, and I now adore thee as supremely good.' While he spoke he found himself afield behind his team, healthful and vigorous, jocund and gay, and again blessed Jupiter for his merciful dispensation. The season was spring, when yet the chill blast of the north, the bright blaze of a powerful sun, and rain, interchange in quick and varying succession. He drove his plough along, the rain descended, but it wet not him; the sharp winds ON THE HAPPINESS OF INDIVIDUALS. 309 blew, but they chilled no fibre in his frame; the flood of heat next poured upon his brow, but no sweat started from its pores; the physical and organic laws were suspended as to him. Rejoicing in his freedom from annoyance and pain, he returned gladly home to meet his smiling family, after the labors of the day. It had been his custom in the evening to put off the garments in which during day he had toiled, to clothe himself in linen fresh from the fold; to sup on milk prepared by his wife, with savory fruits and spices; and to press his children to his bosom with all the fervor of a parent's love: and he used to feel a thrill of pleasure pervading every nerve, as they acknowledged and returned the affectionate embrace. He looked to find the linen clean, cool, delicately dressed, and lying in its accustomed place; but it was not there. He called to his wife to fetch it, half chiding her for neglect. With wonder and dismay depicted in every feature, she narrated a strange adventure. With the morning sun she had risen to accomplish her wonted duty, but, although the water wetted every thread that clothed other individuals, it moistened not a fibre of his. She boiled it on a powerful fire, and applied every means that affection, enlightened by intellect, could devise, but the result was still the same; water glided over his clothes, and would not wet them. ' The physical law ' (said the hus- bandman within himself) 'is suspended as to me; hence- forth water wetteth not me and mine.' He said no more, but placed himself at table, and smiled over his lovely family. He lifted his youngest child upon his knee, a girl just opening in her bloom, pressed her to his bosom, and kissed her ruddy cheek. But he started when he experienced no sensation. He saw her with his eyes, and heard her speak, but had no feeling of her presence. His knee was as stone; his bosom as marble; and his lips as steel; no sensation penetrated through his skin. He plac- ed her on the floor, looked wistfully on her form, graceful, 310 INFLUENCE OF THE NATURAL LAWS vivacious, and instinct with love; and, as if determined to enjoy the well remembered pleasure now withheld, he clasped her to his bosom with an embrace so ardent that she screamed with pain. Still he was all adamant; no sen- sation reached his soul. He sent her away, heaved a deep sigh, and again the thought entered his very soul, that 'the organic law is suspended as to me.' Recollecting well the sweet gratifications of his evening meal, he seized a bowl, and delicately began to sip, exciting every papilla of the tongue to catch the grateful flavor. But no flavor reached his mind; the liquid glided over his gustatory organs like quicksilver over the smooth surface of a mir- ror, without impression, and without leaving a trace be- hind. He started now in horror, and his spirit sank within him, when he thought that henceforth he should live without sensation. He rushed into the fields, and called aloud on Jupiter, ' O Jupiter, I am the most miserable of men; I am a being without sensation. Why hast thou made me thus?' Jupiter heard his cry, and answered, ' I have suspended the physical and organic laws, to which thou ascribedst thy fever and thy pain; henceforth no pang shall cause thy nerves to shrink, or thy muscles to quiver; why, then, art thou thus unhappy, and why discontented with thy new condition?' ' O Jupiter,' replied the husbandman, 'but thou hast taken away from me sensation; I no longer feel the grate- ful breath of morn fanning my cheek as I drive my team afield; the rose diffuses its fragrance for me in vain; the ruddy grape, the luscious fig, the cooling orange, and the fresh fountain, to me are now savorless as adamant or air; my children are as stones; O, Jupiter, I am utterly wretched, I am a man without sensation! ' 'Unhappy mortal,' replied the god, 'how can I afford thee satisfaction ? When I gave thee nerves to feel, and muscles to execute the purposes of thy mind, and bestowed on thee water to refresh thy palate, and made thy whole ON THE HAPPINESS OF INDIVIDUALS. 311 frame one great inlet of enjoyment, thou wert not content. I made thy nerves liable to pain, to warn thee when thou departedst from my laws. The rain that was sent fell to fructify and refresh the earth, and not to injure thee. I saw thee, while the showers descended, stay abroad, re- gardless of its influence on thy corporeal frame. The northern blast received from me its piercing cold, to warn thee of its effects; and yet I saw thee, wet and shivering, stand in its course, regardless of its power. In the voice of the storm I spake to thy understanding, but thou didst not comprehend. The fever that parched thy blood was sent to arrest thee in thy departures from my organic laws. If I restore to thee my institutions, thou mayst again forget my ways, and in misery impeach my justice.' ' O most gracious Jupiter,' cried the husbandman, ' now I see thy power and wisdom, and my own folly and pre- sumption. I accept thy laws, and gratefully acknowledge, that, even in the chastisements they inflict, they are beneficent. Restore to me the enjoyments of sensation; permit me once more to reap the advantages that flow from the just uses of my nerves and muscles, and I bow with resignation to the punishment of misapplying them.' Jupiter granted his request. His fever and pains returned; but by medicine were relieved. He slowly recovered health and strength, and never after embraced his chil- dren, or enjoyed a meal, but he poured forth a deeper offering of gratitude than he had ever done before. He was now instructed concerning the source of his enjoy- ments; he studied the laws of his nature and obeyed them; and when he suffered for occasional deviations he hastened back to the right path, and never again under- went so severe a punishment as the first. Just as the husbandman resumed his wonted labors, a new voice was heard calling loudly to Jupiter for relief. It proceeded from a young heir writhing in agony, who cried, ' O Jupiter, my father committed debaucheries, for which my bones are pierced with liquid fire, gout teareth 312 INFLUENCE OF THE NATURAL LAWS my flesh asunder; thou art not just to punish me for his transgressions; deliver me, O Jupiter, or renounce thy character for benevolence and justice.' ' Thou complain- est of my law of hereditary descent,' said Jupiter; ' Hast thou derived from thy father any other quality besides gout?' 'O Jupiter,' said the sufferer, 'I have derived nerves that feel sweet pleasure, when the gout ceaseth its gnawing; muscles that execute the purposes of my will; senses that are inlets of joy; and faculties that survey and rejoice in thy fair creation: But why didst * thou permit gout to descend from him who sinned, to me?' 'Short-sighted mortal,' said Jupiter; 'thy father was afflicted because he infringed my institutions; by my or- ganic law, thou hast received a frame constituted as was that of thy father, when thy fife commenced; the delicate sensibility of his nerves transmitted the same susceptibility to thine; the vigor of his muscles has been transferred into thine; and by the same law, the liability to pain that existed in his bones from debauchery, constituted an in- separable element of thine: If this law afflict thee speak the word, and I shall suspend it as to thee.' 'Bountiful Jupiter!' said the sufferer; 'but tell me first, if thou suspendest thy law, shall I lose all that I inherited by it from my father; nerves, muscles, senses, faculties, and all that constitute my delight, when the gout afflicteth me not?'—' Assuredly thou shalt,'said Jupiter, 'but thou shalt have no organic pain.' ' Forbear, most bounteous deity,'replied the sufferer; ' I gratefully accept the gift of thy organic laws, with all their chastisements annexed: But say, O Jupiter, if this pain was inflicted on my father for transgressing thy law, may it not be lessened or removed, if I obey?' 'The very object of my law,' said Jupiter, 'is that it should. Hadst thou proceeded as thy father did, thy whole frame would have become one great centre of dis- ease. The pain was transmitted to thee to guard thee by a powerful monitor from pursuing his sinful ways, that ON THE HAPPINESS OF INDIVIDUALS. 313 thou mightest escape this greater misery. Adopt a course in accordance with my institutions, thy pain shall abate, and thy children shall be free from its effects.' The heir expressed profound resignation to the will of Jupiter, blessed him for his organic law, and entered upon a life of new and strict obedience. His pain through time diminished, and his enjoyments increased. Ever after he was grateful for the law. A feeble voice next reached the vault of Heaven: It was that of an infant, sick and in pain. ' What is thy distress, poor child,' said Jupiter, ' and of what dost thou complain?' Half drowned in sobs, the feeble voice replied, • I suffer under thy organic law. A father's sickness, and a mother's disordered frame, have been transmitted and combined in me. I am all over exhaustion and pain.'— 'Hast thou received no other gift,' said Jupiter, 'but sickness and disease, no pleasure to ^hy nerves, thy mus- cles, or thy mental powers?' ' All are so feeble,' replied the child, ' that I exist not to enjoy but to suffer.' 'Poor infant,' said Jupiter, 'my organic law will soon deliver thee, and I shall take thee to myself.'. The organic law instantly operated, the body of the child lay a lifeless mass, but suffered no more; its spirit dwelt with Jupiter. The next prayer was addressed by a merchant strug- gling on the Mediterranean waves, and nigh sinking in their foam. ' What evil dost thou charge against me,' said Jupiter, ' and what dost thou require?' 'O, Jupiter,' said the supplicant, ' I sailed from Tyre to Rome, in a ship, which thou seest on fire, loaded with all the merchandise acquired by my previous toils. As I lay here at anchor off the port of Syracuse, whither business called me, a sailor, made by thee, thirsted after wine, stole it from my store, and, in intoxication, set my ship and goods on fire; and I am now plunged in the blue waves to die by water, to escape the severer pain of being consumed by fire. Why, if thou are just, should the innocent thus suffer for the guilty?' 27 314 INFLUENCE OF THE NATURAL LAWS ' Thou complainest, then,' said Jupiter, ' of my social law? Since this law displeaseth thee, I restore thee to thy ship, and suspend it as to thee.' The merchant, in a moment, saw his ship entire; the blazing embers restored to vigorous planks; himself and all his crew sound in limb, and gay in mind, upon her deck. Joyous and grateful, he addressed thanksgiving to the god, and called to his crew to weigh the anchor, set the sails, and turn the helm for Rome. But no sailor heard him speak, and no movement followed his words. Astonished at their indolence and sloth, he cried, in a yet louder voice, and inquired why none obeyed his call. But no answer was given. He saw the crew move and speak, act and converse; but they seemed not to observe him. He entreated, remonstrated, and upbraided; but no reply was given. All seemed unconscious of his presence. Unconscious of his presence! The awful thought rushed into his mind, that the social law was suspended as to him. He now saw, in all its horror, the import of the words of Jupiter, which before he had not fully comprehended. Terrified, he seized a rope, and set a sail. Every physi- cal law was entire, and obeyed his will. The sail filled, and strained forward from the mast. He ran to the helm, it obeyed his muscles, and the ship moved as he directed it, But its course was short, the anchor was down, and stop- ped its progress in the sea. He lowered the sail, seized a handspike, and attempted to weigh; but in vain. The strength of ten men was required to raise so ponderous an anchor. Again he called to his crew: but the social law was suspended as to him; he was absolved thenceforth from all suffering, caused by misconduct of others, but he was cut off from every enjoyment and advantage from their assistance. In despair he seized the boat, rowed it into the port of Syracuse, and proceeded straight to his commercial cor- respondent there, to beg his aid in delivering him from the indolence of his crew. He saw his friend, addressed him, ON THE HAPPINESS OF INDIVIDUALS. 315 and told him all his labors to leave the anchorage; but his friend seemed quite unconscious of his presence. He did not even look upon him, but proceeded in business of his own, with which he seemed entirely occupied. The mer- chant, wearied with fatigue, and almost frantic with alarm, hurried to a tavern on the quay, where he used to dine, and entering, called for wine, to recruit his exhausted strength. But the servants seemed unconscious of his presence; no movement was made; and he remained, as it were, in a vast solitude, amidst large companies of merchants, servants and assistants, who all bustled in active gaiety, each fulfilling his duty in his own department. The merchant now comprehended all the horrors of his situation, and called aloud to Jupiter. ' O Jupiter, death in the blue waves, or even by consuming flame, were better than the life thou hast assigned me. Let me die, for my cup of misery is full beyond endurance. Restore me the enjoyments of thy social law, and I hail its pains as blessings.' ' But,' said Jupiter, ' if I restore to thee my social law, thy ship will be consumed, thou and thy crew will escape in thy boat, but thou shalt be a very beggar; and, in thy poverty, thou wilt upbraid me for dealing thus unjustly by thee.' 'O bountiful Jupiter,' replied the merchant, 'I never knew till now what enjoyments I owed to thy social law, how rich it renders me, even when all else is gone; and how poor I would be, with all the world for a possession, if denied its blessings. True, I shall be poor; but my nerves, muscles, senses, propensities, sentiments and in- tellect will be left me: now I see that employment of these is the only pleasure of existence; poverty will not cut me off from exercising these powers in obedience to thy laws, but will rather add new excitements to my doing so. Under thy social law, will not the sweet voice of friend- ship cheer me in poverty, the ecstatic burst of adoration of thee lift my soul to heaven; will not the aid of kindred 316 INFLUENCE OF THE NATURAL LAWS and of my fellow men soothe the remainder of my days? and, besides, now that I see thy designs, I shall avoid employing my fellow men in situations unsuitable to their talents, and thereby escape the penalties of infringing thy social law. Most merciful Jupiter, restore to me the benefit of all thy laws, and I accept the penalties attached to their infringement.' His request was granted; ever after he made Jupiter's laws and the nature of man his study; he obeyed them, became moderately rich, and found himself happier than he had ever been in his days of selfishness and ignorance. Jupiter was assailed by many other prayers from unfor- tunate sufferers under infringement of his laws; but, in- stead of hearing each in endless succession, he assembled his petitioners, and introduced to them the slater, the hus- bandman, the young heir, and the merchant, and request- ed them to narrate their knowledge and experience of the natural laws; and he intimated, that if, after listening to their account, any petitioner was not satisfied with his condition, he would suspend for him the particular law which caused him discontent. But no application follow- ed. Jupiter saw his creatures employ themselves with real earnestness to study and observe his institutions, and ever after they offered up to him only gratitude and adora- tion for his infinite goodness and wisdom. ( 317 ) CHAPTER IX. ON THE RELATION BETWEEN SCIENCE AND SCRIPTURE. Since the first edition of this work was published, ob- jections have been stated that the views maintained in it are at variance with Revelation, and hostile to the inter- ests of Religion. It is gratifying, however, to know, that they have not been urged by any individual of the least eminence in theology, or countenanced by persons of enlarged views of Christian doctrine. On the contrary, many excellent individuals, of unquestionable piety and benevolence, have widely recommended this work as con- taining the philosophy of practical Christianity, and have aided in its distribution. It is therefore rather on account of the interest of the inquiry itself, than from any feeling of the necessity of a defence, that I enter into the follow- ing discussion of the relation between Scripture and Science; and as in a question of this nature authorities are entitled to great weight, I shall commence by citing the opinion of one of the most learned, talented, and ac- complished divines of the present day, the Archbishop of Dublin. A few years ago, a Professorship of Political Economy was founded in Oxford by Mr. Drummond, with a novel constitution. The professor holds his office for only five years, and it is a condition that one lecture, at least, shall be published every year. Dr. Whately, now Archbishop of Dublin, was the second individual elected to the chair, and, in compliance with the statute, he, in 1831, published eight lectures on the science. They are introductory in their character, being intended chiefly to dispel popular prejudices against political economy, and to unfold its 27* 318 ON THE RELATION BETWEEN objects. They contain several admirable observations, calculated to remove prejudices against the pursuit of new truths, which are directly applicable to the subject of this work, and on this account I present them to the readers. 'It has been my first object,' says Dr. Whately, in his preface, ' to combat the prevailing prejudices against the study, and especially those which represent it as unfavor- able to religion.' 'In proportion,'he continues, 'as any branch of study leads to important and useful results, in proportion as it gains ground in public estimation,—in proportion as it tends to overthrow prevailing errors—in the same degree it may be expected to call forth angry declamation from those who are trying to despise what they will not learn, and wedded to prejudices which they cannot defend. Gali- leo probably would have escaped persecution, if his dis- coveries could have been disproved, and his reasonings refuted.' ' That political economy should have been com- plained of as hostile to religion, will probably be regarded a century hence (should the fact be then on record) with the same wonder, almost approaching to incredulity, with which we, of the present day, hear of men sincerely opposing, on religious grounds, the Copernican system. But till the advocates of Christianity shall have become universally much better acquainted with the true character of their religion, than, universally, they have ever yet been, we must always expect that every branch of study, every scientific theory that is brought into notice, will be assailed on religious grounds, by those who either have not studied the subject, or who are incompetent judges of it; or again, who are addressing themselves to such persons as are so circumstanced, and wish to excite and to take advantage of the passions of the ignorant. Flectere si nequeo superos, Acheronta movebo. Some there are who sincerely believe that the Scriptures contain revelations of truths the most distinct from religion. Such persons pro- cured, accordingly, a formal condemnation (very lately SCIENCE AND SCRIPTURE. 319 rescinded) of the theory of the earth's motion, as at vari- ance with Scripture. In Protestant countries, and now, it seems, even in Popish, this point has been conceded; but that the erroneous principle—that of appealing to revela- tion on questions of physical science—has not yet been entirely cleared away, is evident from the objections which most of you probably may have heard to the researches of geology. The objections against astronomy have been abandoned, rather, perhaps, from its having been made to appear, that the Scripture accounts of the phenomena of the heavens may be reconciled with the conclusions of science, than from its being understood that Scripture is not the test by which the conclusions of science are to be tried.' ' It is not a sign of faith—on the contrary, it indicates rather a want of faith, or else a culpable indolence—to decline meeting any theorist on his own ground, and to cut short the controversy by an appeal to the authority of Scripture. For, if we really are convinced of the truth of Scripture, and consequently of the falsity of any theory, (of the earth, for instance) which is really at variance with it, we must needs believe that that theory is also at vari- ance with observable phenomena; and we ought not there- fore to shrink from trying the question by an appeal to these.' ' God has not revealed to us a system of morality, such as would have been needed for a being who had no other means of distinguishing right and wrong. On the contrary, the inculcation of virtue and reprobation of vice in Scripture, are in such a toae as seem to presuppose a natural power, or a capacity for acquiring the power to distinguish them. And if a man, denying or renouncing all claims of natural conscience, should practise without scruple every thing he did not find expressly forbidden in Scripture, and think himself not bound to do any thing that is not there expressly enjoined, exclaiming at every turn— ' Is it so nominated in the Bond*?' he would be leading a life very unlike what a Christian's should be. Since, then, we are bound to use our own 320 ON THE RELATION BETWEEN natural faculties in the search after all truth that is within the reach of those faculties, most especially ought we to try, by their own proper evidence, questions which form no part of revelation properly so called, but which are incidentally alluded to in the Sacred Writings. If we appeal to the Scriptures on any such points, it should be merely as to an ancient book, not in reference to their sa- cred character; in short, not as Scripture.'—Pp. 29 to 36. These observations are highly philosophical and worthy of attention; the more so that their author is a divine, and now a high dignitary in the church of Ireland. The science of geology also, has been fiercely attacked as hostile to religion, and been ably defended by the Rev. Adam Sedgwick, one of its most eminent professors. In the Appendix to his Discourse on the Studies of the Uni- versity of Cambridge, he has added some valuable and instructive notes, in the last of which he reproves, with great eloquence and severity, the bigoted and ignorant individuals who ' dare to affirm that the pursuits of natural science are hostile to religion.' He also chastises those writers who have endeavored to falsify the facts and con- clusions of geology, for the purpose of flattering the reli- gious prejudices of the public. ' There is another class of men,' says he, ' who pursue geology by a nearer road, and are guided by a different light. Well intentioned they may be; but they have betrayed no small self-sufficiency, along with a shameful want of knowledge of the fundamen- tal facts they presume to write about; hence they have dishonored the literature of this country by Mosaic geology, Scripture geology, and other works of cosmogony with kindred titles, wherein they have overlooked the aim and end of revelation, tortured the book of life out of its proper meaning, and wantonly contrived to bring about a collision ' between natural phenomena and the word of God ' (P 150.) The following observations of the same author are ex- ceedingly just, and completely applicable to the principles SCIENCE AND SCRIPTURE. 321 expounded in the present work, as well as to geology. 'A Brahmin crushed with a stone the microscope that first showed him living things among the vegetables of his daily food. The spirit of the Brahmin lives in Christendom. The bad principles of our nature are not bounded by caste or climate; and men are still to be found, who, if not re- strained by the wise and humane laws of their country, would try to stifle by personal violence, and crush by brute force, every truth not hatched among their own conceits, and confined within the narrow fences of their own igno- rance.' (P. 151.) ' We are told by the wise man not to answer a fool ac- cording to his folly; and it would indeed be a vain and idle task to engage in controversy with this school of false philosophy—to waste our breath in the forms of exact rea- soning, unfitted to the comprehension of our antagonists— to draw our weapons in a combat where victory could give no honor. Before a geologist can condescend to reason with such men, they must first learn geology.* It is too much to call upon us to scatter our seed on a soil at once both barren and unreclaimed—it is folly to think, that we can in the same hour be stubbing up the thorns and reap- ing the harvest. All the writers of this school have not indeed sinned against plain sense to the same degree. With some of them there is perhaps a perception of the light of natural truth, which may lead them after a time to follow it in the right road; but the case of others is beyond all hope from the powers of rational argument. Their po- sition is impregnable while they remain within the fences of their ignorance, which is to them as a wall of brass; for (as was well said, if I remember right, by Bishop Warbur- ton, of some bustling fanatics of his own day) there is no weak side of common sense whereat we may attack them. If cases like these yield at all, it must be to some treatment * This remark is peculiarly applicable to those who oppose Phrenology, and the doctrine of the Natural Laws. Such of them as are serious do so in profound ignorance of the whole subject. 322 ON THE RELATION BETWEEN which suits the inveteracy of their nature, and not to the weapons of reason. As psychological phenomena, they are, however, well deserving of our study; teaching us among other things, how prone man is to turn his best fac- ulties to evil purposes—and how, at the suggestions of van- ity and other bad principles of his heart, he can become so far deluded, as to fancy that he is doing honor to religion, while he is sacrificing the common charities of life, and arraigning the very workmanship of God.' (Pp. 151, 152.) After the examples which these passages afford, of mis- directed zeal for religion leading to opposition to the most useful and interesting investigations, we need not be sur- prised that the doctrine of the natural laws also has mel with a similar reception. The charge is made that it leads to infidelity, and that its principles are irreconcilable with Scripture. It may be useful to observe, that in all ages new doc- trines have been charged with impiety, and that Chris- tianity itself has offered no exception to this rule. The Greeks and Romans charged Christianity with ' impiety and novelty.' In Cave's Primitive Christianity, we are in- formed that ' the Christians were every where accounted a pack of Atheists, and their religion the Atlieism.' They were donominated ' mountebank impostors,' and ' men of a desperate and unlawful faction.' They were represented ' as destructive and pernicious to human society,' and were accused of ' sacrilege, sedition, and high treason.' The same system of misrepresentation and abuse was practised by the Roman Catholics against the Protestants, at the Reformation,—' Some called their dogs Calvin; and others transformed Calvin into Cain.' In France, ' the old and stale calumnies, formerly invented against the first Chris- tians, were again revived by Demochares, a doctor of the Sorbonne, pretending that all the disasters of the state were to be attributed to Protestants alone.' If the views of human nature expounded in this work be untrue, the proper answer to them is a demonstration of SCIENCE AND SCRIPTURE. 323 their falsity. If they be true, they are mere enunciations of the institutions of the Creator, and it argues supersti- tious and not religious feelings, to fear evil consequences from the knowledge of what Divine Wisdom has appointed. The argument that the results of the doctrine are obviously at variance with Scripture, and that therefore the doctrines cannot be true, is not admissible, ' for,' in the words of Dr. Whately, ' if we really are convinced of the truth of Scrip- ture, and consequently of the falsity of any theory (of the earth for instance), which is really at variance with it, we must needs believe that that theory is also at variance with observable phenomena; and we ought not therefore to shrink from trying the question by an appeal to these.' Galileo was told from high authority in the church, that his doctrine of the revolution of the globe was obviously at variance with Scripture, and that therefore it could not be true; but, as his opinions were founded on physical facts, which could neither be concealed or denied, they neces- sarily prevailed. If there had been a real opposition between Scripture and nature, the only result would have been a demonstration, that Scripture in this particular in- stance was erroneously interpreted, because the evidence of physical nature is imperishable and insuperable, and cannot give way to any authority whatever. The same consequence will evidently happen in regard to phrenology. If it were possible that any facts in physiology did actually and directly contradict any interpretation of Scripture, it is not difficult to perceive which must yield. The human understanding cannot resist evidence founded on nature, and even if it did resist, Nature would not bend, but con- tinue to operate in her own way in spite of the resistance, and a new and more correct interpretation of Scripture would ultimately become inevitable. Opposition between science and revelation I sincerely believe to be impossible, when the facts in nature are correctly observed, and divine truth is correctly interpreted; but I put the case thus strongly to call the serious attention of religious persons to 324* ON THE RELATION BETWEEN the mischievous consequences to religion, of rashly de- nouncing any doctrine professing to be founded on natural facts, as adverse to revelation. Every instance in which the charge is made falsely, is a gross outrage against rev- elation itself, and tends to lead men to regard Scripture as an obstacle to the progress of science and civilization, in- stead of being a system of divine wisdom, in harmony with all natural truth. All existing interpretations of Scripture have been adop- ted in ignorance of the fact, that, cozteris paribus, a brain in which the animal organs preponderate greatly over the moral and intellectual organs, has a native and instinctive tendency to immoral conduct, and vice versa; and that the influence of the organization is fundamental—that is to say, that no means are yet known in nature, by which a brain of the inferior combination may be made to manifest the moral and intellectual faculties with the same success as a brain of the superior combination. Only phrenologists, who have observed, for many years, in various situations, and under different influences, the practical conduct of individuals constituted in these different ways, can con- ceive the importance of the combinations of the organs; but after it is discovered, the inferences from it are irresis- tible. The religious teachers of mankind are yet ignorant of the most momentous fact in regard to the moral and intellectual improvement of the race which nature contains. I have heard it said that Christianity affords a better and a more instantaneous remedy for human depravity, than improvement in the cerebral organization; because the moment a man is penetrated by the love of God in Christ, his moral and religious affections and intellect become far stronger and more elevated, whatever his brain may be, than those of any individual whatever without that love, however high his cerebral development, and however much he may be instructed in natural knowledge. I ob- serve, however, that in this life a man cannot become penetrated by the love of God, except through the aid of SCIENCE AND SCRIPTURE. 325 sound and sufficient material organs. This fact is directly proved by cases of madness and idiocy. Disease in the organs is the cause of insanity, and mere deficiency in size in them, is one, and an invariable cause of idiocy. In neither of these states can the mind receive the advantages of the Christian doctrine. These facts show that the power of receiving and appreciating Christianity itself is modified by the condition of the brain, and I venture to affirm, that the influence of the organs does not terminate with these extreme cases, but operates in all circumstances, and in every individual, aiding or impeding the reception and efficacy even of revelation. If this were not the case, there would be a power in operation capable of influencing the human mind, during life, without the intervention of material organs; aud, accordingly, many excellent persons believe this to be Scriptural truth, and matter of experience also: But those who entertain this opinion are not instruc- ted in the functions of the brain; are not aware of the universally admitted facts, which establish, that while life continues, the mind cannot act or be acted upon except through the medium of organs; nor do they bring forward one example of idiots and madmen being rendered pious, practical, and enlightened Christians by this power, not- withstanding the state of their brains. Cases indeed occur in which religious feelings co-exist with partial idiocy or partial insanity; but in them the organs by means of which these sentiments are manifested, will be discovered to be well developed,—and if the feelings be sound, the organs will be found to be unaffected by disease. Serious persons who are offended by this doctrine con- stantly forget that the reciprocal influence of the mind and the brain is not of man's devising, but that God himself established it, and conferred on the organs those qualities which He saw to be necessary for executing the purposes to which He had appointed them. If the statements now made be unfounded, I shall be the first to give them up; but believing them to be true, I cannot avoid adhering to 28 326 ON THE RELATION BETWEEN them. When, therefore, I add, that I have never seen an individual with large animal, and small moral and intellec- tual organs, whose conduct was steadily moral, under the ordinary temptations of life, however high his religious professions might be, I merely state a fact which the Cre- ator himself has decreed to exist. Indeed, I have seen several striking instances of persons, who, after making a great profession of religion, ultimately disgraced it; and I have observed, without one exception, that, in all these instances, the organs of the inferior propensities were large, and those of one or more of the moral sentiments deficient; and I am convinced that the same conclusion, after sufficiently accurate and extensive observation, will force itself upon all candid and reflecting minds. My inference, therefore, is, that the Divine Spirit, re- vealed in Scripture as a power influencing the human mind, invariably acts in harmony with the laws of organi- zation; because the latter, as emanating from the same source, can never be in contradiction with the former; and that a well constituted brain is a condition essential to the due manifestation of Christian dispositions. If this be really the fact, and if the constitution of the brain be in any degree regulated by the laws of physiology, it is im- possible to doubt that a knowledge of the natural laws is destined to exercise a vast influence in rendering men capable-of appreciating and practising Christianity. The manner in which it will do so, is explained in Dr. Combe's work on 'Physiology applied to Health and Education,' already alluded to. It contains an exposition of the laws of action of the brain and its connection with and influence on the rest of the system, and therefore its application gen- erally to human improvement. An admirable portion of Christianity is that in which the supremacy of the moral sentiments is explained and enforced as a practical doctrine. ' Love thy neighbor as thyself;' all mankind are thy neighbors; blessed are the meek and the merciful; love those that hate you and SCIENCE AND SCRIPTURE. 327 despitefully use you; seek that which is pure and holy, and of good report;—these are precepts of Scripture. Now, I have endeavored to show, that the human faculties, and external nature, are so constituted as to admit of this becoming a practical doctrine on earth, an idea which it has rarely entered into the heart of man to conceive as a possibility without miraculous interference. If the philos- ophy now explained shall carry home to the conviction of rational men, that the order of nature, by the development of its inherent resources, fairly admits of the practical ex- emplification of these precepts, a new direction must ne- cessarily be given to the pursuits of the religious instruc- ters of mankind. Christianity, after its establishment by Constantine, was left to exert its own influence over the Roman Empire, unaided by printing and natural science. It is recorded in history, that it did not suffice to arrest the decline of morals and the downfall of the State, but was itself corrupted and perverted. In the dark ages which followed the subversion of that Empire, it was again left, unaided by human learning, to do its best for the regener- ation of mankind; and it became a vast system of supersti- tion. It was only after the invention of printing, and the revival of letters, that the barbarous superstructures which had been raised on the simple foundations of the Gospel, were cleared away. But the period from the revival of letters to the present day, has been the age of scholastic learning, as contradistinguished from that of philosophy and science. Christianity stands before us, therefore, at present, as interpreted by men who knew extremely little of the science, either of external nature or of the human mind. They have conceived it to be a system of spiritual influences, of internal operations on the soul, and of re- pentant preparation for another world, rather than an ex- position of pure and lofty principles inherent in human nature itself, and capable of being largely developed and rendered practical in this world. It is a common accusation against philosophy, that the 328 ON THE RELATION BETWEEN study of it renders men infidels: and this alleged fact is brought forward as a proof that human nature is corrupt, blind, and perverse, turning what ought to be its proper food into mortal poison. But if this were really a well founded charge, the conclusion which I would draw from it would be, that there must be essential errors in the popular interpretations of revelation, when the effect of a knowledge of nature on the mind is to lead to disbelief of its truth. Science is of modern growth, and, down to the present hour, the mass of Christians in every country have embraced their faith without the possibility of compar- ing it with the revelation of the Divine Will contained in the constitution of external nature, which, philosophically speaking, was unknown to them. The facts unfolded by science were unknown to the divines who first denied the capability of mankind to attain, by the development of their natural powers, to a higher moral condition than any they have hitherto exhibited; and, hence, their de- cision against the capabilities of human nature has been pronounced causa non cognila, and must be open for recon- sideration. If Christianity was freed from many errors by the revival and spread of mere scholastic learning in the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries, much more may we expect that the interpretations of it will be farther purified, corrected, and elucidated, by the flood of light which the sciences of human and physical nature, now in the course of cultivation, will one day shed upon it. According to my view, the study of the human constitu- tion, and of external nature, and of their relations, will become an object of paramount importance, with reference to a just appreciation of the true meaning of Scripture. Civilized man sees infinitely more of true and practical wisdom in Scripture than the savage of the wilderness, even supposing that the latter could read and understand the words of the sacred volume; and, in like manner, man, when thoroughly instructed in his own constitution, and in that of external nature, will discover still profounder truth SCIENCE AND SCRIPTURE. 329 and more admirable precepts in that record, than are found in it by ignorant, contentious, blind, and conceited man, such as he has hitherto existed. History is full of instruction concerning the insufficiency of mere religious instructions to protect men from practi- cal errors, when their understandings are unenlightened in regard to philosophy and the constitution of nature; and the part which the religious teachers of Europe acted in regard to witchcraft, affords one striking proof of the truth of this remark. It was not till towards the close of the 15th century, says the Foreign Quarterly Review, No. XI, that persecu- tions for witchcraft began to prevail in Europe. By a bull of Pope Innocent VIII in 1484, death was, for the first time, denounced without mercy to all who should be con- victed of witchcraft, or of dealings with Satan; and a form of process for the trial was regularly laid down by a wretch of the name of Sprenger, whom the Pope placed at the head of a commission of fire and sword. The succeeding popes, Alexander VI, and even Leo X, lent their aid in accelerating the course of this havoc-spreading engine. So far, however, were these commissions from being attend- ed with beneficial consequences, that their only effect was to render the evil every day more and more formidable; till, at last, if we are to believe the testimony of contem- porary historians, Europe was little better than a large suburb of Pandemonium. One half of the population was either bewitching or bewitched. About the year 1515, 500 witches were executed in Geneva in three months. 1000 were executed in one year in the diocese of Como; and they went on burning at the rate of 100 per annum for some time after. In Lorraine, from 1580 to 1595, Remi- gius boasts of having burned 900. In France, the multi- tude of executions about 1520 is incredible. One historian calls it ' an almost infinite number of sorcerers.' Germany was so fertile a soil for the supernatural, that, from the publication of Innocent's bull, to the suppression 28* 330 ON THE RELATION BETWEEN of persecution for witchcraft, the number of victims could not be less than 100,000! In the town of Wurtzburg alone, in the course of two years—1627-29—there were twenty-nine acts of conflagration, and 157 persons burnt, including not only old women, but even children as young as nine years. Other places furnished their full contingent; and so familiarized was the public with these atrocious scenes, that it relished and gloried in them; singing the events of them to popular airs; representing them in hide- ous engravings, with devils dragging away ' their own;' while the clergy preached solemn discourses, called 'witch-sermons,' upon occasion of every sacrifice — the effect of which was, of course, to inspire with fresh zeal to collect fuel for another. England was not free from the same madness. Three thousand victims were executed during the reign of the Long Parliament alone; and it is a melancholy spectacle to find a man like Sir Matthew Hale condemning wretches to destruction, on evidence which a child would how be disposed to laugh at. A better order of things commenced with the Chief-justiceship of Holt, in consequence of whose firm charge to the jury on one of these trials, a verdict of not guilty—almost the first then on record in a trial for witchcraft—was found. In about ten other trials by Holt, from 1694 to 1701, the result was the same. Yet, in 1716, a Mrs. Hicks and her daughter, aged nine, were hanged at Huntingdon for selling their souls to the devil, and raising a storm by pulling off their stockings and making a lather of soap! With this crowning atrocity, the catalogue of murders in England closes, the penal statutes against witchcraft being repealed in 1736, and the pretended exercise of such arts being punished in future by imprisonment and pillory. Barrington, in his observations on the statute of 20th Henry VI, does not hesitate to estimate the number of those put to death in England, on the charge of riding through the air on a broomstick, at 30,000! ^ SCIENCE AND SCRIPTURE. ' 331 Scotland, too, must bear her share of the bloody stain of these abominable doings. Till the Reformation, little or no regard was paid to this subject; but soon after that event, a raving thirst for destruction took possession of the nation. In 1563, an act of Parliament was passed, enacting the punishment of death against witches, or con- suiters of witches. The consequences of this authoritative recognition of the creed of witchcraft became immediate'y obvious in the reign of James VI. which followed. Witch- craft became the all-engrossing topic of the day; and it was the ordinary accusation resorted to, whenever it was the object of one individual to ruin another. A number of the trials are reported in Mr. Pitcairn's recent and valuable publication of the records of the Court of Justi- ciary. The first case is in 1572, of which no particulars are given, except the name of the unfortunate woman, and the doom,—' convict and brynt.' Thirty-five trials are recorded subsequently to the end of James's reign, in all of which the horrid result is the same. The trials pro- ceed, in the course of years, and confessions are obtained by torture with thumb-screws and boots, and pricking with sharp instruments; while stranglings and burnings follow of course. The scene darkens towards the reign of Charles I, with the increasing dominion of the Puritans. In 1640, the General Assembly passed an act, that all ministers should take particular note of witches and charm- ers, and that the commissioners should recommend to the supreme judicature the unsparing application of the laws against them. In 1643, after setting forth the increase of the crime, they recommended the granting of a standing commission from the Privy Council or Justiciary, to ' any understanding gentlemen or magistrates,' to apprehend, try, and execute justice on the delinquents. By the urgency of the General Assembly, who resumed the subject in 1644—45, and 1649, an act of Parliament was passed in the last named year, confirming and extending the statute of Queen Mary, passed in 1563. As was to be expected, 332 ON THE RELATION BETWEEN # convictions, which had been fewer since James's time„ increase, and the cases of course are more horrible. Thirty trials appear on the record between 1649 and 1660, in which there seems to have been only one acquittal; while at one western circuit, in 1659, seventeen persons were convicted and burned for the imputed crime. Nu- merous, however, as are the cases in the records of Jus- ticiary, these afford a most inadequate idea of the extent to which this pest prevailed over the country; for the Privy Council was in the habit of granting commissions to resident gentlemen and ministers to examine, and after- wards to try and execute, witches all over Scotland; and so numerous were these commissions, that one author expresses his astonishment at the number found in the registers. Under these corpmissions, multitudes were burnt in every part of the kingdom. It is matter of history, that, in every case of the kind, the clergy displayed the most intemperate zeal. It was before them that the poor wretches were first brought for examination, in most cases after a preparatory course of solitary confinement, cold, famine, want of sleep, or actual torture. On some occasions, the clergy themselves ac- tually performed the part of the prickers, and inserted long pins into the flesh of the witches; and in all, they labored with the most persevering investigations to obtain from the accused a confession which might afterwards be used against them on their trial, and which, in more than one instance, although retracted, formed the sole evidence on which the conviction proceeded. After 1662, the mania in Scotland began to decline in its violence; and to the great lawyers of the time is due the merit of first stemming the foul torrent. ' From the horridness of the crime,' says Sir George Mackenzie in his Criminal Law, ' I do conclude, that of all crimes it requires the clearest relevancy and most convincing pro- bature; and I condemn, next to the wretches themselves, those cruel and too forward judges, who burn persons by SCIENCE AND SCRIPTURE. 333 thousands as guilty of that crime.' The trials after this became fewer and fewer, and the last execution took place at Dornoch in 1722. The statutes were finally repealed in 1735. So little light did the Bible afford regarding the atrocity of the proceedings against witches, that the Secession Church of Scotland, comprising many intelligent clergy- men and a large number of the most serious and religious of the people, ' complained, in their annual Confession of Personal and National Sins, against "the penal statutes against witches having been repealed by Parliament, con- trary to the express law of God." '—(See Brewster's Edin- burgh Encyclopedia, voce Witchcraft.) This defection is classed by Dr. John Brown of Haddington, one of the great leaders of the Secession Church about the middle and end of last century, among ' the practical backslidings from the once attained to and covenanted work of reforma- tion, which have happened in the preceding and present age, as abuses of the singular favors of God.' During the whole of these proceedings, the clergy, both Catholic and Protestant, were in possession of revelation as fully and freely as they are at the present day; and in Scotland, in particular, the Reformation had been com- pleted, and the people put in possession of the Bible for nearly a century before the cessation of these prosecutions. Not only so, but the Bible itself was perversely used as the warrant of the atrocities, and religion employed to fan the flame of cruelty and superstition. If any facts can prove that the Creator intended man to use his intellectual faculties, and to study the revelation of his will contained in the works of nature, in addition to the Bible, as a guide to his conduct, and that the Bible was never intended to supersede the necessity of all other knowledge, those now detailed must have this effect. The great difference be- tween Christians of the present day who regard these executions as great crimes, and the pious ministers who inflicted, and the serious people who witnessed them, 334 ON THE RELATION BETWEEN, &.C consists in the superior knowledge possessed by the mod- erns, of physical science, which has opened up to their understandings views of nature and of God, widely differ- ent from those entertained by their ancestors under the guidance of the Bible alone. In these remarks I do not depreciate the importance of the Bible; I only very humbly endeavor to vindicate the study of the Creator's will in his works as well as in his word, and to show that the human mind needs illumination from both to direct its conduct towards virtue. In the words of Archbishop Whately, I conclude, that ' we are bound to use our own natural faculties in the search after all that is within the reach of these faculties; and that most especially ought we to try, by their own proper evidence, questions which form no part of revelation properly so called, but which are incidentally alluded to in the Sacred Writings.' 'If it be true that man's duty coincides with his real interest, both in this world and in the next, the better he is qualified by intellectual culture and diffusion of knowledge, to understand his duty and his interests, the greater prospect there would seem to be (other points being equal) of his moral improvement.' ( 335 ) CONCLUSION. The question has frequently been asked, What is the practical use of Phrenology, even supposing it to be true? A few observations will enable us to answer this inquiry, and, at the same time, to present a brief summary of the doctrine of the preceding Essay. Prior to the age of Copernicus, the earth and sun presented to the eye phenomena exactly similar to those which they now exhibit; but their motions appeared in a very different light to the understanding. Before the age of Newton, the revolutions of the planets were known as matter of fact; but the understanding was ignorant of the principle of their motions. Previous to the dawn of modern chemistry, many of the qualities of physical substances were ascertained by obser- vation, but their ultimate principles and relations were not understood. Knowledge, as I observed in the Introduction, may be rendered beneficial in two ways,—either by rendering the substance discovered directly subservient to human enjoy- ment; or, where this is impossible, by modifying human conduct in harmony with its qualities. While knowledge of any department of nature remains imperfect and empir- ical, the unknown qualities of the objects belonging to it, may render our efforts either to apply or to accord with those which are known, altogether abortive. Hence it is only after ultimate principles have been discovered, their relations ascertained, and this knowledge systematized, that science can attain its full character of utility. The merits of Copernicus and Newton consist in having ren- dered this service to astronomy. Before the appearance of Drs. Gall and Spurzheim, mankind were practically acquainted with the feelings and 336 CONCLUSION. intellectual operations of their own minds, and anatomists knew the appearances of the brain. But the science of Mind was very much in the same state as that of the heav- enly bodies prior to the times of Copernicus and Newton. First, No unanimity prevailed among philosophers con- cerning the elementary feelings and intellectual powers of man. Individuals deficient in Conscientiousness, for in- stance, denied that the sentiment of justice was a primitive mental quality of mind. Others, deficient in Veneration, asserted that man was not naturally prone to worship, and ascribed religion to the invention of priests. Secondly, The extent to which the primitive faculties differ in relative strength, was matter of dispute, or of vague conjecture; and concerning many attainments there was no agreement among philosophers, whether they were the gifts of nature, or the results of mere cultivation. Thirdly, Different modes or states of the same feeling were often mistaken for different feelings; and modes of action of all the intellectual faculties were mistaken for distinct faculties. Fourthly, The brain, confessedly the most important organ of the body, and that with which the nerves of the senses, of motion, and of feeling directly communicate, had no ascertained functions. Mankind were ignorant of its uses, and of its influence on the mental faculties. They indeed still dispute that its different parts are the organs of different mental powers, and that the vigor of manifesta- tion bears a proportion, cozteris paribus, to the size of the organ. If, in physics, imperfect and empirical knowledge ren- ders the unknown qualities of bodies liable to frustrate the efforts of man to apply or to accommodate his conduct to their known qualities; and if only a complete and syste- matic exhibition of ultimate principles, and their relations can confer on science its full character of utility, — the same doctrine applies with equal or greater force to the philosophy of man. conclusion. 337 - Politics embrace forms of government, and the rela- tions between different states. All government is design- ed to combine the efforts of individuals, and to regulate their conduct when united. To arrive at the best means of accomplishing this end, systematic knowledge of the nature of man seems highly important. A despotism, for example, may restrain some abuses of the lower propensi- ties, but it assuredly impedes the exercise of reflection, and others of the highest and noblest powers. A form of government.can be suited to the nature of man only when it is calculated to permit the legitimate use, and to restrain the abuses, of all his mental feelings and capacities; and how can such a government be devised, while these prin- ciples with their spheres of action, and external relations, are imperfectly ascertained? Again, all relations between different states must also be in accordance with the nature of man, to prove permanently beneficial; and the question recurs, How are these to be framed while that nature is. matter of conjecture? Napoleon disbelieved in a senti- ment of justice as an innate quality of the mind, and, in his relations with other states, relied on fear and interest as the grand motives of conduct: but that sentiment exist- ed, and, combined with other faculties which he outraged, prompted Europe to hurl him from his throne. If Napo- leon had comprehended the principles of human nature, and their relations, as forcibly and clearly as the principles of mathematics, in which he excelled, his understanding would have greatly modified his conduct, and Europe would have escaped prodigious calamities. Legislation, civil and criminal, is intended to regulate and direct the human faculties in their efforts at gratifica- tion; and laws, to be useful, must accord with the consti- tution of these faculties. But how can salutary laws be enacted, while the subject to be governed, or human nature, is not accurately understood? The inconsistency and intricacy of the laws even in enlightened nations, have afforded themes for the satirist in every age; and how 29 338 conclusion. could the case be otherwise? Legislators provided rules for directing the qualities of human nature, which they conceivjed themselves to know; but either error in their conceptions, or the effects of other qualities unknown or unattended to, defeated their intentions. The law, for example, punishing heresy with burning, was addressed by our ancestors to Cautiousness, Self-Love, and other inferior feelings; but Intellect, Veneration, Conscientious- ness, and Firmness, were omitted in their estimate of human principles of action; and these set their law at defiance. There are many laws still in the statute book, equally at variance with the nature of man. Education is intended to enlighten the intellect, to train it and the moral sentiments to vigor, and to repress the too great activity of the selfish feelings. But how can this be successfully accomplished, when the faculties and sentiments themselves, the laws to which they are subject- ed, and their relations to external objects, are unascer- tained. Accordingly, the theories and practices observed in education are innumerable and contradictory, which could not happen if men knew the constitution of the object which they were training. In the ' Essai sur la Statistique morale de la France,' par A. M. Guerry (a. Paris chez Crochard Libraire, 1833), it is stated, that crimes against property and person are most numerous in proportion to the population in those departments of France—the north and east—in which the people are the best educated, the richest, and most indus- trious. This must be owing in part to the increased power which education gives of doing either good or evil, and partly to defects in the education afforded. The phi- losophy of man being unknown, children are not taught any rational views of the plan of life; they are not in- structed in the constitution of society; and have no suffi- cient information afforded concerning the sources of real enjoyment. They are not taught any system of morals, conclusion. 339 based on the nature of man and his social relations; but left each to grope his way to happiness, according to the dictates of his individual mind. They see the rich pursu- ing pleasure and fashion, and if they follow such examples, they must resort to crime for the means of gratification; yet there is no solid instruction given to-them, sufficient to satisfy their understandings that the rich themselves are straying from the paths that lead to solid and lasting hap- piness, and that it is to be found only in other and higher occupations. Morals and Religion, also, cannot assume a syste- matic and demonstrable character, until the elementary qualities of *nind, and their relations, shall be ascertained. It is presumable that the Deity, in creating the moral powers and the external world, really adapted the one to the other; so that individuals and nations, in pursuing morality, must, in every instance, be promoting their best interests, and, in departing from it, must be sacrificing them to passion or to illusory notions of advantage. But, until the nature of man, and the relationship between it and the external world, shall be scientifically ascertained, and systematically expounded, it will be impossible to sup- port morality by the powerful demonstration of interest coinciding with it. The tendency in most men to view expediency as not always coincident with justice, affords a striking proof of the limited knowledge of the constitution of man and the external world still existing in society. The diversities of doctrine in religion also, obviously owe their origin to ignorance of the primitive faculties and their relations. The faculties differ in relative strength in different individuals, and each person is most alive to objects and views connected with the powers predominant in himself. Hence, in reading the Scriptures, one is con- vinced that they establish Calvinism; another, possessing a different combination of faculties, discovers in them Lutheranism; and a third is satisfied that Socinianism is the only true interpretation. These individuals have, in 340 CONCLUSION. general, no distinct conception that the views which strike them most forcibly, appear in a different light to minds differently constituted. A correct interpretation of reve- lation must harmonize with the dictates of the moral senti- ments and intellect, holding the animal propensities in subordination. It may legitimately go beyond what they, unaided, could reach; but it cannot contradict them; be- cause this would be setting the revelation of the Bible in opposition to the inherent dictates of the faculties consti- tuted by the Creator, which cannot be admitted; as the Deity is too powerful and wise to be inconsistent. But mankind will never be induced to bow to such interpreta- tions, while each takes his individual mind sft a standard of human nature in general, and conceives that his own impressions are synonymous with absolute truth. The establishment of the nature of man, therefore, on a scien- tific basis, and in a systematic form, must aid the cause of both morality and religion. The PROFESSIONS, PURSUITS, HOURS or exertion, and amusements of individuals, ought also to bear reference to their physical and mental constitution; but hitherto no guiding principle has been possessed to regulate practice in these important particulars,—another evidence that the science of man has been unknown. In consequence of the want of a philosophy of man, there is little harmony between the different departments of human pursuit. God is one; and as He is intelligent, benevolent, and powerful, we may reasonably conclude that creation is one harmonious system, in which the physical is adapted to the moral, the moral to the physi- cal, and every department of these grand divisions, to the whole. But at present, many principles clearly revealed by philosophy are impracticable, because the institutions of society have not been founded with a due regard to their existence. An educated lady, for example, or a member of the learned professions, may perceive with the clearest conviction that God, by the manner in which he CONCLUSION. 341 has constituted the body, and connected the mind with the brain, has positively enjoined muscular exertion as indis- pensable to the possession of sound health, the enjoyment of life, and the rearing of a healthy offspring; and, never- theless, they may find themselves so hedged round by routine of employment, the fashions of society, the influ- ence of opinion, and the positive absence of all arrange- ments suited to the purpose, that they shall be rendered nearly as incapable of yielding this obedience to God's law as if they were imprisoned in a dungeon. By religion we are commanded to set our affections on things above, and not to permit our minds to be engrossed with the cares of the world; we are desired to seek god- liness, and eschew selfishness, contention, and the vani- ties of life. These precepts must have been intended to be practically followed, otherwise it was a mockery of mankind to give them forth: But if they were intended to be practised, God must have arranged the inherent consti- tution of man, and of the world, in such a manner as to admit of mankind following them, and not only so, but to render men happy in proportion as they should practise, and miserable as they should neglect them. Nevertheless, when we survey human society in the forms in which it has hitherto existed, and in which it now exists, these pre- cepts appear to have been, and to be now, absolutely im- practicable to ninety-nine out of every hundred of civilized men. Suppose the most eloquent and irresistibly con- vincing discourse on the Christian duties to be delivered on Sunday to a congregation of Manchester manufacturers and their operatives, or to London merchants, Essex far- mers, or Westminster lawyers, how would they find their respective spheres of life adapted for acting practically on their convictions? They are all commanded to love God with their whole heart and soul, and to resist the world and the flesh, or, in philosophical language, to support their moral affections, and intellectual powers, in habitual 29* 342 CONCLUSION. activity, to direct them to noble, elevating, and beneficial objects, and to resist the subjugation of these higher attri- butes of their minds to animal pleasure, sordid selfishness, and worldly ambition. The moral and intellectual powers assent to the reasonableness of these precepts, and rejoice in the prospect of their practical application; but, on Mon- day morning, the manufacturers, owing to the institutions of society, and the department of life into which they have been east, before they had either reason or moral percep- tion to direct their choice, must commence a course of ceaseless toil,—the workmen that they may support life, and the masters that they may avoid ruin, or accumulate wealth. Saturday evening finds them worn out with men- tal and physical exertion, continued through all the inter- mediate days, and directed to pursuits connected with this world alone. Sunday dawns upon them in a state of mind widely at variance with the Christian condition. In like manner, the merchant must devote himself to his bar- gains, the farmer to his plough, and the lawyer to his briefs, with corresponding assiduity; so that their moral powers have neither objects presented to them, nor vigor left, for enjoyments befitting their nature and desires. It is in vain to say to individuals that they err in acting thus: individuals are carried along in the great stream of social institutions and pursuits. The operative laborer is com- pelled to follow his routine of toil under pain of absolute starvation. The master manufacturer, the merchant, the farmer, and the lawyer, are pursued by competitors so active, that if they relax in selfish ardor, they, too, will be speedily plunged into ruin. If God has so constituted the human mind and body, and so arranged external nature, that all this is unavoidably necessary for man, then the Christian precepts are scarcely more suited to human nature and circumstances in this world, than the command to fly would be to the nature of the horse. If, on the other hand, man's nature and circumstances do in themselves conclusion. 343 admit of the Christian precepts being realized, it is obvious that a great revolution must take place in our notions, prin- ciples of action, practices, and social institutions, before this can be accomplished. That many Christian teachers believe this improvement possible, and desire its execution, Lcannot doubt; but through want of a knowledge of the constituent elements of human nature, and their relations, —through want, in short, of a philosophy of mind, and of physical nature, they have never been able to perceive intellectually, what God has rendered man capable of at- taining, how it may be attained, or on what principles the moral and physical government of the world in regard to man is conducted. Consequently, they have not acted generally on the idea of religion being a branch of an all- comprehending philosophy; they have relied chiefly on inculcating the precepts of their Master, threatening fu- ture punishments for infringement, and promising future rewards for observance, without proving to society phi- losophically, not only that its institutions, practices, and principles, must be formed on higher data than they are at present, before it can ,become truly Christian, but that these improvements are actually within the compass of human nature, aided by revelation. Individuals in whom there is a strong aspiration after the realization of the Christian state of society, but whose intellects cannot perceive any natural means by which it can be produced, take refuge in the regions of prophecy, and expect a mi- raculous reign of saints in the Millennium. How much more profitable would it be to study the philosophy of man's nature, which is obviously the work of God, and en- deavor to introduce morality and happiness by the means appointed by Him in creation! Supernatural agency has long since ceased to interfere with human affairs, and whenever it shall operate again, we may presume that it will neither be assisted nor retarded by human opinions and speculations. 344 conclusion. We need only attend to the scene, daily presenting themselves in society, to obtain irresistible demonstration of the many evil consequences resulting from the want of a true theory of human nature, and its relations. Every preceptor in schools, every professor in colleges every author, editor, and pamphleteer, every member of 1 arha- ment, counsellor and judge, has a set of notions of his own, which, in his mind, hold the place of a system of the phi- losophy of man; and although he may not have methodized his ideas, or even acknowledged them to himself as a theory, yet they constitute a standard to him by which he practically'judges of all questions in morals, politics, and religion; he advocates whatever views coincide with them, and condemns all that differ from them, with as unhesitat- ing a dogmatism as the most pertinacious theorist on earth. Each also despises the notions of his fellows, in so far as they differ from his own. In short, the human faculties too'generally operate simply as instincts, exhibiting all the confliction and uncertainty of mere feeling, unenlightened by perception of their own nature and objects. Hence public measures in general, whether relating to education, religion, trade, manufactures, the poor, criminal law, or to any other of the dearest interests of society, instead of being treated as branches of one general system of economy, and adjusted on scientific principles each in harmony with all the rest, are supported or opposed on narrow and em- pirical grounds, and often call forth displays of ignorance, prejudice, selfishness, intolerance and bigotry, that greatly obstruct the progress of improvement. Indeed, any im- portant approach to unanimity, even among sensible and virtuous men, will be impossible, so long as no standard of mental philosophy is admitted to guide individual feelings and perceptions. But the state of things now described could not exist, if education embraced a true system of human nature and its relations. If, then, the doctrine of the natural laws here expounded conclusion. 345 be true, it will, when matured, supply the deficiences just pointed out. But, here, another question naturally presents itself, How are the views explained in this work, supposing them to contain some portion of truth, to be rendered practical? Sound views of human nature and of the divine govern- ment come home to the feelings and intellects of men; they perceive them to possess a substantive existence and reality which rivet attention and command respect. If the doctrine unfolded in this work be in any degree true, it is destined to operate proportionally on the character of clerical instruction. Individuals whose minds have em- braced the views which it contains*, inform me that many sermons appear to them inconsistent in their different pro- positions, at variance with sound views of human nature, and so vague as to have little practical relation to life and conduct. They partake of the abstractedness of the scho- lastic philosophy. The first divine of comprehensive intel- lect and powerful sentiments who shall take courage and introduce the natural laws into his discourses, and teach the people the works of the Creator and his institutions, will reap a great reward in usefulness and pleasure. If this course shall, as heretofore, be neglected, the people, who are daily increasing in useful and scientific know- ledge, will in a few years look down with disrespect on their clerical guides, and probably remodel the entire sys- em of pulpit instruction. The institutions and manners of society indicate the state of mind of the influential classes at the time when they prevail. The trial and burning of old women as witches, point out clearly the predominance of Destructiveness and Wonder over Intellect and Benevolence, in those who were guilty of such cruel absurdities. The practices of wager of battle, and ordeal by fire and water, indicate Combativeness, Destructiveness, and Veneration, to have been in great activity in those who permitted them, com- 346 conclusion. bined with much intellectual ignorance of the natural con- stitution of the world. In like manner, the enormous sums willingly expended in war, and the small sums grudgingly paid for public improvements; the intense energy displayed in the pursuit of wealth; and the general apathy evinced in the search after knowledge and virtue, unequivocally proclaim activity of Combativeness, Destructiveness, Ac- quisitiveness, Self-Esteem, and Love of Approbation; with comparatively moderate vivacity of Benevolence and In- tellect, in the present generation. Before, therefore, the practices of mankind can be altered, the state of their minds must be changed. No practical error can be great- er than that of establishing institutions greatly in advance of the mental condition of the people. The rational meth- od is, first to instruct the intellect, then to interest the sentiments, and, last of all, to form arrangements in harmony with, and resting on, these as their basis. The views developed in the preceding chapters, if founded in nature, may be expected to lead, ultimately, to considerable changes in many of the customs and pur- suits of society; but to accomplish this ^effect, the princi- ples themselves must first be ascertained to be true, and then they must be sedulously taught. It appears to me that a long series of years will be necessary to bring even civilized nations into a condition to obey systematically the natural laws. The preceding chapters may be regarded, in one sense, as an introduction to an Essay on Education. If the views unfolded in them be in general sound, it will follow that education has scarcely yet commenced. If the Creator has bestowed on the body, on the mind, and on external nature, determinate constitutions, and arranged them so as to act on each other, and to produce happiness or misery to man, according to certain definite principles, —and if this action goes on invariably, inflexibly, and irre- sistibly, whether men attend to it or not,—it is obvious CONCLUSION. 347 ,' that the very basis of useful knowledge must consist in an acquaintance with these natural arrangements, and that education will be valuable in the exact degree in which it communicates such information, and trains the faculties to act upon it. Reading, writing, and accounts, which make up the instruction enjoyed by the lower orders, are merely means of acquiring knowledge, but do not constitute it. Greek, Latin, and mathematics, which are added in the education of the middle classes, are still only means of obtaining information: so that, with the exception of the few who pursue physical science, society dedicates very little attention to the study of the natural laws. In follow- ing out the views now discussed, therefore, each individual, according as he becomes acquainted with the natural laws, ought to obey them, and to communicate his experience of their operations toothers; avoiding at the same time, all attempts at subverting, by violence, established institu- tions, or outraging public sentiment by intemperate discus- sions. The doctrine now unfolded, if true, authorizes us to predicate that the most successful method of ameliorat- ing the condition of mankind, will be that which appeals most directly to their moral sentiments and intellect; and, I may add from experience and observation, that, in pro- portion as any individual becomes acquainted with the real constitution of the human mind, will his conviction of the efficacy of this method increase. The next step ought to be to teach those laws to the young.* Their minds, not being occupied by prejudices, will recognise them as congenial to their constitution; the first generation that has embraced them from infancy will proceed to modify the institutions of society into accord- ance with their dictates; and in the course of ages they may at leno-th be acknowledged as practically useful. A * Some observations on Education will be found in the Phrenological Journal, vol. iv. p. 407. 348 CONCLUSION. perception of the importance of the natural laws will lead to their observance, and this will be attended with an im- proved development of brain, thereby increasing the de- sire and capacity for obedience. All true theories have ultimately been adopted and influenced practice; and I see no reason to fear that the present, if true, will prove an exception. The failure of all previous systems is the natural consequence of their being unfounded; if this one shall resemble them, it will deserve, and assuredly will meet with, a similar fate. Finally, If it be true that the Natural Laws must be obeyed as a preliminary condition to happiness in this world, and if virtue and happiness be inseparably allied, the religious instructers of mankind may probably disco- ver in the general and prevalent ignorance of these laws, one reason of the limited success which has hitherto at- tended their own efforts at improving the condition of mankind; and they may perhaps perceive it to be not in- consistent with their sacred office, to instruct men in the natural institutions of the Creator, in addition to his re- vealed will, and to recommend obedience to both. They exercise so vast an influence over the best members of society, that their countenance may hasten, or their oppo- sition retard, by a century, the practical adoption of the natural laws, as sound guides of human conduct. If the excessive toil of the manufacturer be inconsistent with that elevation of the moral and intellectual faculties of man which is commanded by religion, and if the moral and physical welfare of mankind be not at variance with each other (which they cannot be,) the institutions of society out of which the necessity for that labor arises, must, philosophically speaking, be pernicious to the inter- ests of the state as a political body, and to the temporal welfare of the individuals who compose it; and whenever we shall be in possession of a correct knowledge of the elements of human nature, and the principles on which conclusion. 349 God has constituted the world, the philosophical evidence that these practices are detrimental to our temporal wel- fare, will be as clear as their inconsistency with our religious duties. Until, however, divines shall become acquainted with this relation between philosophy and reli- gion, they will not possess adequate means to render their precepts practical in this world; they will not carry the intellectual perceptions of their hearers fully along with them; they will be incapable of controlling the force of the animal propensities; and they will never lead society to fulfilment of its highest destinies. At present, the animal propensities are fortified in the strong intrench- ments of social institutions; Acquisitiveness, for example, is protected and fostered by our arrangements for accu- mulating wealth; a worldly spirit, by our constant struggle to obtain the means of subsistence; pride and vanity by our artificial distinctions of rank and fashion; and Comba- tiveness and Destructiveness by our warlike professions. The divine assails these powers by the denunciations of the Gospel; but as long as society shall be animated by different principles, and maintain in vigor, institutions in diametrical opposition to its doctrines, so long will it be difficult for him to realize his precepts in practice. But, it appears to me, that by teaching mankind the philosophy of their own nature, and of the world in which they live, by proving to them the coincidence between the dictates of this philosophy and Christian morality, and the incon- sistency of their own institutions with both, they may be induced to modify the latter, and to intrench the moral powers, and then the triumph of virtue and religion will be more complete. Those who advocate exclusively the importance of spiritual religion for the improvement of mankind, appear to me to have erred in overlooking to too great an extent the necessity of complying with the natu- ral conditions on which all improvement depends; and I anticipate that when schools and colleges shall expound 350 CONCLUSION. the various branches of philosophy as portions of the in- stitutions of the Creator; when the pulpit shall deal with the same principles, show their practical application to man's duties and enjoyments, and add the sanctions of religion to enforce their observance; and when the busy scenes of life shall be so arranged as to become the field for the practice at once of our philosophy and our religion, then man will have assumed his station as a rational being, and Christianity will have achieved her triumph. ( 351 ) ADDITIONAL CHAPTER. ON THE HARMONY BETWEEN THE SCRIPTURES AND PHRENOLOGY. That there does exist an harmonious connection be- tween Scriptural Christianity, and the Science of Phre- nology, will not be questioned by those who believe that the former is of divine origin, and that the latter is true. For the God of Nature is the God of Revelation, and, of course, the works of his hand, and the revelation of his mind, must be in harmony with each other. Philosophical Christians,who have made Phrenology an object of their attention, have perceived this harmony, and have been de- lighted with the discovery; and one among the strongest of their reasons for believing Phrenology to be true, is the perception of its accordance with Scripture, rightly interpreted. Yet it must be acknowledged that these Christians have not been as anxious as they should have been to make known their discoveries; and to lead other minds to the participation of the pleasures of which they were themselves the subjects. They have either not promulged, from the press, or otherwise, the views into which they have been led; or if they have, those views have been presented by them, rather as Philosophers than as Christians: the char- acteristic features of evangelical religion have been very sparingly introduced into their writings; and consequently, those who hold evangelical Christianity in the estimation which is its due, have been afraid to look at Phrenology; fearing that it had little which was in accordance with the word of God,—that it was a system of Philosophy inimical to revelation; and tending to Materialism, Fatalism, and Infidelity. A firm conviction that these fears are without 352 ON THE HARMONY BETWEEN foundation, has induced the writer to present a brief view of some important points of agreement between Phrenolo- gy and Scriptural Christianity; in the hope that the sci- ence of Phrenology may receive from the pious portion of the community a measure of their attention; and that they may not yield the advantages connected with the study of that science to those, exclusively, who, being strangers to vital religion, must be insensible to some of the greatest beauties of the system which they highly admire, and loudly eulogize. A portion of the communications which our Creator has made to us in his word, consist of truths which man never could have discovered by the unaided efforts of his own powers; and some of which, even now that they are re- vealed, he cannot fully comprehend. There is, however, another class, which have reference to ourselves, and the beings and things existing around us, and to the duties incumbent on us, towards those beings, and towards the Author of our existence,—a dim outline of which might be perceived by means of powers imparted to us by our Creator. (Rom. 2: 14, 15.) Among things included in the former class, may be men- tioned, whatever relates to the plurality of subsistences, or persons, in the Divine Nature;—the union of the divine and human natures in the person of Christ;—the offices he sustains, and the work he performs, in man's redemp- tion. Of course, on such subjects, Phrenology cannot be expected to cast any light; and if any be furnished by the analogies which it affords, it is, at best, only that of illustration, proving them not absurd; and not that of ex- planation, teaching us how they are. On the latter class of Scripture truths, however,—such as relate to human nature (as it is, and as it is required to become) and to human duty,—-light may, perhaps, be cast by Phrenology. For the truths may be compared with human nature, as Phrenology teaches us to observe it, in ourselves and others; and if it is seen to harmonize, we shall have an THE SCRIPTURES AND PHRENOLOGY. 353 additional reason for believing the divine origin of the Christian Scriptures; (viz. their correspondence with nature) and a strong presumption in favor of Phrenology, (viz. its correspondence with divine revelation..) Phrenology * presents man to us, as comprehending with- in his single self, the animal, and intellectual, and moral natures;—or it exhibits him as an animal, an intellectual, and a moral being. The peculiarities of his animal nature, or those impulses by which he is actuated, in common with the lower animals, Phrenology terms ' Propensities;'—the powers which constitute him an intelligent being, are term- ed ' Intellectual Faculties;' and those which belong to his highest, or his moral nature, are called ' Moral Sentiments.' Perhaps nearly all of the powers and faculties which Phrenology ascribes to man, under this threefold classifi- cation, have been seen to exist in him, by those who wrote before that science was taught: but it is believed that to Phrenology belongs the honor of thus classifying his pow- ers; and all reflecting men to whom the classification is proposed, approve it, as philosophical and true. It was a great and valuable service, then, which Phrenology has performed, if it were the only one, that it has philosophi- cally classified the powers of human nature. But in doing this, it has done more: it has, by this classification of the powers of human nature, analogically illustrated a truth of revelation, in a manner in which it was never before illustrated: a truth, too, belonging to the first great class of truths, which revelation makes known to us: those not originally discoverable by human powers, nor fully com- prehensible by human capacity. Nothing can be plainer or more true to nature, than the distinction between the animal, the intellectual, and the moral nature of man;— no one confounds them with each other; and each per- ceives them all to exist in himself. Every man knows himself to be an animal being, an intellectual being, and a * The reader will observe that we here say nothing of Organology, or the doctrine of separate organs in the brain. 30* 354 ON THE HARMONY BETWEEN moral being; yet no man can tell how these exist, distinct- ly, yet unitedly, in his single self; while, yet, he is con- scious that they do thus exist. Now Revelation tells us that God created man in his own image and likeness: and though it is true that this image is said to be ' righteous- ness and true holiness,' and that this was the most impor- tant point of resemblance, it is nowhere said to have been the only one; and might not this constitution of human nature be another adumbration of that image? The New Testament clearly teaches a threefold personal distinction in the Divine Nature. By some, who profess to receive that holy volume, this distinction is rejected, as absurd. Its absurdity we deny; and refer such persons to their own nature, not for an explanation in quo modo this thing is; but as an illustration, proving that it is not absurd to con- ceive that it is: for, in our own nature, we see what is analogous; though we know, perfectly, that it is not par- allel. Now as it is Phrenology which reveals to us that real and natural division of the elements of our own nature, which has furnished this illustration of a myste- rious truth of revelation, it is plain that, so far at least, Phrenology and revelation harmonize; and that the friends of Revelation have no reason to fear that Phrenology is inimical to revealed religion. But further: Revelation requires of man, a course of conduct exactly such as Phrenology marks out, as being in accordance with the laws of his nature. Phrenology teaches that the animal nature of man was designed by his Creator to be in subjection to the moral, and that the intel- lectual nature should enlighten the moral, so that it might command intelligently. In exact accordance with this view of the law of man's nature, do we find the law of God's word: It is the animal nature which is controlled in commands like the following. ' If any man will be my disciple, let him deny himself, and take up his cross daily and follow me. Thou shalt not kill; Thou shalt not steal; Thou shalt not commit adultery,' and, in one word, in all THE SCRIPTURES AND PHRENOLOGY. 355 prohibitory sentences. And while the understanding, or the intellectual nature, is enlightened by the scripture record of facts which especially reveal the benevolence of God, the moral nature is addressed with a view to excite it to the exercise of its proper function,—command,—in lan- guage like the following: ' Ye know the grace of our Lord Jesus Christ, that though he was rich, yet for your sakes he became poor.' 'Behold what manner of love the Father hath bestowed upon us; that we should be called the sons of God.' ' God so loved the world, that he gave his only begotten Son, that whosoever believeth in him should not perish; but have everlasting life. ' Where sin abounded, grace did much more abound. What then, shall we continue in sin, that grace may abound? God forbid.' ' The grace of God that bringeth salvation— teacheth us that, denying ungodliness, and worldly lusts, we should live soberly, righteously, and godly, in the pre- sent world.' 2 Cor. 8:9. 1 John 3: 1. John 3: 16. Rom. 5: 20. 6: 1. Tit. 2: 11. These passages, which are indeed a mere sample of those which could be cited, may, perhaps, suffice, to show that while, by the facts of Christianity (especially that lead- ing one, the mission and death of Christ for sinners,) the un- derstanding is enlightened with a knowledge of the Divine benevolence, this light is designed to be transmitted to the moral nature; and to excite in it, that energetic action, which the apostle so beautifully describes, when he says, ' For the love of Christ constraineth us; because we thus judge; that, if one died for all, then were all dead; and that he died for all, that they which live, should not hence- forth live unto themselves; but unto him who died for them and rose again.' (2 Cor. 5: 14.) Here we see the moral nature, with a strong hand, not only controlling and subjugating the animal nature; but roused to resistless effort, in all positive excellence; and all this, from a per- ception of the benevolence of God which the understanding, or the intellectual faculties, have discovered in the cross of Christ. 356 ON THE HARMONY BETWEEN There is another proof of the harmony between Phre- nology and the Bible, which it would be pleasant to exhibit at large; but which we must be satisfied with presenting, only in epitome: viz. the fact that, while Phrenology, as a system, was not framed to adapt it to revelation; but, is a system of nature, framed from multiplied observations, the Bible addresses man, as Phrenology sketches him. This position may be considered as sustained, by the considera- tions adduced under the preceding particular: where we have seen light imparted to the intellect; and restraint im- posed on the propensities; and impulse given to the sen- timents; by the revelations, and prohibitions, and motives, respectively, of the book of God. But it may be much more fully sustained: for we may take the individual powers, Intellectual, Moral, and Animal, and find each of them appropriately addressed in the sacred volume; whence the inference is irresistible, that they exist in the nature of man; or, that the system which ascribes them to him, is a true system: i. e. that Phrenology is in harmony with Revelation. It would extend this chapter to a length disproportionate to its character, as such, were a full and particular reference to be made to all the powers and faculties; and the passages of Scripture, addressing each, to be presented. Yet, it may be well, just to show briefly, by reference to some of them, the existence of the har- mony for which we contend. Phrenology teaches us that man has propensities which have an appropriate sphere of action; but that they must be confined within that sphere. Among these are, Destruc- tiveness, Secretiveness, Amativeness, Acquisitiveness, &c. Now the Bible recognises the existence of these; prescribes the limits within which they may operate; and forbids the overstepping of those limits. Destructiveness is allowed to operate so far as to destroy animal life for the sustenta- tion of the life of man, and the increase of his comfort: and the Scripture warrant for it is found, Gen. 9: 3. 'Every moving thing that liveth, shall be meat for you; THE SCRIPTURES AND PHRENOLOGY. 357 even as the green herb have I given you all things.5 But its rampant activity is forbidden in the commandment, 'Thou shalt do no murder;5 and even, in the declaration, 'A merciful man regardeth the life of his beast.5 Secre- tiveness has its appropriate sphere, and within that it is allowed to act; and the absence of it Revelation severely censures; ' A fool uttereth all his mind; but a wise man keepethitin, till afterwards;5 i. e. ' concealeth his feelings and purposes.5 But Secretiveness may be abused, to purposes of deceit and falsehood; and, accordingly, the Bible addresses it in the prohibition, ' Lie not one to another.' Amativeness may be lawfully active in its own sphere, under the direction of the moral sentiments; and what that sphere is, appears from the institution of marriage by the Creator, and from the command, ' Increase and multiply.' But it is liable to abuse; and hence the declaration, 'Whoremongers and adulterers God will judge:' and the prohibition, ' Thou shalt not commit adultery.' Acquisi- tiveness has its own proper sphere of activity: hence the command, ' Be thou diligent to know the state of thy flocks, and look well to thy herds;' and in short, all the com- mands to industry and enterprise, in the book of Proverbs. Yet it is liable to abuse; and hence the law, ' Thou shalt not steal;' and still more, 'Thou shalt not covet:'—stealing and covetousness being abuses of Acquisitiveness. It would be a waste of time and pains, to prove that the Bible addresses man as an intelligent, and reflecting being; —it is presumed this will not be questioned; and, of course, that none will doubt the harmony between the Scriptures and Phrenology in this particular. Yet it may be well, in passing, to observe that distinct addresses are made to the faculties of Comparison and Causality, in numerous portions of the holy Scriptures. What are all the beautiful parables of our Lord Jesus Christ, but so many appeals to the heart, through the faculty of Compari- son? And what are the long, and connected, and logical arguments of the apostle Paul in his epistles, but so many 358 ON THE HARMONY BETWEEN addresses to that power (Causality) which appreciates argument; and can trace effects up to their causes; and causes, out to their consequences? This is the use of the faculty; and this is encouraged: ' I speak as unto men of understanding; judge ye what I say.' (1 Cor. 10: 15.) But it is liable to abuse; and is abused when men will exalt it to the dominion in the soul; and believe nothing, the causes, and consequences, and mode of existence of which, they cannot comprehend. And how severely do the Scriptures reprove such a perversion of it! 'Canst thou by searching find out God? Canst thou find out the Almighty to perfection? It is high as heaven; what canst thou do? Deeper than hell; what canst thou know?' (Job 11:7,8. See also Job 38: to 41:) But there is an ornamental attribute of the intellectual nature of man, the design of which appears to have been, principally, to delight and to refine him;—viz. The sense of the beautiful, and perfect, and vast. This faculty Phre- nology terms ' Ideality.' The existence of this faculty the Bible recognises, and to it a large portion of that volume is addressed. It is well known that the Bible abounds in poetry, of the boldest, and of the most beautiful character: —this, then, must be addressed to that attribute in man which is capable of appreciating it: but the only such attribute is Ideality, or the sense of the sublime and beau- tiful: the fact, therefore, that a large portion of Scripture is addressed to that faculty, is proof of its existence, or that Phrenology and the Scriptures are in harmony. Phrenology ascribes to man the possession of an original and special attribute, the activity of which renders him desirous of the approbation of others. This sentiment it designates, ' Approbativeness,' or ' Love of Approbation;' and, like all the others, it has an appropriate sphere and degree of operation; and operating beyond which, it is abused. The word of God recognises the existence of this sentiment in man; and even appeals to it, to stimulate him to holy action, and stern self denial, and patient endur- THE SCRIPTURES AND PHRENOLOGY. 359 ance. Our Redeemer and his apostles call us to realize the solemnities of a coming judgment, in order to brace us up to this action and endurance, holding out to our view the ' Well done, good and faithful servant,' i. e. the ap- proving sentence of the Judge, as our reward. And what is this but an appeal to the ' Love of Approbation?' It is an appeal to it, tending to rouse it to its highest, holiest action; an action under the direction of the moral senti- ments. But it is liable to abuse; and this abuse is, in the holy Scriptures, sedulously guarded against, and strictly forbidden. Ostentation results from such an abuse; and the language of Revelation is, ' Take heed that ye do not your alms before men to be seen of them.' Shame also, sometimes results from such an abuse; and accordingly, the Scriptures carefully guard against it: ' Whosoever therefore shall be ashamed of me, and of my words, in this adulterous and sinful generation, of him also shall the Son of man be ashamed, when he cometh in the glory of his Father, with the holy angels.' (Mat. 8: 38.) It is the Phrenological sentiment, ' Firmness,5 which the Saviour addresses, when he bids his disciples to ' Fear not them who, when they have killed the body, have no more that they can do:' and he here calls them to the legitimate exercise of this sentiment. But it may be abus- ed; and then it degenerates into obstinacy. This abuse, therefore, the Scriptures forbid, and threaten. It is only when enlightened by intellect, and under the guidance of the moral nature, that it performs its appropriate duties; and then it is an essential constituent in the character of a martyr. When not thus enlightened and directed, it forms a striking element in the character of an enthusiast, or a bigot. The abuse of Firmness is thus threatened, in the volume of inspiration: ' He that, being often reproved, hardeneth his neck, shall suddenly be destroyed; and that without remedy.' (Prov. 29: 1.) It is evident, then, that the Scriptures recognise the existence of Firmness, and of Approbativeness; for they address them;—it is fur- 360 ON THE HARMONY BETWEEN thermore evident that they recognise a use, and an abuse of them; but this is exactly what Phrenology does; there- fore the Scriptures and Phrenology are in harmony. Let us now consider, briefly, man's moral nature, and we shall find that, respecting it, the harmony between Revelation and Phrenology is quite as striking. Man's moral nature is, by general consent, that which enables and inclines him to revere, admire, and love, whatever is great, and venerable, and good in the character of other beings; and, especially, in God;—to believe implicitly all which He makes known,—to perceive, as it were instinc- tively, the difference between the character of actions,— to hope for the fruition of all which God has promised, and to cherish kindly and benevolent feelings towards all his fellow beings. This corresponds, exactly, with what Phre- nology terms the ' Moral Sentiments:5 viz. Reverence, Mar- vellousness, (or the tendency to believe, on evidence which satisfies the intellect, what may, nevertheless, be above the comprehension of reason,) Conscientiousness, Hope, Benevolence, and some others. The doctrine of Phrenolo- gy is, that this is man's highest nature; and that it was de- signed to control the whole man: and, certainly, this is the doctrine of Revelation. Phrenology says, moreover, that the Moral Sentiments are blind in their impulses; as truly so as the Propensities; and that, therefore, the man may mistake wrong for right;—may revere an idol or a relic;— may believe a lie;—may hope for what there is no founda- tion for expecting, &c. And does not Revelation in this, harmonize with Phrenology? 'The time cometh, when whosoever killeth you, will think that he doeth God ser- vice.5 (John 16: 2.) Blind Conscientiousness is here de- scribed; as it is also in the following passage: ' I verily thought with myself that / ought to do many things contra- ry to the name of Jesus of Nazareth.5 (Acts 26: 9.) Blind Reverence, and Marvellousness are described in all the exhibitions of idolatry, and its fables, which the Scrip- tures contain. (See Isa. 44: 9—20.) Furthermore Phre- THE SCRIPTURES AND PHRENOLOGY. 361 nology says, that the moral sentiments must be enlight- ened by intellect; but that intellect itself is dark; and needs to be enlightened by Revelation. Can any one doubt the accordance of this doctrine with Revelation? Let them read the following passages, and they will doubt no longer. ' Their foolish heart was darkened.5 Rom. 1: 21. This is said of philosophical idolaters, who, ' profess- ing themselves to be wise, became fools.5 Christians, on the contrary, are said to have had ' the eyes of their under- standing enlightened:' and, Is it asked by what means? This is the answer; ' We have a sure word of prophecy, unto which ye do well that ye take heed, as unto a light that shineth in a dark place.' (Eph. 1:18. 2 Pet. 1: 19.) Again, Phrenology gives to the moral sentiments supre- macy over the whole man; and consequently, over even the intellectual powers, to which the moral nature owes its light. And reasonably: for, on moral subjects, the light of intellect is borrowed from Revelation, i. e. from God: and it is right and fit that the light derived to the moral senti- ments from God, should be held superior to the native light of intellect, which on such subjects, is dark, without the aid of Revelation. Intellect may be employed in ascer- taining that it is God who speaks in Revelation; and also, in inquiring what he communicates; but, beyond this point, has no jurisdiction: It is, subsequently, to be in subjection to the moral sentiments. Of these, one is Marvellousness, or the capacity for believing, and the tendency to believe, what, nevertheless, we cannot comprehend. I need not say that the possession, by man, of such a sentiment, is in harmony with Revelation: for it is this, indeed, which adapts him to receive a revelation, such as the Bible pre- sents to him. A large portion of the contents of the sacred volume, contains information, not only on subjects which reason could not have discovered; but which, now that they are revealed, reason cannot understand. Such are the deity of Christ, the doctrine of the trinity, divine omniscience, and omnipresence, &c. Had our Maker 31 362 ON THE HARMONY BETWEEN not formed us with a sentiment of marvellousness, we could not have believed these particulars, in the revelation which he has given us. But, being endowed with such a sentiment, we are not only capable of receiving the infor- mation he has communicated; but have even a tendency, a predisposition, to receive it. In this view, Phrenology exhibits the benevolence of our Creator. Our belief of these mysterious truths was, doubt- less, necessary, in order to our highest advantage; and our Maker saw it to be so. To have rendered us capable of believing them, then, seems (with reverence, be it said) an act of justice to his creatures; or, at least, an act declara- tive of his justice, in his dealings with them: but to give us a tendency toward such a belief, was an act of spontane- ous benevolence. Such a tendency, the sentiment of Mar- vellousness imparts; and its existence is a proof of Divine benevolence. But it is Phrenology which makes us ac- quainted with Marvellousness; and which, therefore, gives this proof of the goodness of our Creator. There is another thought connected with this subject; viz: That Phrenology exhibits the justice of God in the punishment of unbelievers. It is, plainly, a righteous demand which our Creator makes on us, that we believe his communications; seeing he has made us, not only capable of so doing, but tending so to do; by the bestow- ment, on us, of the sentiment of Marvellousness. Now, as this is found in all persons, in a greater or less degree, it is in vain that men allege that they cannot believe what they cannot comprehend; and that therefore there is no sin in disbelieving. They not only can believe; but, according to the constitution of their nature, are inclined to believe such truths; and if they are not so inclined in fact, it is because intellect is not in subjection, but in dominion; not controlled by the moral sentiment, Marvel- lousness, but controlling it. Now this is a .violation of the appointment of the Creator; — a subjection of the moral to the intellectual nature,—of the superior to the inferior: i. e. it is sin; and it merits punishment: and pun THE SCRIPTURES AND PHRENOLOGY. 363 ishment the more severe, because the sin is not only against the righteousness of God, in giving us powers capable of believing; but against the goodness of God, in giving us also a tendency to believe. Such is the doctrine of Phre- nology;—how nearly it is in harmony with Revelation, let the following passages show. ' He that believeth not God, hath made him a liar; because he believeth not the record that God gave of his Son.5 (1 John 5: 10.) ' He that believeth not shall be damned.5 (Mat. 16: 16.) Phre- nology, then, proves that God is not arbitrary, ' reaping where he had not sown; and gathering where he had not strawed;' in demanding the belief of mysterious, and in- comprehensible truths; since the nature of man is adapted, and even predisposed to receive them; and also, that the punishment threatened against unbelief, is not threatened in wantonness, but in righteousness, and equity. It would be equally easy to show the harmony of Phre- nology with Revelation, by a detailed examination of the other moral sentiments, Hope, Reverence, Conscientious- ness, Benevolence, &.c.; but, this examination must be omitted; as well as that of some (the Propensities) of which we have not mentioned even the names. Enough has, however, been said, to satisfy a candid mind of the truth of our position; 'That the Bible addresses man as Phrenology sketches him;' and, therefore, that these are in perfect harmony with each other. We proceed now, therefore, to show the harmony between Phrenology and Revelation, with regard to some of the leading doctrines of evangelical religion. Of the present moral condition of human nature, Reve- lation teaches us that it is depraved: that men 'are all gone aside; that they are all together become filthy;—that there is none that doeth good, no, not one.5 (Ps. 14: 3.) With this statement, and similar ones in other parts of the sacred volume, it is not exactly obvious that the doctrines of Phrenology are in harmony. Phrenology maintains that as human nature is the nroduction of Infinite Wisdom and 364 ON THE HARMONY BETWEEN Goodness, it cannot be, in its own nature evil; and that no propensity or faculty or sentiment in its own nature is evil, nor is the legitimate use of any of them evil. Appar- ently, then, Phrenology and Revelation are at issue on the subject of the actual condition of human nature. But allow Revelation and Phrenology mutually to explain; and it will be found, that their disagreement is nothing more than apparent. Revelation nowhere asserts that the elements of man's nature are in themselves evil;—nor that they were imparted to the end that they might produce evil. Revelation traces the evil of human nature to the abuse of its powers; and in asserting the fact of human depravity, asserts only that all men, without exception, do abuse or pervert their faculties. To this Phrenology assents, most cordially; and declares, that men generally are not (as they ought to be, and as they were designed to be,) guided by enlightened intellect, and the moral senti- ments; but by the propensities: i. e. that 'they are gone aside ' from the line of duty, and the laws of their Maker; and that they have thus degraded their moral nature from dominion to vassalage. This is what Revelation means, when it designates men as 'all together become filthy;' and therefore though there is a difference in phraseology, between a scriptural description of human nature, as it actually exists, and a Phrenological description of it; it is in phraseology alone, and not in the state of human nature, which both recognise. It is certain that the introduction of sin produced a great and lamentable change in the moral character of man; but, it is also certain, that it did not produce any essential change in his nature. Previous to the introduc- tion of sin, man was an animal, an intellectual, and a moral being; and, it is evident, that he is just such a being to the present hour. Is it asked, then, ' In what consists his sinfulness, or depravity?' The answer is perfectly easy. It consists not in the annihilation of any single power, or faculty, which he possessed in the day of his THE SCRIPTURES AND PHRENOLOGY. 365 creation; nor in the addition of a single power, or faculty, to those with which he was originally endowed. It con- sists in the destruction of the instituted balance between them. The harmony of man's powers was destroyed by sin; and that harmony constituted his innocence and his happiness. We have seen that Revelation and Phrenology agree that the design of the Creator was that the moral nature of man should rule;—it was originally invested with the dominion of the soul: of that dominion sin has deprived it, and subsequently to the entrance of sin, human nature has presented various phases of moral disorder; accord- ing as the animal, or the intellectual nature has assumed the government; or as it has been divided between them, If the animal and selfish part has obtained the ascendency, the man has been ' earthly and sensual;' and if the intel- lectual and animal nature have held unitedly the sceptre of the soul, the character of the man has been 'devilish:' for what other conception do we form of Satan himself, than that of a mighty intellect broken loose from the restraints of morality. Such were the cultivated Greeks and Romans of antiquity. Phrenology and Revelation are in harmony, then, as far as regards what man was, and what he is; nor does the correspondence terminate here: it extends to what he must become. Phrenology sees man, in the grosser speci- mens of our nature, under the dominion of his mere animal feelings; or it contemplates him as virtually a brute. In the more refined part of our species, if they be merely refined, (such as were the philosophical Greeks and Ro- mans, in whom Intellect and the Propensities were the predominant powers,) Phrenology sees a character which must be acknowledged to be Satanic. Now Phrenology declares that, in each of these cases, the law of God, as impressed on man's nature, is transgressed; and that, as a consequence, he cannot be happy;—happiness being inseparable from obedience to God's laws. In order to his restoration to happiness, Phrenology declares that the 31* 366 ON THE HARMONY BETWEEN prostrated moral powers must be elevated to the dominion; and the dominant animal or intellectual powers reduced to subjection: that man must cease to be either a brute, or a demon; and must become human; which he can only be, by the dominion of those moral sentiments which are pe- culiar to the human animal, and which ally him to higher and holier beings. The agreement of Revelation with Phrenology relative to the former portion of these its declarations, has already been indirectly shown, in the reference made to the apostle James's description of human nature; as ' earthly, sensual, and devilish.' Nor is it less obvious with respect to the latter portion of them — those which declare what man must become, in order to his happiness. On this point the voice of Revelation is ' Ye must be born again; except a man be born again he cannot see the kingdom of God.' Now man has received his present nature with his birth; and when the Scriptures assert the necessity of his pos- sessing another nature, it is quite natural to say (strong as is the figure,) ' Ye must have another birth, or be born again.5 Where is the difference between the language of Phrenology ' that the human faculties, the Moral Senti- ments, must rule, or that man must become human,'and that of Revelation that he must be ' renewed in the spirit of his mind.' It is true that Phrenological writers have not extended their observations particularly to individuals; they have regarded the species generally: and hence we may say that Phrenology, in so far as it is a system of philosophy laid down in their writings, treats only of human nature; and not of the individuals who are partakers of it. But if Phrenology be a true system of the philosophy of man, we are not to consider it as fully developed in the works which are already extant:—it is merely sketched in bold, but just outline; and the artists who have drawn the sketch, have left it to posterity to fill up the picture, and bring it to perfection. Thus Phrenology, as found in the books, THE SCRIPTURES AND PHREaNOLOGY. 367 almost overlooks the great work of restoring the dominion of the Moral Sentiments in individuals; or, to speak in scriptural language, of converting the soul: and looks for- ward, as to the only hope of improving the race, to such measures as shall physically tend to improve the cerebral organization. This, however, is the bearing of Phrenolo- gy, as found in the books; or these are the views of those Phrenologists who have, as yet, written and published their opinions; and not, necessarily, as that of Phrenology itself. Nay, the bearing of Phrenology itself, in fact, is such, as to favor attempts at the restoration of the dominion of the Moral Sentiments in individuals; and, here again, the harmony of Phrenology with Revelation is strikingly and beautifully conspicuous. Phrenology teaches us, not only that there are many more fundamental powers and faculties in man, than he was formerly supposed to possess; but, that these are capable of activity, independent of each other; and that, consequently, the extreme activity of one set of faculties, may overbear that of the others: Indeed, that this is actu- ally the case, in all men, naturally; for, that the Moral Sentiments are overborne, by the propensities, or the Intel- lect. Now, in teaching us that the powers and faculties of men are capable of activity, independent of each other, Phrenology teaches us that the Moral Sentiments can be thus active; and, moreover, that, on presenting to them their proper stimuli, they will be thus active; and will overbear, or reduce to subordination, the propensities and the Intellect. Should this be done the man is changed, renewed, converted, born again; and even Phrenology itself teaches us the possibility of individual improvement; which the Scriptures term personal conversion. Now that Revelation and Phrenology are in harmony, on this point, is evident, from the fact, that the Scriptures present these stimuli to the Moral Sentiments, on almost every page. They are presented by the light which Revelation affords to the Intellect, relative to the dignity of our moral nature, 368 ON THE HARMONY BETWEEN and the degradation it suffers, when in subjection to the inferior powers. They thus tend to rouse it to the asser- tion of its rights; and to command the actually dominant powers into subjection. But they are more especially pre- sented, by the displays which Revelation makes, of those great subjects which are adapted, especially, to stimulate them; for example,— of the love of God, in the gift of his Son; thus exciting Benevolence to unwonted activity, and discovering itself in lively gratitude:—of the real evil of sin, since, to avert its consequences, and vindicate the honor of the violated law, the death of Christ, as a sacri- fice, was rendered necessary; thus calling forth a proper activity of Conscientiousness, with regard to the rights of God, to uniform and perfect obedience from man:—of the inflexible rectitude, and immaculate purity of the divine character, in visiting, upon the person of his Son, when standing in the sinner's place, the transgression of his law, with the inflictions of his displeasure; thus powerfully ap- pealing to our Reverence; and, since he spared not his own Son, bidding us never hope that he will compromise justice, by suffering the impenitent sinner to escape;—of the riches of mercy, extended to the chief of sinners; thus calling into exercise our Hope, and increasing the energy of its operation, by the assurance that ' the eye of the Lord is on them that hope in his mercy, to deliver their soul from death;'—and of the harmony of the apparently con- flicting attributes of Deity, in the salvation of sinners by Jesus Christ; thus appropriately addressing our Wonder, or Marvellousness, by the spectacle of Christ ' set forth to be a propitiation, through faith in his blood; to declare the righteousness of God in the forgiveness of sins;' so that he appears manifestly just, while he, yet, justifies the transgressors of his law, who believe in Jesus. The agreement of all this with fact, or experience, every reno- vated soul is able to testify. He knows that he loves the Savior 'because he first loved him;' or, that his Benevo- lence has been roused to activity by the perception of the THE SCRIPTURES AND PHRENOLOGY. 369 benevolence of God. He knows that his most clear per-' ceptions of the evil of sin, have consisted in the discovery that it had been committed against God, (Ps. 51: 4.) i. e. that, in its commission, the rights of God had been violated; while the extent of those rights, and the consequent evil of violating them, was especially apparent, in connection with the death of Christ as an atoning sacrifice. And while his hope though humble, is yet unshaken, in the riches of divine mercy, he feels that a merciful God is yet ' glorious in holiness, and to be feared even while he is praised;' or, Phrenologically speaking, that God is such, viewed in connection with the economy of redemption, as to call into combined, and simultaneous exercise, his Reverence and his Hope. And while some, in whom intellect claims the dominion of the soul, may pity, and perhaps, ridicule his reception of the doctrine of Christ crucified, as harmonizing the apparently antagonist attri- butes of Deity, his intellect, chastened by Wonder, has embraced it, as adapted both to his nature, and his neces- sities:—thus, though this truth is 'to them that perish foolishness; it is, to them that believe, the wisdom of God, and the power of God;' and ' Christ of God is made unto us wisdom, and righteousness, and sanctification, and redemption.' The harmony of Revelation with Phrenology, relative to the doctrine of personal conversion, is here: Phrenology teaches us the possibility of the activity of the moral sen- timents, independent of the other powers; and also, that they may be excited, by appropriate stimuli, to overbear and subjugate those powers: and Revelation teaches us that, in the case of every converted person, these phe- nomena actually present themselves. The Moral Senti- ments, roused and excited by the appropriate moral stim- uli with which Revelation, and especially Christianity, abounds, assume the dominion of the soul; and subjugate the Animal Propensities, and the Intellectual Powers to its authority; and 'the grace of God which bringeth salvation, 370 ON THE HARMONY BETWEEN •teaches us to deny ungodliness and worldly lusts; to cru- cify the flesh with the affections and lusts; and to cast down imaginations, or reasonings, and every high thing, that exalteth itself against the knowledge of God; and to bring into captivity every thought to the obedience of Christ.5 (Tit. 2: 12. Gal. 5: 24. 2 Cor. 10: 5.) But let it not be supposed that this supremacy of the Moral Sentiments is either acquired, or retained, without an effort. Far from it: the struggle is long, and painful, before the propensities, long accustomed to command, will give up the dominion; and when it has been surren- dered, they are still on the alert to recover the ascendency; and require to be kept down by a strong hand. This is the doctrine of Phrenology; and what is that of Revela- tion? Why, that the restoration of the dominion to the higher sentiments, is a point of difficulty so great, as that it is almost a moral impossibility. ' Can the Ethiopian change his skin? or the leopard his spots? Then may ye also do good, who are accustomed to do evil.' (Jer. 13: 23.) Nor is it less explicit, relative to the difficulty with which the propensities, even when reduced to subjection, are retained in subordination to the Moral Sentiments: especially in persons in whom their developments are con- siderable. Paul the apostle was such a person. All that is recorded of him, previous to his conversion, represents him, not only as a person under the dominion of the lower feelings; but as one in whom those feelings were extreme- ly active and powerful. He kept the clothes of Stephen's murderers ;—' he breathed threatenings and slaughter' against the disciples of Jesus;—' he entered every house' where they were found; and delivered them to the autho- rities, to be imprisoned, or put to death;—'he punished them oft, in every synagogue, and compelled them to blaspheme;' and was so ' exceedingly mad against them, that he persecuted them even unto strange cities.5 The ascendency over propensities so strong, and so active, was not given to the Moral Sentiments in his case but by mi- THE SCRIPTURES AND PHRENOLOGY. 371 raculous interference; yet the energy of action to which that interference excited his Moral Sentiments, was such, that they were made to predominate, notwithstanding. But it was not, of course, without a preternatural struggle; and so strong were the lower feelings, even when enchain- ed, so to speak, that they gave no little trouble, to the great apostle, during life; and, occasionally, they gained the ascendency. This is evident from his language in the seventh chapter of the Epistle to the Romans. ' Sin, taking occasion by the commandment, wrought in me all manner of concupiscence.—That which I do I allow not: for what I would, that do I not; but what I hate, that do I. —For I know that in me, that is, in my flesh, (or animal nature,) dwelleth no good thing: for to will is present with me; but how to perform that which is good I find not. For the good that I would, I do not; and the evil that I would not, that I do.—I find then a law, that when I would do good, evil is present with me. For I delight in the law of God after the inward man; but I see another law in my members, (viz. the Propensities,) warring against the law of my mind, (viz. the Moral Sentiments,) and bringing me into captivity to the law of sin, which is in my members. 0, wretched man,that lam! Who shall deliver me from the body of this death?' (Rom. 7: 8. et seq.) And what this apostle experienced in himself, he recognised in his fellow Christians; and, accordingly, affords them an an- alysis of their own painful experience; and gives them suitable instructions for their conduct. ' The flesh (or Pro- pensities) lusteth against the spirit, (or the Moral Senti- ments,) and the spirit against the flesh; and these are con- trary the one to the other; so that ye cannot do the things that ye would.' ' If ye live after the flesh, (yield the dominion to the Propensities) ye shall die; but if ye, through the spirit, do mortify the deeds of the body, ye shall live.' 'For they that are Christ's, have crucified the flesh, with the affections and lusts.' (Gal. 5: 17. Rom 8-13 Gal. 5:24.) It is thus rendered evident, that, on the'subject of an internal conflict in the breast of 372 ON THE HARMONY BETWEEN a good man, between antagonist principles, and which is commonly termed ' indwelling sin,' the harmony between Revelation and Phrenology, is satisfactorily established. Another point, on which this harmony is no less com- plete, is that of the diversity between the original endow- ments, and consequent advantages of individuals, and their correspondently various responsibility. It is asserted by Phrenology, in opposition to the declared opinions of phi- losophers of other schools, in every age, that there is an original difference in the capacities and powers of men, whether intellectual or moral; as there is seen to be in their physical constitution. Phrenology does not acknow- ledge that all the differences actually existing, between the intellectual power, and moral principle of men, are purely accidental; and the effects of intellectual "and moral culture. It is, indeed, admitted, that this can accomplish much; and that it ought to be carried to the highest pos- sible point of perfection; and to embrace, moreover, the propensities, within its sphere, which should be trained to obey, while Intellect is taught to enlighten, and the Moral Sentiments to command. But it is not admitted that edu- cation can impart, or create powers, intellectual, or moral; nor that it can eradicate, though it may tame and control, the propensities. Phrenology, then, is on this point, at va- riance with other systems of philosophy; but is in harmony with Revelation, to which those other systems are opposed. For, what is the doctrine of the Bible upon this subject? It teaches us the inequality of the distribution of the in- tellectual and moral, and even animal, elements of our nature; and the consequent variety in our moral accounta- bility. The parable of the Talents does this: one servant received five, and another two, and another one; for the design of the Lord was to show that each was accountable for what was entrusted to him; and that the accountability varied with the trust. If it be said, that, in the kindred parable of the pounds, all the servants are said to have received an equal amount, this does not invalidate the statement above made; for, in this parable, our Lord's THE SCRIPTURES AND PHRENOLOGY. 373 intention was different; namely, to show that future re- ward would be in proportion to present diligence: and thus he whose diligence had converted his pound into ten pounds, was invested with authority over ten cities; and he who had gained five pounds, over five cities. But accountability is proportioned to the amount entrusted; and hence, he who, in the former parable, had received fiva talents, comes not to render his account of two; nor is he who had received two, called on to account for five. And, in both the parables, the servant who is condemned, incurs the displeasure of his master, not because one pound, or talent, had not become, in his hands, ten, or five, or even two; but because he had indolently failed to attempt improving it. This is the doctrine of Phrenology, exactly: that the endowments of men are unequal; and that, as their circumstances vary, their faculties for the cultivation of their powers, vary also; and consequently, that their responsibility varies; while, in any given endow- ment, and under any given circumstances, success will be proportionate to effort, and guilt to negligence. And mark the harmony of Scripture with this: ' If I had not come and spoken to them, they had not had sin; (i. e. they would have been, comparatively, guiltless;) but now they have no cloak for their sin.' And upon the same principle was the wo greater which should fall on Capernaum, and Chorazin and Bethsaida, than on Tyre and Sidon, and Sodom. And, agreeing on the variety of intellectual and moral endowment in individuals, Revelation and Phre- nology agree, also, in the claim they make on men, for the exercise of candor and forbearance and charity towards others; both as to their opinions and feelings; and as to their practices. They both see that two men, differently constituted, cannot view a given subject in the same light; nor feel towards it, with the same intenseness of interest. Neither Phrenology nor Revelation, therefore, insists that all men shall see with the same eyes; nor brands, as wil- fulness and obstinacy, what may be indeed infirmity, and 32 371 ON THE HARMONY BETWEEN even, misguided Conscientiousness. They, on the contra- ry, agree in saying to us all, respecting those that differ from us, ' What hast thou to do, to judge another man's servant? To his own master he standeth or falleth: yea, he shall be holden up; for God is able to make him stand. Judge not, that ye be not judged.' (Rom. 14:4. Mat. 7: 1.) Phrenology and Revelation harmonize, also, in their estimate of virtue. It is the doctrine of Phrenology that no action can be termed virtuous of which self is, in any way, the object: but that it must be confined to those actions which involve the relations of man to his Maker, and to his fellow beings. In several of those powers which are termed Moral Sentiments, Phrenology teaches us that the object which they regard is self, in one or other of its modifications. For example, that Self-Esteem is affected by every thing which has a tendency to increase or dimin- ish the importance of self;—that Approbativeness is affect- ed by the light in which self may be regarded by others; that Cautiousness is excited by whatever appears pregnant with personal injury, or which threatens the well-being of self: and so of the rest, and that, in short, there are only three of our Moral Sentiments which are truly unselfish in their character: viz. Conscientiousness, Reverence, and Benevolence. These, therefore, Phrenology terms the Superior Sentiments, and the others (though termed sen- timents) are distinguished as Inferior Sentiments. Now how strictly in accordance Revelation is with Phrenology, in this estimate, will appear, if we compare it, either with the summary of all virtue,—our Lord's epitome of the law,—with the details of that law, in the decalogue;—or with the compendium of all duty, given by the prophet. Our Lord's epitome of the law, embraces only the relations of man to God, and his fellows; and prescribes a course of conduct, which should perfectly fulfil the obligations arising out of them. ' Thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all thy heart, and with all thy mind, and with all thy soul, and with all thy strength; and thy neighbor as thy- self.' If we proceed another step, and examine the details THE SCRIPTURES AND PHRENOLOGY. 375 of the law thus epitomized; we shall perceive, that obedi- ence to the first four precepts of the decalogue, involves the duties arising out of the relation of man to his Creator; and obedience to them will flow from enlightened Con- scientiousness and Veneration: for it is Conscientiousness which acknowledges the justice of homage to such a Be- ing; and it is Veneration, or Reverence, which inspires the emotion in which that homage is rendered. The fifth pre- cept is obeyed when Conscientiousness, and Veneration, and Benevolence, act in harmony, towards those who stand in the specified, or implied relations which the com- mand contemplates. The sixth is obeyed by the united activity of Benevolence and Conscientiousness; maintained in activity by Reverence: and the remaining four by Con- scientiousness, either alone, or in combination with Benev- olence, and Veneration. Let us now pass on to the com- pendium of moral excellence, given by the prophet Micah; t (6: 8.) where we find the harmony of Phrenology with Revelation to be, even critical. Conscientiousness dic- tates Justice, Benevolence, Kindness, and Veneration, Hu- mility; and now listen to the prophet; ' He hath showed thee, O man, what is good; and what doth the Lord re- quire of thee, but to do justly, and to love mercy, and to walk humbly with thy God ?' There is one other point on which the harmony between Phrenology and Revelation is equally conspicuous as in the last; and with a brief notice of this point we shall bring this subject to a close: viz. The estimate which both put, upon the merit of human virtue. On this subject Phrenology is the only system of Moral Philosophy (not based on Revelation) which harmonizes with the word of God. It is scarcely necessary to say, that the Holy Scriptures are explicit, in their declarations, that there is, and can be, no merit in human actions; be they never so perfect, and never so disinterested in their character. Not only are the actual deeds of men who ' esteem them- selves to be righteous, and despise others,' declared to be abominable in the sight of God:—not only are the most 376 ON THE HARMONY BETWEEN perfect works of the saints, declared to be defiled with such an admixture of sin, as renders their ' righteousness, filthy rags:'—but, moreover, the Scriptures take the high ground of declaring, that absolutely perfect obedience to all which God requires of man, and this, through the whole period of his existence, could not merit any thing at the hand of God. ' When ye have done all those things which are commanded you, say, We are unprofitable ser- vants; we have done that which was our duty to do.' ' Can a man be profitable to God, as he that is wise may be profitable unto himself ? Is it any pleasure to the Almighty that thou art righteous? or is it gain to him that thou makest thy way perfect ? ' 'If thou sinnest, what doest thou against him ? or if thy transgressions be multi- plied, what doest thou unto him? If thou be righteous what givest thou him? or what receiveth he of thine hand? Thy wickedness may hurt a man as thou art; and thy righteousness may profit the son of man.' ' How then can man be justified with God ? or how can he be clean which is born of a woman? Behold even to the moon, and it shineth not; and the stars are not clean in his sight: how much less man that is a worm, and the son of man which is a worm.' (Luke 17: 10. Job 22: 2, 3. 35: 6—8. 25: 4—6.) It is admitted that the quotations here made from the book of Job, may, with greater propriety, be adduced to disprove the existence of perfect rectitude in man, than to prove its destitution of merit; (and in this they harmo- nize with Phrenology,) but they are, yet, apposite to the latter subject; as they show the Divine independence of such rectitude, even if it did exist; and that, consequent- ly, he could not be indebted to its possessors; or they must be devoid of merit before him. But the quotation from Luke is entirely appropriate; and it asserts, explicitly, the utter absence of merit, even in absolutely perfect virtue. This, then, is the doctrine of Revelation on the subject: what is that of Phrenology ? For an answer to this question, we beg the reader to bear in mind, that Phrenology considers only that course THE SCRIPTURES AND PHRENOLOGY. 377 of righteous action to be virtue, from which all conside- rations of self are excluded; and which arises from the activity of Conscientiousness, Reverence, and Benevo- lence, either separately, or conjointly and in harmony. Now it is manifest that the proper tribunal at which to judge of the merit of virtue, or to try the question whether it really possess merit, is not that of those sentiments and feelings, or any of them, which are selfish in their nature; for these are partial, and interested judges. In other words, the inferior sentiments must not be entrusted with the decision of a cause of so great importance;—it can be de- cided only by the superior ones; Conscientiousness, Ven- eration, and Benevolence. Now it is obvious that Con- scientiousness can see no merit in acting righteously; for such action is merely the gratification of its inclination: and who ever saw merit in seeking gratification? It is equally plain that Veneration perceives no merit in render- ing homage to superiority; for, to render such homage is its natural tendency; or, again, the sentiment is itself gratified by so doing. The same is true of Benevolence; for where is the truly benevolent man who could ever see merit in being kind, and compassionate? You only pain him by the allusion to it: he can see nothing, in his benev- olent action, but duty; and feels that he would have been guilty, had he not performed it. If it be said that these sentiments are not competent judges of the question in hand, because that question relates to their own actions? we reply, that they are, certainly, unexceptionable judges, since the decision which they pronounce, is against them- sgIvbs It may, perhaps, be said, that, in our zeal to harmonize Phrenology and Revelation, we are in danger of arraying Nature against Phrenology; for, that in fact, we are in the daily practice of conceiving merit, as connected with the operations of Conscientiousness, and Veneration, and Be- nevolence; and that these conceptions have their founda- tion in Nature ;-they must therefore be accounted for Phrenoloo-ically; or Nature and Phrenology will be at issue. 378 ON THE HARMONY BETWEEN This demand we acknowledge to be righteous; and we feel no disposition to evade it. We admit, then, the exis- tence of the conception of merit, as connected with the practice of virtue; but we contend that that conception arises from the activity of the inferior sentiments, and selfish feelings. The proof of this position we shall pre- sent, in an illustration or two, derived from the volume of Inspiration. We all, as it were, instinctively, ascribe merit to the martyr constancy with which Daniel's three worthies awaited, and endured, the infliction of the sentence uttered against them, for refusing to worship Nebuchadnezzar's golden image. But it is not Conscientiousness, or Rev- erence, or Benevolence, which ascribes it. It is Love of Approbation, contemplating them reduced from the post of honor in which they were ' set over the affairs of the Province of Babylon,' to that condition of ignominy, in which they stood as criminals before their king, and as violators of his commands; and Cautiousness, which tells us of the fearful onsets which Conscientiousness and Ven- eration must have endured, when the thoughts of the burning fiery furnace were presented; and when 'Nebu- chadnezzar was full of fury, and the form of his visage was changed against them; and he commanded that they should heat the furnace seven times hotter than it was wont to be heated; and that the most mighty men in his army should bind ' the victims of his rage, and cast them into it: these selfish sentiments can understand the nature of the assaults which the superior ones sustained; and it is for this reason that we attach the idea of merit to their supremacy. We will take another illustration from the same sacred volume;—that of the patriarch Job. What are the par- ticulars in his history, a contemplation of which suggests to our minds the idea of the merit of his enduring and inviolate piety? In other words, what are those sentiments and feelings in us, which invest the virtue of that patriarch with the attribute of merit? Our higher sentiments highly approve of his exclamation, when messenger after messen- ger arrived, each deepening the affliction of the holy man, THE SCRIPTURES AND PHRENOLOGY. 379 until he was cast from the pinnacle of earthly greatness, into the depths of desolation and distress: ' The Lord gave, and the Lord hath taken away;' ' shall we receive good at the hand of the Lord, and shall we not receive evil?' 'Blessed be the name of the Lord!' But the very fact that this is the language of the superior sentiments, pre- vents any perception, by these sentiments, of the merit of their predominance. When we see merit in the piety of Job, we look at him spoiled of his possessions, bereft of his children, degraded from rank to wretchedness, from honor to disesteem; and, moreover, anticipating, occasion- ally, deeper and more terrible calamities for the future. But these are the visions of the inferior sentiments, and the propensities; and the conception of merit is theirs also. By sympathy, our Acquisitiveness is wounded by the loss of his flocks, and herds, and camels, and asses, and ser- vants; and our Philoprogenitiveness and Adhesiveness, in the bereavement of his children; and our Self-Esteem, under the loss of station, and influence, and importance; and its substitution, by degradation, and wretchedness; and our Love of Approbation, which sees those ' younger than he having him in derision, making him their song, and their by-word; and not sparing to spit in his face;' and remem- bers that ' Unto him men gave ear, and waited, and kept silence at his counsel. After his words they spake not again, and his speech distilled upon them; he chose out their way, and sat chief; and dwelt as a king in the army.' It is the activity of these, together with that of a morbid Cautiousness, foreboding still further trials, which invests the virtue of Job with the attribute of merit. But these are all, either animal propensities, or inferior senti- ments; and, of course, their decision, on the merit of virtue is inadmissible. Nature, then, in her blind impulses, or as her voice is heard in the suggestions of the inferior senti- ments proclaims the merit of virtue, and Phrenology accounts for her error; but at the same time declares that it is an error; and that the higher sentiments correspond in their decision, with the sentence of inspiration;-that 380 OX THE HARMONY BETWEEN ' when we have done all those things which are command- ed us, we are unprofitable servants; and have done only what was our duty to do:' and that, consequently, 'the reward will be of grace, and not of debt.' And it must be so; for ' if the merit of the most virtuous actions is perceiv- ed solely by the operation of the lower and selfish part of our nature—of those feelings and desires, in a word, which are opposed to virtue,—these actions must necessarily appear devoid of all merit to that Infinite Mind, in which such feelings- and desires are necessarily unknown.'* He views things exactly as they are; and he views virtue, even when perfect, as without merit; therefore it is without merit; and much more the virtue, so called, of imperfect beings. Thus we have seen that Revelation and Phrenology harmonize,—that some mysterious truths of the one are analogically illustrated by the other;—that both teach the supremacy of man's moral nature;—that Revelation ad- dresses the individual powers and faculties, which Phre- nology ascribes to man;—that Revelation and Phrenology, alike, suppose man designed, by his Creator, to believe mysterious truths;—and capable of believing them;—and guilty in disbelieving them;—and righteously punished if this disbelief be persevered in;—that both agree in declar- ing human nature in a fallen condition;—and requiring a change, which is really radical;—that both recognise a moral conflict in the breast of a good man, between an- tagonist principles;—that both acknowledge a diversity of endowment, and consequent responsibility;—that" both demand candor and charity in judging of others;—that both agree in their estimate of virtue; and in exploding the doctrine of human merit. Truth and Error cannot have so many points of harmony. * Phrenological Journal, Vol. III. No. XII. p. 509. APPENDIX. NATURAL LAWS. —Text, p. 27. In the text it is mentioned, that many philosophers have treated of the Laws of Nature. The following are examples :— Mr. Stewart says, ' To examine the economy of nature in the phenomena of the lower animals, and to compare their instincts with the physical circumstances of their external situation, forms one of the finest speculations of Natural History; and yet it is a speculation to which the attention of the natural historian has sel- dom been directed. Not only Buffon, but Ray and Derham, have passed it over slightly; nor, indeed, do I know of any one who has made it the object of a particular consideration but Lord Kames, in a short Appendix to one of his Sketches.'—Elements of the Philoso- phy of the Human Mind, vol. hi. p. 368. Mr. Stewart also uses the following words :—' Numberless ex- amples show that Nature has done no more for man than was nec- essary for his preservation, leaving him to make many acquisitions for himself, which she has imparted immediately to the brutes. ' My own idea is, as I have said on a different occasion, that both instinct and experience are here concerned, and that the share which belongs to each in producing the result, can be ascertained by an appeal to facts alone.'—Vol. iii. ch. 338. Montesquieu introduces his Spirit of Laws by the following observations :—' Laws, in their most general signification, are the necessary relations derived from the nature of things. In this sense, all beings have their laws ; the Deity has his laws ; the material world its laws ; the intelligences superior to man have their laws; the beasts their laws ; man his laws. ' Those who assert that a blind fatality produced the various effects we behold in this world, are guilty of a very great absurdity ; for can any thing be more absurd than to pretend that a blind fatality could be productive of intelligent beings ? ' There is, then, a primitive reason; and laws are the relations which subsist between it and different beings, and the relations of these beings among themselves. ' God is related to the universe as Creator and preserver; the laws by which he has created all things are those by which he preserves them He acts according to these rules, because he knows them : he 382 APPENDIX.--NATURAL LAWS. knows them because he has made them; and he made them because they are relative to his wisdom and power, &c. ' Man, as a physical bang, is, like other bodies, governed by inva- riable laws.'—Spirit of Laws, b. i. c. i. Justice Blackstone observes, that ' Law, in its most general and comprehensive sense, signifies a rule of action; and is applied in- discriminately to all kinds of action, loheiher animate or inanimate, rational or irrational. Thus we say, the laws of motion, of gravi- tation, of optics, or mechanics, as well as the laws of nature and of nations. Thus, when the Supreme Being formed the universe, and created matter out of nothing, he impressed certain principles upon that matter, from which it can never depart, and without which it would cease to be. When he put that matter into motion, he established certain laws of motion, to which all movable bodies must conform.' — 'If we farther advance from mere inactive matter to vegetable and animal life, we shall, find them still, governed by laws ; more numerous, indeed, but equally fixed and invariable. The whole progress of plants, from the seed to the root, and from thence to the seed again;—the method of animal nutrition, diges- tion, secretion, and all other branches of vital economy ;—are not left to chance, or the will of the creature itself, but are performed in a wondrous involuntary manner, and guided by unerring rules laid down by the great Creator. This, then, is the general signification of law, a rule of action dictated by some superior being; and in those creatures that have neither power to think, nor the will, such laws must be invariably obeyed, so long as the creature itself sub- sists ; for its existence depends on that obedience.'—Blackstone's Commentaries on the Laws of England, vol. i. sect. 2. ' The word law,' says Mr. Erskine, ' is frequently made use of, both by divines and philosophers, in a large acceptation, to express the settled method of God's providence, by which he preserves the order of the material world in such a manner, that nothing in it may deviate from that uniform course which he has appointed for it. And as brute matter is merely passive, without the least degree of choice upon its part, these laws are inviolably observed in the material creation, every part of which continues to act, immutably, according to the rules that were from the beginning prescribed to it by Infinite Wisdom. Thus philosophers have given the appellation of law to that motion which incessantly pervades and agitates the universe, and is ever changing the form and substance of things, dissolving some, and raising others, as from their ashes, to fill up the void: Yet so, that amidst all the fluctuations by which partic- ular things are affected, the universe is still preserved without dim- APPENDIX.--NATURAL LAWS. 383 inution. Thus also they speak of the laws of fluids, of gravitation, &c. and the word is used, in this sense, in several passages of the sacred writings; in the book of Job, and in Proverbs viii. 29, where God is said to have given his law to the seas that they should not pass his commandment.'—Erskine's Institutes of the Law of Scot- land, book i. tit. i. sect. 1. Discussions about the Laws of Nature, rather than inquiries into them, were common in France, during the Revolution : and, having become associated, in imagination, with the crimes and horrors of that period, they continue to be regarded, by some individuals, as inconsistent with religion and morality. . A coincidence between the views maintained in the preceding Essay, and a passage in Volney, has been pointed out to me, as an objection to the whole doctrine. Volney's words are the following : — 'It is a law of nature, that water flows from an upper to a lower situation ; that it seeks its level; that it is heavier than air ; that all bodies tend towards the earth ; that flame rises towards the sky; that it de- stroys the organization of vegetables and animals; that air is es- sential to the life of certain animals: that, in certain cases, water suffocates and kills them ; that certain juices of plants, and certain minerals, attack their organs, and destroy their life ;—and the same of a variety of facts. ' Now, since these facts, and many similar ones, are constant, regular, and immutable, they become so many real and positive commands, to which man is bound to conform, under the express penalty of punishment attached to their infraction, or well-being connected with their observance. So that if a man were to pretend to see clearly in the dark, or is regardless of the progress of the seasons, or the action of the elements ; if he pretends to exist under water, without drowning ; to handle fire without burning himself; to deprive himself of air without suffocating; or to drink poison without destroying himself; he receives, for each infraction of the law of nature, a corporal punishment proportioned to his transgres- sion. If, on the contrary, he observes these laws, and founds his practice oft the precise and regular relation which they bear to him, he preserves his existence, and renders it as happy as it is capable of being rendered ; and since all these laws, considered in relation to the human species, have in view only one common end, that of their preservation and their happiness : whence it has been agreed to assemble together the different ideas, and express them by-. single word, and call them collectively by the name of the Law of Nature " '-Volney's Law of Nature, 3d edit. pp. 21, 24. 384 APPENDIX.---NATURAL LAWS. I feel no embarrassment by this coincidence; but remark, first, That various authors, quoted in the text and in this note, advocat- ed the importance of the laws of nature, long before the French Revolution was heard of; secondly, That the existence of the laws of nature is as obvious to the understanding, as the existence of the external world, and of the human mind and body themselves to the senses; thirdly, That these laws, being inherent in creation, must have proceeded from the Deity : fourthly, That if the Deity is powerful, just, and benevolent, they must harmonize with the constitution of man ; and, lastly, That if the laws of nature have been instituted by the Deity, and been framed in wise, benevolent, and just relationship to the human constitution, they must at all times form the highest and most important subjects of human in- vestigation, and remain altogether unaffected by the errors, follies, and crimes of those who endeavor to expound them ; just as religion continues holy, venerable, and uncontaminated, notwithstanding the hypocrisy, wickedness, and inconsistency of individuals professing themselves her interpreters and friends. That the views of the natural laws themselves, advocated, in this Essay, are diametrically opposite to the practical conduct of the French revolutionary ruffians, requires no demonstration. My fundamental principle is, that man can enjoy happiness on earth only by placing his habitual conduct under the supremacy of the moral sentiments and intellect, and that this is the law of his nature. No doctrine can be more opposed than this to fraud, robbery, blas- phemy, and murder. It may be urged, that all past speculations about the laws of nature have proved more imposing than useful; and that, while the laws themselves afford materials for elevated declamation on the part of philosophers, they form no secure guides even to the learned, and much less to the illiterate, in practical conduct. In answer, I would respectfully repeat what has frequently been urged in the text, that, before we can discover the laws of nature, appli- cable to man, we must know, first, The constitution of man him- self; secondly, The constitution of external nature ; and, thirdly, We must compare the two. But, previous to the discovery of Phrenology, the mental constitution of man was a matter of vague conjecture, and endless debate; and the connection between his mental powers and his organized system, was involved in the deep- est obscurity. The brain, the most important organ of the body, had no ascertained fuctions. Before the introduction of this sci- ence, therefore, men were rather impressed with the unspeakable importance of the knowledge of the laws of nature, than acquainted APPENDIX.--ORGANIC LAWS. 385 with the laws themselves ; and even the knowledge of the external world actually possessed, could not, in many instances, be rendered available, on account of its relationship to the qualities of man be- ing unascertained, and unascertainable, so long as these qualities themselves were unknown. NOTE I. ORGANIC LAWS. —Text, p. 116. On the subject of the sufferings of women in childbed, the follow- ing authorities may be referred to:— ' One thing,' says Mr. Alison, ' is very remarkable, and occurs in most cases of concealment and childmurder, viz. the strength and capability for exertion evinced by women in the inferior ranks shortly after childbirth,—appearances so totally different from those exhibited in the higher orders, that, to persons acquainted only with cases among the latter, they would appear incredible. In the case just mentioned (that of Catharine Butler or Anderson, at Aberdeen, in spring 1829), the mother, two or three days after her delivery, walked from Inverury to Huntly, a distance of twenty- eight miles, in a single day, with her child on her back. Similar occurrences daily are proved in cases of this description. It is not unusual to find women engaged in reaping, retire to a little dis- tance, effect their delivery by themselves, return to their fellow laborers, and go on with their work during the remainder of the day, without any other change of appearance but looking a little paler and thinner. Such a fact occurred in the case of Jean Smith, Ayr, spring 1824. Again, in the case of Ann Macdougall, Aber- deen, spring 1823, it appeared that the panel, who was sleeping in bed with two other servants, rose, was delivered, and returned to bed, without any of them being conscious of what had occurred. Instances have even occurred in which women have walked six and eight miles on the very day of their delivery, without any sensible inconvenience. Many respectable medical practitioners, judging from what they have observed among the higher ranks, would pro- nounce such facts impossible; but they occur so frequently among the laboring classes as to form a point worthy of knowledge in criminal jurisprudence; and to render perfectly credible what is said of the female American Indians, that they fall behind for a little on their journeys through the forests, deliver themselves, and shortlv make up to their husbands, and continue their journey with their offspring on their back.'-Arson's Principles of the Criminal Law of Scotland, pp. 161, 162. 33 386 APPENDIX.--ORGANIC LAWS. Mr. Lawrence observes, ' that the very easy labors of negresses, native Americans, and other women in the savage state, have been often noticed by "travellers. This point ns not explicable by any prerogative of physical formation; for the pelvis is rather smaller in these dark-colored races than in the European and other white people. Simple diet, constant and laborious exertion, give to these children of nature a hardiness of constitution, and exempt them from most of the ills which afflict the indolent and luxurious females of civilized societies. In the latter, however, the hard-working women of the lower classes in the country often suffer as little from child-birth as those of any other race. Analogous differences, from the like causes, may be seen in the animal kingdom. Cows kept in towns, and other animals, deprived of their healthful exercise, and accustomed to unnatural food and habits, often have difficult labors, and suffer much in parturition.'—Lawrence's Lectures on Physiology, Zoology, and the Natural History of Man. —1822. Vol. ii. p. 190. Among the Araucanian Indians of South America, ' a mother, immediately on her delivery, takes her child, and going down to the nearest stream of water, washes herself and it, and returns to the usual labors of her station.'—Stevenson's Twenty Years' Resi- dence in South America. Vol. i. p. 9. NOTE II. HEREDITARY TRANSMISSION OF Q.UALITIES. — Text, p. 149. Fortified by the observations made in the text, I venture to cite some additional authorities, and to record some farther facts com- municated by persons on whose accuracy reliance may be placed, in support of the doctrine of the transmission of qualities by hered- itary descent. ' The advice which I am now about to give, is indeed no other than what hath been given by those who have undertaken this argument before me. You will ask me, what is that ? 'T is this, that no man keep company with his wife for issue sake, but when he is sober—as not having before either drunk any wine, or, at least, not to such a quantity as to distemper him; for they usually prove wine-bibbers and drunkards whose parents begot them when they were drunk: wherefore Diogenes said to a stripling, some- what crack-brained and half-witted, Surely, young man, thy father begot thee when he was drunk.' — Plutarch's Morals, translation published at London, 1718, vol. i. p. 2. It is remarked by Burton in his Anatomy of Melancholy, that APPENDIX.--ORGANIC LAWS. 387 'if a drunken man gets a child, it will never, likely, have a good brain.' The following case fell under my own observation:—W. B. shoemaker in Portsburgh, called and showed me his son, aged 18, who is in a state of idiocy. He is simple and harmless, but never could do any thing for himself. His father said that his wife was sound in mind; that he has other three children all sound, and that the only account he could ever give of the~condition of this son was, that he kept a public-house, and some months before the birth of this boy an idiot lad came round with a brewer's drayman and help- ed him to lift the casks off the cart; that that idiot made a strong impression on his wife; that she complained that she could not get his appearance removed from her mind ; and that she kept out of the way when he came to the house afterwards ; that his son was weak in hody from birth, and silly in mind, and had the slouched and slovenly appearance of the idiot. The following cases are recorded in the Phrenological Journal: ' I now proceed to give some facts strongly illustrative of the doc- trine, that the faculties which predominate in power and activity in the parents, when the organic existence of the child commences, determine its future mental dispositions. This is a doctrine to which, from its great practical importance, I would beg leave to call your serious attention. It was remarked by the celebrated Esquirol, ' that the children whose existence dated from the horrors of the first French Revolution, turned out to be weak, nervous, and irritable in mind, extremely susceptible of impressions, and liable to be thrown by the least extraordinary excitement into absolute in- sanity.' Sometimes, too, family calamities produce serious effects upon the offspring. A very intelligent and respectable mother, upon hearing this principle expounded, remarked that there was a very wide difference in the intellectual and moral development be- tween one of her children and the others; and accounted for this difference by the fact, that, during pregnancy, she received intelli- gence that the crew of the ship, on board of which was her son, had mutinied—that when the ship arrived in the West Indies, some of the mutineers, and also her son, had been put in irons,— and that they were all to be sent home for trial. This intelligence acted so strongly upon her, that she suffered a temporary alienation of judgment. The report turned out to be erroneous, but this did not avert the consequences of the agitated state of the mother's feelings upon the daughter she afterwards gave birth to. That daughter is now a woman, but she is and will continue to be a 388 APPENDIX.--ORGANIC LAWS. being of impulses, incapable of reflection, and in other respects greatly inferior to her sisters. ' The following is a melancholy instance of the operation of this principle, which was communicated to me by a respectable medical practitioner, and which I have since found from inquiries in the neighborhood, and from seeing the subject of it, to be substantially correct. In the summer of 1827, the practitioner alluded to was called upon to visit professionally a young woman in the immediate neighborhood, who was safely delivered of a male child. As the parties appeared to be respectable, he made some inquiries regard- ing the absence of the child's father; when the old woman told him that her daughter was still unmarried, that the child's father belonged to a regiment then in Ireland; that last autumn he had obtained leave of absence to visit his relations in this part of the country ; and that on the eve of his departure to join his regiment, an entertainment was given, at which her daughter attended. During the whole evening, she and the soldier danced and sang together; when heated by the toddy and the dance, they left the cottage, and after the lapse of an hour were found together in a glen, in a state of utter insensibility, from the effects of their former festivity; and the consequence of this interview was the birth of an idiot. He is now nearly six years of his age, and his mother does not believe that he is able to recognise either herself or any other individual. He is quite incapable of making signs, whereby his wants can be made known—with this exception, that when hungry he gives a wild shriek. This is the case upon which it would be painful to dwell; and I shall only remark, that the parents are both intelligent, and that the fatal result cannot be otherwise accounted for than by the almost total prostration or eclipse of the intellect of both parties from intoxication.'—Phren. Journ. vol. viii. p. 471. The following case affords an example of the effect on the chil- dren of unfavorable physical circumstances operating on the parents previous to birth. ' There are about Paris a number of beggars, twelve or thirteen of them at least, all deformed in various ways, and all born at Lille, in certain dark caverns under the fortifications. The effect of these places, from their want of light, producing malformed births, is so notorious, that the Magistrates of Lille have issued strict orders to prohibit the poor from taking up their abode in them. It is added by the writer, that he had a conversation with Mr. Edwards on the subject, and that gentleman was greatly struck with the confirma- tion which the above circumstances afford to his views, stated in his APPENDIX.--ORGANIC LAWS. 389 work. " Sur PInfluence des Agens Physiques surlaVie." Mr. Edwards' experiments of detaining tadpoles in darkness, and thus causing them to grow into gigantic and monstrous tadpoles, instead of their being transformed into frogs, is well known.'—From Lon- don Medical Gazette, September 1832, as quoted in Arcana of Science and Art, 1833, p. 198. The operation of the same laws in the case of the lower animals appears to be indubitable. The following cases will serve as ex- amples. ' In Europe, the constant practice of milking cows has enlarged the udder greatly beyond its natural size, and so changed the secre- tions, that the milk does not cease when the calf is removed. In Colombia, where circumstances are entirely different, nature shows a strong tendency to resume its original type. A cow gives milk there only while the calf is with her.' ' It is worthy of notice, that the amble, the pace to which the domestic horse in Spanish America is exclusively trained, become, in the course of some gen- erations, hereditary, and is assumed by the young ones without teaching.'—Encyc. Brit. 1th edit. vol. ii. p. 653, Art. America. The writer refers to a paper by M. Roulin, entitled ' Sur les Chan- gemens survenus,' &c. in the Bulletin des Sciences Naturelles, Avril, 1829. A gentleman, who has paid much attention to the rearing of horses, informed me, that the male race-horse, when excited, but not exhausted, by running, has been found by experience to be in the most favorable condition for transmitting swiftness and vivacity to his offspring. Another gentleman stated, that he was himself present when the pale gray color of a male horse was objected to ; that the groom thereupon presented before the eyes of the male another female from the stable, of a very particular but pleasing, va- riety of colors, asserting, that the latter would determine the com- plexion of the offspring ; and that in point of fact it did so. The experiment was tried in the case of a second female, and the result was so completely the same, that the two young horses, in point of color, could scarcely be distinguished although their spots were ex- tremely uncommon. The account of Laban and the peeled rods laid before the cattle to produce spotted calves, is an example of the same kind. Portal mentions the hereditary descent of blindness and deafness. His words are : ' Morgagni has seen three sisters dumb " d'ori- gine." Other authors also cite examples, and I have seen like cases mvself In a note, he adds, ' I have seen three children out of four J 33* 390 APPENDIX.--ORGANIC LAWS. of the same family blind from birth by amaurosis, or gutta serena." —Portal, Memoires sur Plusieurs Maladies, torn. hi. p. 193. Paris, 1808. In the Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, No. I., there are several valuable articles illustrative of the Organic Laws in the inferior ani- mals. I select the following examples : ' Everyone knows that the hen of any bird will layeggs although no male be permitted to come near her ; and that those eggs are only wanting in the vital principle which the impregnation of the male conveys to them. Here, then, we see the female able to make an egg, with yolk and white, shell and every part, just as it ought to be, so that we might, at the first glance, suppose that here, at all events, the female has the greatest influence. But see the change which the male produces. Put a Bantam cock to a large-sized hen, and she will instantly lay a small egg ; the chick will be short in the leg, have feathers to the foot, and put on the appearance of the cock: so that it is a frequent complaint where Bantams are kept, that they make the hens lay small eggs, and spoil the breed. Re- verse the case ; put a large dunghill cock to Bantam hens, and in- stantly they will lay larger eggs, and the chicks will be good-sized birds, and the Bantam will have nearly disappeared. Here, then, are a number of facts known to every one, or at least open to be known by every one, clearly proving the influence of the male in some animals; and as I hold it to be an axiom that Nature never acts by contraries, never outrages the law clearly fixed in one spe- cies, by adopting the opposite course in another,—therefore, as in the case of an equilateral triangle on the length of one side being given, we can with certainty demonstrate that of the remaining; so, having found these laws to exist in one race of animals, we are entitled to assume that every species is subjected to the self-same rules,—the whole bearing, in fact, the same relation to each other as the radii of a circle.' Very young hens lay small eggs ; but a breeder of fowls will never set these to be hatched, because the animals produced would be feeble and imperfectly developed. They select the largest and fresh- est eggs, and endeavor to rear the healthiest stock possible. ' A method of obtaining a greater number of One Sex, at the option of the Proprietor, in the breeding of Live Stock. '—Extracted from the Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, No. I. p. 63. ' In the Annalesde l'Agriculture Francaise, vols. 37 and 38, some very interesting experiments are recorded, which have lately been APPENDIX.--ORGANIC LAWS. 391 made in France, on the Breeding of Live Stock. M. Charles Girou de Buzareingues proposed, at a meeting of the Agricultural Society of Severac, on the 3d of July 1826, to divide a flock of sheep into two equal parts, so that a greater number of males or females, at the choice of the proprietor, should be produced from each of them. Two of the members of the Society offered their flocks to become the subjects of his experiments, and the results have now been com- municated, which are in accordance with the author's expectations.' ' The first experiment was conducted in the following manner : He recommended very young rams to be put to the flock of ewes, from which the proprietor wished the greater number of females in their offspring; and also, that, during the season when the rams were with the ewes, they should have more abundant pasture than the other ; while, to the flock from which the proprietor wished to obtain male lambs chiefly, he recommended him to put strong and vigorous rams four or five years old. The following tabular view contains the result of this experiment. Flock for Female Lambs. Flock fob Male Lambs. Age of the Mothers. Sex of the Lambs. Age of the Mothers. Sex of the Lambs. Males. Females. Two years, - - 14 26 Three years, - - 16 29 Four years, 5 21 Total, ... 35 76 Five years and older, 18 8 Total, - - - S3 84 N. B.—There were three twin-births in this flock. Two rams served it, one fifteen months, the other nearly two years old. Males. Females. Two years, - - 7 3 Three years, - - 15 14 Four years, - - 33 14 Total, ... 55 31 Five years and older, 25 24 Total, - 80 55 N. B.—There were no twin-births in this flock. Two strong rams, one four, the other five years old, served it. ' The general law, as far as we are able to detect it, seems to be, that, when animals are in good condition, plentifully supplied with food, and kept from breeding as fast as they might do, they are most likely to produce females. Or, in other words, when a race of ani- mals is in circumstances favorable for its increase, nature produces the greatest number of that sex which, in animals that do not pair, is most efficient for increasing the numbers of the race : But, if they are in a bad climate, or on stinted pasture, or, if they have already given birth to a numerous offspring, then nature, setting limits to the increase of the race, produces more males than females. Yet, 392 APPENDIX.--ORGANIC LAWS. perhaps, it may be premature to attempt to deduce any law from experiments which have not yet been sufficiently extended. M. Girou is disposed to ascribe much of the effect to the age of the ram, independent of the condition of the ewe.' Mr. W. B. Stevenson, in his ' Narrative of Twenty Years' resi- dence in South America,' vol. i. p. 286, says, ' he has always re- marked, that in cases where parents are of different castes, the child receives more of the color of the father than of the mother.' He made extensive observations during a long residence in Lima; a place, he remarks, than which there cannot be any more favorable for an examination of the influence of ' the configuration of the human face, or of its color, on the intellectual faculties.' He gives the following table, showing the mixture of the different castes, under their common or distinguishing names. But' this table,' says he, ' which I have endeavored to make as correct as possible, from personal observation, must be considered as general, and not includ- ing particular cases.' Father. Mother. Children. Color. European, European, Creole, White. Creole, Creole, Creole, White. White, Indian, Mestiso, § White, ? Indian—Fair. 8 8 Indian, White, Mestiso, 4 White, i Indian. White, Mestiso, Creole, White—often very fair. Mestiso, White, Creole, White—but rather sallow. Mestiso, Mestiso, Creole, Sallow—often light hair. White, Negro, Mulatto, I White, | Negro—often fair. Negro, White, Zambo, i White, 4 Negro—dark copper. White, Mulatto, Quarteron, | White, ? Negro—Fair. Mulatto, White, Mulatto, 6 White, 2 Negro—Tawny. 7 White, 1 Negro—very fair. White, Quarteron, Quinteron, Quarteron, White, Quarteron, 6 White, | Negro—Tawny. White, Quinteron, Creole, White—light Eyes, fair hair. Negro, Indian, Chino, j Negro, i Indian. Indian, Negro, Chino, | Negro, 6 Indian. Negro, Mulatto, Zambo, | Negro, Q White. Mulatto, Negro, Zambo, | Negro, 4 White. Negro, Zambo, Zambo, l| Negro> JL White—Dark. Zambo, Negro, Zambo, I Negro, | White. Negro, Chino, \ Zambo- ) Chino, ( l| Negro, i Indian. Chino, Negro, \ Zambo- r Chino, ( | Negro, I Indian. Negro, 1 Negro. Negro. APPENDIX.---ORGANIC LAWS. 393 NOTE III. LAWS RELATIVE TO MARRIAGE AND EDUCATION IN GERMANY. Text, p. 165. ' It cannot be altogether foreign to natural history, to notice the influence of climate, food, and political and religious regulations on the human species ; and we are unwilling to leave Germany without saying something on so interesting a people as the Germans. It will not be denied that man is subject to the same laws as other animals, and that his natural or inborn character must depend principally on the climate and products of the soil where he is placed. His facti- tious, or civilized character, will as certainly depend on his educa- tion, taking'that word in its most extensive sense, as including parental care and example, scholastic tuition, religion, and govern- ment. In warm fertile countries, where nature produces every thing spontaneously, man becomes inactive, and has naturally few labors and few enjoyments. In extremely cold and inhospitable chmates, the enjoyments of man are also few, because the labor necessary to overcome natural objects is too great for his powers. It would seem, therefore, that intermediate climates are more favorable for human happiness than either extremes ; but whether such are at all times temperate, as those of many parts of Italy and Spain, or such as are alternately temperate and severe, as those of the south of Germany and the north of France, are the best, may perhaps be doubted. It appears that a climate where the winters are severe, has a conside- rable influence on the human character, by the necessity which it induces of forethought, in the laying up a provision of food for winter, and the greater attention and labor that are requisite in the article of clothing for that season. It is certain, en the other hand, that, in climates at all times temperate, the health, other circum- stances being alike, must be better than in severe chmates, where it is impaired by the artificial atmosphere of apartments during the winter season; and constant good health must necessarily have a considerable influence on the character. Supposing, therefore, all the artificial circumstances to be the same in two chmates, such as that of the south of Germany, and that of Italy or the central parts of France, it seems reasonable to conclude that man would attain to a higher degree of perfection in the latter climates than in the former. So much for our theory of the influence of soil and climate oh man ; and, for farther details, we refer the reader to Dr. Falcon- ar's work on the subject. 394 APPENDIX.--ORGANIC LAWS. ' Of all the artificial or accidental circumstances which influence the character, personal education must be allowed to be the greatest, and next, religion and government. Manner of life, occupations, and pursuits, and even amusements, have an important influence. To do more than premise these matters, would be unsuitable to this Magazine; but what has been said became necessary as an intro- duction to what is to follow. ' Applying the above theory to tha.three states of Germany which we hav% passed through, Wurtemberg, Bavaria, and Baden, the cli- mate and soil of these states seem favorable in the second degree; education, to a certain extent, is there universal; religion is, on the whole, more simple than in some other countries ; and the laws and governments seem, at least, equal, in constitutional merits and im- partial administration, to those of any people in Europe. The manner of life, or occupation, is chiefly agricultural; which, though not favorable to luxury or refinement, seems, without doubt, for the great mass of the people, the happiest mode of existence. Local and personal attachments are universally felt to be essential sources of happiness: and in no way can this feeling be gratified so easily and effectually as by the possession of land. In the three countries named, the great majority of the population are occupiers in perpe- tuity, of a portion of the soil, either as absolute proprietors or as perpetual renters. This state of things is far from being favorable to what is called making money ; but it is highly favorable to health and contentment. It is a great deal for a poor man to have some- thing which he can call his own ; something on which he can bestow labor, and from which he can, in consequence, extract enjoyment. The absolute necessities of life are few, and derived directly from the soil; the laboring man, therefore, who has a house and a few roods of land, is certain of a home and food ; he increases the interest of his home by a wife; and parental care and solicitude, with con- nubial and filial attachment, fill up the measure of his happiness. These are the essential purposes and enjoyments of life, which nature intended for all men ; which the poor man can enjoy as well as the rich; and for which no other enjoyment, either of the rich or the poor, the wise or the learned, can entirely compensate. In no part of Europe have we seen, or thought we have seen, these enjoyments so generally diffused as in the countries we have recently passed through, and more especially Wurtemberg. We entered on these countries, expecting to find the people not much better off than in France ; but we could not resist the conviction produced by constant observation, and the result of various inquiry, that comfort and hap- APPENDIX.--ORGANIC LAWS. 395 piness exist to a much greater degree among the laboring classes of society in the south of Germany, than they do in Britain. The peo- ple, at first sight, have a milder and more civilized aspect. The dress of the country labourers, male and female, does not consist of such fine materials as in England ; but one part of the dress is of a quality consistent with the others, and the whole is in a superior style, compared with the dress of the other classes of society. There is no such thing, in this part of Germany, as a man or woman in rags, or with a coat or gown of the best quality, and the hat or stockings in tatters, as is frequently the case, not only among laborers, but even among mechanics, in England. In short, the dress in Germany is in much better keeping. Both men and women of the laboring class here are more intelligent in their aspect, much more civil and polite on a first acquaintance, and much better furnished with con- versation, than the British laborers. What struck us particularly were, the great rarity of exceptions to this general description, the general uniformity of manner and character throughout the whole country, and the total absence of public beggars. On inquiry, we found that there were few or no poor supported publicly, though every parish is obliged to support its poor when unable to work ; and, also, that there were few people in prison, either for debtor for crime of any kind. ' This state of things more particularly applies to Wurtemberg ; and the causes, we think, may be very easily traced. The first and principal cause is a law respecting schools, which has existed, more or less, in the states of the south of Germany, for above a century, but which has been greatly improved within the last thirty years. By this law, parents are compelled to send their children to school, from the age of six to fourteen years, where they must be taught reading, writing, and arithmetic, but where they may acquire as much additional instruction in other branches as their parents choose to pay for. To many of the schools of Bavaria large gardens are attached, in which the boys are taught the principal operations of agriculture and gardening in their hours of play ; and, in all the schools of the three states, the girls in addition to the same instruction as the boys, are taught knitting, sewing, embroi- dery, &c. It is the duty of the police and priest, (which may be considered equivalent to our parish vestries) of each commune or parish to see that the law is duly executed, the children sent regu- larly, and instructed duly. If the parents are partially or wholly unable to pay for their children, the commune*makes up the defi- ciency Religion is taught by the priest of the village or hamlet ; 396 APPENDIX.--ORGANIC LAWS. and where, as is frequently the case in Wurtemberg, there are two or three religions in one parish, each child is taught by the priest of its parents; all of which priests are, from their office, members of the committee or vestry of the commune. The priest or priests of the parish have the regular inspection of the schoolmaster, and are required by the government to see that he does his duty ; while each priest, at the same time, sees that the children of his flock attend regularly. After the child has been the appointed number of years at school, it receives from the schoolmaster, and the priest of the religion to which it belongs, a certificate, without which it cannot procure employment. To employ any person under twenty- one, without such a certificate, is illegal, and punished by a fixed fine, as is almost every other offence in this part of Germany; and the fines are never remitted, which makes punishment always cer- tain. The schoolmaster is paid much in the same way as in Scot- land ; by a house, a garden, and sometimes a field, and by a small salary from the parish; and by fixed rates for the children. ' A second law, which is coeval with the school law, renders it illegal for any young man to marry before lie is twenty-five, or any young woman before she is eighteen; and a young man, at whatever age he wishes to marry, must show to the police and the priest of the commune where he resides, that he is able, and has the prospect, to provide for a wife and family. ' There are minor causes, but these two laws, and the general possession of land both by laborers and tradesmen, are the chief. Amongst the minor causes are the general simplicity of their forms of religion, and universal toleration ; even the Catholic faith in Wurtemberg, is unattended with the ceremony and spectacle with which it is exhibited in various parts of Germany and France. The equal footing on which the different religions are placed, is also favorable to liberality of sentiment and good neighborhood. That particular mildness of feature and character, so different from what is met with in the laboring classes in England, is no doubt partly owing to the greater proportion of vegetables and fruits which enter into the general diet of the population; the almost total abstinence from strong liquors or spirits, the general drink being wine; and, perhaps, to the almost unremitted smoking of tobacco from morning to night. '—From the Magazine of Natural History. APPENDIX.--DEATH. 397 NOTE IV. DEATH. — Text, p. 198. The decreasing Mortality of England is strikingly supported by the following extract from the Scotsman of 16th April, 1828. It is well known that this paper is edited by Mr. Charles Ma'claren, a gentleman whose extensive information, and scrupulous regard to accuracy and truth, stamp the highest value on his statements of fact; and whose profound and comprehensive intellect warrants a well-grounded reliance on his philosophical conclusions. ' Diminished Mortality in England.—The diminution 1 of the annual mortality in England amidst an alleged increase of crime, misery, and pauperism, is an extraordinary and startling fact, which merits a more careful investigation than it has received. We have not time to go deeply into the subject; but we shall offer a remark or two on the question, how the apparent annual mortality is affected by the introduction of the cow-pox, and the stationary or progressive state of the population. In 1780, according to Mr. Rickman, the annual deaths were 1 in 40, or one-fortieth part of the population died every year; in 1821, the proportion was 1 in 58. It follows, that, out of any given number of persons, 1,000 or 10,000, scarcely more than two deaths take place now for three that took place in 1780, or the mortality has diminished 45 per cent. The parochial registers of burials in England, from which this statement is derived, are known to be incorrect, but as they continue to be kept without alteration in the same way, the errors of one year are justly conceived to balance those of another, and they thus afford comparative results, upon which considerable reli- ance may be placed. ' A community is made up of persons of many various ages, among whom the law of mortality is very different. Thus, ac- cording to the Swedish tables, the deaths among children from the moment of birth up to 10 years of age, are 1 in 22 per annum ; from 10 to 20, the deaths are only 1 in 185. Among the old again, mortality is of course great. From 70 to 80, the deaths are 1 in 9 ; from 80 to 90 they are 1 in 4. Now, a community like that of New York or Ohio, where marriages are made early and the births are numerous, necessarily contains a large proportion of young per- sons, among whom the proportional mortality is low, and a small proportion of the old who die off rapidly. A community in which the births are numerous, is like a regiment receiving a vast number of young and healthy recruits, and in which, of course, as a whole, 398 APPENDIX.--DEATH. the annual deaths will be few compared with those in another regi- ment chiefly filled with veterans, though, among the persons at any particular age, such as 20, 40, or 50, the mortality will be as great in the one regiment as the other. It may thus happen, that the annual mortality among 1,000 persons in Ohio, may be considerably less than in France, while the Expectation of Life, or the chance which an individual has to reach to a certain age, may be no greater in the former country than in the latter; and hence we see that a diminution in the rate of mortality is not a certain proof of an in- crease in the value of life, or an improvement in the condition of the people. ' But the effect produced by an increased number of births is less than might be imagined, owing to the very great mortality among infants in the first year of their age. Not having time for the calculations necessary to get at the precise result, which are pretty complex, we avail ourselves of some statements given by Mr. Milne in his work on Annuities. Taking the Swedish tables as a basis, and supposing the law of mortality to remain the same for each period of life, he has compared the proportional number of deaths in a population which is stationary, and in one which increases 15 per cent, in 20 years. The result is, that when the mortality in the stationary society is one in 36.13, that in the pro- gressive society is one in 37.33, a difference equal to 3£ per cent. Now, the population of England and Wales increased 34.3 per cent, in the 20 years ending in 1821, but in the interval from 1811 to 1821, the rate was equivalent to 39£ per cent, upon 20 years ; and the apparent diminution of mortality arising from this circumstance must of course have been about 8£ per cent. We are assuming, however, that the population was absolutely station- ary at 1780, which was not the case. According to Mr. Milne (p. 437), the average annual increase in the five years ending 1784, was 1 in 155 ; in the ten years ending 1821, according to the cen- suss, it was 1 in 60. Deducting, then, the proportional part cor- responding to the former, which is 3£, there remains 5£. If Mr. Milne's tables, therefore, are correct, we may infer that the progres- sive state of the population causes a diminution of b\ per cent, in the annual mortality—a diminution which is only apparent, because it arises entirely from the great proportion of births, and is not ac- companied with any real increase in the value of human life. ' A much greater change—not apparent but real—was produced by the introduction of vaccination in 1798. It was computed, that, in 1795, when the population of the British Isles was APPENDIX,--DEATH. 399 15,000,000, the deaths produced by the small-pox amounted to 36,000, or nearly 11 per cent, of the whole annual mortality. (See article Vaccination in the Supplement to Encyclopaedia Britannica, p. 713.) Now, since not more than one case in 330 terminates fatally under the cow-pox system, either directly by the primary infection, or from the other diseases supervening: the whole of the young persons destroyed by the small-pox might be considered as saved, were vaccination universal, and always properly performed. This is not precisely the case, but one or one and a half per cent. will cover the deficiencies; and we may therefore conclude, that vaccination has diminished the annual mortality fully nine per cent. After we had arrived at this conclusion by the process described, we found it confirmed by the authority of Mr. Milne, who estimates in a note to one of his tables, that the mortality of 1 in 40 would be diminished to 1 in 43-5, by exterminating the small-pox. Now, this is almost precisely 9 per cent. ' We stated, that the diminution of the annual mortality between 1790 and 1821 was 45 per cent., according to Mr. Rickman. If we deduct from this 9 per cent, for the effect of vaccination, and 5 per cent, as only apparent, resulting from the increasing proportion of births—31 per cent, remains, which, we apprehend, can only be accounted for by an improvement in the habits, morals, and physica condition of the people. Independently, then, of the two causes alluded to, the value of human life since 1780, has increased in a ratio which would diminish the annual mortality from 1 in 40 to 1 in 52J,—a fact which is indisputably of great importance, and worth volumes of declamation in illustrating the true situation of the labor ing classes. We have founded our conclusion on data derived en tirely from English returns; but there is no doubt that it applies equally to Scotland. It is consoling to find, from this very unex- ceptionable species of evidence, that though there is much privation and suffering in the country, the situation of the people has been, on the whole, progressively improving during the last forty years. But how much greater would the .advance have been, had they been less taxed, and better treated? and how much room is there still for future amelioration, by spreading instruction, amending out- laws, lessening the temptations to crime, and improving the means of correction and reform ? In the meantime, it ought to be some encouragement to philanthropy to learn, that it has not to struggle against invincible obstacles, and that even when the, prospect was least cheering to the eye, its efforts were silently benefitting society.' 400 APPENDIX.--DEATH. Extract from Edinburgh Advertiser. 13th January 1829: ' The following comparative table of the average duration of life at Geneva, during the last 260 years, is very remarkable. The growing improvement affords a striking proof of the benefits re- sulting from the progress of civilization and the useful arts. Average Duration. Years. Months. From 1560 to 1600, - - - 18 5 1601 to 1700, - - - - 23 5 1701 to 1760, - - - 32 8 1761 to 1800, - - - 33 7 1801 to 1814, - 38 6 1815 to 1826, - - - 38 10 It has been mentioned to me, that the late Dr. Monro, in his anatomical lectures, stated, that, as far as he could observe, the human body, as a machine, was perfect,—that it bore within itself no marks by which we could possibly predicate its decay,—that it was apparently calculated to go on for ever,—and that we learned only by experience that it would not do so ; and some persons have conceived this to be an authority against the doctrine maintained in Chap. III. Sect. 2, that death is apparently inherent in organi- zation. In answer, I beg to observe, that if we were to look at the sun only for one moment of time, say at noon, no circumstance, in its appearance, would indicate that it had ever risen, or that it would ever set; but, if we had traced its progress from the horizon to the meridian, and down again till the long shadows of evening prevail- ed, we should have ample grounds for inferring, that, if the same causes that had produced these changes continued to operate, it would undoubtedly at length disappear. In the same way, if we were to confine our observations on the human body, to a mere point of time, it is certain that, from the appearances of that mo- ment, we could not infer that it had grown up, by gradual increase, or that it would decay ; but this is the case only, because our facul- ties are not fitted to penetrate into the essential nature and depen- dences of things. Any man, who had seen the body decrease in old age, could, without hesitation, predicate, that, if the same causes which had produced that effect went on operating, dissolu- tion would at last inevitably occur ; and, if his Causality were well developed, he would not hesitate to say that a cause of the decrease and dissolution must exist, although he could not tell by examining the body what it was. By analyzing alcohol, no person could predicate, independently of experience, that it would produce in- toxication ; and, nevertheless there must be a cause in the constitu- tion of the alcohol, in that of the body, and in the relationship between them, why it produces this effect. The notion, therefore, APPENDIX.--EDINBURGH ASSOCIATION. 401 of Dr. Monro, does not prove that death is not an essential law of organization, but only that the human faculties are not able, by dissection, to discover that the cause of it is inherent in the bodily constitution itself. It does not follow, however, that this inference may not be legitimately drawn from phenomena collected from the whole period of corporeal existence. NOTE V. EDINBURGH ASSOCIATION FOR PROCURING INSTRUCTION IN USEFUL AND ENTERTAINING SCIENCES.—Text p. 208. The history of this Association is briefly stated in one of its reports. ' In the summer of 1832, several individuals, engaged in mercantile and trading avocations, and who were then attending Mr. Combe's evening course of lectures on Phrenology, expressed. a strong desire for a more extended course during winter, along with lectures on some other subjects of natural science. With this view, they resolved to form themselves into an Association for procuring such instruction, at convenient hours and on moderate terms; and in order to make the public acquainted with their in- tentions, as well as to ascertain the support likely to be obtained, they printed and circulated a " Proposal for Courses of Lectures on natural History, Chemistry, and Phrenology combined with Physiology." ' These lectures were intended for the instruction of persons of both sexes, belonging chiefly to the middle classes of society. They have been completely successful. The regulations of the Association are the following :— ' I. The name of the Institution shall be, The Edinburgh Association for providing Instruction in Useful and Entertaining Sciences. ' II. The subjects for lectures shall be left to the judgment of the Directors for the time being. 'HI. There shall be twenty-four Directors, one-half of whom shall be annually changed, and an equal number elected, by a general meeting of the members ; and the said Directors shall, from among their own number, choose a President, Treasurer, and Secretary. < jy An annual payment of one guinea shall entitle the contri- butor to free tickets for all the lectures, to vote in the election of Directors, and to enjoy all the other privileges of an ordinary member. , . < V Individuals shall be allowed to purchase tickets for admis- 34* 402 APPENDIX.--EDINBURGH ASSOCIATION. sion to one or more of* the lectures, without becoming regular members. ' VI. The funds shall be deposited in a respectable bank, (at present being so lodged,) in the names of the President, Treasurer, and Secretary. ' Vn. After the present season, the annual meeting of members for the election of office-bearers, and other general business, shall he held in the month of March.' The last report of the Association, dated October 1834, mentions, that 'in November 1832, lectures on Phrenology, Chemistry, and Geology, were commenced, under the auspices of the Association. At this early period the number of subscribers exceeded all expec- tation ; and the courses which have since been given on Botany, Popular Education, Natural Philosophy, Astronomy, and Physiolo- gy, have likewise met with the most marked success. The follow- ing abstract of the pecuniary transactions to the close of last session, will show the great interest which has been taken by the public in the proceedings of the Association :— ' Total Receipt and Expenditure for Sessions 1832-3, and 1833-4. CLASSES. Phrenology, ------ Chemistry, ------- Geology, ------ Three Lectures on Education, given sepa- ? rately in April 1833, - - - - $ Botany, day class, - Botany, evening class, - Three Lectures on Education, given in No-"] vember 1833 (in addition to the holders of Tickets to any of the other classes, > who were admitted to the Lectures on Education free), - - - - - J Natural Philosophy, ----- Astronomy, ------ Physiology, --._.._ Interest from Bank, Tickets Sold. Visiters ad- mitted at 6d. each. 225 229 251 60 192 245 311 309 993 387 142 33 163 do. 406 231 at Is. 330 Paid Lecturers, and other charges, Surplus, at 26th June 1834, £115 16 4 100 7 9 73 2 2 38 5 0 75 12 0 110 0 113 8 9 95 17 9 £743 2 0 5 10 £748 3 0 605 12 4 £142 10 8 ' In comparison with some other institutions, the pecuniary means of this Association have been limited; but still they have been more than sufficient for defraying all necessary expenses. These expenses, too, have been considerable, particularly for room-rent, APPENDIX.--MORAL LAWS. 403 fittings, advertising, and printing; for, besides the original prospec- tus, the Directors have already printed, and widely circulated, four detailed reports, comprehensive syllabuses for the three season courses of lectures, and a tabular view of the Linnean system of classification of plants, with explanatory remarks, amounting in all to 7500 copies. Certain fundamental principles have been steadily kept in view, viz. that no reliance should be placed on eleemosynary aid—that the Directors should be regularly changed—that the in- struction should be interesting, practical, and useful—that it should be applicable to both sexes from twelve years of age and upwards —and that full value should be given to the subscribers for their money, as well as a reasonable remuneration to the lecturers for their services. By continuing to act upon these principles, and by securing the aid of well qualified teachers, the directors confidently hope for a continuance of pubhc support.' NOTE VI. INFRINGEMENT OF THE MORAL LAWS —Text p. 220. The deterioration of the operative classes of Britain, which I attribute to excessive labor, joined with great alternations of high and low wages, and occasionally with absolute idleness and want, is illustrated by the following extract from a Report on Emigra- tion by a Committee of the House of Commons :— ' Joseph Foster, a weaver, and one of the deputies of an emi- gration society in Glasgow, states that the labor is all paid by the piece; the hours of working are various, sometimes eighteen or nineteen out of twenty-four, and even all night once or twice a-week ; and that the wages made by such labor, after deducting the necessary expenses, will not amount to more than 4s. 6d. to 7s. per. week, some kinds of work paying better than others. When he commenced as a weaver, from 1800 to 1805, the same amount of labor that now yields 4s. 6d. or 5s. would have yielded 20s. There are about 11,000 hand-looms going in Glasgow and its suburbs, some of which are worked by boys and girls, and he estimates the average net earnings of each hand-weaver at 5s. 6d. The principal subsistence of the weavers is oatmeal and potatoes, with occasionally some salt herrings. ' Maior Thomas Moodie, who had made careful inquiries into the state of the poor at Manchester, states, that the calico and other ight plain work at Bolton and Blackburn yields the weaver from 404 APPENDIX.—MORAL LAWS. 4s. to 5s. per week, by fourteen hours of daily labor. In the power- loom work, one man attends two looms, and earns from 7s. 6d. to 14s. per week, according to the fineness of the work. He under- stood that during,the last ten years, weavers' wages had fallen on an average about 15s. per week. ' Mr. Thomas Hutton, manufacturer, Carlisle, states, that there are in Carlisle and its neighborhood about 5500 families, or from 18,000 to 20,000 persons dependent on weaving. They are all hand-weavers, and are now in a very depressed state, in conse- quence of the increase of power-loom and factory weaving* in Man Chester and elsewhere. Taking fifteen of his men, he finds that five of them, who were employed on the best work, had earned 5s. 6d. per week for the preceding month, deducting the necessary ex- penses of loom-rent, candles, tackling, &c. ; the next five, who are upon work of the second quality, earned 3s. lid.; and the third five earned 3s. 7£d. per week. They work from fourteen to sixteen hours a-day, and live chiefly on potatoes, buttermilk, and herrings. ' Mr. W. H. Hyett, Secretary to the Charity Committee in London, gives a detailed statement, to show, that, in the Hundred of Blackburn, comprising a population of 150,000 persons, 90,000 were out of employment in 1826 ! In April last, when he gave his evidence before the Committee, these persons had generally found work again, but at very low wages. They were laboring from twelve to fourteen hours a-day, and gaining from 4s. to 5s. 6d. per week.' ' Extract from Lord Advocate Sir William Rae's Speech in the House of Commons, llth March 1828, on the additional Circuit Court of Glasgow. 1 The Lord-Advocate, in rising to move for leave to bring in a bill to "authorize an additional Court of Justiciary to be held at Glasgow, and to facilitate criminal trial in Scotland," said he did not anticipate any opposition to the motion. A great deal had been said of the progress of crime in this country, but he was sorry to say crime in Scotland had kept pace with that increase. A return had been made of the number of criminal commitments in each year, so far back as the year 1805. In that year the number of criminal commitments for all Scotland amounted only to 85. In * In what is called factory-weaving, an improved species of hand-loom is em- ployed, in which the dressing and preparation of the web is effected by machinery, and the weaver merely sits and drives the shuttle. APPENDIX.--MORAL LAWS. 405 1809 it had risen to between 200 and 300; in 1819-20, it had in- creased to 400; and, by the last return, it appeared, that, in 1827, 661 persons had been committed for trial. He was inclined to think that the great increase of crime, particularly in the west of Scotland, was attributable, in no small degree, to the number of Irish who daily and weekly arrived there. He did not mean to say that the Irish themselves were in the habit of committing more crime than their neighbors; but he was of opinion, that their num- bers tended to reduce the price of labor, and that an increase of crime was the consequence. Another cause was the great disre- gard manifested by parents for the moral education of their child- ren. Formerly the people of Scotland were remarkable for the paternal care which they took of their offspring. That had ceased in many instances to be the case. Not only were parents found who did not pay attention to the welfare of their children, but who were actually parties to their criminal pursuits, and participated in the fruits of their unlawful proceedings. When crime was thus on the increase, it was necessary to take measures for its speedy punishment. The great city of Glasgow, which contained 150,000 inhabitants, and to which his proposed measure was meant chiefly to apply, stood greatly in need of some additional jurisdiction. This would appear evident, when it was considered that the court met there for the trial of capital offences, had also to act in the dis- tricts of Renfrew, Lanark, and Dumbarton. In 1812, the whole number of criminals tried in Glasgow was only 31 ; in 1820, it was 83 ; in 1823, it was 85; and in 1827, 211.—The learned lord concluded by moving for leave to bring in a bill to authorize an additional circuit court of justiciary to be held at Glasgow, and to facilitate criminal trial in Scotland ' INDEX. Acquisitiveness, 51, 61, 69, 76. ------------------ its activity permitted and limited in the bible, 357. Adhesiveness, 50, 59, 73. Adumbration of the doctrine of the Trinity, in the nature of man, 353. Alison, Mr., on the easy childbirths among the lower orders, 385. Amativeness, 50, 57, 75, 113. ------------its activity permitted, and limited in the bible, 357. America, evils anticipated from slavery in the United States of, 247. Cru- elties of the Spaniards in, 250. Penitentiaries in, 278. American Indians, character of the, 167. American war, 239. Animals, their constitution compared with that of man, 2, 3, 41, 108. Hereditary transmission of their qualities, 154, 389, 390. Punishment inflicted by them on each other, 263, et seq. Animal nature of man addressed, in the bible, in prohibitions, 354. Approbativeness addressed, appealed to, and its activity limited, in the bible, 358, 359. Aristides's advice as to the burning of the Grecian ships, 241. Aristocracy, source of the unhappiness of the, 233. Barometer, its utility in foretelling storms, 294. Benevolence, sentiment of, 51, 65, 77. Blackstone on the laws of nature, 382. Blindness of the moral sentiments admitted in the bible, 360. --------of the intellectual powers admitted by Phrenology, 361. Bonaparte's mother, a woman of superior talent and courage, 159. Brahmins, their children naturally superior to those of other Hindoo castes, 150. Brain the organ of the mind, 120. Necessity of exercising it, 120, et seq. Its form and qualities transmissible from parents to children, 152, 269, 304, 386. By improving the brain we may improve human character, 324. Breeding of live stock, 390. Bridgewater bequest, 19. Britain too exclusively manufacturing and commercial, 225, 232. Corrup- tion of her government arising indirectly from the slave trade, 236. Strictures on her conduct in entering on the American war, 239. Her national debt the punishment of foolish wars, 243. Brown, Dr. John, of Haddington, his complaint about the repeal of penal statutes against witches, 333. Butler, Bishop, on the government of God, 30. On the supremacy of con- science, 42. On the extent to which suffering results from our own conduct, 282. Caldwell, Dr. Charles, 279, 280. Causality addressed in the bible, 358. Cautiousness, 51, 65, 76. Chalmers, Dr., on the means of human improvement, 100. Childbirth, pains of, 116, 385. Children, resemblance of, to their parents, 149, et seq., 386. See Heredi- tary transmission. . Christianity has proved itself insufficient, while unaided by physical sci- ence to produce moral conduct among men, 327. Practical Christianity, how\o be realized, 228, 341, 349 Christians, primitive, charged with atheism and impiety, i££. Circassian brain, 159. 408 INDEX. Clergy, their zeal in persecuting and tormenting witches, 331. Ought they to teach the natural as well as revealed laws of Godl 348. bee Religion. Clerks, evils arising from a bad choice of, 178. Combination laws, 222. Combativeness, 50, 61. Commercial prosperity and distress, 222, 303, 403. Comparison, addressed in the bible, 357. Conscientiousness, 51, 66, 72. Constitution of man, general view of the, and its relations to external ob- jects, 1. Constructiveness, 51, 76. Conversion, its necessity asserted by Revelation, and admitted by Phren- ology, 365, 366, 369, 370. _____!*----of individuals, Phrenological works silent on it, 366, 367. Cowper on the punishment of the Spaniards for their cruelties in America, 250. Crime, origin of, 269. How to be prevented, 270. Increase of, in Scot- land, 404. Criminals, punishment of, 264. Brains of, 269. Deafness and dumbness hereditary, 149. Death, 36, 397. A natural institution, 1S2, 198. Depravity of the human mind, 324. ----.----human, admitted alike by Phrenology and Revelation, 363-365. Destructiveness, 50, 61, 75. ------------ its activity permitted, and limited in the bible, 356. Disease, predisposing causes of, 125, et seq. At different ages, 190. Dogs, acquired habits of, hereditary, 154. Drunken fathers produce inferior children, 386. Edinburgh, great fires in, 288. Edinburgh Association for procuring Sci- entific Instruction, 404. Education, Dr. Chalmers on its power to improve the human race, 100. Utility of, 121. Classical and scientific compared, 205. Scientific, 208. Utility of phrenology in relation to, 336. What it ought to be, 345. State of, in Wurtemberg, 395. Eggs of hens, 390. Emancipation of the Negro slaves, 246, 249. Endowments, original, unequal in men, admitted alike by Phrenology and Revelation, 372, 373. Erskine on the laws of nature, 382. ------, Ebenezer, his account of the despondency of his wife, 139. Evil. See Miseries. Excise laws, their oppressive and unjust operation fifty years ago, 237. Exercise indispensable to happiness, 46, 82, et seq. 119, 226. Expediency and justice always accordant, 240. Faculties of man, summary of the, 50, 57, et seq. Compared with each other, 54. Compared with external objects, 75. Fall of man, 14, et seq. 184. Fire, benefits accruing from its proper use, and evils from its misapplica- tion, 256. vr Fires in Edinburgh in 1824, causes of, 288. Firmness, one of the faculties, 51, 80. --------addressed in the bible, and its activity limited, 359. Flint's account of the American Indians, 167. Food, relation of, to climate, 47. French Revolution, 243. Philosophers of the, 383. Friends, faithless, 60. Friendship, 59, 72. Future state, 24, 196, 203. INDEX. 409 Geology, truths revealed by, 4, 181. Scripture geology, 320. Germany, burning of witches in, 329. State of the lower orders in, 394. Education in, 395. Globe, progressively adapted for the reception of man, 4, 181. God, existence and attributes of, discoverable from his works, 1, 78. Professor Sedgwick and Bishop Butler on his government, x. 30. Locke on his benevolence and justice, 107. Principles on which his laws seem to be instituted, 256. Government, ought it to interfere with industry? 230. Gravitation, law of, results of obedience to, and neglect of, 42, 108, 306. Gregory, Drs. James and John, on the hereditary transmission of mental qualities, 150. happiness, how attainable, 8, 9, 82, 201. Why so little advance has been made in the pursuit of, 99. Influence of the natural laws on that of individuals, 305. Hare, murderer, engraving of his head, 143. Harmonious gratification of the faculties necessary to happiness, 57, 69, 92. Harmony between Phrenology and Christianity, 351. Head, different forms of, 143. See Brain. Phrenology. Health, prerequisites of, 44, 46, 115. Hens, their eggs how made to vary in size, 390. Hereditary transmission of bodilv and mental qualities, 117, 148, et seq. 269, 304, 312, 386; and of acquired habits, 154, 388. Advantage of crossing the breed, 177. History exhibits man progressively improving, 10, 217. Honesty the best policy, 242. Hope, sentiment of, 52, 66, 78. Human nature. See Man. Constitution of Man. Ideality, 52, 66, 78. -----. addressed in the bible, 358. Imitation, one of the faculties, 52, 80. Independence of the natural laws, 21, 34. Intellectual faculties, 52, 80. Intended to be exercised, 86. Intellectual laws, 33. James I. of England, his pusillanimity accounted for, 160. Johnson, Samuel, on the evils arising from hasty marriages, 147._ Jury trial in Scotland, errors in the mode of conducting it pointed out, 285. Justice always in accordance with expediency, 240. Defective adminis- tration of, 285. Knowledge, acquisition of, agreeable, 83. Happiness advance's with, 102. Knowledge of science necessary for rightly interpreting Scripture, 317, et seq. Labor, man intended for, 46, 226. Evils arising attending its excess, 218, 225,403. Lawrence, Mr., on the easy child-births of aavages, 38b. . Laws of Nature, 27. Wee great classes of, 21 32 Their indepen- dence 21 33. Definition of the term, 28. Obedience to each re- warded, and neglect punished, 34. Universal, invariable, and unbend. \ne 35 In harmony with the whole constitution of man, d5. Appli- cation of to the practical arrangements of life, 95. Punishment in- fl I d under0 the, 2*54 Instituted for the benefit of.create be.^2HL M,„.„l aHvanta<*es of punishment under them, ZoO. 1 neir comuiu.eu deration 285? Their irkence on the happiness of individuals, 305. Extracts from authors who have treated of, 381. Extracts iroiu aui..«.» ---— . - _ 410 INDEX. Iiocke on the objects of divine punishments, 107. Love of Approbation, 61, 62, 76. " Love thy neighbor as thyself," 103. Lyon, Captain, unsuccessful result of his attempt to reach Repulse Bay traced to its causes, 285. Machinery, anticipated moral effects from employment of, in manufactures, 226. Maclaren, Charles, on the diminution of mortality in England, 397. Malthus's principle of population, 215. Man, doctrine of the fall of, 13, et seq. Man considered as a physical being, 42; as an organized being, 44; as an animal, moral, and intel- * lectual being, 49. Intended for activity, 46, 82, 226. Summary of his mental faculties, 50, 56, et seq. These compared with each other, 54, and with external objects, 75. A progressive being, 9, 99. Appa- rently but in the infancy of his existence, 104. Slowness of his pro- gress, 230. Manufacturing population, source of miseries of the, 219, 403. Marriage, 57, 117, 143, et seq. Miseries arising from neglect of the or- ganic laws in, 173. Prohibited before the age of twenty-five in Wur- temberg, 396. Marvellousness, frequently addressed in the bible, 361. -------------its existence in man proves the benevolence of God, 362. -------------its existence in man, shows the justice of the future pun- ishment of unbelievers, 362, 363. Melancthon, engraving of his head, 145. Miseries of mankind, how far referrible to infringements of the laws of nature, 107. Misery and evil, sources of, particularly mentioned in this work.—Ill-sorted and too early marriages, 57, 117, 143, 147, 165, 173, 176, 388. Igno- rance, 99, 127. Breach of the physical laws, 109, 296. Idleness, 124, 233. Filth, and impurity of air, 126. Ignorance of the organic laws, or physiology, 132, 136, 137, 209, 259. Bad choice of servants, clerks, partners, and agents, 178, 213. Rash mercantile speculation, 210. Mistaken choice of a profession, 211. Excess of population, 215. Too severe and long continued labor, 225. Oscillations of trade and manu- factures, 232. National selfishness and unjust wars, 235—253. The slave trade, 236, 247. Errors in the mode of conducting Jury trials, 275; and in the proceedings of judges in the Circuit Courts, 287. Scotch and English hostility, 288. Selfishness in captains of ships, 292. Montesquieu on the laws of nature, 381. Moral laws, 21, 33. Calamities arising from their infringement, 198. Moral.nature of man, its supremacy asserted alike by Scripture and Phrenology, 354, 355, 360. Moral sentiments and intellect, supremacy of the, 54. Moral science outstripped by physical, 252. More, Hannah, on the effects of sickness on the religious character, 141. Mortality, diminution of, 45, 198, 397. Moscow, French retreat from, 122. Murray, Captain, his mode of preserving the health of seamen, 133. National brains and character, 152, 158, 166. ------ prosperity, effect of the moral law on, 234. ------■ wars absurd, 240. ------ debt of Britain the result of her wars, 242. Natural Laws. See Laws of Nature. Navigation, dangers of, 213. Negro slavery, 236, 247. Nervous energy, 122. New doctrines often charged with impiety, 322. New Hollanders, 166. New Zealanders, their excellent health, 115. Prognosticate storms, 294. INDEX. 411 Operatives, causes of their depressed condition, 219, 403. °P'"m' benefits accruing from its proper, and evils from its improper use, Optimism, 4, 37. Organic laws, 21, 32. Evils that befall mankind from infringing them, 113, 209, 307. Organized being, man considered as an, 44. Owen, Mr., 99. Pain, utility of, 261. Paley, on the contrivances in creation, 37. Parliamentary reform, 246. Partners, evils arising from a bad choice of, 178, 214. Penitentiaries, 278. Pestilence, 125. Philoprogenitiveness, 50, 57, 68, 75. Phrenology, viii. 17, 102, 147, 178, et seq., 198-200, 269, 324. faculties according to, 50. Practical utility of, 334. Physical laws, 21, 32. How man may be placed in accordance with them, 42. Calamities arising from their infringement, 108. Physiology ought to be generally studied, 118. Plutarch, on the children of drunken parents, 386. Politics, utility of phrenology in relation to, 337. Population, Malthus's principle of, 215. Increase of, in manufacturing towns, 218. Principles, utility of a knowledge of, 130. Prichard, Dr., on the hereditary descent of bodily peculiarities, 156. Profession, choice of a, 211. Propagation, laws of, 113, et seq. 148, et seq. Advantage of crossing the breed, 177. See Hereditary Transmission. Propensities, activity permitted to them, and its limits prescribed by Scripture, 356. Punishment for breach of the natural laws, 254. Punishment inflicted by the lower animals compared with that inflicted by man, 263, et seq. Of criminals, ib. Flogging, the treadmill, executions, 271. Moral advan- tages of punishment, 280. ----------future, of unbelievers, admitted to be just, and proved so, by Phrenology, 362, 363. Reform of Parliament, 246. Religion and religious opinions, 23, 37, 96, 139-142, 228, 281, 317, 338, 340. See Clergy. Revelation. Scripture. Remorse, its occurrence after offences, how reconcilable with benevolence, 79. Responsibility, various, admitted alike by Phrenology and Revelation, 373 374. Retirement from business generally followed by unhappiness, 124. Revelation, 38. Cannot be at variance with true science, A16. ________ its necessity, to enlighten the intellectual powers, admitted by ________ its truths, the stimuli of the moral sentiments, 367-369. Right and wrong, natural distinction between, 276. Royal families, degeneracy of, 159, 177. Safety-lamp, 128. S-iv-htp* pasv child-births among, d»5. Icence,'physical, has far outstripped moral, 252 Relation between sc BC1„r'„j Lrinture 317. Progress of scientific discovery, 104. S^S,'"SS *»'■ «"i- *» ~" •"»" a*"5'a different minds, 338. 412 INDEX. Scriptures recognise and address the powers and faculties which Phren- ology ascribes to man, 356-862. Seamen, Captain Murray's mode of preserving the health of, 166. Seceders, their solemn complaint as to the repeal of penal statutes against * witches, 333. Secretiveness, 59, 62, 76. . .------------its activity permitted, and limited in the bible, 357. Sedgwick, Professor, on God's government of the world by general laws, x. On scripture and science, 320. Self-esteem, 51, 62, 76. Servants, choice of, 178, 214. Sheep, acquired habits hereditary in, 155. Sheridan, R. B., 144. Engraving of his head, 144. Shipwreck from neglect of the .natural laws, 292, 303. Sickness, amount of, at different ages, 190. Slave-trade, corruption of the British government indirectly flowing from the, 236, 247. Slavery in the United States, evils anticipated from, 247. Social law, calamities from infringement of the, 212. Society, advantages resulting from, 212. . Spaniards punished under the natural laws for their cruelties in America, 250. Spurzheim on the natural laws, vii. St. Pierre on death, 187, 188. Stevenson, Mr. W. B. on the colors of mixed American breeds, 392. Storms at sea, often prognosticable, 293, et seq. Stuarts, hereditary character of the, 149. Supremacy of the moral sentiments and intellect, 42, 54. Happiness arising therefrom, 205. Tell, William, 254. Truth, slow progress of, 279. Wages, lowness of, 219, 229, 403. War, the American, 239. Wars absurd, 240. French revolutionary war, 243. National punishment for engaging in wars, 244. —— in the members, Paul's description oi", eminently Phrenological, 870, 371. ------------------Phrenological analysis of, in the bible, 371. Wealth, engrossing pursuit of, 210, 225, 232. Whately, Archbishop, on scripture and science, 318. Williams, murderer, engraving of his head, 144. Witches, appalling atrocities perpetrated against them in Germany, 329. England, 330. and Scotland, 331. Women, their pains in child-birth, 116, 385. Wonder, sentiment of, 52, 66, 78. Wurtembui-g, law in, rendering education indispensable, and prohibiting marriage before the age of twenty-five, 395. Vaccination, diminution of mortality by, 398. Vanity, 62. Veneration, 51, 66, 78. Ventilation and health, 45, 286. Virtue conducive to happiness, 16. ------(or good works) its destitution of merit, admitted by Phrenology, as taught by Revelation, 375-380. ------its nature the same, as drawn by Revelation, and bytfhrenology, Volney on the laws of nature, 383. 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